THE DAP AND VISUALIIMAGERY IN ‘
ASSESSING PSYCHosEXUAL CONFLICT-

Thesis for the Degree of PhD.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

ArIys N. Acheson
I 972

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University

 

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled
The DAP and Visual Imagery in
Assessing Psychosexual Conflict

presented by

Arlys Acheson

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

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ABSTRACT

THE DAP AND VISUAL IMAGERY IN ASSESSING PSYCHOSEXUAL CONFLICT

By

Arlys N. Acheson

Thirty male college students drew a man, woman, and automobile.

A ten minute visual imagery session followed each drawing. A
questionnaire completed the session. Continuous GSRs were obtained
throughout the session.

The following hypotheses were tested: The ANS activation of a
subject while drawing the human figure, during visual imagery,and when
the female examiner enters the room will all be a function of the degree
of psychosexual adjustment. Resistance to visual imagery and psychosexual
maladjustment as measured by a questionnaire will also be a function of
the degree of psychosexual adjustment as determined by the human figure
drawings.

Although none of the hypotheses received unambiguous support, the
obtained correlations were in the predicted direction in every instance.
Thus it is reasonable to conclude that the ranking of degree of psycho-
sexual conflict is a variable which determines a subject's behavior in a
wide variety of situations; however, the relationship is so weak that it
is useless with the techniques and response modalities incorporated in

the present research design.

THE DAP AND VISUAL IMAGERY IN

ASSESSING PSYCHO—SEXUAL CONFLICT

By

Arlys N. Acheson

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

1972

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is with grateful appreciation that I acknowledge the assistance
of those who made this research possible.

I would like to thank my chairman, Dr. Joseph Reyher, for the many
hours of advice and encouragement preceding the completion of this
volume, and for the extensive assistance he so willingly provided.

To my other committee members, Dr. Zucker, Dr. Henley, and Dr. Kell,
I express my appreciation for their helpful suggestions improving this
study.

My husband, Ken, deserves a special thank-you, not only for
spending many hours in assisting with the research and scoring, but
especially for his understanding and loving attitude and encouragement

when it was most needed.

ii

Introduction

Hypotheses

Method .

Results . .

Discussion

References

Appendix A.

Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix

Appendix

0

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . .
Holt's Scoring System . . . . . . . .
Examples of Drawings . . . . . . . .
Rank-Order of Drawings by Three Raters
Examples of Visual Imagery . . . . .

Survey of the Research Literature . .

iii

Page

ll
18
29
38
43
46
51
53

59

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

1. Correlations Between Drawings for GSR rate x C, Latency
of First Response (L), Response Time (RT), and Correlations
Between Conditions for GSR x C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2. Kruskal - Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance Between
each Type of Drawing and Order (1,2,3) of Presentation . . . . . 33

3. Spearman Rank Order Correlations Between GSR x C for
the Three Conditions and the PC and PI Indexes . . . . . . . . . 34

4. Spearman Rank Order Correlations Between Degree of
Psychosexual Adjustment (PC) and Measures of Resistance . . . . 35

5. Comparison of C0pers and Non-C0pers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6. Comparison of RNA Subjects and RPA Subjects . . . . . . . . . . .37

iv

INTRODUCTION

Although the DAP is the second most frequently used test in hospitals,
clinics, and counseling services throughout the country (Sunberg, 1961),
research has not generally supported Machover's (1949) hypotheses
connecting, on a one-to-one basis, psychodynamic processes with symbolic
representations of these processes on the drawings (Swensen, 1957;
Handler and Reyher, 1956). Some authors (Reyher, 1959; Handler and
Reyher, 1965, 1970; Swensen, 1968) consider a global approach to the
interpretation of figure drawings to be more productive in comparison
with the examination of discreet details. In assessing the significance
of specific details, Reyher (1959) recommends a relative consideration
of all the details on the drawings; and in a recent review of the
literature, Swensen (1968) has concluded that global ratings are the
most reliable. Graff (1968) utilized a global approach and reported
some success in identifying children with behavior problems.

Reyher (1959) proposed that the drawings of the human figure should
be compared with a relatively neutral, common figure of equal difficulty
'to assess the contributions of two sources of anxiety; (1) the testing
situation and (2) intra-psychic conflict. He selected an automobile.

If the drawing of the automobile has fewer graphic indicators of anxiety
than the human figures, then the clinician has an objective basis for

formulating psychodynamic hypotheses to account for these differences.

Since the level of difficulty of a drawing might be an influencing
variable, Handler and Reyher (1964) found, using the method of paired
comparisons, that the automobile was judged to be as difficult to draw
as the human figure. They also obtained evidence for the two sources of
anxiety, using male subjects, by comparing the increase in the number of
graphic indexes of anxiety for the three drawings between nonstress and
stress conditions. Individual drawing style and ability were eliminated
by using the subject as his own control. As hypothesized, there was a
differential increase in the number of indexes of anxiety that significantly
differentiated between the stress and nonstress conditions. The automobile
drawing only increased on five out of 18 indexes, whereas the male and
female drawings differed on 15 and 11, respectively, out of 21. Handler
and Reyher concluded that the increase on the automobile reflected
anxiety stemming from the testing situation, whereas the increase on the
human figure drawings beyond the increase for the automobile reflected
intrapsychic conflict which was exacerbated by the stress condition.

In another investigation, (Handler and Reyher, 1966) human figure
drawings were characterized by more GSR activity in addition to more
graphic indexes of anxiety than was the automobile. Myers (1965), using
only female subjects, also found that the drawing of the human figure was
associated with greater GSR activity than was the automobile.

Evidence that the act of drawing the human figure stimulates psycho-
sexual conflict was obtained by dividing the human figure into primary,
secondary, and nonsexual body parts (Handler and Reyher, 1966). They
reported that the secondary sexual body parts elicited the greatest GSR
activation for males drawing the male figure, whereas the primary

sexual body parts activated the greatest GSR for males drawing the female

figure. Sanders (1966) reported that the degree of psychosexual conflict,
based upon ratings of the clothed figure, was directly related to GSR
activation during the drawing of a nude human figure.

