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III!» I I. n Iov‘slI.0v.o!I‘I-.Ibfl‘ul‘o {MK .5. . bd- 1.. 68. r1. . r . I . .. . 1.1”. L.- .311Iuo-hh-fibs-v -:...-.. . .... . 1. a I V' a: tYIuaO‘.u|.I.o.0n- . I Iva-Id... . .II‘IIII VIII-.1QIIWIW44I IRII . I [Zak]. 1 II.‘9~.I‘.4‘ I‘Il .. ...I.‘Fux...r.--h.5fl.-.MI 1?. x....-«......-.. I .. I 0.. .8 u... 1: 21-1144 ’3‘ ‘ . I“YLI In. ‘1‘..- .5“. . 0“ obktao 1| 7 O 3. . .4 I - .- . I‘ . .1 tx|..1.v .. . . {3&1 1 I.4PVN«1!(.H..: H..- I.. I»! (-Iu- I I ...-II... 4 . . . ....v . NH NNNNNNN f 3 12 293 10736 6662 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled The Effects of Stressors in the Work Environment on Faculty Productivity in Academic Year 1980—1981 presented by Carol L. David has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. . Education degree in ." / Major professor Date February 5, 1983 MS U i: an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-1277! \ . {I MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES wiII be charged if book is returned after the date stamped beIow. an. a) r» ev THE EFFECTS OF STRESSORS IN THE WORK ENVIRONMENT ON FACULTY PRODUCTIVITY IN ACADEMIC YEAR 1980-81 By Carol David A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fquiIIment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curricuium T983 G I30 5%.- ©1983 CAROL LYNNE DAVID All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT THE EFFECTS OF STRESSORS IN THE WORK ENVIRONMENT ON FACULTY PRODUCTIVITY IN ACADEMIC YEAR 1980-81 By Carol David This study was designed to measure the consequences of a pro- posed reduction in force on faculty productivity. For the purposes of this research, faculty productivity was defined as journal articles (refereed and nonrefereed) completed and submitted for publication in academic year 1980—81, books completed in academic year 1980-8l, and research proposals submitted in academic year 1980-8l. The hypothesis examined was that there is a negative relation- ship between faculty productivity and stressors in the work environ- ment of the magnitude of the threat of job loss. Consequently it was predicted that faculty productivity declined in academic year 1980-8l as compared with l979-80. In addition, it was predicted that this stressor would have a differential effect depending on the amount of objective change faced by faculty, on the amount of control over the stressor perceived by faculty and on the amount of social support at the disposal of faculty. The results of this research indicate the following: 1. Stress has an adverse effect on productivity; as stress increases, productivity decreases. Further, the relationship between Carol David stress and productivity is linear rather than following the pattern of the inverted U-shaped function found in experimental studies of the effects of arousal on performance. 2. Neither the "events" approach nor the "cognitive" approach is sufficient alone to explain the effects of stress on productivity; this study indicates that both the individual and the situation must be considered when looking at stress effects. 3. Social support may have a direct relationship to increased productivity. 4. A sense of control may be directly related to diminished productivity. 5. When variables measuring social-support resources and feelings of being locked-in were examined as stress predictors, it was found that the perception of being unable to move from a current job to another one at MSU exacerbated stress. 6. The results for both social support and sense of control only relate to the direct effect of these variables on productivity; their indirect or moderating effects, in the presence of stress, require the use of path analysis as an analytic technique. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My thanks to my daughters, Leanora and Maya, who, at some sacrifice, patiently and with love bore with me during the research and writing of this dissertation. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................... LIST OF FIGURES ......................... Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ...................... Statement of Purpose ................. Significance of the Study ............... Background ...................... Identification of the Problem ............. Focus of the Problem ................. Purpose of the Study ................. Definition of Terms .................. Testable Hypotheses .................. Overview ....................... II. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............... What Is Stress? .................... Physiological Components of Stress .......... Emotional Components of Stress ............ Behavioral Components of Stress ............ Control as a Mediator of Stress ............ Cognitive and Personality Factors as Mediators of Stress ....................... Social Support as a Mediator of Stress ........ Job Loss and Stress .................. III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY ................... Sample ........................ Questionnaire ..................... Research Design .................... Analysis Strategy ................... Data Analysis ..................... Hypotheses to Be Tested ................ iii Page IV. RESULTS ......................... 83 V. DISCUSSION, SUMMARY, AND CONCLUSIONS .......... 88 Discussion ...................... 88 Summary ........................ 95 Conclusions ...................... 99 Implications for Future Research ........... 99 APPENDICES ........................... 101 A SOCIAL READJUSTMENT RATING SCALE ............ l02 B SCALING SCORES FOR LIFE EVENTS ............. lO4 C. QUESTIONNAIRE AND COVER LETTER ............. l06 D. SAMPLING PROCEDURE ................... lll E. CORRELATION MATRIX OF PRODUCTIVITY VARIABLES ...... 113 F. FACULTY PRODUCTIVITY FROM 1979-80 TO 1980-81 BY DEPARTMENT, A PRIORI STRESS LEVEL, AND EMPIRICAL STRESS LEVEL ..................... 115 G, CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE VARIABLES 5-34 HITH REPORTED PRODUCTIVITY ............ 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... 119 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 4.1 Contingency Table of A Priori Stress Groups Nith Empirical Groups ................... 83 4.2 Results of Regression Analysis of A Priori Defined Stress on Productivity ................ 85 4.3 Results of Regression Analysis of Empirically Defined Stress on Productivity ................ 86 5.1 Results of Regression Analysis of Social-Support and Locked-In Indicators on A Priori Stress ........ 94 5.2 Results of Regression Analysis of Locked-In and Social-Support Indicators on Empirical Stress ..... 94 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Model of the Life-Stress Process ............. 29 2.2 Synoptic View of the Whole Stress Mechanism ....... 33 2.3 An Ecological Model for Psychosocially Mediated Stress . . 36 2.4 Physiologic Changes in Men Whose Jobs Nere Abolished . . . 68 2.5 Serum Cholesterol in mg/lOO ml by Phase and Employment Status and Level of Social Support ........... 