.....

THE ROLE OF VALUES AND CHANNEL ORIENTATIONS
IN THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF NEW IDEAS-
AND PRACTICES
A
rPUERTO RICA” DAIRY 5AMER'S STUDY

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Otis Oliver-«Padilla
193- -

THESIS

IIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII LIBRA R Y

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled
THE ROLE OF VALUES AND CHANNEL ORIENTATDONS

IN THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF NEW IDEAS
AND PRACTICES
presented by

OTIS OLIVER-PADI LLA

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph. D. degree in Comunicgtion

gaggle Insets,“ p
M

ajor professor

Date June 9, I96“.

 

 

ABSTRACT

THE ROLE OF VALUES AND CHANNEL ORIENTATIONS
IN THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF NEW IDEAS AND
PRACTICES: A PUERTO RICAN DAIRY FARMER'S STUDY

by Otis Oliver-Padilla

Intra-cultural variations in value orientations have been the con-
ceptual scheme underlying this study. This scheme postulates that a
given society contains variously-oriented subgroups characterized by
a rank order of preference given to a set of basic principles which
direct behavior in the solution of human problems.

Basic values or value orientations were the basis for the con-
struction of a model to fuse the existing diffusion models with value
orientations. The study dealt with the relationship between value
orientations and differences among Puerto Rican dairy farmers in the
diffusion and adaption of dairy practices.

The model was tested with 233 dairy farmers from two major dairy
areas of the Island. One area - Region I - had mainly farmers with
short experience in the business, relatively small scale of operations
and relatively little education. This region was also characterized
by larger concentration of dairy farmers - 173 distributed among four
municipalities. The second area (Region II) had a preponderance of
farmers with long experience in the business, larger scale of operations,

and higher educational levels. Only 76 dairy farmers are located in

Otis Oliver-Padilla

this region's 12 municipalities.

The first part of this study sought to identify dominant value
patterns among the dairy farmers of both regions. To do this, we
had respondents rank 48 value statements into 11 piles ranging from
those with which they agreed least to those with which they agreed
most. The statements posed different alternatives fer the solution
of human problems.

The data were submitted to factor analysis. A two-factor solu-
tion was selected. The solution produced one pure factor (Factor I)
and a bipolar factor (Factor II). Three types of dairy farmers were
differentiated among the population studied - tradition-oriented,
transitionally oriented, and progressive oriented.

The remainder of the dissertation is concerned with the rela-
tionship between value orientations, communication channel orien-
tations and the diffusion and adoption of dairy farm innovations.
Simple correlation analysis was a primary analytical tool.

The data showed a relationship between value orientations and
communication orientations. Being progressive-oriented was posi-
tively related to being impersonal and extra-community channel ori-
ented. Being traditional was related to egocentric and intra-com-
munity channel orientation.

Value orientations were related to dairy farmers' predisposi-
tions toward exposure to mass media. Progressive-oriented dairy
farmers were the most frequently exposed to the media channels,
especially to farm magazines and the press. The traditional ori-

ented dairy farmers were generally less exposed to mass media.

Otis Oliver-Padilla

value orientations related to organizational activity. Pro-
gressively oriented persons tended to belong to many organizations,
while traditional persons tended not to.

Value orientations were not related to advice seeking or advice
giving among these dairy farmers.

value orientations were related to participation in the stages
of the adoption process. Being progressively oriented was positively
related to degree of participation in stages of the adoption process,
while traditional persons tended to participate less heavily in the
stages.

Scale of operations was related to value orientations. Being
progressive was positively related to large scale of Operations. La""
Being traditional was negatively related to large scale of operations.

Value orientations were related to incidence of information and
opinion leaders. The highest number of leaders was found among the
progressive dairy farmers.

value orientations were not related to time of awareness about
dairy practices.

Value orientations were related to time of adoption of dairy
practices. Being progressive was positively related to earlier
adaption of practices. Being traditional was negatively related to
earlier adoption.

Value orientations were related to degree of adaption of farm
innovations. Being progressive was positively related to degree of
adoption. Being traditional was negatively related to degree of

adoption of practices.

THE ROLE OF VALUES AND CHANNEL ORIENTATIONS
IN THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF NEW IDEAS AND PRACTICES
A
PUERTO RICAN DAIRY FARMER'S STUDY

BY

Otis Oliver-Padilla

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Communication

1964

(I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am particularly indebted to many peeple for advice, criti-
cism and assistance.

First, I wish to express my deepest appreciation and thanks to
my advisor, Dr. Malcolm S. MacLean, Jr., whose patience, guidance and
continuous assistance made the study possible.

My gratitude is also extended to: The other members of my com-
mittee, Drs. Colby Lewis, Walter Emery, Walter Freeman, Gerald Miller
and Hideya Kumata, for their professional stimulation.

Albert Talbott for his continuous assistance in processing and
interpreting the data.

Thomas Danbury who helped construct the value scales.

My indebtedness goes to Hugh Culberston, who edited this disser-
tation and put it in an easy and understandable American English.

I also wish to thank Mr. Roberto Huyke, Puerto Rican Extension
Director; Mr. Bernardo Fiol Villalobos, Associate Director of the Ex-
tension Service; Mr. Francisco Toro Calder, Associate Extension Editor
in Puerto Rico; and Mr. Humberto Rodriguez, Extension Radio and Tele-
‘vision Editor, who made available valuable sources of reference infor-
nation.

Thanks to: My brother Dr. Fernando Luis Oliver, Dairy Husbandry
Specialist of the Puerto Rican Extension Service, who supplied all the
data about the history and development of the dairy industry in Puerto
Rico and in the two regions studied.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - continued

Mr. Roger Bartolomei and Mr. Antonio Atiles, visual aids editors
of the Puerto Rican Extension Service, who produced the pictures and
art work far this dissertation.

The Extension personnel whose hard work and professional ex-
perience made the field work possible - Mr. Pedro Olivencia and Mr.
Martiniano Gonzales, Regional Directors of the Extension Service who
assigned the personnel for the field work; and Mr. Heriberto Martinez,
Mr. Nelson Torres and Mr. Juan Igartua, District Supervisors of the
Extension Service, who assisted in training the field workers and in
preparing the interview schedule.

My good friends, Ramon Martinez, Gilberto Rodriguez, Jose
Abreu, Rogelio Velez, William Silva, Francisco Morales Rivera, Efrain
Estrella, Rafael Lopez, Wilfredo Ramos and Jose L. Vale Salinas, county
agents who did an outstanding job as interviewers.

The late Dr. Paul J. Deutschmann, who encouraged me to broaden
the scope of the study by adding the channel orientation approach to
the study of diffusion.

My greatest debt of gratitude goes to my wife, Ileana, and to
my children, Fernando, Lynnette and Lianabel, whose moral support was

an essential factor in the achievement of this task.

iii

Table of Contents

Chapter Page
I IMRODUCTION O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1
The Problem 3
Purpose of the Study 4
Frame of Reference for the Study 4
Definition of Terms 8
The Content 12
II RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCII e e e e o e e e e 15
Diffusion Research in Agriculture 15
Non Agricultural Diffusion Research 37
Conclusion 42
III THE THEORETICAL MODEL OF DIFFUSION . . . . . . . . 45
The Model 47
Hypotheses 52
Iv DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
The Situation 55
The Setting 64
v METHOWLOGY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O 77
The Procedure 77
Field Work 103
VI THE RESULTS - VALUE PATTERNS AMONG
THE PUERTO RICAN DAIRY FARPIERS e e e e e e e e e e 107
Identifying the Types 107
The Consensus Item Array 109
Type I - Progressive - Broad Value
Emphasis 110
Types II and III - Broad Value
Emphasis 117
Type II - Traditional - Dominant
Value Patterns 118
Type III - Transitional or Intermediate -
Dominant Value Patterns 123
Summary 128

iv

Table of Contents - continued

Chapter Page

VII RESULTS - VALUES, COMMUNICATION ORIENTATIONS
AND THE DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION PROCESSES . . . . . 134
values and Communication Orientations 134
Value Orientations and Exposure to Mass Media 139
Channel Orientations and Frequency of
Exposure to Mass Media 140
Value Orientations and the Diffusion
and Adoption Processes 142
Communication Orientations and Diffusion Process 144
values and Dairy Farmers' Social Behavior 146
Channel Orientations and Dairy Farmers'
Social Behavior 148
Participation in Diffusion and Adoption Stages 151
Channel Orientations and Participation in
Adaption Stages 152
Other Findings 153
Interaction Patterns in the Regions 154
The Information Leaders 155
Opinion Leaders 163

VIII CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Values, Communication Orientations and
the Diffusion Process 185
Frequency of Exposure to Mass Media 188
Values, Communication Orientations and
Social Behavior 193

LITERATURE CITED 0 O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 199

Tables
1. Mean differences in scale of Operations among regions
2. Economic importance Of the two regions as milk
producing areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Value items most accepted by Type I - progressive . .
4. Value items most rejected by Type I - progressive . .
5. Value items most accepted by Type II - traditional . . .
6. Value items most rejected by Type II - traditional . . .
7. Value items most accepted by Type III - transitional . .
8. Value items most rejected by Type III - transitional . .
9. Dairy farmers distribution by municipalities and
percentage Of dairy farmers using person-channels
as sources Of first knowledge about practices . . . . . .
10. Comparison between general characteristics Of the
dairy farmers pOpulation from Region I and information
leaders from the areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Comparison between general characteristics of the dairy

List of Tables

farmers population and Opinion leaders from the areas . .

vi

Page

71

74
111
113
118
120
123

125

.155

158

174

Illustration
1. Mechanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Holstein Freisian is the most common
breed in the Island . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Standards Of living of the Puerto Rican
dairy farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Region II - Dairy farm . g g o g g o o o o e e o o o o
5. Region I - Dairy farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. The researcher explaining the interviewers the
purpose Of the study and discussing the questionnaire
7. Sociogram 1 - information leaders among Hatillo
dairy farmers - Region I O O O O O O O O O O O O
8. Sociogram 2 - information leaders among Arecibo
and Manati dairy farmers - Region I . . . . . . .
9. Sociogram 3 - information leaders among dairy
farmers of Region II . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. Sociogram 4 - sources of influence in Hatillo
municipality - Region I . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Sociogram 5 - sources Of influence among
Arecibo dairy farmers - Region I . . . . . . . .
12. Sociogram 6 - sources Of influence among Manati
dairy farmers - Region I . . . . . . . . . . . .
13. Sociogram 7 - sources Of influence among Camuy
dairy farmers - Region I . . . . . . . . . . . .
l4. Sociogram 8 - sources of influence on Region II . . . . .

List Of Illustrations

vii

Page

66

67

7O

72

105

160

161

162

169

170

171

172

173

List Of Appendices

Appendix

A.

B.

C.

The value instrument and instructions for
the interviewers . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Factor analytic data on value orientations
Correlational data . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sociometric data . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Maps Of the regions and municipalities included
in the StUdy O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 0

viii

219

229

234

245

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Ethnic groups and social classes represent only two Of the

many possible types of variantly oriented subgroups in a

total society. Some societies have many types, Others few,

but not even the very small nonliterate and fOlk societies

are without one.

(Kluckhohn, 1961)

Each society is characterized by a rank order Of preference given
to a set Of basic principles which guides or directs the behavior Of
its members in the solution Of human problems. These basic principles
and the rank order of preference given to them by the components Of the
society are the basic values or dominant value orientations of the social
system. They are learned through the process Of socialization; trans-
mitted from parents to sons and from generation to generation through
the continued interaction (relationships) among the members of a social
system. They set the standards of behavior to be.expected from every
individual belonging to a system, and deviations from them are dis-
couraged. The sharing of a set of common value orientations by the
majority serves the purpose of integrating the society and perpetuating
the system.

The apparent uniqueness of dominant value systems for each cul-
ture has led social scientists to fOcus their attention on cross cul-
tural variations, ignoring the fact that intracultural variations are

present in all societies at all times. Most Of the anthropological

research has been concerned with analyses of dominant value systems

-2...

among societies rather than with variant values within them. SO-
cieties have been portrayed as homogeneous clusters of peOple with
patterns of behavior resulting from the sharing Of common value sys-
tems. For example, when referring to the Anglo and Latin American
cultures in this hemisphere, the tendency is to stress the striking
differences in their dominant value patterns and the similarities of
dominant value orientations within them. Moreover, when programs Of
technological change are planned for either Of these societies, the
frame Of reference used is the dominant value system characterizing
these societies.

For example, in 1960 during the admdnistration Of the late
president of the United States, John F. Kennedy, the Alliance For
Progress program was initiated to assist the 21 Latin American re-
publics in the solution Of their social, educational and economic
problems. The Alliance For Progress was planned and organized, using
as framework the general concept that all Latin America is a homo-
geneous conglomerate Of peOple sharing a common set Of value systems.
Apparently little consideration was given to the fact that there is a
great deal of intracultural variation among the Latin Americans; that
even within each one Of these 21 republics there are many subcultural
_ groups, i.e., indians, mestizos, white peOple; Christian catholics and
Christian protestants; Christians and non-Christians - all of them
deviating to some extent in their value systems from the domdnant
patterns Of these societies.

The apparent failure of this program in fulfilling its aims is

a clear indication Of the important role that intracultural variations

in value 0:1
:11 change.
where, but :1
of basic pri
The 5'.
interest in
value orient

or rejection

Agents
their Bffon
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Change 338m
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techmloéiiCa
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-3-

in value orientation seem to play in the introduction of technologi-
cal change. As many social scientists say, people are people every-
where, but different people have a rank order Of preference for a set
Of basic principles which guides and directs their behavior.

The study of intracultural variation is the subject of central
interest in this investigation; how these intracultural variations in
value orientations influence individual's behavior towards the adoption

or rejection Of technological change is the major problem posed.

The Problem

 

Agents of technological change are not always successful in
their effbrts to induce people to accept innovations. The purpose of
their programs may be commendable and the time and efforts devoted to
them may be great, yet the programs fail tO take effect. Contrary to
change agents' expectations, the people to whom the new ideas are pro-
posed react negatively or with indifference. On the other hand, some
technological programs are highly successful in spurring people to
action in the direction hoped fOr by the change agents.

Wide variations exist in the attitudes Of individuals toward
technological change, cross culturally, between different social sys-
tems within a given culture and among individuals belonging to the
same social system. Two main questions have been the Object of in-
tensive investigation by social scientistsi

What are major variables influencing the diffusion of innova-
tions? """“"

What are major variables influencing the adaption of innova-
tions?

The search f

research 1n ;

mthropologv
tins are re
Innovations.
“
far future r
different at
0f the Ejor
investigate;

tions.

The p;
Value and CO
I'doPIIOn of

over, H, Sm

technologies
I sinile to:
by {luckhohr
Stmcted by

(4)

a wilkEni

 

-4-

The search fOr answers to these questions has generated a great deal Of
research in agriculture, medicine, political science, education, and
anthropology. About 500 studies on diffusion and adoption Of innova-

tions are reported by Rogers (1962) (1) in his book, Diffusion Of

 

Innovations. However, as stated by Rogers (1962) (l), "the challenge

 

fOr future research is to expand the area Of digging and to search fOr
different Objectives from those of the past." And this has been one
of the major aims of the present study - to dig more in an area little
investigated by social scientists concerned with diffusion of innova-

tions.

Purpose Of the Study

 

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of
value and communication channel orientations on the diffusion and
adoption of farm innovations among Puerto Rican dairy farmers. More-
over, we studied Puerto Rican dairy farmers' predispositions toward
technological change. We did so in a framework which integrates within
a single conceptual scheme the theory value orientations postulated
by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) (2) and the diffusion models con-
structed by Beal and Bohlen (1957) (3), Emery, Oeser and Tully (1958)
(4), Wilkening, Tully and Presser (1962) (5), and Deutschmann and

Fals Borda (1962) (6).

Frame Of Reference fOr the Study

 

In this section the writer presents a general view of some basic

assumptions underlying this investigation, the methodology used and

the area what

these latter:

Basic Hyacthc
~—A——
Three 1

neoretical 1

111110111th . I

 

 

 

 

-5-

the area where the study was conducted. A more thorough report on

these matters will be presented in Chapters III and V.

Basic Hypotheses

 

Three basic hypotheses were postulated in the construction of the
theoretical diffusion model used as framework for this study:

1. That even within a given culture there are meaningful
variations in dominant value orientations among people.

2. That a close relationship exists between individuals'
value orientations and their communication channel orien-
tations.
3. That these two variables, value orientations and com-
munication channel orientations, account fOr most Of
the variance in individuals' attitude toward innova-
tions.
Proceeding from these premises, we investigated how Puerto Rico dairy
farmers varied in their dominant value and communication channel orien-

tations, and how these variations related to attitudes toward proposed

innovations.

The Setting

 

The study was conducted in two major dairy regions Of Puerto
Rico - the Northern region with 173 dairy farmers and the Northeastern
region with 76. These two areas were studied for comparative purposes.
In both regions all dairy farmers were interviewed, except for 16 who

could not be reached or would not cooperate.

Methodology

The study was divided into five main parts:
Part I - this was devoted to finding dominant value orientations

among Puerto Rican dairy farmers and grouping them into clusters

uccrding to
different Q1
entations.
tion areas 111
nd Future,
hits, and he
Being in Bec.
111d IDSlVid‘;
A leas
for each Val
Part I
“1 Orientat
”mums.
and adoption
and the Com:
(Chmqelfiou
the ad°Ption
Orientatimls
Intra.cOmm:
the “Millie

eta . |
Mel °r1e

poSES.

\I

See 5

 

-6-

according to these orientations. We predicted the finding Of three
different typolOgies, each possessing different dominant value ori-
entations. TO test and verify our predictions, four value-orienta-
tion areas were investigated - (1) Time Orientation - Past, Present
and Future, (2) Man-Nature Orientation - Subjugated to, Harmony
With, and Mastery Over Nature, (3) Activity Orientation - Being,
Being in Becoming, and Doing, (4) Relational - Lineal, Collateral,
and Individual.

A measuring instrument of 48 value orientation statements - 12
for each value area and 4 for each value direction - was used.

Part II - This was concerned with finding communication chan-
nel orientations as related to value orientations and adoption Of in-
novations. We predicted a close relationship between value, channel
and adaption. Ten dairy practices were used as frame of reference,
and the communication hypothesis was tested by measuring the means
(channel-sources) used by farmers in getting their information before
the adaption of innovations. Through use Of the Deutschmann Channel
Orientations Model (1962) (6), farmers were classified as egocentric,
intra-community, extra-community or impersonally oriented according to
the communication patterns they exhibited.1

Indices were constructed fOr measuring value and communication

channel orientations. Scores were produced for correlational pur-

poses.

 

1See section entitled - "Definition of Terms."

I?

 

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channel
franc 1

tion c:

and st;

its re
to Stu
adViCe
and me
means

Strut:

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-7-

The data were collected by means Of a questionnaire and per-
sonal interviews.

Part III - This part was concerned with the rate of adoption Of
new dairy farm practices and how they relate tO value and communication
channel orientations. The same ten dairy innovations were used as
frame of reference. The measurement instrument used fOr data collec-
tion consisted Of statements constructed to assess the degree, time,
and stability Of adOption.2

Part IV - This was concerned with farmers' social behavior and
its relationship to value and channel orientations. The major aim was
to study degree Of exposure to agents Of change, giving and seeking
advice, informal social relations, infOrmal discussion Of farm tOpics,
and membership in fOrmal organizations. The data were collected by
means of a questionnaire and personal interviews. Indices were con-
structed so as to allow correlation with value and channel orienta-
tions.

Part v - This part dealt with sociometric choices of respond-
ents. Sociometric questions were constructed for that purpose. For
analytic purposes, sociograms were constructed to discover possible

sources of influence in the regions studied.

Analytic Tools

 

The major analytic tools used in this study were: (1) Q-fac-

tor analysis, (2) analysis Of variance, (3) simple correlation.

 

2See section entitled - "Definition of Terms."

 

resti

- v
1.09!-

inch}.

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to be

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-3-

An overview of the purpose and procedure followed in this in-
vestigation has been presented. A set of terms has been presented
which need to be defined more fully. This will be done in the fellow-

ing section.

Definition of Terms

 

In this section the major concepts used in this investigation
will be defined to facilitate the interpretation Of the infbrmation
to be presented in the following chapters. The first set of concepts
to be defined are the ones concerned with value orientations. (2)

A. Man-Nature Orientation - the attitude Of man toward na-

ture deSignations. TThree value directions were investi-
gated:

 

 

l. Sub'u ation to Nature - man believes that there is
little or nothing a man could do to avoid nature
designations. Natural processes are accepted as
inevitable.

2. Harmony With Nature - there is no real separation Of
man, nature and supernature. One is simply an ex-
tension Of the other, and a conception Of wholeness
derives from their unity.

 

3. Mastery Over Nature - natural forces Of all kinds are
to be overcome andfiput to use by human beings.

 

B. Time Orientation - the cultural interpretation of the
temporal focus Of human life. Three directions were
studied:

 

1. Past - attention is given to past events or experi-
ences. This orientation places primary emphasis
upon the maintenance, or the restoration of the past.

2. Present - little attention is given to what has
happened in the past, and the future is seen as both
vague and unpredictable.

3. Future - emphasis is placed on the future - a future
which is anticipated to be better.

“J - ..

 

0 SEMI?

r)

The

(1962} (

-9-

C. Activity Orientation - it is the modality of human activity
giving rise to a value orientation system. The range of
variation in solutions suggested for it is the threefOld one
of Being, Being in Becoming, and Doing.

1. Being - orientation toward the release and indulgence Of
existing desires. In this orientation, the preference
is for the kind of activity which is a spontaneous ex-
pression Of what is considered to be given in human per-
sonality. It is a non-developmental conception of activ-
ity.

2. Being in Becoming - the activity which has as its goal
the development Of all aspects Of the self as an inte-
A grated whole.

 

3. Doin - its most distinctive feature is a demand fOr the
Kind of activity which results in accomplishments that
are measurable by standards conceived to be external to
the acting individual. The aspect of self-judgment or
judgment of others which determines nature Of activity
is based mainly upon a measurable accomplishment achieved
by acting upon persons, things or situations.

D. Relational Orientation - man's relation to other men. This
OrientatiOn has three subdivisions:

 

l. Lineal - here, group goals are primary, and one Of the
most important goals Of the group is continuity through
time. Continuity of the group through time and ordered
positional succession within the group are crucial issues
when lineality dominates the relational system.

2. Collateral - this calls fer a primacy of the goals and
welfare of the laterally extended group. The group in
this case is always moderately independent of other
similar groups, and the problem Of a well-regulated
continuity of group relationships through time is not
highly critical.

3. Individuality - here, individual goals have primacy over
the goals of specific Collateral or Lineal groups.

 

The second set Of concepts to be defined in this section is the
C) . . .
I‘EF :related to the communication patterns of people belonging to a
gI‘ven social system. These communication patterns are what Deutschmnn

(1962) (6) called "Comminication Channel Orientations."

 

 

-10..

A. Communication Channel Orientations - by this we are refer-
ring to’fhe tendency’Of individuals to use certain specific
channels as their major sources of information. Four chan-
nel orientation categories were postulated by Deutschmann
in his diffusion model:

 

l. Egocentric Channel - by this we are referring to the
tendency of ihdiViduals to Obtain information on a kind
of "see-for-yourself" basis. All individuals have some
tendency to operate this way, but some are strongly ori-
ented to this channel of communication. It is a particu-
larly non-social channel in that in its purest fOrm, it
requires no other person than the receiver for "communi-
cation" to take place.

 

2. Internal to Community Channel - the tendency of indi-
VIduaIE'to oBtain'infOrmation on a kind of "a member of
my group said" basis. Again most persons use this chan-
nel, but some are very strongly related to it. It is
social and usually, in a geographical sense, a local
channel. But in its purest fOrm, it is essentially com-
munication within one's most relevant social group. For
some persons and for some kind of societies, there can be
such a channel not made up of geographically contiguous
persons. A

 

3. External to Community Channels - the tendency of some in-
dividfials to Obtain information on a kind Of "some other
person than a member Of my group said..." basis. It is
also a social channel, but is less personal than the In-
ternal Community. It makes for communication events -
the complex of telling and receiving messages which are
psychologically more distant from the self and the group.

 

4. Impersonal Channel - the tendency of individuals to obtain
infOrmation from the various increasingly available im-
personal sources. Mass communication sources ordinarily
fall here, although in a communication-rich society we
can expect to find channels which will have the fOrm Of
mass communications, but functionally will be serving as
intra-community channels.

 

In addition to these concepts, other terms need to be defined.
These are the fellowing:
A. Diffusion - the process by which an innovation spreads. (l)

l. The Diffusion Process - the spread of a new idea from
its source of invention to its ultimate users or adopters.

 

2.

3.

4.

6.

7.

-11-

Sta es of Diffusion - the psychOlOgical steps that occur
in a person fme the time he is exposed to an innovation
until he finally adopts it. Four stages of diffusion
have been tested in this study:

 

a. Awareness - when a person first becomes aware of an
m
innovation.

b. Interest - when a person, after becoming aware of an
innovation, seeks further information about it.

c. Trial - when a person uses a practice or innovation
for the first time on an experimental basis.

d. Ado tion - when a person accepts and continues using
an innovation, if the idea or practice results in
sufficient rewards or other types of personal or
social satisfactions.

Time Of Adoption - time a practice was started, where the
firmer continues using it to the present.

 

Degree of Adoption - the proportion Of practice being
used by a‘farmer at the present.

 

Disadoption - where a practice is tried by a farmer but
discontinued.

 

Time of DisadOption - time a farmer stopped a practice.

 

Farmer Cate ories - classifications into which farmers

are put according to their combined value and communication
channel orientations. Three farmer categories were used

in this study:

a. Pro essive - farmers exhibiting more orientation toward
modernism.

b. Intermediate - farmers in a stage Of transition - inter-
mediatelbetween modernism and traditionalism.

 

c. Traditional - farmers rooted to traditions in their
orientations toward innovations.

 

Social Behavior - interaction patterns exhibited by indi-
viduals belonging to a given social system.

 

a. Advice Seekers - individuals who usually seek advice
'from other community members befOre adopting a practice.

 

used as

:;n .3
“he...

 

lr-m

-12..

b. Advice Givers - individuals usually sought for ad-
vice by diher community members in community af-
fairs. Usually they are persons of a higher social
status or prestige.

 

In this section the basic concepts underlying the diffusion model
used as a theoretical framework for this investigation have been de-

fined.

The Content

 

Chapter I - this chapter has presented the problem which gener-
ated this investigation, its purpose, its basic assumptions and a
general discussion of the terminology used. In addition, the basic
concepts used in the construction of our theoretical model were de-
fined.

Chapter II - here, the reader will be exposed to diffusion

 

theory and research relevant to the present study. Five major ap-
proaches will be covered in the review of the literature on dif-
fusion: (1) the five-stages or American diffusion model, used mainly
by United States rural sociOIOgists, (2) the communications act ap-
proach used by Australian diffusionists, (3) the communication chan-
nel orientations approach postulated by Deutschmann and Fals Borda,
(4) the typologies approach explored by Wells and MacLean, and

(S) the values approach explored by Polson and Spencer, Furthermore,
some of the diffusion studies, especially those testing the two-step
flow hypothesis, will be reviewed here, despite the fact that they
were outside of agriculture. Certain studies conducted in India and
the Netherlands will also be reported in this chapter. One study by

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) will receive special attention. This

 

 

ferencE
$.31”:an

the Co:

In

in this
zation
COnside
11mm:

ahaUsi

-13-

investigation was concerned with the major concept used as frame-
work fOr this study - value orientations.

Chapter III - this chapter deveIOps the theory underlying this

 

investigation. Special attention is given to the construction of a
diffusion model to explain the diffusion and adoption processes under
a general theory of variations in value orientations.

Chapter IV - this chapter begins with a general description of

 

the agricultural agencies Operating in Puerto Rico and their functions
as agencies Of technological change. It then proceeds to present
factual information about two programs especially devoted to assisting
dairy farmers in their farm operations - pasture improvement and arti-
ficial breeding. This will be followed by a thorough discussion on
the development of the dairy industry and its advancement from an un-
important position to the second major agricultural industry in the
island. Then, a description of the specific setting where the study
was conducted will be given - municipalities comprised, ethnic dif-
ferences among farmers belonging to the two regions, differences in
farming techniques and scale of operations fOund in both regions, and
the communication facilities existing in these areas.

Chapter V - this chapter is concerned with the methodology used

 

in this investigation. A thorough discussion of the planning, organi-
zation and procedures used will be reported. In this chapter major
consideration will be given to the construction of the measurement
instrument, collection Of data and statistical tools used for its

analysis.

 

be zap:

in the are

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.
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a!

rrrarizei

areas for

-14-

Chapter VI - VII - these chapters will be devoted to reporting

 

the major findings, relating them to existing relevant literature
in the area of diffusion.

Chapter VIII - here, the major findings Of this study will be
summarized, conclusions will be stated, generalizations made and

areas for future research suggested.

 

This c?
diffusion of
Wat the di:
cultural dis:
Parts of the
searth gener:
to studies c.
These studie
eSS, and the
tethnology.
contribmon

ables affect

The re
Mite the f
cultum ex;
informtion
should use a
“met of fa

 

CHAPTER II
RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH

This chapter presents some relevant literature on the area of
diffusion of innovations. It begins by giving factual information
about the diffusion process, paying particular attention to agri-
cultural diffusion research generated in the United States and other
jparts of the world. It then proceeds to focus on diffusion re-
search generated outside agriculture, paying particular attention
tO studies concerned with "two step flow" and "Opinion leadership."
These studies are relevant to an understanding of the diffusion proc-
ess, and their findings can be generalized to the diffusion of farm
technology. The last part of this chapter will summarize the major
contributiOns of diffusion research to an understanding of the vari-

ables affecting the diffusion and adaption of farm technology.

Diffusion Research in Agriculture
The role of technological agriculture change agents is to ex-
pedite the flow of information from research centers such as agri-
cultural experiment stations to farmers who may be able to use this
information to increase their yields. To do this, change agents
Should use a channel or channels which connect them to the greatest
number of farmers who need the information. But which channels should

they use? It will be easier to decide this question if one knows as

-15-

11:11 as 1
files af

mined 1'

3.1.11 5

 

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-l6-

much as possible about the diffusion process and about the major vari-
ables affecting this process. And agricultural diffusion research has
worked for 20 years to provide change agents the tools necessary to
implement their programs.

The study of farm-innovation diffusion has its roots in the
rural sociology tradition. Since Ryan and Gross's (1943) (7) pio-
neering study of hybrid seed corn in two Iowa communities, hundreds of
studies have been conducted by rural sociologists. This research led
to a diffusion model and toward a diffusion theory. However, after
these initial steps, diffusion researchers got into a rut. Study
after study followed practically the same pattern of replication with-
out further attempts to investigate new variables. Diffusion theory
was at a dead end. Aware of this problem, some students left the
flock and began working from different angles. New variables have been
investigated and new concepts developed. Today the trend is continuing.
Efforts are being devoted toward these goals and relevant findings on

these new approaches will be reported in this chapter.

The Adoption Model

 

In the United States the studies of Beal and Bohlen (1957) (3),
Beal (1958) (8), COOp, Sill and Brown (1958) (9), Lionberger (1960)
(10) et. al. have generated what is known today as the American dif-
fusion model or diffusion theory. Under this model, and for the pur-
pose Of reporting the findings in a way easily understandable by the
general public, farmers have been arbitrarily classified into five

categories - (l) innovators, (2) early adopters, (3) early majority,

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-17..

(4) majority and (5) non-adopters. In addition, this model or
theory attributes to the adoption process the following five stages:

1. Awareness - the person first becomes aware of a new idea
or innovation.

2. Interest - he is then receptive and may even seek in-
formation about it.

3. Evaluation - he estimates its worth to him.

 

4. Trial - satisfied that it might work for him, he tries
it out on a small scale.

5. Acceptance - this fOllows if the idea or innovation
results in sufficient economic rewards or other types
of personal or social satisfaction.

 

The five-stage concept, as postulated by American diffusionists, has
been a center of interest, but also of controversy, among diffusion
students. While some research tends to support this postulate, other
research doesn't. For example, Rogers (1962) (l) cites studies such
as those of Beal and Rogers (1960) and Coop, Sill and Brown (1958)
that tend to support the validity of a five-stages adoption process.
In the first study cited by Rogers (1962) (l), Beal and Rogers
investigated the adoption of two farm innovations among farmers of an
Iowa community. Their findings suggest that most of the respondents
went through a series of stages from awareness to adoption. Similar
findings were obtained by Coop, Sill and Brown (1958) in their study
with 175 Pennsylvania farmers. However, the same evidence, as re-
ported by Rogers, indicated that adopters do not always pass through
a five-stage process before adoption. In the Beal and Rogers study,
fOr example, some farmers skipped one or more stages, especially the

trial stage. The conclusions stated by Rogers (1962) (l) are:

H'- “ .

 

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-18-

to summarize the present evidence, there seems to be support

for the validity of the adoption-stages concept, but the

findings are not conclusive. There is very little evidence

as to exactly how many stages there are in the adoption

process. Nevertheless, until more evidence is available,

it seems conceptually clear and practically sound to utilize

the five-stage adaption process.....

Evidence failing to support the five-stage concept has been reported by
Deutschmann and Fals Borda (1962) (6) and by Deutschmann and Mendez
(1962) (11) in their Latin American studies. In a study conducted in
an Andean village in Colombia, Deutschmann and Fals Borda (1962) (6)
found that farmers do not always fellow the adoption stages as postu-
lated by American diffusionists. Similar findings are reported by
Deutschmann and Mendez (1962) (11) in their Cholena study. Here, they
investigated the adoption of new fOods and drugs among Cholena peasants.

In summary, more than 200 studies show that some peOple do and
some do not fellow the five stages of adoption.

In the investigation reported in this dissertation, we attempted
to refine the five-stage concept by identifying the farmers who followed
the five stages of adoption, the circumstances, and reasons why. In
our study we used as frame of reference the concept of value orienta-
tions. We predicted a close relation between value orientations and
their predispositions to move through the five stages or to skip one
or more of them. We predicted that farmers with orientations toward

modernism will tend to fellow the postulated stages, while those ori-

ented toward traditionalism will tend to skip some of them.

The Role of Information Sources

Another area intensively investigated by diffusion students has

ten the one :
1": five stag:
itis area has
of informtic:
I
tion, trial a-l
been dram fr
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-19-

been the one concerned with the role of information sources during
the five stages of the adaption process. The bulk of research in
this area has attempted to investigate the use of different sources
of information by adopters during the awareness, interest, evalua-
tion, trial and adaption stages. Two major generalizations have
been drawn from studies of innovations in different populations such
as farmers, consumers, and physicians - (1) that at the awareness and
interest stages the major sources of information are mass media and
government officers, and (2) that during the evaluation, trial and
adoption stages neighbors and friends are the main sources of infor-
mation. (From Report No. 18, Iowa State College, 1957.)

The research findings have led to the development of a model of
the process of communication of change and adOption. The occurrence
of two steps has been hypothesized:

1. New information comes first to individuals of a community
from "outside" through weak, but operating, channels of
communication between members of the community and the
more deve10ped world.

2. Subsequent flow of information is accomplished through
the continued operation of such channels, but importantly
augmented by the flow of messages about the innovation in
"local" channels. (Deutschmann and Mendez, 1962) (11).

The research to be reported here will include not only the findings from
the United States research, but also from research conducted in the

Netherlands and India. In addition, some research dealing with these

variables in Latin America will be reported here.

Research Findings

 

Beal and Bohlen (1957) (3) conducted a study to determine which

wines were ‘
It a particula
gstthat the
assaeiia; a

government a g;

friends, gove
Identi:

replication

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(1933) (9)

I.

weinterest

 

 

 

-20..

sources were the most common and how influential each of them were
at a particular stage of the adoption process. Their findings sug-
gest that the most common sources during the awareness stage were
mass media; during the interest stage, again mass media, followed by
government agencies; during the evaluation stage, neighbors and
friends; and during the trial stage, in ranking order, neighbors,
friends, government agencies, mass media and salesmen.

Identical results were obtained by Beal (1958) (8), and in a
replication of the Beal and Bohlen study by Coop, Sill and Brown
(1958) (9), the only difference in this latter study being that, in
the interest stage, the farmers interviewed ranked face-to-face con-
tacts as most important, followed by mass communication. Other
studies reporting similar findings are Wilkening (1956) (12), Beal
and Rogers (1957) (13), and Rogers and Beal (1958) (14).

A. W. Van den Ban (1961) (15), in a study attempting to analyze
the process by which Dutch farmers get infbrmation about new farm
practices, reported mass media as the most important source of infer-
mation in their awareness of innovations; 75% of the farmers men-
tioned mass media as their major source of information during this
stage. The same percentage of farmers stated that in the decision
making stage their main source was personal contact with other far-
mers and extension officers. Van den Ban's findings deviate from.
the United States research findings in one important aspect -- while
in the United States government agencies are considered mainly as im-
portant during the awareness and interest stages; in the Netherlands,

government agencies appear to play an important role during the

enlation, t:

 

vestigator, ti
21:31 differer
in Ban's stu.
fare size or .
tion in Batch
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In Ind:

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Rahildkar,

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sma116

His finding:

fimioniSts

-21-

evaluation, trial and adaption stages. According to the present in-
vestigator, these observed differences can be explained by the cul-
tural differences between Dutch and United States farmers. In Van
den Ban's study, for example, intracultural variations, rather than
farm size or socio-economic status, accounted for most of the varia-
tion in Dutch farmers' rate of ad0ption and exposure to agents of
change. If intracultural variations accounted for such differences,
it is reasonable to attribute to cross cultural variations the dif-
ferences between United States and Dutch farmers, pointed out above.
In India, Wasudeo Rahudkar (1962) (16) investigated the com-
munication of farm information in an Indian community. His findings
tend to support the major generalizations made by American diffusion-
ists. However, while in India mass media and extension services are
used as primary sources of information by large farmers, the same
principle is not applicable to small farmers. As it was stated by
Rahudkar,
the whole diffusion process becomes "Y" pattern of communi-
cation in Indian culture. The farm infOrmation from Ex-
tension agencies and mass media first reaches the large
farmers who are the first adapters of the practice in the
village. This information is later transmitted to the
smaller farmers, who are later adOpters of a new practice.
His findings suggest that the generalization made by American dif-
fusionists about the role of infbrmation sources has to be taken with
caution when applied to a different culture, especially if agents of
technological change are dealing with underdeveloped societies with

few existing communication facilities.

