REGRESSION IN THE SERVICE OF THE EGO:
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EGO FUNCVIONS

Thai: for the Degree 9f Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNWERSWY
David B. Pryor
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thesis entitled
REGRESSION IN THE SERVICE OF THE EGO:

PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT AND
EGO FUNCTIONS

presented by

David B. Pryor

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of the requirements for

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REGRESSION IN THE SERVICE OF THE EGO:
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT AND
EGO FUNCTIONS

BY

David B. Pryor

AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Psychology

1962

u? ; .,

ABSTRACT

REGRESSION IN THE SERVICE OF THE EGO:
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT AND
EGO FUNCTIONS

by David B. Pryor

In the process of daily functioning, the ego is engaged
in many levels of activity ranging from very logical problem
solving +3 fantasy activity which may become illogical. The
process irvolved in changing from one level of functioning to
another is the subject of concern of this study. The theOa
retinal orLentation of the study falls under the general
heading of regression in the service of the ego. In
elaborating the theory of regression, an attempt was made to
Specify pcssible contributions to the deveIOping ego from the
various psychosexual stages that might affect the ego
functions involved in the progressive and regressive phases
of regression in the service of the ego. We suggested that

oral receptivity might be related to the regressive phase,

D

I

that anal r tentiveness might be related to the progressive
phase, and that the over-all amount of psychosexual dis-
turhance might be negatively related to the variability of
the pecunis level.

Sixty male college students in elementary psychology
ccnrses served as subjects. The Blacky Test was used as a

A

measure or psychosexual disturbance. Three cards of the

David B. Pryor

Rorschach were administered in group form. The first card
(Card I) was used as an introduction to the technique. Cards
VII and IX were administered for thirty minutes each. The
extended time period was used to facilitate production of
primary process material. Responses were scored by the Holt
system, yielding measures of primary process, secondary
process, control and defense, and an estimated psychic
level. A correlation matrix was obtained for the total data
and the matrix was factor analyzed. The correlations rem
lating to the hypotheses were in the expected direction, but
few of them reached significance. Additional measures were
suggestive.

The conclusions of the study were as follows: (1)
Although the concepts of ego function and ego state are use-
ful theoretical and clinical tools, the possibility must be
kept in mind that the low correlations of the present study
may be accounted for by the unapplicability of these con-
cepts to experimental work. (2) The low correlations may
also be accounted for by the lack of severe difficulties in
passivity and logical functioning in the sample, by the low
reliability of the Rorschach measures, and by the incomplete
measures uhtained from the Blacky. (3) In terms of the
hypotheses, the suggestion is seen that difficulty in early
development and object relations may be related to a de-
crease in secondary process functioning, an increase in the

amcunt at primary process, and a movement of the psychic

David B. Pryor

level toward primary process domination. The suggestion

was also made that anality may not be related to an overall
ego effect. (4) The data suggest that the ego-syntonic and
ego-dystonic nature of a conflict may have a differential
effect on the ego. The data also suggest that primary and
secondary process functioning may each have at least two I
distinct aspects. (5) In terms of the theory, it is sug-
gested that both the progressive and regressive ego functions
may be related to early development and that the mode of
reaction must be considered in this relationship as well as
the point of organ fixation. It was also suggested that

the same individual probably has both adaptive and un-
adaptive ego movements, and that the relationship of each of
these to develOpment may be quite different.

In view of the many questions raised by the study, a
program of research was outlined that might offer evidence
regarding the questions. The theoretical application of the
theory and the results were discussed in terms of the theory

of therapy and in tenme of the general theory of neurosis.

REGRESSION IN THE SERVICE OF THE EGO:
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT AND
EGO FUNCTIONS

by

David BlfPryor

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Psychology

1962

FOR PHYLLIS AND BENJY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author would like to extend sincere appreciation
to Dr. Albert I. Rabin, whose support and direction through
the formative stages of both the underlying theory and the
experimental design were of immeasurable help. Dr. Rabin's
willingness to offer his time and his keen sense of theory
were major factors in the success of this research. To Dr.
M. Ray Denny, who served as chairman of the study, the
author would like to extend his appreciation not only for
his support and editing of the final manuscript,but for
his willingness to delve into areas outside of his usual
interests, and to do so with an cpen mind and genuine
enthusiasm.

To Dr. Bill L. Kell the author would like to express
his deep appreciation for not only his willing critical
appraisal of the study, but for his counsel as a friend and
colleague. The author also wishes to express his appreci-
ation and gratitude to Drs. Terry Allen and Joe Reyher for
their help and support. Dr. Reyher's perceptive theo-
retical comments were of immeasurable aid as was Dr. Allen's
help with the statistical aspects of the study. '

As with most studies of this sort, the author's in-
debtedness extends beyond those directly connected with the

study. Foremost among my colleagues I would like to express

111

my appreciation to Dr. Jacques Levy. Dr. Levy's interest in
this area and his stimulating comments on the present study
have been a major factor in the present form of both the
research and the theory. Mr. Mel Wineberg's comments on the
study which stemmed from his own interest in the area were of
immense help. The author would also like to express his ap-
preciation to Mr. Ken Lessler and Mr. James Clark. Mr. Clark
was very helpful in assisting with the statistical computa-
tions and the necessary computor work. Mr. Lessler's comments
on the study were very helpful, both in the early stages and
the final form of the study.

It is difficult to name every individual whose help has
made this study possible. In way of a general statement of
appreciation, the author would like to extend his gratitude
to the full-time and secretarial staff of the Michigan State
Counseling Center. The research was carried out using the
facilities of the center and these facilities were willingly
provided. The secretarial staff was extremely helpful in
duplicating research materials when they were needed. The
author would also like to express his appreciation to Mrs.
Ann Brown, who was willing to type the manuscript under con-
siderable time pressure.

The one sorrowful note in the completion of the study
was the untimely death of Dr. Gerald F. King. The loss of
Dr. King's guidance to the present study seems a small thing
when his loss to the field as a whole and his family are con-
sidered. The author would like to express his appreciation to

Dr. King as well as expressing his sorrow at his premature death.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . .'. . .

REGRESSION IN THE SERVICE

Historical Background .
Ego Psychology . . . .
Ego Regression . .

OF THE EGO .

State of Equilibrium .
Sources of Variation at
Dynamics of Regression
Sources of Variation in
Dynamics of Progression

Sources of Variation in
Oscillation . . . . . .

Theoretical Summary . . .

Genetic Point of View .

Structural Point of View

Adaptive Point of View
Economic Point of View
Dynamic Point of View .

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Hypothesis I . . . . .
Hypothesis II . . . . .
Hypothesis III . . . .

Subjects .

Instruments . . . . . . .
A. Rorschach . . . . .
Rationale 0 e e e e
Rorschach Mo dificat
Procedure . . . . .

B. The Blacky Test . .
Rationale . . . . .
Procedure . . . . .

C. The Intelligence Me
HypOtheseS e e e e e e e
Hypothesis I . . . . .
Hypothesis Ia . . . . .
Hypothesis Ib . . ; . .
Hypothesis Ic . . . . .

1...:-

Equilibrium
Regression
PrOgression

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESES

O O O O O

o 0 Q o e

O O O O O O
O O O O C O
O C O O O O
O O O O O 0
one . e e e
O O O O O O
O O O O O O
O O O O O O
O O C 0 O I
sure o e e
O C O O C O
O I O O O O
O O O O O O
C O O O 0 O
O O O O O O

. C I O O O O O O O O O C O O

O O O I O O O O O C

O O O O O O O O O C O O O C O

O O O O Q 0 I O O C O O O O O O

O O O O O C O O O O O O O O C O O

O O C I 0 O O O O O O O C 0 O

45
47
47
47
47
48

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e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
0 O 0 e e e e e e e e e o e e O

Hypothesis III

Analysis

Hypothesis IIc
RESULTS .

Hypothesis II . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis IIa
Hypothesis IIb

51

I O O O

Hypothesis II 0 e e e e e e e e e
Hypothesis III

Control Measures
Hypothesis I

Hypothesis I
Additional Analyses e e e e e e e

Hypotheses

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Remaining BlflCky Dimensions 0 e e e e e e e e e 0

Factor Analysis 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e
FaCtor IV 0 e o e e e e e e 0
Factor V

Factor III
DISCUSSION

Factor I
Factor II

69

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Hypothesis I

Hypotheses

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Hypothesis III

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Factor I

vi

Comments on the Factor Analysis .
Theory in Light of the Data . . . .
General Theory . . .
Theory and the Low Correlations .
Experimental Design and the Theory
Predictions and the Data . .
Theoretical Revisions and Additions
Activity and Passivity Redefined
Genetic Relationships, How Early
Ego- Syntonic, Ego-Dystonic . . .
Dual Aspects of Primary and Second
New Questions for Old . . . . . . .
Suggestive Answers . . . . . . .
New Questions . . . .
Applications and Suggested Research
Theoretical Research . . . . .
Applications to Other Areas . . .

0.....m....o

CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S mmy O C O 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O O
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

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Table
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.

XI.

LIST OF TABLES

Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . .
Rorschach Intercorrelations . .
Blacky Intercorrelations . . .
Rorschach-Blacky Correlations .
Rorschach Reliability . . . . .
Hypotheses and Observed Results
Additional Measure Groupings .
Additional Analysis, Hypothesis
Additional Analysis, Hypothesis

II

Additional Analysis, Remaining Blacky

Dimensions . . . . . . . . .

Factor Analysis, Rotated Factors

viii

Page
49
51
52
53
54
55
59
61
64

55
67

INTRODUCTION

In the continuing deveIOpment of psychoanalytic theory,
the emphasis of discussion has gradually shifted from un-
conscious processes or what has been called 'id psychology'
to reality and the problems of adaptation or what has been
called 'ego psychology.‘ One of the concepts to come out
of this emphasis has been regression in the service of the
ego. Since the develOpment and elaboration of this theme
in psychoanalytic theory, psychologists began to investigate
the relevance and usefulness of the concept for personality
assessment. Since the original speculations of Kris, how-
ever, the emphasis has been on the elaboration of the
usefulness and applicability of the concept. No systematic
attempt has been made to integrate some of the recent
analytic findings with the theory of regression. In general,
the elaboration of the theory of regression has been ignored
in favor of the applicability of the concept.

One of the purposes of this study is to bring together
some of the speculations concerning the theory of regression
and to integrate them with current analytic findings. For a
full understanding of the meaning of the concept of ego re-
gression, we will briefly trace the historical roots of ego

psychOIOgy, delve into some of the major concepts of ego

psychology proper, and attempt to fairly completely bring
together the recent thinking on the theory of ego regres-
sion. To increase the applicability of our discussion for
personality assessment, we will use as the center post of
our discussion individual variation in the process involved
in ego regression.

In order to estimate the usefulness of the integrated
theory. W; will attempt to test some of the relationships
postuletcd in the individual variations in the process of
regression. The testing of the theoretical structure adds a
second purpose to the study. This purpose is to experi-
mentally conoeptualize regression. In what some readers may
consider the uhhcppy tradition of psychoanalytic theory, we
will use as the point of origin of both our theory and
exper.mentation not so much the phenomenon of regression in
the service of the ego, but inhibitions in the process. It
is our hope, as has been the case in so many other areas of
analytic investigation, that this will lead to an under—

standing of the phenomenon itself.

REGRESSION IN THE SERVICE OF THE EGO

As a background and framework for an understanding of
psychoanalytic ego psychOIOgy, we will touch upon some of
its historical roots. Following Rapaport (1959), this brief
survey will be divided into three broad phases of Freud's
theoretical development. We will attempt to draw the con-
cepts and assumptions from each of these phases that are
most relevant for an understanding of the development and
formulations of ego psychology and,specifically, regression

in the service of the ego.

Historical Background

The first, or preanalytic, phase extended to 1897. In
this phase the ego is equivalent to consciousness and the
role of reality is central. Defense is directed against
reality and the affect which is equated to drive is itself
dammed up. This dammed up affect produces anxiety. The
second phase and beginning of psychoanalysis prOper extends
from 1897 through 1923. Freud's discovery that the
hysterical trauma was fantasy turned his object of study from
reality to the study of the instinct. In one of his best
known works of this period, the Interpretation of Dreams

(1959), Freud introduces the concepts of primary and

secondary process. Primary process governs unconscious
activity, and the secondary process operates in the conscious
and preconscious. The preconscious is conceived of as

partly derived from unconscious derivatives and partly from
perception. Affect is now seen as a drive representative.
Freud 13 beginning to speculate here about the relationship
between artistic creations and dream qualities.

The third and last phase of Freud's own theoretical
writing extends from 1923 to 1937. The first and perhaps
major work of this period is the Ego and the Id (1923). The
ego is considered as a part of the id that isxmolded by the
external world borrowing its energy from the id. Freud
further elaborates the two classes of instincts (libidinal
and aggressive), stating that libidinal energy is much more
plastic and that some of its energy may become desexualized
and made to serve ego interests. Perhaps Freud's most
criticized assumption of this volume is that the ego must
serve three harsh masters, the id, reality, and the superego.
This view is changed, however, in the Problem of Anxiety
(1936). Here anxiety is seen as a product of the ego. This
reverses his earlier position that the cathectic energy of
the repressed impulse is turned into anxiety. Anxiety is
understood to be an attenuated repetition of birth that is
reproduced in accordance with already present memory pictures.
The ego which experienced the original trauma passively now
becomes active and takes into its own hands the directing

of its course. Affect is in general, conceived of as an ego

V

experience and, like anxiety, is a signal. Reality is
brought back into focus in the center of the theory. The
ego is no longer totally subservient to the id as it has a
variety of defenses and signals at its command. Freud im-
plies that there are inborn ego roots and begins to speak
of synthetic ego function. The culmination of this period
might be considered Anna Freud's introduction of defense
against external stimuli (1946).

E 0 Ps cholo

Many objections were raised to Freud's psychoanalytic
theory, such as the lack of emphasis on social and cultural
phenomena, the dependence of the ego on its masters, and
the place of reality in development and functioning. Ego
psychology is one of the several theoretical movements that
has attempted to deal with these problems. The major areas
of exploration in ego psychology are those of object re-
lations, ego development, and the psychosocial implications
of reality. Erikson's work on psychosocial deveIOpment, its
relationship to psychosexual develOpment, and his inter-
personal theory of deveIOpment will be omitted here (1950,
1956). His work is certainly of general interest and
importance, but due to the structural, economic, and dynamic
emphasis of the current study as well as the embryonic
nature of the existing theory in regard to it, his work is

not yet applicable.

Although Freud gave the ego some freedom from its
masters by making anxiety its product, objections were
still raised to assuming its complete dependence on the id
for development. Hartmann (1946, 1952), and Loewenstein
(1950) feel that the ego should no longer be considered as
a result of differentiation from the id, but that both
should be conceived of as the result of differentiation from
an undifferentiated state. This means that the ego is en-
dowed with its own psychic energy. Loewenstein (1950)
points to interaction between the ego and id where not only
do the instinctual drives leave their impact on the ego, but
they, in turn, are patterned on ego functions. Hartmann
defines the ego by its functions (1950). The ego organizes,
it controls motility and perception, it is involved in action
and thinking, it tests reality, it has anticipatory functions
(danger signal), and it defends.

Hartmann states most of his major assumptions in his
book Ego Psychology and the Problem 9f Adaptation (1958).
The concept of 'conflict-free ego sphere' stresses that some
ego roots grow outside of conflict. This is the area of the
ago that obtains its energy directly from the undifferenti-
ated state of ego-id. Examples of ego functions included
in this sphere are perception, intentions, object compre-
hension, thinking, language, recall, productivity, and motor
develOpment (grasping, crawling, etc.). These functions are
not immune to conflict and may become involved in them. We

will return to the conflict-free sphere when we discuss

concepts of autonomy.

Hartmann uses the term adaptation to refer to reality
mastery. There are three basic kinds of adaptation. Allo-
plastic refers to changing the environment, autOplastic
refers to changing the self, and a third possibility of
changing to a new environment. Adaptation is influenced by
the environment, constitution, and the develOpmental-
historical phase. Adaptation may be progressive which
corresponds to the developmental direction, or regressive
which is a detour through fantasy. We will return to re-
gressive adaptation in our discussion of the specifics of
regression in the service of the ego.

Ego functions are generally invested with neutralized
enery, but, as Rapaport adds in a note to Hartmann's work
(Hartmann, 1951), ego functions invested with drive oathexis
instead of neutralized energy leave the conflict-free sphere
and become involved in conflict. Hartmann feels that ego
functions come about as a functional change of more primitive
regulations, as new regulations in the course of development,
and as a maturation of constitutional givens. The term
automatisms is used only for preconscious and somatic ego
apparatuses. Contrary to other authors, Hartmann views
these as adaptive. The ego has the ability to self-suspend
some of its functions, such as in sexual excitement and free
association.

Primary autonomy refers to those core apparatuses of

ego development that antedate conflict. This was referred

to earlier in the discussion of the conflict-free ego sphere.
Rapaport (1951) discusses certain inborn structural elements
that impose natural limits on drive discharge. These elements
are the foundation of primary autonomy. The developing ego
integrates these structural apparatuses and re—represents
their discharge limiting and regulating functions in forms
usually described as defense. An ego function may become
cathected with neutralized energy and thereby becomes
autonomous. This function is said to be secondarily
autonomous. Both primary and secondary autonomy are relative
and may become involved in conflict. In a later article
Rapaport (1958) defines ego autonomy in terms of ego

activity and impairment of autonomy in terms of ego
passivity. He describes two models of ego passivity, one
preventing discharge with a countercathectic barrier and the
other discharging drive with no ego contribution. Two
possible activity models are also discussed, one discharging
tension by ego control and the other by postponement of dis-
charge. Rapaport also discusses the concept of relative
autonomy from the environment.

We have been referring in our discussion of ego
psychology to the concept of neutralization without defining
it. It would appear that the best way of defining it would
be to differentiate it from sublimation, since the two are
often confused. Neutralization, according to Kris (1956),
refers to energy transformations, whereas, sublimation refers

to a displacement of goal. The process of neutralization

strips energy of its sexual or aggressive content. It is
reversible, that is an energy may become deneutralized and
reneutralized. Neutralizing capacities vary individually
and are intimately tied with initial object relations.
Neutralization is not limited to phallic and pregenital
drives, but may become involved with genital and aggressive
drives as well. Bergler (1945) defines sublimation as the
transformation of repressed phallic and pregenital wishes
into socially approved functions. The ego essentially
allies with the id to disguise the drive to get it past the
superego. Sublimation then refers to a disguising of the
drive and a displacement of the goal, motivated by the
tenacity of the conflict; whereas, neutralization refers

to transformation (deaggressivization or desexualization) of
the energy.