68 3.1 Research Model of the Effects of Social Support and a Feeling of Being Locked-In to a Job on Stress and Strain, as They Relate to Productivity ........ 81 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Statement of Purpose Stress-inducing stimuli or stressors are characterized as new, intense, rapidly changing, sudden or unexpected, and approaching the upper thresholds of tolerability.1 Faculty at Michigan State University experienced unprecedented work-related stress-inducing stimuli in the academic year 1980-81. The stressor, the specific stimulus, was the Board of Trustees' announcement that approximately 100 tenured and tenure-stream faculty were going to be laid off because of financial crisis. A stress state or stress is defined as a "state within a living creature" that results from the interaction of the organism 2 The stress with stressors, i.e., noxious stimuli or circumstances. state has physiological, emotional, and behavioral components. Physiological components refer to changes in the body; emotional components refer to changes in perception, feelings, and behavior. Strain is characterized as any bodily response in excess of normal or 1Mortimer H. Appley and Richard Trumbull, "0n the Concept of Psychological Stress," in Stress and Coping; An Anthologx; ed. Alan Monat and Richard S. Lazarus TNew York: Columbia University Press, 1977), p. 58. 2John Cassel, "The Contribution of the Social Environment to Host Resistance," American Journal of Epidemiology 104 (1976): 109. usual states of anxiety, tension, and upset or any behavior that deviates momentarily or over time from normative value for the person or the appropriate reference group.1 The researcher's purpose is to measure one specific faculty response to a stressor: behavioral change as it relates to produc- tivity. Productivity is defined as journal articles completed and submitted for publication in academic year 1980-81, books completed in academic year 1980-81, and grant research proposals submitted in academic year 1980-81. The hypothesis to be examined in this research is that faculty productivity declined in the academic year 1980-81 as compared with the academic year 1979-80 and that there is a negative relationship between productivity and stressors in the work environ- ment. Significance of the Study The American Association for Higher Education reported in 1979 that a combination of demographic changes, judicial decisions, shifts in the college curriculum, and financial restraint in the allocation of resources for higher education suggest that the traditional under- standing of tenure systems in higher education may change. In future periods of declining enrollments and financial restraint, tenured faculty will be terminated.2 In the Social Readjustment Rating Scale developed by Holmes and Rahe, being fired from a job is eighth in 1Appley and TrumbulL op. cit., p. 59. 2Thomas J. Linney, Alternatives to Tenure (Washington, D.C.: American Association for Higher Education, 1979)} pp. 1-131. in a scale of 43 stressful life events requiring readjustment.1 Much research has already been done on the physical and psychological consequences of stress; less on the relationship between stress and productivity. Given the fact that layoffs of faculty are likely to occur in higher education in the next 20 years, it is important to assess the consequences of this event in terms of its effects on faculty output. Thus, this research is significant in that it inves- tigates one outcome of an event that is predicted to become more common in higher education.2 The research is also significant in that it may suggest some intervention techniques that can moderate stress when job layoffs are anticipated. The mediating effects on stress of social support and occupational locking-in, the ongoing feeling an individual has when he or she thinks there is almost no opportunity to move from the cur- rent job to another one elsewhere cn~ when the only position for which 3 will be examined he or she is qualified is the job currently held, in this research. Finally, this research is significant in that it may provide additional knowledge to the field of stress. 1Richard R. Bootzin, Abnormal Psychology_(New York: Random House, 1980), p. 196. 2Linney, op. cit. 3Ronald J. Burke, "Occupational Locking—In: Some Empirical Findings" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Western Psy- chological Association, San Diego, California, April 5-8, 1979). Background Hans Selye and Walter Cannon are names associated with early work on stress. Both were primarily concerned with the physiological consequences of stress. Selye attempted to demonstrate how physical and psychological stressors may lead to diseases of adaptation via a series of nonSpecific biological responses called the General Adapta- tion Syndrome (GAS). The GAS is the defensive physiological reaction of the organism that is set in motion by any demand or stimulus. Its characteristic pattern includes three stages: an alarm reaction, a state of resistance, and a state of exhaustion. According to Selye, this sequence is invariant, although it need not be carried to comple- tion if the stressor is terminated early enough. If the stressor persists or is severe, diseases of adaptation (for example, stomach ulcers or increased susceptibility to infection) will occur.1 Walter Cannon showed that physiological disturbance through- out the organism is associated with fear and rage. When these emotions are aroused, they bring into action the sympathetico-adrenal division of the nervous system, which controls internal organs and the blood vessels. The sympathetic division acts to maintain relative homeostasis in the flow of blood and lymph. When the individual experiences the emotions of rage and fear, the sympathetic division stimulates various reactions in the body: release of sugar from the liver, accelerated heart beat, contraction of the blood vessels, discharge of adrenalin, and cfilation of the bronchioles. All these 1Hans Selye, The Stress of Life (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1956), pp. 38-56. changes mobilize the organism for action and make it more efficient. However, if this state of extreme disturbance continues for too long, if it is not "naturally eliminated by completion of the emotional response, a fatal result can occur.1 Both Selye and Harold Wolff, of Cornell University, showed that the stress state can be produced by a variety of noxious stimuli, physical as well as psychological. But Wolff emphasized that the action of physiochemical disease agents differs from psychosocial factors. The former have a direct pathogenic effect, while the latter act indirectly through their capacity to act as signals or symbols. Thus, psychosocial stressors increase the susceptibility of the organism to direct noxious stimuli, i.e., disease agents.2 In the 19305 and 19405, attention in stress research turned to the identification of life events that were associated with the onset of physical illness and behavior disorder. Adolph Meyer advo- cated the use of a life chart as a tool in medical diagnosis. Meyer speculated that life events might be an important part of the etiology of a disorder, and that life events did not have to be catastrophic in order to be pathogenic.3 In the 19605, Holmes and Rahe developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), which consists of 43 life 1Walter B. Cannon, "Voodoo Death," in Stress and Coping: An Anthology, ed. Alan Monat and Richard S. Lazarus (New York: ’Columbia University Press, 1977), p. 89. 