Myren (1962) (17) tested the hypothesis that "at the awareness

 

stage, aass

rstfreque

meme:

1

‘
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the c
consi
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has 1
atte1
fact
that
seri
info

-22-

stage, mass media - magazines, newspapers, radio, television - are
most frequent source of information about new ideas and practices."
The findings failed to support the general principle or concept postu-
lated by American diffusionists. On the basis of his findings, he
concluded -
the data did not support the hypothesis and, in fact, cast
considerable doubt upon the value of this type of generali-
zation. Although it might be held that the basic theory
has not been challenged - that previous writers had called
attention to the need for taking into account situational
factors such as availability of mass media - I would maintain
that results such as those presented in this paper indicate
serious limitations in the present theoretical scheme covering
infbrmation sources in the adoption process.
Myren suggests that the generalizations made by American students on
diffusion theory can be applied with confidence only where high levels
of development exist. However, Deutschmann indicates that the dis-
crepancy between Myren's findings and other diffusion studies is at
the descriptive level and not at the conceptual level. His position is
that the diffusion model constructed in the United States by diffusion
students can be easily applied to other situations and cultures. His
assertion is supported by two studies conducted by Deutschmann and
McNelly (1962) (18) in two different Latin American communities - one
in Saucio, a small isolated Colombian village, the other in San Jose,
Costa Rica - one of the most advanced capitals in Latin America. De-
spite the contrast between the two communities studied, the findings
obtained were very much alike in the following ways: (1) in both com-
munities the researchers fOund a close association between higher edu-

cational, income and occupational levels and the opportunity for ex-

posure to mass communication channels, (2) in both communities, higher

 

epcsure
_:re:". ;3
studies
nicatj
mi the

.‘.“A‘
w...;y.

-23-

exposure to mass communication channels was associated with a higher
predisposition towards the adoption of technological change. Both
studies provided support to the hypothesis that exposure to mass com-
munication channels affects the information levels, the attitudes

and the behavior of individuals by making them more sensitive to
technological change.

In summary, the bulk of research dealing with the role of in-
formation sources during the diffusion and adOption processes tends
to support, with few exceptions, the principle or generalization
that mass media are major sources of information during the awareness
and interest stages, while friends and neighbors constitute the major
sources of information during the evaluation, trial and adaption
stages.

The study reported in this dissertation is also concerned with
testing the validity of this general principle postulated by American
diffusionists. However, our scope is broader. We have studied not
only the role played by information sources, but also the variables
related to peOple's use of these sources. We have studied the role of
the information sources, using as a frame of reference the Deutschmann
Communication Channel Orientations (1962) (6). Under this conceptual
scheme the communication event is seen from the point of view of the
receiver. The key variable is the way in which the receiver regards
the source of the message in relationship to himself. Here, the com-
munication system depends strongly upon the social structure in which
the receiver is located and the perceived psychological nearness of

the source to the receiver in that social complex. Under this

' 3"!

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gnflla-‘
BVa‘b-r-

caticr.

AQ‘~

‘1.

II‘

-24-

conceptual scheme, farmers are classified according to their communi-
cation channel orientations - as egocentric, intra-community, extra-
community or impersonally oriented. The predictions tested in our

study are that Puerto Rican farmers with predominant egocentric ori-
entations will be the latest to know about innovations, while those

with impersonal orientations will be the earliest to know. The same
prediction is made in relation to adOption. The results will be re-

ported in Chapter V.

Farmer Categories

 

Other problems faced by diffusion students have been the develop-
ment of standard criteria for classifying adopters into categories.

A classificatory system, argue the diffusion students, is necessary to
communicate research findings meaningfully and accurately. But despite
the clamor for a consistent classificatory system, the present situa-
tion is one of confusion. Students in this area find it very diffi-
cult to relate some findings to others because of the arbitrary ter-
minology.

At present, the most accepted and widely known classificatory
system is the one used by rural sociologists. Under the system,
farmers have been classified as: (l) innovators, (2) early adopters,
(3) early majority, (4) majority, and (5) non-adopters or laggards.

Innovators adopt first. They are characterized by higher edu-
cation, larger farms, greater incomes, higher social status, and
wider travel than the average farmer. They are experimenters, always

trying new things. "To be venturesome is almost an obsession" with

' il
-1
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-_

 

"er. (1

miles
tiers a:

.1.-.“
5' In“ ‘ e

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tun otl
123' iie
ri:e fr
lite t}:
for: a:
are new

legizl.

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1‘31 a:
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aVerE

-25..

them. (1) They are active and influential, not only in their own com-
munities, but often beyond. They usually belong to formal organiza-
tions and have many informal contacts both inside and outside their
community; therefore, they have more potential sources of information
than other farmers. Beal (1958) (8) found that most of the innovators'
new ideas come from government agencies or mass media. They seek ad-
vice from other farmers, but primarily from those who are progressive
like themselves. According to Lionberger (1960) (10) innovators per-
fOrm an important function in diffusion. By assuming risks others

are not willing to take, they provide the local trial necessary to
legitimize a new idea in the eyes of other more cautious farmers.

Next come the early adopters. Compared with late adopters, they

 

are usually younger and have more schooling. They participate in fur-
mal activities of the community and in agricultural cooperatives and
government agency programs. They furnish many furmal leaders (elected
officers) for the community. They are usually considered the "in-
fluentials" of the community and are sought out fer advice. Beal (1958)
(8) found that, at the awareness and interest stages, they were in-
fluenced primarily by mass communication; at the trial stage, by govern-
ment and commercial sources; and in the adoption stage, by agency
sources and mass media. The influence of friends and neighbors was
less important to them than to the late adopters.

In the third category, known as early majority, are those who
adopt new ideas and practices earlier than the average farmer, but are
close to average in many other respects. They are a little above the

average in social and economic status. In formal groups they are less

 

active the:
Tzeir lead
hey assoc
'23}: value
firmed b
they are u
ticgters,
in their 5
they are r
less actii

accsra‘ing

-26-

active than the early adopters, but more active than the late adopters.
Their leadership is usually infbrmal rather than by elected office.
They associate mainly with members of their own community and place a
high value on the opinions of neighbors and friends. Although in-
fluenced by the norms of the groups in which they are active members,
they are usually receptive to change. Like the innovators and early
adopters, they are heavy users of the mass media. They are influential
in their social groups and are sought out for their advice. Because
they are normally the ones to receive new infbrmation and pass it to
less active farmers, they are considered key communicators. As such,
according to Lionberger (1960) (10), "they are in a position to select
what they transmit, to shade their own interpretations, and to incor-
porate either positive or negative recommendations." In other words,
they are gate-keepers, controlling the information which reaches the
less active farmers in their social groups.

The next category, termed the majority, are older and less well

 

educated than farmers in the early majority. They participate less in
formal groups, belong to fewer organizations, are less active in or-
ganizational work, and hold fewer positions of leadership. Although re-
ceptive to new ideas, they are too mated to their social systems to seek
new ideas actively. Most of their new information comes from other
persons, usually from Opinion leaders. They are inactive in government
programs and don't look often to the change agencies.

The last category, the late-adopters, includes the oldest and

 

least educated. These men participate least in fbrmal organizations,

farm cooperatives, and in government prOgrams. Their mental rigidity

'."P " .35 ‘1. ‘

 

'I-l1- v,

 

this to ;

The
rep: of i:
:‘egree to
'sers of h

It:
Stages of
stuietits
general 3
develop:
Systea a
Stage Vi
Vatii'ene

Ir
“Riga
enIatioz
ticns, .

-27-

tends to prevent changes from traditions and customs.

The category system described above uses as criterion the con-
cept of innovativeness. This concept as defined by Rogers is "the
degree to which an individual adopts new ideas earlier than other mem-
bers of his social system."

This category system performed its function during the initial
stages of development of diffusion theory. It provided diffusion
students with a framework for reporting their findings in a way the
general public could understand. However, at the present stage of
develOpment, the classification system needs to be refined or a new
system developed. In our opinion, a category system with a broader
scape will allow more valid generalizations of the concept of inno-
vativeness.

In the present study the concept of innovativeness has been in-
vestigated under the framework of value and communication channel ori-
entations} A close relationship was predicted between value orienta—
tions, communication channel orientations and innovativeness. Using
this as a frame of reference, we studied innovativeness and classified
farmers into three broad and more exclusive categories - (1) Pro-
gressive - farmers oriented toward modernism, (2) Intermediate - far-
mers in a stage of transition from traditional to modern orientation,
and (3) Traditional - farmers rooted to traditions and old ways of

farming. Results will be presented in Chapter V.

Other Factors Influencing_the Adoption of Innovations

What causes differences in rate of adopting innovations? As

imitated in
I
semi also 5
’2) cost of t
{5] the naturl
Earner is er.

The fit

the higher t?

etce;tance oi

rrs in mgr
it?" and good
m mre pri-
Itrs with no:
use a Kreate:j
are my 90;;

[20]: Baker

In thi
literamre 0
concepts p05
area haVe be
established.

HOUGVe
m°V3tions
our aim to f

e
or the diffu

 

-28-

indicated in the previous section, personality plays a role. Re-
search also stresses the importance of: (l) farmer's education,

(2) cost of the new practice, (3) area, (4) farming experience, and
(5) the nature and number of the communication channels to which the
farmer is exposed.

The findings of Young and Marsh (1950, 1955) (19) suggest that
the higher the education level of farmers, the greater their rate of
acceptance of innovations. Economic level is also important. Far-
mers in progressive areas served by modern facilities such as electric-
ity and good roads have higher rate of adoption than those in isolated
and more primitive communities. The findings also suggest that far-
mers with more education and higher incomes in adoption neighborhoods
use a greater number of information sources, among which the mass media
are very popular. Similar findings were obtained by Dickerson (1955)

(20), Baker (1955) (21) and by Anderson (1955) (22).

Conclusion

In this section the reader has been exposed to rural sociology
literature on diffusion most relevant to the present study. The major
concepts postulated by them and research findings reported on this
area have been discussed and their relation with the present study
established.

However, there are other approaches to the study of diffusion of
innovations which will be discussed in our next section. It will be
our aim to familiarize the reader with some present trends in the study

of the diffusion of innovations.

 

41' t '1

meta:
raieat
stages ,
leaiers
tion b}
31117;}:
force

10 Ted

ess, 1

ids?!»

Caro.-

Peon

-29-

The AustraliangApproach

 

The literature reviewed in the previous section has shown that
both personal and mass communication are important in the diffusion of
innovations, and that each has its own role in this process. Mass com-
munication is especially influential in the awareness and interest
stages, and it is particularly appropriate for reaching the opinion
leaders and the early adopters. These people in turn pass on informa-
tion by word of mouth to other members of the community, and they set
examples to follow. Although personal communication is still a major
force in securing the trial and adoption of new recommendations, mass
communication appears more influential than many change agents seem
to believe. i

To test the role of information sources during the adoption proc-
ess, Emery, Oeser and Tully (1958) (4) investigated the diffusion and
adoption of innovations among dairy farmers under a general theory of
communication. Departing from the models of Heider, Newcomb and
Cartwright and Haray - that communication takes place between two
people, A and B, about a referent X, when there is a positive atti-
tudinal relation between A and B and the attitudes toward x have the
same sign - Emery, Oeser and Tully constructed what is known as the
Australian model of diffusion. This model is based on the fellowing in-
dices: (1) Index of Urbanization, (2) Index of Situational Motivation,
(3) Index of Conceptual Skills, (4) Index of Exposure to Mass Media, and
(5) Index of Scale of Operations. In addition they included intelli-
gence as a determining condition without which certain things can not

be done.

    

.H M.
‘ "‘3
\V
' "vf
'-P!_-2 _
m
‘

rtan, [J
laborer,
Si
{D too;
to share
status .
Iotivat:
3315 a
C
hfll CIE
Cation
that, '
hoUto
Practi

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tern.

knowl
S98“
POI E
by Pe
603:5;
beinE

-30-

Urbanization1 was indexed by (1) family orientation - rural or

urban, (2) post-primary education, (3) employment other than as rural

laborer, and (4) war service.

Situational motivation was indexed by (1) age, (2) health,
(3) cooperation and farming interests of the wife, (4) allowing sons
to share responsibilities, and (5) maintaining economic progress and

status. These factors, the authors stated, "influence and support the

motivation of farmers - in the sense of choosing farm improvement as

goals and persisting in trying to attain them." (4)

Conceptual skills were indexed in terms of planning, ideas about

how credit should be employed, future operations, and ideas about edu-

cation of sons. The rationale in the construction of this index was

that, "if man sees how his problems are interrelated, if he understands
how to comit himself financially, if he plans ahead, then he adopts new

Practices as a thinking, purposive individual; and then he will also

Carry out other sensible and far-seeing Operations."

Scale of Operations was indexed by input or resources of the farm

and out-put or production.
Using this model as a theoretical framework, the researchers in-

terviewed 36 farmers of Bairndale, Australia. Their findings show that

lThe concept of urbanization assumes that the attitude toward
knOwledge by members of an agrarian society differs in important re-
ects from that displayed by members of an urban, industrial culture.
For example, in agrarian societies knowledge must be learned and tested
personal practice and experience and transmitted by face-to-face
cc"pinunication. In an industrialized society knowledge is accepted as
belng instrumental rather than traditional. (Lerner, 1958) (23)

:‘zmers viti
tion given
higher ado;
mutation,
lated to re
neo‘ia of aa
pmtices.
f‘asionists
tintinn p:

In ar
temed to
Tilly and 1

cation pat:

GainE fort.
”uses. :2:
and aspira‘
°f innovat !
the adopt: r

 

Find

in Math;

t
i

In tl

lated by t
cept“ sl

patterns c

 

-31...

farmers with high degree of urbanization are more receptive to informa-
tion given through mass media, are more exposed to the media and are
higher adopters than other members of the community; that situational
motivation, conceptual skills and scale of operations are closely re-
lated to receptiveness for mass media, to degree of exposure to the
media of mass comunication and to the rate of adOption of dairy farm
This classic study corroborated findings of American dif-

practices .

fusionists in relation to the role of information sources during the

adoption process.

In another study, Wilkening, Tully and Presser (1962) (5) at-

tempted to fuse the diffusion model constructed by Emery, Oeser, and

Tully and the one by American diffusionists. They studied the communi-

cation patterns of 100 dairy farmers from Northern Victoria, Australia.
Going further, they investigated the relationship between farm re-
SOurces, farm out-put, social status and role, sources of information,

and aspirations of the farmers to the adoption of selected group

0f innovations. In relation to the role of information sources during

the adaption process, the findings in their study were quite similar to
those obtained by American diffusionists.

Findings similar to those of Emery, Oeser and Tully were obtained
in relation to scale of operations, situational motivation and con-
Ceptual skills of the farmers studied.

In the present study we investigated some of the concepts postu-

1ated by the Australian researchers such as scale of operations, con-

ceptual skills, degree of exposure to mass media and the communication

Patterns of Puerto Rican dairy farmers. However, one major frame of

-32-

reference, as was stated previously, was value orientations and communi-

cation channel orientations. If our predictions were correct, we ex-

pected to obtain findings similar to those of American and Australian
researchers and consequently to be able to conclude that value and com-
munication channel orientations can be integrated into the existing dif-

fusion models as major variables influencing the adOption of innovations.

The Typological Approach
In a previous section of this chapter the reader was familiarized

with the efforts by rural sociOIOgists to categorize the adopters by

their predispositions toward innovativeness. These were the first ef-

forts to approach the diffusion process and the adoption of innovations

by “Sing the typological approach. Under this approach five types have

been suggested as existing in all social systems. However, these cate-

gories do not represent pure types from which comparisons can be made.
The Categories proposed by diffusion students are not exclusive and
characteristics attributed to farmers in one category overlap with
characteristics of farmers under other categories. Consequently the

need for a more refined typological approach to the study of diffusion

has been recognized by many students in the field.

The study conducted by Wells and MacLean (1962) (24) is a good
examPle of the present trend in diffusion research. They investigated

readership patterns through elementary linkage analysis and patterns

0 . . . . .
f Ce1:12am occupational values, information sources, article preferences

\

A 1These types were discussed in the section "The Rural Sociology
Pproach" presented previously in this chapter.

 

l.

 

ssgest
w-n‘a ‘

9.”...
:itaies
mi; 3
As 1 gr
2155le,
far: ir
than a:
'I’ith s:

3?, (h;

on oe:
tiral
Ents
my:

ham

betas:
geSts
and it

the 1

Used

trier

-33-

and political issues through Stephenson's Q-technique. Their findings

suggest that in any social system there are different clusters of

people with different patterns of media habits and with different at-

titudes on ("good" farming practices. For example, analysis of the

group on a number of measures suggests a hard core of non-readers.
As a group, they take fewer publications, rate them less interesting and
useful, have somewhat less education, are a bit older, have lower gross

farm income, and are less active in organizations - on the average -

than any reader groups. The findings also suggest that there are clusters

with similar styles of reading - the careful reader, the selective read-
81‘. the headline reader and the superficial reader.

In another phase of the study, Q-technique was used to secure data
on occupational value beliefs, interest in and use of various agricul-
t“1‘81 sources, preferences for farm magazines, article tepics and treat-
Dents. and important ratings of economic and political issues. Factor
analY$is yielded three clear typOIOgies of peOple - Other Directed,
Traditional-Independent, and Modern Rural Businessman.

This study, although exploratory, has provided some relevant data
necessary to understand the adoption and diffusion process - it sug-
3°St3 the location of modal types of persons within a social system
and their dominant or modal characteristics as a necessary condition for
the introduction of technological change.

A similar approach to the one followed by Wells and MacLean was
used in the present study. We investigated typologies among Puerto
Rican dairy farmers by using a Q sample of statements expressing value

0 ' . .
1.J‘eutaa'ions. Under this conceptual framework, we predicted clusters

 

.mi

lei-.‘i‘bel . '-

 

tf finer:
loin; for
value ori
same to

the fiodi

The \‘alue
\
So:
influence
vast lite
731116 5)'S
“Y5 in a
WOT ir
individug
fettiye 1
An
adoIMO“
(26), T
legit“
into the
By
New York

“optic“

-34-

of farmers with a wide range of variation in their value orientations.
Going further, we investigated the relationship between variations in
value orientations among groups of farmers and rate of adoption, ex-
posure to sources of information, social behavior, etc. In summary,
the findings obtained by Wells and MacLean provided us with a frame of

reference for the design of this study.

The Value Orientations Approach

Social scientists have tried to find out how value orientations
influence individual and group behavior. Stogdill (1959) (25) cites
vast literature on small group research dealing with the importance of
value systems in the motivation of voluntary associations, with the
Ways in which individual value systems influence individuals' be-
havior in relation to group norms and goals, and with the ways in which
individual values and group values interlock in order to permit the ef-
fective functioning of the existing groups in our society.

An attempt to relate value orientations to the diffusion and
aldoption of farm innovations was made by Polson and Spender (1959)
(26) . They analyzed "several value orientations which, due to the
loBical relationship to decision making and social changes, may enter
into the explanation of the adoption of farm practices."

By using a sample of 188 farm operators from Cattaraugus County,
New York, they investigated the relationship of value orientations to
adoption of farm innovations. As hypothesized by the researchers,
orientations toward achievement and belief in science were positively

related to adoption, while traditionalism was negatively related.

Jill-WNW”: «Essay-xx".

 

T:
the 1'1)?
relatio

.nz' soc

-35...

The current study stressed value orientations. We went beyond
the hypotheses tested by Polson and Spencer (1959) (26) to look at the
relationship of value orientations to farmers' communication patterns

and social behavior.

The Communication Channel Orientations Approach

In the literature mentioned above, we feund consistent relation-
ship between individual predispositions toward the use of specific com-
mnication channels and attitudes toward proposed innovations. This
apparent systematic relationship has led diffusion students to look at
the communication event from the point of view of the receiver, instead
of from the traditionally-used viewpoint of the source. Efforts have
been made to construct a theoretical schema to bring together pre-
vious findings about the receivers' predispositions toward the use of
Specific channels, their social status and prestige, and what has been
thought of as "psychological-geographical distance" between source and
receiver in a communication event.

This path was followed by Deutschmann and Fals Borda (1962) (6)
and by Deutschmann and Mendez (1962) (11) in two studies in Latin
America. In these studies, the authors constructed a classification
sYstem to define the channels through which innovation messages flow -

2
°8°¢entric, intra-community, extra-community, and impersonal. In this

1Communication event is defined as the complex of the giving and
re’ceiving of information about an innovation.

2See section "Definition of Terms" in Chapter I of this dissertation.

 

miel
has I
my i
to h:
":h
suit

the

9T8:

’U
‘1’
lip,
A

-36-

model the key concept is the communication channel orientation. This
has been defined by Deutschmann et. a1. (1962) (6), (1962) (11), as the
way in which a receiver regards a source of a message in relationship
to himself or as the tendency of individuals to use some available
sources or channels of infbrmation more heavily than others. From the
author's point of view, "channels of information are a complex re-
sultant of individual habits and characteristics, social structure, and
the growing modern impersonal methods of communicatidn."3

Using as a basic concept the communication channel orientations,
two studies were conducted in Latin America by Deutschmann et. al.
The first was done by Deutschmann and Fals Borda (1962) (6) in Saucio,
a Colombian village in the Andes, covering the diffusion and adoption
of six farm practices. The second study, conducted by Deutschmann and
Mendez (1962) (11) in Cholena, a Guatemalan village, used the same
theoretical scheme as frame of reference. However, the population was
different -- women -- and also the kind of innovations investigated -
popular drugs and foods. In these studies the major assumption tested
was that the latest to know and the latest to adopt innovations had
predominant orientations toward egocentric channels, while the earliest
to know about and to adopt innovations were predominantly oriented
toward impersonal channels. Despite the different populations and
types of innovations investigated, the postulated hypotheses were

supported in both studies.

 

3See Deutschmann and Fals Borda, Communication and Adgption
Patterns in an Andean Village, PIIP, San Jose, Costa Rica, (1962)

 

 

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113a C
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the cc

searci
diffu:

airic:

in th
cepts
and o
ceP-ts

infOr
De
‘4

IEdial
Mia
his 1

-37-

The findings reported above suggest the relevance of communica-
tion channel to an understanding of the diffusion process. However,
further research is needed to test and verify its generalizability on
different kinds of situations. And this has been a major reason for
using communication channel orientations as a major concept in the
present investigation - to test the validity and generalizability of

the concept under the Puerto Rican situation.

Non:Agricultural Diffusion Research

Up to now we have been concerned with agricultural diffusion re-
search and its contributions to diffusion theory. But the story of
diffusion theory will not be complete unless we venture outside of
agriculture.

In recent years students from other disciplines have been digging
in this area. In this section we will be concerned with two major con-
cepts postulated by non-agricultural diffusionists--the two-step flow
and Opinion leadership. Using as a frame of reference these two con-
cepts, non-agricultural diffusionists have attempted to explain how

information flows during a communication event.

The Two-Step Flow and Opinion Leadership

When an agent of change releases information through the mass
media, he should remember that it is likely to be extended beyond the
media by word of mouth. Frequently one person tells another what he
has learned from the media, giving the message what might be termed a
secondary exposure.

Such person-to-person communication is important. When

tKA

 

raters 0'
fund th.‘
ma ms
were 05:.
232511;-

during t

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tion, T
inally t
Which th
"int-lug“
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than are

-38-

Lazarsfeld, Berelson and Gaudet (1948) (27) studied what influenced 600
voters of Erie County, Ohio, in the 1940 presidential elections, they
found that "personal contacts appear to have been...more effective

than mass media in influencing voting decisions." Similar findings
were obtained by Berelson, Lazarsfeld and McPhee (1954) (28) when they
investigated the decision making process of voters in Elmira, New York,
during the 1948 presidential elections. Moreover, when Katz and
Lazarsfeld (1955) (29) asked 800 women of Decatur, Illinois, what in-
fluenced their decisions in marketing, public affairs, movie going, and
fashions, they feund the primary determinant to be personal relations
developed through oral communication.

When a message originates in the mass media, therefore, its im-
pact may be increased through subsequent person-to-person communica-
tion. This will be especially true if the message is designed orig-
inally to impress the more influential members of the social system
which the agents of change wish to reach - the persons who are called
"influentials," "opinion leaders," and sometimes "gatekeepers." These
peeple are in a position to determine whether infbrmation modified by
their own perspective will be passed on to other members of the group.

According to the "two-step flow hypothesis" of Lazarsfeld,
Berelson and Gaudet (1948) (27), ideas often flow (step one) from the
mass media to the opinion leaders, and then (step two) from them to the
less active sector of the population.

Opinion leaders are likely to be more exposed to the mass media
than are those whom they influence. Merton (1949) (30) found this in

his study of interpersonal influence on communication in a small

-39-

community, and Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) (29) got further support in
their Decatur study. The influentials in both studies exceeded other
members of their group in the time devoted to the media, and particu-
larly in time devoted to content therein closely associated to their
sphere of influence.

Who are these leaders and where are they located? In the Merton
study (1949) (30) influentials were located by asking residents to
name the persons to whom they turned for advice when making personal
decisions. Persons named by four or more residents were the influ-
entials. These, he discovered, could not be classified as a single
group, standing apart from the rest of the community. They were scat-
tered throughout the community and were of different types. Two par-
ticularly evident types were "local" and "cosmopolitan." Local leaders
were more likely to be native sons, while cosmopolitan leaders were
relatively newcomers. Local leaders were more concerned with knowing
a large number of townspeople, while cosmopolitan leaders were more
reStrictive in their associations, tending to belong to organizations
which represented special skills and interests, such as professional
socdieties. Both types of leaders spent more time with mass media than
did the average person in the community. But the local leaders fo-
cused more on local events or on subjects of general interest, whereas
the cosmopolitan leaders were most interested in information about
events outside the comnnmity. The local leaders seemed to exert their
influence in a variety of areas, whereas the cosmopolitan leaders seemed
t° I‘estrict their influence to fields such as national or international

P°litics in which they were consulted as experts.

 

 

above the
influence
The influ
Sdiject I
1383 of P
mic af
ts influe
med the
Predecess
13ml 011
can a 1'

-40-

In the Decatur study of Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) (29), the
opinion leaders were found, in the areas of marketing, movie going,
and fashions, on every status level of the community, generally among
the more gregarious peOple of their groups. They were not on a rung
above the persons whom they influenced; rather, they exerted their
influence "horizontally" on persons of their own social-economic level.
The influenced persons were equally or almost as interested in the
subject matter concerned as those who influenced them. However, in the
area of public affairs, the women of high status were more likely to be
public affairs leaders than women of low status. Persons designated
as influentials were higher-up on the status ladder than the peOple who
named them, and each successive group of experts stood higher than its
predecessor. Apparently the position of opinion leaders depends
partly on content area. That is to say, for some matters opinion leaders
exert a horizontal type of influence, while for other matters opinion
leaders exert a kind of vertical influence.

Merton's findings (1949) (30), like the ones of Larson and Hill
C1954) (31) and Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) (29) have provided support
t0 the two-step flow concept postulated by Lazarsfeld, Berelson and
Gaudet (1948) (27).

To summarize this hypothesis and the literature related to it,
Oral and mass communication are linked in the diffusion process. In-
f0l‘lnation generated in the mass media is received by some individuals
"110 re-transmit it personally to others who would not otherwise be ex-
posed to it. These opinion leaders, influentials, or gatekeepers have

t0 be taken into account in any attempt to influence people by means

 

at' the l
53: liv:
:ztes ti
phyelat.

Rt

-41-

of the mass media. Furthermore, the findings suggest that people look
for advice or attitudinal infermation within their groups, which indi-
cates that opinion leaders are distributed through all strata of the
population.

Recent investigations, however, have evidence contradicting the
two-step flow concept. In one of these studies Deutschmann and
Danielson (1961) (32) investigated the role of mass media and opinion
leaders in the diffusion of three major news stories - Eisenhower's
light stroke (in Lansing, Michigan, on November 1957); The Explorer I
Satellite (in Lansing; Madison, Wisconsin; and Palo Alto, California);
and of Alaskan statehood (in Lansing and Madison). The conclusions of
these authors with respect to the two-step concept were the fellowing:

1. Initial mass media information on important events goes

directly to people on the whole and is not relayed to
any great extent.

2. People talk about important news they have learned from
the media.

3. At this stage, opinion leaders, who have more infermation,
may do some relaying of information. But this is a sup-
plementary relaying. When the subject comes up, the in-
formed leader contributes the additional information he
has on it - adding, subtracting, correcting, confirming,
etc .

The Deutschmann and Danielson findings suggest that the relay function
is supplemental in nature; that probably takes place at the same time as

the reinforcement function, and is hard to distinguish from the latter.

1The "horizontal" or "vertical" influence exerted by opinion
leaders apparently depends on the content area. This was suggested
by Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) (29) in their Decatur study.

".311.

1 .

 

they :15

A. I. \‘a
m; 0;
process
tantrast
C0! awa
taking 5

lost in-

In
the gene

“int

-42-

They also suggested that "the Katz and Lazarsfeld two-stage flow hy-
pothesis, as a description of the initial process, be applied to mass
communication with caution and qualification."

In another study, reported previously in this chapter and deal-
ing with the communication of new farm practices in the Netherlands,
A. W. Van den Ban (1963) (15) found the diffusion of innovations
among Dutch farmers to be a multi-step process instead of a two-step
process as postulated by Katz, et. a1. Moreover, he feund that ”in
contrast to this hypothesis, both leaders and followers usually be-
come aware of new practices through mass media, but in the decision-
making stage of the adoption process, personal communication is their

most important source of information.

Conclusion

A close look points up the similarity of findings from agri-
CUltural and non-agricultural diffusion research. For example, the
two-step flow hypothesis has been supported and contradicted in both
fields. In addition, both areas have provided similar findings on
the role performed by different information sources. Another remark-
Guile similarity is the apparent orientation of individuals within a
Social system to prefer certain channels over others as major sources
of information.

In the present study the author attempted to test in Puerto Rico
the generalizability of most of the concepts reported in this chapter.

But in the search for new variables to provide a more complete portrait

 

Ly.

 

erient

tins

tiOHS

Prefer
the be

“long
“can;

-43-

of diffusion, value orientations1 have been used as a core concept.
Going further, this author has investigated how variations in value
orientations among Puerto Rican dairy farmers affect their predisposi-
tions to use communication channels and to accept innovations.

The worth of value orientations as a core concept in the study
of the diffusion and adaption processes was suggested by a cross cul-
tural study conducted by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) (2) in five
communities of New Mexico. This looked at variations in value orien-
tations among Zuni and Navaho Indians, Spanish Americans, Mormons,
and Texans located in five different communities of New Mexico. Four
orientations were investigated -- Time (present, past, future); Re-
lations (lineal, collateral, individually); Man-Nature (subjugated,
harmony, mastery over nature); and Activity (being, doing). The
findings showed remarkable differences among the five communities with
respect to the dominant value orientations and patterns of behavior.
Although a dominant value-orientation pattern was apparent in each of
the communities, there was also an indication of intra-cultural varia-

tions in value orientations. Moreover, these intra-cultural variations

1Value orientations have been defined as the ranking order of
Preference given to a set of basic principles which guide or direct
the behavior of individuals in the solution of human problems.

2In this study intracultural variations in value orientations
aIlleng Puerto Rican dairy farmers were predicted; these variations
accementing for different patterns of behavior and predispositions
toward new ideas and practices.

If

 

 

heath

$5.715 .

my a:
lcgzca
1 cent
Etta:

tins

{Beda

fdsion
ean:e;

59ng

a bet:

Explai

-44-

seemed to account for many variations in behavior patterns within

each culture. The data reported by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)

(2) suggest that individuals within a given culture can be clustered
on similarities in value orientation. The data also suggest that once
location of these clusters makes it possible to predict behavior pat-
terns .

Using these findings as a frame of reference, we assumed that in
any attempt to explain individuals' predispositions toward techno-
lOgical change, variations in value orientations among people play
a central role. Moreover, value orientation is a core concept for any
attempt to explain diffusion and adoption processes. These assump-
tions were the main reason for the construction of the diffusion model
used as theoretical framework fer this study.1

This chapter has reported the major concepts investigated by dif-
fusion. We have also tried to establish their relationship to two major
Concepts serving as framework for the construction of the diffusion model
‘being tested in our present investigation.

The literature reviewed has provided a necessary background fer
it better interpretation of the theory underlying the present investiga-

tion and of the diffusion model constructed. The next chapter will

eJtplain our theoretical model.

. 1The diffusion model used as theoretical framework for this study
will be described in Chapter IV.

A W“? .7 nib-

 

posure '

iegree I

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I

CHAPTER III
THE THEORETICAL MODEL OF DIFFUSION

From the literature reviewed in the preceding chapter one can
conclude that the diffusion and adOption of innovations are complex
processes. Many variables account fer the observed variation in ex-
posure to channels of communication, in the rate of adoption, and in
degree of acceptance of new technology.

Rural sociological research in the United States, India and the
Netherlands showed that in these processes individuals pass through
different stages before finally deciding to adopt or reject a new
idea. Some persons pass through more stages than others. Also, peOple
Vary in their proneness toward adoption of new technology.

From the diffusion studies in Latin America and outside the
agriculture field, we learned that some individuals are more oriented
toward the use of some communication channels than others; that there
«is a relationship between communication channel orientations and a per-
scui's predisposition toward the adoption of innovations.

From the Australian researchers, we learned that the degree of
Urbanization, situational motivation, conceptual skills and managerial
ski;lls are directly related to attitudes toward some communication
channels, to degree of exposure to these channels, and to rate and
degree of adoption of new technology.

The exploratory studies on typologies and values reviewed

-45-

 

1mg 1
fusion

tion,

are in'
in Valt
Plain.
'9 Con:
tions :-
Rte 01
of ado;

VaIiOng

-46-

previously suggest some relationship between communication channel orien-
tations, adoption, and values. Moreover, these researches suggest more
than one type of modal personality in social systems, and that groups

of peOple sharing common values tend to follow similar patterns of
behavior.

The cultural study reviewed provided further support to the view
that value orientations are an important factor in human behavior.

From this study we learned that variations in value orientation help
explain how individuals in each society structure their world. That is
to say, value orientations help determine behavior patterns.

To date, diffusion students have discovered orderly relations
among events but have failed to provide explanations. The existing dif-
fusion models have provided the bases fer predicting that some people
or groups will react in a certain way to a new idea in a certain situa-
tion. However, these models have not provided explanations.

Our major assumption is that if the existing diffusion concepts
are integrated into a conceptual scheme using intra-cultural variations
in value orientation, as a core concept one can both organize and ex-
Iilain. Using this approach to the study of diffusion of farm technology,
we constructed a model which attempts to relate intra-cultural varia-
tions in value orientations to communication channel orientations, de-
gree of exposure to mass media and other communication channels, rate
0f adoption of farm technology, and the degree of acceptance of inno-

Vat ions 0

The basi
has noticeable
different sub-
dozinant prof;
its members in
problems. he:
to the same 5;;
homgmeous in
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Oriented to“:
Sue assumptic
orientations E
orient “Ward:
which allow m
Work and achi

-47-

The Model

The basic notion of this investigation is that every society
has noticeable intracultural variations in value orientations among
different sub-cultural groups; that each sub-cultural group has a
dominant profile of value orientations which directs the behavior of
its members in order to achieve homogeneity in the solution of human
problems. Moreover, our theory postulates that individuals belonging
to the same sub-cultural group in a given social system tend to be
homogeneous in rank ordering of value-orientation alternatives. For
example, in time orientation, some sub-cultural groups may be strongly
oriented towards the future, others toward the past or present. The
same assumptions are made for the man-nature, relational and activity
orientations present in all societies. While some sub-cultural groups
orient towards subjugation to natural forces, others prefer activities
Which allow mastery over these forces. While some groups value hard
work and achievement, others consider effort as a means to an end
rather than an end in itself.

With respect to relational orientations, our theory also postu-
tlates intracultural variations. We hypothesized that some sub-cultural
groups value rigid authority, while others value the individual and
flexible authority.

In brief, our theory postulates that intra-cultural variations
jJl‘value orientation relate closely to the ways in which individuals
Structure their worlds.

According to our theory, the differences in communication chan—

nel orientations, exposure to communication sources, rate and degree

3f acce
belattgi

ht pr
ing the

t'» 7‘
“Isl...

NJ

(I!

tionale
181115 01
mam:
rasearc]
We 01
within a
Integer“
”titan
and ado;

On

and Stro

-43-

of acceptance of new technolOgy, and social behavior of individuals
belonging to a social system can be explained if one knows the domi-
nant profiles of value orientations. It is our hunch that by study-
ing the different typologies in a given social system (community,
municipality, region, etc.) one can find the answers to the fellow-

ing questions:

1. What are the reasons for the observed differences in the
rates of adoption of farm innovations among individuals

belonging to a social system?

2. What are the reasons for the observed differences in the
degree of acceptance of new technology among individuals
belonging to a social system?

3. What accounts for the variation among peOple in their
communication channel orientations?

4. What accounts fer the variation in observed patterns
of behavior among individuals within a given culture?

Our model, or theoretical scheme, is based on the fellowing ra-
‘tionale. From diffusion research we became aware of the variant pat-
terns of attitudes among individuals with respect to new technology,
cCunmunication channel orientations and social behavior. From cultural
research we became aware of the relationship between variations in
Value orientations and variant patterns of behavior among individuals
within a given society. These findings suggested the possibility of
integrating cultural and diffusion variables to come out with a theo-
retical model which can provide a thorough explanation of the diffusion
and adoption processes.

Our model is based on four crucial problems assumed by Kluckhohm

aun‘l Strodtbeck (1961) (2) as common to all human groups or societies:

 

(1] san-

-' 9-
1.3.5.

it the :
titema‘

huan b-

tion in
mt :3:
of far:
{age 1

traditi

Street.

three

.tea I

9“

1th .

-49-

(l) man-nature, (2) time, (3) relational, and (4) activity orienta-
tions. The model is based on the assumption that different groups of
peOple vary in their rank ordering of preference for the alternatives
in the solution of these crucial problems. These preferences for
alternatives are considered in this model as valuable predictors of
human behavior.

Under this conceptual scheme, we predicted a wide range of varia-
tion among groups of Puerto Rican dairy farmers with respect to domi-
nant profiles in value orientations. We expected to find some clusters
of farmers oriented mainly toward modernism, some in a transitional
stage from traditionalism to modernism, and some firmly rooted to a
traditional view of the world.