Handler and Reyher found that reinforcement of line, erasure,
shading, and deliniation lines were frequent under nonstress conditions
and were inversely related to the GSR. Those subjects that utilized the
above devices under both stress and nonstress conditions appeared to
cope constructively with their anxiety in contrast to other subjects who
avoided the anxiety-producing task by drawing oversimplified figures with
an impoverishment of detail. The former and latter subjects were called
"copers" and "noncopers", respectively.

According to Reyher (1959), the DAP is unlike any other projective test
because it forces the subject to create his own stimulus. In the course
of drawing a human figure, anxiety-producing conflicts are activated by
the act of drawing body areas closely associated with the sexual drive
and the subject's selfAconcept. For example, when the male is drawing
the breast of a female, his sexual drive is activated and any conflicts
associated with it are piqued, particularly those that are peculiar to
the breast. Similarly, a young male who feels physically inadequate
will experience anxiety when drawing the shoulders because feelings of
inadequacy are piqued. The unconscious and conscious affect and related
fantasies activated by drawing the human figure are response-producing,
making the DAP highly susceptible to laboratory investigation. The present
study is an attempt to assess, at different levels of functioning, the
response-producing properties of the psychosexual conflicts activated by

the act of drawing the human figure.

HYPOTHESES:

1. The ANS activation of a subject while drawing the human figure is

a function of his psychosexual adjustment.

II. The ANS activation when the examiner enters the room is a function
of degree of psychosexual adjustment.

III. The ANS activation of a subject during visual imagery stimulated by
his own drawing of the human figure is a function of psychosexual adjust-
ment.

IV. Degree of drive representation (primary process) is a function of
degree of psychosexual adjustment.

V. Resistance to visual imagery stimulated by the subject's own
drawing of the human figure is a function of psychosexual adjustment.
VI. A questionnaire measuring psychosexual adjustment (as reported by
the Ss) will be significantly correlated with a psychopathology score

derived from the figure drawings.

METHOD
SUBJECTS
Thirty volunteer college students were divided into relatively well
adjusted (RNA) and relatively poorly adjusted (RPA) groups on the basis
of their human figure drawings. Each S was assigned a number to insure

anonymity.

MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL SETTING
The drawings were made on 8% by 11 unlined white paper attached
to a clipboard which was securely anchored to the double armrests of a

large chair. A Grass #5 Polygraph was used to measure the CSR; the

electrodes and electrode paste were manufactured by the Yellow Springs
Instrument Company.

The questionaire used consisted of the L Scale and the K Scale of the
MMPI and a Psychosexual Scale from selected statements on the MMPI, the
Mooney Problem Check List (College Form), and the Multi-Purpose Inventory,
Marriage and Personality, as well as selected original items. (See
Appendix A for complete questionnaire.)

The arrangement of subject, polygraph, and polygraph operator was
similiar to that described by Handler and Reyher (1964). S was seated
in a large chair with double armrests and his back to the polygraph,
E was behind and to the side of him in order to observe and note the
body parts being drawn. The tape recorder was behind S and within easy
access of E. The polygraph was in continuous operation throughout the

testing session.

PROCEDURE

S was ushered into a soundproof testing room by a male examiner (E1),
and was seated in the large chair with arm rests. After attaching the
electrodes to the non-preferred hand, fifteen minutes were allowed for
skin hydration and general adaptation. After the period of adaptation,
E1 left the room and a female examiner (E2) entered. GSR activation at
the moment of entry was noted. E2 then asked S to draw a series of objects
on seperate sheets of paper. S was given a freshly sharpened pencil for
each drawing. Upon the completion of this task, E2 said, "Now let us
begin." Since this usually produces an increase in GSR activity,
additional time was allowed for skin resistance to return to baseline.

The objects drawn were: a circle, triangle, pentagon, square, octagon,

and rectangle. After each of these, time was allowed for the subject's
basal skin resistance to return to the original level. This series of
preliminary drawings served the purpose of reducing GSR activation

produced by the testing situation, E2's presence, and instructions. The
order of the drawings were counterbalanced. S was instructed: "Now I would
like you to draw a man (woman, automobile). Be sure to include the whole
figure (for man and woman). Tell me when you are finished."

After the first drawing was completed and the GSR returned to base-
line, the following instructions were given, "Now I would like you to
close your eyes and get a picture in your mind's eye of the figure you
just drew. Let me know when you have this picture in your mind's eye."

After S indicated he had this image, E continued, "Now I would like

2
you to let your mind relax and describe whatever images come into your
mind's eye." E2 asked no further questions, except after every sixty
seconds of silence when she said, "What's in your mind's eye?" S was

asked to Open his eyes after ten minutes.

After allowing time for the GSR to return to baseline, S was instructed
to draw the second figure. ‘After it was completed, S again closed his
eyes and described the images in his mind's eye during the ten minute
period. The same procedure was followed for the third drawing.

After the third drawing and the ten minute period of visual imagery
were completed, E2 left the testing room and E1 entered to administer a
questionnaire.

The order of the drawings was counter—balanced, with the male, female,
and automobile drawn first, second, and third an equal number of times.

All possible sequence of drawings was not utilized, based on previous

research by Handler and Reyher (1964) which demonstrated differential

effects of order but no sequence effects. The particular order used for
any S was determined prior to his testing in a totally random manner.
After all thirty subjects had completed their drawings, each subject
was rated according to his psychosexual adjustment on the basis of his
drawings. The fbllowing criteria for good psychosexual adjustment were
used: 1) Kinesthetic enlivenment (movement); 2) Effective use of
available space (optimal is 2/3 of the vertical dimension); 3) Primary
sexual aspects of the body drawn (or not warded off)in terms of the
perspective; 4) Female and male clothing or physical characteristics
clearly differentiated; 5) Evidence of ego involvement; presence in
the drawings of erasure, shading, reinforcement, etc. to emphasize
certain aspect of the clothing or body, and when used in the service of
doing a good job; 7) Absence of transparencies and distortions; 8) The
details, size, emphasis lines, and general quality of the human figures

are comparable to a relatively neutral object (the automobile).