In the discussion of ego theory thus far we have
touched on the adaptive point of view in describing the
position ascribed to reality. The developments since Freud
in the economic point of View have been highlighted in the
discussion of neutralized energy and the structural point of
View has been touched upon in the discussion of autonomy,
automatization, and the conflict-free ego sphere in general.
Some implications seem clear for the dynamic and genetic
points of view because of the undifferentiated ego-id phase,
but these have not been drawn out. Part of this lack of
emphasis may be ascribed to the idea that the genetic and

dynamic points of view are dependent on deveIOpment out of

1O

conflict so familiar to analytic writings. A second con-

sideration is that a major part of the develOpment in these
areas beyond the contributions of Freud did not proceed un-
til it received the impetus of Hartmann's epic work. It
would seem appropriate at this time to sample some of these
later authors.

Hoffer, in a series of articles (1950a, 1950b, 1952)
feels that no environment exists until the infant has the
"me-experience." This indicates the early ego-id differenti-
ation takes place in the infant's body. He defines the
early ego in terms of function. That is, very early the
child has a 'mouth ego,’ and with activity this spreads to
the rest of the body. There are, he feels, very early
anxieties that produce a drive towards the outer world ob-
jects. This drive is in the service of oral partial instincts
and leads to the first object relationship and partial id-ego
differentiation.

Fenichel, in describing what he calls primary object-
less love (1945a), says that at first there is really no ego
only relaxation-tension. The very first object cathexis
exists only as long as the object is absent. The first
gratifications eliminate the object and restore the
narcissistic oceanic feeling. The early risings of the ego
and reality are identical in that the ego exists insofar as
ideas of objects exist. Preconscious thinking deveIOps as a

preparation for reality and can become a substitute for it.

11

DeveIOpment generally proceeds from the pleasure principle
to the reality principle under the influence of the external
world.

Ego identification, according to Hendricks (1951), is
initiated by pleasure in imitation, but is different because
it creates a permanent effect on the outside world. He
feels that precursors of the mother's image are the associ—
ation of perceptual stimuli which she produces with such
senso;y experiences as warmth, touch, muscle position when
lifted, oral, and gastric pleasures. The deveIOpment and
elaboration of these and the development of increasingly
elaborate levels of integration are essential to the
development of useful ego organization. Hendricks defines
ego develOpment as a process (1936) which culminates in
the capacity of personality to maintain its existence and to
secure adequate gratification of libidinal and aggressive
impulses in a socialized environment of adults, chiefly by
reciprocal emotional relationships. The basic structure of
the adult ego is achieved in the preoedipal phases of
develOpnent through identifications which permanently resolve
anxiety reactions to primitive hostile impulses. hese, in
contrast to the identifications by which oedipal and post-
oedipal conflicts are resolved and the superego established
are based on partial, not total object cathexis. Each
successive group of pre-oedipal identifications are not only

solutions of the anxiety of the moment, but contribute

12

specific functions to the organization of the developing ego.
These functions are dynamically related to the type of
fantasy which dominates during that stage of development.
Failure to solve infantile anxiety situations by identifi-
cation will be represented by a defective ego-function, which
necessitates inhibition or projections that are deleterious
to mature object relations. From this conceptualization
Hendricks makes some speculations about defense usage. He
feels that repression is a defense against libidinal impulses
and aggressions which are highly sexualized and is, therefore,
available chiefly to escape anxieties related to passive
impulses, to oedipal and post-oedipal activities, or their
substitutes. Earlier less eroticized aggression which ante-
date the splitting to love and hate objects generally provoke
retaliation anxiety and are chiefly defended by inhibition
supplemented by projection or flight into fantasy.

Weissman (1954) attempts to clarify the archaic pre-
oedipal superego from the mature post-oedipal superego. The
archaic superego is equivalent to the introjected omnipotent
parental images. Thus the qualities of omnipotence belong to
the archaic superego; whereas, qualities from the pleasure
principle belong to the ego. Ottenheimer (1955). following
this same line of thinking, separates the ego ideal from the
superego. The ego ideal is the regulator of self esteem.

Her entity of ego ideal is equivalent to what Weissman calls

the archaic superego. Novey (1953) follows this same line

13

of thought, but has the ego ideal dependent on later
significant figures as well. He modifies the superego con-
cept somewhat in conceiving of it as a functional pattern of
introjeotion rather than a fixed institution.

With the preceeding discussion of the genetic and
dynamic points of view, we have at least touched upon the
major assumptions and deveIOpments of ego psychoanalytic
theory. With this brief introduction as a background, we
are now ready to delve into the theory of "regression in the

service of the ego" prOper.
Ego Regression

The term "regression in the service of the ego" stems
from Kris' volume, PsychOgnalytic Explorations in Art (1952).
His definition of ego regression is simply primitivization
of ego functions. This regression is self regulated with
voluntary and temporary withdrawal of cathexis from one area
to another to regain improved control. The major emphasis of
Kris' discussion is cathectic dynamics. Schafer (1958)
defines ego regression as a detour through regression to
adaptation whereby the ego permits relative free play to
primary process in order to accomplish its adaptive tasks.
The emplasis of Schafer's discussion is the facility or
lack of facility with which primary process material is re-
ceived by the ego. Gill and Brenman in their discussion of

hypnosis (1959) describe ego regression as a change in the

14

relative autonomy. They are referring here both to the ego's
autonomy from the id and to the ego's autonomy from the
environment.

From the preceding discussion we have three aspects of
the theory to consider: Kris' emphasis on cathectic dynamics,

Schafer'“ emphasis on the ego's facility of receiving primary

[I

process, and Gill and Brenman's emphasis on a change in the
relative autonomies. The problem now is to integrate and
elaborate these aspects and to add speculations where the

existing theory does not seem to cover the phenomenon in

question. Pe*haps the most direct method of clarifying these
concepts is to describe an ego in a state of equilibrium and

to follow its activities through the regressive, progressive,
and oscillation phases of regression. In addition to our
primary purposes of elaboration and clarification, we will
attempt to highlight possible sources of individual vari-

ation.

gtgtgmgf,Eouilibrium

By an ego in a state of equilibrium we are referring
to a hypothetical situation in which the defensive and
autonomous balances are intact and the automatic ego
functions are undisturbed. Defensive balance means that
the ego's relationship with the other psychic institutions
should be a harmonious one. That is, the countercathectic
barrier between the ego and the id should be functioning,

the ego should be operating in accord with the demands of

15

the environment, and the ego will have met the requirements
of the superego. In other words, that part of the ego that
serves the three harsh masters will be in an equilibrium
with them. The autonomous balance refers both to the ego's
autonomy from the environment and its autonomy from the id.
Following Rapaport (1958), this means the ego is actively
either discharging tension by ego control or that it is
actively postponing discharge. In addition, the environ-
mental input safeguards the id autonomy as the id input
safeguards the autonomy from the environment (Gill and
Brenman, 1959). Essentially, then, the ego is in an active
state, with the id and environmental inputs safeguarding

the autonomy of the other. The automatic ego functions refer
to those habitual or reflexive ego activities which are not
autonomous or involved in conflict. Hartmann (1958) uses
the term automatic ego functions to refer only to pre-
conscious and somatic ego-apparatuses. To meet the require-
ment of the state of equilibrium, these automatic functions
should be undisturbed.

In addition to the relationships described above, the
ego will be in some sort of balance between primary and
secondary process. The primary process governs uncon-
scious activity which is characterized by its mobility and
free floating cathexes. Secondary process governs conscious
and preconscious activities which are characterized by the

bound nature of energy discharge. Kris (1952) points out

16

that a preconscious process from which the ego withdraws
cathexis becomes subject to cathexis with its energy and
will be drawn into primary process. On the other hand, id
derivatives may become cathected with ego energy and become
part of the preconscious mental processes at a considerable
distance from the original impulse. This dynamic relation-
ship is one of the fundamental assumptions of dreamwork.

Along with the primary-secondary process distinction,
Kris points out that the ego has two types of bound energy
at its disposal; neutralized energy, and libidinal and
aggressive energy in non-neutralized forms. When the ego is
engaged in fantasy activity it tends to discharge more libi-
dinal and aggressive energy and to discharge less neutralized
energy. Problem solving is the reverse of this situation,
discharging more neutralized energy and less libidinal or
aggressive energy. It appears from this, then, that fantasy
processes are largely in the service of the id, whereas,
autonomous ego functions serve reflective thinking. The
result of this is that fantasy processes are much more
subject to cathexis with id energy and primary process
domination than reflective thinking.

If we conceive of a continuum ranging from primary to
secondary process, the balance between these two processes
that we spoke of earlier may be conceived of as a place on
such a continuum. This place must not be considered a point,

but rather a spread or range along this continuum. As

17

Schafer points out (1954), the ego at any moment of function-
ing extends both into primary process and secondary process.
That is, to describe the ego's functioning at any given
moment in terms of these two processes, we must know both

its gross level on this continuum as well as the respective
spreads.

To meet the requirements of an ego in a state of equili-
brium, the ego should be at its 'usual' level on this con-
tinuum, or what we will refer to as psychic level. Defining
this 'usual' psychic level is somewhat difficult. Schafer
(1954) describes regressive shifts or those that move the
ego toward primary process as well as progressive shifts or
those that move the ego away from primary process. Our
state of 'usual' psychic level will be defined,then,by the
absence of regressive or progressive shifts. For the present
we will simply acknowledge that a spread exists around the
usual psychic level. We will return to this concept in some

of the later phases of regression.

Sources of Variation at Equilibrium

The strengh and pervasiveness of the countercathectic
barrier is one source of variation. his may be specified
as the intensity of investment as well as the drain on
available ego energy--the degree to which the psychological
state of the organism is dammed up. This variation may be
conceived of as ranging from an organism with no counter-

cathectic barrier to one that is totally dammed up. One of

18

he effects of this barrier is to limit the amount of energy

available to the ego in libidinal and aggressive forms. This
not only limits discharge potential, but reduces energy
available for neutralization to serve autonomous functions.

A second source of variation stems from the severity
of the superego. We are referring here both to its archaic
elements or the ego ideal as well as the superego proper.
The variation here is in terms of how many demands the
superego places on the ego. As the demands of the superego
increase, the ego will increasingly become involved in
defense to maintain a state of equilibrium. Here not only
is energy available for discharge reduced, but the available
channels of discharge are limited.

A third source of variation is in the autonomous
functioning. There will undoubtedly be some variation in
the primarily autonomous functions in the sense that they may
become relatively involved in conflict, but secondary
autonomy is of primary concern here. Secondarily autonomous
ego functions depend for their operation on neutralized
energi. We have already seen how the strength and pervasive-
ness of the countercathectic barrier as well as superego
severity can limit the amount of energy available for
neutralization. Kris tells us (1956) that neutralization
capacity is dependent on the quality of initial object re-
lations. Kris does not elaborate why he feels this relation-

ship exists, but it does seem clear that autonomous

19

functioning in general is designed to deal with the demands
of reality (adaptation) in terms of analysis, synthesis, and
integration. The first representationaof reality are met in
initial object relations. If this initial relationship is
frought with conflict the reaction to reality could be
nearly totally determined by need and defense. On the other
hand, if this relationship is successful and the infantile
ego is able to meet this reality in a relatively non-
conflictual manner, reality does not present a threat and
the infantile ego begins to obtain some degree of pleasure
from simply its mastery of reality. This, in a sense, is
the beginning of autonomous functioning and the basis for
neutralization capacity. Because of the dependence of
autonomous functioning on neutralized energy, the variation
here may be termed the capacity for autonomous functioning.

Tie final source of variation to be discussed here is
the psychic level and its corresponding spread. We have
defined psychic level as a place on a continuum ranging from
primary process to secondary process. The spread was defined
as the degree of primary and secondary process involvement
around this level or, more generally, the range of primary
and secondary process a particular level of functioning en-
compasses. There are several factors that contribute to the
psychic level and its spread. At the secondary process end
of the continuum we are concerned both with autonomous

functioning and secondary process operation as control and

20

defense. At the primary process end of the continuum we
are concerned both with the amount of primary process and
the attempts at defensive control of it.

We have already discussed sources of variance in
autonomous functioning, in terms of energy available for
neutralization, as well as the capacity for autonomous
functioning. We have also discussed the ego's tendency to
become involved in defense with a severe superego. Other
than discussing the countercathectic barrier, we have made
no mention of the ego's facility of dealing with primary
process nor its attempts at control and defense. For the
present, these general areas will be assumed to be sources
of variation. We will postpone elaboration of these until

the following sections on regression and progression.

ami e e 3

Following Schafer (1954) regression is a shift in the
psychic level toward primary process. Kris (1952) describes
the dynamics involved as a withdrawal of cathexis from the
percept conscious and the conscious prOper, a facilitation
of id impulses represented in the preconscious, and a loan
of countercathectic energy to speed the process up. Both
Schafer and Kris point to the passive nature of this process.
Gill and Brenman (1959) describe a decrease in the ego's
autonomy from the environment and from the id in regression.
This follows directly from the passive nature of the process

for, as Rapaport points out (1958), the ego must remain

21

active to maintain autonomy.

It would be helpful here to clarify Kris' notion of
withdrawal of cathexis. Ego cathexis is an active process
whereby the ego actively binds energy to a particular ob-
Ject or function. As the work process indicates, the ego
must actively maintain the cathexis. If the ego should be-
come passive (relax) for any reason, then the cathexis would
have to be reestablished. Withdrawal of cathexis actually
means then that the ego becomes passive with respect to that
particular cathexis. This passive ego function extends to
preconscious activities as well as conscious ones. The
fundamental assumption of dreamwork teaches is that vhen
the ego withdraws energy from a preconscious process it be-
comes subject to cathexis with id energy and will be drawn
into primary process. The ego function of passivity permits
access to regressed material, but does not direct the
regression.

If this temporary state of ego passivity is extensive
enough, it will not only reduce the relative autonomy, but
will effect the countercathectic barrier. That is, consider-
ing the activity requirement for maintaining cathexis and
extending it to countercathexis, some countercathexis will
be temporarily withdrawn. This would indicate both increased
energy available for other ego purposes as well as an increase
of unconscious derivatives in the preconscious. This is in

line with Kris' formulation that countercathectic energy is

22

withdrawn and added to the speed and force with which pre-
conscious thoughts are formed. In addition, since neutral-
izing capacity is an ego function, the temporary state of
passivity would indicate that at least some of the energy
would become deneutralized, adding further impetus to pre-
conscious thought formation. It is not difficult to see the

tremendous sorces of energy and threat in regression.

Sources of Var t o in Re ression

Schafer comments that mastery or relative mastery of
early traumata is a factor favoring regression (1958). This
essentially indicates that the ego more effectively handles
primary process material with a relative mastery of early
traumata. This group is largely made up of the stages of
pregenital development where the basic structure of the adult
ego is achieved. Hendricks (1936) states that each group of
pregenital identifications contribute specific functions to
the deve10ping ego dynamically related to the type of fantasy
which dominates at that stage. The adult ego contains, then,
specific ego functions related to the stages of psychosexual
development.

In the regressive phase we are largely concerned with
the ego’s becoming passive. Considering the threat involved,
we must also be concerned with the ego's attempts at inhibit-
ing and blocking the process. Our concern here with
passivity leads us to consider the oral stage of development

and what it might contribute to ego functioning. Orality

23

has long been considered one of the cornerstones of person-
ality with difficulty in this stage having many ramifications
in adult personality (i.e., Abraham, 1953b, Ferenczi, 1955).
Following Hendricks (1936), it seems a fair assumption that
the passive ego function should be related to develOpment at
the oral receptive stage. That is, a fairly successful
resolution of anxieties and completion of identifications at
the oral receptive stage must antedate a free access to the
passive ego function. Hendricks also states that failure to
resolve the infantile anxiety situations will result in a
defective ego function. This relationship appears to hold

in the extreme oral character, for here passivity and regres-
sion are used as typical defenses. In terms of the regressive
phase of regression in the service of the ego, this dys-
function would be represented by an increased tendency for
the process to become involved in defense. The ego would
have little chance of integrating the regressed material,
instead being faced with a recovery from defense.

We have already indicated that the capacity for auton-
omous functioning is dependent upon the quality of initial
object relations. Hoffer (1952) points out that the drives
leading to the first object relationship are in the service
of oral instincts. Since the relationship of orality and
the quality of initial object relationships are so closely
tied, we could expect that a defect in the passive ego

function would be closely associated with defective autonomous

24

functioning. The overall effect of difficulty in resolving
infantile anxieties in the passive receptive stage is not
only an increased tendency to involve regression in defense,
but a general movement of the ego toward primary process and

a decrease in secondary process functioning.

Dynamics of Progression

Kris (1952) characterizes the progressive or elabor-
ational phase as the reinforcing of the countercathectic
barrier and the direction of ego cathexis to functions such
as reality testing and formulation. Id derivatives may be-
come cathected with ego energy and become part of the pre-
conscious mental process and at a considerable distance from
the original impulse. The passive or regressive phase brings
the ego closer to primary process and id contents, and the
active or progressive phase draws some of the derivatives
into the preconscious mental processes and subjects them to
working over by the ego. The progressive phase still involves
a decrease in the state of autonomy. This decrease results
from both the increased number of id derivatives and the
hypercathexis of reality. The ego is still subject then to
some of the same threats of the regressive phase, but is in
a better position to deal with them by virtue of its active

state.

Sources of Variation in {regression

In the progressive phase we are largely concerned with

25

the ego's becoming active. We are also concerned here with
the ego's method of handling primary process. One way of
dealing with primary process has already been encountered in
the regressive phase. A defect in the passive ego function was
seen as increasing the ego's tendency to involve regression
in defense. This blocks progression and results in a de-
fensive solution. Kris (1952) points to the reverse of this
situation in the anal character where regression is severely
inhibited or blocked. In addition, the discussions of
Abraham (1955a) and Ferenczi (1955) suggest that adult
characteristics resulting from anal difficulties have an
active quality. It seems a fair assumption then that one of
the specific contributions to ego functioning of resolution
of infantile anxieties at the anal state is an active ego
function. That is, a fairly successful resolution of
anxieties and completion of identifications at the anal

stage must antedate a free access to the active ego function.
The defect in ego functioning that would result from a failure
to resolve infantile anxieties at the anal stage would in-
crease the ego's tendency to involve the active function in
defense.