To gain a frame of reference for comparative purposes, we con-
structed ideal types of farmers based on value orientations; the

three ideal typologies will look as follows:

 

 

 

 

 

___g Orientations
Claisters Time Man-Nature Activity Relational
.____> Orientations Orientations Orientations Orientations

Iw Future Mastery Over Doing Individual
MOdern Nature

II’ 'Present 'Harmony Being In Collateral
JEEEgnsitional Nature Becomingii

IIII Past ’Subjugated To Being Lineal
JEEEgditional Nature

 

This study investigated dairy farmers' typ010gies and compared
t1‘lem against these ideal types. To integrate this typological model

wi~12h the Deutschmann Communication Channel Orientations Model, we

predicted a cl
tion channe

single can: at

Commie ation
nel Orientati

~

Egocentric
Intra-Commi
Extra-Commmi

Imersonal

 

-50-

predicted a close relationship between value orientations and communi-
cation channel orientations. When the two models were fused into a

single conceptual scheme, they looked as follows:

 

Farmers Ideal Types According to Value Orientations

 

Communication Chan- I II III

nel Orientations Modern Transitional Traditional
Egocentric X
Intra-Community X X
Extra-Community X X

Impersonal X

 

Our predictions were that Puerto Rican dairy farmers with pre-
dominant orientations to the use of egocentric channels will be highly
'traditional in their value orientations. Consequently they will be the
latest to know about innovations and the latest to ad0pt them. We also
Predicted that dairy farmers with predominant orientations toward im-
Personal channels will be the most modern, the first to know about in-
novations and the first to adopt them.

In the construction of our model, the third step was to fuse
villue orientations and communication channel orientations with the rest
0f diffusion concepts developed by diffusion researchers and cited in
tile preceding chapter. We predicted that the most modern farmers will
be the ones with high degree of exposure to mass media, the first and
l'Iiigher adopters and the most influential leaders in their respective

communities. In its final stage the model constructed looks as follows:

- c

a

an.

T.-. he.— AV Wu... hllu\ P S\ Qy\ S f n\ nun \
\ 1/60 \ -\.VO\ 4. .\UI rhU. 7!. ah“

a...“
t
s t A
it."

Tela

teSt

 

-51-

The Value Model

 

 

Farmers ideal types according to value and

communication channel orientations

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Type I Type II Type III
Modern Transitional Traditional
1. Future 1. Present 1. Past
2. Mastery over 2. Harmony with 2. Subjugated
nature nature to nature
3. Doing 3. Being in 3. Being
4. Individually becoming 4. Lineal
4. Collateral
Channel orientations
l. Extra-commu- l. Intra-commu- ii Egocentric
nity far nity 2. Intra-com-
2. Impersonal 2. Extra-commu- munity
nity near
1. Exposure to mass High Average Low
media
2. Exposure to agents High Average Low
___ of change
5:; Rate of adoption Earlier Average Later
‘4. Degree of adoption High Average Low
5. Participation in High Average Low
social activities
6. Sought for advice High Average Low
7. Seeking for advice Low High Low
from friends and
neighbors
8. Range of influence High Average Low

\

“filth respect to age, educational and socio-economic levels a two-way

relationship with value orientations was predicted.

tested in this study were the following:

The hypotheses

-52-

Hypotheses

 

1. Under the Puerto Rican situation, variations in value orien-
tations among dairy farmers are related to communication
channel orientations.

a. Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference for future,
mastery over nature, doing and individual value orienta-
tions are the most impersonal and extra-community channel
oriented.

b. Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference for present,
harmony with nature, being in becoming, and collateral
value orientations are the most intra-community channel
oriented.

c. Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference for past,
subjugation to nature, being, and lineal value orien-
tations are the most egocentric channel oriented.

2. Under the Puerto Rican situation variations in value and com-
munication channel orientations among dairy farmers are re-
lated to degree of exposure to channel-sources of infbrmation.

a. Farmers with a rank order of preference for future, mastery
over nature, doing, and individual value orientations and
fer impersonal and extra-community channels are the most
exposed to mass media and agents of change.

b. Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference for present,
harmony with nature, being in becoming, and collateral
value orientations and for intra-community channels are
the most exposed to friends and neighbors within the com-
munity boundaries.

c. Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference for past,
subjugation to nature, being, and lineal value orienta-
tions and for egocentric channels are the lowest in de-
gree of exposure to mass media, agents of change, and
friends and neighbors.

3. Under the Puerto Rican situation variations in value and com-
munication channel orientations are related to time of aware-
ness and time and degree of adOption of dairy innovations.

a. Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference for future,
mastery over nature, doing, and individual value orienta-
tions and for impersonal and extra-community channels are
the first to know, the first to adopt and the largest
adopters of dairy innovations.

 

 

4.

5.

b.

C.

-53-

Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference for
present, harmony with nature, being in becoming, and
lineal value orientations and for intra-community
channels are average in time of awareness and time
and degree of adOption of dairy farm practices.

Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference fer
past, subjugation to nature, being, and lineal value
orientations and fer egocentric channels are the
latest to know, the latest to adopt and the lowest
in degree of adoption of dairy farm practices.

In the Puerto Rican situation, value and communication
channel orientations are related to dairy farmers'
social behavior.

80

b.

Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference fer
future, mastery over nature, doing, and individual
value orientations and for impersonal and extra-com-
munity channels belong to more organizations and are
the highest in advice giving.

Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference for
present, harmony with nature, being in becoming, and
collateral orientations and for intra—community chan-
nels are average in belonging to organizations and
are the highest in advice seeking.

Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference fer past,
subjugation to nature, being, and lineal value orien-
tations and for egocentric channels are the lowest in
belonging to organizations, advice seeking and advice
g1V1ng.

Under the Puerto Rican situation value and communication chan-
nel orientations are related to dairy farmers' predispositions
toward following or skipping stages during the adoption process.

a.

b.

C.

Farmers with a rank order of preference fer future, mastery
over nature, doing, and individual value orientations and
for impersonal and extra-community channels are the ones
who usually follow more stages of the adoption process.

Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference fer present,
harmony with nature, being in becoming, and collateral
value orientations and for intra-community channels rank
second in the number of stages followed.

Dairy farmers with a rank order of preference for past,
subjugation to nature, being, and lineal value orientations
and for egocentric channels are the farmers who most skip
stages during the adoption process.

 

 

20323:

{e' .
Visa

-54-

The above theoretical model should aid interpretation of the
findings. Also relevant are the situations in which the study was
conducted and the population investigated. The next chapter will deal

with these areas.

popula‘
the da.
tic c‘a
to the

the do

vestig

0f the

seats}
technc
This 5
We:
3CCEpt

T1613 1

Agricu

CHAPTER IV
DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA

This chapter provides background infbrmation about the area and
It begins by presenting a general picture of

population investigated.
It then proceeds to describe the

the dairy situation in Puerto Rico.
two dairy regions involved in the research, with particular attention

to the general characteristics of the populations investigated and

the dominant type of dairy operations.

The Situation

The selection of a dairy farmer's pOpulation in the present in-

vestigation was not arbitrary. It was based on the author's knowledge

<of the present agricultural situation in Puerto Rico.

Three major factors were considered in the selection of the re-
.search papulation in the present study - (l) The dramatic economic and
technological develOpment of the dairy industry in the last 11 years.
11115 seemed to provide an ideal population for testing the major hy-

Potheses of the study, especially those concerned with diffusion and

acceptance of innovations. (2) The availability of communication chan-
1“nels for the dairy farmers. Due to the electric facilities in the

 

. l
The author has been an information specialist in the Puerto Rican
Agricultural Extension Service for the last 14 years.

-55-

 

hairy
sets,
liver
ioeol

' 9L
‘ He
in.

quarts
hi3h;

“5 he
has Ch
“its.
ing £01
In ”he

to the

-56-

dairy areas and the economic and educational levels of the dairy far-
mers, broader use has been made of mass communication channels to de-
liver infbrmation about new technology to them. This condition was
ideal to test the communication channel orientations of this population
and the role of mass communication channels during the different stages
of the adoption process. (3) The availability of two adjacent, but
quite different regions -- different with respect to educational, so-
cial, and economic levels. The situation seemed to provide a good set-

ting for making comparisons and a sound basis for greater generaliza-

tion 0

Economic Development

During the last decade, the dairy industry has made remarkable
jprogress. From a backward position in 1950, it has become a leading
factor in the Island's economy. Deve10pment continues. Agricultural
experts expect that dairying will soon surpass sugar cane as the most
important agricultural enterprise in Puerto Rico.

During the year 1952-53 there were only 342 first-class dairy
farms operating on the Island. Their production was 45.6 million

quarts of milk. (32) Herd quality was poor; production costs were
hligh; the yields were low. Lack of scientific management in dairying
was keeping the industry behind other farm sectors. Today, the scene
1111:: changed. Last year, there were 659 first-class dairy farms oper-
ating. Production has risen to 206.5 million quarts of milk. Dairy-
ihg contributed 56.2 million dollars -- at farm value during 1963.
:I'1 other words, milk production and the dairy industry's contribution

to the Puerto Rican economy is four times what it was 11 years ago. (32)

-57-

Today, the quality of the herds and the yields are very high, produc-
tion costs are low. Every day many more farmers are shifting from
other types of farming to dairying. For example, in 1962 there were
639 first-class dairy farms operating, while in 1963 there were 659,
an increase of 3% in the number of dairy units. (33)

In this dramatic development of the dairy industry, the adop-
tion of new technology has played an important role. At the present
such innovations as artificial breeding, pasture improvement, better
feeding methods, better breeds, farm records, mechanization, and
disease and parasite control are widespread.

It is apparent that the rapid growth of the dairy industry has
been influenced by favorable farmer predisposition toward the adOp-
tion of new technology. Also, diffusion and adoption of dairy inno-
vations have been accelerated by the effective communication between
the change agents and dairy farmers. For many years, agencies such as
the Agricultural Experiment Station, the Extension Service, VOcational
Agriculture, Farmers' Home Administration, Soil Conservation, and the
Federal and State Departments of Agriculture, have been providing assis-
tance to the farm population.

But what kind of assistance are the agencies of technological
change providing to the Puerto Rican dairy farmers? How are these agen-
cies functioning? What kind of prOgrams are they conducting to help

farmers improve dairy yields?

The Role of Agencies of Change

 

To understand the role of agricultural agencies of change, we must

look close
grams. Be
we will de
E:
wide varie
ing deal \-
developer
developing
aethods.
provide ne
new techno
educationa
The I
\—
t"° llajor a
is to diffi
“lated to
deSiI’able C
and ability
to changing
Visits. tr
“35 Comm
favorable
Avaja
WPUIathH

been 1"11316.
high COSt.

-53-

look closely at their methods of operation and their technological pro-
grams. Because the present investigation is concerned with dairying,

we will deal only with the technological assistance to dairy farmers.

 

The Agricultural Experiment Station - It conducts research in a
wide variety of agricultural areas. Typical studies related to dairy-
ing deal with adaptation of different breeds to trepical climates;
development of superior forage crops: improving fertilizer fermulas;
developing and testing of new weed killers; and devising new feeding
methods. In summary, Agricultural Experiment Station technicians
provide new technology of potential value to dairy farmers. But the
new technology must first reach the farm audience, and that's where
educational agencies come in.

The Extension Service and Vocational Agriculture - These are the
two major agricultural education agencies on the Island. Their task
is to diffuse and encourage use of useful and practical information
related to agriculture. Like other educators, they aim to produce
desirable changes in human behavior - changes in knowledge, attitude,
and ability which will help people benefit from new research and adapt
to changing conditions. Their work is carried on through personal
visits, training meetings, field days, result demonstrations, and the
mass communication. These agencies are responsible for deve10ping
favorable attitudes toward new technology. (34)

Availability of new technology and its diffusion among the farm
population are important, but they are not enough. New programs have
been implemented to make adoption feasible where it requires risks and

high cost. Here the service agencies come into action.

 

 

let:
58:5
J"!
Vast
inte
or B

0th

-59-

Agricultural Service Agencies - In Puerto Rico, various agencies
operate helping to make rapid adaption of new technology feasible. Two
of these agencies are providing assistance for the control and erradi-
cation of dairy diseases. Sponsored by the State and Federal Depart-
ments of Agriculture, prOgrams such as Brucelosis, Tuberculosis,
Mastitis, and Parasite control are actively operating on the Island.
Veterinary services are provided, free of charge, to help dairy far-
mers erradicate and control contagious cattle diseases. Periodically,
dairy herds are examined to detect cases of Brucelosis, Tuberculosis,
Mastitis and internal parasites. Positive cases of Mastitis and/or
internal parasites are treated. Positive reactors to the Tuberculine
or Brucelosis tests are killed, and compensation is provided their
owners. Furthermore, when positive reactors to the Brucelosis test
are found, a systematic prOgram of calfhood vaccination is carried
on.

Another program sponsored by these two agencies since 1950 is
the Pasture Improvement Pragram. It compensates dairy farmers who
apply certain specific soil conservation practices. For example,
transportation and purchase costs are paid fer lime used to correct
the soil acidity. Dairy farmers pay only for lime application.

The renewal of pastures with new varieties recommended by the
Experiment Station is also covered by the Pasture Improvement Program.
Again, the dairy farmer is compensated for doing this practice. The
Same kind of economic help is provided for use of fertilizers on
Pasture lands, construction of artificial lakes to assure water sup-

lllies for the cattle, and other soil conservation practices such as

-60-

contour farming, barriers to control soil erosion and pasture rotation.

Working in close coordination with the Department of Agriculture
(Federal and State) is the Soil Conservation Service. This agency pro-
vides technical assistance fer proper application of those practices.
The Extension Service has the responsibility of creating good will
among the dairy farmers towards the program. (35)

An artificial breeding program is Operating to help farmers im-
prove herd quality. The program is sponsored by the State Department
of Agriculture, but the Extension Service, Vocational Agriculture and
the Experiment Station are also deeply involved. This program actually
operates through artificial breeding cooperatives organized in the
Island.

The Department of Agriculture operates a Center where the semen
is collected, frozen and distributed to the c00peratives. Extension
and Vocational Agriculture technicians promote the pregram and create
good will toward it; while the Experiment Station is responsible for
the selection of top bulls. (36)

In practice, the artificial breeding program is a good example of
well-coordinated effort towards a desired goal - improvement of the
dairy industry. In 1962, the total number of cows artificially in-
seminated was 20,190, compared with 17,045 in 1961. (37) The number
of head receiving the service went up 18% in that time.1

The artificial breeding and pasture improvement programs have

 

1No figures are available fer the year 1963-64.

-61-

provided valuable assistance, but they cover only some aspects of the
dairy business. Other important programs are related to mechaniza-
tion; construction of silos, milking parlors and resting rooms; and
importing high-quality dairy herds from Canada and the United States.
These aspects of the business, although very important, represent a
high expenditure to the farmers. And here is where the credit agen-
cites operating on the Island are playing an important role.

The Farmers' Home Administration, the Production Credit Associa-
tion, the Puerto Rican National Farm Loan Association and the Credit
Division of the State Department of Agriculture provide long-term,
low-interest credit to dairy farmers. All phases of the dairy busi-
ness are covered by the credit facilities of these agencies.

As was stated previously, diffusion and adoption have been ac-
celerated by the effective communication between change agents and
dairy farmers. Such communication has involved a wide variety of

communication channels.

Communication Facilities

 

Aware that personal communication is no longer sufficient, change
agents have been making broader use of the press, radio, television,
and other mass communication channels. Mass media may multiply agent
effectiveness, reaching many more peeple and areas never touched be-
fore.

Because of the low percentage of illiteracy in Puerto Rico
(11.4%) the printed page has been considered an excellent channel fer

the diffusion of farm information. Newspapers, farm magazines and

-62-

technical bulletins have been used intensively. Wide coverage justi-
fies these effbrts. For example, the Island is served by two large
Spanish language newspapers - "El Imparcial," and "El Mundo." These
papers distribute 160,000 copies daily, and carry international and
local news, including information dealing with agriculture. (38) In
addition to the agricultural information published in their daily edi-
tions, one of the newspapers, "El Imparcial," used to print a special
page in its Saturday edition devoted entirely to the farm population.
To reach the farm population directly, Puerto Rican agents of tech-
nological change have been using the facilities offered by such farm

magazines as Cafeteros de Puerto Rico, Soagzico and Impex. Although

 

these magazines are concerned with a wide variety of farm topics,
prominence is given to dairy infbrmation. To reach the dairy popu-
lation as a special audience the Agricultural Extension Service has
published El Boletin Ganadero, a monthly magazine, distributed by mail
to the dairy farmer papulation.

Technical publications are also used. Serving the dairy farmers
population are such specialized bulletins as Nuevos Conceptos para la_

Explotacion Ganadera, Ea Brucelosis 2_Aborto Contagioso, Orientando

 

 

Sobre Inseminacion Artificial, Mayor Produccion con Mejores Practicas

 

Novillas Para Reemplazos. These technical bulletins are distributed via

 

direct mail, in meetings and through other farm activities.
In addition to the printed channels, agents of technological
change are using radio and television. Through one educational and 31

commercial radio stations, change agents have been serving the farm

populatior
years. hi
cultural i
eluding l:
duced rad
through 3
produces
tions. 1
Mrs tot
Local con
389 farm
to full I
and rad‘u
radio 5pc
Service:
Te
SOund' a
catio“.
Obi/ions.
0f the 1
(38) U;
has bEen

-63..

population with radio programs, farm news, and radio spots for many
years. Wide coverage by this media merits its intensive use by agri-
cultural agencies. On the Island, there are 383,000 radio sets, in-
cluding 181,000 located in rural homes. One daily Extension-pro-
duced radio program is broadcast every day, from Monday through Friday,
through a network of 12 stations. The Department of Agriculture also
produces a daily 30 minute farm radio program for a network of 8 sta-
tions. In 1963, the combined number of broadcasts of these two pro-
grams totaled 480. These two programs are produced at the state level.
Local county agents also use radio intensively. For example, in 1963,
389 farm radio programs were produced at the local level. In addition
to full programs, the agricultural agencies send regular farm releases
and radio spots. Last year, for example, 1569 radio releases and 76
radio spots concerned with farm issues were produced by the Extension
Service.

Television is also available. Since its combination of sight,
sound, and motion provides a close equivalent to face-to-face communi-
cation, its usefulness for diffusion of agricultural infbrmation is
obvious. Today, there are 10 television stations in Puerto Rico.
0f the 184,000 television homes, 52,000 are located in the rural areas.
(38) Up to now the only agricultural agency using television facilities
has been the Extension Service. It has been producing television farm

programs and has been providing infbrmation and films, both newsreels

 

1No figures are available about the number of radio releases and
radio spots produced by other agricultural agencies.

-64-

and documentary, since TV started on the Island.

What has been the role of these media in the diffusion and ad0p-
tion of dairy farm technology? What has been their contribution to the
present advanced position of the dairy industry? These are some of
the empirical questions investigated in the present study.

Up to now we have been concerned with two of the three factors
which most influenced our decision to use dairy farmers in this study -
the rapid growth of the dairy industry during the last decade and the
availability of a well-developed communications system Operating in
the dairy areas.

The third factor, as stated at the beginning of this chapter,
was the availability of two adjacent regions, similar in typography,
climate and in communication facilities, but different with respect
to the general characteristics of the farmers and scale of opera-

tiOflSo

The Setting

 

The study was conducted in two of the major dairy areas of Puerto
Rico - the Northeastern and the Northern regions. The Northeastern
region comprises 8 municipalities - Bayamon, Vega Alta, Vega Baja, El
Dorado, Toa Alta, Toa Baja, Buaynabo and Corozal. The total dairy

farmer population in this region is 76. The Northern region comprises 4

 

2Television stations initiated their operations in Puerto Rico
during the year 1952. Two stations, WKAQ-TV, Channel 6, and WAPA-TV,
Channel 4, were the pioneers.

rmicipali1
tion of 1?;
dairy farm
dairy farm
is emphasi
milk produ
Island's a
that 73.8
The data a
used in t1".
dairy farm
acreage de
The
degree of
farms p055

men: neces

 

-65..

municipalities - Arecibo, Hatillo, Camuy and Manati with a popula-
tion of I73 dairy farmers. For both areas, the total number of
dairy farmers is 249. This represents 38% of the Island's total
dairy farmer population. Their importance as milk producing areas
is emphasized by the fact that they produce 35% of the total annual
milk production in Puerto Rico. The figures at hand show that the
Island's annual total milk production is 206.5 million quarts and
that 73.8 million quarts (about 35%) are produced in these regions.
The data also show that of a total acreage of 129,291 acres being
used in the dairy business, 44,388 acres are being used by the
dairy farmers of these regions. This represents 34.3% of the total
acreage devoted to dairy. (39)

The dairy business in both areas is characterized by a high
degree of mechanization. It is estimated that 95% of the dairy
farms possess milking machines, 50% of them tractors and other equip-

ment necessary for the efficient operation of the dairy business.

This
in t}:

The quan-

the fact

 

-66-

Picture No. l. - Mechanization

 

 

 

This picture shows the kind of mechanization usually found
in the dairy areas of Puerto Rico.

The quality of the dairy herd is very high. This is demonstrated by

the fact that the average production per cow, per year, is 5,000

quarts of
aost cor-:3
Freisian,

introduce

Holst

 

 

In

Pacity .

 

-67-
quarts of milk with an average daily production of 16 quarts.1 The
most common breed in the dairy farms in these regions is the Holstein
Freisian, although Guernsey, Jersey and Brown Swiss breeds have been

introduced on the Island during the last few years.

Picture No. 2.
Holstein Freisian is the most common breed on the Island.

 

 

P

 

Typical dairy herd in the areas studied.

In both areas two important programs are operating at full ca-

pacity - the pasture improvement program which provides a compensation

 

1These figures are from the dairies working under the DHIA
records program.

to farmer

ficial br

Clitate a

The
Both regi
tal city
SEMY cla
74.40 F d
77.20 F f
the year
is 86.5 i
SUPP” fc
AIeCibo'

across da

lafiers.3

Cownu ‘
file
\3

301;

\

1
f°r the
Varieties

Th

2Tb.

in ii C°°p<
.rtlficia

3

 

-63-

. . . . 1 .
to farmers for the application of certain practices, and the arti-

ficial breeding program.2

Climate and Soils

 

The two areas investigated are also similar in climate and soils.
Both regions are located in the low-lands of the coast near the capi-
tal city of San Juan. The soils are generally fertile, usually of a
sandy clay loam type with good drainage. The temperatures range from
74.40 F during the winter to 80.10 F during the summer, averaging
77.20 F for the year. The rainfall is very well distributed during
the year with no specific rainy or dry seasons. The average rainfall
is 86.5 inches. No irrigation is needed in these areas. The water
supply for the dairy herds comes mainly from 4 rivers - Grande de
Arecibo, Manati, Toa, and Bayamon - from water streams that pass
across dairy farms, and from artificial lakes constructed by the far-

mers e 3

Communication Facilities

 

Both regions are connected by a network of paved roads with

 

1The pasture improvement pragram compensates the dairy farmers
for the use of new innovations such as - pasture renewal with new
varieties, liming, the use of fertilizers, pasture rotation, etc.

2The artificial breeding program has been operating since 1952
on a cooperative basis. The semen is supplied to the farmers by the
Artificial Breeding Center of the State Department of Agriculture.

3Under the pasture improvement program farmers receive compensa-
tion for building water supplies for their cattle.

   
    

adequate i
automobile
with the
areas are
a very we;

The
that facil
With peep]
VEIOped n:
the rapid

Mam
farmers,
the farm 1
combon in
“‘10“ ha.
rate of i

mCOme DB‘

 

famrsl ]

-69..

adequate transportation facilities (buses, public transportation, and
automobiles). In addition a highway which connects the capital city
with the rest of the Island passes across these regions. The rural
areas are easily reached by automobile or other transportation through
a very welledeveloped system of rural roads (usually paved).

The dairy farms are usually located near roads, a situation
that facilitates the mobility of the dairy farmers and the interaction
with people living beyond their community boundaries. The well-de-
ve10ped network of roads existing in these areas has contributed to
the rapid growth of the dairy industry.

Mass communication channels are also widespread among these
farmers. Newspapers, farm magazines and other printed matter reaches
the farm population. Furthermore, radio and television sets are very
common in the homes. Availability of these channels of mass communi-
cation has been facilitated by the high standard of living and low
rate of illiteracy. The data available show that the average gross
income per year, per farmer, for both areas is $49,993; that 98% of
the dairy farmers know how to read and write; that 99% of the dairy

farmers' homes have electricity and running water.

In

I F'Ffi‘s's‘ri 3

both i

basiCaUy

-70-

Picture No. 3
Standards of living of Puerto Rican dairy farmers.

 

 

The photo shows the house of Don Jesus Deraza Toledo,
one of the farmers interviewed. His farm has 60 acres
and is located in the municipality of Hatillo.

Difference Among Regions

 

While the previous sections suggest the two populations are

basically similar, they do have noticeable differences.

Or.
I
Northeas
acres de
dairy ca
region, \
herds an
dairy fa:
The aver;
4 times -
cattle a;
iiorthern

ence in {

TABLE 1..

/

4/

 

-71..

One important difference is the scale Of their operations. The
Northeastern region is characterized by big farms, a large number Of
acres devoted specifically to the dairy business, large numbers Of
dairy cattle and a large volume Of milk production. The Northern
region, on the contrary, is characterized by small farms, small dairy
herds and a lower volume Of milk production. Number Of acres per
dairy farm is much smaller in the Northern region than in the Northeast.
The average in the Northeastern region is 3 1/2 times bigger, devotes
4 timeS'more land tO the dairy business, possesses 2 1/2 times more
cattle and produces twice as much milk as the average farm Of the
Northern region. The figures in Table 1 clearly show the big differ-
ence in the scale Of operations Of the two populations studied. (34)

TABLE l.--Mean differences,in scale Operations
among regions.

 

Region I Region II
(Northern) (Northeastern) Difference

 

 

 

Mean total number Of acres 72.67 253.19 180.52
per farm

Mean total number Of acres 61.10 235.19 174.09
devoted to dairy farming

per farm

Mean size Of the dairy 90.96 232.86 141.90

herds per farm

 

Mean production of milk 4.13 8.79 4.66
per farm per day
(in thousands Of quarts)

 

 

-72-

Picture NO. 4
Region II - Dairy Farm

 

 

Typical dairy farm in the Northeastern region of Puerto Rico.
The photo shows the high degree of mechanization due to the
scale Of the Operations.

 

Ty;
Wel
to

-73-

Picture NO. 5
Region I - Dairy Farm

 

 

 

TyPical farm in the Northern region of Puerto Rico. Although
well mechanized, their small scale of Operations puts limits
tO the degree Of mechanization in the farm Operations.

Th
tors, 111'
Table 2 1
ailk FTC!

Spect to

TABLE 2..

\

TOtal nu:
Operat ing
\
ifilliOn
dellVEI‘e
the Pmce

\

proPortic

Produced

to the tc

PFOductic
co

 

-74-

The data show that, in proportion to the number Of farm Opera-
tors, the Northeastern region produces much more milk than the Northern.
Table 2 clearly shows the economic importance Of the twO regions as
milk producing areas and how they compare with each other with re-
spect to milk production.

TABLE 2.--Economic importance Of the two regions as
milk producing areas.

 

 

Region I Region 11

(Northern) (Northeastern) Difference
Total number Of farmers
Operating dairy farms 183 76 107

 

Million quarts Of milk
delivered annually tO 43.7 30.1 13.6
the processing plants

 

Proportion Of milk
Pmduced by regions 21 .8 2% 19.53% 2.40%
to the total milk <

production in Puerto
Rico

On the average, the dairy farmers Of the Northeastern region have
very high standards Of living, with an average gross income Of $68,230
per farm per year. The dominant type Of farmer Operating in the area is
a gentleman farmer (i.e., someone who lives Off Of the farm, usually at
the outskirts Of the urban centers). Such farms are Operated on a large-
scale basis under the direct control Of an administrator. The use of hired

labor for the normal Operations of the business is high. Because

getting
have th
the age
I
aen here
ing quit
San in 1
average
in the Ni
usuauy .-
The u5e C
carried 0
Unl
attiye in
not in St
change ar_

operators

Ana

 

educati0n

the pol.”

“are .

 

-75-

the majority Of the farmers live outside Of their farms, their partici-
pation in local agricultural activities is low. However, at the state

level, they are usually active and influential in agricultural activi-

ties.

Normally they are up tO date in knowledge about new technology,
getting their information directly from the research centers. They
have the largest experience, among the Puerto Rican dairy farmers, in
the Operation Of first-class dairy farms.

The situation in the Northern region is quite different. Dairy-
men here are generally former sugar cane farmers who shifted tO dairy-
ing quite recently. The shift from sugar cane to dairying really be-
gan in 1950. On the average, these Operate on a smaller scale. Their
average annual gross income per farm is $31,757, compared to $68,230
in the Northeastern region. Unlike the Northeastern farmers, they
usually live on their farms and Operate their businesses personally.
The use Of hired labor is very low and most Of the farm operation is
carried on by family members.

Unlike the Northeastern farmers, the Northern farmers are very
active in local agricultural activities and local organizations, but
not in state activities. Their contacts with agents Of technological
change are frequent. They are generally considered excellent co-
operators by the extension people.

Another difference between the twO populations studied is in their
educational levels. Average number Of years in school is 10.44 for
the Northeastern region, 7.8 for the North (a difference Of 2 1/2

years). In the Northeastern region, one frequently finds dairy

farmers \w‘

AnO
ethnic or
dairy far
coring fr
egion ar
Canary Is
0f Puerto
society a;

In .
Hith resp.
ing: ed‘dC

Thi.
Present 1:
eCOnomc {
in the twt
commie“
Similar it"
other res:

The

the inWest

 

-76-

farmers with professional degrees, but not in the Northern area.

Another difference between these two pOpulations is in their
ethnic origin. Although both populations have a Spanish origin, the
dairy farmers from the Northeastern region descend from Spaniards
coming from the mainland, while the dairy farmers Of the Northern
region are descendants from Spaniards coming from the Canary Islands.
Canary Island descendants are all concentrated in the Northern region
of Puerto Rico. They represent a sub-culture within the Puerto Rican
society and are known by the nickname Of "Islenos."

In summary, the two populations studied differ from each other
with respect to their scales Of Operations, experience in dairy farm-
ing, educational levels and ethnic origin.

This chapter has discussed the general situation in which the
present investigation was conducted. Emphasis was given to the
economic development Of the dairy industry in the Island, especially
in the two areas studied; Special attention was given to their existing
communications systems and to the availability of two adjacent areas
similar in many respects, but exhibiting noticeable differences in
other respects relevant to our study.

The next chapter will be concerned with the methodology used by

the investigator in testing his hypotheses.

CHAPTER V

METHODOLOGY

The Procedure

 

The study was divided into five major parts tO facilitate the
collection Of data, its processing and its analysis.

Part I was concerned with the investigation Of intra-cultural
variations in value orientations among Puerto Rican dairy farmers.
Here, the researcher faced his first methodological problem--how one
can investigate intra-cultural variations in value orientations
accurately and fruitfully. Q-analysis appeared best fitted fOr that
purpose.

What is Q-analysis? What is its use for studying intra-cultural

variations in value orientations?

Q-Technique

 

The Q-technique, as developed by Stephenson, provides a re-
searcher with a systematic way for examining a person's ideas, be-
liefs, notions, values or wishes. (40) The investigator is concerned
with the ways a person sorts "a sample Of self referent statements, art

1
Objects, descriptions Of behavior, personality traits and the like?

 

1M. S. MacLean & A. L. Kao, "Picture Selection: An Editorial
Game," Journalism Quarterly, 39:2, Spring, 1963

-77-

teats :
of pref

accordi

person'
matrix I
the per:
first f;
solutior
tion, th
The Vari
to slam
fact” b

$0prng

Hence, a

 

 

 

-73-

In the application Of these techniques a respondent is asked to sort
a deck Of cards, which have items printed on them, into a specific
number of rank piles in a modified normal distribution. The sorting
is done on the basis of some criterion, (for example, agree-disagree,
like-dislike). The basic idea is that the respondent sort the state-
ments in a flattened normal distribution according to his rank order
Of preference for them. The card statement is weighted for each sort
according to the scale score of placement.1

A matrix Of intercorrelations is formed by correlating every
person's sort of items with every other person's sort Of items. This
matrix Of intercorrelations is submitted to factor analysis. Here,
the persons are the variables and the items the Observations. The
first factor analysis produces a principal axis solution. Such a
solution is not always easy to interpret. TO facilitate interpreta-
tion, these principal axis factors are submitted to varimax rotation.
The varimax rotation produces orthogonal factors as close as possible
to simple structure. That is, each variable loads maximally on one
factor but not on others. On this basis, a factor represents a
grouping of persons around a common pattern of sorting the items.

Hence, a factor represents a type of person.

 

18. Marsh, Q-Technique: An Advance in Idiodynamics, East Lansing,
Michigan: Communications Research Center, MiEhigan State University,
Dec., 1963.

 

 

2M. S. MacLean, T. Danbury G A. Talbott, Civil Defense Belief
Patterns: Technical Summary, East Lansing, Michigan: Communications
Research Center, MSU, 1964.

 

 

-79-

After the rotated factors are Obtained, each pattern Of sorting
the items associated with each factor or type Of person is estimated.
This is done by weighting each item response for each of the persons
most highly associated with a given factor by the degree tO which that
person is loaded on that factor. The higher a person's loading on a
factor, the greater the weight. These weighted responses are summed
across each item separately which produces an item array Of averaged
weighted responses for each factor. (41) The weighted scores are
then converted into Z-scores. The items are ordered from highest posi-
tive Z-scores to highest negative Z-score - from most accepted to most
rejected for each factor. This provides a hierarchy Of item acceptance
fOr each factor or type Of person. Finally, the item Z-scores are
compared by subtraction fOr each pair Of factors. This provides the
basis for differentiating one factor or type Of person from another.
After the factor analysis is completed, analysis Of variance Of the
factor arrays is performed in order to provide a systematic examina-
tion of the differences among various clusters Of items in each of the
factor arrays.

In summary, the Q-technique was considered best fitted for this
investigation because it provided the bases for segmenting people into
types according to common characteristics as demonstrated by their Q-
sorts. The factors represented the types Of dairy farmers who provided
similar Q-sorts and gave similar descriptions Of themselves, in terms

of their reactions to the Q-sample Of value statements to which they

 

1M. S. McLean, op. cit., p. 73

were ex;
into t):
tions.

varied i

predispc

Fc
directic
from whi
nature 0
(3) Time
being, b
collater

TO
Rico. a I:
for each
ment was
(1961) [2
with 22 e
fled to 1;

text.

 

-80-

were exposed. This technique allowed segmenting of the dairy farmers
into types according to intra-cultural variations in value orienta-
tions. It was also possible to look at how these different typologies
varied with respect to their communication channel orientations, their

predispositions toward technological change, and their social behavior.

Construction Of the Instrument

 

Four value orientation areas and three alternatives or value
directions for each area were defined as the universe Of statements
from which the Q-sample was selected. These areas were: (1) Man-
nature orientation - subjugated to, harmony with, master over nature;
(2) Time orientation - past, present, future; (3) Activity orientation -
being, being in becoming, doing; (4) Relational orientation - lineal,
collateral, individual.

To find out the clusters or types Of farmers operating in Puerto
Rico, a Q-sample Of 48 value statements was finally constructed - 12
fOr each value area and four for each value direction.1 The instru-
ment was quite similar to the one used by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
(1961) (2) in 5 New Mexican communities. However, after pre-testing
with 22 eastern Puerto Rican dairy farmers, many value items were modi-
fied to improve validity and reliability within the Puerto Rican con-

text.

 

1A value area is defined for the purpose Of the study as the
orientation Of the farmer, let's say, Time, Relational, Activity,
Man-Nature; value direction is defined as the rank order Of preference
for one Of the alternatives presented, i.e., in the case Of Time -
present, past or future.

The
three alt
statement
problem 3:

nant valu

Time Orie

A.

The game I:

Afte:
to Construc

Prepare the

-81-

The final instrument posed different problem situations and
three alternative solutions for each one Of them. By sorting the
statements according to his own view as to best solution for the
problem posed, the dairy farmer classified himself in terms of domi-

nant value orientations. One example is the following:

Time Orientation

 

A. Problem situation - child training

 

Q-statements constructed:

(Past) 1. Children should be taught the traditions Of
the past (the ways Of Old people). I believe
that the Old ways are the best, and that it is
when children do not fOllow them that things go
wrong.

(Pres.) 2. Children should be taught some Of the Old tra-
ditions (ways of the Old peOple), but it is
wrong to insist that they stick to these ways.
I believe that it is necessary fOr children
always to learn about and take on whatever Of
the new ways will best help them get along in
the world today.

(Fut.) 3. In raising children I do not believe they should
be taught much about past traditions. I believe
that the world goes along best when children are
taught the things that will make them want to
find out fOr themselves new and better ways Of
doing things to replace the past.

The same pattern Of items' construction was followed across the four

value value areas studied.

The Sorting Distribution

 

After the completion Of the value instrument, the next task was
to construct the scale Of the Q-value statements distribution and to

prepare the instructions for the Q-sort Of statements. An ll-point

scale

The $3
Sponde

the Q-

sorting

aErees

-32-

scale ranging from "agree least" to "agree most" was constructed.

Q-sort Scale

 

Agree least 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll Agree most
The sample size (N=48) of the value statements to be sorted by the re-
spondents called for the following flattened normal distribution Of
the Q-scores:

Q-distribution1

 

 

 

 

Frequency 2 3 4 6* 36* 6 6’ 6 4 3 2
We 1 2 3 I s 6 7 8 9 10 11
Agree least Agree most

Instructions called for evaluating the 48 value statements by
sorting them into 11 piles ranging from those with which the farmer

agrees least to those with which he agrees most.

Data Processing and Analysis

 

As was stated previously, the total dairy-farmer population Of two
major dairy areas from Puerto Rico was studied. Region I (Northern)
posed one problem - it was too big (165 dairy farmers) for the capacity
Of the present factor analysis computer program. The problem was solved
by dividing the total population into two samples randomly selected -

Sample I with N=83 dairy farmers, Sample II with N=82 dairy farmers.