MEASURES OF ANXIETY

GSR. The number of GSRs of 2000 ohms or greater was divided by time
taken for each drawing. The first GSR for each drawing was excluded from
the analysis because of its relationship to the instructions.

A second measure of the GSR was the mean conductance (The resistance
is fbund by computing the mean of readings taken at the beginning, two in
the middle, and one at the end of each drawing. The mean conductance is

6 fbr

the inverse of the resistance. (All scores were multiplied by 10-
ease in reporting.) This yielded information concerning the overall
anxiety-producing properties of each drawing.

The same GSR measures were used for each visual imagery period and

for the questionnaire.

5“

Verbal Content. The visual imagery content was typed verbatin from
the tape and coded. These records were scored in random order, using
Holt's method (1956) of scoring content (see Appendix B for detailed
scoring instruction).

Resistance. Indicators of resistance were counted for each subject.
The following indicators were selected: asking questions, latency in
closing eyes, opening eyes, silent periods (pauses) between images,
verbal associations instead of images, and spontaneous comments about
experienced resistance. All indicators of‘resistance considered occurred
in relation to the visual imagery.

Psychopathology Score (PI). An overall score of psychopathology
was derived from the visual imagery which included the indicators of
resistance as well as Level I responses, distortions, bizarre responses,
affective responses, etc. Since this score was derived after the data
was collected, any significant findings should be considered as only

suggestive pending replication.

ITEMS FOR PSYCHOPATHOLOGY SCORE (FI)

ITEM

 

Opening eyes

Questions asked
During the first session

During the second session

During the third session

Verbal associations instead
of verbal images

Distortions in imagery of
drawing

Imagery irrelevant to drawing:

distortions

Bizarre response

POINTS

 

EXPLANATION

 

1 point given fbr each
time the eyes were opened

1 point fbr each question
asked

2 points for each question

3 points for each question;
consider as greater
resistance when the
questions continue

1 point given for each

occurrence; example: "I
don't see anything but I
was thinking about. . ."

1 point for each distortion;
example (following drawing
on auto): "I see a bent
fender. . ."

3 points for each distortion;
example (following drawing
on auto): "I see a man

with a real weird face. . "
indicative of greater mal—
adjustment, since the
stimulus is not present.

5 points for each occurrence;
example: "I see an ugly
looking monster that is
about to pounce on some-
one."

10

ITEMS FOR PSYCHOPATHOLOGY SCORE (FI)

ITEM

 

Latency in first response

Level 1 (socially "unacceptable"
responses)

No scorable responses in the
entire imagery sessions

Libidinal responses
0-10
11—20

21-30

Aggressive responses
0-4

5-8
9+

Affective responses
0-3

4+

POINTS

 

\loxmpchl—I

10

20

0

2

EXPLANATION

 

20-29 seconds
30-39 seconds
40-49 seconds
50-59 seconds
60-69 seconds
70—79 seconds
80 + seconds

10 points given for each;
considered a very significant
index of maladjustment; see
Appendix B for example

20 points given to 88

showing such strong repression,
considering the stimulus

of the human figure drawings.

The presence of some
libidinal responses is
considered healthy.

When the number of
libidinal responses becomes
excessive, it is an
indicator of maladjustment.
(See Appendix B for examples
of all criteria).

Again, the presence of

some aggressive responses

is considered healthy, but
when the number becomes
excessive, it is an indicator
of maladjustment.

Same as above

A rank order coorelation (Rho) of .62 (p <.005) was obtained between

the ranking of severity of psychosexual conflict (PC) on the drawings and

the psychopathology score (FI) derived from the visual imagery. Even

11

though this is an ad hoc correlation which must be replicated before its
significance can be assessed, the PI index was compared with the PC

ranking whenever possible.

RESULTS

Interrater reliability
Three raters (A, B, and C) independently ranked the thirty sets of

drawings. One rater (A) was the investigator (Reyher) who formulated the
criteria and who has had considerable experience with the DAP in clinical
settings. Rater B (Acheson) was a third year graduate student in clincial
psychology who had been instructed in the use of these criteria by
Rater A, but only had a limited amount of experience in the interpretation
of figure drawings. Rater C was a graduate student in mathematics who
had been instructed in the use of the criteria for psychosexual adjust-
ment by Rater B. He had no experience in the interpretation of figure
drawings and was given the written criteria plus three sets of drawings
illustrating these criteria (similar to the sets of drawings in Appendix C).
The correlations (Spearmen's rho) of the rankings for Raters B and C with
Rater A were 0.98 and 0.97, respectively.

The three raters independently dichotomized the total sample into
RNA and RPA groups. Each rater did this by determining a cut-off point
or a point of demarcation so that all the ranks above represented
relatively well adjusted Ss and that all the ranks below represented
relatively poorly adjusted 88. The dividing points for raters A,B, and C
Vflare ramks ll, 10, and 10 respectively. This made the composition of the

éflflbup almost identical for the three raters. These results, along with

12

the extremely high interrater reliability, were very surprising, in fact,
remarkable. The data of rater A was used for all analyses.