2Cassei, op. cit., p. 109. 3Barbara Snell Dohrenwend and Bruce P. Dohrenwend, eds., Stressful Life Events: Their Nature and Effect (New York: John Wiley and Sons,Tl974), p. 3. events that are weighted in terms of the individual adjustment required. According to Holmes and Rahe, the greater the magnitude of the life change, the greater the probability that the life change will be associated with disease onset, physiological or psychological, and the greater the probability that groups at risk will experience disease. Holmes and Rahe defined stressful life events as those "whose advent is either indicative of or requires a significant change in the ongoing life pattern of the individual."1 Both positive and negative events are considered stressful by Holmes and Rahe because they demand adjustments by the individual to a new style or pattern. Other theorists have expanded on this notion by hypothesizing that the superiority of change over undesirability as a measure of a stressful life event stems from the idea "that anxiety is the basic or initial preparatory response to environmental changes or stimuli" (although the appearance of some forms of disturbed behavior such as depression may depend on the quality of the life event and not the fact that it introduces change per se).2 Hinkle stated: Changes in significant social or interpersonal relationship are very often accompanied by changes in habits, patterns of activities, changes in the intake of food or medication, and changes in exposure to potential sources of infection or 116111., p. 281. 2Joanne C. Gersten, Thomas S. Langer, Jeanne G. Eisenberg, and Lida Orzeck, "Child Behavior and Life Events," in Stressful Life Events: Their Nature and Effect, ed. Barbara Snell Dohrenwend and . Bruce P. Dohrenwend (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), p. 161. trauma. They are also frequently associated with changes in mood and with physiological changes directly mediated by the central nervous system. By the end of the 19405, it was appreciated that changes in the relation of people to their social group and in their relation to other people of importance in their lives might represent stimuli sufficient to cause the central nervous system to initiate physiological reactions that could influence the course of disease. . . . Experimental evidence indicated that mediation of such neurally initiated reactions could be by way of the glands of internal secretion as well as by the effects of the autonomic and volun- tary nervous system. . . . Probably any biochemical process in the cell could be influenced in some manner and to some degree by the central nervous system. Therefore, it seemed evident that there would probably be no aspect of human growth, develop- ment or disease that would in theory be immune to the influence of a man's relation to this social and interpersonal environ- ment. Although scores on the SRRS-type scales have been consistently related to illness, their predictive power has been limited. Some persons can undergo extremely stressful events without exhibiting physiological or psychological symptoms. In recent years, therefore, psychologists and sociologists have suggested that no stimulus is a stressor to all people: a stressor must be perceived or appraised as such by the individual.3 Cognitive theorists claim that IDavid Mechanic, "Discussion of Research Programs on Relations Between Stressful Life Events and Episodes of Physical Illness," in Stressful Life Events: Their Nature and Effect, ed. Barbara Snell Dohrenwend and Bruce P. Dohrenwend (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), p. 10. 2Lawrence Hinkle, Jr., "The Effect of Exposure to Cultural Change, Social Change, and Changes in Interpersonal Relationships on Health," in Stressful Life Events: Their Nature and Effect, ed. Barbara Snell Dohrenwend'and Bruce P. Dohrenwend (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), p. 88. 3Monat and Lazarus, eds., op. cit., p. 15. emotional experience and to some extent physiological and performance measures are in part a function of the percep- tions, expectations, or cognitive appraisal which the indi- vidual makes of the situation. Schwartz stated that psychosocial stress never acts on the body in a vacuum. In involves "a complex interaction of biological and psycho- logical processes that mediate the stress response."2 Mechanic pointed out that a major current theoretical issue in stress research concerns the advisability of focusing on adaptive changes regardless of their social or personal desirability as compared with events which are experienced as threatening or distressing. The life change approach implies that the significance of stress events is that they demand adaptation, which is in itself costly to the organism as demands increase. This notion is like Selye's concept of stress as a nonspecific bodily response that is wear- ing on the biological system. It is less consistent with cogni- tive theories of stress that give emphasis to perceptions of threat, loss and challenges to self esteem. Whereas the life- change conception does not appear to require consideration of psychological intervening variables, the cognitive perspective depends on them.3 A typical psychological definition of stress is a "state where the well-being of an individual is endangered and he must devote all of his energies to its protection."4 The position taken by the writer is that it is relevant to look at stress in terms of both readjustment and perceived threat and 1Joseph E. McGrath, "Settings, Measures and Themes: An Inte- grative Review of Some Research on Social-Psychological Factors in Stress,“ in Stress and Coping: An Anthology, ed. Alan Monat and Richard S. Lazarus (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), p. 67. 2Gary E. Schwartz, "Stress Management in Occupational Settings," Public Health Reports 95 (1980): 99-108. 3Mechanic, op. cit., p. 91. 4C. N. Cofer and M. H. Appley, Motivation: Theory and Research (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1965), p. 463. that the degree of stress experienced will vary in terms of whether the stressful situation requires only an adjustment or requires an adjustment and is also perceived as threatening. Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend spoke to this approach as follows: Even if every life event is stressful to some degree, it does not follow that all life events must be stressful to the same degree, and, in fact, investigators have assumed that life events vary in stressfulness. One of the central issues that has guided research on stressful events is therefore: What are the properties or conditions that distinguish more stressful from less stressful life events? Brown stated that some element of loss is the most important component of long-term threat. Long-term threat is that implied about one week after its occurrence.2 Monat stated that the impor- tance of the anticipation of harm in the production of stress reac- tions (physiological and psychological) is well supported: Shannon and Isbell (1963) have demonstrated that anticipation of a dental anesthetic injection results in the same amount of physiological stress reaction as the actual injection. Epstein (1967) has indicated that sport parachutists exhibit marked physiological and psycholo ical stress prior to a jump. In the laboratory, Birnbaum (1964? and Nomikos et al. (1968) have shown that unpleasant motion pictures elicit anticipatory physiological stress reactions. Moreover, considerable research has been done on the antecedent conditions which may affect the appraisal of threat and the resulting stress reactions: such as, past experience (Epstein, 1967), availability of response options (Averill and Rosenn, 1972; Elliot, 1965; Pervin, 1963); personality dispositions (Hodges and Spielberger, 1966; Lazarus and Averill, 1964) and uncertainty (D'Amato and Gumenik, 1960; Monat, Averill, and Lazarus, 1972). 1Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend, op. cit., p. 4. 2George W. Brown, "Meaning, Measurement and Stress of Events," in Stressful Life Events: Their Nature and Effect, ed. Barbara Snell Dohrenwend and Bruce P. Dohrenwend (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), p. 231. 3Monat, op. cit., p. 4. 10 Haggard pointed out that an individual's ability to tolerate and master stress depends on the extent to which he knows all aspects of the situation so that he is not helplessly unaware of the nature and source of the threat.1 The importance of having information about the occurrence of a potential stressor in alleviating stress has been shown by Luby et al. (1962) and Elliot (1966) and Fritz and Marks (1954).2 Other mediators between stress and strain that theorists have identified are the individual's social support system or social resources and the individual's coping skills. Social resources are represented in the interpersonal networks of which people are a part and which are a potential source of support: family, friends, fellow workers, neighbors, and voluntary associations. Gore's (1978) study of unemployed men indicated that strain in the form of depression and more frequent illness was considerably lessened among those with supportive marital relations and ties to extended family and peer groups.3 The importance of social support in reducing strain has been confirmed by others (Nuckolls et al., 1972; Totman, 1979; Antonovsky, 1974; Leighton et al., 1963).4 lAppley and Trumbull, op. cit., p. 62. 2McGrath, op. cit., p. 69. 3Nan Lin, Walter M. Ensel, Ronald S. Simeone, and Wen Kuo, "Social Support, Stressful Life Events, and Illness: A Model and an Empirical Test," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 20 (1979): 108-19. 4 Ibid. ll Coping refers to efforts to master conditions of harm, threat, or challenge when a routine or automatic response is not readily available.1 White stated: It is clear that we tend to speak of coping when we have in mind a fairly drastic change or problem that defies familiar ways of behavior, requires the production of new behavior, and very likely gives rise to uncomfortable affects like anxiety, despair, guilt, shame or grief. . . . Coping is capable of modifying, eliminating, or changing the emotion 3 Lazarus suggested that there are two main associated with stress. forms of coping: direct actions and palliative modes.4 Direct actions are behaviors such as flight or fight, which are designed to alter a troubled relationship with one's social or physical environment. Palliative modes of coping refer to thoughts or actions whose goal is to relieve the emotional impact of stress (the physical or psycho- logical consequences). The term palliative is used because these methods do not actually alter the threatening or damaging situation but make the person feel better. Palliative methods can be intra- psychic (defense mechanisms) or somatic (biofeedback). Antonovsky identified three types of resistance resources that mediate the impact of life crises: homeostatic flexibility, the ability to accept alter- natives and the perception of the availability of such alternatives; ties to concrete others; and ties to the total community.5 1Monat and Lazarus, op. cit., p. 8. 21bid. 31bid., p. 9. 41bid. 5 Aaron Antonovsky, "Conceptual and Methodological Problems in the Study of Resistance Resources and Stressful Life Events," in Stressful Life Events: Their Nature and Effect, ed. Barbara Snell Dohrenwend and Bruce P. Dohrenwend’(New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), pp. 251-54. 12 Research on occupational stress takes the following perspec- tives: the effects of unemployment, the effects of anxiety on per- formance, the causes of job-related stress, and stress management at work. The Social Readjustment Scale of Holmes and Rahe assigns being fired from a job a life change unit (LCU) score of 50 and places the event eighth in a hierarchy of the required amount of readjustment to life change. Theorists have speculated that the effects of anxiety on performance correspond to an inverse U-shaped function between arousal and efficiency.1 Maladaptive behavior occurs at levels of extremely low and high arousal. Antonovsky stated that stress is a state of the organism in which energy is used in continuously dealing with problems over and above energy that would have been demanded had the problem been resolved.2 This idea is consistent with the classical psycho- analytic position of the effects of anxiety on performance. Manuso (1974) summarized the major classes of psychosocial stress faced by workers: work overload or work stagnation; extreme ambiguity or rigidity in relation to one's tasks; extreme role conflict or little conflict; extreme amounts of responsibility, or little responsibility; cut-throat and negative competition or no competition; 1Gersten et al., op. cit., p. 167. 2Antonovsky, op. cit. 13 constant change and daily variability or a deadening routin- ized stability; ongoing contact with stress carriers or social isolation; the corporation for its own survival encourages its employees to define their egos in terms of the organization, to contain emo- tional reactions, and to depend on it; and the interaction of one's state of career development, career opportunity, and management style.1 Pearlin (1978) in a study of 100 subjects concluded: Coping is least effective in areas of life such as work that are imper- sonally organized and that are beyond personal coping controls. In occupational roles, he found, the most effective types of coping involve manipulation of goals and values that involve the devalua- tion of the intrinsic rewards of work and a valuation of the extrin- sic rewards such as pay and fringe benefits. He noted: The problems arising in relation to one's occupation are less amenable to coping either by weight of one's personality or by weight of response pat- terns than are problems occurring elsewhere.2 Identification of the Problem The problem is that the traditional notion of job security with tenure has been disturbed under conditions of financial crisis in higher education. The consequences of this change have not yet 1Schwartz, op. cit., p. 100. 