 

1This distribution Of the Q-statements along the scale was
suggested by Thomas Danbury Of the Communications Research Center,
Michigan State University.

2The instructions for the Q-sort Of value statements are in-
cluded in Appendix A (Spanish and English versions).

-33-

Region II, with only 68 dairy farmers, was used as a whole unit of

analysis.

The analytic model called fOr the following statistical Opera-

tions:
1.
2.

3.

5.

6.

8.

9.

10.

Q-sort factor analysis Of Sample - 1, Region - I.
Q-sort factor analysis Of Sample - II, Region - I.
Q-sort factor analysis Of Region - II.

Q-sort factor analysis of the factor arrays of Samples I
and II. The purpose Of this analysis was tO summarize
the typologies for Region I.

Q-sort factor analysis Of factor arrays Of Samples 1 and 11
(Region - I) and factor arrays Of Region II. The purpose
was to summarize the typologies for the total population
studied.

Analysis Of variance of factor arrays of Sample I.
(Factorial design - 4 x 3 x 4 levels.)

Analysis Of variance Of factor arrays of Sample 11.
(Factorial design - 4 x 3 x 4 levels.)

Analysis Of variance Of overall factor arrays for
Region I (Factorial design - 4 x 3 x 4 levels.)

Analysis of variance Of factor arrays fOr Region II.
(Factorial design - 4 x 3 x 4 levels.)

Analysis of variance fOr the two combined regions.
(Factorial design - 4 x 3 x 4 levels.)

These analyses provided the bases fOr segmenting the dairy-farmer popu-

lations studied into clusters or typologies according to the rank order

of preference fer the four value orientations. The analyses provided

information about consensual value orientations Of the dairy farmers

within and among regions; about the value orientations directions most

accepted and most rejected by the different clusters Of farmers within

and among regions; about the value orientations directions on which

some t}'
In Othe
separat
orienta
farm in
T
adaptioz
area an;
Heights
traditic
tions,
Weight I
total Va
FO
t0 the f.
occur-rm1
With thre
01d “Y5
other faV
but accep
that have
Changes as

-84-

some typologies agreed more than Others within and among regions.

In other words, through these analyses the researcher was able to
separate the dairy farmers into clusters according to their value
orientations and to relate values to diffusion and adoption of dairy
farm innovations.

To study the relationship between value systems, diffusion and
adoption of dairy innovations, scores were produced for each value
area and each value direction. The scoring procedure was based on
weights assigned to value directions ranging from -1 for those favoring
traditional orientations to +1 for those favoring prOgressive orienta-
tions. By multiplying the sort distribution scores by the assigned
weight to each direction, one was able to produce the scores on the
total value orientations for each dairy farmer.

For example, let us present one of the different problems posed
to the farmers in the Q-statements - how they perceive the changes
occurring in the world of today. Here the dairy farmers were presented
with three different ways of perceiving these changes; one favoring the
old ways of living and against the changes occurring in the world; the
other favoring the status-qua, that is, favoring the Old ways Of living
but accepting the changes occurring in the world as something inevitable
that have to be accepted; the other taking a stand highly favoring these
changes as something which will be for the benefit of the society. TO

produce the value scores the following Operation was followed:

Total
score

fOr ea

entati

a Help}
scale,
Sponden
this to:
for eac}
To
uSe a h}?
OrientatJ
the Past,
Study, T

f” each 1

53R

\

 

-35-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x Q-sort distri- = total value
Time Weight bution scores orientation score
A. Past - t3 -1
B. Present - t2 0
C. Future - tl +1
Total time orientation
score (TiO) C - A

 

Through this procedure it was possible to produce a set Of scores
fOr each value area, for each value level, and for the total value ori-
entation of the respondents.

As the reader will notice, the value scores were a cOmbination of
a weighting scheme, ranging from -1 to +1, and the Q-sort distribution
scale. In this scale, as was stated previously, the score for each re-
spondent is the location of the Q-value statements on the scale. By
this combination, a reliable score on value orientations was produced
fOr each farmer participating in the study.

To facilitate the interpretation of the scoring procedure, let us
use a hypothetical case, e.g., two dairy farmers, one with predominant
orientations toward the future, the other predominantly oriented toward
the past. They are asked to sort the value statements used in this
study. The instrument provides 12 statements for each value area and 4
for each value direction. The scale asked for the following distribution:

Q-distribution scale

 

 

 

Pile l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8* 9 10 11'
Frequency_ 2 3* 4 6 6 6 6" 6 4 3 2

 

Let us suppose that the future oriented farmer places all the 4 value

-86-

statements denoting a forward view at the extreme right of the Q-scale.
He also places all the items with a traditional view of the world at the

extreme left. He will get a maximum score of 42.

 

Example - Aggee most A ree least
2 x 11 = 22 g x 1 = 2
2x10=_23 2x2=4

Score = 42 Score = 6

The other farmer who is traditional oriented places the traditional items
at the extreme right and the future items at the extreme left. He will
also get a score of 42, but indicating a completely different direction
in his orientation to time.

The weighting scheme allows the scoring of each value area. In
the hypothetical case the maximum score for the future minded will be

+36 and for the traditional -36.

Example - Traditional oriented

 

 

Agree most Aggee least Score
-42 + +6 = -36

Future oriented

 

 

 

Agree most Agree least Score
+42 + -6 = +36

By the same procedure, scores on value levels and total value orienta-
tions were produced for each respondent, and the means and standard
deviations were calculated. The value orientation indices constructed

were the following:

Value

Time

fl

t3--
t2--
t1"

TiO -

Relati:

r3-- 1
12-- ‘
Iloo ]

TRO --

Man-Nat
“————

n3-- 5
n2-. H
n1-. it

THNO -.

33“ Be
a2.. Be
a1.- DO

EM).-

Level
Level
Level

3.-
2.-
1..

Total V311
With this

Tiered and

-87-

Value Orientation Indices Score Range

Time

 

t3-- Past '
t2-- Present' value directions 06 - 42
t1-- Future '

 

TiO -- Area score value area -36 to +36

Relational

r -- Lineal '
r2-- Collateral ' value directions 06 - 42
r1-- Individually'

 

TRO -- Area score value area -36 to +36

Man-Nature

 

n3-- Subjugated to nature'
n2-- Harmony with nature ' Directions 06 - 42
n1-- Mastery over nature '

TMNO -- Area score Value area -36 to +36

 

Activity
a3-- Being v
32-- Being in becoming' Directions 06 - 42
a1-- Doing '

TAO -- Area score value areas -36 to +36

Totals for levels
Leve13-- Traditional '
Lei/312-- Intermediate' Value levels 049 - 143
Levell-- Progressive '

Total value orientations score -094 to +094

With this operation the part dealing with value orientations was com-

pleted and ready fOr analysis.

the (a
mers ;

is wi

anne
L

Index

of tjm,
about :
inform;
one of

dex" Va

-33-

Part II of this study was concerned with the investigation of
the communication channel orientations of the Puerto Rican dairy far-
mers and their relationship with value orientations. Here the concern
is with two phases of the communication channels approach:

(1) The communication channel orientations from the point

of view of whether the dairy farmers were egocentric,
intra-community, extra-community or impersonal-channel
oriented;

(2) How near or far the dairy farmers were in their channel

orientations. The two phases were studied in both the

awareness and the interest stages of the adoption process.

Channel Orientations - Awareness Stags

Phase I, called from now on "The Deutschmann Channel Orientations
Index (DCOI)", was constructed by taking into consideration the number
of times a particular channel was used as a source of first knowledge
about a new dairy practice and by whether or not the recipient of the
infOrmation saw a demonstration. The weighting scheme assigned to each
one of the categories under the "Deutschmann Channel Orientations In-

dex" was as fOllows:

0 = Egocentric Channel Oriented
l = Intra-community Channel Oriented
2 = Extra-community Channel Oriented
3 = Impersonal Channel Oriented

By using this weighting scheme as frame Of reference, the Deutschmann

Channel Orientation Index was constructed:

dex,"

channe
But he:
a deDOI
ing frc

The ass

To
nel Orie.
tices We;
the “He
tides, 6}
8) PreVen'

TGCOrdS .

-39-
0 = if the source of first knowledge was through a
demonstration in his own barrio.

l = if the first source was in his own barrio but not
through a demonstration.

2 8 either first source was from a contiguous barrio
without a demonstration, or the first source was
from another place whether or not a demonstration
was presented.

3 = first source was a mass media channel.

Phase II, called from now on "Near-Far Channel Orientations In-
dex,” (N-FOOI) took into consideration the number of times a particular
channel was used as a source of first knowledge of a dairy farm practice.
But here, no attention was given to whether or not the source presented
a demonstration. The dairy farmers were classified along a scale rang-
ing from 1 to 4 according to the source Of first knowledge mentioned.

The assigned weighting scheme and the index constructed was as follows:

1 = Intra-community (nearest) - first source mentioned was
from own barrio.

2 = Extra-community near - first source mentioned was from a
contiguous barrio.

3 a Extra-community far - first source mentioned was from
another place.

4 = Impersonal (farthest) - first source mentioned was from
one of the media channels.

To study Deutschmann's Channel Orientations and the Near-Far Chan-
nel Orientations of the Puerto Rican dairy farmers, 10 dairy farm prac-
tices were used as a frame of reference: 1) pasture rotation, 2) pas-
ture renewal, 3) use of fertilizers, 4) use of weed killers, 5) insecti-
cides, 6) salt stations or mineral supplements, 7) artificial breeding,
8) prevention and control Of internal parasites, 9) silage, and 10) farm

records.

Sc
(dairy 1

ing in51

Instrumt

 

l. Have

2. How c
about

a- (
For t
edge was
construc
1. The s
a- (
2. Did h
a~ (
For t
in the an

about

a, (

(
Through t
dairY~far

being in“

-90-

Scores were produced across the ten practices for each respondent
(dairy farmer) interviewed. For the collection of the data the follow-

ing instrument was constructed:

Instrument

 

1. Have you ever heard about ? ( ) Yes ( ) NO

 

2. How did you know or how did you Obtain fOr first time information
about ?

a. ( ) from a person ( ) from an impersonal source

For those farmers who answered that their source of first knowl-
edge was a personal source, questions similar to the fOllowing ones were
constructed.
1. The source from whom you heard about the practice was from....

a. ( ) Your barrio? ( ) Contiguous barrio? ( ) Other Place?
2. Did he make a demonstration?

a. ( ) Yes ( ) N0

For those farmers who said that they heard first about the practice
in the mass media, the following question was used:

1. From which one of the following mass media channels did you hear
about the practice the first time?

a. ( ) Radio, ( ) TV, ( ) Newspaper, ( ) Tech. Bulletin,
( ) Farm Magazine, ( ) Other
Through these questions, the researcher expected to obtain scores on
dairy-farmer channel orientations during the awareness stage. These
scores were needed fOr correlational purposes with the other variables

being investigated.

ch;

er1t

orie

sche

2=EX

If a su

gories (

TiOn the

-91-

Communication Channel Orientations - Interest Stagg

 

At this stage of the adoption process, again, the two phases of
channel orientation were studied. Phase I (Deutschmann Channel Ori-
entation) was indexed by taking into consideration the number of times
a farmer mentioned a particular channel as a source of infOrmation
during the interest stage and whether or not he saw a demonstration.
The same 10 dairy practices were used as frame of reference. Departing
from this premise, the criteria for indexing the dairy farmers channel
orientation during the interest stage were established. The weighting

scheme and index finally constructed were the fOllowing:

Deutschmann Channel Orientation Index - Weighting Scheme

 

0 a Egocentric = If a person saw a demonstration in his own
barrio and obtained no infOrmation from other
places or the mass media.

H
II

Intra-community = If during the infOrmation seeking stage of the
adoption process, he got the infOrmation from
a personal source in his home or in his own
barrio. The farmer was not presented with a
demonstration.

N
ll

Extra-community = If during the information seeking stage, the
farmer mentioned a personal source from a
contiguous barrio or other places and no
demonstration was presented to him.

01
ll

Impersonal = If during the infOrmation seeking stage the
farmer mentioned mass media as the channel of
infOrmation used.

If a subject was not egocentric he was placed in one of the other cate-

gories on the basis of the source with the highest frequency of use.

The Near-Far channel orientations of the Puerto Rican dairy far-

mers were indexed, during the interest stage, by taking into considera-

tion the number of times a dairy farmer mentioned a particular channel.

-92-

Here, the criterion of whether or not a farmer saw a demonstration was
not applicable. Again, the same 10 farm practices were used as frame

of reference. The Near-Far channel orientations were indexed as fOllows:

Near-Far Index - ngghting Scheme

1 = Intra-community (nearest) = If additional information about the
practice was Obtained from his home
or his own barrio.

2 = Extra-community near = If additional information about the
practice was Obtained from a con-
tiguous barrio.

3 = Extra-community far = If additional infOrmation was obtained
from a source at other place.

4 a Impersonal (farthest) = If additional information was Obtained

from one of the mass media channels.

The Instrument - Egglish version

To collect the data about the channel orientations of the dairy
farmers during the interest stage, the following questions were con-
structed:

1. After the first contact, did you hear, read or see some addi-
tional infOrmation about ?

 

a. ( ) Yes ( ) NO
For the farmers who answered yes to the preceding question the next
question asked them was:

2. How much infOrmation did you get from the fOllowing sources...
(check mark in columns)

-93-

 

A.7Person§l Sources Much ’Some A LittIe Nothing
Your home
Your communtty
A contiguous barrio
Othergplace

 

 

 

 

B. Impersonal Sources
1 0 Radio
2. TV
3. Newspapers
4} Farm magazines
31_TeEhnical_publications
’6} Others

 

 

 

 

 

3. After the first contact, did you see a farmer doing
on his farm?

 

4. Is he a resident Of ...

a. ( ) Your barrio, ( ) Contiguous barrio, ( ) Other place
Through these questions the data on the communication channel orienta-
tions of the Puerto Rican dairy farmers was Obtained and scores pro-

duced 0

Statistical Analysis

 

The analytical tool used in this investigation was simple corre-
lation. Simple correlations were used to find out the relationship
between value orientations of the dairy farmers and their communication
channel orientations.

Part III - Here the researcher was interested in the study Of
the concept Of innovativeness and its relationship with value and com-
munication channel orientations. The same 10 practices mentioned pre-
viously were used. These dairy practices were selected because they
covered a wide range Of time availability and because they all seemed

to differentiate the dairy farmers as far as acceptance was concerned.

-94-

For comparative purposes, seven phases related to the adOption
process of dairy farmers, both within and among regions, were studied.
These were: (1) time Of awareness, (2) time of adoption, (3) rate of
adoption, (4) degree Of adoption, (5) total adoption scores (total
number of practices adopted), (6) disadoption, and (7) the five stages
concept Of the adoption process. By studying these variables, one
could predict the dairy farmers' tendencies toward adoption. And by
relating them with value and communication channel orientations, one

could explain not adoption per se, but the reasons fOr adoption.

Time of Awareness

 

Time Of awareness was the first variable studied. It showed how
the 10 practices studied were spread among the two dairy populations
investigated. The variable reflected time of awareness for individual
practices and averaged across the 10 practices. To measure time of

awareness, two indices were constructed.

 

 

The Indices: Scores

1. Time of awareness fOr = Number of years ago the 00 + actual
individual practice farmer heard about the NO. of years
(raw scores) practice ago

2. Average time of 8 Number of years ago the 00.0 + average
awareness across farmer heard about NO. Of years
10 practices x practices
(raw scores) NO. O practices he

heard about

This phase of the study was covered by the fOllowing questions:

-95-

English Version

 

 

 

1. Have you seen, read or heard about ? ( ) Yes ( ) NO
2. When did you see, read or hear about ?
( )

 

year, month orfidata recalled

Time of AdOption

 

The second phase was concerned with the time Of adOption. Here
the researcher was interested in getting information about how long it
takes a person to adOpt an innovation from the time he first heard about
it to the time he finally adopted it. To measure time of adOption two

indices were constructed.

 

 

The Indices: Scores
1. Time of adOption fOr = No. of years ago he 00 + - actual
individual practice adopted a practice NO. Of years ago
(raw scores)
2. Average time of adoption = NO. of years ago he 00.0 +
across 10 practices adopted X number of
(raw scores) practices
NO. Of practices
adopted

TO collect the data needed to measure time of adoption the following
questions were constructed:

1. Have you ever used ? ( ) Yes ( ) NO

 

2. When did you use for the first time?

 

The same questions were used across the 10 practices studied.

Rate of Adoption

 

One important aspect Of diffusion and adoption is the readiness

to adOpt. As has been demonstrated by diffusion researchers, some

-96-

farmers are more prone than others to adopt farm innovations. For
agents of technological change it is very important to know who are

the early adopters and who are the late adOpters in any community. The
Puerto Rican study investigated rate of dairy-practice adOption plus
the reasons for observed differences in adOption rate. We attempted to
investigate the relationships between value and communication channel
orientations on the one hand and rate of adoption on the other. To
measure the rate of adOption, the first step was to construct indices
fOr individual practices and then to construct average indices across
the 10 practices. The rate of adoption indices were derived from the

time of awareness and time of adoption scores.

The Indices: Score

 

 

1. Rate of adoption for = AdOption time of

 

 

individual practice a practice x 100 000 _ 100
Awareness time of
a practice
2. Average rate of = Average adOption time x 100 000.0 - 100
adoption across Average awareness time

10 practices
(raw scores)

.23559° of Adoption and Total Number of Practices Adopted

 

To measure the degree of adoption and the number of practices

adopted by the Puerto Rican dairy farmers the fOllowing scales were

 

 

constructed:
1. 0 l 0 = no adOption; l = full adOption (100%)
2. NO adoption 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
Fuli
Adoption

The indices for each individual practice were the following:

-97-

1. Pasture Rotation Index

 

Ratio - Total number of acres where rotation is currently
practiced x 100
Total number Of‘acres of pasture lands in use

 

2. Fertilizers Index

 

Ratio - Total number Of acres fertilized or being fertilized x 100
TotaI'number Of’acres of pasture land or fOrage
crops currently in use

 

3. Pasture Renewal Index

 

Ratio - Total number of acres of pastures renewed or currently
gtder renewal A,
TotaI number Of_acres of pasture lands or forage crOps
in use

4. Weed Control Index

 

 

Use = 100%; Not used = 0 adOption
5. Insect Control Index
Use = 100%; Not used = O adOption

6. Salt Stations or Mineral Supplements Index

 

Use . 100%; Not used = O adOption

7. Artificial Breeding Index

 

Ratio - Iotal cowtpopulation inseminated by artificial methods x 100
Total cow population—inseminated“durifigfithe year

 

8. Internal Parasites Control Index

 

0 x no treatment at all; .5 (50%) treatment Of infested animals - no
preventive measures; 1.00 (100%) treatment of infested animals +
preventive measures. The product used as frame Of reference was
fenotiacine.

9. Use of Silage Index

 

0 = not use it; 1.00 = 100% adOption

 

10. Keeping Records Index

Keeping either one of the fOllowing dairy farm records - WDAM -
Weigh-A-Day-A-Month or DHIA - Dairy Herd Improvement Association.

Average adOption and degree Of adoption scores were produced through

-93-

indices derived from individual practices. The average adOption and

degree Of adoption indices constructed were the following:

1. Average AdOption Index Raw Scores

 

 

Ratio - Total No. of practices
adOpted 10 x 100 000.0 - 100.0

 

2. Total Degree of AdOption
Ratio - Total degree Of adop-

tion score
x 100 000.0 - 100.0
Total NO. offpractices

adapted

To collect the data from which the scores were going to be produced the

fOllowing questions were constructed; For the 10 Practices -

English Version

 

1. If you have used , have you continued using

 

 

in your farm?
2. How many (e.g. acres of pasture land or fOrage crops) have you

(e.g. fertilized)?

Participation in Adoption Stages

 

The last phase of the adoption process studied was the participa-
tion of the Puerto Rican dairy farmers in the different stages of the
adoption process. The main Object here was to study the relationship
between value orientations and communication channel orientations on
the one hand and the tendency to fellow all adoption stages or skip

some of them on the other. To produce the scores necessary for

-99-

analytical purposes the following indices were constructed:

1. Participation in AdOption Stages
‘fOrTIndiViduaT'Practices :_Index

 

 

The number of stages in which the dairy farmers participated for
each individual practice.

2. Participation Profile Across
IO Practices - Index

 

 

The mean number Of stages in which the farmer participated across
10 practices.

TO collect the data about the farmers' participation in the different

stages of the adoption process the following questions were constructed:

1. After the first knowledge about the practice...did you adOpt without
seeking for additional information about ? ( ) Yes ( ) NO

 

2. Did you continue seeking infOrmation about ? ( ) Yes ( ) No

 

3. After reaching your final decision to adopt , did you
try it first on a small basis or did you adOpt it on a full-scale
basis?

( ) Try it first ( ) AdOpt on full-scale basis

Analytical Procedure

 

Simple correlation was used to analyze the relationship between
communication channel orientations, value orientations and the different
phases of the adOption process. The statements constructed for col-
lecting data on this phase of the present study were submitted to Guttman
Scale analysis to test homogeneity Of the instrument.

Part IV was concerned with the frequency Of exposure Of Puerto

Rican dairy farmers to mass media.

-100-

Mass Media

 

Degree of exposure during a given time period was Obtained for
the fOllowing channels: 1) radio, 2) television, 3) newspapers, 4) farm
magazines, and 5) technical bulletins. Media exposure was measured in
two ways -- 1) overall exposure to a particular channel, 2) overall ex-
posure to all channels.

Radio - Three sources were used for investigating radio listening

 

habits - 1) Actualidad Agticola, number of days listened to it during

 

a week, 2) other radio farm programs, number of days listened to any of
them during a week, 3) radio farm releases, number of days listening to
radio farm releases during a week.
General Exposure Index to Radio = Number of days listened to
the three (3) radio sources

past week.

Television - Two sources were used as frame of reference to test

 

dairy farmers' frequency of exposure to television - Panorama Agticola,

 

a TV farm news prOgram produced by the Agricultural Extension Service
and telecasted once a week; exposure to any kind of infOrmation re-
lated to agriculture presented during a week on TV.
General Exposure Index to Television = Number Of times the dairy
farmer used two (2) tele-

vision sources.

Newspgpers - Three newspaper sources were used to measure frequency

 

of exposure to this medium - La Pagina Agticola - a page dealing with

farm matters and published once a week by El Imparcial, one of the

 

papers with largest circulation in Puerto Rico; any kind Of farm in-

fOrmation read in E1 Imparcial during a week; any kind of information

 

read in El Mundo and dealing with farm matters during a week.

-101-

General Press Exposure Index = Number of issues read of three
(3) newspaper sources.

Farm Magazines - Exposure to farm magazines was measured by the

 

number of times a dairy farmer read one Of the following monthly farm

magazines during a period Of three (3) months - Cafeteros de Puerto

 

Rico, Soagrico, Impex, Et_Boletin Ganadero. Three of these magazines

 

 

are published by private enterprise, the other one, El Boletin Ganadero,

 

is published by the Agricultural Extension Service.
General Farm Magazines Exposure Index = Number of issues read
of four (4) magazines
in last three months.

Technical Publications - Here the following technical bulletins

 

were used as a frame of reference - Nuevos Conceptos Para La

 

Explotacion Ganadera En Puerto Rico, La Brucelosis O Aborto Contagioso,

 

Orientando Sobre Inseminacion Artificial, buyer Produccion Con Mejores
Practicas de Ordeno, Administracion y CuidO de los Pastos and t1

Crianza de Novillas Para Reemplazo. These bulletins were selected be-

 

cause they are concerned with the practices under study and have been
available to the farmers for some time. Each bulletin received a score
of one (1) and frequency of exposure to technical bulletins was measured
as follows:
General Technical Bulletin Exposure Index = Frequency of non-
zero codes in each
Of the columns in-
dicating a bulletin -
number of bulletins
exposed to.

To collect the data, questions like the following were constructed:

1. Did you listen to during the last week? ( ) Yes ( ) NO

 

-102-

2. Would you tell me which of the you listened?
a. ( ) Monday, ( ) Tuesday, ( ) Wednesday, ( ) Thursday,
( ) Friday.

3. Did you read during ?

 

Questions like these were used to find out the frequency of exposure
to each one of the media channels investigated.

To measure the overall exposure to mass media the scores for each
one of the channels studied were added. By this procedure, the re-
searcher was in a position to get information about overall exposure.
General Media Exposure Index = Scores on radio + TV = newspaper +

farm magazines + technical bulletins.
Statistical Analysis

The analytical tool used here was simple correlation. This measure
of correlation was used to predict the relationship of exposure to mass
media with value and communication channel orientations.

Part V was concerned with dairy farmers' social relationships.
Data dealt with advice givers, advice seekers, community cliques and
interaction among the dairy farmers of both regions. A dairy farmer's
social behavior was measured so as to reflect his own perception on
such matters as advice seeking and advice giving.

Also, membership in farm organizations was studied. Indices con-
structed to measure the dairy farmer's social behavior were the

fOllowing:

~103-

Belonging to Organizations = Total number of farm organizations in
which the subject is an active member.

Total number of farmers the subject
mentioned asking for information
about his farm problems.

Own Perception - Advice Seeking

Own Perception - Advice Giving Number of times the subject mentioned

giving advice to other fellow farmers.
TO collect data on such matters, subjects were asked to mention the
farmers to whom they gave advice or from whom they received advice
on some problem or problems related to dairying. Contacts during the
last six months were used as frame of reference.
Data on belonging to organizations were collected by asking the

respondents the number of organizations they belong to.

Statistical Analysis

 

As in the other parts Of this investigation, the major analytical
tool used was simple correlation.

One more aspect Of the dairy farmers' social behavior was studied -
the concept of Opinion leadership. Dairy farmers were asked to mention
farmers from whom they first heard about each of the 10 practices and
the farmers who most influenced their decisions to adopt a given prac-
tice. Scores were produced across the 10 practices, and sociOgrams in-

dicated the location of the gatekeepers and influentials.

Field Work

 

Pre-testing

 

The pre-testing to improve the instrument was carried out in Puerto

Rico with a sample of 22 dairy farmers Of the Eastern region. Six

-104-

Extension workers did the interviewing at this stage and recorded
problems related to length Of the questionnaire, clarity Of the ques-
tions, reactions of the farmers, etc. Three weeks later, the ques-
tionnaires were back at the Communications Research Center of Michigan
State University, with suggestions about needed changes. As a result
of pre-testing, the value instrument was reduced from 60 to 48 items.
All the items perceived by the farmers and interviewers as ambiguous
were eliminated. The rest Of the questionnaire was used as initially
constructed. Apparently the questions were clear and meaningful for

dairy farmers.

The Final Field Work

 

On June 15, 1963, the researcher flew back to his native land to
plan and organize the field work. Two days after his arrival, a meet-
ing with the Extension Director and his aids was held. The problem was
discussed and its value fOr the Extension Service was explained. As a
result of this meeting, county Extension agents were assigned to do
the field work. However, there was one problem -- to avoid contamina-
tion of the data, the agents from the two regions could not interview.
Agents from other places were assigned to the two regions during the
interviewing period. Because many farmers, especially those of the
Northeastern region, live outside their farms, the interviewers were
authorized to move out of the areas to locate cases living outside
of the farms. The 12 members of the interviewing team were trained
for five consecutive days.

The first training session was devoted to explaining the purpose

-105-

of the study and discussing the questionnaire. The discussion dealt
with the best ways to approach the farmers and our expectations Of the
job to be done.

The second and third training sessions were devoted to training
specifically for the job. Each member Of the team conducted a practice
interview in front of the group. In one case he acted as interviewer
and the researcher as the farmer; in the next case the roles were re-
versed. Then each one member of the team was asked to do an interview
in a real situation with a real farmer under the supervision Of the

researcher. The last training session was devoted to preparing the

 

 

.“ ‘.
4"

p

The researcher explaining th interviewe the purpose of
the study and discussing the uestionnai.

Aft
the data
the resea
questionn
viewers 1.

data. On

The
0f Michig
pecially
Center of

Thi

V111 repo

-106-

After training, the field work was conducted. TO accelerate
the data collection and to detect any problem before it was too late,
the researcher was constantly traveling with the interviewers. Each
questionnaire was checked and when errors were detected, the inter-
viewers were requested to visit the farmer again to collect the missing

data. On September 5, the data collection task was completed.

testing and Processing

The data were taken back to the Communications Research Center
of Michigan State University where it was coded by people hired es-
pecially fOr that purpose. All the analysis was done at the Computer
Center of Michigan State University.

This was the methodology used in this study. Our next chapter

will report the findings.

CHAPTER VI
THE RESULTS
VALUE PATTERNS AWNG THE PUERTO RICAN DAIRY FARMERS

Value structuring of 233 dairy farmers from two major dairy areas
Of Puerto Rico was investigated. We expected to find three types of
farmers: 1) a modern, progressive-oriented type, 2) a backward or tra-
ditional type, and 3) a transitional type sharing both the traditional
and modern views of the world.

The dairy farmers were asked to rank 48 value statements into 11

piles ranging from those with which they tgreed least to those with

 

which they agreed most. The statements posed different alternatives
fOr the solution of human problems. The resulting data were submitted

to factor analysis.

Identifying the Types

 

Due to limitations of the computer prOgram, the dairy farmers of
Region I (Northern) were divided randomly into two samples - Sample I
with 83 farmers, and Sample II with 82. The 68 farmers of Region II
were within the computing capabilities Of the program and were used as
our third group. Each one of these groups was submitted to the fOllow-
ing analyses:

1. After the sorting operation, a matrix of intercorrelations

was farmed for each group by correlating every person's
sorting with every other person's sorting.

-107-

-lO8-

2. The correlation matrix for each individual group was
submitted to factor analysis with persons as variables
and statements as Observations. For each group a princi-
pal axis solution was Obtained. Each solution was sub-
mitted to varimax rotation and the following rotated factor
solutions were obtained:

A. Region I - Sample I with N = 83, a 6-factor solution
Sample 11 with N = 82, a 6-factor solution

B. Region II - with an N a 68, a 4-factor solution

An item pattern associated with each one of the factors or types
of persons in the three Observed groups was estimated by weighting the
individuals most highly associated with a given factor to the degree
with which they loaded on that factor. These weights were applied to
each item response and the weighted scores were then summed across all
persons on each factor within each of the Observed groups. This opera-
tion produced an item array of weighted statements of scores fOr each
one of the 16 factors (types of persons) in each group. These 16 value-
item arrays were converted into Z-scores and described the types Of per-
sons sharing common value systems in each Observed group.

However, further analysis was needed to relate the types from the
three groups and find out the characteristics of dairy farmers sharing
common value patterns (considering the two regions tOgether).

To do this, the 12 factor arrays from Region I and the 4 factor
arrays from Region 11 again were submitted to factor analysis. By the
same procedure discussed above an intercorrelation matrix Of the factor
arrays was fOrmed, factor solutions were Obtained, and a new set of
factor arrays was produced and converted into Z-scores. Factor analysis
of the factor arrays of the two combined regions yielded an adequate

two-factor solution. It accounted for 42% of the variance. A more

-109-

complex solution accounted fOr little of the remaining variance.1

This solution produced one pure factor (Factor I) and a bipolar factor
(Factor 11). Factor 11 indicated two types of dairy farmers with value
patterns in Opposite directions.

To compare and contrast the three types of dairy farmers present,
the first step was to look at the consensus item array - items which
provided the views shared by all three types. By Observing respects
in which these three types were alike, the researcher expected to get
a cue as to dominant value patterns for the dairy farmer population

as a whole.

The Consensus Item Array2

 

Consensus was present on 12 of the 48 value statements sorted.
The Z-scores on the array were very low, ranging from a highest positive
score of .28 to a highest negative score of -.23. Observation of the
array suggested that consensus existed only on those items on which the
three types of farmers seemed to have a neutral or indifferent attitude.
This can be attributed to the condition of bipolarity present on Factor

11.3 With a bipolar condition on one of the factors, consensus has to

 

1See Appendix B - Factor Matrix for the Two-Factor Solution.

2See Consensus Item Array on Appendix B.

3A bipolar factor is one in which two types of persons are
present on a factor - one with a value system opposite to the
other.

-110-

be on those items less salient (less important) for the farmers.3

Of the four value areas studied, man-nature relationships ac-
counted fOr more than its share of the consensual items. Seven out of
12 man-nature items were consensual with low Z-scores.

Observation of the array suggests that all the three types of
farmers agree fairly well on the opinion that man is responsible for
his own failures, but that natural forces also play important roles in
human life. There is substantial agreement that the right way to live
is to maintain harmony with natural processes that affect life. All the
three types of farmers demonstrate some uncertainty as to whether their
children will be better Off, worse Off or as well Off as they (the
parents) are at the present.

Also, the subjects seem to reject, although very slightly, the
idea that it is best to divide capital from a family property inherit-
ance so every member of the family gets his share.

The next step was a systematic examination of the differences
among clusters of items on each of the arrays. This was done through
the Observation of the results of the analysis of variance to which the

factor analytic data were submitted.

Type I - Progressive - Broad value Emphases

 

NO differences were detected among the fOur value areas on this

type of person. However, strong differences were Observed in the

 

4Consensus was defined as existing where the Z-scores fOr an item
did not differ by more than a standard-unit (1.000). When the Z-scores
on each array differed by less than a standard unit, these scores fOr
each item are summed across the three arrays and averaged. This pro-
duces the Z-score for each item in the consensus array.

-111-

three levels studied - traditional, transitional, progressive. Re-
sults suggest that this type of person is strongly oriented towards a
progressive view Of the world. However, when the individual levels
within each area were observed, the data suggest that in the activity
orientation he tends to deviate from his general pattern and to assume
a middle range position -- he accepts hard work and achievement as
something worth looking fOr, but he does not see any contradiction
between accomplishing things and enjoying life occasionally.

As indicated by the data, Type I is a future-minded man. He
believes in science. He prefers hard work and accomplishment as a
way of life, but he likes to enjoy life occasionally. In this "enjoy-
ment" orientation he tends to deviate, although only slightly, from the
ideal type constructed in the value model.

Here are the most accepted and most rejected value items in the
Type I Array:

TABLE 3*--Value items most accepted by Type I -
progressive

 

Z-score Item !__

1.93 In deciding how to vote in an election, I prefer to make my L//'
own decision independently and without regard fOr the opinion
of other family members.

1.80 I prefer to work on my own, to be my own boss.

1.40 It seems to me that modern scientific discoveries such as
antibiotics or preventive vaccines (e.g., Polio) constitute
an effective way of increasing life span of man. By using
modern scientific discoveries the average life Span of human
beings can be lengthened.

-112-

TABLE 3* - continued

 

Z-score Item

 

1.31 Children should be taught some of the old traditions, but
it is wrong to insist that they stick to these Old ways.
I believe that it is necessary fOr children always to learn
about and take on whatever Of the new ways will best help
them get along in the world today.

1.20 What I care most about is accomplishing things. Getting
things done just as well as or better than other peOple
do them. I like to see results and think they are worth
working for.

.92 I really expect my children to have more than I have had if
they work hard and plan right. There are always good chances
fOr peOple who try.

 

*The complete array included in Appendix B.

Relational Orientation - As is indicated by the above table, the

 

Type I farmer likes above all to make his own decisions independently
and without regard of the Opinions of others. He prefers to work on
his own and be his own boss. From his strong acceptance of these items,
he seems to strongly resemble the individually-oriented man of our
model.

Time Orientation - Here, Type 1 appears to be future-minded. He
believes that those who plan ahead will have the best chance of being
successful. While he seems happy with the present, he likes above all
else to see the things moving fOrward. He also believes it's necessary
for children to learn about and make the best of new approaches that
will help them get along in the world of today. However, he does not

seem to be against teaching children about the old ways of living.

-113-

Man-Nature Orientation - He is a man who accepts science as a

 

means of achieving progress. He strongly believes that the average
life span of human beings can be lengthened by using modern scientific
discoveries. In this respect he seems to believe that man can control
his environment.

Activity Orientation - He seems to prefer to accomplish things,

 

to work hard and plan right.

From his acceptance of those Opinions favorable to a progressive
view, one can conclude that Type I seems very similar to the ideal type
of progressive dairy farmer.

His orientation towards a modern view of the world is again sug-
gested by his strong rejection of those value Opinions favorable to
the traditional ways of looking at the world.

TABLE 4*--Value items most rejected by Type I -
progressive

 

Z-score Item

-2.10 In deciding how to vote in an election, the way my family
votes is decided by the oldest member of the family.

-2.08 I think that the ways of the past (traditional ways) are
right and best, and as changes come things usually get
worse.

-l.72 I am very unhappy because of the changes that are occurring

here and everywhere. I think that our ways of living should
be kept exactly the same in every way - as they were in the

past.

-l.63 Children should be taught the traditions of the past (the
ways of the old people). I believe that the Old ways are
best, and that it is when children do not follow them that
things go wrong.

-114-

TABLE 4* - continued

 

Z-score Item

-l.Sl I expect my children to have things just about the same as
I had or bring things back as they once were. It is their
job to work hard and find ways to keep things going as they
have in the past.

-l.49 I prefer to work in groups in which a leader or boss makes
the important decisions.

-1.27 I think that today human beings have the means and power to
master the natural and supernatural forces that affect life.
Men will be the masters of nature.

-l.25 In deciding how to vote in an election, my family discusses
the matter until almost everyone agrees on the party or
candidate that the family prefers.

-l.ll When we need a solution fOr a problem in our community it is
best to depend on our community leaders to decide what is to
be done.

-l.04 If my brothers and sisters and I inherit a property, it is
best for the oldest brother to take charge or manage the
property.

-l.03 What I care about most is to be left alone to think and act

in ways that best suit the way I really am. If I don't
always get much done but can enjoy life as I go along -
that is the best way.

-l.02 In my leisure time what I like most is to talk with my friends
or have some kind of fun. Life is so short that we have to
enjoy it.

 

*The complete array is included in Appendix B.

It is noticeable how this type of person tends to strongly reject
all those value items favoring the traditional ways of looking at the

world.

-115-

Relational Orientation - His orientation towards individuality

 

and his rejection of submission to authority is indicated by rejection
of the following items:

Authority has to be given to a person because he is Older.

Working in groups in which a leader or boss makes all decisions
is best.

In the decision making process all solutions have to be decided
on unanimously.