In contrast to the difficulty in secondary process
functioning with a defect in passive ego function, the active
function is directly involved with secondary process. In a
sense, secondary process functioning is used as control and

defense. The overall effect of a defect in the active ego

26

function is not only an increased tendency to involve pro-
gression in defense, but a general movement of the ego away
from primary process and a use of secondary process as con-

trol and defense.

We:

Assuming that the progression has adaptively served
the ego to master the task that originally gave impetus to
the regression. autonomy is gradually reestablished and the
ego returns to a state of equilibrium. There are, however,
several alternatives to this solution. If the process is
drawn into the service of defense somewhere along the line,
the process becomes a defensive solution between the psychic
institutions so familiar to analytic writings. The alters»
natiwethat concerns us meet here is if the single cycle has
not sufficiently met the adaptive requirements. This is
Probably the usual case in regressive tasks and brings us
to the discussion of oscillation, or the swinging back and
forth between regression and progression.

Kris notes (1952) that oscillation may range from being
very rapid to long, slow cycles. The key to this variation
Probably lies in the passive and active ego functions, as well
as the total character structure. The effect of a defect in
either or both the passive and active ego function not only
affects the psychic level and its spread, but restricts the
activity of the ego. This restriction is not only true of
oral and anal characters. but in any pregenital character.

27

On the other hand,the mature personality or genital
character has as one of its characteristics flexibility.
It would seem,then,that a genital character would be

characterized by a more complete and more rapid cycle.

Thegretical Summary

Throughout our discussion of the theory of regression
in the service of the ego we have been emphasizing shifts in
the level of psychic functioning. These shifts have been
described as taking place from a 'usual' level of psychic
functioning. Psychic level was described as a place on a
continuum ranging from primary process to secondary process.
We emphasized that this place was not a point, but was repre-
sented by a range on the continuum. That is, a particular
level of functioning spreads both into primary and secondary
process. Shifts in the level of functioning are along this
continuum with regressive shifts moving the level of function-
ing toward primary process. These distinctions should be
helpful in the following discussion by points of view.

e etio Poin f V e

In our discussion of some of the forces that influence
the regressive process-and that can historically alter it,
three relationships were highlighted. The first of these
was the dependence of neutralization capacity on the quality
of initial object relations. Since autonomous functioning

operates on neutralized energy, the capacity for autonomous

28

activity is dependent on the quality of initial object re-
lations. The second relationship was that resolution of
infantile anxieties at the oral level contributed to the
passive ego function. Difficulties in this resolution would
lead to a defective passive ego function. This defect would
be represented by an increased tendency to involve passivity
and regression in defense. The third point was the reso-
lution of infantile anxieties at the anal level contributed
to the active ego function. Difficulties in this resolution
would lead to a defective active ego function. This defect
would be represented by an increased tendency to involve
activity and progression in defense. In addition to these
three specific relationships, we suggested that a successful
resolution of infantile anxieties at all the pregenital
levels would increase the speed and completeness of each

regressive cycle.

Structural Point 9; Miew

Our major emphasis here is by definition on the ego.
An ego in a state of equilibrium has its well known defensive
functions in Operation, has other functions which are in a
state of autonomy from both the environment and the id,
and has automatic or reflexive functions at its command.
The passive ego function enables the ego to shift its
psychic level toward primary process. In this temporary
state of passivity, the autonomies are reduced and both

cathectic and countercathectic energy is released. his

29

temporary passivity permits access to a great deal of
unconscious material which becomes subject to cathexis

by the ego and may be drawn into the preconscious mental
processes at a considerable distance from the original
impulse. The drawing of this material into the preconscious
processes, the reestablishment of the countercathectic
barrier, and the productive working over of the new material
is largely due to what we have called the active ego
funqtion. The ego oscillates between these two functions
until the stimulus that precipitated the regression has been

adaptively mastered.

Adaptiye Point 92 liew

Although our comments about the position of reality
and the environment will be relatively few, we cannot under-
estimate the importance of this point of view for the re-
gressive process. It is from the manner of mastering the
environment that the ego receives its original impetus and
turns inward. It is the same reality that the productions
of this process must be compared and formulated to fit. It
is thus reality that provides both the impetus and the frame

of reference for evaluating the total process.

Egcncgic Point of ligw

In the ego in a state of equilibrium we find three
A essential sources of energy. A great deal of energy is

bound in the countercathectic barrier, both in the sense of

30

energy connected with the impulse as well as countercathectic
energy. The second source is bound energy available to the
ego in libidinal and aggressive forms. The third source is
energy in its neutralized forms. When the ego becomes
passive, energy is freed by deneutralization, by a loosening
of the countercathectic barrier, as well as a freeing of
energy that was involved in the cathexis of some of the
conscious ego functions. This energy is added to the speed
and force of the preconscious activity. In the active ego
phase, some of the ego energy is directed toward reestablish-
ing the countercathectic barrier, some toward a hypercathexis
of reality and some toward a productive working over of the

newly cathected material.

Dynamig Point of View

In a state of equilibrium, the ego is in harmony with
the id, superego, and reality, It meets the demands cf the
superego and reality by its defensive Operations and estab-
lishes harmony with the id by the countercathectic barrier.
In addition, the ego has some degree of autonomy from both
the id and reality. In the regressive or passive phase the
countercathectic barrier is loosened and the ego moved closer
to the id. Here somecethexis is also withdrawn from reality
and the superego. The ego's autonomy from both the id and
environment is reduced. Some of the id derivatives become
subject to cathexis by the preconscious processes. Once

this active phase is begun, the countercathectic barrier is

31

reinforced, reality is hypercathected, and the new material
is productively worked over. Usually several such active-
passive cycles are involved in solving the regressive
impetus. This alternation of active and passive states is
oscillation. The process may become involved in defense at
any point in the various stages. We have speculated that a
Idefect in the passive ego function will increase the ego's
tendency to involve regression in defense. In addition to
the defensive use of regression, we would expect to find an
associated decrease in the capacity for autonomous function-
ing. The overall effect of these difficulties would be to
move the ego closer to primary process and decrease secondary
process functioning. A defect in the active ego function
will increase the ego’s tendency to involve the progressive
phase in defense. The overall effect of this would not only
be to move the ego away from primary process, but would be
to involve secondary process in attempts at control and

defense.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESES

In the preceding chapter the theory of regression in
the service of the ego was elaborated and the attempt was
made to integrate views on the theory from several authors.
Intimately bound with the process of regression itself are
speculations concerning the genetic roots of variation in
the process. Briefly, the phases of regression: progression,
regression, and oscillation are viewed as dependent on the
resolution of infantile anxieties at the various stages of
pregenital development. This relationship was elaborated
using the concepts of passive ego function, active ego
function, psychic level, and shifts from this level. The
problem before us now is to specify these relationships and
to experimentally test them.

At a given moment in time, the ego will be at some
'balance' between primary and secondary process. That is,
assuming a continuum with primary and secondary process as
the poles of this continuum, at any given moment in time the
ego's functioning may be represented by a place on this con-
tinuum. In psychosis the ego is very close to the primary
process and of the continuum; whereas, in problem-solving
the ego is very close to the secondary process end. The

daily problems of adaptation require the ego to continually

32

33

change its level of functioning. Tasks of problem-solving
require the ego to move very close to secondary process;
whereas, creative tasks require at least a temporary shift
toward primary process. If one were to compute an average

of the ego's many places on this continuum for a period of
time, one could obtain an average or 'usual' level of psychic
functioning. Any movement of the ego on this primary-
secondary process continuum is a shift in the level of psychic
functioning, either away from or toward primary process.

Psychic level cannot, however, be considered as a
point on the continuum. Any level of functioning contains a
spread into secondary process as well as a spread into pri-
mary process. This means that a given level of functioning
is actually represented by a spread or range on the primary-
secondary process continuum. Three essential factors
contribute to the psychic level and its corresponding spread.
These factors are primary process, secondary process, and
the attempts at control and defense.

Regression in the service of the ego may be defined in
terms of shifts in the level of psychic functioning. Con-
sidering the three phases of regression: regression is a
shift toward primary process, prOgression is a shift toward
secondary process, and oscillation is the number of alter-
nations between the two for a period of time. The regres-
sive phase or shift toward primary process is largely a

passive ego state. We have called the functioning involved

34

in this phase the passive ego function. The resolution of
infantile anxieties at the oral stage of development contri-
bute to the passive ego function. Failure to resolve these
anxieties results in a defective function. This relation-
ship appears to be supported in the oral character where
regression and passivity are used as defense. In other
words, the ego is moved toward primary process as a control
and defense measure. This relationship is not a dichotomy,
however, as all character structures have archaic residuals.
Rephrasing this in terms of a continuum, the ego's closeness
to primary process will be directly related to the degree
of difficulty in resolving anxieties at the oral stage.
Autonomous functioning refers to those aspects of the
ego that operate develOpmentally outside of conflict
(primary autonomy) or those that utilize neutralized energy
(secondary autonomy). Many of the ego functions involved in
problem-solving, such as the integrative and synthetic
functions, are considered to be relatively autonomous in
their operation. Autonomous functioning in general and
problem-solving specifically shift the ego away from primary
process. The capacity for autonomous functioning, by virtue
of its utilization of neutralized energy, is dependent on
the initial object relations. The first object relations are
motivated by oral instincts. With oral difficulties, then,
we would expect to find a corresponding difficulty with

initial object relations. The resulting decrease in autonomous

35

activity would serve to move the ego once again closer to
primary process.

With difficulties in resolving anxieties at the oral
stage, all the components of psychic level tend to move the
ego closer to primary process. Primary process is defended
against, but by moving toward it. Secondary process is
generally inhibited in terms of autonomous activity. With
oral difficulties, then, we would expect a defensive increase
in primary process, a general lowering of the psychic level,
and a reduction in the range around the level as all com-

ponents are operating in the same direction.

W

The degree of oral disturbance will be related to a
decrease in secondary process functioning, an increase in the
amount of primary process, and a shift of the psychic level
away from secondary process toward primary process.

The progressive phase of regression is a shift in the
level of psychic functioning away from primary process. We
have called the functioning involved in this phase the active
ego function. The resolution of infantile anxieties at the
anal level contribute to the active ego function. Failure
to resolve anxieties at this level results in a defective
active function. This relationship appears to be supported
in the anal character where activity and progression are used

defensively and, in extreme cases, nearly completely inhibit

36

regression. The defensive attempt here is to inhibit pri-
mary process and move the ego away from it. Secondary
process functioning is frequently one of the controls the
ego attempts to use to achieve its purpose of moving away
from primary process.

With difficulties in resolving anxieties at the anal
stage, the components of psychic level tend to move the ego
away from primary process. The attempt is made to inhibit
primary process, control and defense measures are used to
move the ego away from primary process, and secondary process
may be used as one of these controls. With anal difficulties,
then, we would expect a defensive inhibition of primary pro-
cess, a general raising of the psychic level, and an increase
in the range around the level as the control and defense
measures are attempting to move the ego away from the primary

process mpetus.

Hypothesis II

The degree of anal disturbance will be related to an
increase in secondary process functioning, a decrease in the
amount of primary process, and a shift of the psychic level
toward secondary process away from primary process.

Up to this point our discussion has largely been
limited to pregenital impulses. Difficulty with and fix-
ation at the various pregenital stages results in a

solidification of character at those levels in extreme cases.

37

This solidifcation results in a certain uniformity of
behavior characterized by that level and a restriction in
variation from that behavior. We have already specified
some of this restriction and uniformity concerning anal and
oral characters. The genital character or mature person is
characterized by flexibility of behavior. This essentially
means a wide range of available resources, mechanisms, and
behaviors.

In terms of regression, the genital character would
be able to regress and progress without great difficulty and
primary process could invade the ego processes without being
necessarily bound in defense. The overall effect of this on
the psychic level would be to increase its variability.
This is not implying instability, but rather contrasting the
flexibility of the genital character to the restrictions of
pregenital fixation. In general, the successful resolution
of anxieties at the various pregenital stages required of
the genital character would allow a free access to the
passive ego function, the active ego function, and to
autonomous functioning. As the difficulties in resolving
anxieties at the pregenital stages decrease, then the
fluctuations in the psychic level will increase. This means
that over time the genital character may be very close to
Primary process, at other times very close to secondary

Jprocess, and with a wide range in the corresponding spread.

38

t 81

The fluctuations in the psychic level will be neg-
atively related to the overall pregenital difficulties.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Subjects

The subjects were sixty male elementary psychology
students. The sample included seven subjects from honors
sections, twelve subjects from study problem sections, and
the remaining forty-one subjects were from regular sections.
The subjects were seen in small groups of ten to fifteen to
maximize personal contact. The instruments were administered
in group form.

W

A. Rorschach

Rationale.--Following our theoretical formulations, an
experimental assessment of regression has at least three re-
quirements: a measure of primary process, a measure of
secondary process, and a measure of control and defense.
These measures must be obtained in such a way as to obtain
an interaction between them. In this way the psychic level
and its spread may be estimated from these measures. In
addition, the experimental task should facilitate primary
process to accentuate the expected differences.

Freud originally turned to dreams and free association
as sources of primary process. One difficulty here is that

Secondary process is inhibited. In addition, some of the

39

40

attempts to (panttm'dreams have been somewhat disappointing
(i.e., Vitanza and Rawsn, 1958, and Shepphard and Saul,
1958). An alternative is to utilize projective material as
the measure of ego functioning (Bellak, 1954). standari
Rorschach procedures have been used, but again results have
been someWhat disappointing (i.e., Hersch, 1958, and Durham,
1958).

Holt gives us a partial solution to this dilemma (1956).
He has described a scoring system for the Rorschach that is
based on psychoanalytic theory and scores specifically for
primary process, secondary process, and control and defense.
Holt and his research group have spent a great deal of
effort in developing this extremely complex system ani have
at least a temporary manual available for prospective users
(1960). iany provocative studies have been carried out
using this system. Holt and his group have studied primary
process (Pine and Holt, 1958) and perceptual isolation (Gold-
berger, 1960). Others have studied the creative process
(Cohen, 1960), schizophrenics (Zukowsky, 1961), and various
types of regressive processes (Acxerman, 1960, and Levy,

1961).

Rorschach modifications.--We are still left with the
problem of how to facilitate primary process. Acierlan
(1960) attempted to solve this by the use of hypnosis and
fantastic instructions for the Rorschach, These instructions,

hCD‘Wever, encourage the subject to disregard reality and

41

secondary process. Some of the difficulty with the standard
Rorschach administration for assessing regression is that
the subject may voluntarily stOp giving responses at any
time. In fact, it has often been research procedure to
limit the number of responses to each card. It seems
appropriate in View of the theoretical assumptions of the
current study to extend the administration time rather than
limit it, and essentially force the subject to rely on his
own devices for creating responses.1 In some preliminary
work using the extended administration with diagnostic
patients, an arbitrary time limit of thirty minutes per card
was used. This time limit seemed adequate in that a great
deal of primary process material was elicited and the subject
did not appear to become overtired.

With the increased time and data, it seemed unnecessary
to administer ten cards. The data from Cohen's work (1960)
‘Was available and the decision was made to use his results as
a criterion for reducing the stimulus material. Using the
total defensive demand times the control and defense on each
card, t-tests were run between his control (non-creative)
and experimental (creative) groups. Three cards, cards I,
VII, and IX, were found to provide t-tests significant at
less than the .02 level (two tail). None of the other cards

approached significance.

E

1The suggestion for extending the administration was
received from J. M. Levy in a personal communication.

42

One additional modification of usual procedure was
used. Card I was used as an introduction where the subject
was "taught" to point out the location and to give the neces-
sary information for scoring. This was done to increase his
freedom on the other two cards and to indirectly emphasize
the maintenance of secondary process. The subject was then
told that he would have two other cards to respond to for
thirty minutes each, and that the examiner would only inter-

rupt him if he had specific questions.

Procedure.--A group administration of the Rorschach
was used. Group administrations have been used with success
by several authors (i.e., Rohrer, 1955, and Hire, 1950).
Harrower and Steiner (1951) report almost negligible
differences in a comparison of their group form as compared
with individual administration in location, determinants,
content, and number of responses. Their technique involved
furnishing a location chart for each card. Their general
approach was followed here with some modifications. Because
of the increased time for each card, a location chart and
space for recording each response was provided in a booklet
form. A separate booklet was provided for the two thirty-
minute cards.

The Holt system was used for scoring (1960). The
author is considered a reliable scorer, having served as
reliability scorer on two previous occasions (Cohen, 1960,

and Zukowsky, 1961). We will not go into the specifics of

43

the scoring system as it is published in several places

(Holt, 1956, 1960, and 1961).

B. The Blacky Test
Bationale.--Since Blum first published the Blacky Test

(1949), it has been used to assess the intensity of disturb-
ance along psychosexual dimensions.” We will not attempt to
review the research with this well known test, but instead
will refer the reader to reviews such as that of Beck (1956).
We will content ourselves with accepting the general feeling
that the results of the instrument are provocative and, at
least for males, tend to support Blum's assumptions.

We will concern ourselves, however, with one feature
of the existing research. This is the intercorrelation of
Blum's twelve dimensions. Blum has attempted to explain
this theoretically (1951a) and Newman and Salvatore (1958)
have attempted a factor analytic explanation. The two
specific dimensions that we are concerned with here, oral
passivity and anality, appear to be nearly factor pure, how-
ever. The global measure of general pregenital difficulties
uses all dimensions. The intercorrelation does not present
a great difficulty, but will have to be considered in inter-

pretation of results.

gnogedure.--The Blacky Test will be administered in
group form following the Blum manual and scored by his

research schema (1951a).

44

C. lgtelligence Measure

The possibility exists that some of our measures may
be related to intelligence. In order to control for this
variable the total score from the College Qualifications
Test administered to every regularly enrolled freshman at
Michigan State University was obtained. This score is used

as a control and does not enter into the hypotheses.

Hypotheses

Hypothesis I

The degree of oral disturbance will be related to a
decrease in secondary process functioning, an increase in
the amount of primary process, and a shift of the psychic
level away from secondary process toward primary
process.