2Leonard I. Pearlin and Carmi Schooler, "The Structure of Coping," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 19 (March 1978): 2-21. 14 been researched. One can speculate that it will affect the number of young scholars who choose to enter the academic profession, will decrease morale among those who remain in the profession even if they are not laid off, will have stress-induced physiological and psycho- logical consequences for some involved in the layoff environment, and will have as a byproduct a decrease in academic productivity. This research proposes to examine the effect of projected layoffs on faculty productivity. Because a university's reputation and ability to attract scholars depends to a large extent on the quality of faculty output, such a consideration has long-term relevance. Focus of the Problem The focus of the problem is a comparison of faculty produc- tivity in academic year 1979-80 as compared with productivity in academic year 1980-81. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this research is threefold: 1. To examine the effects of a stressful environment on productivity; 2. To propose some intervention techniques to assist in stress management; and 3. To contribute further to the research on stress. This research can contribute to the current state of knowl- edge about stress and support certain intervention techniques in the following ways: 15 1. It will measure the consequences stress has on produc- tivity; 2. It will test the idea that cognitive perceptions about the degree of threat produce differences in the amount of stress experienced; 3. It will examine whether or not stress is moderated by social support; and 4. It will support certain types of intervention techniques in layoff situations in higher education: If faculty experience less stress when they have social support and a sense of options, then approaches to effective stress management in layoff situations would include the provision of some form of social support, retraining, and assistance with placement. Definition of Terms The following terms are used throughout the study and are defined to provide clarification for the reader: Stressor--A term used to describe a stimulus in the environ- ment that requires adaptation or readjustment. Stress State or Stress--A term used to describe the state within an individual that results from the interaction of the indi- vidual with stressors. Straig--A term used to define the physiological, emotional, and behavioral consequences of stress that presumes a change for the worse in functioning or health. 15 1. It will measure the consequences stress has on produc- tivity; 2. It will test the idea that cognitive perceptions about the degree of threat produce differences in the amount of stress experienced; 3. It will examine whether or not stress is moderated by social support; and 4. It will support certain types of intervention techniques in layoff situations in higher education: If faculty experience less stress when they have social support and a sense of options, then approaches to effective stress management in layoff situations would include the provision of some form of social support, retraining, and assistance with placement. Definition of Terms The following terms are used throughout the study and are defined to provide clarification for the reader: Stressor--A term used to describe a stimulus in the environ- ment that requires adaptation or readjustment. Stress State or Stress--A term used to describe the state within an individual that results from the interaction of the indi- vidual with stressors. StrQiQ--A term used to define the physiological, emotional, and behavioral consequences of stress that presumes a change for the worse in functioning or health. l6 Productivity--A term used to define faculty output--specific- ally, the number of articles completed and submitted to refereed and nonrefereed journals in an academic year, the number of books com- pleted in an academic year, and the number of research proposals submitted in an academic year. Social Support or Resources--A term that represents the interpersonal networks of which people are a part and which are a potential source of support. Adrenals--Endocrine glands that lie (one on each side) just above the kidneys. They consist of a whitish outer cortex, or bark, and a dark brown medulla, or marrow. Arousal--General state of cortical alertness that follows from sensory stimulation. Cppipgf-A term used to refer to efforts to master conditions of harm, threat, or challenge when a routine or automatic response is not readily available. Occupational Locking-In--A term that refers to the feeling of an individual that there is almost no opportunity to move from the current job or that the only position for which he or she is quali- fied is the job currently held. High-Change Department--A term used to designate a department in the university anticipating either many layoffs or dissolution. Moderate-Change Department--A term used to designate a depart— Inent in the university anticipating some layoffs. Low-Change Department--A term used to designate a department in the university anticipating few or no layoffs. l7 Tenure--A term used to describe the concept that a faculty appointment will be continued until retirement unless there is dis- missal for adequate cause or unavoidable termination. Testable Hypotheses As stated previously, to call the work situation at MSU in the academic year 1980-81 stressful is consistent with explanations of situations that are designated stressful by theorists.1 It repre- sented a change in past practice, and it was new, intense, rapidly changing, and unexpected. To expect that faculty experienced stress is consistent with both the change or readjustment concept of stress (Holmes and Rahe) and the cognitive, perceptual concept of stress (Lazarus). The overload of meetings and discussions among faculty and within departments concerning layoffs and the abrogation of tenure was a change in the usual routine that required readjustment and probably was experienced by faculty as overload. The change in image and plan associated with the abrogation of tenure was anxiety- producing.2 Other characteristics of the situation that undoubtedly 1I am taking the position that Brown took in his research on stress; i.e., I am considering the meaningfulness of events in common- sense terms: "Given knowledge of behavior, experience, and circum- stances, how would it be reasonable to expect an individual to react?" According to Brown, this approach avoids the risk of invalidity that must be present when personal meaning is allowed full play, and it means that resulting estimates of the role of life events are bound to be conservative since events that proved stressful for idiosyn- cratic reasons will be missed (Brown, op. cit., p. 237). 