Time Orientation - His progressive way of looking at the world

 

is again indicated by his rejection Of the notion that the ways of the
past are right and best and that change usually brings trouble; by his
strong rejection of the notion that ways of living should be kept ex-

actly the same as in the past; by his rejection of the notion that the
best way to bring up children is by teaching them the ways of the past
and convincing them to stick to these ways of living. On the contrary,
he tends to be very happy with changes and accepts them as worthwhile.

Man-Nature Orientation - This type of person seems ambivalent.

 

In his most accepted value items, he indicates a favorable attitude
towards science and towards man's power to control his environment.
However, he strongly disagrees with the notion that today human beings
have the means and power to master the natural and supernatural forces
that affect life; that men will be the masters of nature. This ap-
parent ambivalence toward man-nature relationships can be explained as
follows:

He is a strong supporter Of science and thinks that man can con-

trol some aspects of environment - for example, to control illness by

-116-

medical treatment, or to prevent soil erosion by contour farming.
But he places a religious interpretation on some value items
and tends to believe God has the power to control all men's activi-
ties.
It seems this type of person feels science can be put to the
service of humanity, but at the same time he rejects any defiance
of God's power.

Activity Orientation - He rejects easygoing ways of life and

 

tends to prefer hard work and achievement. This is indicated by:

1. Strong disagreement with the view that man alone can think.
and act in ways that best suit his personality.

2. Strong disagreement with the idea of spending all his leisure

time having fun and enjoying life.

Summaty

Type I seems quite similar to the ideal type of progressive dairy
farmer in the value model. In general he can be described as a man
who believes in the future (future oriented), in science as means of
achieving progress (mastery over nature), in man's independence in
making his own decisions (individuality), and in hard work and achieve-
ment as a way of life (doing). He was not as pure as expected on
"doing", but he seems to be more oriented toward hard work and achieve-
ment than the other types studied.

Type I and the Spanish Americans of New Mexico (Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck, 1961) seem quite similar in only one respect - both are

individually oriented. They differ greatly in the value areas of time,

-117-

relational and activity. The Spanish American seems to prefer the
present over the future and past, has a fatalistic view of the world,
and likes to be easygoing. Type I rejects such orientations and pre-
fers modern styles of living.

It is predicted that Type I dairy farmers will be the highest
adOpters of farm innovations, the most exposed to mass media and agents

of change, and the most influential among the dairy farmers.

Types II and III - Broad value Emphases

 

Results of the analysis Of variance for the factor array of these
two types of dairy farmers suggest a strong discrimination on some value
areas over others. There is a clear indication that man-nature orien-
tation is the most discriminated value area, fOllowed by relational
orientation. Time and activity orientations seemed less discriminatory
fOr the two types.

The analyses of variance do not detect any significant difference
among the subjects' discrimination fOr the three general levels - tradi-
tional, transitional, and progressive.

Furthermore, the analysis of variance does not detect any strong
discrimination among the value directions on each one of the value areas
studied.

However, a look at the means suggested that Type 11 tends to be
inclined slightly towards the traditional way Of looking at the world,
while Type III seems to move in the opposite direction.

Departing from the preceding results, the next step was to observe
the item array for each individual type of dairy farmer in order to get

specific infOrmation which will allow the researcher to present a clear

-118-

picture of the dominant value patterns for each type.

Type II - Traditional - Dominant Value Patterns

 

To describe more specifically the dominant value patterns of this
type of dairy farmer, the first step was to observe the most accepted

value items in the array.

TABLE 5*--Va1ue items most accepted by Type II -

 

 

traditional
Z-score Items
1.47 I think that the ways of the past (traditional ways) are
right and best, and as changes come things usually get
worse.
1.40 When we need a solution fOr a problem in our community, it is

best to call a meeting of the peOple affected and discuss the
problem until almost everyone agrees on what is to be done.
We prefer to reach our decision unanimously.

1.38 I prefer to work in groups in which a leader or boss makes
the important decisions.

1.28 The past is gone and the future is too uncertain to count on.
SO I believe it is best to give most attention to what is
happening now in the present.

1.21 I believe that it is always the ways of the future - the ways
that are still to come - which will be best, and even though
there are sometimes small setbacks, changes bring improvements.

1.09 When we need a solution for a problem in our community, the
best way is for the problem to be discussed in a community
meeting and to decide the matter by vote. We accept the
majority decision even though there are still a great many
peOple who disagree and object to the action.

1.05 I prefer to work in groups in which everyone works together
and has the same rights and Obligations.

1.04 I really do not believe that there is much human beings them-
selves can do to make the lives of men and women longer. It
is my belief that every person has a set time to live, and
when that time comes, it just comes.

-119-

TABLE 5* - continued

 

Z-score Items

.95 What I care about most is to be left alone to think and act
in ways that best suit the way I really am. If I don't
always get much done but can enjoy life as I go along, that
is the best way.

 

*Complete items array in Appendix B.

Relational Orientation - Observation of the array suggests that

 

Type II strongly believes in authority and tends to accept it without
question. However, his relational orientations seem bounded by his
perception of the situation confronted. For example, when he perceives
himself dealing with a certain problem, he prefers to work in a group
where a leader or boss makes the crucial decisions. He prefers that
others assume responsibilities. When he perceives himself as an in-
tegral part of a group, he seems to prefer group decisions based on
unanimity, or as an alternative, on a group majority. ‘

Time Orientation - Here again this type of person does not appear

 

to be as traditionally oriented as was expected. But the array shows a
slight preference for the traditional view of the world. For example,
his most accepted item suggests that the ways of the past are right

and best, and changes usually make things worse. He considers it best
to give attention to the present rather than the past or future. Also,
he feels the ways of the future will be best. This suggests that, while
he does not discriminate strongly between the three time levels, he is

slightly inclined towards a preference fOr the old ways of living.

-120-

Man-Nature Orientation - Here, one finds a strong preference for

 

subjugation to the natural processes that affect life. Type 11 does not
believe human beings themselves can do much to lengthen the lives of men
and women. He feels every person has a set time to live and die -- a
rather fatalistic way of looking at the world.

Activity Orientation - In this orientation, Type 11 seems to be

 

ambivalent once again. He has a strong desire to be left alone so he can
think and act in ways best suited to his personality. He appears to be
easy-going, not caring much about accomplishment if he can enjoy life.
However, in his most rejected items, he seems to disagree with this way
of looking at the world under other kinds of situations.

A clear picture of his dominant value patterns must also include
his most rejected items. Comparing most accepted and most rejected items
should give a meaningful view of his dominant value patterns.

TABLE 6*--Value items most rejected by Type II -
traditional

 

Z-score Item

-2.65 In my leisure time what I like best is to read about new
things and do some kind of productive work.

-2.42 In my leisure time what I like best is to use some of my time
learning or trying out new things and part of it having fun
with my friends.

-2.24 In raising children, what I care most about is to provide them
all the happiness that I can. Children are children and while
they are young they have to play and enjoy life, because later
life will be hard for them.

-1.94 In my leisure time what I like most is to talk with my friends
or to have some kind of fun. Life is so short that we have
to enjoy it.

-121-

TABLE 6* - continued

 

Z-score ~ Item

-l.69 In deciding how to vote in an election, my family discusses
the matter until almost everyone agrees on the party or
candidate that the family prefers.

-1.43 In raising children I do not believe that they should be
taught much about past traditions. I believe that the world
goes along best when children are taught the things that will
make them want to find for themselves new and better ways of
doing things to replace the Old.

-l.04 I like best of all to use my leisure time doing extra things
in my house, business or farm. I am very happy when I am
busy and getting a lot of things done. Time is money and to
waste time is to waste money.

 

*Array in Appendix B.

Relational Orientation - Here he tends to reject the view that,

 

in deciding how to vote in an election, the family must discuss the
matter and arrive at a unanimous decisiOn.

Time Orientation - This type of person strongly rejects the notion

 

that past traditions have to be replaced by new things, especially in
bringing up children. He disagrees with the opinion that children should
be taught to find for themselves new and better ways of doing things to
replace the Old ways. He believes that in bringing up children one
should stress tradition.

Man-Nature Orientation - NO items were strongly rejected in this

 

area. Most of them seemed to be irrelevant fOr this type of farmer,
except that he strongly accepts the power Of natural forces to control
man's destiny.

Activity Orientation - He strongly rejects most of the items

 

-122-

favorable to hard work and achievement. Also he rejects, although not
so strongly, some aspects of the easygoing ways of life. For example,
he rejects the notion Of giving his children all kinds of pleasure and
fun. He also rejects strongly the idea of using his leisure time
talking with friends and having fun. And he strongly rejects the inter-
mediate position Of learning and trying new things while keeping work

and leisure time in balance.

Summary

After observing the value items most accepted and most rejected
by Type 11, one sees that he has a tendency to prefer lineality (ac-
ceptance of authority emanated from a leader or older person); over
collaterally (no leadership accepted, each member of the group has the
same rights and obligation) and collaterally over individuality (in-
dependence in his decisions). While he seems ambivalent in his attitudes
towards individuality and collective types of relationships, accepting
some of them and rejecting Others, he consistently favors lineality as
a way of looking at the world.

The same tendency is noticeable in his time orientation. He
seems to favor present and future orientations in some instances, but he
tends to reject them for the most part. However, he is consistent in
favoring the traditional ways of living.

In his man-nature orientation, he clearly favors the fatalistic
view of natural processes affecting life.

In his activity orientation, he rejects strongly the items
favoring hard work and accomplishment as the best way of life. He is

ambivalent in the other two value directions in this value area, but he

-123-

seems to prefer the easygoing way of life over other styles of living.

Although mixed in his value patterns, this farmer is the most
traditional oriented of the three types. He is closest to the ideal
traditional dairy farmer in the theoretical model. He is similar to the
Spanish Americans of the Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck study in only one
respect - a fatalistic view of natural processes.

It is predicted that this type of farmer will be the latest to
adopt, the low adopter, the lowest in his exposure to mass media and
agents of change, and the least influential in his community. Further-
more, it is predicted that he will be the most egocentric among the

dairy farmers present in the population investigated.

Type III - Transitional or Intermediate - Dominant Value Patterns

 

This person also seems to be in transition, but he's moving in a
direction Opposite to that of Type II. He is inclined more towards
the progressive view of the world, although he still possesses some
values commonly shared by tradition-oriented people. The dominant value
patterns of Type III become clear when we look at his most accepted and

most rejected value items.

TABLE 7*--Value items most accepted by Type III -

transitional

 

Z-score Item

2.65 In my leisure time, what I like best is to read about new
things and to do some kind of productive work.

2.42 In my leisure time what I like best is to use some of my time
learning or trying out new things and part of it having fun
with my friends.

-124-

TABLE 7* - continued

 

Z-score

Item

 

2.24

1.94

1.69

1.43

1.04

In raising my children, what I care most about is to provide
them all the happiness that I can. Children are children
and while they are young they have to play and enjoy life,
because later, life will be hard for them.

In my leisure time what I like most is to talk with my friends
or to have some kind of fun. Life is so short that we have
to enjoy it.

In deciding how to vote in an election, my family discusses
the matter until almost everyone agrees on the party or
candidate the family prefers.

In raising my children I do not believe that they should be
taught much about past traditions. I believe that the world
gees along best when children are taught the things that will
make them want to find out fbr themselves new and better ways
to replace the old.

I like best of all to use my leisure time doing extra things
in my house, business or farm. I am very happy when I am
busy and getting things done. Time is money and to waste time
is to waste money. '

 

*Array on Appendix B.

sions.

Relational Orientation - He likes to see unanimity in family deci-

For example, he strongly believes in calling in a family meeting

to discuss politics until almost everyone agrees on what party or candi-

date the family members should vote for. This is a collateral view.

Time Orientation - He seems to be somewhat opposed to teaching the

old ways of living to his children in such a way as to pressure them to

live by these ways. He strongly believes children should be encouraged to

find out for themselves new and better ways of doing things.

flan-Nature Orientation - In his most accepted items, he does not

 

seem to give much attention to this orientation as an important factor

-125-

influencing his ways of living. But a closer observation of the whole
array indicates that he slightly prefers the notion that men can be
better if they live in harmony with the natural processes rather than
being subjugated to them. This is also suggested by his rejection of
the value items favoring the subjugation of men to the natural processes
that control life.

Activity Orientation - Apparently this is the value area most

 

relevant for Type III. A large number of value items in this area are
strongly accepted. It seems that this is the kind of person who likes
to work hard and accomplish things, but also to enjoy life occasionally.
He likes to read about new things and to do some kind of productive work.
He likes to use part of his leisure time learning and trying new things,
and part of it enjoying life. He also likes to use his leisure time
doing extra things and feels wasting time is wasting money. But he also
prefers to spend his leisure time having fun with friends. He likes to
provide his children all the happiness he can, and he believes children
must play and enjoy life.

His position seems to be ambivalent in many respects, and to get
a more meaningful understanding of his dominant value patterns one has
to look at the most rejected items in the array.

TABLE 8*--Value items most rejected by Type III -
transitional

 

Z-score Item

-l.47 I think that the ways of the past (traditional ways) are right
and best, and as changes come things usually get worse.

-l.4O When we need a solution for a problem in our community, it is
best to call a meeting of the people affected and discuss the
problems until almost everyone agrees what is to be done. We
prefer to reach our decision unanimously.

-126-

TABLE 8* - continued

 

Z-score

-1.38

-1.28

-1021

-l.09

'1005

'1 .04

Item

I prefer to work in groups in which a leader or boss makes
the important decisions.

The past is gone and the future is much too uncertain to count
on. So, I believe it is best to give most attention to what
is happening now in the present.

I believe that it is almost always the ways of the future -
the ways which are still to come - which will be best, and
even though there are small setbacks, changes bring improve-
ments.

When we need a solution for a problem in our community, the
best way is for the problem to be discussed in a community
meeting and to decide the matter by vote. We accept the
majority decision even though there are still a great many
people who disagree and object the action.

I prefer to work in groups in which everyone works together
and has the same rights and obligations.

I really do not believe that there is much human beings them-
selves can do to make the lives of men and women longer. It
is my belief that every person has a set time to live, and
when the time comes, it just comes.

What I care about most is to be left alone to think and act

in the ways that best suit the way I really am. If I don't
always get much done but can enjoy life as I go along, that is
the best way.

When we need a solution for a problem in our community it is
best to depend on our community leaders to decide what is to
be done.

 

*See array on Appendix B.

Relational Orientation - The opinions most rejected by Type III

include the one favoring working in a group in which a leader or boss

makes all crucial decisions. He also rejects strongly the idea that in

tackling community problems the best approach is to call a meeting of

~127-

the peOple affected and discuss the problem until almost everyone agrees
on what is to be done. In rejecting this item he seems to contradict
himself, because in his most accepted items he showed a strong preference
for arriving at family decisions by unanimity. Apparently he makes a
distinction between family problems and community problems. Moreover,

he tends to reject the idea that community decisions can be made by
majority vote. In other words, he tends to reject items involving all
three value directions in this value area and to accept only value items
favoring the collateral direction (decisions on family needs to be made
by unanimity).

Time Orientation — Here Type III tends to reject the three value

 

directions of present, past and future. He rejects the notion that the
past is gone, thekpiegentfis too uncertain to count on, and the present
should get most of man's attention. He also rejects the notion that the
ways of the future will almost always prove best. And his most rejected
item is the one favoring the ways of the past (traditional ways). He
rejects strongly the idea that the ways of the past are right and best,
and that as changes come things usually get worse. However, when the
situation involves his children, he accepts the future orientation over

the present and the past.

Man-Nature Orientation - Type III rejects the fatalistic idea that

 

all of man's activities are governed by the natural processes that affect
life. He rejects the idea that every person has a set time to live and
to die.

Activity Orientation - Here he tends to reject the notion of an

 

easy-going way of life. He rejects the opinion that what is best fer

a person is to be left alone to think and act in ways best suited to his

-128-
personality.

Summary

The most accepted and most rejected value items suggest Type III
is mixed, sharing both the traditional and progressive orientations.
However, a closer look at the array suggest that this person leans more
towards the prOgressive than the traditional. For example, in his re-
lational orientation he seems to give t0p rank to the collateral view
(all decisions have to be taken by unanimity), but he favor individua-
lity (independence of man in determining his own behavior) over linea-
lity (submission to the authority of a leader).

In his time orientation he seems to prefer the ways of the future
over the traditional ways of looking at the world. He also rejects the
notion of living in the present and forgetting about the past and the
future.

In his man-nature orientation, he rejects the subjugation to the
natural forces as a way of living. He tends to prefer to be in harmony
with natural processes that affect life rather than to attempt to control
them.

In his activity orientation he seems to prefer the middle position
of hard work and accomplishment but also enjoying life. He likes to
maintain a balance between hard work and leisure time.

This type of person, then, is the more transitional of the three
types investigated. He seems to resemble the ideal transitional dairy
farmer of the theoretical model in three out of four value areas -
relational, man-nature and activity. He seems to deviate from the tran-

sitional type in time orientation, being more future minded.

-129-

He seems to differ markedly from the Spanish Americans of New
Mexico (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961) in the four value areas studied.
Up to now the writer has described the dominant value patterns
for each individual type of dairy farmer in the population studied.
Principal bases for this analysis have been the most accepted and re-
jected items in each type array. In addition, each type accepts or
rejects some items to a greater extent than do the other types. One
can consider opinion on such an item a unique characteristic of the
type in question.
Type I - can be identified by strong acceptance of the following
value directions:
1. In deciding how to vote in an election, he prefers to
make his own decisions independently and without regard
for the opinions of others.

2. Working on his own and being his own boss.

3. Science as a means of achieving progress and better ways
of living fer human beings.

4. Hard work and achievement as a way of life.

5. Natural forces (when he perceives the items as related
to religious beliefs) as something to live in harmony
with rather than to be subjugated to or defy. He accepts
much more strongly than the other types that the best
thing to do is to live in harmony with the natural forces
that control rain, winds and other natural conditions.

He can be considered unique by his strong rejection, stronger than
the other two types, of the following opinions supporting some direc-
tions Opposed to his value system:

1. He rejects more than the other two types the idea that

in deciding how to vote in an election, the way his family

would vote has to be decided by the older member of the
family.

2.

-130-

He rejects much more than the others the notion that the
past is better than the present and the future; that changes
always bring troubles. He does not feel that the old ways
of living have to be kept exactly as they usually were.

He rejects the idea of teaching his children the old
traditions and influencing them to stick to traditional
ways. He does not feel that when the old ways of living are
forgotten, things go wrong.

Today, men have the means and power to control or master
the natural and supernatural forces that affect life.
He does not feel that men will be the masters of nature.

If a prOperty is inherited by his family (brothers, sis-
ters and himself) the best solution is for the oldest
brother to manage the prOperty, or for each family member
to take his own share and do what he wants with it.

It is obvious that Type I has a dominant value orientation

favorable to a progressive view of the world. He accepts more than do

Types I and II items considered typical of an orientation towards progress.

Type II - is characterized by his relatively very strong acceptance

of the following Opinions supporting specific value directions:

1.

2.

7.

The ways of the past are right and best. As changes come
things usually get worse.

In the solution of community problems, the best thing to
do is to call a meeting of the people affected, diScuss the
problem, and arrive at a unanimous decision on what to do.

It is desirable to work in groups in which a leader or boss
makes all the crucial decisions.

The past is gone, the future is too uncertain to count on,
and the present should get most of man's attention.

It's good to be left alone to think and act in ways best
suited to one's personality. It's not too important to
accomplish things if one can enjoy life doing what he
really wants.

It is the job of his children to work hard and find ways
to keep things going as they have been in the past.

All the activities in which human beings engage are sub-
jugated to the natural and supernatural fOrces that affect
life. Man is always subjugated to nature.

8.

-131-

If his family inherits a property, it is best for the
Oldest member to take charge.

Also he is distinguished from the other two types by his greater rejec-

tion of the fOllowing items:

1.

2.

9.

10.

11.

One should use leisure time reading about new things and
doing some kind of productive work.

One should use part of his leisure time learning and
trying new things, and part of it having fun.

The world goes along better when children are taught
things that will make them want to find out for them-
selves new and better ways of doing things to replace
the old. '

The best way to use leisure time is by doing extra things
in the house or business. Time is money and to waste
time is to waste money.

In bringing up children, the best way is to teach them
to work hard for what they want and at the same time
enjoy life. That is, one should maintain a balance
between hard work and achievement and play.

His children will be better if they work hard and plan
right, and there are always good chances fOr people who try.

Children should be taught some old traditions, but it is
wrong to insist that they stick to these old ways. It is
always necessary for children to learn about and take On
new ways that will help them get along in the world of
today.

Working a little more than the average person while occa-
sionally enjoying life is the best thing to do.

Although men were created by God, their own effOrt deter-
mines their destiny.

The best thing to do is to work on one's own, to be one's
own boss.

Human beings need to be subjected to natural and supernatural
fOrces that affect life. However, man should not ignore such
forces. It is better to live in harmony with nature than to
be subjugated to it.

From those items which the Type II farmer accepts or rejects much

-132-

more than the other two types, it is obvious that he is the most tradi-
tional of the three types studied. He does share some progressive values.
This analysis supports our previous classification of this type as the
most traditional of the three types.

Type III - This seems to be a typical case of a person in transi-
tion. He likes many of the changes that are occurring in the island. He
likes prOgress, but he is still rooted to many Of the traditional ways of
looking at the world. His ambivalence or confusion about living in two
different worlds becomes clear when we consider the value items he accepts
or rejects with greater strength than do Type I and II farmers.

His most distinguishing value patterns are indicated by the fol-

lowing value items about which he feels particularly certain:

1. He accepts more than the other two types the notion that
the best way to live is to maintain a balance between
learning and trying new things and having fun with friends
or enjoying life.

2. He places relatively great value on having children enjoy
life and play a lot while they are young because later life
will be hard.

3. He likes to use his leisure time talking with friends or
to have some kind of fun.

4. He values the idea of unanimity on decisions taken by the
family on many problems, i.e., voting in an election for
a given party or candidate.

5. He seems very unhappy because of the changes occurring in
the island and likes to see the maintenance of old ways
of living.

6. He likes to work a little harder than the average in doing
some extra kind of work at his home or farm, but to enjoy
life while visiting friends and going on trips occasionally.

7. He prefers to teach his children the ways of the past, and
he holds that things go wrong when children do not follow
the ways of the past.

-133-

8. He believes human beings have the means and power to
control the natural and supernatural forces that affect
life, that men will be the masters of their environment.
His ambivalence is indicated by strong rejection of items sup-
porting both the traditional and the modern ways of living. He rejects

more strongly than do Types I and II the view that:

1. Solution of community problems requires unanimous ap-
proval by all people that a decision affects.

2. The past is gone and the present is too uncertain to
count on. Hence it is best to give most attention to
what is happening at present.

3. The best way to decide what to do on some Specific pro-
blem affecting the community is to vote.

4. Through modern scientific discoveries the average life
span of human beings can be lengthened.

5. One might justifiably walk around just for fun without
doing anything.

In conclusion, Type III seems to be a man in a stage of transi-
tion, leaning toward the modern view on some issues and the traditional
view on others.

How do dominant value patterns relate to Observed behavior with
reSpect to communication patterns, adoption of farm innovations and
social relations?

The answer to this question will be discussed in the fOllowing

chapter.

CHAPTER VI I
RESULTS
VALUES, COMMUNICATION ORIENTATIONS AND THE DIFFUSION
AND ADOPTION PROCESSES

The previous chapter described the three types of dairy farmers
studied. Type I had dominant value patterns favoring a modern way
of looking at the world. The values of Type II tended to favor tra-
ditionalism. Type III appeared to be in a state of transition - moving
from a traditional to a modern orientation.

This chapter will deal with the relationships between dominant
value patterns and communication orientations; between values, communi-
cation orientations and the diffusion and adOption of dairy farm
practices; and between values, communication orientations and dairy
farmers' social behavior.

The last part of this report will include findings on the location
of infOrmation and opinion leaders and the apparent relationship between
value patterns and leadership. SociOgrams will indicate the location

of leaders for both geOgraphical areas.

Values and Communication Orientations
The predicted relationship between value system and communication
orientation was studied during two of the stages of the adoption process -
the awareness and the interest stages. Scores fOr correlational pur-
poses were derived with two indices - Deutschmann Channel Orientation
and Near-Far.
The Deutschmann Channel index classified a dairy farmer as

-134-

 

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-135-

egocentric if he reported a demonstration in his own barrio as a source
of first knowledge; as intra-community if the source of first knowledge
was in his own barrio but not through demonstrations; extra-community if
the first source was in a contiguous barrio without a demonstration or
was in another place whether a demonstration was seen or not; and as im-

personal if the first source was mass media.

 

In the Near-Far index, the egocentric classification was deleted.

A dairy farmer was classified as intra-community when his source of

 

first knowledge about dairy practices was from his own barrio; as extra-
community near when the source was from a contiguous barrio; as extra-

community far if the source was from another place; and as impersonal

 

when the source was one of the mass media.
Communication scores and value orientations scores were produced

for correlational purposes.

The Awareness Stage

 

The relationship between value orientations and communication
channel orientations was investigated under the fOllowing hypotheses:
1. During the awareness stage, there is a positive relationship

between being progressive oriented and being impersonal and
extra-community channel oriented. Not supported.

 

2. During the awareness stage there is a positive relationship
between being tradition-oriented and being egocentric and
intra-community channel oriented. Not supported.

 

3. During the awareness stage there is a negative relationship
between being progressive and being egocentric, intra-community
or extra-community near channel oriented. Partially supported.
A significant negative relationship was observed Between EEing
progressive and being extra-community near channel oriented.

 

4. During the awareness stage there is a negative relationship
between being traditional and being impersonal and extra-com-
munity channel oriented. Not supported.

 

-136-

One unexpected but interesting relationship was that between being
tradition-oriented and being extra-community near channel oriented.

This relationship was positive and significant. Apparently the tradi-
tional oriented dairy farmer passes across his community boundaries and
interacts with fellow dairy farmers in contiguous communities. This

can be explained by the fact that, although Type II was considered the
most traditional among the dairy farmers, he was by no means purely tra-
ditional. He shares some characteristics with the progressive-oriented
dairy farmer.

The apparent lack of relationship between value and channel orien-
tations during the awareness stage is not surprising when we consider
that becoming aware of an innovation isn't necessarily a purposive act.
Awareness can be accidental. In this writer's Opinion, the value-channel
relationship would be more likely to hold at a stage of the diffusion
process in which information seeking is mainly purposive. The interest

stage was selected.

The Interest Stage

 

Further testing of the predicted relationship between value and
communication channel orientations among Puerto Rican dairy farmers was
«conducted during the interest stage of the diffusion process. The same
lrypotheses were investigated during this stage of the diffusion process.

First, the Deutschmann channel and value orientation scores during
the interest stage were correlated. The results were as follows:

Hypothesis one was supported. A significant positive relation-

ship was Observed between being progressive oriented and being
impersonal-channel oriented.

~137-

Hypothesis two was not supported. The predicted relationship
between traditional and egocentric or intra-community channel
orientations was not significant.

Hypothesis three was not supported. The predicted negative

relationship between Being prOgressive and being egocentric or

intra-community near channel oriented was not significant.

Hypothesis four was not supported. A negative but not sig-

nificant relationship was observed between being traditional

and being impersonal or extra-community oriented.
Hypothesis five was not tested in this phase of our study because the
Deutschmann Channel Orientation index does not provide scores for the
extra-community-near category.

The results in both the awareness and interest stages of the dif-
fusion process were quite similar when the Deutschmann Channel Orienta-
tion scores were correlated with value orientation scores. In the
interest stage, the progressive-oriented dairy farmer appeared to be
impersonal oriented. In the awareness stage this relationship was not
observed.

When the same hypotheses were investigated by correlating Near-
Far channel orientation scores with value scores, the results were as
fellows:

Hypothesis one was supported. As was predicted, a positive sig-

nificant relationship was observed between being progressive

and being impersonal-channel oriented.

Hypothesis two was not supported. The observed positive rela-

tionship between being traditional and egocentric or intra-

community channel oriented was not significant.

Hypothesis three was supported.‘ A significant negative relation-

ship was observed between being progressive-oriented and being

intra-community or extra-community-near channel oriented.

Hypothesis fOur was supported. A significant negative relation-

ship was observed between being tradition-oriented and extra-
community far channel oriented.

-138-

Hypothesis five was not supported. No significant positive

relationship was observed between being transition-oriented

and being extra-community near channel oriented.

The findings are not conclusive. Different findings resulted when dif-
ferent measures of channel orientation were used. The Near-Far index
appeared to detect more of the predicted relationships than did the
Deutschmann Channel index. Apparently further research with more re-
fined indices to conclusively test the predicted relationships between
value and communication channel orientations is needed.

The data do suggest that progressiveness and impersonal-channel
orientations are positively related, especially during the interest
stage of the diffusion process. That is, progressive-oriented dairy
farmers tended to look to mass media for additional information about
dairy farm practices. The data also suggest that prOgressive farmers
tend to disregard fellow dairy farmers as sources of additional infOrma-
tion about dairy practices.

The Opposite occurred with the tradition-oriented dairy farmer.
He seemed to pay little attention to mass media channels during the in-
terest stage.

In conclusion, while the dairy farmers oriented toward a modern
view of the world rely on mass media and outside sources fOr informa-
tion about dairy practices, the tradition-oriented men seem to disregard
these channels.

This finding has practical significance. If change agents know
the dominant value orientations among their clients, they can use com-
munication channels more effectively. Thus further research with more

refined indices and varied populations seems justified.

-139-

value Orientations and Exposure to Mass Media

 

What are some relationships between value orientations and the
frequency of exposure to mass communication channels? This phase of our
study, was not restricted to any Specific phase of the diffusion and
adoption process. Our aim was to study the relationship between value
orientation and mass media use in a broader sense.

Hypothesis: a positive relationship between being progressive
oriented and having a high degree Of exposure to mass communication
channels. Further hypothesis: tradition-oriented dairy farmers would
have low exposure to mass communication channels. To test the predicted
relationships, the following research hypothesis was tested:

Progressive-oriented dairy farmers will be the highest con-

sumers of mass media, while the traditional oriented dairy

farmers will be lowest.
One expected the transitional man to be average in media consumption.
The data support only certain aspects of the hypothesis. The results
were as fOllows:

When over-all use of mass media was measured, a positive but

not significant relationship was found between being progressive

and high degree of exposure to mass media.

When over-all use of mass media was considered, a negative but

not significant relationship was observed between being tradi-

tional and frequency of exposure to mass media.
However, the situation changed when mass communication channels were

considered individually. The results were as follows:

A positive significant relationship between being progressive-
oriented and frequency of exposure to the press (newspapers).

A positive significant relationship between being progressive-
oriented and frequency of exposure to farm magazines.

A negative and significant relationship between being tradition-
oriented and the frequency of exposure to farm magazines.

-140-

Radio and television showed no significant relationship with

being raditional, while the progressive dairy farmer tended

to disregard, although not significantly, these channels as

sources of information.

The transitional dairy farmer, as expected, was less exposed

to mass communication channels than the progressive and more

exposed than the tradition-oriented dairy farmers.

Apparently the progressive-oriented dairy farmer is quite selec-
tive in media use. He does not have unusually high exposure to all the
channels lumped together. But he is a fairly avid reader of newspapers
and farm magazines. It would seem that change agents should make great
use of these two channels to reach progressive individuals.

The data imply that mass media do not reach tradition-oriented
dairy farmers effectively. However, further research is needed with
other kinds of farmers. The pOpulation studied had relatively high
standards of living and education. Also, scales of operations were
large, and opportunities fOr exposure to mass media were better than with
other pOpulations.‘

In conclusion, frequency of exposure to farm magazines and press
were positively related to being progressive oriented. Traditional
orientation was negatively related to the frequency of exposure to these

channels. Further research on other pOpulations could study general

use of mass media channels for both farm and non-farm information.

Channel Orientation and Frequency of Exposure to Mass Media

As postulated in Deutschmann theory of communication channel orien-
tations, egocentric-channel-Oriented dairy farmers should have the lowest
exposure to mass media. Impersonal-channel oriented dairy farmers should
be the heaviest media consumers. We also expected extra-community

oriented dairy farmers would have high frequency of media exposure, while

-l4l-
intra-community channel oriented would be low. The following hypotheses
were stated and investigated:
1. Impersonal-channel oriented dairy farmers will have high
frequency of exposure to mass media channels, followed by

the extra-community oriented dairy farmers and by the intra-
community oriented dairy farmers. Supported.

 

2. Egocentric-oriented dairy farmers will have the most in-
frequent exposure to mass media. Supported.

 

As predicted, the impersonal-channel oriented dairy farmers were
the highest in their degree of exposure to mass media followed by extra-
community oriented dairy farmers and intra-community oriented dairy
farmers.

Also as expected, the egocentric channel oriented dairy farmers
disregard mass media as sources of information about farm practices.

Stated more specifically, the results were as follows:

A highly significant relationship between being impersonal-

oriented and the overall use of mass media as sources of infor-

nation.

A significant relationship between being extra-community channel
oriented and the overall frequency of exposure to mass media.

No significant relationship between being intra-community
channel oriented and frequency of exposure to mass media.

A negative significant relationship between being egocentric
channel oriented and the use of mass media (frequency of ex-
posure).

Other interesting findings were the following:

Farm magazines and press were the mass communication channels
most frequently used by the impersonal channel oriented type
of dairy farmer.

Radio and technical bulletins appeared to be less frequently used
than farm magazines and press.

The impersonal channel oriented dairy farmer did not seem to use
television as a source for getting farm information.

-142-

The extra-community channel oriented dairy farmer seemed to

be highly exposed to farm magazines. But he seemed to prefer

television over the press as a source of information. He did

not appear to use radio, press and technical bulletins fOr

getting infOrmation about farm practices.

The intra-community oriented dairy farmer showed a marked

preference for radio and technical bulletins and a tendency

to disregard farm magazines, press and television as sources

of information.

The egocentric channel oriented dairy farmer disregarded all

media channels as sources of information, but the most rejected

media channels were farm magazines and press.

Channel orientation and progressiveness each correlated with media
exposure. Impersonal and extra-community channel orientations, along
with a progressive outlook, tended to characterize people who paid great
attention to the media. Those with egocentric or intra-community channel
orientations tended to pay little attention to the media. These observed
similarities provide additional support to our predicted relationships
between value and communication orientations.

When the two theories are fused, one can state that the tradition-
oriented man seems to share many characteristics of the egocentric and
intra-community channel oriented dairy farmers. The impersonal channel
oriented dairy farmer seems to share many of the characteristics of the
progressive oriented dairy farmer. The transitional oriented dairy

farmer seems to basically resemble the Deutschmann extra-community-near

oriented dairy farmer.

Value Orientations and the Diffusion and Adoption Processes

What is the relationship between value orientations and the dif-
fusion and adoption processes? We expected progressive-oriented farmers
would be the first to know about dairy practices, the first to adOpt,

and the leading adopters of dairy farming innovations. Also, we expected

-143-

the traditional type would be the latest to know, the latest to adOpt
and the lowest in degree of adOption. Stated more formally, the rela-
tionship between value orientation and adoption was tested under the
following hypotheses:

1. Dairy farmers with an orientation towards a progressive
way of looking at the world will be the first to know
about dairy innovations.

2. Dairy farmers with a progressive orientation will be the
earliest adopters of dairy farm practices.

3. Dairy farmers with an orientation towards being prOgressive
will be the highest in degree of adoption of dairy farm
innovations.

4. Traditional oriented dairy farmers will be the latest to
know about dairy practices.

5. Traditional oriented dairy practices will be the latest to
adOpt dairy farm practices.

6. Traditional oriented dairy farmers will be the lowest in
degree of adoption of dairy farm practices.

We expected the transitional oriented man to be average with respect to
time of awareness, time of adoption and degree of adoption.

Hypothesis one was not supported by the data. There was no
significant relationship between time of awareness and being
progressive-oriented.

Hypothesis two was supported by the data. As predicted, there
was a positive significant relationship between being prOgressive
and time of adoption of dairy farm practices.

Hypothesis three was supported by the data. We fOund significant
positive relationship between being progressive and degree of
adoption of dairy farm practices.

Hypothesis fOur was not supported by the data. There was no
significant relationship between being tradition-oriented and
time of awareness about dairy innovations.

Hypothesis five was not supported by the data. A negative but
non-significant relationship was observed between being tradition-
oriented and time of adaption of dairy farm practices.

-144-

Hypothesis six was supported by the data. A significant nega-
tive relationship was observed between being tradition-oriented
and degree of adOption of dairy farm innovations.

The data suggest the important role played by value orientations
in the diffusion and adaption of dairy farm innovations. However, more
research is needed on different populations and under different kinds of
situations. From the results obtained in this study one can conclude
that under the Puerto Rican situation and among dairy farmers with high

standards of living, value orientations have a demonstrated relationship

to the diffusion and adOption process.

Communication Orientations and Diffusion Process

Deutschmann, in his Latin American studies, found a close relation-
ship between time of awareness, time of adoption, degree of adoption, and
communication channel orientation. The findings supported his predictions
that egocentric-channel oriented individuals were the latest to know, the
latest to adopt, and the lower in degree of adOption. He also found evi-
dence that impersonal-channel oriented were the first to know, the first
to adapt and the highest in degree Of adoption.

Here we attempted to test further Deutschmann's hypotheses:

l. Egocentric-channel oriented dairy farmers and intra-community
dairy farmers will be the latest to know about dairy practices.

2. Egocentric channel and intra-community channel oriented dairy
farmers will be the latest to adopt dairy practices.

3. Egocentric and intra-community channel oriented dairy farmers
will be the lowest in degree of adOption of dairy farm
practices.

4. Impersonal and extra-community channel oriented dairy farmers
will be the first to know about dairy practices.

5. Impersonal and extra-community channel oriented dairy farmers
will be the first to adopt dairy practices.

-145-

6. Impersonal and extra-community dairy farmers will be the
highest in degree of adOption of dairy practices.

Hypothesis one was not supported. We found no significant rela-
tionship between being egocentric or intra-community channel
oriented and time of awareness about dairy innovations.
This finding seems to be contrary to Deutschmann's findings in Latin
America (6) (ll).
Hypothesis two was supported. The data showed a significant
negative relationship between being egocentric or intra-commu-
nity channel oriented and time of adoption.
This finding supported Deutschmann's findings in Latin America where
time of adoption was found to be negatively related to being egocentric-

channel oriented.

Hypothesis three was supported. As predicted, a significant
negative relationship was fOund between being egocentric-channel
oriented and degree of adoption of dairy farm innovations.