Hypothesis I involves three separate procedures to
test it; the amount of primary process related to oral
difficulties, the amount of secondary process related to
oral difficulties, and the closeness of the psychic level to
primary process. The degree of oral difficulties was mea-
sured by the score on Blum's dimension of oral receptivity.
Primary process.and secondary process were measured by Holt's
defensive demand and form level scores, respectively.1 If
we again consider a scale that extends from secondary process

to primary process, a point X on this scale may be arbitrarily

 

1These measures are modified from suggestions received
from R. R. Holt in a personal communication.

45

chosen. Any point moving away from X toward the secondary
process end of the continuum would represent an increase

in secondary process functioning. Conversely, any point
moving away from X toward the primary process end of the
continuum would represent an increase in primary process
functioning. In this way, both the primary process measure
(defensive demand) and the secondary process measure tform
level) may be placed on the same continuum. That is, con-
sidering a scale that increases as it progresses toward
secondary process, the numerical value of the form.level may
be added to point X and the numerical value of the defensive
demand may be subtracted from it. Holt provides a third
measure of control and defense which it would seem appropri-
ate to include in these measures. Since an increase in
control and defense represents both an increase in the demand
of primary process as well as an increased secondary process
operation, it is appropriate to include it in both measures.
Because of possible inequality of units the final decision
was made to use the product of the control and defense mea-
'Sure and the primary process and secondary process measures
rather than an addition. The final measure of secondary
process was the mean for all responses of control and
defense times the form level added to point X. The final
measure of primary process was the mean of all responses
where primary process was scorable of defensive demand times
the control and defense, subtracted from point X. Since these

two measures essentially describe the spread of a response,

46

an appropriate estimate of the psychic level would seem to
be the mid-point of this range. The final measure of psychic
level, then, is the mean for all responses of the form level
times control and defense minus defensive demand times
control and defensive added to point X. We may now break

hypothesis I down in terms of the specific variables of this

study.

Hypothesis Ia

The degree of oral disturbance will be related to a
shift of the psychic level away from secondary process toward

primary process.

Hypothesis Ib
The degree of oral disturbance will be positively re-

lated to the amount of primary process. (This is a negative

correlation for the measures involved.)

Hypothesis IQ
The degree of oral disturbance will be negatively

related to the amount of secondary process.

Hypothesis II

The degree of anal disturbance will be related to an
iJncrease in secondary process functioning, a decrease in the
annount of primary process, and a shift of the psychic level
tGward secondary process away from primary process.

Hypothesis II involves three separate procedures to

tesrt it; the amount of primary process related to anal

47

difficulties, the amount of secondary process related to
anal difficulties, and the closeness of the psychic level to
primary process. The degree of anal difficultiesxwas be
measured by the score on Blum's dimension of anal retentive-
ness. The same measures of primary process, secondary pro-
cess, and psychic level utilized in the first hypothesis:
will be used here. We may now break hypothesis II down in

terms of the variables of the study.

Hypothesis IIa
The degree of anal disturbance will be related to a
shift of the psychic level toward secondary process away

from primary process.

Hypothesis IIb

The degree of anal disturbance will be negatively re-
lated to the amount of primary process. (This is a positive

correlation for the measures involved.)

Hypothesis IIc
The degree of anal disturbance will be positively re-

lated to the amount of secondary process.

Hypothesis III
The fluctuations in the psychic level will be negatively

related to the over-all pregenital difficulties.
Hypothesis III may be tested by one operation. The
measure of fluctuations in the psychic level was the

vazriance of the level of functioning as determined in

4s

hypotheses I and II. The measure of over-all pregenital

difficulties will be the sum of Blum's conflict scores.

Analysgp

The hypothesis testing was carried out by computing
product-moment correlations. Partial correlations were com-
puted for both the intelligence measure and the number of
Rorschach responses to serve as a control. Correlations
were also computed for the Blacky dimensions not involved
in specific predictions in the same manner as for the
hypotheses.

Along with the specific Rorschach measures used for
hypothesis testing, additional measures were computed for
use in interpreting the results. Two of these measures
were directly taken from the Holt scoring. The first of
these was the percentage of primary process. This was used
as a possible alternative measure of primary process. A
second measureves that of control and defense. Although
this is already included in the measures of primary process
and secondary process, it was included as a separate mea-
sure primarily as a control for any observed variation in
these measures. The measure of secondary process used is the
average for all responses. This is appropriate in view of
the perseverative effect that the various psychosexual
dimensions are hypothesized as having on the ego. It is
conceivable, however, that this variation may not behave as

predicted and may instead be a result of a defensive Operation

 

49

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE I
HYPOTHESES
Rorschach Measures Blacky Measures
DD : defensive demand
FL = form level
D0 = control and defense
X : arbitrary point on Psychosexual
the primary process, Oral Anal disturbance
secondary process receptive retentive (sum of all
continuuum dimension dimension dimensions)
1. Primary process Ip_ - Ib + 0
(X - DD x DC) (negative
N correla-
tion)
2. Secondary process IC - IIC + O
(X + DC x FL) (positive
N correla-
tion
3. Psychic level Ia - IIa + 0
X+DC FL-DD
N
4. Psychic level
variance 0 0 III -
variance of 3 (no pre-
diction)

 

 

50

only when the ego is engaged in controlling primary pro-
cess. For this reason a second mean of secondary process
functioning was obtained for only those responses where
primary process was scorable.

Our primary concerns in the hypotheses were with the
oral and anal stages of development. Orality and anality
are also scorable by the Holt system. Since this would at
least be an interesting comparison as well as having some
theoretical implications to be discussed later, these mea-
sures were also obtained. The numerical value that was
used was the per cent of primary process responses that were
oral and the per cent that were anal.

A correlation matrix was obtained for all the vari-
ables, predicted and additional, and a factor analysis was
done. This was done for an economical summary of the ob-

tained matrix.

RESULTS

The total correlation matrix is broken down into three
tables for ease of reading and reference. Table II presents
the Rorschach intercorrelations, Table III presents the
Blacky intercorrelations, and Table IV presents the corre-

lations between the Blacky and Rorschach variables.

TABLE II
RORSCHACH INTERCORRELATIONS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

 

 

1. Total
responses
2. % primary
process ~30a
3. Mean primary
process ~29a +08
4. Mean secondary
process +02 +08 ~28a
5. Mean psychic
level +04 ~66a +40a +34a
6. Variance
psychic level ~89a +19c +31a ~02 +06
7. Mean control
and defense +20c -56a -52a +41a +36a -14
8. % oral
responses ~04 +02 +09 +23b +06 ~08 ~06
9. % anal
responses +14 ~04 ~05 ~20c ~03 ~15 ~04 ~03

aSignificant at less than the 5% level.
bSignificant at less than the 10% level.
0Significant at less than the 20% level.

51

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52

 

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TABLE IV

53

RORSCHACH-BLACKY CORRELATIONS
M

 

 

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Oral b
passivity ~11 ~05 ~13 ~21 ~19° +06 ~03 ~15 +02 ~06
Oral
hostility ~09 +04 ~09 +12 ~02 ~02 ~02 +15c ~14 ~18c
Anal
expulsive +13 +21b ~01 ~03 ~21b ~26a ~14 +08 +01 ~14
Anal
retentive ~03 +07 +01 +12 +09 +13 ~12 +13 +26a +23b
Oedipal
involvement +08 +02 ~19° +08 ~14 ~13 ~07 +10 ~10 +07
Masturbation c C
guilt +16 ~06 ~06 +17 +12 ~15 +06 +10 +10 ~06
Castration
anxiety +08 ~07 +14 ~15 +01 ~05 ~09 +28a +01 +180
Identification
process +07 ~04 ~10 ~19° ~11 ~06 +03 ~12 +19c ~13
Sibling
rivilry +13 +32a ~03 ~07 ~30a ~13 ~32a +160 +303 +05
Guilt
feeling ~11 +18° +06 ~08 ~18c +15 ~18c ~10 ~22b ~16°
Ego
Nideil 1 1 +08 +17° ~14~ +32a ~08 ~09 +03 +09 ~01 +25b.
arc 39 st c
object choice ~14 +05 ~19c ~11 ~27a +05 ~06 +04 ~15 ~31a
Anaclitic
object choice +07 +16° ~02 ~03 ~16° ~10 ~20° +02 +313 +02
Blacky
total +09 +21b ~13 ~03 ~28a ~14 ~23b
CQT
total ~01 +23b +06 +298 +02 ~01 ~11 ~04 ~03
gSignificant at less than the 5% level.
Significant at less than the 10% level.
°Significant at less than the 20% level.

54

Table V contains the correlations between the Rorschach
measures on the two thirty-minute cards. This, in a sense,
may be considered an estimate of the reliability coefficients

of the Rorschach measures.

TABLE V

RORSCHACH RELIABILITY

 

Correlation between

 

Rorschach Measures cards VII and IX
Per cent primary process +38a
Mean primary process +22C
Mean control and defense +34b
Mean secondary process +31b
Mean psychic level +66a
Total responses +78a

 

aSignificant at less than the 1% level.

bSignificant at less than the 5% level.

0Significant at less than the 10% level.

Inspection of Table V reveals that the highest co-
efficient of the measures involved in the predictions is
only +.66. The lowest correlation is a +.22, which is an
extremely low reliability coefficient.

Table IV contains the correlations that are directly
concerned with the hypotheses. For ease of reading, the
correlations directly concerned with the hypotheses were re-
produced in Table VI which is in the form of the original

hypotheses table.

HYPOTHESES

Rorschach Measures

55

TABLE VI

AND OBSERVED RESULTS

Blacky Measures

 

 

 

Psychosexual
Oral Anal disturbance
receptive retentive (sum of all
dimension dimension dimensions)
1. Primary process
a. Hypothesis 1p IIb no
b. Predicted direction ~ + prediction
0. Observed result ~13 +01 ~13
2. Secondary process
a. Hypothesis Ip IIc no
b. Predicted direction - 1 + prediction
0. Observed result ~21D +12 ~03
3. Psychic level
a. Hypothesis ;_ IIa no
b. Predicted direction ~ + prediction
0. Observed result ~19c +09 ~28a
4. Psychic level variance
a. Hypothesis no no III
b. Predicted direction prediction prediction -
0. Observed result +06 +13 ~14
8'Significant at less than the 5% level.
bSignificant at less than the 10% level.
0Significant at less than the 20% level.
Hypotheses

 

Inspection of Table VI reveals that all the observed

relationships are in the predicted direction.

the correlations approach significance, however.

Only one of

56

Hypothesis I
One of the three predicted relationships approaches

significance (less than the 10% level). The remaining re-
lationships are in the expected direction, but do not reach

significance at the 5 per cent level.

Hypothesis II
The most significant aspect of the predicted re-

lationships for Hypothesis II is that none of the observa-
tions approach significance at the 5 per cent level. They

are all, however, in the expected direction.

Hypophesis III
The single correlation in Table VI,representing

Hypothesis III, is in the predicted direction, but does not

reach significance at the 5 per cent level.
Control Measures

Referring to Table IV, the control measure of total
Rorschach responses can be seen to have only negligible
correlations with the variables in question. Partial cor~
relations were computed holding the effect of total Ror-
schach responses constant on the relationships in Table IV,
and, as one would expect from inspection of the table, no
significant changespwere observed. The control measure of
total score on the College Qualifications Test does appear
to have some significant correlations with the variables in

Table IV, but when partial correlations were computed holding

57

its effect constant on the relationships in Table IV, the
result was again no changes reaching significance at the
the 5 per cent level. Tables II, III, and IV were inspected
for other possible relationships that might be partialed out
to clear up the hypothesized relationships. None could be

justified.
Additional Analyses

The additional analyses deal with the remaining Blacky
dimensions as well as the additional Rorschach scores. For
use as a frame of reference, we will attempt to group the
Blacky dimensions along the lines of the hypotheses. Only
two of the Blacky dimensions are included in the predictions.

The theory underlying the first hypothesis rests
heavily on the relationship between the oral receptive stage
and the corresponding deve10pment of early object relations.
That is, early object relations are motivated by partial
oral instincts, and difficulty in one should be reflected by
difficulty in the other. The quality of initial object re-
lations was thought to be important in the development of
the capacity for autonomous functioning. Although all the
Blacky dimensions deal with object relations to some extent,
several of them are more directly concerned. Two of them,nar~
cissistic and anaclitic object choice, deal directly with
early object relations. While some of the remaining
dimensions concerned with object relations deal with aspects

later in deve10pment, they too should reflect the quality of

58

the initial object relations. Although this must be con-
sidered a more indirect measure, it should be a helpful
comparison. The dimensions considered in this respect are
sibling rivalry, identification, and ego ideal. Although
oedipal intensity is more directly late deve10pment, it
might also be considered here. The oral conflict aspect of
the first hypothesis is represented in the predictions by
oral receptivity. An additional measure of orality was
taken from the Rorschach (per cent oral responses) and will
be included in this grouping as a comparison.

While there are no additional measures to be compared
from the Blacky for the second hypothesis, we do have an
additional measure of anality from the Rorschach (per cent
anal responses) that will be grouped with anal retentiveness
for comparison. The third hypothesis is only represented by
the single correlation with the Blacky total.

The remaining Blacky dimensions, those of oral
hostility,and expulsiveness, masturbation guilt, guilt
feelings, and, to some extent, oedipal intensity, will
simply be investigated as a group for possible additional
suggestions.

All of these relationships are summarized with the
Rorschach measures in Table VII. The Rorschach measures
include both the predicted and the additional measures.
Relationships between the two are indicated for the hypo-
theses. It will be assumed that this relationship should

59

TABLE VII

ADDITIONAL MEASURE GROUPINGS

 

 

Variance
Secondary Primary Psychic psychic
process process level level
FL = Form Level
DD = Defensive Demand g
0
C&D 2 Control and 8
Defense n,
c: c:
Q Q 5’ as as
e a; .3 (J c)
o c) a x +.N
' c: n. 0
>4 N A A
s 4: :3 0CD
:3 1: : fiqfil 0::
c) c: a) o a
o 1 v'n
a a s c at: a...
o o a) m o &.

Hypothesis I
A. Oral aspects
Oral receptivity

 

Rppschach pep cept prgl
. arly object relations

Narcissistic object choice

 

Apgclitic objpgt choice
. ter object relations
Sibling rivalry

Identification
Ego ideal
9: 19-

 

_--—w-‘“'“-

Hypothesis II
Anal retentiveness
Rorschach per cent anal

 

 

1:_

Hypothesis III
Blacky Total

 

 
    
  

 

 

Remaining Blacky dimensions
Oral hostility
Anal expulsiveness
Masturbation guilt
Guilt feelings

 

 

 

 

 

 

60

hold for the measures associated with the hypotheses.

In view of the commonality of the C & D measure to
many of the Rorschach measures in Table VII, partial corre-
lations were computed on the relationships in Table VII
holding its effect constant. No changes significant at the

5 per cent level were observed.

Hypotpesis I
The additional analysis for Hypothesis I is summarized

in Table VIII. 0f the ten correlations representing early
object relations, all are in the expected direction. 0f the
twenty correlations relating to later object relations,
fifteen are in the expected direction. The two measures of
orality have a reversal in direction in four of the five
comparisons. It may be clarifying to look at these relation-

ships by regression dimensions.

A. Secondary pppcess.-~Of the four correlations relat-
ing to early object relations, all are in the expected
direction, but none of them reach significance at the 5 per
cent level. Of the eight correlations relating to later
aspects of object relations, four are in the expected direction
with one of them reaching significance at less than the 5 per
cent level. There is also one of the four correlations in
the opposite direction that reaches significance at less
than the 5 per cent level. 0f the four correlations relating

to the measures of orality,jthree are in the expected

61

TABLE VIII

ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS, HYPOTHESIS I

 

Rorschach Scores

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Secondary Primary Psychic
Process Process Level,
Fl. = Form Level ' a T
m
m a:
DD = Defensive Demand Q Q 8 g
e s s
C&D = Control and U ‘9 8‘ x
Defense >4 1:: N a. 8
g as I: m eqc>
:3 c: ‘3 o |
§ § “‘3 is
2 S E: R EV
Psychosexual Measures
Predicted direction ~ ~ ~ + ~
A. Oral aspects b c
Oral receptivity ~21b ~03 ~13 ~05 ~19
% Rorschach oral responses ; +23 ~06 +09 +02 +06
B. Early object relations 'c
Narcisstic object choice ~11 ~06 ~19 +05 -27:
Anaclitic object choice ~03 ~20c ~02 +16° ~16
C. Later object relations 1 a a
Sibling rivalry ~07 ~32a ~03 +32 ~30
Identification ~19c +03 ~10 ~04 ~11
Ego ideal +32a +03 ~14 +17° ~08
Oedipal intensity +08 ~07 ~19c +02 ~14
aSignificant at less than the 5% level.

bSignificant at less than
cSignificant at less than

the 10% level.
the 20% level.

 

62

direction. Two of these correlations approach significance
(less than the 10 per cent level), but are in opposite
directions. The difference between these correlations is
significant at less than the 5 per cent level. The negative
relationship between the two measures of orality does not

reach significance at the 5 per cent level.

B. Primary process.~~Of the four correlations relat-
ing to early object relations, all are in the expected
direction, but none of them reach significance at less than
the 5 per cent level. Of the eight correlations relating
to later aspects of object relationships, seven are in the
expected direction. One of these reaches significance at
less than the 5 per cent level. Of the four correlations
relating to the measures of orality, a consistent reversal
in direction is seen between the Blacky and Rorschach mea-
sures of orality, but none of the observed relationships

reach significance at the 5 per cent level.

C. Psychic level.~~Of the two correlations with early
object relations, both are in the expected direction and one
of them reaches significance at less than the 5 per cent
level. Of the four correlations relating to later object
relations, all are in the expected direction and one of
‘them reaches significance at less than the 5 per cent level.
NOne of the relationships relating to orality reach signifi~
canoe at the 5 per cent level, but the reversal in the Blacky

«and Rorschach measures of orality is again noted.

63

Hypothesis I;
Both the predicted and additional data for Hypothesis

II are summarized in Table IX. As already indicated, the
data for Hypothesis II is largely negative. None of the
observed relationships reach significance at the 5 per cent
level. In four of the five pairings of the Blacky and
Rorschach measures of anality, a reversal in direction is
seen. In one of these the difference between the two corre-
lations is significant at the 5 per cent level. The corre~
lation between the Blacky and Rorschach measures of anality
of +26 is significant at less than the 5 per cent level.