The point of demarcation was determined by the subjective evaluation
of each rater based on a global rating of all the criteria. In general,
the relatively well-adjusted group included those subjects whose drawings
met seven of the eight criteria, with only S rated #1 using kinesthetic
enlivement. The 83 rated #8, #9, and #10 demonstrated less ego involvement
(i.e. less erasure, shading, and reinforcement), but their drawings were
still considered adequate for a rating of "well-adjusted". This cut-off
point was subjective, but was considered necessary for group comparisons.
Reliability of dependent variables

The Spearman rank order coorelations between the drawings during
the Drawing and Imagery Conditions were very high-they ranged from .92
to .95 - for both the GSR and conductance measures, but there was a
-.40 correlation between them. This means that the so - called Law of
Initial Values (LIV) obtains fer these data (Wilder, 1962). The customary
procedure under such circumstances is to make analysis of variance adjust-
ments to partial out this source of variance; however, this is a statistical
adjustment that does not allow for individual variation in the amount of
adjustment. Burns and Reyher (1972) approached the problem differently.
Since the frequency of‘GSRs meeting the criterion decreases as S's con-
ductance (reciprocal of resistance) increases, they multiplied the GSR
rate of each § by his mean conductance (C) during the condition. Although
the reliability of this measure dr0pped to .68, it appeared to vary more
systematically with the independent variables and conditions of the
research design. As they observed, high reliability indicates that a

measure is insensitive to variations in 3's psychopathology and to an

l3

interaction between S's and conditions. Perhaps the most important
reason for the advantage of this measure is that the score of each 8 is
the arithmetical product of two mathematically related functions (GSR
rate x C) rather than statistically adjusted GSR rates or scores, like .
percentages, which are transformations of the original scores and, there-
fore, do not provide additional infbrmation.

Characteristics of GSR x C score

When GSR x C is plotted against frequency for each drawing under the
Drawing and Imagery Conditions, moderate to severely positively skewed
distributions were produced; consequently, nonparametric statistical
methods were utilized in evaluating the hypotheses. The skewing resulted
from a few 83 who had high GSR rates despite high conductance scores.

No transformations were made to normalize the distributions because of
the real possibility that this alteration in numerical representation
might distort the physiological processes involved in the generation of
the score.

The reliability of the CSR x C score varied considerably (Table 1)
with the correlations between the Drawing, Imagery and Questionaire
Conditions being the best estimate of its stability. These correlations
ranged from .44 to .55 for the different combinations of the three condit-
ions. If the relationship between repressed drives and the repressive
force oscillates as previous investigations (Burnsm 1972; Perkins and
Reyher, 1971; Reyher, 1967; Sommerschield, 1969) suggest, then low cor-
.relations are to be expected. However, the high reliabilities for the
(Ithsu'dependent variables controverts this interpretation. Hopefully

tflne various statistical analyses will shed light on this issue.

14

A preliminary analysis of the CSR frequency and conductance (C)
showed that both had significant order effects. An inspection of the
distribution of scores over the three groups representing the three
orders (MFA, FAM, and AMF) revealed that the random assignment of S3 to
the Several groups was uneven with the FAM being characterized by §S with
low GSR rates and high conductance. This order effect disappeared when
the GSR x C score (Table 2) for each drawing and its order of present—
ation was compared for the Drawing and Imagery Conditions. Thus, the
GSR x C score accomplished the same thing as either an analysis of
covariance or a transformation of scores taking the initial level into

account.

Hypothesis I

The hypothesis that the ANS activation of anp§ while drawing the
human figure is an inverse function of his psychosexual adjustment was
not supported. Although the correlations were positive (Table 3), only
the correlation between GSR x C and the Auto - which allegedly is relat-
ively neutral - was significant for both PC ( r = .31; p <.05) and
PI ( r = .42; p <.01).
Hypothesis II

The hypothesized relationship between GSR amplitude x C and degree

Of psychosexual conflict when E2 entered the room was not supported.

15

Spearman rank order correlations of -.11 and -.32 were obtained for
the PC and PI Indexes, respectively. Both correlations were in the
wrong direction.

Hypotheses III

The hypothesis that ANS activation of a S during visual imagery,
instigated by his own drawing of the human figure, is a direct function
of psychosexual adjustment was not supported. Although the correlations
(Table 3) were positive for PC, none were significant. It should be
noted, however, that the correlations for FI were positive with the Male
Drawing reaching significance ( r = .37; p .05).

Hypothesis IV

The hypothesis that degree of drive representation (primary process)
is a function of degree of psychosexual adjustment was not supported.
The correlation obtained between the D—score for the Imagery Condition
and PC was only .19. The FI score was not appropriate because Level I
and II Responses entered into its computation.
Hypothesis V

The hypothesized relationships between measures of resistance and
degree of psychosexual adjustment received weak support. The mean
latency (seconds) on the first image was 18.9, 16.1 and 18.4 for the male,
female and auto, respectively. The corresponding means for mean pauses
(seconds) between images were 27.29, 26.33 and 21.12. Neither of these
two sets of means were significantly different (Friedman two-way analysis of

variance). Table 4 shows that all the correlations between PC and these

16

two variables were in the expected direction. Since the frequency of
verbal associations was too low to permit correlations for each drawing,

the combined frequencies were correlated with PC. The correlation is .22.

Although all the correlations were in the predicted direction, only
the auto was significant. It must be concluded that the relationship
between PC and resistance is too weak to be useful.

Hypothesis VI

The hypothesized relationship between a questionaire measuring
degree of psychosexual adjustment and the PC score derived from the
figure drawings was not supported. The Spearman rank order correlation
between the two measures was .06; however, the correlation between the
questionaire scores and F1 was .30 (r = .31 is significant at the 0.5
level). Because of its intrinsic interest, a correlation between the
questionaire and C x GSR was computed. This was -.18.

Other findings:

On the basis of earlier investigation, the human figures were
expected to be associated with higher GSR rates than the auto, but this
was not confirmed by the results ofthe present investigation. In the
Drawing Condition, the C x GSR rate means were 280.35, 265.38 and 270.89,
respectively, and were not significantly different (Friedman twoaway
analysis of variance; X g~ = 2.91). The corresponding means for the
Imagery Condition were 294.01, 255.56 and 315.20 and they were not

significantly different ( X: e 3.26).