This finding supported once again Deutschmann's theory of communication

channel orientations.

Hypothesis four was not supported. No significant relationship
was found between being impersonal or extra-community channel
oriented and the time of awareness.

This finding does not reinforce Deutschmann's findings in Latin America.
Hypothesis five was supported by the data. A positive significant

relationship was observed between being impersonal or extra-
community channel oriented and time of adoption of dairy innova-

tions.
Hypothesis six was again supported by the data. A positive sig-
nificant relationship was observed between being impersonal or
extra-community channel oriented and degree of adOption of dairy
farm innovations.
111856 two hypotheses supported the theory of communication channels
orientations outlined by Deutschmann, except in the time of awareness
about innovations. Apparently dairy farmers in the context studied don't
differ in time of awareness. This situation can be explained as follows:

111 Puerto Rico there are many sources of dairy-farming information. Also,

the good economic condition insured that the people studied had the time

-146-

and resources to buy and attend to radios, magazines, etc. Because farm
information is diffused through all channels - mass media and personal
change agents - time of awareness does not seem to be a relevant factor
in the adoption of dairy innovations. .Apparently the infOrmation reaches
the population at the same time but people with some channel orientations
seem to be more ready to adopt them early than others.

There are noticeable similarities between our findings under the
Deutschmann communication-channel orientation theory and the results
under the value orientations theory with respect to diffusion and adOp-
tion. Under both theories the time of awareness hypothesis was not
supported. In the time of adoption and degree of adOption hypotheses,
the data supported the predictions. Once more, Deutschmann's impersonal
and extra-community channel oriented dairy farmers seem to show many
characteristics with the prOgressive oriented dairy farmer under the
value orientations theory. Agents of technolOgical change should be able
to predict communication channel orientations from a knowledge of value
patterns. This, in turn, should allow more effective communication. It
should also aid prediction of how new technOIOgy will "go over" in an

area 0

Values and Dairy Farmers Social Behavior

 

In this phase, we investigated three aspects of the dairy farmers'
social behavior - advice seeking, advice giving and belonging to orga-
nizations. The fOllowing hypotheses were tested:

1. Being progressive-oriented is positively related to advice
giving with respect to farm matters.

2. Being traditional-oriented is negatively related to advice
giving with respect to farm matters.

~147-
3. Being transitional oriented is positively related to advice
seeking with respect to farm matters.

4. Being traditional oriented is negatively related to advice
seeking with respect to farm matters.

None of these hypotheses was supported. Apparently value orientations
do not relate to advice seeking and advice giving in the population
studied. Two kinds of interpretations can be made from these findings -
(a) There is no relationship between value orientation and the dairy
farmers' perception of themselves as advice givers or advice seekers;
and (b) That the instrument used did not measure what we were attempting

to measure.

Belonging to Organizations

The hypotheses tested here were the following:

1. Progressive dairy farmers will be the highest in participation
in formal organizations.

2. Tradition-oriented dairy farmers will be the lowest in partici-
pation in fOrmal organizations.

3. Transitional oriented dairy farmers will be higher participants
in formal organizations than the tradition-oriented dairy
farmers, but lower than the progressive-oriented dairy farmer.

The results were as follows:

Hypothesis one was supported. A positive significant relationship

was observed between being progressive-oriented and belonging to

formal organizations.

Hypothesis two was supported. A negative significant relationship

was observed between being tradition-oriented and belonging to

formal organizations.

As expected, the transitional-oriented man was intermediate in
participation in fOrmal organizations.

The data suggest a close relationship between value orientations and be-
longing to formal organizations. This indicates the prOgressive-oriented

dairy farmer is prone to be in contact with many sources of information

-l48-

which in turn may explain his proneness to adopt innovations early.

Channel Orientations and Dairy Farmers' Social Behavior

 

In this phase of the study, we attempted to investigate the rela-
tionship between dairy farmers' communication channel orientations and
dairy farmers' social behavior. First we investigated the relationships
between channel orientations, advice giving and advice seeking. Then
we investigated the relationship between channel orientations and parti-
cipation in fOrmal organizations.

To test the relationship between dairy farmers' own perception as
advice givers and advice seekers with dairy farmers communication chan-
nel orientations the following hypotheses were set up:

1. Being impersonal-channel oriented is positively related
to dairy farmers' own perceptions as advice givers.

2. Being impersonal-channel oriented is negatively related
to dairy farmers' perception as advice seekers.

3. Being extra-community channel oriented is positively related
to dairy farmers' self perception as advice givers and nega-
tively related to self perceptions as advice seekers.

4. Being intra-community channel oriented is positively related
to dairy farmers' self perception as advice seekers and nega-
tively related to their self perception as advice givers.

5. Being egocentric-channel oriented is negatively related to
dairy farmers' self perception as advice seekers and advice
givers.

The results were as follows:

Hypothesis one was not supported. Contrary to our predictiOns no
significant relationship was observed between being impersonal-
channel oriented and dairy farmers' self perception as advice
givers.

Hypothesis two was not supported. A negative but not significant
relationship was observed between being impersonal-channel orien-
ted and dairy farmers' self perceptions as advice seekers.

-149-

Hypothesis three was partially supported and partially rejected.

Supported was the predicted negative relationship between being
extra-community channel oriented and self perceptions as advice seekers.
Not supported was the predicted positive relationship between being
extra-community channel oriented and self perception as advice givers.

Contrary to expectation, a significant negative relationship

was observed between being extra-community channel oriented

and dairy farmers' self perceptions as advice givers.

Hypothesis four was partially supported by the data and par-
tially rejected.

Supported was the Observed predicted relationship between being in-
tra-community channel oriented and dairy farmers' self perceptions as
advice seekers. Not supported was the predicted negative relationship
between being intra-community channel oriented and dairy farmers' self
perceptions as advice givers.

Contrary to expectation, a significant positive relationship

was observed between being intra-community channel oriented and

dairy farmers' self perceptions as advice givers.

Hypothesis five was not supported by the data. The findings were in
the Opposite direction as expected.

Contrary to our expectations, a significant positive relation-

ship was observed between being egocentric channel oriented and

dairy farmers' own perceptions as advice seekers and advice

givers.

The findings suggest that impersonal and extra-community channel orien-
ted dairy farmers, because their major sources of information are out
of their community boundaries, do not seem to perceive themselves either
as advice givers or advice seekers. On the contrary the egocentric and
the intra—community oriented dairy farmers, whose major interaction is

within the community boundaries, seemed to perceive themselves as both

advice seekers and advice givers.

-150-

In addition to advice seeking and advice giving the dairy farmers'
social behavior was investigated by testing the relationship between
communication channel orientations and belonging to formal organizations.
Two hypotheses were investigated:

1. Impersonal and extra-community channel oriented dairy

farmers will be the most active participants in formal

organizations.

2. Egocentric and intra-community channel oriented dairy far-
mers will be lowest on participation in formal organizations.

The results were as follows:

Hypothesis one was supported by the data. As predicted, a

significant positive relationship was observed between being

impersonal and extra-community channel oriented and belonging

to organizations.

Hypothesis two was also supported. As predicted, a significant

negative relationship was observed between being egocentric-

channel oriented and belonging to organizations. No relation-

ship was observed between being intra-community channel oriented

and belonging to formal organizations.
The findings were once again very similar to the ones obtained with
value theory. For example, being progressively oriented was positively
related to organization belonging. In the communication channel orien-
tations approach, the impersonal and extra-community channel oriented
dairy farmers seemed to be the most active in formal organizations.
This points out onceagain the similarities between the progressive-
oriented dairy farmers and the impersonal and extra-community channel
oriented dairy farmers.

The tradition-oriented dairy farmer also showed strong similarities
with the egocentric-channel oriented dairy farmers and with the intra-
community channel oriented dairy farmers. Under both theories, these

types of dairy farmer seemed to be very low on formal organizations

participation.

-151-

The tradition-oriented dairy farmer also showed strong similari-
ties with the egocentric-channel oriented dairy farmers and with the
intra-community channel oriented dairy farmers. Under both theories,
these types of dairy farmer seemed to be very low on formal organiza-

tions participation.

Participation in Diffusion and AdOption Stages

 

Here we attempted to investigate the relationship between value
orientations and the predispositions to participate in the stages of
the adoption process. We expected to find a positive relationship
between being progressive-oriented and a more active participation in
the stages of the adoption process. We also anticipated a negative re-
lationship between being tradition-oriented and participation in the
stages of the adOption process.

The hypothesis tested was the following:

Dairy farmers with an orientation towards being progressive

will pass through more stages of the adOption process than

the tradition-oriented dairy farmer.

The hypothesis was supported by the data. As predicted, the results
were as follows:

Awareness Stage_- A significant positive relationship was observed

between progressive-oriented and the number of
dairy practices heard about.

 

A significant negative relationship was observed
between being tradition-oriented and the number
of practices heard about.

Interest Stage - A significant positive relationship was observed
between being progressive and seeking additional
infOrmation about dairy practices.

 

A significant negative relationship was observed
between being tradition-oriented and seeking addi-
tional information about dairy practices.

-152-

Trial Stage - A significant positive relationship was observed
between being progressive-oriented and passing
through the trial stage.

 

A significant negative relationship was observed
between being tradition-oriented and passing
through the trial stage.

Adoption Stage - A significant positive relationship was observed
between being progressive and passing through the
adoption stage.

 

The data suggest that those dairy farmers with dominant value patterns
toward a prOgressive way of looking at the world tend to pass through all
the stages of the adOption process, while the tradition-oriented dairy
farmer tends to skip most of them. The data suggest that the progressive-
oriented dairy farmer is predisposed to accept new technology, while

the tradition-oriented dairy farmer seems to reject it or just adopt

without question.

Channel Orientations and Participation in Adoption Stages
Here we attempted to test the relationship between channel orien-
tation and dairy-farmer prediSpositions toward passing through the
adOption-process stages. We predicted impersonal or extra-community
channel oriented persons would pass through‘more stages of the adOption
process. Egocentric or intra-community channel oriented persons, on
the other hand, should go through fewer stages.
The hypothesis stated was the following:
Being impersonal and extra-community channel oriented is posi-
tively related to one's tendency to pass through more stages
in the adoption process, while being egocentric and intra-com—
munity channel oriented is negatively related to dairy farmers'

proneness to pass through the adoption stages.

The data supported the hypothesis. The results were as follows:

-153—

Awareness Stage - A positive significant relationship was
observed between being impersonal or extra-
community channel oriented and passing
through the awareness stage.

 

A positive and significant relationship was
observed between being egocentric channel
oriented and passing through the awareness
stage. No significant relationship was ob-
served between being intra-community channel
oriented and passing through the awareness
Stage.

In the rest of the stages of the adoption process, the impersonal
and extra-community channel oriented dairy farmers showed a positive
significant predisposition towards passing through the interest, trial
and adoption stages. On the other hand, being egocentric and intra-
community channel oriented dairy farmers did not relate to passing
through the stages of adoption.

Again, notice the similarities of the findings when this concept

was investigated under both the value orientations and communication

channel orientations theory.

Other Findings

 

The relation between value orientations and demographic data was
investigated by correlating value scores of the re5pondents with age,
education and scale of Operations.

Contrary to our expectations, older farmers were more progres-
sive.

Education did not show any positive or negative relationship with
value orientation. Contrary to our expectations, being better educated
did not relate significantly to being progressive. The same situation
was observed with being tradition-oriented. Contrary to our expecta-

tions, no negative relationship was found between being traditional

-154-

oriented and being better educated.

Supporting our expectations was a positive relationship between
being progressive-oriented and size of Operations. A negative sig-
nificant relationship was observed between being tradition-oriented
and size of Operations.

The data suggest that scale of Operations is an important vari-
able influencing value orientations of the pOpulations studied. The
data also suggest that the relationship between value orientations and
scale of Operations is a two—way relationship. ,
The finding that older people are progressive-oriented can be

explained if we consider that older people have larger scales of opera-

tions.

Channel Orientations and Demographic Data

 

As expected, a significant positive relationship was observed
between being impersonal-channel oriented on the one hand and educa-
tion as well as scale of Operations on the other. Being egocentric
channel oriented was negatively related to education and scale of

Operations.

Interaction Patterns in the Regions

 

This was the last area covered in this study. Here we attempted
to investigate the interaction patterns in both geographical areas and
through the location of information and Opinion leaders. Sociograms
were constructed and the general characteristics were described. First,
we investigated the characteristics and location of information leaders.

The findings will be reported in the following section.

-155-

The Information Leaders

 

The key information leaders in each municipality included in the
study were located by asking each respondent to name the dairy farmer
who provided him (the respondent) first knowledge on each of 10 dairy
practices. The infOrmation had to be actually transmitted in the re-
spondent's barrio. However, the person serving as source of first
knowledge about a practice could be either (a) a resident of the re-
spondent's barrio or (b) an outsider who told the respondent about the
practice while visiting the respondent's barrio.

TABLE 9*--Dairy farmers distribution by municipalities and

percentage of dairy farmers using person-channels
as sources of first knowledge about practices

 

Municipality Dairy farmers No. of dairy far- % Dairy farmers
population mers using person- using person-chan-
channels nels as source of

first knowledge

 

 

Region I

Hatillo 93 65 70%
Arecibo 37 20 54%
Manati 21 6 28%
Camuy 14 l 7%
Region II

Toa Baja l4 5 35%
Bayamon 8 2 25%

 

*The data includes only those municipalities in which personal-channels
were mentioned as sources of first knowledge about dairy practices. In
10 out of 12 municipalities in Region II no information leaders were men-
tioned. In Region I infOrmation leaders were named in all municipalities
comprising the region.

-156-

Our first step was to determine the distribution of dairy farmers
among municipalities and the extent to which farmers were using infor-
mation leaders as a source of first knowledge.

Table 9 shows the largest distribution of dairy farmers using
person-channels as sources of first knowledge in the municipalities of
Hatillo and Arecibo. In these municipalities, dairy farmer populations
are relatively large, dairy farms are close to each other, and where
there is a large concentration Of dairy farmers in each barrio. The
municipalities in Region I with the lowest number of persons named as
sources of first knowledge were Manati and Camuy. In both municipali-
ties, the dairy farmer populations are small, the concentration of
dairy farmers per barrio is low, and the dairy farms are located some
distance from each other. In Region II where the distances between
farms are greater, with bigger farms and with a small dairy farmer pOpu-
lation per municipality, the use of persons as sources of first knowledge
is very low. From the data one can infer that distance is related to
the Opportunities for interpersonal relations, and that interpersonal
relations are closely related to the importance of person-channels as
sources of first knowledge about farm innovations.

This finding provides support for previous research findings on
diffusion in which distance has been fOund to determine the degree of
interaction among individuals in a given social system. That is to
say, the closer peOple are physically the greater the Opportunity for
interaction. The greater the opportunity for interaction, the greater
the role of interpersonal channels for the spread of farm information,

e.g., Deutschmann and Fals Borda (1962) (6), Deutschmann and Mendez

-157-

(1962) (ll), Emery, et. al. (1958) (4), Lionberger (1960) (10).

Hatillo ranked first, Arecibo second, in total number Of informa-
tion leaders. This seems related to the two variables mentioned above -
distance between farms and concentration of dairy farmers in the barrios.
Hatillo's 93 dairy farmers named 19 persons as sources of first knowl-
edge, with an average of six dairy farmers naming each of the 19 in-
formation leaders. In Arecibo, with similar conditions, five persons
were mentioned as sources of first knowledge by an average of five per-
sons per infOrmation leader. However, in Manati, only two persons were
named as information leaders, and the average number of dairy farmers
per leader was three. In Camuy, only one dairy farmer was mentioned as
a source of first knowledge.

In Region II - Toa Baja with two dairy farmers mentioned and Bayamon
with one were the only two municipalities where person-channels were
named as sources of first knowledge. In the other ten municipalities of

Region II no dairy farmers were named as first sources.

 

Mobility

This seems to be an important characteristic of information leaders.
A total of 44% of the dairy farmers received first information about a
practice from persons residing in other barrios. Fifty-six per cent
mentioned information leaders from their own barrio. The data show (see
Sociograms I, II, III) that information leaders' mobility is mainly
within their municipalities. Leaders seldom cross municipality boundaries
to spread infOrmation about a dairy practice. Distance between munici-

palities apparently explains this in large part.

-158-

Kinship Channel

 

As in Deutschmann's Latin American studies (see references six
and eleven), the kinship channel, where present, plays a very impor-
tant role in the diffusion of dairy farm information. In Hatillo,
where kinship relations among dairy farmers is very common, 41% of the
dairy farmers named a kin as a source of first knowledge about dairy

practices. The remaining 59% named non-relatives.

General Characteristics of the InfOrmation Leaders

 

Information leaders are, on the average, slightly younger than the
rest of the dairy farmer population. They are also somewhat better edu-
cated and of higher socio-economic status.

TABLE lO--Comparison between general characteristics of

the dairy farmers population from Region I and
infOrmation leaders from the area

 

 

Mean for infOr- Mean fOr the Difference
mation leaders dairy farmers
population
Age (in years) 44.25 46.07 1.75
Schooling (in years) 8.81 7.81 1.00
Acres 86.69 61.10 25.59

Quarts of milk
produced weekly 6.87 4.13 2.74
(in thousands)

 

Table 10 suggests that scale of Operations is the most important
characteristic of information leaders. They are well above the average

in their scale of operation.

-159-

In Region II, the only two persons named as information leaders
are well above the two-region dairy-farmer average on education, and
scale of operations, and substantially below average with respect to
age. Leader No. 244 has three years of college education, is 38 years
old, possesses 550 acres and produces 12,600 quarts of milk (weekly).
The other infOrmation leader is 28 years old, with a Bachelor of Science
degree in Agriculture, a 400 acre farm and a 10,500 quart (weekly) milk
output. Apparently these two persons are seen as technicians whose

advice is highly respected.

 

Sources of First Knowledge fOr InfOrmation Leaders

The sociOgrams show information leaders tend to share information
with each other. It is evident that they tend to look to each other
rather than to dairy farmers. Leaders also tend to be more exposed to
mass media as well as to agents of technological change. Further,
leaders participate more actively in government-sponsored agricultural

activities.

Summary

Distance between farms and Opportunity for interaction appear to
play an important role in the use of person-channels for the spread Of
dairy farm information. The greater the distance among farms, the less
frequently persons are cited as sources of first knowledge.

Leaders also tend to be more mobile than the rest of the dairy
farmers. However, their mobility seems to be limited mainly within
municipality boundaries.

Kinship seems to be important in the spread of dairy farm

~160-

‘ $CIOGRAM - 1

INFORMATION LEADERS AMONG HATILLO DAr‘Y FARMERS
REGION I

 

ATLANTIC OCEAN

' ' f; ..- 7‘5”. "r 31": .. V, ’ \ V . _
%'f.‘_‘n£'" _\ L - WWW ..- 12 \‘x w ‘3

 

    

Receivers of
information

Givers of
Information

Flow of information i \
In one direction _ / \

“Two way flow

 

 

 

' The locaflon of information leaders was determined by the dairy farmers answer to the
following question - From whom did you hear first about—(practice)? Ten dairy
practices were used a name of reference.

~161-

, ; socrooRAM - 2
INFORMATION LEADERS AMONG ARECIBO. CAMUY AND MANATI DAIRY FARMERS

 

   

 

k REGION I
3Receivers of information
Givers of information ,
_—-)F‘low of information CAMUY

in one direction

“Two way flow

    

NV 300 OLLNV'ILV

 

 

 

 

 

:‘The locatlon of informaflonleaders was determined by the dairy farmers answers to the question-
F10!“ whom did you hear first about the practice? Ten dairy practices were used as frame of
re erenoe. -

-162-

‘ SOCIOGRAM - 3

INFORMATION LEADERS .AMCI‘? G DAIRY FARMERS 01" REGION II

 

 

S

 

VI‘VH
VOSA

‘1

uopeuquur jo smug
uopauuqur jo Siaaraoeu

SIAO‘H’O‘lW/
(‘83
V
I
) /’

uouoaup auo u; uonsuuowr ro mom

’
-..-.. ’fi \

K 'TVZO’HOO

\

    

 
    

  

 

\-

 

OLII'NV‘HVN
. "\

  
    

-7
- VI'VH VOL

II!
a: .
ED, 0
a is
5' z a
E l 0 ‘1.
5 Q.
m n
a <9
g 8

 

 

" The location of leaders (information leaders) was determined by the dairy farmers’
answer to the question - From whom did you hear first abouL—_(practice)?
Ten dairy practices were used as frame of reference.

 

 

-163-

information.

Information leaders appear younger, better educated, and larger
scale operators than the rest of the pOpulation.

InfOrmation leaders tend to use as first sources other informa-
tion leaders.

InfOrmation leaders also appear to be the ones who get their in-
formation from channels such as mass media, agents of change or other

leaders.

Opinion Leaders

 

Who are the opinion leaders and where are they located? To 10-
cate them in each municipality of the two regions, respondents were
asked to name farmers who most influenced their decision to adapt a
given dairy practice of the 10 used as frame of reference in this in-
vestigation. Our first step was to observe the distribution of Opinion
leaders in both regions and the extent of their influence.

Distribution of Opinion Leaders - The largest concentration of

 

opinion leaders was found in Hatillo municipality--27 leaders being
named as most influential by three or more dairy farmers each. The
Hatillo opinion leaders served as a source of influence fOr 91% of the
dairy farmers from Hatillo, 32% of those in Arecibo municipality, 42%
of Camuy dairy farmers, and five per cent of Manati dairy farmers.

The two top opinion leaders in Hatillo were leaders No. 94 and No. 80.
Leader NO. 94 is a very wealthy dairy farmer and a dairy cattle trader.
His range of influence is not limited to the community boundaries or

even to the municipality boundaries, but is observable in three out of

-164-

the four municipalities comprising Region I. He served as a source

of influence for 37 dairy farmers - 13 from Hatillo, six from Camuy
and fOur from Arecibo. Leader NO. 80, with 24 dairy farmers under his
range of influence, ranked second. He is the son Of Leader No. 94,

a very wealthy farmer and a graduate of Sam Houston University as an
agronomist. However, his range of influence is more in his munici-
pality--22 out of 24 dairy farmers whose decisions he influenced were
from Hatillo and only two were from Arecibo. Other outstanding opinion
leaders in Hatillo were NO. 78 with 15 peOple who named him as the most
influential person, No. 74 with 13, No. 65 with 10 and No. 93 with 12
(see Sociogram No. 4).

0n the average the number of farmers influenced by each Opinion
leader in Hatillo municipality was 13. Also, Hatillo opinion leaders
served as source of influence to 63% of the dairy farmer population
from Region I.

Arecibo ranked second in the number of dairy farmers named as
opinion leaders. Fifteen out of 37 dairy farmers in the municipality
were mentioned at least once as sources of influence. The Opinion
leaders in this municipality served as major source of influence fOr
75% of the Arecibo dairy farmers, 3% of those in Hatillo, 5% of those
in Manati, and 7% of the Camuy respondents. These opinion leaders
served 20% of all dairy farmers pOpulation from the region. The most
outstanding Opinion leaders in Arecibo were Nos. 166 and 157. Leader
No. 166 is a graduate from a college of agriculture and a fOrmer county
agent. He is a part-time farmer whose major business is the sale of

farm implements. He is a person of high socio-economic status, and is

-165-

seen by fellow farmers as an authority in dairying matters. Leader

No. 157 is also a part-time farmer whose major business is the sale

of farm implements. His sociO-economic status is high and his schooling
(high school graduate) is substantially above average. The influence

Of both leaders goes beyond the community and municipality boundaries.

The average Arecibo opinion leader served six people, the average
Hatillo leader l3.

Manati ranks third behind Hatillo and Arecibo in number of opinion
leaders named. Six were mentioned by an average of six persons per
leader. Manati opinion leaders served all Manati dairy farmers and
8% of those from Arecibo. The Manati leaders do not seem to interact
with dairy farmers from Hatillo and Camuy. However, they served as
major sources of influence for 50% of the Vega Baja dairymen inter-
viewed and for 8% of those from Toa Baja. Both of these municipalities
are in Region II, but they adjoin Manati. In general, the Manati
opinion leaders served as sources of influence for 15% of all Region I
dairy farmers and 9% of those from Region II.

The tOp leaders in Manati municipality were Leaders 205, 211 and
196. All three are very wealthy, large-scale operators. Their farms
average 391 acres, their milk production per week is 9,000 quarts. For
example, Leader No. 211 has 519 acres, a large farm by Puerto Rican
standards; Leader No. 196 had 444 acres, and Leader No. 205, 224 acres.
These leaders averaged 8.3 years of schooling, slightly above the region-
wide average of seven years. The three men are slightly below the
average in age of 45 years.

In Camuy municipality, only one dairy farmer was named as an

-l66-

opinion leader by six dairy farmers - Leader No. 124. His scale of
Operations is above average fOr the region. He Operates a dairy farm
of 160 acres as compared with the average for the region that is 61.
In education he is quite above average, a high school graduate, as
compared with seventh grade average for the region. His weekly pro-
duction of milk is 7,000 quarts, compared with 4,000 quarts for the
region. He is older than the average-~60 years as compared with 47
for the region.

In Region II, opinion leaders were fOund only in three of the
eight municipalities comprising the area - vega Baja with three, Toa
Baja two, and Guaynabo one (see Sociogram 8). The average number of
persons influenced by each Opinion leader was three.

The most outstanding leaders in this region were No. 255 and NO.
257, both from Toa Baja municipality (see SociOgram 8). Leader No.
255 is a graduate from college in Agriculture, his age is 24 years,
and he Operates a dairy farm of 400 acres. His range of influence is
not limited to his community boundaries or even to his municipality
boundaries. He goes beyond this geographical area to influence people
from other municipalities. Leader No. 257 is also a college graduate
Operating a dairy farm of 400 acres, quite above the average fOr both
regions. His weekly milk production is 20,000 quarts. At 63, he is
above average for the region. His range of influence goes beyond his
municipality boundaries and extends to other municipalities in the
region. Leaders No. 223, No. 333 and NO. 221 also Operate bigger

farms and are above average in milk production and schooling.

-167-

The preceding description of the leaders found in both regions
suggests that there are many characteristics which the opinion leaders

share in common.

Mobility

As in the case of information leaders, the opinion leaders seem
more mobile than the rest of the population. In total, 48.6% of the
peOple influenced were from other barrios, 13.9 from other municipali-

ties, and 37.5 from their same barrio. (see Sociograms 4 - 8)

Other Characteristics

 

Region I Opinion leaders are somewhat better educated, and their
scale of operations is larger than average. Leaders and followers don't
differ as to age. Region II leaders are below average in age and well
above average in scale of operations and education.

Kinship relations seem related to the use of sources of influence.
Fifty-three dairy farmers from Region I named relatives as the persons
who most influenced his decision to adOpt a given dairy practice. Twelve

opinion leaders served as sources of influence for these 53 dairy farmers.

Information and Opinion Leaders

 

Most of the dairy farmers named as sources of information were also
named as influentials. In Hatillo municipality, for example, 19 of the
27 opinion leaders were named as information leaders; in Arecibo, the

two information leaders were also named as Opinion leaders. The same

 

situation appeared in the ten other municipalities comprising both re-

gions o

-168-

Summary

The data show there is a close relationship between distance
and incidence of opinion leadership in both regions. The less the
distance between farms and the larger the concentration of dairy far-
mers in barrios and municipalities, the greater the number of dairy
farmers named as opinion leaders and the larger their range of in-
fluence. Results suggest the tendency of opinion leaders to be more
mobile than the rest of the dairy-farmer population. Opinion leaders
seem to carry out their influence within municipality boundaries, but
their role as influentials often extends further.

Puerto Rican dairy farmers often seem to look to relatives for
farm information and advice.

Opinion leaders tended to have more education and larger farm
businesses than average. Region II leaders tended to be quite young,

but Region I leaders didn't differ from followers with respect to age.

-169-

‘ SOCIOGRAM - 4

EDURCES 0F INFLUENCE IN I-IATILLO MUNICIPALITY
REGION I

 

 

 

 

O Receivers of influence
... Direction of influence
.Influentiale

.Moet Influential

 

 

 

‘ The location ofinfiuentials was determined by th I
e dairy farmers answer to the
question - Who was the permn or persons who most influenced your decision mwfl"
Ten dairy practices wee used as frame of reference. 1) .

-170-

‘ SOCIOGRAM - 5

SOURCES OF INFLUENCE .AMONG ARECIE) DAIRY FARMERS
REGION I

 

 

 

 

OGV [11.11
NV 300 OILNV'ILV

 

 

      
 

 

 

. ssnvro-
..
O

     

 

       

i - .
1 an 'II
iiéiléia
‘33 3: gal:
E'Jzi igi
=33: 5:3
E: E: 35 “camera
iris is
:‘g': S! MANATI
: 8
I 3
I O

 

 

 

‘ The location ofinnuentials was determined in the dairy fanners answer to the question -
Who was the person or persons who most influenced your decision In adoptfi
(practice)?

-I71-

. socrooR-AM - 6

SDURCES 0F INFLUENCE AMONG MAN ATI DAIRY FARMERS

 

      
    

 

 

 

 

 

  

REGION 1
g ARECIBO
O
r. J“ ..
/d .
BARCELON ETA
S
93 d
0
tr 8
E“
P Most influential REGION 11
Influential ’3
O VEGA BAJ A "
.F'ollower
x;
V
DORADO g

8
s:

 

l

 

 

‘ The location of influentials was determined by the dairy farmers answer to the following
question - Who was the person or persons who most influenced your decision to adopt___
(practice)?

-172-
' SOCIOGRAM- 7

SOURCES OF INFLUENCE AMONG CAMUY DAIRY FARMERS

 

 

m-—N-_Q‘-c

 

 

 

REGION 1
QUEBRADILLAB
.Mostinfluential
.lnfiuential ’
OFollower '
-—-r0ne way flow
CAMU Y

i Q\ _

0(1an

6

 

HATILLO

ARECIBO fl

 

   

MOO DLLNV'ILV‘

 

The location ofinfluentlals was determined by the dairy farmers answer to the question -

Who was the person or persons who most influenced your decision to adopt

(practice)?

 

 

-173-

‘ SOCIOGRAM - 8

SOURCES OF INFLUENCE ON RECION II

 

 

  
  
  
 

 

MANATI
a Most influential
. Influential
o 5
Follow r .
e . VEGA BAJA

-—-)- One way flow

VEGA ALTA

 

W300 OIL NV’IJN

 

   
 

GUAYN ABO

SVNSIIH SVIIDV

 

' The location ofinnuentials was determined by the dairy farmers answer to the question -
Who was the person or persons who most influenced your decision to arbpt
(practise)?

 

 

-I74-

TABLE llo-Comparison between general characteristics of the
dairy farmers pOpulation and opinion leaders from
the areas

 

Mean for opinion Mean for the Difference

 

 

leaders dairy farmers
population

Region I
Age (in years) 46.80 46.07 .73
Schooling (in years) 8.70 7.81 .99
Acres 109.00 61.10 48.90
Weekly milk produc- 6.66 4.13 2.53
tion (in thousand
quarts)
Region 11
Age (in years) 38.33 47.75 9.42
Schooling (in years) 14.10 10.44 3.66
Acres 302.10 253.19 48.91
Weekly milk produc- 9.61 8.79 .92
tion (in thousand
quarts)

 

Table 11 suggests that Region I opinion leaders are distinguished
primarily by their large scale of Operation. In Region II, age, schooling

and scale of Operations are all important.

Interaction

 

Region I had 49 leaders, Region II six. The first region's greater
opportunities fOr interaction, small distances between farms, and larger
concentration of dairy farmers appear to explain this difference in large

0

part e

-17S—

Opinion leaders from Region I depended heavily on agricultural
officers. Opinion leaders from Region II appeared to get much of their
information directly from research centers, from farm magazines, and

technical bulletins.

Value Orientations and Leadership

 

The sociometric data showed the location of information and Opin-
ion leaders among the dairy farmers studied. To determine the rela-
tionship between value orientations and ability to lead other peOple,
each farmer's correlation with each factor obtained in the two-factor
solution was calculated. From a total population of 233 dairy farmers
studied, 175 fell within Factor I and 58 within Factor 11. Of the 58
dairy farmers in Factor 11 (bipolar), 35 fell in Type III and 23 in
Type 11. Of the dairy farmers population falling in Type I (Progres-
sive) 20 were named infOrmation leaders by their fellows. Five Type
III and two Type II farmers were named as information leaders.

Thirty Type 1, five Type II, and two Type III farmers were named
opinion leaders.

One-eighth of the Type I dairy farmers, one-seventh of those
assigned to Type III, and one-eleventh of the Type II farmers were in-
formation leaders. In short, the transitional type led in prOportion
of persons who were infOrmation leaders, followed by the progressive
and the traditional types in that order.

The Opinion leader situation was different - one out of every five
Type I persons was named an Opinion leader, while the prOportions for

Types II and III remained the same as above.

 

CHAPTER VIII

CONCLUSIONS

The theory of intra-cultural variation in value orientations has
been the conceptual scheme underlying this study. This theory postu-
lates that a given society contains variously-oriented subgroups charac-
terized by a rank order of preference given to a set of basic principles
which directs behavior in the solution Of human problems. The idea of
these principles, called basic values or value orientations, has been a
core concept in this investigation.

Basic values or value orientations were bases for the construction
of a model to fuse the existing diffusion models with value orientations.
The study dealt with the relationship between value orientations and
observed differences among Puerto Rican dairy farmers in the diffusion
and adoption of dairy practices.

The model was tested with 233 dairy farmers from two major dairy
areas of the Island. One area - Region I’- was characterized by far-
mers with short experience in the business, small scale of operations,
and lower educational levels. This region was also characterized by
larger concentration of dairy farmers - 173 distributed among four
municipalities. The second region (Region II) had a preponderance of
farmers with long experience in the business, larger-scale of Operations,

and higher educational levels. Only 76 dairy farmers are located in

-176-

-177-

the area's 12 municipalities.1

The first part of this study sought to identify dominant value
patterns among the dairy farmers of both regions. To do this, we had
respondents rank 48 value statements into 11 piles ranging from those
with which they agree least to those with which they agree most. The
statements posed different alternatives for the solution of human prob-
lems.

The data was submitted to factor analysis and a two-factor solu-
tion was selected. It accounted for 42 per cent of the variance, and a
more complex solution accounted fOr little of the remaining variance.
The solution produced one pure factor (Factor I) and a bipolar factor
(Factor II). Factor 11 suggested two types of dairy farmers with value
orientations in opposite directions.

As was predicted, three types of dairy farmers were present with
variant patterns of structuring the world. The most prOgressive type
found was Type 1. He was future minded, favorable toward hard work and
achievement, a strong believer in science and highly independent in his
decisions. He seemed to be a religious person. This is indicated by
his rejection of those items he interpreted as defiant to God's power.
He was very similar to the ideal type constructed in the theoretical
model and quite different from the Typical Spanish American from New
Mexico who seemed to be quite subjugated to nature.

Time Orientations - Type 1 persons perceive the future as some-

 

thing to look fOrward to. For example, some typical comments by Type I

 

1A municipality is a geographical area comprising an urban center
and rural neighborhoods or barrios.

-178-

respondents to explain why they ranked value items of this type as the
ones with which they most agree were the following:

I am in favor of everything that bring changes. Life becomes

more meaningful when one sees how changes in society bring im-

provements in all aspects of life.

One would be ignorant to try to stick to the old ways of living.

If one wants to live better he has to look forward and accept

changes as they come.

I believe the new ways of living are the solution for human

problems. Only through careful planning of all activities

can we live a better life.

To teach children the ways of the past is unrealistic. I like

to see them moving forward, and I think that to teach them the

ways of the past is to induce them to live in a world of fantasy.

These statements clearly indicate a progressive view of the world.
Apparently Type I farmers had received the benefits of the dynamic pro-
gram which had been operating on the Island since 1940 and which has
helped Puerto Rico to change from a backward region to one of the most
advanced areas in Latin America. They are happy with these changes, and
they seemed to favor the continuing change. That is why they prefer the

future over the present and past.

Activity Orientation - Type I is aware that the future will be

 

best if he works hard and keeps pace with the ever-changing conditions
of his society. The saying "leave it for tomorrow" is a thing of the
past. The correct theme is "let us do it right now so we can plan more
effectively fOr tomorrow." This direction toward hard work and achieve-
ment becomes clear in the reasons given for "agreeing most" with value
items favoring this orientation:

I am a poor man in economic resources, but rich in desires and

energy to work fOr what I want. If I want something, I have
to work fOr it. God will reward my efforts.

-179-

Man has the power to make his own destiny because God has pro-
vided him with the means to get what he wants if he works hard
and plans right.

If you want to get something, you have to work fOr it. You
cannot expect to achieve things and to live better if you
don't work hard enough.

Man-Nature Orientation - The religious influence plays an im-

 

portant role in all aspects of the Type I dairy farmer's life. He rec-
ognizes and respects God's power. He tends to interpret many items
from the religious point of view. For example, he believes in science
as a way of achieving progress. However, when he gave a religious in-
terpretation to some items and perceived them as contrary to his faith,
he rejected them. Some typical comments made by the respondents which
support our conclusions are the following: '
We are living in a modern world and I believe that we have to
keep pace with progress. But I reject the idea that man is
the whole master of nature. It is true that man can master

many natural fOrces, but all his power is subdued to God's will.

I believe in prOgress, but not to the extent of believing that
man's power is omnipotent.

I believe that man can control droughts by means of irrigation
and river floods by constructing dikes, but because I'm a

Roman Catholic, I reject the idea that man is the sole master
of nature. Over man is always God.

This type of dairy farmer does not seem tO perceive any conflict

between believing in progress and his religious faith.

Relational Orientation - The independence of Type I is demonstrated

 

by his desire to work on his own, to be his own boss, to make his own
decisions. He seems to believe in the power of vote rather than on
authority emanating from a leader or from a collective decision. His

value direction is exemplified by the following comments:

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I believe in democracy. I believe that in the solution of any
problem which will affect many peOple, any decision has to be
taken by the majority. We are not living in Cuba. We are
living in a democracy.

I want to be my boss, to work on my own. In this way I will
have an incentive to work fOr.

Statements rejecting the authoritarian and collective ways of
looking at the world were highly favored by this type. Those state-
ments favoring the authoritarian or collective types of behavior were

usually rejected.