A correlation between the Blacky measure of anal retentive~
ness and a mean secondary process measure taken only for
responses where primary process was scorable was taken.
This correlation of +28 is significant at less than the 5

per cent level.

Hypothesis III

There is only one correlation in the total correlation
matrix which represents Hypothesis III. As already mentioned,
it is in the predicted direction, but does not reach signifi-
cance at the 5 per cent level. Only one correlation in
Table IV does correlate significantly with the variance in
the psychic level. The correlation with anal expulsiveness

of ~26 is significant at less than the 5 per cent level.

54

TABLE IX

ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS, HYPOTHESIS II

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rorschach Scores

Secondary Primary Psychic

Process Process Level
FL 2 Form level “
DD = Defensive Demand 3
can = Control and Q Q 3 g

Defense .3 .3 E

o :3 x

"’ s 2 E” as

s e a 3 o.

g 5 a 31 5a:

m m 0 one

2: E: :2 at :z-
Psychosexual Dimensions
Prediction + + + ~ +
Anal retentiveness +12 ~12 +01 +07 +09
% Rorschach anal ~20° ~04 ~05 ~04 ~03

responses

 

 

 

0Significant at less than the 20% level.

Ween digension .~~The correlations referring

to the remaining Blacky dimensions are summarized in Table X.
In the total table of twenty correlations, only two of them
approach significance (less than the 10 per cent level).

Both of these are with anal expulsiveness.

55

TABLE X

ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS, REMAINING BLACKY DIMENSIONS

 

 

WW
Rorschach Scores
Secondary Primary' Psychic
FL = Form Level Process Process Lgye;
DD = Defensive Demand 3
c c:
0&D = Control and Q Q 0 3
Defense o8 as 2
c: :3 n. N
x N b. »~
.4 3 a .‘5 a8
&. c> c: ‘3 o '
’5 ’3 ’51 é: a...
G) G) d) (DE-u
S S S R Ev
Blacky Dimensions
Oral hostility +12 ~02 ~09 +04 ~02
Anal expulsiveness ~03 ~14 ~01 +21b ~21b
Masturbation guilt +17° +06 ~06 ~06 +12
Guilt feelings ~08 ~18c +06 +180 ~18c

 

 

 

 

 

SSignificant at less than the 5% level.
Significant at less than the 10% level.
°Significant at less than the 20% level.

Fa tor s s

The total correlation matrix presented in Tables II,
III. and IV was factor analyzed. Two variables were omitted
from the factor analysis because of their containing common
elements to other variables. These two were the total Blacky

score and the alternative secondary process measure. Five

66

factors were selected that had eigen values of 1.00 or
greater. These five factors were then rotated to simple
structure. The varimax method of orthogonal rotation was
used. The rotated solution is presented in Table XI. This
five-factor solution accounts for 91 per cent of the common

variance.

Eggtgr I

Factor I loads high positively on sibling rivalry,
anaclitic object choice, and percentage of primary process.
Factor I loads high hegatively on mean psychic level and
mean control and defense. As both of the Blacky dimensions
that load on this factor have to do with object relations,
the factor will be called a difficulty with object relations

factor.

Eggto; I;

’ Factor II loads high positively on the total Rorschach
responses. A high negative loading appears on the variance
in the psychic level. Both percentage primary process and
mean primary process load low negatively. This factor is
probably largely determined by the high negative correlation
between total Rorschach responses and the variance in the
psychic level (~89). For the present this factor will

simply be called a Rorschach factor.

Eactgr III

Factor III loads high positively on anal retentiveness,

67

TABLE XI

FACTOR ANALYSIS, ROTATED FACTORS

 

I II III IV V
Oral passivity +09 ~03 +08 +31 +45
Oral hostility +03 ~03 ~05 +04 +36
Anal expulsive +30 +19 -59 +01 +04
Anal retentive +12 ~01 +81 ~02 +08
Oedipal involvement +20 +13 ~27 ~15 +17
Masturbation guilt +02 +22 +12 ~01 +06
Castration anxiety +07 +07 +04 ~10 ~39
Identification +17 +18 ~04 +30 +25
Sibling rivalry +62 +16 ~16 ~11 00
Guilt feelings +15 ~23 ~30 +06 +06
Ego ideal +21 +08 ~11 ~53 ~09

Narcissistic objective choice +08 ~13 ~51 +13 +36

Anaclitic object choice +45 +19 +09 ~05 +04
Total responses ~02 +91 ~07 ~03 ~13
% primary process +70 ~37 ~04 ~26 ~02
Mean primary process +04 ~~56 +05 +27 ~61
Mean secondary process ~24 +03 +10 ~71 +17
Mean psychic level ~67 +06 +20 ~05 +33
Variance psychic level ~06 ~88 +17 +05 +06
Mean control and defense ~66 +20 +02 +23 +33
College Qualifications Test +14 ~03 +27 ~40 ~20 -
at oral responses +06 00 +01 ~25 ~07

% anal re spons es +26 +29 +30 + 18 ~03

‘

V W W

68

and negatively on anal expulsiveness and narcissistic object
choice. Since this factor does not load on any of the

Rorschach variables we will simply label it a Blacky factor.

Fagto; IV
Factor IV loads negatively on ego ideal, secondary

process, and the College Qualifications Total. Since both
the secondary process measure and the College Qualifications
Test have to do with secondary process functioning, this

factor will be called a secondary process factor.

F c 0 V

Factor V loads negatively on mean primary process and
castration anxiety. Positive loadings are found on oral
receptivity, oral sadism, and narcissistic object choice.
Because of the two oral dimensions loading on this factor,

we will call it, for the present, an oral factor.

DISCUSSION

A general inspection of the results reveals that all
of the correlations are of a low magnitude. There are, how-
ever, enough of the relationships that reach the 5 per cent
level of significance that it is difficult to attribute the
results to chance alone. In addition, when the low esti-
mated reliabilities of the Rorschach measures are considered,
the observed relationships may be considered as occurring
in spite of the unreliability of the measures. Most of the
significant relationships occur, however, in the additional
analyses. With this in mind, then, we will View the data
and the theory from three points of view. In view of the
low correlations and that most of the significant results
must be validated because of their after-the-fact nature,
one point of view must look at the possibility that the
theory does not stand up in experimental procedure. A
second viewpoint is to search the experimental procedure
itself for inadequacies. The final point of view is to
search the data for what it may mean for the theory in spite

of the low correlations.

69

7O

Hypotheses

Hypothesis I

Hypothesis I states that the degree of oral disturbance
will be related to a decrease in secondary process function-
ing, an increase in the amount of primary process functioning,
and a shift of the psychic level away from secondary process
toward primary process. 0f the three correlations used to
test this hypothesis, all were in the expected direction.
None of them reached significance at the 5 per cent level,
however. Even when the low reliabilities are considered,
this evidence is not sufficient to accept or reject this
hypothesis. The additional analyses may throw some light on
the hypothesis. We must keep in mind, however, the after-
the-fact nature of the additional analyses. Because of the
quantity of the relationships in Table VIII, we will break

down the discussion by the dimensions of regression.

A. Secondary process.~~0f the four correlations re-
lating to early object relations, all are in the expected
direction. None of them reach significance at the 5 per
cent level, however. Of the eight correlations relating to
later aspects of object relations, half of them are in the
expected direction. One correlation in the expected
direction and one in the Opposite direction reach signifi~~
cance at less than the 5 per cent level. If, in fact, the

correlation that is in the opposite direction represents the

71

extent to which the dimension involved (ego ideal) reflects
difficulty in initial object relations, then this is a contra-
diction in theory.

While most of Blum's dimensions appear to have a very
strong face validity, the dimension of ego ideal is perhaps
the weakest. In the theoretical chapter we highlighted
several authors' feelings about this concept which seemed to
generally indicate that it was equivalent to the archaic
superego. In this cartoon the subject is essentially asked
to project Blacky as an adult dog. This would seem to be
much closer to a concept like ideal self than ego ideal.

This reinterpretation of the dimension of ego ideal
seems to make some sense out of the reversal in the observed
relationship. The concept of ideal self is of post oedipal
origin. One would expect that a conflict here, allowing for
a previous successful deve10pment, would have the benefit of
secondary process operation. Conflict here might actually
call for an increased use of secondary process. While the
meaning of this result is not clear, it is not necessarily
contradictory to the theory concerning early object relations.

A second aspect of these two correlations is that the
two of them correlate with different measures of secondary
process. This may have meaning for both the theory and the
experimental procedure. We will defer these points for a
later section, however,

0f the four correlations relating to the measures of

orality, three are in the expected direction. Two of them

72

approach significance (less than the 10 per cent level), but
are in opposite directions. The difference between the two
is significant at less than the 5 per cent level. While
these two relationships are not of much aid in clarifying

the theory, they do raise some question about the measures of
orality used. This reversal is between the two measures of
orality.

The additional relationships relating to the secondary
process aspects of the first hypothesis are, to a great
extent, in the direction predicted by the hypothesis. They
are, however, of a low magnitude and only one of them reaches
the 5 per cent level of significance. The most supportive
aspect of the data for the secondary process aspect of the
first hypothesis is that it does not contradict it. Even
when considering the low reliabilities, however, our best
estimate from this data is that if such a relationship does

exist as predicted, it is at best minimal.

B. Ppgpapy Process. 0f the four correlations relating
to early object relations, all are in the expected direction,
but none of them reach significance at the 5 per cent level.
Of the eight correlations relating to later aspects of ob-
ject relations, seven are in the expected direction. One of
these reaches significance at less than the 5 per cent level.
Of the four correlations relating to the measures of orality,
a consistent reversal in direction is seen between the Blacky

and Rorschach measures of orality, but none of the observed

73

relationships reach significance at the 5 per cent level.
There seem to be three aspects to the data for the
primary process aspect of the first hypothesis. The first
aspect is that the relationships observed are low and that
only one of them reaches significance at the 5 per cent
level. The second is that the two measures of primary pro-
cess seem to have a differential effect, as the one signifi~
cant correlation appeared on only one of the measures. The
third aspect is the reversal in the two measures of orality,
which is consistent with the findings on the secondary process
aspect of the hypothesis. We will defer comment on the
latter two points until a later section. As with the
secondary process aspect of the first hypothesis, the most
supportive aspect of the data is the lack of any contra-
diction. The correlations are generally in the expected
direction, but are quite low. Again, our best estimate from
this data is that if the predicted relationship does exist,

it is at best minimal.

C. Psychic Level.~~0f the two correlations with early
object relations, both are in the expected direction and one
of them reaches significance at less than the 5 per cent
level. 0f the four correlations relating to later object
relations, all are in the expected direction and one of them
reaches significance at the 5 per cent level. None of the
relationships with orality reach significance at the 5 per

cent level, but the reversal in the Blacky and Rorschach

74

measures of orality is again noted.

Of the three dimensions of regression considered in the
additional analyses, the evidence seems most suggestive for
the psychic level aspects of the first hypothesis. All of
the relationships considered are in the expected direction
with the exception of the Rorschach measure of orality. Two
of these are significant at less than the 5 per cent level.
The data suggests, along with the primary and secondary pro-
cess aspects of the hypothesis, that there is some difficulty
in the measure of orality. The data abu>seem to suggest
that at least some relationship exists between the psychic

level and the quality of object relations.

Comments on the First Hypothesis
When the data from the predictions for the first hypo~

thesis are considered alone, the conclusion must be drawn
that the data is simply incapable of answering the questions
raised. The correlations are in the expected direction, but
they do not reach the 5 per cent level of significance. The
additional analyses add some support to the direction of the
theory and, in some cases, add some correlations which reach
the 5 per cent level of significance. These are, however,
after the fact relationships and need confirmation from an-
other study. This raises several questions. The first of
these must be if these relationships actually do exist. The
second question asks if these relationships do exist are

they in fact this low and, therefore, not very meaningful to

75

theory in general. The third questions asks, if these re~
lationships are actually sizable, why are they so low in the
current study. We will defer the first two questions for a
later integrated second on the theory, and take to task some
points about the procedure that may have affected the results.
There are two major aspects to be considered here, that is,

the measures and the sample.

A. The measures.~~The first fact about the Rorschach
measures that must be considered is the low reliability.
There are two possible sources of this unreliability in the
manner they were taken here. One is that the measures them-
selves may be unreliable and simply a larger sample of them
must be obtained for accurate measurement. A second possible
explanation is that the two cards they were obtained from,
Cards VII and IX, differ in their stimulus value. Card VII
is acromatic whereas IX is a colored card. Usual Rorschach
theory would predict that they would be handled differently.
We must also keep in mind that these measures were taken in
a group form which may also have affected the reliability.
Another possible explanation presents itself from the theory
of the present study. The consistent differences that we
predicted from residuals of conflict from early development
may not be upheld for conflict dating from later stages.
That is, we may find that the increased time pressure has a
differential effect on individuals which may manifest itself

in unreliability as it was measured here.

76

The measure of orality that was used seems deserving
of some comment. When the Blacky measure of orality is
compared to the percentage of oral responses taken from the
Rorschach, some consistent direction reversals are seen.

To suggest an explanation for these reversals (as well as
others to be discussed later). we will have to bring one
additional concept into our already complex theory.

In psychoanalytic theory a conflict may be in one of
two forms.with the same conflict possibly being represented
in both forms. We are speaking here of that part of the
conflict that becomes pppp of the ego and that part of the
conflict that remains alien to the ego. Those aspects of
conflict that in the process of development become indis—
tinguishable from the personality itself are said to become
part of the enduring ego structure. These are called 25g
synpopic. Those conflicts that remain outside of the ego
structure in the course of deve10pment and cause the ego
distress and the usual signs of anxiety are said to be ego
alien or 2gp dystoni .

In trying to highlight contributions to the developing
ego from the various stages of psychosexual deve10pment, the
oral receptive stage was suggested as contributing functions
revolving around receptivity and passivity. Secondary pro—
cess was thought to be affected by this stage as autonomous
functioning is based on the quality of initial object re-
lations which are motivated by partial oral instincts.

77

Difficulties in resolving infantile anxieties at this stage
were thought to be represented by an ego dysfunction. This
dysfunction was thought to be represented by a decreased
ability for autonomous functioning, and an increased use of
passivity and regression as defense. The result in terms of
the measures of the study would be an increased amount of
primary process and a defense in secondary process functioning.
One point in this formulation needs emphasis. This is
the concern with the contpibupion go the dgveloping ego.
That is, the aspects of orality that become a part of the
enduring ego. This is what is meant by ego-syntonic.
Returning to our two measures of orality, we may have
two kinds of oral conflicts being measured. The Blacky
test, by its structure, is designed to measure all the aspects
of psychosexual conflict, including those which are part of
the ego (ego-syntonic) and those that are alien to the ego
and cause discomfort to it (ego-dystonic). The Rorschach,
on the other hand, theoretically picks up in the content only
those aspects of conflict which are ego-dystonic. According
to our theoretical formulations in our modification of
Rorschach procedure, the ego-syntonic aspects of conflict
should be picked up in the manner of responding, such as the
psychic level measure and pg§_in the content.
If we follow the above reasoning when the oral conflicts
are ego-dystonic, passivity and regression apparently cause

discomfort and are unable to be utilized by the ego as

defense. This speculation is based on the reversal in
direction seen with the Rorschach oral measure. This would
also offer some possible explanation for the low correlations
seen with the Blacky measure of orality. If, in fact, it
contains both ego-syntonic and ego-dystonic elements, the

two would be acting in opposite directions. To obtain a
more accurate estimate of the relationship between the ego~
syntonic aspects of oral receptivity and the Rorschach mea-

sures, the two would have to be sorted out in some manner.

B. The sample.~~With the realization that the ego-
syntonic aspects of orality may be the crucial factor here,
some comment on the sample of the study seems in order. The
sample was composed entirely of college students. College
students are immediately an extremely select group. Their
level of functioning must be judged as quite successful
simply by virtue of the fact they are in college. In addi~
tion, those individuals with extreme difficulty with
passivity would probably never be able to enter college.
This would point out that a much different sample, with this
new information in mind, would be more appropriate to test

the hypothesis in question.

Hypothesis II

Hypothesis II states that the degree of anal disturb-
ance will be related to an increase in secondary process

functioning, a decrease in primary process functioning, and

79

a shift of the psychic level away from primary process toward
secondary process. 0f the correlations used to test this
hypothesis, all were in the expected direction, but none of
them reached significance at the 5 per cent level. The pre-
dicted data again leaves us in a position of not being able
to evaluate the hypothesis. The additional data from the
percentage of anal responses on the Rorschach are not any
further aid in regard to the hypothesis. When the regres-
sion dimensions are compared on these two measures, a
reversal in direction is seen fairly consistently with one
of these differences being significant at less than the 5
per cent level. Again, this seems to be more of value in
evaluating the measures in question rather than the hypo~
thesis.

One interesting finding does come to light, however,
when the alternate secondary process measure, that of mean
secondary process for primary process responses only, is
considered. This correlation is +28, which is significant
at less than the 5 per cent level. This suggests that
secondary process functioning is only acceptable as a de-
fensive operation and is not called into use except when
defensive operations are needed. Rather than an increased
use of secondary process functioning, even though in a
defensive manner, this would seem to indicate a very
defective secondary process operation, with very little of

its functioning being adaptive. This would also seem to

80

indicate that, rather than a perseverative effect as pre-
dicted, this effect would appear to be periodic. This again
is an affect-the-fact relationship, however, and must be
confirmed in a later study.

While the predicted relationships are in the direction
of the hypothesis, none of them reached the 5 per cent level
of significance. There is some suggestion from the addi~
tional analyses that the relationship of the regression
dimensions to anality may be different than predicted. While
far from conclusive, our best suggestion from the data is
that the relationship of anality with the regression

dimensions is a different one than predicted.

Comm n s H othes s I

Our comments here are,.in general, very similar to the
first hypothesis. We must raise the same questions about
both the theory and the measures in question. The direction
of our theoretical questions may be somewhat different, how~
ever, as we do have some suggestion that the relationship in
question may be a different one than predicted. We will
defer the theoretical questions to a later section and look
here vat possible additional suggestions for the measures

and sample.