2Carson stated: Image includes all knowledge of the world, correct or incorrect, that the particular organism possesses. It also includes all the values that the person has acquired. The image may be thought of as the individual's cognitive map of the structure and functioning of the universe. The exploitation of the image is 18 aggravated the stress experienced were the ambiguity and lack of information provided by management and the length of time over which the stressful situation occurred. The following hypotheses were tested to determine the effects of stress in the work environment: Hypothesis I: Faculty in low-change departments will report experiencing little or no stress; faculty in moderate-change departments will report experiencing moderate stress; and faculty in high-change departments will report experiencing high stress. Hypothesis II: There will be a negative relationship between reported amount of stress and productivity as measured by the difference between productivity in academic year 1980-81 and productivity in 1979-80. Hypothesis III: There will be a negative relationship between reported level of feeling locked into a job and amount of productivity. Hypothesis IV: There will be a positive relationship between reported social support resources and amount of productivity. mm In Chapter I, the purpose and significance of the research were described, and a problem statement and testable hypotheses were presented. Chapter II is a review of the literature on stress. In Chapter III, the research design is discussed and a model of the stress process is proposed. The research results are given in accomplished by means of plans, which are hierarchically ordered processes that control the order in which a sequence of Operations (behavior) is to be performed. According to Carson, "enforced abandonment of plans, especially those of a strategical order, is believed to induce intensified emotionality, which may manifest itself as anxiety if it cannot be contained by the provision of a focus for it in the image." (Robert C. Carson, Interaction Concepts g; Personality [Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1969]:Tpp. 83- 19 Chapter IV. In Chapter V, the research results are discussed and a summary of the research findings and implications for future research are presented. CHAPTER II A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE In this chapter are reviewed the meaning of the stress concept, the effects of stress on productivity, and factors in the environment that moderate stress. What Is Stress? Stress is an abstract concept that encompasses ideas about 1 In the first section of the literature review, etiology and effects. the development of the stress concept is covered and the terms stressor, stress state or stress, and strain are differentiated. Hans Selye popularized the term stress in his book, The Stress of Life, published in 1956. He defined stress in the "medical sense" as describing the state of wear and tear on the body or the "non- 2 Selye demonstrated specific responses of the body to any demand." that stress can be objectively measured by certain changes in the body's structure and chemical composition. Some of these changes are signs of damage; others are manifestations of the body's adaptive reactions or mechanisms of defense against stressors. Selye stated that stress can be recognized subjectively by anyone who feels that 1Hans Selye, The Stress of Life (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1978), p. 53. 2 Ibid., p. l. 20 21 whatever he or she is doing or whatever is being done to him or her is wearing or strenuous and results in feelings of being tired, jittery, or 1'11.1 In summary, Selye characterized stress as a response to an internal or external stimulus whose characteristics require adaptation. Faulty adaptation could result in death or disease. During the 19505, Harold Wolff, a researcher at Cornell Uni- versity, began to examine life events in terms of the psychophysio- logical reactions they evoked and their causative role in the history of many diseases. Wolff believed that psychosocial stressors could have an indirect disease-causing effect through their capacity as signals or symbols that trigger responses to the information they are perceived to contain. These responses will alter the endocrine balance in the body and thereby increase the susceptibility of the organism to disease agents that it harbors or to which it is exposed.2 Wolff's work was based on the ideas of Adolph Meyer. Meyer devised a life chart for organizing medical data as a dynamic biography of the relationship between biological, psychological, and sociological 3 Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe phenomena and health and disease. used the life chart on over 5,000 patients at Cornell University Medical College and New York Hospital to study the quality and 1Ibid. 2John Cassel, "The Contribution of the Social Environment to Host Resistance,“ American Journal of Epidemiology_104 (1976): 109-11. 3Aoo1ph Meyer, "The Life Chart and the Obligation of Specify- ing Positive Data in Psychopathological Diagnosis," in The Collected Pppers of Adolph Meyer, vol. 3: Medical Teaching, ed. E. E. Winters (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1951), pp. 52-56. 22 quantity of life events empirically observed to cluster at the time of disease onset:I Subsequently, Holmes and Rahe developed a schedule of recent life events that were observed to cluster at the time of disease onset. (See Appendix A.) According to Holmes and Rahe, one theme was common in all these life events: "The occurrence of each usually evoked or was associated with some adaptive or coping behavior on the part of the involved individual."2 The next step in their research was to estimate the magnitude of adaptation these life events required. Assuming that "participants in the contemporary American way of life could utilize [their] innate psychological capacity for making quantitative judgments about psychosocial and psychophysical 3 Holmes and Rahe used judges' ratings to develop the phenomena," Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Appendix A) in which 43 life events were assigned a life change score based on their assessment of the amount of readjustment required by each event. To calculate an indi- vidual's total stress in a given period, life change scores were summed. In conclusion, Holmes and Rahe defined stress as life events that require significant change in the ongoing life pattern of the individual. Their assumption was that "individual appraisal of the nature of these events is not relevant or does not vary enough to contribute to differences in adaptive consequences."4 1Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe, "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale,“ Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine 11 (1967): 215. 