17

As a way of exploring other variables and a means of conceptualizing
the data, the Ss were divided into RWA and RPA groups and compared on a
variety of variables. §s characterized by coping vs. noncoping drawings
were identified using the criteria of Handler and Reyher (1966).
C0pers are considered to be better adjusted than noncopers and were those
Ss that used reinforcement of line, erasure, shading, deliniation lines,
and, for the present study, a realistic treatment of the sexual areas of
the body. In contrast, the noncopers avoided the anxiety-producing
properties of task by drawing oversimplified figures with an impoverish-
ment of detail. Only those subjects who clearly belonged in one of the
two groups were used, thus there were seven "copers" and thirteen "non-
copers". Using analysis of variance, non-significant differences between
groups were obtained, although the differences between means was often
large (Table 5). The lack of significance may have been due to the small
number of subjects in each group; however, the noncopers did differ from
the copers in the expected direction for 15 of the 17 comparisons. The
copers spent more time on the drawings, gave more responses during the
visual imagery with a shorter mean response time and a shorter latency
fbr the first response. Noncopers gave more verbal associations (resist-
ance) and fewer responses scored libidinal, aggressive, or affective.
C0pers reported more images of men, women, and automobiles and gave more
Level II responses. The GSR amplitude when E2 entered was higher for
copers than for noncopers, but the GSR was greater for noncopers on
five of the other six comparisons. The differences between the RWA and
RPA groups did not favor the former to the same degree that these dif-
ferences favored the copers; however, this is not to be construed as

implying statistically meaningful differences. Table 6 presents these results.

Discussion

Although none of the hypotheses received unambiguous support, the
obtained correlations were in the predicted direction in every instance.
Thus it is reasonable to conclude that the ranking of degree of psycho-
sexual conflict (PC score) is a variable which determines S's behavior in
a wide variety of situations; however, the relationship is so weak that
it is useless with the techniques and response modalities incorporated
in the present research design. Subsequent research should attempt to
improve upon the assessment of psychosexual conflict, refine the dependent
variables and utilize new response modalities.

The assessment of psychosexual conflict with figure drawings may be
susceptible to improvement. In the present investigation this assessment
did not include as one of the criteria the relative size of each figure,
the feminization of the male drawing and the type of car drawn. Males
with high self-esteen should draw obviously masculine males which are
larger than the female drawing and the auto should reflect his phallic-
aggressive drives. Ranking the drawings on the basis of an impression-
istic assessment in terms of the criteria may be too uncontrolled for
research purposes. A rationally derived score like the FI score may be
superior. In support of this possibility, the FI score generally produced
higher correlations, with more being significant, than the PC score.

An attempt should be made to quantify or weight the various dimensions

of the criteria for assessing degree of psychopathology on the basis of

19

the figure drawings. The task of ranking a large number of protocols
taking into account all the dimensions of the criteria is too demanding
on the clinician; he cannot evaluate all the information concurrently in
the same manner for each set of protocols. In some sets, certain dim-
ensions are salient and determine the ranking whereas in other sets of
protocols other dimensions are salient and determine the ranking. In
other words, the contribution of each variable is uncontrolled and subject
to the idiosyncratic thought process of the clinician.

Additional responses can be elicited from S to enhance the validity
of the PC score. In the clinical situation, asking S to give three
wishes and a TAT type story for each drawing often appears to be very
helpful in conceptualizing the client's psychopathology. The contribution
of these sources of infbrmation to the PC should be kept seperate in
order to assess the predictive ability of each.

The dependent variables could be improved upon. The measure of ANS
arousal or, inferentially, anxiety was the mean GSR rate multiplied by the
mean conductance over the duration of the drawing period for a particular
drawing. Although previous research with this measure was successful in
showing a difference in arousal between the human figure drawings and the
auto, it lacks precision. The duration of time that most §S spend on the
sexual anatomy is a small percentage of the total drawing time. Thus
the mean GSR rate lacks the precision of a score based solely on the time
spent on the sexual anatomy. As Handler and Reyher (1966) have shown,
the GSR rate for the primary sexual characteristics is higher than the

rate for the nonsexual anatomy. Only the GSR rate for the primary

86xual characteristics should be used in future investigations. Another

possible factor influencing the CSR rate was the fact that the experimenter

20

was an attractive female, in contrast to previous research. It is very
likely that the stimulation of Ss’ sexual drives and their resulting need
to be accepted by her as acceptable males generated anxiety that over—
shadowed the specific anciety-producing properties of the figure drawings
in both the Drawing and Imagery conditions. The precision of the GSR rate
score could be similarly increased in the Imagery Condition if the rate
was based only on the time in which the visual imagery of S is depictive
of the drawings and other images of males, females and autos.

The precision of the measures of resistance can be increased by
taking into account only those observations that occur in conjuction
with imagery depictive of males, females and auto. Also, to increase
the number of observations, S should be asked to visualize the drawing
being used as an instigator after some standard period of time (30 sec.)
in which imagery nondepictive of the instigator has transpired.

The significant -.40 correlation between GSR rate and conductance
was surprising in View of Hord, Johnson and Lubin (1964) finding that the
GSR does not obey the so-called Law of Initial Values (LIV). Since his
findings were based upon a large sample, they are considered to be more
reliable than the findings of the present research. An analysis of
Wilson's data (1972) also shows that GSR rate is not negatively correlated
with conductance. He obtained a correlation .14. Since the assessment
of psychosexual conflict used in the present investigation is Open to
question and the dependent variables lacked precision of measurement, the
advantage of using the GSR xC score could not be adequately evaluated.
The fact that it eliminated the need for analysis of covariance adjust-

ments when GSR rate was found to be correlated with conductance level

21

and increased the size of the correlations with PC in the majority of
instances indicates that the incorporation of conductance into the score
may provide useful new infbrmation.