A. Tpe measure§.~~Again, the question of the
Rorschach reliability comes in. We will consider the

previous discussion extensive enough, however. Perhaps the

81

most significant aspect of the relationships for the second
hypothesis is the same reversal noted in the first hypothesis
for the Blacky and Rorschach measures of psychosexual
development.

Our theoretical emphasis, as mentioned, has been in
highlighting contributions to the developing ego from the
various stages of psychosexual development. The anal stage
was suggested as contributing functions revolving around
activity. Difficulties in resolving anxieties at the anal
stage were thought to be represented by an ego dysfunction.
This dysfunction was thought to be represented by an in~
creased tendency to utilize secondary process as defense and
an inhibition of primary process material. The over-all
effect in terms of the present study would be represented by
an increase in secondary process functioning and a decrease
in the amount of primary process. As in Hypothesis I, the
conflictual material representing this conflict is ego~
syntonic.

As with orality, we may have two kinds of anal con-
flicts being measured. The Blacky test, by its structure,
is capable of measuring both the ego-syntonic and the ego-
dystonic aspects of conflict. The content of the Rorschach,
on the other hand, probably measures only the ego-dystonic
aspects of conflict. The reversal in direction of the two
correlations, then, would suggest that when the conflictual

material is ego-dystonic, the defensive use of secondary

82

process causes the ego discomfort and is, therefore, not an
acceptable mechanism. As with orality, some way of sorting
out the two aspects of anality would have to be found before

the predicted relationships could be more directly seen.

B. The sample. Again, some comments on the sample
of the study seem in order. As in the case of oral disturb-
ance, it would seem that a different sort of sample might
better answer the questions raised in view of the suggestions
put forth above. For example, if in the case of the
individual with difficulties in resolving anxieties at the
anal stage actually has a defective secondary process oper~
ation as we have suggested, he would be eliminated before
reaching college. This would seem to point to a carefully
selected sample to answer the question of the study and the

questions raised by it.

Hypothepis II;
Hypothesis III states that the fluctuations in the

psychic level will be negatively related to the over-all
psychosexual difficulties. The single correlation represent-
ing this hypothesis is in the expected direction, but does
not reach significance. One single Blacky dimension does
correlate significantly with the variance (anal expulsive-
ness correlates ~26, significant at less than the 5 per cent
level), but more important seems to be the correlation of ~89

with the total Rorschach responses. This correlation is

83

highly significant (less than the 1 per cent level). The
total Rorschach responses does not relate to any of the
other variables strongly enough to partial its effect out.
The question must be raised, then, of what this relationship
means. The data, however, must be considered inadequate to

answer the third hypothesis.

Comments on Hypothesis III
We have raised the question of what the relationship

between the variance and the number of responses mean. One
possibility is the manner in which the variance was computed.
The variance was determined taking each response as a
unit. This unit varied in size, however, as all subjects
were given a constant response time. If this correlation
is to be taken literally, subjects who respond more in a
given time period vary less for that time period. For sub~
jects who are quite productive, it is a fair assumption that
they are giving responses during most of the examination
period which would apparently give a justifiable estimate of
the variability of their functioning. For the subjects giv-
ing few responses, however, we have several possibilities.
One possibility is that they are extremely variable in the
first part of the testing period, but block and become im-
mobilized as the threat of primary process increases. The
data would show them as extremely variable, When they would,
in fact, be quite restricted. A second possibility is the

subject who very slowly and methodically creates each

84

response, putting a great many elements in each of them. In
terms of the data we would have only the end product which
might appear variable, but which in fact might be very
orderly and even constricted.

There are certainly other possibilities, but the impli~
cation seems clear that the estimate of variability is
inadequate. As one suggestion for modification of this
measure, one could divide the response process into elements
and determine a functioning level for each small point of
functioning. This would seem to get around the high corre-
lation between response total and the variance. This would,
of course, necessitate individual administrations of the
Rorschach.

The composition of the sample undoubtedly affected this
result. As we have already mentioned in the two previous
hypotheses, the range of psychosexual disturbance is grossly
reduced in a college population. This in itself would tend
to reduce the obtained correlation, but does not account for

the relationships between the variance and the total responses.

Rema , lac Dimensions

The remaining Blacky dimensions that were not associ~
ated with the predictions have been placed in one group. In
this total group only two correlations approach significance.
Both of these correlations are with anal expulsivity. While
these correlations do not actually reach significance at the

5 per cent level (both are significant at less than the 10

85

per cent level), these correlations raise an interesting
question. Both of these relationships are in the Opposite
direction predicted for anal retentiveness and in the same
direction as that predicted for oral receptivity. This
raises a question about the ppgp of reaction. That is,
while oral receptivity may be a passive giving up, anal
expulsivity may be either a passive or active giving up.

To the extent that the expulsive mode is passive, this cor~
relation could be in line with the oral hypothesis. For a
later research, then, it would seem important to consider

the mode of reaction as well as the point of organ fixation.

Fact r a1 sis

The factor analysis was done for an economical des-
cription of the total correlation matrix. This was not
considered a major analysis, however, and is viewed as the
rest of the additional data is. We will use the results of
it largely as confirmation of the interpretation of the
individual correlations in the additional analyses.

Fgcpor I

In the results section we described Factor I as an ob-
ject relations factor. This was because of the high positive
loadings on sibling rivalry and anaclitic object choice.

The high negative loading on mean psychic level is consistent
with this interpretation. In the above section describing
the relationships with mean psychic level, we pointed out

86

the effect difficulty in initial object relations would have
on the capacity for autonomous functioning and, hence, a de-
crease in the ability for secondary process functioning.

We also pointed out that this should correspond to an in-
crease in the amount of primary process because of a decrease
in the relative autonomy from the environment. Although the
mean primary process measure does not load significantly on
this factor, the alternate measure of percentage of primary
process has a very high positive loading. These findings
are consistent with the theory and lend additional support
to this interpretation.

The negative loading of the secondary process measure
is not high enough to be considered a major contributor to
the variance accounted for by this factor, but its direction
is at least suggestive. Lending additional support to the
secondary process aspect of the theory is the negative load~
ing on the control and defense measure. This measure is not
made up in its scoring from the total gamut of What is
usually considered defense measures. Instead it might be
considered to be more a particular type of intellectual
defense. What we could consider as being represented on
this factor then is not so much the inability to function
autonomously, but the inability to utilize secondary process
in defensive operations.

Factor I, then, is considered to represent the results

of difficulty in initial object relations and their effect

87

on the level of psychic functioning. The difficulty in
initial object relations is represented by an inability

to utilize secondary process in defense, a corresponding
increase in primary process, and a general movement of the

psychic level toward the primary process and of the continuum.

Facto; II

Factor II was described in the results section as a
Rorschach factor. In discussing the observed relationships
with the variance in the psychic level above, we pointed out
the high relationship that was observed with the total
Rorschach responses. We pointed out at that time that the
observed relationship might well be a function of the manner
of computing the variance and not a part of any real relation-
ship. Very little can be added to that discussion at this
point. The meaning of this relationship will have to be
deferred, then, until at such time the study can be repeated,
computing the variance in a manner similar to that suggested

in that section.

Fgctpr 1;;

Factor III was described in the results section as a
Blacky factor. The reason for this description was that no
high loadings were observed on any of the Rorschach
dimensions. This appears to be largely an anal factor and
it is somewhat disappointing in terms of the hypotheses that

it does not load on any of the predicted measures. One of

88

the reasons for this, as already discussed, is the mixture
in the Blacky dimensions of both ego syntonic and ego
dystonic aspects of conflict. A second possible explanation
of this is the observation that the contribution of anality
to functioning ego may in fact only operate in the presence
of primary process. If primary process is successfully
avoided, its action may actually be in the Opposite manner,
as secondary process may only be able to be utilized in the
service of defense. Confirmation or disconfirmation of this

will have to be deferred to a later study, however.

Egctor I!

Factor IV was described in the results section as a
secondary process factor. The three dimensions that load
highly on this factor, all of them negatively, are ego ideal,
mean secondary process, and the College Qualifications Test
total score. Earlier, we reinterpreted the ego ideal
dimension on the Blacky as more of a measure of ideal self
rational than ego ideal. In this sense it was considered
to be post oedipal. Difficulty in autonomous functioning
could definitely manifest itself, however, in this manner.
That is, if we consider that the College Qualifications
measure is not only an estimate of intelligence but may
represent a measure of the success of academic secondary
process Operation, and that the secondary process measure
to some extent is a measure of perceptual accuracy, it is

a justifiable extension to suspect difficulties in the image

89

an individual would have of himself and a corresponding in-
ability to project himself to an ideal. All of these are,
to some extent, an ability to successfully perceive reality
and to adaptively master it.

As Factor I seems to represent a difficulty in the
ability to utilize secondary process in the service of
defense, Factor IV seems to represent an inability to utilize
secondary process in terms of an adaptive accurate perception
of reality. There are some low positive loadings on this
factor with oral receptivity and identification process
which would tend to confirm its relationship with early
psychosexual deve10pment, but these do not account for enough
of the factor variance to Offer substantial evidence.

Perhaps the most suggestive aspect of Factor IV is
when it is compared with Factor I. This seems to indicate
that we are measuring here two separate aspects to secondary
process functioning. One aspect is the defensive use of
secondary process and the other is the ability for adaptive

accurate perception of reality.

Factor V

Factor V was described in the results section as an
oral factor. This was because of the positive loadings on
both of the Blacky oral dimensions. In addition to these
loadings, this factor loads negatively on castration anxiety
and mean primary process, and positively on narcissistic Ob-

ject choice. The positive loadings on orality and

9O

narcissistic object choice and the negative loading on mean
primary process is consistent with the theoretical sug-
gestions put forth. There is, in addition, a suggestive low
negative loading on the mean psychic level.

Somewhat inconsistent, however, is the low positive
loading on the mean control and defense measure. In addi-
tion, a negative loading would have been expected on the
secondary process measure. One possible explanation of the
lack of result with the secondary process measure and the
low positive loading with control and defense is the mixture
of ego syntonic and ego dystonic material represented in the
Blacky measures. We do find that the castration anxiety
dimension does load on this factor and even though this is
a negative loading, the suggestion of correlation with an
anxiety factor does seem to point out that the results are
being confounded with ego dystonic material. The data of
the present study is certainly not conclusive of this, how-
ever, and we will have to defer substantiation or rejection

of this suggestion to a later study.

Commentp on the Fagtor Apalysis

The factor analysis is perhaps the most exciting part
of the results here, but it is quite deceptively so. When
it alone is considered, it offers strong support for the
first hypothesis, it is largely negative for the second
hypothesis, and offers no information for the third hypo-

thesis. These findings are very supportive to the

91

interpretations made from the individual correlations.

While it is very encouraging that the factor analysis
of the low correlations could describe the results in terms
of the theory, it must be remembered that the matrix is made
up of low correlations from measures with low reliabilities.
The best that we can make out of the factor analysis, then,
is that it does support our tentative interpretations from

the individual correlations.

Theory in Lighp o: the Dapa

The data of the study have been described as generally
low, but not contradictory to the theory. While not contra-
dictory, neither are they supportive of a strong relation~
ship that would have some general meaning for personality
theory. The interpretation of these results could follow
several paths. One obvious path is that such a relationship
does not actually exist. Another is that the relationship
is so negligible that it is not meaningful for general theory.
Another possibility that does not obviate the first two is
that the experimental procedure is generally inadequate to
test the predicted relationships. If the low relationships
can be accounted for on the basis of experimental flaws,
then the possibility exists that the theory may in fact have
some meaning. In addition, the results may have some mean-
ing for the theory in spite of the low results. We will con~
sider each of these points in this section following a dis-

cussion of the general theory.

92

Genepal Theory
Our attempt has been to elaborate and clarify the

theory of regression in the service of the ego. Intimately
bound with our discussion of the theory of regression are
speculations concerning the genetic roots of variation in
the process. Generally, the ego functions involved in the
phases of regression: progression, regression, and Oscillation,
are viewed as dependent on the resolution of infantile
anxieties at the various stages of pregenital development.
These relationships were elaborated using the concepts of
passive ego function, active ego function, psychic level,
and shifts from this level.

At a given moment in time the functioning of the ego
may be described in terms of a "balance" of primary and
secondary process. In problem-solving, for example, the
ego must be almost entirely under secondary process domi-
nation to carry out the logic required. In psychosis, how-
ever, the ego is largely under primary process domination.
If we consider a continuum ranging from primary process to
secondary process, tasks involving problem-solving activities
would move the ego closer to secondary process; whereas, tasks
requiring some creative effort would be, at least, temporarily
moving the ego closer to primary process. Any given moment
of functioning involves, to some extent, an amount of pri-
mary process domination as well as secondary process domi-

nation. TO describe any given moment of functioning, then,

93

we need to know both the amount of primary process operating
as well as the degree of secondary process Operation.

The daily shifts in the level of psychic functioning
may be described as occurring on this secondary process-
primary process continuum. In terms of the theory of
regression in the service of the ego, shifts toward primary
process are regressive shifts, shifts toward secondary pro~
cess are progressive shifts, and alterations between the two
over time are called oscillation.

In attempting to account for individual variation in
these various aspects of regression we turned to their
possible genetic roots. We pointed out that secondary pro~
cess as a way of functioning could Operate autonomously or
outside of conflict as well as defensively, Which means be-
coming involved in control and defense measures. Primary
process functioning could be entered into as a means to a
creative end, as an attempt at control and defense, or as an
involuntary overwhelming of the ego.

The first phase of psychosexual deve10pment that we
turned to in attempting to specify some of the possible
contributors to variation in this process was the earliest
stage, that of oral receptivity. It was reasoned that as
this stage is the first real contact with receptivity and
that disturbances resulting from difficulties in this stage
exhibited strong tendencies to utilize regression and

passivity as defense, that the contribution to the

94

developing ego from this stage could be an ability to regress
or allow pasSivity. We called this the passive ego function.
In addition, the earliest object relations have as their
motive force, partial oral instincts. Difficulties in this
stage should be represented, then, by a decreased capacity
for autonomous functioning, since its deve10pment is depend-
ent on the quality of initial object relations. From this
we concluded that difficulties in resolving infantile
anxieties at the oral stage would be represented in the
developing ego by an ego dysfunction yielding an increased
tendency to use passivity as defense and an inability to
function autonomously.

The overall effect of difficulties in the oral
receptive stage, then, would lead to a decreased ability for
secondary process functioning, an increase in the amount of
primary process functioning, and a general lowering of the
psychic level toward primary process.

The second stage of psychosexual development that we
turned to was that of anal retentiveness. Adult personali-
ties with difficulties in this stage are often characterized
by an active quality, and readily utilize secondary process
as a defensive operation. In some cases this is extreme
enough to severely inhibit any primary process movement of
the ego. With the same kind of reasoning that was used with
oral receptivity, it was felt that the anal retentive stage
of deve10pment might contribute the ability to progress, or

95

what we have called the active ego function. Difficulties
in resolving infantile anxieties at the anal retentive stage
would be represented in the adult ego by an increased
tendency to inhibit primary process and to utilize secondary
process functioning as control and defense. The effect of
both of these tendencies would be to raise the psychic level
and move it toward secondary process.

The final relationship that we attempted to specify
was that of the variability of the psychic level. Since
the effect of the two relationships that we have specified
up to this point have the effect on the ego of restricting
its activities, it was felt that for an ego to be able to
freely oscillate between the regressive and progressive
phases, it would of necessity have to have a relative
absence of psychosexual disturbance. Stating the opposite
of this, then, as the overall degree of psychosexual dis-
turbance increases, the variability of the psychic level

should decrease.

eor and he low Corre on
In this section we will consider two possible inter-
pretations of the low results. The first of these is that
the relationships predicted do not, in fact, exist. The
second interpretation is that the relationship does exist,
but is small enough to be meaningless for the general body

of theory.

96

There are essentially three aspects to the theory as
developed here. The first of these is the distinction of
the various stages of psychosexual deve10pment and that
these stages contribute specific functions to the developing
ego. The second aspect of the theory is that there are
distinctive ego states involved in daily functioning and
that there are specific ego functions that direct these
states. The final aspect to the theory is that there is a
relationship between these stages of development and the ego
functions directing the ego states involved in daily
functioning. While the present study is designed to test
only this relationship, the low results might be accounted
for by deficiencies in any of these areas of theory.

The first aspect of the theory, that of the distinc-
tion of the various stages of psychosexual stages, is well
documented in psychoanalytic literature. While the dis-
tinction of these stages is not a product of ego psychology
proper but of traditional psychoanalytic theory, ego
theorists have concentrated on one aspect of the theory.
Erickson (1950) in particular has elaborated the concept of
gap; of the stage as well as the point of organ fixation.
While it does seem clear that there are definite stages of
deve10pment and that there are contributions to the develop-
ing ego from these stages, it is not clear whether the most
important aspect is the ppgg of the difficulty or the ppypp
of organ fixation. We took the point of view in the

97

theoretical section that the point of organ fixation was the
most important aspect. While this would certainly be a con~
founding factor in the results, it would not seem to account
for the extreme low nature of the data. We will return to
this point in a later section, but for the present we will
content ourselves with the documentation from the literature
on the stages of deve10pment.

The second aspect of the theory has been documented to
some extent in the clinical literature and in its grosser
meanings in some experimental studies. This is the dis-
tinction of various ego states with corresponding ego
functions directing them. This is a specific product of ego
psychology. We are referring here to the ego states involved
in the progressive and regressive states of shifting levels
of psychic functioning. The question that seems to be most
appropriately asked of these states is if they are actually
in the service of the ego. The theory states that there are
certain kinds of ego states (i.e., regressive and progressive)
and in this sense are in the service of the ego. The
question must be raised, however, that these may actually
represent failures of usual adaptive mechanisms and, although
adaptive in themselves, represent a dysfunction of the ego.
That is, a process which may begin as what might be con~
sidered pathological ends up being adaptive. If the end
product is actually supported by society as being productive
(i.e., the artist), what is actually an ego dysfunction may

98

be considered a special function that is adaptive.

It is clear that there are what may be called pro~
gressive and regressive ego states. These are easily demon~
strated clinically in the various stages of acuteness and
remission of psychosis. What is not clear is if such states
may actually be termed adaptive in special cases in terms of
the psychic structure, even though they may be termed as
such in terms of society.