2Ibid., p. 217. 31bid. 4Richard Lazarus et al., "Psychological Stress and Adaptation: Some Unresolved Issues,“ in Selye's Guide to Stress Research, ed. Hans Selye (London: Von Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1980), p. 92. 23 The work of Selye, Wolff, Meyer, and Holmes and Rahe led to follow-up research by others who investigated the specific effects of stressful life events. Since the 19505, an "exceptional number of studies have suggested that stressful life events precipitate somatic and psychological disease,"1 and two alternate views have emerged concerning what makes a life event stress-inducing. On the one hand, a life event is considered stressful if it causes changes in and demands readjustment in an average person's normal routine.2 The notion that life change per se produces stress is compatible with a common view of stress as a condition of perceived imbalance between environmental demands and the capability of the individual to meet these demands. 0n the other hand, a life event is considered stress- ful if it is undesirable or threatening.3 On this basis, another readjustment scale has been developed that reflects the undesirability ratings of particular life events. (See Appendix B.) At the present time, it is generally accepted that the crucial factor in a stressful life event is its undesirable or threatening quality and that that is its link to subsequent symptomatology. This has been affirmed in epidemiological studies conducted by Miller, Ingham, and Davidson; 1Suzanne C. Kobasa, "Stressful Life Events, Personality and Health: An Inquiry Into Hardiness," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979): 1. 2 Ibid., p. 2. 3Danie1 P. Mueller, Daniel w. Edwards, and Richard M. Yarvis, "Quality of Life Events and Their Relationship to Strain," Schizo- phrenia Bulletin 7 (1981): 34-39. 24 Prusoff and Uhlenhuth; and Vinokur and Selzer.1 This point of view is consistent with Selye's distinction between eustress and distress: "Since eustress [a desirable event or stimulus] represents no threat to well-being or health, distress . . . for simplicity's sake . . . is commonly referred to merely as stress."2 This is a much more complex view of stress; stress results when an individual perceives events as "harmful, threatening and involving loss."3 Conceptualizing stress in this way has led researchers to examine the characteristics of life events that are perceived as undesirable and/or threatening. Streiner et al. found that uncon- trolled and unanticipated negative events were correlated with strain, the adverse physiological, emotional, and behavioral consequences of stress. Those events over which the subjects had no control were the most strongly correlated with strain regardless of whether or not the events were anticipated.4 Spring also defined stress as stimuli that occurred regardless of the actions or characteristics of the individual 1P. McC. Miller, a. o. Ingham, and 5. Davidson, "Life Events, Symptoms and Social Support," Journal of Psychosomatic Research 20 (1976): 521; E. S. Paykel, B. A. Prusoff, and E. H. Uhlen- huth, "Scaling of Life Events," Archives of General Psychiatgy_25 (1971): 340; Amiram Vinokur and Melvin Selzer, “Desirable Versus Undesirable Life Events: Their Relationship to Stress and Mental Disease," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975): 329. 2Selye, The Stress of Life, op. cit., p. 371. 3 4David L. Streiner et al., "Quality of Life Events and Their Relationship to Strain,“ Schizophrenia Bulletin 7 (1981): 34-39. Lazarus et al., op. cit., p. 106. 25 on whom they had an impact.1 Johnson and Sarason stated: "It is the individual who experiences high levels of change but feels . . . no control over events who is most susceptible to the effects of life stress."2 Brown and Birley concluded in their study that stressful life events involved danger; significant changes in health, status or way of life; the promise of these; and important fulfillments or disappointments.3 Myers, Lindenthal, and Pepper defined crises or stressful events as experiences involving role transformations, changes in status or environment, and the imposition of pain.4 Antonovsky and Kats perceived stress as involving role transforma- tions.5 Vinokur and Selzer saw three dimensions that contributed to the stressfulness of an event: unpredictability, anticipation, and lack of control over outcome.6 The conceptualization of stress as distress also has stimu- lated explorations of the cognitive and personality factors involved 1Bonnie Spring, "Stress and Schizophrenia," Schizophrenia Bulletin 7 (1981): 28. 2James H. Johnson and Irwin G. Sarason, "Life Stress, Depres- sion and Anxiety: Internal—External Control as a Moderator Variable," Journal of Psychosomatic Research 22 (1978): 207. 3G. W. Brown and J. L. T. Birley, "Crises and Life Changes and the Onset of Schizophrenia," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 9 (1968): 204. 4J. K. Myers, J. J. Lindenthal, and M. P. Pepper, "Social Class, Life Events and Psychiatric Symptoms: A Longitudinal Study," in Stress- ful Life Events, ed. 8. S. Dohrenwend and B. P. Dohrenwend (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), p. 399. 5A. Antonovsky and R. Kats, "The Life Crisis History as a Tool in Epidemiological Research," Journal of Health and Social Behavior 8 (1967): 16. 6Vinokur and Selzer, op. cit., p. 336. 26 in the perception of a life event as a stressor. The undesirability of an event may be interpreted differently, depending on a person's prior experiences and particular vulnerabilities. A central issue in stress research has become whether or not stressful life events are idiographic or monothetic in character. Selye stated: It may be said without hesitation that for man the most impor- tant stressors are emotional, e5pecially those causing distress. . Purely physical demands upon the tissues of our body . . . are far less commonly met in normal life than the emotional stimuli with which we are almost constantly faced: besides, even somatic reactions affect us largely because of the nervous responses (pain, fear and frustration) which they evoke. This is probably because among all living things, man has the most complex brain and is the most dependent upon it. Thus, it is true that, in our life events, the stressor effects depend not so much upon what we do or what happens to us but on the way we take it. Hinkle argued that “people react to their life situations or social conditions in terms of the meaning of these situations to them."2 In their review of stress research, Appley and Trumbull drew a simi- lar conclusion: "With the exception of extreme life-threatening situations, it is reasonable to say that no stimulus is a stressor to all individuals exposed to it."3 Spielberger concluded: "Presumably, the appraisal of a situation as physically or psychologically dangerous or threatening will be determined by individual differences in 1Selye, The Stress of Life, op. cit., p. 370. 