Even though the FI score was not delveloped until after the data was
collected and, subsequently, suffers the indeterminacy of all post hoc
analyses, it is of intrinsic interest and will certainly lead to an
attempt to replicate its .62 correlation with PC. If this correltion is
valid, it means that the insufficiency of the present investigation resides
in the lack of precision of the dependent variables or their inability to
perform the task assigned to them. Also, the PC and PI scores are both
rational scores based upon clinical experience and psychoanalytic theory
and, as such, have strong implications with respect to practice and theory
if they enter into empirical relationships with other variables in
future research. Conversely, continued negative findings will weaken
confidence in both figure drawings and visual imagery to figure drawings,
as instigators, as being useful clinical tools. Accordingly, the viability
of psychoanalytic theory seems to be weakened.

One of the most striking aspects of the obtained figure drawings is
the high incidence of drawings which ordinarily would be considered as
being severly neurotic or schizophrenic. For example, Handler and Reyher
(1966) reported that transparancies were very rare in college population,
yet five Ss showed this in the present investigation. A number of draw—
ings were quite bizzare. Since recent samples do not show these charact-
eristics frequently, these drawings probably do not reflect an alteration
in the college culture. The most likely explanation is the heightened
pressure that E, an attractive female, put on Ss' management of psycho;

Sexual conflicts and anxiety generated in the experimental situation. In

22

this situation the integration of Ss' behavior often was impaired. If this
analysis is correct, the psychodynamic impact of an attractive experimenter
of the opposite sex, particularly a female, can be an invaluable tool for
the investigation of psychodynamic processes in the laboratory.

The comparisons between the RWA and RPA groups and between the copers

and noncopers were not striking, but might be helpful in planning

future research and sensitizing the investigator to new interpretive
possibilities. All of the "c0pers" were in the RWA group and all of the
"noncopers" were in the RPA group. Also, there were three and seven subjects
in the fbrmer and latter groups, respectively, who were not clearly class-
ified in either way. Those subjects, particularly those three in the RWA
group, generally made some attempts to cope with the task at hand, but

were not as successful in completing the task as those subjects class-
ified as "c0pers"; thus they were excluded from the group described as
c0pers to enable as clear a distinction as possible. Although a coping
attitude is closely associated with good psychosexual adjustment, some
protocols show coping behavior in the context of severe psychopathology.
The converse is not true: In the frame of reference of this investigation,
a person cannot be "well-adjusted" and be a noncoper. Coping is really

a complex criterion for rating degree of adjustment.

The exclusion of subjects who could not be clearly classified as
either c0pers or noncopers, appears to have increased some group differences.
In comparing the RWA and the RPA groups, only ten of the seventeen compar-
isons were in the predicted direction. In comparing c0pers and noncopers,
fifteen comparisons were in the predicted direction, with only two GSR
measures in the opposite direction. The most notable differences occurred

on the visual imagery, with the c0pers and noncopers differing in the

‘0-

. tv
51.:

v-‘

Ԥ

 

(I?

23

predicted direction in all of the nine comparisons, while the RWA and
the RPA groups differed in the opposite direction on six of the nine
comparisons.

The noncopers generally had greater anxiety, although their general
level of arousal was lower during the visual imagery where they tended to
avoid the affect-laden responses such as those scored libidinal, agressive
affective, and Level II. The greater tendency for the noncopers to avoid
the anxiety-producing drives is further supported by fewer reported images
of men, women, and automobilies. Fewer responses, a longer mean response
time, a longer latency for the first response, and more verbal associations
for the non-c0pers all support the suggestion of greater defensiveness.

The greater GSR frequency during the visual imagery for the noncopers
suggests that their defensive operations are not totally successful in
eliminating anxiety. When the noncopers were allowed less freedom to
withdraw (i.e. required to draw some form of a man, woman, and automobile
and required to answer specific questions dealing with sexuality, their
CSR (and anxiety) was consistently higher than for the c0pers. The

only exception involved the GSR amplitude when the female examiner entered.

In comparing the means for the c0pers and the RWA group, it appears
that the three subjects who were not included as c0pers had the following
effect on the RWA group: lowering the number of responses on the visual
imagery; lengthening the mean response time; increasing verbal associations;
increasing the GSR frequency on the drawings, imagery and questionnaire;
decreasing the time on drawings; decreasing the GSR mean conductance;

increasing the number of men, women, and autos reported. This generally

supports the previous suggestion that these subjects were attempting to

COPe, but were not as successful as the other subjects within the group.

'44

on.

th

o\\

24
There appears to be some tendency to avoid or withdraw from sources of
anxiety and to constrict their responsivity to the specific task. It
should be noted that only trends can be suggested and no conclusions can
be drawn due to the few number of subjects involved.

The seven subjects in the RPA group who were excluded from the non-
copers had the following effects upon the RPA group: increase in the
total number of responses on the visual imagery; Level II responses;
aggressive libidinal responses; the number of men, women, and automobiles;
GSR frequency and conductance to visual imagery and questionnaire; time
spent on the drawings; GSR activation when the female examiner entered;
decrease in the mean response time and the latency in the first response.
All of these differences suggest that these seven subjects were attempting
to cope with the task, although they were not as successful as the copers.
Greater anxiety accompanied their attempts to cope.

The hypotheses relating psychosexual adjustment to the GSR were not
supported, suggesting that psycho-sexual adjustment is not related to the
anxiety or the physiological (GSR) response of the subject, but rather with
his ability to cope with the situation. This is supported by a number of
other investigators who report no significant correlation between GSR
and manifest anxiety (Galbrecht, Dykman, and Reese, 1965; Koepke and
Pribram, 1966).

In further consideration of these results, two alternative hypotheses
appear feasible. On the basis of order effects the issue of the effective—
ness of defenses appears relevant. The relative neutrality of the auto-
mobile has been established by Reyher (1959), Handler and Reyher (1966),
EHKi Meyers (1965). In the present study, many subjects in both groups

showed a GSR increase for the male drawing, and an even greater increase

25

for the female drawing; however, there were also many Ss in the RPA
group who had the greatest GSR to the automobile. These 33 might have
been able to cope with the anxiety—producing properties associated with
the act of drawing the relatively neutral automobile, but not the human
figures.