Type II

This was the most traditional type of dairy farmer. He consist-
ently favored the value items suggesting a favorable position toward
the old ways of living. In some cases, however, he showed a slight
tendency to favor value items referring to modern states of affairs.

Time Orientation - Type II was ambivalent with respect to the

 

time dimension. In some instances, he accepted the future or the pres-
ent over the past. But despite his ambivalence, his preference for the
ways of the past was noticeable from the way he sorted the value items
and the comments he made when requested to give the reasons for ranking
items favoring the traditional viewpoint first. Some of the comments
made by this type of person were the fOllowing:

I am using many things that I learned from my father, and I

feel they are better. I teach the old traditions to my

children because I consider them correct and better.

I strongly reject the idea that changes are always good.

There are many instances in which changes bring a lot of

problems. For example, in the case of our children - today
there is no respect for the parents.

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In the past there were many good things, but we can't stick
to them. If one likes to be happy, one has to accept changes
as something inevitable.

Man-Nature Orientation - Type II highly favored the fatalistic

 

position that man has to be subjugated to the natural processes that
affect life. The subjugation is exemplified by some of the fOllowing
comments made by respondents with this value direction:

God is the master of nature and we have to accept his will.

I feel it is impossible to change nature. We have to accept

the power of natural forces to control our destiny. The

only one who can master the natural processes is God. Man

can never be the master of nature.

Activity Orientation - The strong preference for easygoing ways

 

of life and rejection of hard work and achievement were indicated by
sorting of the value items. Additional infOrmation about the value
direction of Type II came from the answers given to the question of
why they selected these items as the ones with which they agree most.
Some comments were the following:
I work when I have work to do. But my leisure time is my
leisure time and I use it visiting friends and enjoying
life. We can't stick to work at all times. We need time to
relax and enjoy life.
In my free time what I like most is to go to the movies or to
watch television. I don't like to think on work while I am
resting.
As indicated by value-item sorting, this type of person was more in-

clined toward an easygoing way of life than the other two types.

Relational Orientation - Type II favored authority emanating

 

from a leader, over the collective or democratic way of arriving at
decisions. The authoritarian outlook is exemplified by comments like

the following:

-182-

It is the boss who has the responsibility to make the crucial

decisions on group problems.

I believe that in the solution of community problems the best

thing to do is to decide on what to do by unanimity of the

peOple affected. But when the things get tough and a unani-

mous decision is not possible, the best thing to do is to

rely on the decision of the leaders.
Type 11, then, was the most traditional dairy farmer studied. He seemed
unhappy with changes occurring in the Island, and he preferred to stick
to the old ways of living. But he also is aware that progress can not
be blocked, and that is the reason for his apparent acceptance of many
modern ways of living. This writer believes such persons confOrm to

the ever-changing conditions in Puerto Rican society in order to con-

tinue being an integral part of that society.

Type III

This type of person seemed to be in a state of transition. His
sorting of value items shows clearly that he shares both the progres-
sive and traditional ways of looking at the world. He apparently is
trying to accommodate to a changing situation he was not ready for.

Relational Orientation - Type III was not as independent in his

 

actions as the progressive type nor as dependent on leader authority as
the traditional type. He assumed a middle position - the collateral
position. That is, he showed preference for groups in which every mem-
ber has the same rights and duties and in which all members have some-
thing to say about decisions affecting the group. For example, he
tended to make comments like these:

I don't like to work in groups in which a leader makes all the

crucial decisions. The best way to solve a problem is to get
unanimity among group members on what to do.

-183-

I prefer to work in groups in which all members have the same
rights and obligations. I don't believe that we have to rely
on the sole decision of a single person. Many peOple will
arrive at a better decision than a single person.

Time Orientation - In his time dimension, Type III also showed

 

confusion with the present state of affairs on the Island. However,
he showed an inclination to accept these changes as beneficial to him.
Apparently his previous situation was uncomfortable and change has im-
proved matters. But he's still rooted to some of the old traditions.
His state of transition is suggested by his sorting of value items and
by comments like these:

Each epoch has produced changes, and as change continues more
prOgress can be attained.

I prefer the present, but we can't put the future and past
aside. To look at the past is good because it will allow us
to make comparisons. To think of the future is also bene-
ficial because it helps us plan our ways of life.

_M§n-Nature Orientation - Here again Type III seemed to be a man

 

in transition. He rejected the fatalistic view of the traditional man
and the mastery-over-nature position of the prOgressive man. His sort-
ing of value items indicated a desire to live in harmony with these
natural processes affecting life. Typical comments included:

Against nature no one can go. If one defies the natural

forces, he is looking fOr trouble. It is better to live in

harmony with these natural processes than to defy them.

I am in agreement because I believe that there is a plan to

live and that by maintaining a balance between nature and

man's life one can live longer.

Activity Orientation - Type III has a middle position on this

 

value orientation. He rejected the easygoing tendencies of the tradi-

tional man and the emphasis on hard work and accomplishment by the

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progressive man. His value direction was clearly defined by value-
item sorting and by comments such as the following:

I like to use my time effectively by doing and accomplishing

things. But I also like to use some time just talking with

my friends or having a good time.

I am young and I like to have fun after a hard working day.

Every person needs some time for leisure. The best thing to

do is to keep a balance between hard work and pleasure.

The theory of intra-cultural variations postulated in this study
was supported by the data. As predicted, three types of dairy farmers
with variant value patterns were fOund - a progressive type, a transi-
tional type and a traditional type.

Each type found in this investigation differed markedly from the
Spanish American of New Mexico in many respects while resembling him in
others. For example, in their relational orientations, Type I and the
Spanish Americans seemed to favor man's independence in his actions.
However, they were quite different with reSpect to time, activity and
man-nature relationships. In the man-nature area, the Spanish American
of New Mexico tended to be fatalistic while Type III favored living in
harmony with nature. The Spanish American favored the easygoing way
of life, while Type III took a middle position on activity - a balance
between leisure time on the one hand and hard work and achievement on
the other. With respect to time, he and the New Mexico Spanish Ameri-
can were quite similar. In the relational area the Spanish American
favored individuality while Type III took a collateral view.

Type II had a similar man-nature activity orientation to the

Spanish Americans of New Mexico and quite different in his time and

relational orientations.

-185-

This study provided some promising leads, but further testing Of
the value instrument is needed befOre one can confidently make general-
izations. Replication is suggested on other rural and urban pOpula-
tions. Testing in other Latin American countries would allow compari-
son of these countries. In our opinion, international programs for
underdeveIOped areas will improve if they take account of dominant
value patterns in each society.

. This study implies that technological change agents should be
familiar with the dominant characteristics of a society as well as with

intra-societal variations in value orientation.

Values, Communication Orientations and the Diffusion Process

After finding the farmers' dominant value patterns, we investi-
gated the relationship between value orientations and the diffusion and
adoption of dairy farm innovations. We studied Puerto Rican dairy far-
mers' predispositions towards technOIOgical change. We did so in a
framework which integrates the value orientations postulated by Kluck-
hohn and Strodtbeck (1961) (2) with the diffusion models of Beal and
Bohlen (1957) (3), Emery, Oeser and Tully (1958) (4), Wilkening, Tully
and Presser (1962) (5) and Deutschmann and Fals Borda (1962) (6).

Part I of this study dealt with communication orientations as re-
lated to value orientations and adoption of dairy farm practices. Ten
dairy practices were used as test situations. The communication hypoth-
esis was tested by measuring the means (channel-source combinations)
used by dairy farmers in getting information related to adoption.

Using the Deutschmann Channel Orientations Model (1962) (6), dairy

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farmers were classified as egocentric, intra-community, extra-community
near, extra-community far or impersonally oriented. Indices were con-
structed to measure values and communication orientations.

The predicted relationships between values and channel orienta-
tions during the awareness stage of the diffusion process were not
supported by the data. Traditional farmers did not have a significant
tendency toward egocentric or intra-community channel orientations.
Progressive farmers didn't show predominantly impersonal channel orien-
tations. Finally, peOple with transitional values had no significant
tendency toward extra-community channel orientations. The same re-
sults appeared with each of two communication channel indices - the
Deutschmann Channel Index and the Near-Far Channel Index. There seem
to be three possible explanations for these results.

First, value and channel orientations may really be unrelated.

Second, the indices used weren't really measuring channel and
value orientations. If this is true, further research with more refined
indices is needed to reject or confirm the predicted relationships.

Third, the relationships between values and communication orien-
tations exist, but not at the awareness stage. Awareness of new ideas
or practices may often not require a purposive act. One can learn of
an idea through a given channel accidentally without being oriented to
the use of that channel.

To further explore the third possibility the same hypotheses were
tested during the interest stage. When the Deutschmann Channel scores
were correlated with value scores, relationships again failed to appear
except in one case. The predicted relationship between being progres-

sive and being impersonal-channel oriented was significant. When the

-187-

Near-Far Channel Index was used, the predicted relationships between
values and channel orientations were clearly established. For example,
the predicted relationship between being progressive and being extra-
community channel or impersonal channel oriented was significant;

'the predicted negative relationship between being progressive and being
intra-community channel oriented was significant; the predicted rela-
tionship between being traditional and the tendency to disregard extra-
community channels or impersonal channels as sources of infOrmation was
significant.

These findings tend to confirm our theoretical position that the
communication channel orientations of a given individual can be ex—
plained by value orientations.

These findings suggest that the interest stage of the diffusion
process is a better one to detect relationships between values and
channel orientations. For example, if a farmer is progressive ori-
ented, it is in this stage that he will seek the information needed in
the channels he is oriented to use, like exposure to mass media.

The findings also suggest that the Near-Far Index is stronger
than the Deutschmann Channel Index in defining relationships between
values and channel orientations. The egocentric type found in our study
is probably not the same type of person conceived by Deutschmann as
egocentric. To be egocentric, in our study, one had to see a demon-
stration in his own barrio. The egocentric type of dairy farmer in
our study is really an intra-community channel oriented person whose

major sources of information are in his own barrio.

-188-

In conclusion, the data has suggested but not confirmed a relation-
ship between value and communication channel orientations. More research
with more refined indices is needed to conclusively reject or confirm
the suggested relationships. The Deutschmann Channel orientations con-
cept does appear useful in predicting diffusion and adOption of new tech-
nOIOgy and further research would seem in order. If further research
shows that values influence channel orientations, change agents can im-
prove their use of communication channels by becoming familiar with the
dominant value patterns of their audiences. This study has Opened the
door to further research which may help develop a stronger, more refined
diffusion theory.

Part III of this study was divided into two major areas of concern -
1) frequency of exposure to mass communication channels and how it re-p
lates to values and communication orientations and 2) the relationship
of values and communication orientations with time,degree and rate of

adOption for dairy farm innovations.

Freqpency of Exposure to Mass Media

 

Here we looked for relationships of values and communication
orientations to frequency of mass media exposure. We studied exposure
to all media as well as individual channels.

Another purpose of this phase was to further test conclusions
from other diffusion studies. For example, ROgers (1958) (13),
Lionberger (1960) (10), Beal and Bohlen (1957) (3), Emery, Oeser and
Tully (1958) (4) and many others cited in Chapter 11, found that fre-
quency of exposure was an important determinant of farm adoption. For
example, Emery, Oeser and Tully, in their classic study, fOund that urba-

nization leads to frequent media exposure, which in turn leads to

-189-

adoption. Deutschmann and Fals Borda (1962) (6) and Detuschmann and
Mendez (1962) (ll) fOund that impersonal-channel oriented individuals
are highly prediSposed towards the adOption of innovations.

In this study, we attempted to determine what predisposed the
dairy farmers to be exposed to mass media. We predicted a positive
relationship between progressiveness and frequency of exposure.

Our findings showed no significant relationship between being
progressive and overall media exposure. However, there was a signifi-
cant positive relationship between being progressive and exposure to
newspapers and farm magazines. Apparently the progressive oriented
dairy farmer is quite selective in his media consumption, preferring
newspapers and farm magazines. Value orientations seem relevant to
mass media channel choice.

Similar findings appeared when Deutschmann's Channel Orientation
theory was used as a frame of reference.

Apparently, value orientations can be used to help explain predis-
positions toward channel selection and frequency of use.

However, further research is needed with different pOpulations.
The dairy farmers studied here had relatively high education, standards
of living, and size of Operations. This writer plans to replicate the
study with coffee, tobacco and sugar cane farmers whose educational
levels, scale of operation and standards of living are not so high.

The Adoption Process - Diffusion students in the United States

 

have fOund a close relationship between time of awareness, time of adOp-
tion, and degree of adOption of farm innovations. American models of
agricultural diffusion have categorized farmers as innovators, early

adOpters, early majority, majority and lated adOpters or laggards.

-190-

Deutschmann, et. al., in their Latin American studies, found a close
relationship between being impersonal and extra-community channel orien-
ted and time of awareness, time of adoption and degree of adoption. Our
aim was to find out how the theory of value orientations might explain
these phenomena.

We predicted a positive relationship between time of awareness
and progressive value orientations. That is, we predicted a significant
positive relationship between being prOgressive and early awareness
about dairy innovations; a significant negative relationship between
being traditional and late awareness. These predicted relationships
were not confirmed.

The same findings were observed when time of awareness was investi-
gated under the communication orientations model. Going further, we in-
vestigated the relationship between frequency of exposure to mass media
and time of awareness. Again no relationship appeared in the data. In
other words, being impersonal-channel oriented was not significantly re-
lated to early awareness of dairy innovations. These findings conflict
with Deutschmann's in Latin America (1962) (6, 11). There was no signi-
ficant correlation between frequency of media exposure and time of aware-
ness about dairy practices. The findings confirm a suggestion earlier in
this study - that time of awareness can be accidental and does not neces-
sarily indicate predisposition toward use of communication channels. This
finding explains the lack of support for our previous hypotheses relating
values to communication channel orientations during the awareness stage.

Time of Adoption - We predicted a significant positive relationship

 

between time of adoption and being progressive. We also predicted a posi-

tive relationship between being progressive and being impersonal or

-191-

extra-community channel oriented. These hypotheses were confirmed by
the data. These findings also confirmed Deutschmann's findings in Latin
America.

The data showed a significant positive relationship between fre-
quency of exposure to mass communication and time of adOption. These
findings tend to confirm our assumption that value orientation is a use-
ful concept by which the diffusion process can be analyzed.

But again one has to be cautious in making generalizations. Up
to now the only inference one can make is that in the Puerto Rican situa-
tion with high standards of living, educational levels and scales of
Operations, a theory of value orientations has demonstrated potential in
explaining the diffusion process.

‘pggree of AdOption - What predisposes some farmers to be higher

 

adopters than others? This was another area investigated. Other dif-
fusion students have found that degree of adoption is related to education,
scale of Operations, channel orientations, and degree of urbanization. We
expected to confirm these previous findings. Going further, we attempted
to find out a broader explanation. As an extension worker fOr-l4 years,
the author found that farmers with larger Operations aren't always most
likely to adOpt innovations. Likewise, the highest adopters aren't al-
ways highly educated. These variables doubtless influence ad0ption, but
farmers' value orientations might also be very important. The predicted
relationship between value orientations and degree of adOption was con-
firmed by the data. The same results were obtained when degree of adoption
was studied under the communication channel orientation theory, and also
when degree of adOption was correlated with frequency of exposure to mass

communications.

~192-

Again the usefulness of value orientations in predicting adoption
was confirmed. This study suggests once again that the diffusion pro-
cess can be explained under a value orientations model.

Participation in the Stages of Diffusion - American diffusionists

 

constructed a diffusion model with five stages leading to adoption of

new ideas and practices. The stages are: awareness; interest (seeking

 

further information about a practice if one is interested in it); 332127
33322 (seeing if the practice seems worth trying in his Operation); £313;
on a tentative or small-scale basis; and finally full—fledged adOption.
However, the concept of five stages has been widely disputed among social
scientists. Deutschmann et. al. (1962) (6, 11), in the Latin American
studies on diffusion, found that some individuals tend to skip stages.
Rogers (1962) (1) reported similar findings.

In this study, we did not study the question of whether individuals
skip or follow the stages. Instead, we looked at dominant value and com-
munication orientations of those who follow and those who skip stages.
Progressive-oriented dairy farmers usually followed the stages, while tra-
ditional farmers tended to skip most of them. Also, the progressive
dairy farmer apparently is predisposed to accept new technology, while the
traditional farmer tends to reject or just adOpt without question. Posi-
tive significant relationships were fOund between being progressive and
the fOllowing variables: number of dairy practices heard about; informa-
tion seeking; trial of dairy practices; and adoption of dairy practices.
Traditional oriented dairy farmers showed a statistically significant
tendency to score low on these variables. The transitional farmers were
average as expected (i.e., they followed more stages than the traditional-

oriented dairy farmer and less than the progressive oriented).

 

illlzl i, ill-IIL

-193-

When the same variables were studied in relation to channel ori-
entations, the same relationships were observed. The impersonal and
extra-community channel oriented farmers participate most in the stages
of adOption, while the intra-community and egocentric channel oriented
dairy farmers skip most of the stages (i.e., just adOpt without question).
Once more the impersonal or extra-community channel oriented person of
Deutschmann's model and the early adopter or innovator of the American-
Australian diffusion models appear to closely resemble the progressive
dairy farmer Of our value model. Late adOpters of the American-Austra-
lian model also resemble the egocentric or intra-community channel orien-
ted of Deutschmann's model and the traditional farmer of the value model.

Values, Communication Orientations and Social Behavior

 

Three aspects of the dairy farmers' social behavior were investi-
gated in this study - self perception as advice givers; self perception
as advice seekers; and belonging to organizations.

No relation was observed between values and either advice giving
or advice seeking. Contrary to our predictions, impersonal or extra-
community channel oriented persons showed no particular tendency to per-
ceive themselves as advice givers. The predicted negative relationship
between being impersonal and self perception as advice seeker also was
not found. However, there was an expected negative significant relation-
ship between being extra-community channel oriented and self perception
as an advice seeker.

One important unexpected finding was the positive relationship
between being egocentric or intra-community channel oriented and per-
ceiving oneself as an advice giver. As predicted, a positive relation-
ship was observed between being intra-community channel oriented and

advice seeking.

~194-

The data suggest that dairy farmers with impersonal and extra-community
channel orientations do not perceive themselves either as advice seekers
or advice givers. The egocentric and the intra-community oriented dairy
farmers, who interact primarily with people residing in their own communi-
ties, seemed to perceive themselves as both advice seekers and givers.
Attitudes toward formal organization participation were investigated in
relation to value and channel orientations.

The hypotheses derived with the value and channel orientations
model were supported by the data. As expected, the progressive dairy
farmers belonged to the most organizations, traditional farmers to the
fewest. The transitional dairy farmer fell in between. Shifting to
communication channel orientation, impersonal channel and extra-
community channel oriented dairy farmers were the most active in formal
organizations, while egocentric and intra-community channel oriented
farmers were less active. A positive significant relationship was ob-
served between being progressive oriented and belonging to formal orga-
nizations. A significant negative relationship was observed between
being traditional and belonging to organizations. A significant positive
relationship was observed between being impersonal or extra-community
channel oriented and belonging to organizations, while a negative and
significant relationship was observed between this and being egocentric
or intra-community channel oriented.

The findings once again suggested value orientations can help ex-
plain communication channel orientations and, more generally, the diffusion
and adOption processes.

Other Findings - Contrary to our expectations, older farmers were

 

more progressive. Education did not correlate significantly with value

-195-

orientations. A predicted positive relationship appeared between being
progressive and size of operations. A negative relationship was observed
between being traditional and size of Operations.

The data suggest that scale of operation is importantly related
to value orientations of the population studied.

The finding that older farmers are progressive might be attribu-
table to their larger scale of Operations.

Similar findings were observed when these variables were studied
within the framework of the communication channel orientations theory.

Interaction Patterns in the Regions — Here we attempted to find

 

out where the leaders in both geographical areas studied were located
and their distinguishing characteristics.

First, key information leaders in each municipality were located by
asking each respondent to name the dairy farmer who provided him (the
respondent) first knowledge on each of 10 dairy practices. The findings
showed that distance between farms is related to the Opportunities for
interpersonal relations, which in turn help determine the importance of
person-channels as sources of first knowledge about innovations. This
finding ties in with previous studies which show that distance helps
determine the degree of interaction. That is, people physically close
to each other have the greatest opportunity for interaction. The greater
the opportunity for interaction, the greater the role of interpersonal
channels for the spread of farm information, i.e. Deutschmann and Fals
Borda (1962) (6), Deutschmann and Mendez (1962) (ll), Emery, et. al.,
(1958) (4), Lionberger (1960) (10).

The municipality of Hatillo had the largest concentration of dairy

farmers and ranked first in number of information leaders named. The

-196-

same condition was observed throughout the two geographical areas studied.

The data also show that information leaders were more mobile than
other dairy farmers. Kinship was also important in naming of information
leaders. In Hatillo, where kinship relations among dairy farmers are
very common, 41% of the dairy farmers named a kin as a source of first
knowledge about dairy practices. The most distinguishing characteristic
of the infOrmation leaders was their larger size of operations.

Also, information leaders tended to use as first sources other
information leaders. And they appeared to be the ones who got their
information from channels such as mass media, change agents and other
leaders.

Opinion Leaders - As with information leaders, distance seems to

 

relate rather closely to incidence of opinion leadership in both regions.
The less the distance among farms and the larger the concentration of
dairy farmers in barrios and municipalities, the greater the number of
dairy farmers named as opinion leaders and the greater their range of in-
fluence. Results also suggest Opinion leaders tend to be more mobile
than other dairymen. Opinion leaders seem to carry out their influence
mainly within municipality boundaries, but their role as influentials
often extends further.

Puerto Rican dairy farmers often seem to look to relatives for
farm infOrmation and advice.

Opinion leaders tended to have more education and larger farm
business.

The data showed some relationship between leadership patterns and
values. One-eighth of the prOgressive dairy farmers (Type I), one-

seventh Of the transitional dairy farmers (Type III) and one-eleventh

-197-

of the traditional oriented dairy farmers (Type II) were named as infor-
mation leaders. In short, the transitional and prOgressive types led

in prOportion of persons who were information leaders, followed by the
traditional types.

The Opinion leaders situation was different. One out of every
five Type I persons was named an opinion leader, while the prOportions
for Types II and III remained the same as above.

The study suggested a relationship between value orientations and
ability to lead people. Dairy farmers with a modern or prOgressive view
of the world were most often named as information and Opinion leaders.
On the contrary, few tradition-oriented peOple were named as leaders.

Implications of the Study - Our theory of value orientations seems

 

to have potential as a frame of reference for the study of the diffusion
and adoption processes. The value model used in this study explains the
processes and the factors involved in them. In other words, the concept
of values can be used to explain what predisposes individuals to adOpt
new innovations.

If values as viewed in this study play an important role in a per-
son's attitudes towards technological change, change agents can profitably
consider value patterns dominant in groups dealt with.

However, this study has only Opened the door for further testing of
the concept. Further research is needed in different contexts and with
different populations in order to make broader generalizations.

Up to now we must restrict inferences to the dairy farmers studied.
Further research, if it confirms our findings, will allow diffusion stu-

dents to look at diffusion from a broader point of view.

-198-

In Puerto Rico, plans have been made to replicate the study with
different populations - coffee farmers, tobacco farmers, sugar cane
farmers and housewives participating in extension home demonstration
clubs. An attempt will be made to refine the instrument and indices

used in this study.

LITERATURE CITED

 

1. Rogers, E., Diffusion of Innovations. New York: The Free Press, 1962.

 

2. Kluckhohn F. S Strodtbeck, F., Variations in Value Orientations.
Evanston, 111., Row, Peterson and Co., 1961.

 

3. Beal, G. M. & Bohlen, J. M., The Diffusion Process. Agr. Ext.
Service, Iowa State College, Ames,'IOwa: March 1957, Jr. NO. 18,

pp- 6-

 

4. Emery, F. E., Oeser, O. G Tully, J., Information, Decision and
Action: A Study of the PsycholOgical Determinants in Farmipg
Techniques. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1958.

 

 

 

5. Wilkening, E. A., Tully, J. G Presser, H. "Communication and
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6. Deutschmann, P. J. S Fals Borda, 0., Communication and Adoption
Patterns in an Andean Village. PIIP, San Jose, Costa Rica,
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7. Ryan, B. 6 Gross, N., Acceptance and Diffusion of Hybrid Seed Corn '
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Res. Bull. 372, January, 1950.

 

 

8. Beal, G. M., "Information Sources in the Diffusion Process," The
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PuIIman: Washington, August, 1958, pp. 36-51.

 

9. COOp, J. N., Sill, H. L. G Brown, E. J., "The Function of Informa-
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10. Lionberger, H., Adoption of New Ideas and Practices. Ames, Iowa:
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ll. Deutschmann, P. J. G Mendez, A., Adoption of New Foods and Drugs in
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Eér, 1962, p. 41.

 

 

12. Beal, G. M. 6 Rogers, E. M., "Informational Sources in the Adoption
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”By, 1958, ppe 329-3350

 

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-199-

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21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

-200-

Van den Ban, A. W., The Communication of New Farm Practices in the
Netherlands. Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1963. (An English
summary Of the book)

 

Rhudkar, W. B., "Communication of Farm Innovations in an Indian
Community," The Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol. XXIII, No. 1,
April, 1962.

Myren, D. T., "The Rural Communications Media as a Determinant of
the Diffusion of Information About Improved Farm Practices In
Mexico," A Paper read at the annual meeting of the Rural SociOIOgi-
cal Society, Washington, D. C., August, 1962.

Deutschmann, P. J. 5 McNelly, J. T. "El Uso de los Medios de Comuni-
cacion Masiva en Dos Comunidades Latinoamericanas," a Paper presented
at the 13 National Congress of Sociology from November 12 to 16, 1962
at Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico.

"Communication = Diffusion?" Agrisearch, Vol. 2, No. 11, NPAC,
East Lansing: Michigan State Ufiiversity, June, 1955.

 

"Wonder Where Your Message Went?" Agrisearch, Vol. 2, No. 10, NPAC,
East Lansing: Michigan State University, Oct. 1955.

"Where Do They Get Their InfOrmation?" Agrisearch, V01. 1, No. l,
NPAC, East Lansing: Michigan State University, June, 1955.

 

"A Look at Diffusion," Agrisearch, Vol. 1, No. 5, NPAC, East Lansing:
Michigan State University, Oct., 1955.

 

Lerner, D. The Passing of Traditional Society, Illinois: Free
Press, 1958.

 

Wells, D. E. G MacLean, M. 5., A TypOIOgical Approach to the Study
of Diffusion, East Lansing, Michigan: Communications Research
Center, Department of Communications, College of Communication Arts,
MSU, August, 1962.

 

 

Stodgill, R. M., Individual Behavior and Group Achievement. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1959.

Ramsey, C. E., Polson, R. A. 8 Spencer, G. E., "Values and the
Adoption of Practices," Rural Sociology, NO. 24, 1, March, 1959,
pp. 35-46.

 

Lazarsfeld, P., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H., The PeOples' Choice.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1948.

Berelson, B., Lazarsfeld, P. G McPhee, W. N., Voting: A Study of
gpinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign. ChiEago: University
Of Chiéago Press, 1954.

 

 

Katz, E. 8 Lazarsfeld, P. Personal Influence. Glencoe, 111:
Free Press, 1955.

 

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

-201-

Merton, R. K., "Patterns of Influence," in Lazarsfeld, P. G
Stanton, F. (Eds.) Communications Research, 1948-1949. New York:
Harper 8. Brothers, T949, pp. ISO-219.

 

Larson, 0. 6 Hill, R. "Mass Media and Interpersonal Communications
in the Diffusion of News Events," American SociOIOgical Review,
Vol. 19, August, 1954, pp. 426-443.

 

Deutschmann, P. J. G Danielson, W. A. "Diffusion of Knowledge of
the Major News Story,"Journalism Quarterly, Summer 1960, pp. 345-355.

 

Oliver-Padilla, F. L., La Industria Ganadera en Puerto Rico, Rio
Piedras, Puerto Rico: Servicio de Extension Agricola de la
Universidad de Puerto Rico, No. 1963.

 

Annual Report for 1963, Agricultural Extension Service of the
Univef§ity of Puerto Rico, No. 1963.

 

Reglamento para el Programa Unificado del Cafe y Mejoramiento de

 

Pastos, San Juan, Puerto Rico: Departamento de Agricultura,
Dic. 1963.

 

Oliver-Padilla, F. L. Orientando Sobre Inseminacion Artificial,
Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico: Servicio de ExtensiOn Agricola de la
Universidad de Puerto Rico, Oct. 1956.

 

Grana, W., Inseminacion Artificial, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico:
Servicio de Extension Agricola 3e la Universidad de Puerto Rico,
1963.

 

Toro-Calder, F. Desarrollo de los Medios de Comunicacionppara las
Masas en Puerto Rico, Rio Piédras, Puerto Rico: SérViciOTde Extension

 

 

Agricola de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1963.

Oliver-Padilla, F. L., Analisis de la Situacion Ganadera en Puerto
Rico: Estudio Preparado para la Oficina de Reglamentacion de la

 

Industria Lechera en Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico:

 

Servicio de ExtensiOn Agricola de la Universidad de Puerto Rico,
1963.

MacLean, M. S. 8 Kao, A. "Picture Selection: An Editorial Game,"
Journalism Quarterly, 39:2, Spring, 1963.

 

MacLean, M. S., Danbury, T. G Talbot, A. Civil Defense Belief
Patterns: Technical Summary, East Lansing,fiMichigan: Communication

 

 

ResearEh Center, M80, 1964.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

The value instrument and instructions for the interviewers.

-204-

QéSORT - INSTRUCTIONS FOR VALUE ITEMS

 

As you know people react and behave in a different manner to different
sorts of situations. Some people have different opinions about the best
ways of living, about farm technology, about how to solve many family
problems, and so on.

HERE WE HAVE A DECK OF CARDS (HAND RESPONDENT THE VALUE ORIENTATIONS
CARD DECK).

In this group ofOpinion cards, we have tried to represent some of the
things people say about such things.

We like you to describe your own feelings by sorting the cards (READY
WITH THE BLUE CARDS), (ACT AS YOU TALK). I will spread out these blue
cards which show how the opinion cards should be sorted.

We start with NUMBER 1 at the left here. Notice that it calls for the
opinions you feel you most disagree with or disbelieve. And here is the
rest. Notice that NUMBER 11 calls for the opinions you feel as closest
to the way you believe or agree most.

BLUE CARDS

 

Disagree Agree
Most l_ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Most

Read through each card in the deck. As you read a card and decide how
you feel about the statement, you might begin sorting them into three
piles: Those you agree most on the extreme right; those you don't feel
much about in the middle; those you disagree most with in the extreme
left side.

For example:

 

FIRST SORT
FILE 1 FILE 2 FILE 3
Most Disagree Don't feel Much Agree Most

Then, from the DISAGREE pile pick the two opinion cards that have the
statements with which you disagree most---and put them on the top of

RANK 1 card. Now from the AGREE pile pick the Egg opinion cards with
the statements you agree most with and put them on the top of RANK 11
card. "'-—

 

 

From the cards that are at the left, pick the three you most disagree
with and put them on the top of the RANK 2 card. Select the three opi-
nion cards with which you most agree and put them on the top of RANK 10...
card.

 

14..

 

 

 

-205-

Continue in the same way until you have all the cards sorted and distri-
buted the way the blue cards call for. If you change your mind about the
position of a card, go ahead and shift it to where you feel it should be.
We just have to make sure that each rank card has exactly the number of
opinion cards it requires. After he is done, the opinion cards distri-
bution on the top of the blue cards must be as follows:

BLUE CARDS (RANKED) Most Most
Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll Agree

OPINION CARDS TO BE
PUT ON EACH BLUE CARD 2 3 4 6 6 6 6 6 4 3 2

When the respondent completes sort, ask questions on the three top rank
opinions, the three bottom rank opinions. Ideas and opinions about the
statements he ranked as most agree with or most disagree with - Why he
disagrees or agrees most.

Write his comments on the paper sheet included in the envelope with the
Q-Sort statements.

Note: After completion of the sort pack your cards in the order distri-
buted by the respondent and rubber band the whole pack. Be VERY
CAREFUL when packing the cards to avoid any misplacing of the
cards. The form of packing them will be as follows:

Blue card NUMBER 11 at the bottom - the TWO most agree opinion
cards over it...then the next BLUE CARD (No. 10) and the three
next opinion cards on it...then the BLUE CARD number 9 and the
four opinion cards on it. Follow the same procedure until com-
pleting the task. BE VERY CAREFUL IN DOING THIS TASK.

-206-

SUPPLEMENTARY SHEET ACCOMPANYING THE OLSORT

 

 

 

Name of the Interviewer Number of Interviewer
Name of Respondent Barrio fi_
Municipality

 

Date of the Interview

 

 

1. What are the reasons for choosing these two opinions as the ones with
which you most agree?

a. WRITE HERE HIS COMMENTS .... (PROBE) ....ANY OTHER REASONS....

2. What are your reasons for choosing these opinions as the ones with
which you disagree most with?

a. WRITE HERE HIS COMMENTS .... (PROBEI ....ANY OTHER REASONS....

 

 

NOTE TO THE INTERVIEWER.....AFTER COMPLETING THIS INFORMATION, PLEASE
PROCEED WITH PART III.

 

“—_—‘

I.

1‘3

-207-

QrSORT ON VALUE ORIENTATIONS INSTRUMENT

T IME ORIENTATION

 

(Past)

1.

t2 (Pres.) 2.

t:1

(Fut.)

3.

Children should be taught the traditions of the past.
(The ways of the old people.) I believe that the old
ways are best, and that it is when children do not
follow them that things go wrong.

Espanol

A 103 ninos se les debe ensenar las costumbres del pasado
con mucho cuidado. Las viejas costumbres son siempre me-
jores y cuando los ninos no siguen estas costumbres viejas,
vienen dificultades.

Children should be taught some of the old traditions
(ways of the old people), but it is wrong to insist that
they stick to these ways. I believe that it is necessary
for children always to learn about and take on what-

ever of the new ways will best help them get along in

the world of today.

Espanol

A 108 ninos se les debe ensenar las costumbres del pa-
sado, pero no se debe insistir en que se sigan estas
costumbres a1 pie de la letra. Los ninos necesitan
aprender y aceptar muchas cosas nuevas para vivir mejor
hoy dia.

In raising children I do not believe they should be
taught much about past traditions. I believe that the
world goes along best when children are taught the
things that will make them want to find out for them-
selves new and better ways of doing things to replace
the old.

Espanol

En la crianza de ninos yo no creo se 1e deba dar mucha
atencion a las costumbres viejas. La bida es mejor
para todos cuando nuestros hijos aprenden a querer bus-
car por si mismos nuevos y mejores modos de hacer las
cosas.

[III 1.1.1

t=1

t=2

t3

t2

t3

(Fut.) 4.

(Pres.) 5.

(Past)

6.

(Pres.) 7.

(Past)

8.

-208-

I really expect my children to have more than I have
had if they work hard and plan right. There are always
good chances for people who try.

Espanol

Realmente yo creo que mis hijos tendran mas de lo que
yo he tenido, eso es, si trabajan duro y hacen sus pla-
nes con cuidado. Siempre existen buenas oportunidades
para los que trabajan duro.

I don't know whether my children will be better off,
worse, or just the same. Things always go up and down
even if one works hard, so we can't really tell.

Espanol

Yo no se 51 mis hijos viviran mejor o peor, o lo mismo,
que yo he vivido. La vida tiene sus alzas y sus bajas,
aun cuando la gente trabaja duro.

I expect my children to have just about the same as I
had or bring things back as they once were. It is their
job to work hard and find ways to keep things going as
they have been in the past.

Espanol

Yo espero que mis hijos vivan mas o menos como yo he
vivido, y que hagan volver la vida como era antes. Es
la responsabilidad de los hijos mantener la maner de
vivir del pasado.

The past is gorxe and the future is much too uncertain
to count on. So I believe it is best to give most at-
tention to what is happening now in the present.

Bapanol

E1 pasado ya ha pasado y el futuro es muy incierto para
darle mucha atencion. Por eso yo creo lo mas conveniente
es poner mi atencion en las cosas del presente.

I think that the ways of the past (traditional ways) are
right and best, and as changes come things usually get
worse.

t1 (Fut.)

t1 (Fut.)

t3 (Past)

t2 (Pres.)

9.

10.

11.

12.

~209-

Espanol

Yo creo que las cosas del pasado son mucho mejores y
que los cambios por 10 regular traen problemas.

I believe that it is almost always the ways of the
future - the ways which are still to come - which will
be best, and even though there are sometimes small set-
backs, changes bring improvements.

Espanol

Yo creo que lo que venga en el futuro tiene que ser,
casi siempre, mejor. Los cambios siempre traen mejoras
aunque uno no vea las mejoras inmediatamente.

I am very pleased with the changes occuring here and
everywhere because the new ways are usually better than
the old ones. I like to see everything - even religious
ceremonies - moving ahead.

Espanol

Yo me siento muy contento con los cambios que estan ocu-
rriendo aqui y donde quiera, porque las nuevas costumbres
y medios de vida son mejores que los viejos y a mi me
gusta seguir lo nuevo en todos los aspectos (cosas), aun
en las ceremonias religiosas.

I am very unhappy because of the changes that are occuring
here and everywhere. I think that our ways of living
should be kept exactly the same in every way - as they
were in the past.

Espanol

Yo estoy muy disgustado con los cambios que estan ocu-
rriendo aqui y donde quiera. Yo creo que las viejas
costumbres y tradiciones se deben conservar tal y como
eran en el pasado.

I feel that the old ways of living are better but we
just can't hang on to them. It makes life easier to
accept some changes as they come along.

Espanol

Yo creo que las costumbres y tradiciones del pasado son
mejores, pero reconozco que hoy en dia es dificil e imposible
guardarlas exactamente a como eran antes. La vida se hace
mas facil cuando se aceptan los cambios que vienen con el
tiempo.

-210-

II. RELATIONAL ORIENTATION

 

r3 (Lineal) 13.

r2 (0011.)

r1 (1nd.)

r1 (Ind.)

14.

IS.

16.

When we need a solution for a problem in our community
it is best to depend on our community leaders to decide
what is to be done.

Espanol

Cuando en nuestra comunidad surge un problema y necesi-
tamos solucionarlo, lo mejor es depender de los lideres
de la comunidad para que sean ellos los que decidan lo
que debe hacerse.