A second point also presents itself here. If an
individual is capable of using these various ego states,
adaptively in special cases in terms of the psychic structure,
does this necessarily mean he will all the time? Rephrasing
this we could ask if all the shifts in the level of function-
ing of an individual are necessarily adaptive. In terms of
the present study, if individuals have a balance of con~
trolled and uncontrolled shifts, this would be enough to
cancel out the predicted relationships.

While both of these points are possible explanations
of the low correlations, one would expect that findings
might have actually been strongly reversed if the ego move-
ments in question actually represent ego dysfunctions. The
same experimental inadequacies that may account for the lack
of positive findings for the theory, however, could also
eventually support this point of view. The second suggestion
seems much more likely in terms of the data, however. In

the theory and the procedure, no attempt was made to

99

differentiate in the same individual adaptive and patho-
logical ego movements. This in itself is sufficient to
account for the low correlations.

The final aspect of the theory, that of a relationship
between the stages of psychosexual development and the ego
functions directing the various ego states, perhaps de-
serves the most question. The formulations put forth in the
theoretical section regarding this relationship must be re-
garded as greatly oversimplified in view of the results and
the discussion put forth up to this point. If such a re-
lationship does exist, which we must bear in mind that it
may not, we must consider both the mode ppg point of organ
fixation, as well as the quality of the ego states as to
their adaptive and/or pathological aspects. We will defer
revisions of this relation for a later section.

One other possibility seems applicable in the inter~
pretation of the low results. Basic to all three aspects of
the theory is the concept of ego, that it has various states,
and that these states are involved with functions which
direct or lose direction in the state as the case may be.
While this has proved to be an extremely useful conceptual-
ization in both theory and clinical practice, one must
question this basic concept in terms of experimental pro~
cedure.

The ego, as defined in the current study, is made up

of its functions. The question that we are raising, then,

100

is the usefulness of the concept of ego functions in experi-
mental work. If one were to consider the results of the
present study as indicating that this is not a useful
theoretical concept, this points out several problems. By
implication, the theory of regression in the service of the
ego is relegated to a spot of being interesting, but of
having no experimental value. If the concept of ego states
and ego functions is one that has no experimental meaning,
then the theory of regression is both untestable and un-
productive in terms of experimental research.

inile the data of the current study are not supportive
of this position, neither are they able to reject it. In
future research, then, this alternate must be kept in mind.
If the suggestions and modifications of the present study
prove to be unproductive, the alternative of the concept of
ego states and ego functions must become quite suspect in

terms of its research productivity.

Experimental Procedure and the Theory

Several points have been raised concerning possible
inadequacies in both the same and the measuring instruments.
The sample, as mentioned, consisted entirely of college
males in beginning psychology-classes. This definitely
represents a restriction in the range of variation with the
most important factor in the restriction being in the very
difficulties we are dealing with theoretically. That is, by

virtue of that fact that the subjects are in college, severe

101

difficulties in passivity and logical functioning can be
ruled out. This in itself may be a major contributor to the
low correlations.

In terms of the measure of psychosexual difficulties,
certain inadequacies have become apparent from the study.

The major point here is that the Blacky test seems to be

too gross of a measure. For each measure the Blacky yields
one overall score. As the theory has deveIOped, the infor—
mation gained should evaluate the point of organ fixation.
the mode of reaction, as well as some information as to the
intensity of the conflict. In addition, one would wonder how
reliable a three-minute sample of reactions to oral material
would be. In addition, the quality of object relations, so
mportant to the current theory, is spread across several
dimensions and often confounded with other aspects of
deve10pment. It seems, in terms of the needs of the current
study, hat the Blacky test is an inadequate measure of
psychosexual difficulties.

Along with the reliability difficulty already discussed
in the Rorschach measures, the question must be raised about
the adequacy of the measures. As secondary and primary
process are crucial to the theory and the measures of them
are used in the determination of the psychic level, one must
question their validity. While it would be a fairly simple
matter to validate the secondary process measure with other

measures of logical functioning, the primary process measure

102

presents somewhat more difficulty. Primary process, by
definition, is the process that governs unconscious activity.
Its characteristics, such as condensation and identity, are
well known. The system used to score primary process domi~
nated material has two essential groupings. One grouping,
that of formal deviations, is by definition primary process
dominated material. The second grouping of content, such as
sexual or aggressive, is much less clearly dominated by
primary process. The assumption is made that if drive
material is in evidence in the content, then primary process
must, to some extent, be Operating. This does not, however,
necessarily follow. In addition, because primary process
scores are not applicable to a response, does this mean it is
not in Operation? Although no alternate suggestions will be
made, these theoretical questions must be considered in
future studies.

One final point needs consideration. The possibility
was raised in discussing the possible negative implications
of the data for the theory that the concepts of ego function
and ego state may not have an experimental application. In
terms of the measures of the study, this would mean that we
have actually conceptualized them accurately and that the
reason that the results were low is that the conceptualization
itself is simply not measurable experimentally. As with the
comments on the theory, we do not have the data to support

this nor can we reject it. This possibility must be kept in

103

mind, then, with future research with the theory, as this
would imply that the concepts are merely metapsychological

conveniences.

Predictions and the_§ata

Although the correlations are of a low magnitude, when
the data itself and the possible difficulties in experimental
are considered, the data may be interpreted as suggestive
for the first hypothesis. The source of the suggestion is
the direction of the predicted relationships, the occasional
significances of the additional analyses, and the support
for these interpretations seen in the factor analysis. This
suggestion is that primary process, secondary process, and
the psychic level are related to the quality Of early object
relations and early deve10pment in the manner suggested by
the first hypothesis.

One of the factors that may be reducing these relation-
ships is the apparent mixture of ego-syntonic and ego~
dystonic conflict on the Blacky measure. The evidence for
this mixture is the consistent reversal with the regression
dimensions seen when the Blacky and Rorschach measures of
orality are compared. The reason for this reversal is not
clear, but the most plausible explanation stems from the
discomfort that ego-dystonic material causes the ego. When
the conflict becomes part of the ego (ego-syntonic), the ego
does not experience the discomfort and is moved toward the

conflict of the ego defect represented by the conflict. The

I. v 1 II. III lllll. II II

lllllllullll‘

104

discomfort caused by the ego-dystonic aspects of the conflict
may cause the ego to move away from the conflict. It seems
that the same conflict may have Opposing effects on the ego,
depending on its ego-syntonic or ego-dystonic nature.
Continuing our thought that the Blacky measure contains both
ego-syntonic and ego-dystonic aspects of conflict, the re-
lationships in question would understandably be reduced.

An important point seems to be raised by the secondary
process aspects of the theory. There appears to be two
distinct kinds of secondary process functioning represented
by the data. This is highlighted by factors I and IV in
the factor analysis. Factor I was described as an object
relations factor. The loadings on this factor pointed to a
difficulty in initial object relations, an increase in the
amount of primary process, and a decrease in the ability to
defensively utilize secondary process. Factor IV was des-
cribed as a secondary process factor, but it appears to be
of a much different sort. The high loadings, along with the
mean secondary process measure, indicate that it is related
more to a perceptual accuracy than to a defensive use of
secondary process. This may be more a measure of autonomous
secondary process functioning. There is some indication,
although not too strong, that there is a relationship with
early deve10pment here too.

This duality in secondary process may also be in ef-
fect in the primary process measures. The high primary

process loading on Factor I was on the percentage of primary

105

process; whereas, the loading on Factor V was on the mean
primary process.

To summarize the data related to the first hypothesis,
we find suggestive support for the contention that the combi-
nation of difficulty in early object relations and the oral
receptive stage of development are related to a decrease in
secondary process functioning, an increase in the amount of
primary process, and a general movement of the psychic level
toward primary process. he decrease in secondary process
was seen in two ways, as a decrease in the ability to utilize
secondary process in a defensive manner, and in a decrease in
ability to function autonomously or to adaptively and
accurately perceive reality. A differential was also seen
in primary process functioning, one aspect measured how much
primary process was allowed in a moment of functioning when
it did occur, the other measuring the overall amount of
primary process. We also noted that our measure of orality
may be a combination of egd-dystonic and ego-syntonic
material. The importance of this combination is that the
same conflict can apparently have opposing effects on the
ego, depending on its ego-syntonic or ego-dystonic qualities.

Of the specific relationships dealing with the anal
hypothesis, all were in the eXpected direction, but none of
them reached significance. The same reversal was noted with
the Blacky and Rorschach measures of anality as was seen

with the oral measures. This lends additional support to

106

the contention that the Blacky measure is a combination of
ego-syntonic and ego-dystonic conflict. The most significant
relationship with the anality measure, however, was the mean
secondary process for only primary process responses. This
would seem to suggest that, with some degree of anal dis-
turbance, the ego Operates in the predicted direction only
when faced with defense against primary process. Although
the data does not yield evidence of this, it may operate in
an entirely different manner when primary process is absent.
This may account for the nearly chance correlations observed.
If this is the case, anality may not have the predicted
perseverative ego effect.

One additional source of lack of evidence is seen when
Factor III is investigated. Here the major variance of the
factor is accounted for almost entirely by the Blacky
dimensions, especially those of anality.

In marked contrast to the preponderance of supporting
data for the oral hypothesis, the best evidence that can be
gathered from the current study to support the anal hypo—
thesis is one correlation indicating that anal conflict may
be related to secondary process operation only when the ego
is faced with defending against primary process. In addi-
tion to this, we could argue that the confounding of ego-
syntonic and ego-dystonic material on the Blacky obscured
any real relationship. This confounding, however, seems

more to support the contention that there is such confounding

107

rather than obscuring any.real relationships with anality.

The most legitimate conclusion in terms of the anal
hypothesis would seem to be that failure to resolve
infantile anxieties at the anal stage of development does
not have the predicted perseverative effect on the ego.

This would seem to indicate a revision of some of our heory
which will be taken up in one of the following sections.

The third hypothesis dealing with the variability in
the psychic level was to be tested by a single correlation.
This correlation, like the others, was in the expected
direction, but did not reach significance. The most out-
standing observation about the variance in the psychic level
is not this correlation, however, but its very strong re-
lationships with the total number of Rorschach responses.
This relationship was strong enough to almost totally account
for the variance of Factor II. Earlier we commented that
this relationship might be accounted for on the basis of the
way the variance was computed. At that time we pointed out
that using the response as a unit to determine the variance
might well be an error. For the subject who responds fairly
consistently, this measure might be a fair estimate. But
what of the subject who responds just a few times and at
erratic times? What of the subject who has an extremely
methodical approach and consistently puts a great deal into
his very few responses? For both of these, the estimate of

variance seems to be an extremely inaccurate measure. In

I I ' l l I III‘ I I1 I11 I: I l ‘ ‘ Ii l l I l l‘v! l .4.
IFIIIII l t '4! II. I ‘

108

view of this it would seem to be a much more accurate mea-
sure to use time units and assess a level of functioning in
each unit. In this manner we could equate time units and
obviate the error that we seem to have encountered in mea-
suring the variance of the psychic level.

For the present study, then, we simply have no data to
answer the third hypothesis. Although the single correlation
is in the expected direction, the error in measuring the
variance seems great enough to discount this information and

defer this question until a later study.

Theoretical Revisions and Additions

Activity and Passivity Redefined

Two of the major concepts that we have been using to
explain variation in the process of shifting levels of psychic
functioning have been the active ego function and the passive
ego function. The passive ego function was used to denote a
regressive ego movement or movement toward primary process.
The active ego function was used to denote a progressive ego
movement or movement toward secondary process. In view of
the positive suggestions for our "passive" or oral hypothesis
and the lack of success of our "active" or anal hypothesis,
it would seem appropriate to clarify the definition of
activity and passivity.

Rapaport, in a recently published article (1961),

takes as his task this definition. One of his major points

 

l'll.|f‘.

109

is the lack Of clarity in the literature concerning these
terms. He prefers to define activity as an ego state where
the ego is not involved in defense. Passivity he defines
as a state where the ego is bound by defense and is unable
to Operate autonomously.

He further states that the developing organisms begins
to have a layering Of activity and passivity from the very
earliest stages. In view of this we had perhaps best rede-
fine what we have called the passive and active ego functions.

In our earlier theoretical discussion what we meant
by both of these was that the ego was in an undefended state
and that both of the ego movements, those of regressive and
progressive movement, were in the service of the ego. In
Rapaport's meaning Of the terms, both Of these would be an
active ego state. More properly named, then, these functions
could be called the progressive active ego function and the
regressive active ego function.

Again in Rapaport's sense, our concern with the vari-
ation in the process of shifting levels Of psychic function-
ing was with the extent that these became involved in a
passive ego state through difficulties in resolving infantile

anxieties at the various states of psychosexual development.

Genetig_RelationshipsL_How Early
In view of both Rapaport's definition and the results
of the present study, a very appropriate theoretical

question is how early are the capacities for regressive and

Illlil {III
III l'llllllll‘ll' '11.

110
progressive active ego movements formed. In terms Of the
perseverative ego effects that we were concerned with we
were describing what would amount to contributions from the
first two years Of life in the oral and anal stages. The
data suggest that the functions in question are related tO
very early oral relationships as well as the first Object
relations. The speculation concerning anality seem very
suspect in terms of the data, however, when one considers a
perseverative ego effect.

Again turning to Rapaport's article, he emphasizes that
there is a layering Of activity and passivity that begins
very early. In fact, if we follow Winnicott (1957), the
very first meeting with passive receptivity must be preceeded
by an active attempt to allow this passivity to follow. In
other words, the very earliest stages of passivity (later to
be called regressive ego movement), are preceeded by an at-
tempt at activity (later to be called prOgressive ego move-
ment). In terms of our theory this means that an impairment
in this early stage of what is called passivity also means an
impairment in the first stage Of activity.

In other words, free access to both the progressive
and regressive active ego functions involved in the phases
of shifting level of psychic are laid down in the very
earliest stage of development. This would explain why the
preponderance Of the data Of this study highlights relation-

ships that are of a very early origin.

Ego-Syntonic, Ego-Dystonic
A second finding that needs to be integrated into the

theory is the Observation that depending on the ego-syntonic
or ego-dystonic nature of the conflict, it may have Opposing
effects on the ego. For example, when the oral conflict is
part of the ego (ego-syntonic) its effect seems to be to
move the ego toward primary process. When the oral conflict
is alien to ego (ego-dystonic), it seems to move the ego
away from primary process. This is not difficult to inte-
grate, however, when one considers that the ego may only
feel the discomfort of the conflict when it is alien to it.
One Of the major operating principles of psychic life is the
pleasure princhfljawhich states that the ego will work to re-
move displeasure and to gain pleasure. When the conflict
is part Of the ego, the defect that is represented by it
in the ego apparently works to move the ego toward the con-
flict. This was one Of the major contentions Of the
theoretical chapter.

With the awareness of this differing effect, depending
on the nature Of the conflict and its relation tO the
develOping ego, a later study will definitely have to take

this into account.

Dual Aspects Of Primary and Secondary Procesg
As we have already noted, the data indicate that two

 

 

aspects Of secondary process functioning are being measured.

The first of these was described as a defensive use Of

112

secondary process. This description may be a little mis-
leading, however, as what this measure seems tO be is the
ability to maintain secondary process in the face Of primary
process and tO utilize secondary process functioning to
control primary process. The second aspect Of secondary
process functioning that was seen was what we called an
ability to adaptively and accurately perceive reality. This
seems to be an estimate of autonomous functioning.

This indicates that secondary process functioning is
somewhat more complicated than we had discussed in the
theoretical chapter. In terms of the theory there are at
least two alternate explanations of this. The first possi-
bility is that there are two separate sources of energy for
secondary process functioning, one that Operates in terms
Of autonomous functioning, and one that Operates in the face
Of primary process. The second possibility is that the mea-
sure Of secondary process in terms Of perceptual accuracy
measures the capacity for autonomous functioning and the
second measure, that Of ability to use secondary process in
the face of and to control primary process, is a measure Of
the ability to maintain autonomous functioning in the face
of primary process. This second explanation seems to be the
most parsimonious and is in line with the theory Of the
study.

The two aspects Of primary process present somewhat

more difficulty. It is conceivable, since two separate

11}

measures Of primary process were used, that this difference
is a function Of the measures used. The low correlation
between the two, however, seems to speak against this. The
one measure, that of mean primary process, seems to measure
the amount of primary process domination that occurs when

the ego is involved in primary process Operation. The second
measure, that of per cent primary process, measures the fre-
quency with which the ego becomes involved in primary
process.

It is difficult to ascertain from the data Of the
study whether we have, in fact, two kinds Of primary process
functioning, or whether we simply have two dimensions Of the
same primary process functioning. To answer this question
it would seem necessary to score the data in a somewhat
different manner than in the present study. In this in-
stance, it would seem very appropriate to turn again to the
possibility of using time units that we suggested earlier for
the correlation Of the error in the measure of the psychic
variance. Using this unit, if the correlation between the
two measures was still quite low, we would be more inclined
to state that primary process functioning has at least two
definite aspects to its functioning.

Without a more definite answer to the question Of the
separateness of these two measures, it would be quite mean-
ingless to attempt to integrate their seeming differences
into the theory. We will defer that point until a later

study.

114

New Questions for Old

Suggestive Answeys

As in most psychological researches, the answers are
few and the questions are many. The major purpose of this
study was to investigate the possible relationships between
the process involved in the daily shifts in the level of
psychic functioning and psychosexual development. The
answers as such that we have must be considered ambivalent.
While the data are suggestive that such a relationship does
exist, the possibility must also be kept in mind that the
theoretical constructs we are attempting to measure may not
be applicable to experimental work. The low correlations
may be explained in the theoretical framework, but the
alternative explanation that the framework itself is useful
only as a theoretical and clinical tool must be kept in mind.

Interpreting the results as suggestive for the theory,
the data seem suggestive for the first hypothesis, seem tO
reject the second, and cannot answer the third. The data
for the first hypothesis suggest that as difficulties with
initial Object relations and with resolution of anxiety at
the oral receptive stage increases, secondary process
functioning decreases and the amount and intensity Of primary
process domination increases. The data do not support the
second hypothesis concerned with anality and because of an
inadequate measurement of the variation, are inconclusive

for the third hypothesis. Some Of the additional data suggest

115

dual aspects to both primary and secondary process function-
ing. The suggestion was also seen that two aspects of
conflict were being measured, both ego-syntonic and ego-

dystonic.