Since adaptation is a well-known and well documented phenomenon
(Woodworth and Schloshbery, 1954), it is interesting to note that adapt-
ation did not occur for almost half of the subjects during the drawing.

Adaptation occured more frequently during visual imagery than fer the
drawings, particularly for well-adjusted Ss. This suggests that the act
of drawing itself arouses the anxiety, while in free imagery S is free to
use his regular means of dealing with anxiety, be it repression, denial,
projection, etc. The fact that one-fourth of the RPA Ss showed an
increase in GSR activity during the imagery following the drawing of the
automobile again supports the idea of a relative reduction of threat
posed by this relatively neutral object.

The issue of lability is also important in discussing adaptation
effects. Johnson (1962) also found a lack of GSR adaptation for some
subjects. Stable Ss, those who had few spontaneous GSR responses at rest,
showed GSR adaptation to the stimuli of a tone and a flicker. Conversely,
labile Ss, those with many Spontaneous responses, did not adapt and were
more reactive to the initial presentation of both stimuli. In the present
Study, the greater incidence of a lack of adaptation for the RPA group
was accompanied by greater lability as evidenced by the content of the
visual imagery.

On the basis of the GSR data and the conceptual frame of reference

gliding this line of research, the following groups should show decreasing

26

GSR activation during the drawing of human figures: (1) Ss characterized
by severe psychopathology and unsuccessful attempts to cope with anxiety-
producing stimuli; (2) 83 who recogonize their ego and sexual strivings
are activated, but who feel anxious about dealing with them in the context
of their relationship with the investigator; (3) Ss who show little
evidence of psychosexual conflict or repression, having effective coping
responses to anxietyaproducing, intra-psychic stimuli; (4) Ss who show
gross evidence of repressed psychosexual conflict and very weak or
ineffective coping responses to these anxiety-producing, intrapsychic
stimuli.

The lack of a greater number of indicators of resistance in the
RPA group is surprising in light of the frequency of these indicators in
clinical practice (Reyher 1969). This may be related to the subject's
concept of the purpose of visual imagery. In a recent pilot investigation
(Perry, 1969), it was found that volunteer $8 from a class in introduct-
ory psychology did not react with behavioral indicators of anxiety in a
vis a vis relationship to instructions for eye closure when given by an
experimenter who defined the situation as research on imagination; however,
when the situation was defined as research on the value of visual imagery
in psychotherapy, resistance behavioral indicators of anxiety were
produced. The issue of psychotherapy was never mentioned to the subjects
in the present study. An additional difference centers around the import-
ance of security operations in the therapeutic relationship (Reyher, 1969).
It is essential for many patients to be constantly vigilant for any sign
of rejection from the psychotherapist. This is accomplished by visual

cues. When the patient closes his eyes and the therapist is silent, the

27

patient can no longer monitor the psychotherapist's expressive behavior
for signs of approval or disapproval, nor can he converse with him in
such a manner as to produce these signs. The anticipation of rejection
then produces anxiety as evidenced by many behavioral indicators. In the
present study, the examiner was always behind the subject, thus never
permitting the monitoring of visual cues or the establishment of an
interpersonal relationship. The instructions to close their eyes did
not change the security operations in any essential way.

The significant correlation between the rankings of psychopathology
on the basis of the figure drawings and the psychopathology score derived
from visual imagery will justify if replicated the use of figure drawings
as a means of assessing psychosexual adjustment. The obtained correlation
suggests that the figure drawings are, in fact, measuring similar processes
as is the visual imagery. If the figure drawings are conceptualized as
visual images transferred to paper, with the obvious limitation of artistic
skill, then it is not surprising to obtain high correlations between
Ineasures of adjustment on the two seperate indices. The high correlation
is encouraging to the future clinical application of figure drawings
in light of the clinical usefulness of visual imagery. In comparing
Visual imagery and verbal associations (Reyher and Smeltzer, 1968),
flmagery was accompanied by more anxiety, more primary process, more
direct representation of drives, and less effective defense. The superiority
0f Visual imagery over verbal association as an uncovering technique was
attritmted to the relative ease with which unconscious processes can
influence visual imagery.

The present study suggests several areas where additional research

is needed. Although the issue of copers vs. non-copers has been previously

28

introduced (Handler and Reyher, 1966), there has been no research clearly
evaluating this variable in relation to human figure drawings. Further
research concerning the relative contributions of psychosexual conflicts
and c0ping mechanisms to physiological measure of anxiety (GSR) should also
be conducted. The effects of intra-psychic vs. external sources of
anxiety on the GSR is still uncertain, and should be clarified before
using the GSR as a measure of anxiety aroused by any specific source.

The effect of examiner variables is especially significant as suggested
by the differences obtained by Handler and Reyher (1966) and the present
study. The issue of lability in its effect upon the GSR adds another
variable. At the present time, the GSR appears to be highly sensitive to
numerous variables, and thus a relatively poor measure of specific

sources of anxiety.

REFERENCES

29

LIST OF REFERENCES

Galbrecht, C., Dykman, R., Reese, W., and Suzuki, T. Intrasession adapt-
ation and intersession excitation of the components of the orienting
response. [J.‘gf Exper. Psychol. 1965, 70, 585-597.

 

Goldberger, E. Simple methods of producing dreamlike visual images in
the waking state. Psychom. Med., 1957, 19,127.

 

Craff, B. The DAP and overt behavior promblems in school children.
Unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1967.

Handler, L., and Reyher, J. The effects of stress on the Draw a Person
Test. J. Consult. Psychol. 1964, 28, 259-264.

 

Handler, L., and Reyher, J. Figure drawing anxiety indexes: a review
of the literature. ‘J. Proj. Tech. 1965, 29, 305-318.

 

Handler, L. and Reyher, J. The relationship between GSR and anxiety
indexes in projective drawings, 'J. Consult. Psychol. 1966, 30, 60-67.