When we need a solution for a problem in our community,
it is best to call a meeting of the people affected and
discuss the problem until almost everyone agrees what
is to be done. We prefer to reach our decision unani-
mously.

Espanol

Cuando en nuestra comunidad surge un problema y necesi-
tamos buscarle solucion, lo mejor es llamar a una reunion
de las personas afectadas por el mismo, discutir e1 pro-
blema y llegar a una decision aceptada por todos sobre lo
que debe hacerse.

When we need a solution for a problem in our community,
the best way is for the problem to be discussed in a
community meeting and to decide the matter by vote. We
accept the majority decision even though there are still
a great many people who disagree and object to the action.

Espanol

Cuando en nuestra comunidad surge un problema y necesi-
tamos buscarle solucion, lo mejor es llamar a una reunion
y decidir 1a accion a tomar mediante votacion. La deci-
sion de la mayoria es aceptada aunque algunos se opongan
a la accion a tomar.

In deciding how to vote in an election, I prefer to make
my own decision independently and without regard for the
opinion of other family members or relatives.

Espanol

Cuando tengo que decidir como votar en una eleccion, yo

prefiero tomar mi propia decision independiente de las
opiniones que puedan tener otros miembros de la familia.

r2 (0011.) 17.

r3 (Lineal)18.

r3 (Lineal)19.

r1 (Ind.) 20.

r2 (0011.) 21.

-211-

In deciding how to vote in an election, my family dis-
cusses the matter until almost everyone agrees on the
party or candidate that the family prefers.

Espanol

Para decidir como votar en las elecciones, lo mejor es
reunir la familia y discutir e1 asunto hasta que todos
estemos de acuerdo sobre el partido o candidato por el
que debemos votar.

In deciding how to vote in an election, the way my family
votes is decided by the oldest member of the family.

Espanol

Para decidir como votar en las elecciones, lo mejor es
que sea e1 jefe de nuestra familia quien tome 1a decision
sobre como todos debemos votar.

If my brothers and sisters and I inherit a property, it
is best for the oldest brother to takecfimmge of, or manage
the property.

Espanol

Si mis hermanos y yo heredamos una prepiedad lo mas con-
veniente es que sea el hermano mayor quien se encargue
de administrar la misma. ‘

If my brothers and sisters and I inherit a property, it
is best that each of us take his or her own share and do
what he or she wants with it.

Espanol

Si mis hermanos y yo heredamos una propiedad lo mas con-
veniente es que dividamos y cada uno tome su parte de la
herencia.

If my brothers and sisters and I inherit a property, it
is best to manage the property together or decide among
ourselves who is best to take charge of things.

Espanol

Si mis hermanos y yo heredamos una propiedad lo mas con-
veniente es administrar la misma entre todos o que el mas
capacitado sea quien la administre.

r1 (Ind.)

22.

r2 (Coll.) 23.

r3 (Lineal)24.

-212-

I prefer to work on my own, to be my own boss.

Espanol

Yo prefiero trabajar por mi cuenta, ser mi propio jefe.

I prefer to work in groups in which everyone works
together and has the same rights and obligations.

E2292;

Yo prefiero trabajar en grupos en que cada uno tenga
los mismos derechos y los mismos deberes.

I prefer to work in groups in which a leader or boss
makes the important decisions.

Espanol

Yo prefiero trabajar en grupos donde un lider o jefe
haga las decisiones importantes.

III. MAN NATURE ORIENTATION

n1 (Over)

n2 (With)

25.

26.

It seems to me that modern scientific discoveries such
as antibiotics or preventive vaccines (i.e. Polio) cons-
titutes an effective way of increasing life span of man.
By using modern scientific discoveries the average life
span of human beings can be lengthened.

Espanol

Para mi 103 descubrimientos de la ciencia moderna, tales
como antibioticos, vacunas preventivas (ejemplo la del
polio) constituyen uno de los medios mas efectivos para
alargar la vida del hombre. A traves de la ciencia e1
promedio de vida del hombre se alargara.

I believe that there is a plan to life which works to
keep all living things moving together, and if man will
learn to live his whole life according to this plan, he
will live longer than other men.

Espanol

Yo creo que hay un plan para mantener e1 equilibrio 0
balance entre la naturaleza y el hombre. Si el hombre vive
en paz con la naturaleza su vida sera mas larga y feliz.

 

n\l

n3 (Sub)

n3 (Sub)

n1 (Over)

n2 (With)

27.

28.

29.

30.

-213-

I really do not believe that there is much human beings
themselves can do to make the lives of men and women
longer. It is my belief that every person has a set
time to live, and when that time comes, it just comes.

Espanol

Yo no creo que hay nada que el hombre pueda hacer para
alargar la vida de los seres humanos. Creo que cada per-
sona tiene cierto tiempo para vivir y cuando le llega su
turno, le llego y se acabo.

I think that all the activities in which human beings
engage are subjugated to the natural and supernatural
forces that affect life. Man is always subjugated to
the fate of nature.

Espanol

Yo creo que todas las actividades en las que participa el
hombre estan sujetas al poder de la naturaleza. El hombre
siempre esta sujeto a las leyes de la naturaleza.

I think that today human beings have the means and power
to master the natural and supernatural forces that affect
life. Men will be the masters of nature.

Espanol

Yo creo que hoy dia el hombre tiene los medios y el poder
para controlar y dominar las fuerzas naturales que afectan
la vida. E1 hombre moderno es el amo de la naturaleza.

I think that human beings need not be subjected to natural
and supernatural forces that affects their lives, but nei-
ther should they ignore them. It is better to live in
harmony with nature than to be subjugated to it or to at-
tempt to master it.

Espanol

Yo creo que los seres humanos no deben someterse a las
fuerzas naturales, pero tampoco deben desafiarlas. Es
mucho mejor vivir en armonia con ellas que someterse a
ellas o tratar de dominarlas.

n3 (Sub)

n2 (With)

31.

32.

n1 (Over) 33.

n3 (Sub)

34.

-214-

I believe that man can't be blamed for his failures.
There are so many things that can and do happen, and
man can do almost nothing to prevent such failures.
We have to learn to take the bad with the good.

Espanol

Yo no creo que deba culparse al hombre por sus fracasos.
Hay tantas cosas que ocurren o pueden ocurrir y que el
hombre no puede evitar. Lo major es aprender a aceptar
las cosas buenas y las malas.

I believe man can be responsible for his own failures,

but natural and supernatural forces also play an important
role. To live in harmony with nature is the right thing
to do.

Espanol

Yo creo que el hombre en parte es responsable por sus
fracasos, pero creo tambien que las fuerzas naturales
juegan un papel importante. Lo mejor es vivir en paz y
armonia con la naturaleza.

Man was created by God, but it is his own effort that
determines his own destiny. God helps those who help
themselves.

Espanol

Yo creo que Dios creo a1 hombre, pero es el hombre quien
determina su propio destino. Bien dice el refran, "ayu-
date que Dios te ayudara."

Man can never control the rain, winds, and other natural
conditions and probably never will. There have always
been good and bad years and if one is wise, he will take
it as it comes and do the best he can.

Espanol

El hombre nunca podra controlar 1a lluvia, los vientos

y otras condiciones o fuerzas de la naturaleza. Siempre
hay anos buenos y malos y si uno es listo toma las cosas
como vienen y hace lo mas que pueda.

1

 

Ill-1|!

n1 (Over) 35.

-215-

It is man's job to find ways to overcome weather and
other conditions, just as he has overcome so many things.
Some day man will succeed in mastering droughts and
floods.

Espanol

E1 hombre debe encontrar los medios de controlar las con-
diciones del tiempo al igual que se ha impuesto a otras
cosas. Algun dia el hombre podra dominar las sequias y
las inundaciones.

The best thing to do is to live in harmony with the

forces that control the rain, winds and other natural con-
ditions. To live in harmony with nature is the best way
to avoid problems.

Espanol

Lo mejor es vivir en armonia con las fuerzas que controlan
la lluvia, e1 viento y otras condiciones. Vivir en paz
con la naturaleza es lo mejor para evitar problemas.

IV. ACTIVITY ORIENTATION

 

a3 (Being) 37.

a1 (Doing) 38.

I work as hard as the average, but I prefer to use my
leisure time visiting with people, going on trips, or
just talking with whoever is around.

Espanol

Yo trabajo tan fuerte como el hombre promedio, pero pre-
fiero usar mi tiempo libre visitando mis familiares, amigos
o paseando.

I like best of all to use my leisure time doing extra
things in my house, business or farm. I am very happy
when I am busy and getting a lot of things done. Time
is money and to waste my time is to waste my money.

Espanol

Ante todo prefiero usar mi tiempo libre hacienda cosas
extra en mi casa, negocio o finca. Me siento feliz
cuando estoy ocupado y termino muchas de las cosas que
tengo pendientes. El tiempo es dinero, y perder mi
tiempo es botar dinero.

will {in}! I'll"

 

-216-

a2 (Be. in Bec.)

39.

a3 (Being) 40.

a1 (Doing) 41.

a2 (Be. in Bec.)
42.

I work a little more than the average in doing some
extra things in my home, farm or business. However,
occasionally I like to enjoy visiting with people, to
go on trips, or just to talk with some of my neighbors.

Espanol

Par 10 regular yo trabajo un poco mas que el promedio
haciendo cosas extra en mi casa, finca o negocio. Sin
embargo, de vez en cuando me gusta gozar la vida visi-
tando mis amigos, paseando o conversando con mis amigos.

What I care about most is to be left alone to think and
act in ways that best suit the way I really am. If I
don't always get much done but can enjoy life as I go
along, that is the best way.

Espanol

Lo que mas me importa es que me dejen solo para pensar
y actuar en la forma que mas se ajuste a mi manera de
ser. La vida es corta y hay que gozarla aunque no se
obtengan muchos logros.

What I care about most is accomplishing things...getting
things done just as well or better than other people do
them. I like to see results and think they are worth
working for.

Espanol

Lo que mas me importa es lograr mis metas y hacer las
cosas tan bien o mejor que las otras personas. Me gusts
ver los resultados de mis esfuerzos y creo vale la pena
luchar por lo que uno quiere.

Sometimes I like to be left alone to think and act in
the ways that best suit how I really am and sometimes I
like to accomplish things as well as other people. What
I like best is to do both - do many of the things that I
have to do, but have time left to enjoy life.

Espanol

A veces prefiero estar solo para pensar y hacer lo que
quiera. Sin embargo a veces prefiero trabajar fuerte para
lograr mis propositos. Aunque trabajo fuerte, me gusta
tener mis ratos libres para gozar de la vida.

I‘.!l.ll .

a1 (Doing) 43.

a2 (Be. in Bec.)
44.

a3 (Being) 45.

-217-

What I care most about is to teach my sons, when they
are young, to work hard. To learn how to work hard
for the accomplishment of their goals is the best in-
surance for a successful life.

Espanol

Lo que mas me interesa es ensenar a mis hijos, desde
pequenos a trabajar fuerte por lo que desean. Trabajar
fuerte por lo que se desea es el mejor seguro para el
exito en la vida.

In raising my children what I care most about is to
bring them up in a way that they learn to work for what
they want, but at the same time to enjoy life. To teach
them to balance their play and work time is the best way
to raise them.

Espanol

Para mis hijos lo que mas me interesa es ensenarles a
trabajar fuerte por lo que desean, pero a la vez que
aprendan a disfrutar o gozar la vida. Les enseno a man-
tener un balance entre el juego y el trabajo.

In raising my children, what I care most is to provide
them all the happiness that I can. Children are children
and while they are young they have to play and enjoy life,
because later life will be hard for them.

Espanol

En la crianza de mis hijos lo que mas me importa es darles
toda la felicidad que yo pueda. Los ninos son ninos y
mientras estan en su ninez ellos tienen que gozar la vida
porque cuando sean grandes la vida sera muy fuerte para ellos.

In my leisure time what I like best is to read about new
things and to do some kind of productive work.

Espanol

En mi tiempo libre lo que mas me gusta es leer sobre
cosas nuevas y hacer alguna clase de trabajo productive.

a3 (Being) 47.

a2 (Be. in Bec.)

48.

-218-

In my leisure time what I like most is to talk with my
friends or to have some kind of fun. Life is so short
that we have to enjoy it.

Espanol

En mi tiempo libre lo que mas me gusta es charlar con
mis amigos o pasar un buen rato en cosas que no se rela-
cionen con mi trabajo. La vida es muy corta y tenemos
que gozarla.

In my leisure time what I like best is to use some of
my time learning or trying out new things and part of it
having fun with my friends.

333291121

En mi tiempo libre lo que mas me gusta es usar parte del
mismo haciendo algun trabajo que me beneficie y parte del
mismo gozando la vida - por ejemplo, dando chiste con mis
amigos o vecinos.

APPENDIX B

Factor analytic data on value orientations.

~220-

FACTOR.MATRIX - TWO FACTOR SOLUTION

VARIMAX ROTATION ANALYSIS.

PROPORTIONS OF VARIANCE.
1 .2970 2 .1249

HIGHEST LOADINGS.

1 .8200 2 .6232
COMMUNALITIES.

1 .6433 2 .3850 3 .2281
4 .2828 5 .6324 6 .3584
7 .6829 8 .3593 9 .4089
10 .4001 11 .0350 12 .3375
13 .5236 14 .4758 15 .5276
16 .4222

ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS.

l 2 1 2
l .7984 .0763 9 -.1430 .6232
2 .6178 .0578 10 .5603 -.2935
3 -.0570 -.4742 11 .0538 -.1792
4 .4486 -.2857 12 .1393 .5640
5 .7326 -.3092 13 .7188 -.0834
6 -.0443 -.5970 14 .6575 .2085
7 .8200 .1023 15 .4512 -.5692

8 .5820 -.1433 16 .6495 -.0183

-221-

FACTOR ARRAYS FOR THREE TYPES

Description

 

001

002

003

004

005

006

007

Children should be taught the traditions

of the past. (The ways of the old people.)
I believe that the old ways are best, and
that it is when children do not follow them
that things go wrong. T3-Psst

Children should be taught some of the old
traditions, but it is wrong to insist that
they stick to these old ways. I believe
that it is necessary for children always

to learn about and take on whatever of the
new ways will best help them get along in
the world of today. T2-Pres

In raising children I do not believe that
they should be taught much about past tra-
ditions. I believe that the world goes
along best when children are taught the
things that will make them want to find out
for themselves new and better ways of doing
things to replace the old. Tl-Fut

I really expect my children to have more
than I have had if they work hard and plan
right. There are always good chances for
people who try. Tl-Fut

I don't know whether my children will be

better off, worse, or just the same.

Things always go up and down even if one

works hard, so we can't really tell.
TZ-Pres

I expect my children to have just about

the same as I had or bring things back

as they once were. It is their job to
work hard and find ways to keep going as
they have been in the past. T3-Past

The past is gone and the future is much

too uncertain to count on. So I believe

it is best to give most attention to what
is happening now in the present. T2-Pres

-1.63

1.31

.84

.92

.64

-1.51

.22

-.55

-1.43

-.62

.35

.88

1.28

.38

.55

1.43

.62

-.88

-l.28

008

009

010

011

012

013

014

015

016

-222-

I think that the ways of the past (tradi-

tional ways) are right and best, and as

changes come things usually get worse.
T3-Past

I believe that it is almost always the ways
of the future - the ways which are still to
come - which will be best, and even though
there are sometimes small setbacks, changes
bring improvements. Tl-Fut

I am very pleased with the changes occuring

here and everywhere because the new ways are
usually better than the old ones. I like to
see everything - even religious ceremonies -
moving ahead. Tl-Fut

I am very unhappy because of the changes that
are occuring here and everywhere. I think
that our ways of living should be kept ex-
actly the same in every way - as they were

in the past. T3-Past

I feel that the old ways of living are bet-
ter but we just can't hang on to them. It
makes life easier to accept some changes as
they come along. TZ-Pres

When we need a solution for a problem in our

community it is best to depend on our com-

munity leaders to decide what is to be done.
R3-Lineal

When we need a solution for a problem in our
community, it is best to call a meeting of
the people affected and discuss the problem
until almost everyone agrees what is to be
done. We prefer to reach our decision una-
nimously. RZ-Coll

When we need a solution for a problem in our
community, the best way is for the problem to
be discussed in a community meeting and to de-
cide the matter by vote. We accept the majo-
rity decision even though there are still a
great many people who disagree and object to
the action. Rl-Ind

In deciding how to vote in an election, I pre-
fer to make my own decision independently and
without regard for the opinion of other family
members or relatives. Rl-Ind

-2.08

.20

-1.72

.25

-1.11

1.93

1.47

1.21

-.56

.91

1.40

1.09

.62

-1.47

-1.21

-.91

-1.40

-1.09

-.62

 

 

III
I

.lelf.
ll.

 

017

018

019

020

021

022

023

024

025

026

027

-223-

In deciding how to vote in an election, my
family discusses the matter until almost
everyone agrees on the party or candidate
that the family prefers. R2-Coll

In deciding how to vote in an election, the
way my family votes is decided by the oldest
member of the family. R3-Linea1

If my brothers and sisters and I inherit a

property, it is best for the oldest brother

to take charge of, or manage the property.
R3-Linea1

If my brothers and sisters and I inherit a
property, it is best that each of us take
his or her own share and do what he or she
wants with it. ‘ ‘ Rl-Ind

If my brothers and sisters and I inherit a
property, it is best to manage the property
together or decide among ourselves who is
best to take charge of things. R2-Coll

I prefer to work on my own, to be my own boss.
Rl-Ind

I prefer to work in groups in which every-
one works together snd has the same rights
and obligations. R2-Coll

I prefer to work in groups in which a les-
der or boss makes the important decisions.
R3-Linea1

It seems to me that modern scientific dis-
coveries such as antibiotics or preventive
vaccines (i.e. polio) constitutes an effec-
tive way of increasing life span of man.

By using modern scientific discoveries the
average life span of human beings can be
lengthened. Nl-Over

I believe that there is a plan to life
which works to keep all living things moving
together, and if man will learn to live his
whole life according to this plan, he will
live longer than other men. N2-WIth

I really do not believe that there is much
human beings themselves can do to make the
lives of men and women longer. It is my be-
lief that every person has a set time to live,
and when that time comes, it just comes.
N3-Sub

-1.25

-2.10

-1.04

-.68

1.80

.38

-1.49

1.40

-.79

-1.69

-.13

.10

.69

-.18

1.05

1.38

.68

.38

1.04

1.69

.13

-.10

-.69

.18

-1.05

-1.38

-.68

-1.04

028

029

030

031

032

033

034

035

036

-224-

I think that all the activities in which
human beings engage are subjugated to the
natural and supernatural forces that af-
fect life. Man is always subjugated to
the fate of nature. N3-Sub

I think that today human beings have the
means and power to master the natural and
supernatural forces that affect life. Men
will be the masters of nature. Nl-Over

I think that human beings need not be sub-
jected to natural and supernatural forces
that affects their lives, but neither should
they ignore them. It is better to live in
harmony with nature than to be subjugated to
it or to attempt to master it. N2-With

I believe that man can't be blamed for his
failures. There are so many things that can
and do happen, and man can do almost nothing
to prevent such failures. We have to learn
to take the bad with the good. N3-Sub

I believe man can be responsible for his own
failures, but natural and supernatural forces
also play an important role. To live in har-
mony with nature is the right thing to do.
NZ-With

Man was created by God, but it is his own
effort that determines his own destiny. God
helps those who help themselves. Nl-Over

Man can never control the rain, winds, and
other natural conditions and probably never
will. There have always been good and bad
years and if one is wise, he will take it
as it comes and do the best he can.

N3-Sub

It is man's job to find ways to overcome
weather and other conditions, just as he has
overcome so many things. Some day man will
succeed in mastering droghts and floods.
Nl-Over

The best thing to do is to live in harmony
with the forces that control the rain, winds
and other natural conditions. To live in
harmony with nature is the best way to avoid
problems. N2-With

-.06

-1.27

.27

.84

.60

.18

.60

.57

-.31

-.15

.10

.25

-.13

-.57

.31

.15

-.10

.07

.13

 

 

 

 

037

038

039

040

041

042

043

044

-225-

I work as hard as the average, but I prefer .24
to use my leisure time visiting with people,

going on trips, or just talking with who-

ever is around. A3-Being

I like best of all to use my leisure time .76
doing extra things in my house, business or
farm. I am very happy when I am busy and
getting a lot of things done. Time is money
and to waste my time is to waste my money.
Al-Doing

I work a little more than the average in .10
doing some extra things in my home, farm or
business. However, occasionally I like to
enjoy visiting with peOple, to go on trips,
or just to talk with some of my neighbors.

AZ-Be In Bec

What I care about most is to be left alone -l.03
to think and act in ways that best suit the

way I really am. If I don't always get much

done but can enjoy life as I go along, that

is the best way. A3-Being

What I care about most is accomplishing 1.20
things...Getting things done just as well

or better than other people do them. I

like to see results and think they are worth
working for. Al-Doing

Sometimes I like to be left alone to think .20
and act in the ways that best suit how I

really am and sometimes I like to accomplish

things as well as other people. What I like

best is to do both - do many of the things

that I have to do, but have time left to

enjoy life. AZ-Be In Bec

What I care most about is to teach my sons, .79
when they are young, to work hard. To learn

how to work hard for the accomplishment of

their goals is the best insurance for a suc-

cessful life. Al-Doing

In raising my children what I care most about .80
is to bring them up in a way that they learn

to work for what they want but at the same

time to enjoy life. To teach them to balance

their play and work time is the best way to

raise them. A2-Be In Bec

.65

-l.04

.95

.11

-.05

-.78

-.65

1.04

-.95

-.11

-.31

-226-

045 In raising my children, what I care most -.

about is to provide them all the happiness
that I can. Children are children and while
they are young they have to play and enjoy
life, because later life will be hard for
them. A3-Being

046 In my leisure time what I like best is to
read about new things and to do some kind
of productive work. Al-Doing

047 In my leisure time what I like most is to -l
talk with my friends or to have some kind
of fun. Life is so short that we have to
enjoy it. A3-Being

048 In my leisure time what I like best is to
use some of my time learning or trying out
new things and part of it having fun with

 

my friends. AZ-Be in Bec
Correlations

l 2 3
1 1.000

2 -.054 1.000

3 .054-l.000 1.000

86

.80

.02

-2.24

-2.65

-l.94

-2.42

2.24

2.65

1.94

2.42

-227-

CONSENSUS ITEMS
(No diff. more than 1.000)

005

010

012

020

026

030

031

032

034

I don't know whether my children will be better off,
worse, or just the same. Things always go up and down
even if one works hard, so we can't really tell. T2-Pres

I am very pleased with the changes occuring here and

everywhere because the new ways are usually better than
the old ones. I like to see everything - even religious
ceremonies - moving ahead. Tl-Fut

I feel that the old ways of living are better but we just
can't hang on to them. It makes life easier to accept
some changes as they come along. TZ-Pres

If my brothers and sisters and I inherit a property, it
is best that each of us take his or her own share and do
what he or she wants with it. Rl-Ind

I believe that there is a plan to life which works to
keep all living things moving together, and if man will
learn to live his whole life according to his plan, he
will live longer than other men. NZ-With

I think that human beings need not be subjected to nat-
ural and supernatural forces that affects their lives,
but neither should they ignore them. It is better to
live in harmony with nature than to be subjugated to it
or to attempt to master it. N2-With

I believe that man can't be blamed for his failures.
There are so many things that can and do happen, and
man can do almost nothing to prevent such failures.

We have to learn to take the bad with the good. N3-Sub

I believe man can be responsible for his own failures,
but natural and supernatural forces also play an im-
portant role. To live in harmony with nature is the
right thing to do. N2-With

Man can never control the rain, winds, and other nat-
ural conditions and probably never will. There have
always been good and bad years and if one is wise, he
will take it as it comes and do the best he can. N3-Sub

Average

.21

.07

.08

.11

.15

.09

.28

035

036

042

-228-

It is man's job to find ways to overcome weather

and other conditions, just as he has overcome so many
things. Some day man will succeed in mastering droughts
and floods. Nl-Over

The best thing to do is to live in harmony with the
forces that control the rain, winds and other natural
conditions. To live in harmony with nature is the

best way to avoid problems. N2-With

Sometimes I like to be left alone to think and act in
the ways that best suit how I really am and sometimes
I like to accomplish things as well as other people.
What I like best is to do both - do many of the things
that I have to do, but have time left to enjoy life.

AZ-Be in Bec

.ll

.20

APPENDIX C

Correlational data.

-230-

Table l -- Value Orientations Correlations Matrix

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Traditional Transitional Progressive
(Type II) (Type 111) (Type 1)

Demographic Data
Age (in years) -.24* .16* .14*
Education .03 .01 .04
No. of Acres -.l6* .00 .15*
Dairy Heads -.16* .03 .17*
Milk Production -.l3* .00 .15*
Near-Far Index
Awareness
Intra-Community -.05 .02 .04
Extra-Community Near .16* .06 -.13*
Extra-Community Far -.12 .08 .08
Impersonal -.02 .08 .07
Deutschmann Channel
Index-Interest
Egocentric -.05 .00 -.Ol
Intra-Community .03 .07 -.05
Extra-Community -.ll .00 .04
Impersonal -.02 .04 .13*
Near-Far Index
Interest Stage
Intra-Community .02 -.11 -.13*
Extra-Community Near .07 .09 -.08
Extra-Community Far -.l3* .03 .13*
Impersonal -.ll .04 .13*
Mass Media
Radio .08 .00 -.07
Press -.07 -.06 .13*
Farm Magazines -.24* .12 .18*
Television .04 -.03 .02
Technical Bulletins -.08 .08 .09
All Media -.12 .05 .11
Use of Personal Sources
Awareness Stage -.13* .03 .13*
Interest Stage -.13* .05 .ll

-231-

Table l -- Value Orientations Correlations Matrix

 

 

 

 

Traditional Transitional Progressive
(Type II) (Type III) (Type 1)

Formal Organizations -.15* .09 .13*
Diffusion Process
No. of Practices

heard about -.21* .03 .22*
No. Practices Secondary

Sources Used -.16* .04 .16*
No. Practices Tried -.15* .03 .16*
No. Practices Continued -.12 .00 .14*
Adoption Indices

Time of Awareness -.02 .02 .02
Adoption Time -.11 .00 .13*
Average Adoption -.09 .04 .14*
Adoption Category -.l4* .06 .13*

 

*Significant - r - .1276

-232-

Table 2 -- Communication Channel Orientations Correlation Matrix

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ego- Intra- Extra- Imper-
centric Community Community sonal

Demographic Data
Age (in years) .00 .06 .09 -.04
Education (in years) -.20* -.14* -.12 .28*
No. of acres -.l6* -.07 .13* .24*
Size of Dairy Herd -.15* -.O6 .14* .23*
Milk production

(in thousands quarts) -.13* -.02 .13* .30*

per week)
General Media Exposure
Radio -.05 .16* .10 .13*
Press -.l6* -.07 .01 .29*
Farm Magazines -.22* .02 .30* .42*
Television -.03 .02 .15* .08
Technical Bulletins -.07 .16* .04 .42*
Social Behavior
Advice Seeking .21* .23* -.23* -.01
Advice Giving .l4* .17* -.20* .01
Belonging to

Organizations -.31* .09 .19* .24*
Participation in
Diffusion Stages
Awareness .20* .09 .32* .14*
Interest -.33* .01 .21* .43*
Trial .09 .08 .29* .20*
Adoption -.09 .07 .29* .20*
Adoption Process
Time of Awareness -.09 .10 -.04 .03
Time of Adoption -.l4* -.l4* .27* .17*
Average Adoption .05 .04 .28* .18*
Adoption Category -.l7* .08 .23* .42*

 

Significant (r a .1276)

-233-

Table 3 -- Mass Media Exposure Correlation Matrix

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Radio Press Farm Tele- Tech. All
Mag. vision Bull. Media

Social Behavior
Advice Seeking .10 .ll .07 .03 .33* .23*
Advice Giving .16* .09 .ll .10 .34* .27*
Belonging to

Organizations .16* .22* .41* .07 .20* .42*
Participation in
Diffusion Stages
Awareness .01 .15* .40* .15* -.02 .26*
IntereSt 004 025* 036* -008 -006 036*
Adoption .24* .25* .30* .24* .23* .43*
Adgption Process

Time of Awareness -.04 .07 .09 .09 .09 .08
Time of Adoption -.04 .09 .24* .15* .10 .20*
Adoption Index--

No Disadoption .22* .27* .21* .24* .30* .42*
Average Adoption--
Disadoption Included .26* .26* .13* .21* .29* .37*
Adoption Category .17* .19* .33* .16* .10 .35*
Personal Sources
Awareness -.l7* -.10 -.16 -.20 -.15* -.07
Interest Stage .14* -.04 .14* -.ll .15 .15*
Demggraphic Data
Age (years) .05 -.04 -.01 .02 .08 .02
Education (years) .10 .19* .29* -.05 .01 .18*
NO. Acres -003 013* 032* -006 005 021*
No. Dairy Heads .02 .15* .36* -.05 .02 .23*
Milk Production -.05 .13* .36* -.O4 .06 .24*

APPENDIX D

Sociometric data.

-235-

Sociometric Data

*Table 4-- Person-Channels of First Source for Relatives and Non-Relatives
in the Barrio and Outside of the Barrio - Hatillo Municipality

 

Person- Number of Times He Served Number of Times He Served
Channel as First Source in his own as First Source in Other
Number Barrio Barrio

 

Relative Non-Relative Total Relative Non-Relative Total

 

 

 

094 01 00 01 06 08 14
080 06 02 08 02 06 08
065 05 03 08 00 01 01
093 02 04 06 01 01 02
082 03 01 04 02 01 03
078 02 04 06 00 00 00
033 00 03 03 02 01 03
027 00 05 05 00 01 01
077 00 01 01 01 03 04
068 01 00 01 01 03 04
092 02 02 04 00 01 01
066 00 00 00 02 02 04
013 00 01 01 01 02 03
074 00 03 03 00 01 01
Total 22 29 51 18 31 49
Mean 1.57 2.07 3.64 1.28 2.21 3.50

 

*Data are concerned only with cases in which a farmer mentioned he heard
about a practice on his own barrio. A person-channel of first source
could be from the same barrio or one who just visited the receiver of
the information in his farm. All data are based on first source for 10
dairy farm practices.

-236-

*Table 5 -- Person-Channels of First Source of Information in
Hatillo Municipality - Region I

 

 

 

 

Subject Number of Number of Relatives Non-Relatives
EEEPEE. Farmers Using Times He He Served He Served as
Person* Him as First Served as as First First Source
Channel Source First Source Source
094 15 30 07 08
080 16 29 08 08
065 09 22 04 05
093 08 14 03 05
082 07 ll 04 03
078 O6 09 02 O4
033 06 09 Ol 05
027 06 09 00 06
077 05 15 01 04
068 05 09 04 01
092 05 07 03 02
066 O4 15 02 02
013 04 ll 00 04
074 04 O6 00 04
Total Raw
Scores 100 196 39 64
Mean 7.14 14 2.79 4.57

 

*Data are concerned only with cases in which a farmer mentioned he heard
about a practice on his own barrio. A person-channel of first source
could be from the same barrio or one who just visited the receiver in
his farm. All data are based on first source for 10 dairy farm practices.

 

1's.” '1‘ HI ”1

-237-

*Table 6 -- Mean Number of Practices in which Person-Channels Were
Used as First Source of Information by Dairy Farmers
of Hatillo Municipality

 

 

Person-Channel Number of Practices He
Served as First Source
(Mean Per Person)
092 3.75
077 3.00
013 2.75
065 2.44
094 2.00
080 1.81
068 1.80
093 1.75
078 1.50
033 1.50
027 1.50
074 1.50

 

*The data only includes those farmers who were mentioned by more than one
fellow farmer as a first source of information.

-238-

*Table 7 -- Number of Dairy Farmers Served by Person-Channels with
Respect to Community Boundaries

 

 

Person-Channel % of Dairy Farmers % of Dairy Farmers He
He Served as First Served as First Source
Source in his Commu- Beyond the Community
nity (His Barrio) (Outside his Barrio)
094 6% 94%
080 50% 50%
065 88% 12%
093 75% 25%
082 57% 43%
078 100% 00%
033 50% 50%
027 83% 17%
077 20% 80%
068 20% 80%
092 80% 20%
066 00% 100%
013 25% 75%
074 75% 25%

 

*The data are concerned specifically with the number of persons served
and with how many of them are from the same community or from other
community.

-239-

*Table 8 -- Patterns of Relationships between Person-Channels of First
Source and Receivers Within and Outside the Community

 

Person-Channel

% of Relatives Served

by the Person-Channel

% of Non-Relatives Served
by the Person-Channel

 

 

 

Own Other Total Own Other Total
Barrio Barrio Barrio Barrio
094 06 40 46 00 54 54
080 37 13 50 13 37 50
065 55 00 55 33 37 50
093 25 12 37 50 13 63
082 43 29 72 14 14 28
078 33 00 33 67 00 67
033 00 33 33 50 17 67
027 00 00 00 83 17 100
077 00 20 20 20 60 80
068 20 20 40 00 60 60
092 40 00 40 40 20 60
066 00 50 50 00 50 50
013 00 25 25 25 50 75
074 00 75 75 00 25 25
*Across 10 dairy farm practices.
*Table 9 -- Comparison Between General Characteristics of the Dairy

Farmers Population from Region I and the Person Serving as
Channels of Information

 

Person-Channels

General Population

Difference

 

(Mean) (Mean) Between Means
Age 46.42 46.07 0.35
Years Attended
to School 8.35 7.81 0.54
Milk Production
in Thousands
of Quarts 6.25 4.13 2.12

 

1,!‘l n ..h. N1510l{

-240-

*Table 10 -- Person-Channels of First Source of Information in
Arecibo Municipality -- Region I

 

 

Subject Number of Number of Relatives Non-Relatives
Number Farmers Times He He Served He Served as
Person- Using Him Served as as First First Source
Channel as First First Source Source
Source

168 8 15 0 8

171 4 4 0 4

175 3 4 0 3

166 3 l6 0 3

157 3 3 0 3

 

*Total dairy farmers population of 37. Of these 20 mentioned at least
one practice of which they heard for first time in the barrio; one first
source can be mentioned by more than one farmer. Across 10 practices

 

Contrary to the observations in Hatillo municipality first sources of
information were 100% non-relatives to the receivers.

*Table 11 -- Mean Number of Practices in which Person-Channels were
used as First Source of Information by Dairy Farmers of
Arecibo Municipality

 

Person-Channel Mean Number of Practices
He Served as First Source
Per Person

166 5.33
168 1.87
175 1.33
171 1.00
157 1.00

 

*The data only includes those farmers who were mentioned by more than
one farmer as first source of information.

‘w. .

-241-

Table 12 -- Number of Dairy Farmers Served by Person-Channels with 1
Respect to Community Boundaries

 

 

Person-Channel No. of Dairy Farmers No. of Dairy Farmers He
He Served as First Served as First Source
Source in his Com- beyond the Community
munity (his barrio) (Outside of his barrio) ‘
168 5 3 ;
171 2 2 1
175 3 0 *
157 3 0 .
166 2 1 f

 

Comparison between General Characteristics of the Dairy Farmers
Population from Region I and the Persons serving as Channels of
First Source

 

 

Arecibo
Person-Channels General Population Difference
(Mean) (Mean)
Age (in years) 48.50 46.07 2.43
Years of School 10.50 7.81 2.69

Attended

Milk Production
in Thousands of
Quarts 4.09 4.13 -.04

 

-242-

Table 13 -- Frequency and Percentage of Adopters Influenced at Least
Once by Opinion Leaders from Region I

 

I - Hatillo Municipality Influentials

 

 

 

Municipality Dairy Farmers No. of Adopters % of Adopters
Population Influenced at Influenced at
Least Once by Least Once by
Opinion Leaders Opinion Leaders
Hatillo 93 85 91%
Arecibo 37 12 32%
Manati 21 01 15%
Camuy 14 06 42%
Total for the Region 165 104 63%

 

II - Arecibo Municipality Influentials

 

 

Arecibo 37 28 75%
Hatillo 93 03 03%
Manati 21 Ol 05%
Camuy 14 01 07%
Total for the Region 165 33 20%

 

III - Manati Influentials

 

 

 

Manati 21 21 100%
Arecibo 37 03 08%
Camuy 14 00 00%
Hatillo 93 00 00%
Total for Region I 165 24 15%
Vega Baja 06 03 50%
Dorado 06 02 33%
Toa Baja 12 01 08%
Guaynabo 08 00 00%
Bayamon 08 00 00%
Corozal 10 00 00%
Vega Alta 04 00 00%

Toa Alta 14 00 00%

-243-

Table 13 -- (Cont.)

 

Camuy Municipality

 

 

 

Municipality Dairy Farmers No. of Adopters % of Adopters
Population Influenced at Influenced at
Least Once by Least Once by
Opinion Leaders Opinion Leaders
Camuy 14 8 57%
Arecibo 37 1 03%
Hatillo 93 1 01%
Manati 21 0 0%
Total for the Region 165 10 6%

 

Table 14 -- Frequency and Percentage of Adopters Influenced at Least
Once by Opinion Leaders from Region II

 

Toa Baja Municipality

 

 

Municipality Dairy Farmers No. of Adopters % of Adopters
Population Influenced at Influenced at
Least Once by Least Once by
Opinion Leaders Opinion Leaders
Toa Baja 12 7 58%
Vega Alta 4 1 25%
Dorado 6 3 50%
Vega Baja 6 0 0%
Corozal 10 O 0%
Guaynabo 8 0 0%
Bayamon 8 0 0%
Toa Alta 14 0 0%

 

...:
...:

Total for the Region 68 16%

 

-244-

Table 15 -- No. of Adopters Influenced by Opinion Leaders

 

Opinion In his Barrio Outside his Other Muni- Total No.
Leader Barrio Same cipality He Influ-
Municipality enced

 

Hatillo
Region I

094
080
078
074
065
093
077
027
033
092
109
068
079
013
066

N
b
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24
15
13
10
12

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Region I

166
157

J-‘N
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Manati
Region I

211
205 2

H
UN

Camuy

Region I
124 O 4 2 6

Toa Baja
Region II

 

255 1 2 1 4
257 1 3 3 7

 

The data only includes those dairy farmers who were mentioned by at least
four adopters as the most influential source across 10 dairy farm practices.

APPENDIX E

Maps of the regions and municipalities included in the study.

-246-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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