New;gpestigns

Although the data is suggestive that a relationship
does exist between the process involved in the shifting
levels of psychic functioning and psychosexual deve10pment,
we still do not know what this relationship is. In addition,
we must bear in mind that the data is somewhat suggestive,
in view of the low correlations, that the theoretical con-
structs used may not be applicable to research. Our first
new question, then, is only new in the sense is is perhaps
more specific. It is also new in that it now questions the
applicability of these concepts for qualification and
experimentation. This question asks what are the contri-
butions from oral receptivity and initial object relations
to the ego functions involved in the process of shifting
levels of psychic functioning, and are these concepts mea-
surable.

The second question is dependent on the first for both
confirmation of the measurability of the concepts and for
some clarification of the earlier relationships. This
question asks what kind of effect do the later stages of
development have on the develOping ego and its relationship

to the shifting levels in psychic functioning. A third

116

question is dependent on the second. This question asks,
assuming that the later stages do have an effect on the ego,
What are the conditions under which this effect is noticed,
and what is the specific effect of the various stages.

The data have suggested that conflict has a differ-
ential effect on the ego, depending on the ego-syntonic or
ego-dystonic nature. This question is not as clear as it at
first may seem, however, as this differential may disappear
with the later stages of development, where the deve10pment
may have less of an effect in the sense of forcing the ego
in a perseverative direction. Our data suggest this
differential for the oral receptive and anal retentive stage,
but we do not have data for the later stages. The fourth
question asks, then, what is the effect of a conflict being
ego-syntonic or dystonic, and does this effect continue
across all the stages of development.

A final question that is raised by the data is the
dual aspects of primary and secondary process. Particularly
in reference to secondary process we may ask the question
if we are measuring two separate kinds of secondary process
functioning. This is a particularly important theoretical
question in terms of the energy source for the operation of
secondary process functioning. The same question may be
asked for primary process, although the data is much less
Clear in even the sense of the legitimacy of asking this

question.

117

Two additional new questions are raised by the comments
on the theory. The first of these asks what is the effect of
the mode quality of the organ fixation. That is, in consider-
ing the contributions from the stages of psychosexual deve10p-
ment, the 2222 of reaction may be as important as the 29in;
of organ fixation. The second question concerns the general
theoretical contention that the daily ego movements may be
in the service of the ego. This question asks if these move-
ments are in the service of the ego and if some of them may
be, do they all need to be. If there are differing ego move-
ments, some in the control of the ego and others not, it
would seem to follow that these might have a very different

kind of relationship to early development.

Applications and Suggested Research

 

Theoretical Research

The research to be suggested in this section and the
one to follow must of necessity be a prOgram type of research.
The reason for this is quite simple. Before the theory and
method may be applied to other areas of study, the theory
must be clarified and the methodology developed.

It would seem that one of the most productive ways of
approaching the stages of psychosexual development would be
to take them one at a time. The first step would be to ob-
tain a sample heavily weighted with subjects who have a great

deal of oral conflict. It would seem important to select

118

these subjects on several criterion. The Blacky Test might
be one of the criteria, but its difficulty for this type of
study has already been discussed. A better method of
selection might be to use a sample of subjects who are in
the early phases of therapy. One criterion could then be
the therapists' judgment. A second criteria could be the
data obtained from a pre-therapy diagnostic battery, limit-
ing the sample to those subjects who had had such a battery.
As a third criterion, special projectives could be devised
and the literature scanned for available techniques. A
fourth criterion that might be used is the family history,
with the possibility of using special questionnaires for
this.

In this manner, graded ratings could be obtained on
the amount of oral conflict, the ego-dystonic and ego-
syntonic nature that it takes, and some information about
the mode of reaction. In addition to the oral group, it
would seem to be well to select a suitable control group in
the same manner.

With the sample selected in this manner, some modifi-
cation of the method of measuring the various aspects of
regression seems in order from the evidence of the present
study.

The first modification would seem to be in the admin-
istration. While the thirty minute limit seems an adequate

time interval, it would seem advisable to include additional

119

stimulus material. This would not only allow for a greater
sample of behavior, but one of the cards could be used as an
extended training period. This would also help deal with
the reliability problem. The purpose of extending the
training period would be to encourage subjects to report
more of the process involved in responding. For this reason,
an individual administration seems to be the most advantage-
ous approach. In addition to the above reasons, the indivi—
dual administration would allow the administrator to keep an
accurate account when things happened in the response pro-
cess. In this manner the suggestion that was made earlier,
to score the response process in time units, would be a
possibility.

In addition to the above suggested modifications of
the Rorschach procedure, it would seem advisable to obtain
some additional measures of pure secondary process function-
ing, such as an intelligence measure. It might be possible
to score this measure or measures in such a manner as to
determine the degree to which the secondary process function-
ing did in fact remain autonomous.

Along with the modifications in Rorschach procedure
and the additional measures suggested, some modifications in
the scoring of the regression measures might be in order.
One such modification might be to use some measure that des-
cribes the curve of the response process. This would be in

addition to the variance measure. The purpose of this curve

120

description would be to see if it would be possible to
differentiate a perseverative ego effect from an ego effect
that has a periodic temporary effect. This is perhaps more
important for some of the later stages of development than
for the oral stage.

Assuming the relative success of the first study deal-
ing with orality, similar studies could be designed in the
same manner following progressively through the stages of
psychosexual development. The combined results of a series
of studies such as this should be of great theoretical
importance. The results of such a program should offer
fairly definite evidence for the questions raised in the

present study.

A atio t 0 her eas

One rather prominent application might be to the general
theory of neuroses. Researchers have often raised the
question why do some people seem to get sick and others not.
This question has been raised in the light of nearly identical
familial backgrounds in the groups in question. Familial
histories are noticably lack in very early development, how-
ever, because this is an extremely difficult period to obtain
information about and we really do not have the theoretical
background to know what to look for in the very early phases.
The suggestion that we are making is that the differences in
these two groups may in fact be in the very early deve10pment.

The group that later becomes disturbed or sick may have a

121

deficiency in the progressive and/or regressive active ego
functions.

This extremely speculative comment has application to
what therapy does as well. If we assume that the reason for
the precipitation of the psychological illness is the combi-
nation of the classical neurotic syndrome agg_this weakness
in the progressive and/or regressive ego functions, then
therapy is, in effect helping to "bandage" the ego weakness
and alleviate the precipitating neurotic syndrome. The
neurotic syndrome is real enough and the alleviation of it
may be real enougn, but does the therapist ever attempt to
deal with the very basic ego deficiency. This question might
be rephrased to ask if he ggg_deal with this basic
deficiency.

This above concern with the practice of therapy and
with the general theory of neurosis is extremely speculative,
but is certainly one of the possible directions that the
implications of the current study lead.

Another conceivable direction, and one that is perhaps
more immediately realizable, is the measurement of changes

hat occur in the process of psychotherapy. If, in time,

we gain some support for our contentions about the operation
of the various stages of psychosexual development on the
psychic level and the process of its shifting, some of this
evidence will be related to the kinds of conflicts that are

traditionally dealt with in psychotherapy. If, in fact,

122

these conflicts are therapeutically alleviated, this
should be directly measurable by the method of this study.
The effect of this is far reaching, both in the sense of
actually demonstrating change and in the sense of what the
change is. This could also, then, be used as a kind of

"barometer" of psychotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The theoretical efforts of the current study are
lodged in the concept of regression in the service of the
ego. We have been particularly interested in the effects
that failure to effectively resolve infantile anxieties at
the various stages of psychosexual development have on the
ego functions involved in the process of shifting levels of
psychic functioning.

As we have described a particular moment of psychic
functioning, it involves a degree of secondary process domi-
nation, a degree of primary process domination, and is
modified by the attempts at control and defense. The psychic
level itself is the result of a balance between the primary
and secondary process domination. The process of shifting
the level of psychic functioning involves prOgressive ego
movements or movements that increase secondary process domi-
nation, regressive ego movements or those that increase
primary process domination, and an alternation between the
two over time.

The first hypothesis was concerned with the deve10p-
mental stage that might be the major contributor to the ego
functions involved in the regressive ego movement. It was

reasoned that the stage of oral receptivity might be such a

123

124

major contributor. Difficulties in this stage should be
represented by an increased amount of primary process, a
decreased ability to function autonomously (secondary process
Operation), and a general low ring of the psychic level.

The second hypothesis was concerned with the develop-
mental stage that might be the major contributor to the ego
functions involved in progressive ego movements. It was
reasoned that the stage of anal retentiveness might be such
a contributor. Difficulties in this stage should be repre-
sented by an increased defensive use of secondary process, an
inhibition of primary process, and a general movement of
the psychic level toward secondary process domination.

The third and final hypothesis dealt with the alter-
ations over time in the psychic level. It was reasoned that
as the first two hypotheses seem to indicate a restriction
on the psychic functioning and hence a general reduction of
the alterations, this same effect might continue with diffi-
culties in the remaining stages of psychosexual deve10pment.
As the overall difficulties in psychosexual development
increase, then, the overall amount of variance of the psychic
level should decrease.

The correlations that were observed to answer the
three hypotheses were all in the expected direction. They
were, however, of a low magnitude. Taking this information
alone, we would have to reach the conclusion that, at best,

the predicted relationships were negligible. The additional

125

data of the study, however, seem to affer some encouragement.

While the low correlations, bo:h predicted and addi-
tional, may be interpreted as support for the theory, an
alternate interpretation must be kept in mind. Basic to the
measurement and testability of the theoretical framework
used here is the experimental assessment of the concepts of
ego functions and ego states. These have proved to be very
useful clinical and theoretical tools, but one possible
interpretation of the low results of the current study is
that these concepts are simply not applicable to experi-
mentation. While the data of the on rent study do not sup-
port this position, neither can they reject it. This altern-
ative must be kept in mind then.

In view of the theoretical emphasis of the current
study, and particularly the theory as elaborated on in the
discussion, the sample used was not particularly apprOpriate.
The sample should include, for an apprOpriate range of
talent, severe difficulties in passivity and logical
functioning. By virtue of the subjects being in college,
severe difficulties could largely be ruled out. This is
certainly one factor that could account for the low results.

In addition to the sample, the measuring instruments
themselves showed certain inadequacies. The Blacky Test
proved to be much too gross a measure for the needs of the
present study. A three-minute sample of oral difficulties,

for example, with one gross score could hardly be considered

126

a reliable estimate of difficulties at that stage. In the
theory as elaborated, we need information regarding the
point of organ fixation, the mode of response, as well as
the intensity of disturbance at particular levels. The
Rorschach measure also evidenced inadequacies; the principle
one seen was the unreliability of the regression dimensions.
In addition, question was raised concerning the validity of
the secondary process and primary process scorings.

The data may be interpreted as suggestive for the
theory, however, with the observed relationships occurring
in spite of the experimental inadequacies. The data seem
suggestive for the first hypothesis. Both oral receptivity
and early object relations show evidence of being related to
a decrease in secondary process functioning, amt increase in
the amount and intensity of primary process, and a general
lowering of the psychic level. The data for the second hypo-
thesis is quite meager. In terms of an overall relationship
with the measures of psychic functioning, anality appears
almost unrelated. Although the evidence is far from con-
clusive, the suggestion is that anality is not related
specifically to the progressive phase, and that it may in-
stead be related only to secondary process defensive
activity. The data for the third hypothesis was rejected on
the basis of a possible error in the manner of computing the
variance. It was suggested that for a future study, units

of time be used instead of the response unit to obtain a

127

more accurate measure of the process involved.

Two additional points were raised by the data. The
suggestion was made that the measures of psychosexual develop-
ment were confounded by a combination of ego-syntonic and
ego-dystonic nature of the conflict in question. We sug-
gested that the same conflict could have a differential
effect on the ego, depending on the dystonic or syntonic
nature of the conflict. We also discussed at some length
the apparent dual aspects of both primary process and secondary
process functioning. The two aspects of secondary process
seemed to be the capacity for autonomous functioning, and
the ability to maintain autonomous functioning in the face
of primary process material. The dual aspects to primary
process, although less clear than secondary process, were
the intensity of the primary process when it does make its
appearance, and the overall amount or percentage of times it
does make its appearance.

In addition to the data and the procedure, some sug-
gestions were made for the theory. Considering the evidence
for the first two hypotheses, the suggestion was made that
both the progressive and regressive phases may derive the
basic strength of their ego function from the very earliest
stages of deve10pment. The theoretical reason given for
this was that some degree of activity must proceed even the
most basic passivity. These activities were seen as

deveIOping into later progressive and regressive aspects of

128

shifting levels of psychic functioning. A second theoretical
point was made in reference to psychosexual development.

This point was that the mode of reaction must be considered
as well as the point of organ fixation. The final theoretical
point concerns the concept that the shifts in functioning

are in the service of the ego. Because an individual is
capable of having some ego movements directed toward

adaptive interests does not mean that all ego movements will
be. It is quite possible that the relationship to deve10p-
ment of unadaptive ego movements may be quite different

than the adaptive movements, even for the same individual.

The conclusions may now be stated in summary form:

1. Although the concepts of ego function and ego state
are useful theoretical and clinical tools, the
possibility must be kept in mind that the low cor-
relations of the present study may be accounted
for by the unapplicability of these concepts to
experimental work.

2. The low correlations may also be accounted for by
the lack of severe difficulties in passivity and
logical functioning in the sample, by the low
reliability of the Rorschach measures, and by the
incomplete measures obtained from the Blacky.

3. Interpreting the data as suggestive for the hypo-
theses, the suggestion is seen that difficulty in
early deve10pment and object relations may be re-

lated to a decrease in secondary process functioning,

5.

129

an increase in the amount of primary process, and a
movement of the psychic level toward primary process
domination. The suggestion was also seen that
anality may not be related to an overall ego effect.
The data suggest that the ego-syntonic and ego-
dystonic nature of a conflict may have a differ-
ential effect on the ego. The data also suggest
that primary and secondary process functioning may
each have at least two distinct aspects..

In terms of the theory we suggested that both the
progressive and regressive ego functions may be
related to early deve10pment and that the ggd§,of
reaction must be considered in this relationship

as well as the point of organ fixation. It was
also suggested that the same individual probably
has both adaptive and unadaptive ego movements,

and that the relationship of each of these to

develOpment may be quite different.

SUMMARY

In the process of daily functioning the ego is engaged
in many types of activity ranging from very logical problem-
solving to fantasy activity which may become quite illogical.
Although these may represent extremes of activity, the daily
process of functioning requires the ego to vary in its
activity along a continuum whose end points may be defined
by extreme logic on one end and bizarre fantasy on the
other. At any moment of functioning, the ego's level of
activity may be defined by its place on such a continuum.
This level, or what is more accurately called the psychic
level, is not a point, however, but is a range. This range
is determined by the relative amounts of logical functioning
as well as fantasy activity.

The logical aspect of functioning is known as secondary
process and the extent to which the ego is dominated by it
is dominated by the secondary process. The process which
governs unconscious activity is called the primary process.
The continuum that we referred to above is, then, a primary
process-secondary process continuum.

The process involved in changing from one level of
psychic functioning to another is the subject of concern of

the study. These changes in the level of functioning are in

130

131

the service of the ego so long as they are directed toward
ego interests. The general subject matter, as well as the
theoretical orientation, falls under the general heading of
regression in the service of the ego. This concept implies
ego movement that increase secondary process domination or
progressive movements as well as ego movements increasing
primary process domination or regressive movements,

In elaborating the theory of regression, we attempted
to specify possible contributions to the developing ego from
the various stages of psychosexual development that might
affect the ego functions involved in the progressive and re-
gressive phases of regression in the service of the ego. We
suggested that oral receptivity might be related to the re-
gressive phase, that anal retentiveness might be related to
the progressive phase, and, projecting the suggested restrict-
ing effect on ego functioning from these two stages to the
later deve10pmental stages, that the overall amount of
psychosexual disturbance would be negatively related to the
variability of the psychic level.

Specifying these relationships further, we predicted
that oral disturbance would be related to a decrease in
secondary process functioning, an increase in the amount of
primary process, and a general movement of the ego toward
primary process of domination. Anal disturbance was pre-
dicted as having an inhibiting effect on primary process, a

defensive increase in secondary process, and as being related

132

to a general movement of the psychic level toward secondary
process dominance. The variance of the psychic level was
seen as negatively related to the overall amount of psycho-
sexual disturbance.

Sixty male college students in elementary psychology
courses served as subjects. They were administered the
Blacky Tests and a modified Rorschach test, both in group
form. The Blacky Test was used as a measure of psychosexual
disturbance. The Rorschach was modified using only three
cards. The first card (Card I) was used as an introduction
to the technique. The last two cards (Card VII and IX) were
administered for thirty minutes each. The first card was
used as an introduction and instruction. The extended time
period was used to facilitate production of primary process
material. Responses were scored by the Holt system and mea-
sures of primary process, secondary process, control and
defense, and an estimated psychic level were taken from it.
A correlation matrix was then obtained for the total data
and the matrix was factor analyzed. The correlations related
to the hypotheses were in the expected direction, but few of
them reached significance. The additional data, however,
is suggestive.

The conclusions of the study are as follows:

1. Although the concepts of ego function and ego state

are useful theoretical and clinical tools, the

possibility must be kept in mind that the low

3.

133

correlations of the present study may be accounted
for by the unapplicability of these concepts to
experimental work.

The low correlations may also be accounted for by
the lack of severe difficulties in passivity and
logical functioning in the sample, by the low re-
liability of the Rorschach measures, and by the
incomplete measures obtained from the Blacky.
Interpretating the data as suggestive for the
hypotheses, the suggestion is seen that difficulty
in early development and object relations may be
related to a decrease in secondary process
functioning, an increase in the amount of primary
process, and a movement of the psychic level toward
primary process domination. The suggestion was
also seen that anality may not be related to an
overall ego effect.

The data suggest that the ego-syntonic and ego-
dystonic nature of a conflict may have a differential
effect on the ego. The data also suggest that primary
and secondary process functioning may each have at
least two distinct aspects.

In terms of the theory we suggested that both the
progressive and regressive ego functions may be re-
lated to early development and that the mode of re-

action must be considered in this relationship as

134

well as the point of organ fixation. It was also
suggested that the same individual probably has
both adaptive and unadaptive ego movements and
that the relationship of each of these to deve10p-
ment may be quite different.

In view of the many questions raised by the study, a
program of research was outlined that might offer more sug-
gestive evidence for the questions. The theoretical appli-
cation of the theory and results was discussed in terms of
the theory of therapy and in terms of the general theory of

neurosis.

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