2L. E. Hinkle, "The Concept of Stress in the Biological and Social Sciences," Social Science and Medicine 1 (1973): 46. 3M. H. Appley and R. Trumbull, eds., Psychological Stress (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967), p. 7. 27 aptitudes, skills and personality dispositions and by personal experience with similar situations in the past."1 In summary, while debating whether psychosocial factors are generally noxious or idiographic in their effects, at the same time researchers have attempted to identify the attributes of events that evoke major neuroendocrine changes associated with the stress state in the recipients. Each of the following characteristics has been treated by at least three researchers as the critical dimension of a life event that is stress-inducing: change in the life pattern or activities of the individual, undesirability (a subjective perception of the event as threatening), unpredictability, and absence of control over the outcome. Concerned with the differences among stressor, stress state, and strain, Marsella and Snyder distinguished between stressor con- tent, stressor descriptors, stress states, and stress state contents. Stressor content focuses on the quality of the demand characteristics of the stressor. Stressor content is classified in the following categories: acculturation stressors, role-conflict stressors, goal- striving-discrepancy stressors, value—conflict stressors, life-change stressors, role-deprivation stressors, noxious stressors, social-change stressors, and nutritional-deprivation stressors. Stressor descriptors refer to the various parameters of stressors that can be measured: frequency, intensity, duration, complexity, discriminability, con- trollability, familiarity, predictability, and conflictual. Stress 1Charles D. Spielberger, ed., Anxiety, Current Trends in Theory and Research, 2 vols. (New York: 'Academic Press, 1972), p. 489. 28 states are the organismic-experiential conditions that emerge from the interaction of stressors and situational and personal mediators. Stress-state contents refer to particular patterns of organismic experiences characterized by positions on the following parameters: system overload, system underload, positive, negative, high arousal, and low arousal.1 Thus far, a distinction has been made among stressor, stress state or stress, and strain. A stressor is a stimulus that produces distress, i.e., is perceived as harmful and threatening and may involve loss. A stress state is the initial adaptive physiological, emotional, and behavioral response to the stressor. Strain is the psychophysiological and behavioral effect of prolonged and severe stress. Figure 2.1 provides a description of the stress process that differentiates among the concepts, stressor, stress, and strain. It starts with a recent event in the life of an individual rather than a distant childhood experience. The initial step also distinguishes between a stressor, an event that initiates the stress and the imme- diate reaction to that event, the state of stress. The next step in the model suggests that what follows depends on the mediation of situational and personal factors that constitute the context in which the stress state occurs. The final step in the model indicates that a state of stress interacts with situational and personal mediators 1Anthony J. Marsella and Karen Snyder, "Stress, Social Supports, and Schizophrenic Disorders: Toward an Interactional Model," Schizo- phrenia Bulletin 7 (1981): 143-55. 29 to produce one of the following outcomes. A person who experiences stressful life events may as a result undergo psychosocial growth, resume his or her life without substantial permanent change, or experience a change for the worse in functioning or health, which is termed strain. EXTERNAL MEDIATORS: MATERIAL SUPPORTS OR HANDICAPS, SOCIAL SUPPORTS OR HANDICAPS, ETc. PSYCHOSOCIAL GROWTH STRESSFUL STATE . .- No SUBSTANTIAL LIFE OF * —. - — - - CHANGE EVENT STRESS an ADVERSE CHANGE IN HEALTH OR f FUNCTIONING INTERNAL MEDIATORS= ASPIRATIONS AND VALUES, COPING ABILITIES OR DISABILITIES, BIOLOGICAL VLLNERABILITIES, ETC. Figure 2.1.--Model of the life-stress process. (From B. S. Dohrenwend and B. P. Dohrenwend, "What Is a Stressful Life Event," in Selye's Guide to Stress Research, ed. Hans Selye, London: Von Nostrand ReinholdTCo., 1980, p. 2.) Having considered various ideas about what stress is, the next step in the review of the literature is to examine the stress state in more detail. The stress state has physiological, emotional, and behavioral components; the next three sections cover each con- secutively. Physiological Components of Stress Walter B. Cannon drew attention to the physiological changes that occur when humans are faced with threatening situations in the 30 environment.1 He formulated the emergency-function theory of the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla. The sympathetic nervous system is one of the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system and increases its activity during times of stress and arousal. The adrenal medulla is located in the inner part of an endocrine gland, the adrenal, which lies on each side of and just above the kidneys. The adrenal medulla is connected with preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system, and its secretory activity is controlled by nervous stimulation through these nervous pathways.2 When a stressor is perceived, the central nervous system reacts with arousal and increased vigilance; this nervous stimulation causes the adrenal medulla to produce a hormone, adrenaline, which circulates throughout the body via the bloodstream. Cannon's view was that many of the physiological effects.— saga oc- .non ._ .a .v II. Ill'l ..1..11. I I..- '11.! :8 3 cl 8. q n ~ . pass: so» as can» so yea: so: .- .o on no» ~eoce—.gu «so; so» on .v on no» fioe.a-usos noun—nan oaaoaa Lao» a. .a .n 1.." 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Nmmmo.a wmumo.u mmooo.a nn—np. «cwmo. mepo. mN—mo. mmmmo.u >4mmmmkm mmmmm.n mm¢-.u mammo.n ompwo.u mommo.u mmpmp. mmomn. movmp.u mmNmF.u mm¢-.n mphmmso empmp.n ¢nopp. momom. momno.u mpomo.u «memo.u vmooo. vpppo.n pvmmo. movmo.u mmmpo.n Nmm—o.n omooo.n vo¢m_.u mwmmo.n moooo.u m¢nmp. mmmmo. mompo.u mmwmp.u >husooma emhmmzo mmhmmao thmmzo omhmmao mphmmao mphmmzo upkmuzo mphmmzo mphmmzo uphmmso emhmmao mmhmmso thmuzo omhmmzo mphmmao mphmmso uphmuzo wphmmso mphmmso cphmmzo mphmmao Npkmmzo F—Hmmzo ophmmso mhmmao mkmmao mwzmhxm mzzmhxm :uzmhxm >4mmmmhm BIBLIOGRAPHY 119 BIBLIOGRAPHY Alarcon, R. V., and Covi, L. "The Precipitating Event in Depression." The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 155 (1972): 379-91. Alexander, Franz. Psychosomatic Medicine: Its Principles and Appli- cations. New York: N. N. Norton and Co., Inc., 1950. Andrews, Gavin et a1. "Life Event Stress, Social Support, Coping Style and Risk of Psychological Impairment." 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