 

Hathaway, 8., and Briggs, P. Some normative date on new MMPI scales.
‘J. Clin. Psychol. 1957, 13, 364-368.

 

Holt, R., Gauging primary and secondary processes in Rorschach responses.
‘g. Proj. Tech. 1956, 20, 14-25.

 

Hord, D., Johnson, L., and Lubin, A. Differential effect of the law of
Initial Value (LIV). Psychophysiology. 1964, 1, 79—87.

 

Hoyt, T., and Baron, M. Anxiety indices in same sex drawings of
psychiatric patients with high and low MAS scores. ‘J. Consult,
Psychol. 1959, 23, 448-452.

Johnson, L. Spontaneous autonomic activity, autonomic reactivity, and
adaptation. San Diego. U.S. Navy Medical Neuropsychiatric Research
Unit. 1962.

Kanzer, M. Image formation during free association. Psychoanal. Quart.
1958, 27,465.

 

Koepke, J., and Pribram, K. Habitation of GSR as a function of stimulus
duration and spontaneous activity. .i- Comp. Q Phy . Psychol. 1966,
61, 442-443.

Machover, K. Personality Projection in the Drawing 2f the Human Figure.
Springfield. Charles Thomas. 41949.

 

 

 

30

McKinley, J., Hathaway,.S., and Meehl, P. The Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Invetory: VI. The K Scale. ‘J. Consult. Psychol. 1948,
12, 20-31.

 

Mogar, R. Anxiety indices in human figure drawings: a replication and
extension. ‘J. Consult. Psychol. 1962, 26, 108.

 

Mordkoff, A., The relationship between psychological and physiological
responses to stress. Psychosomatic Medicine. 1964, 26, 135-150.

 

Myers, L. The clinical usefullness of stories told about male, female,
and animal drawings. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State
University, 1965.

Perry, G. Security operations in psychotherapy in relation to anxiety.
Unpublished manuscript, Lansing Community College. 1969.

Reyher, J. Emergent uncovering, Psychopathology and the Objectification
of Pathogenic Psychodynamic Processes. Paper presented at the meeting
of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C., September
1969.

Reyher, J. Free imagery: an uncovering technique. .J. Clin. Psychol.
1963, 14, 454-459.

 

Reyher, J. Use of figure drawings in differential diagnosis. Paper
read at the State Diagnosticians Conference. Michigan. 1959.

Reyher, J. and Morishige, H. EEG and rapid eye movement during free
imagery and dream recall. ‘2. Abn. Psychol.

 

Reyher, J. and Smeltzer, W. Uncovering properties of visual imagery and
verbal associations: a comparative study. “J. Abn. Psychol. 1968,
73, 218-222.

 

Rickers-Oksiankina, M. Rorschach Psychology. New York. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. 1860, 273-284.

 

Sanders, R. and Reyher, J. The Clinical applicability of nude figure
drawings.

Smeltzer, W. A comparative study of free imagery and free association.
Unpublished Master’s thesis. Michigan State University. 1966.

Sunberg, N. The practice of psychological testing in clinical services
in the United States. Amer. Psychologist. 1961 16, 79-83.

 

Swensen, C. Enpirical evaluations of human figure drawings. Psychol.

Wexler, M. and Holzberg, J. A further study of the validity of human
form drawings in personality evaluation. J. Proj. Tech. 1952,16, 249—251.

 

31

Winer, B. Statistical Principles in Experimental Design. New York.
McGraw—Hill Bock Co. 1962.

 

 

Woodworth, R. and Schlosbery, H. Experimental Psychology. New York.
Holt, Rinehardt, & Winston, 1954.

 

32

Table 1
Correlations Between Drawings for GSR rate x C,
Latency of First Response (L), Response
Time (RT), and Correlations
Between Conditions

for GSR x C (N= 30)

Drawings Imagery

Correlation GSR x C GSR x C L RT
Male and female .62 .47 .95 .83
Female and auto .18 .79 .89 .88
Male and auto .21 .54 .95 .84

GSR x C

Drawings and imagery .55
Drawings and questionaire .44

Imagery and questionaire .47

33

Table 2
Kruskal - Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance
Between each Type of Drawing and Order (1,2,3)
of Presentation

Entries in the body of table are values of H

Conditions
Type drawings Drawing Imagery
Male 2.47 .37
Female .81 .05

Auto 2.09 1.27

34

Table 3
Spearman Rank Order Correlations Between GSR x C
for the Three Conditions and

The PC and PI Indexes ( N = 30 )

Condition Index
PC FI
Drawing
Male .18 .08
Female .04 .12
Auto .31* .42**
Imagery
Male .01 .37*
Female .22 .02
Auto .07 .25
Questionaire .06 .31*
* p <.05

**p <.01

35

Table 4
Spearman Rank Order Correlations Between Degree
of Psychosexual Adjustment(PC) and

Measures of Resistance

Drawing Pauses (sec.) Latency (sec.) Verbal
associations
Male (M) -.30 .13
Female (F) -.23 .21
Auto ~.16 .32*
M+F+A .22

*p <.05

36
Table 5

Comparison of C0pers and Non-C0pers

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I No‘fi—Iéo'peYsI IC'SpErE I EerEtIédI

Drawings Means Means Direction
GSR Frequency 2.847 1.49 yes
GSR Mean Conductance 118 117 yes
Time in Drawings 173 . 298 yes*

Visual Imagery
GSR Frequency 2.85 2.42 yes
GSR Mean Conductance 90 111 no
Number of Responses 20.19 31.12 yes
Mean Response Time 32.58 25.28 yes
Latency in First Response 26.05 15.79 yes
Verbal Associations 1.81 0.27 yes
Number of Level II Responses 1.095 2.212 yes
Number of Libidinal Responses 0.523 1.515 yes
Number of Aggressive Responses 0.523 1.484 yes
Number of Affective Responses 0.142 0.151 yes
Number of Men, Women, and Automobiles 7.285 13.787 yes

Questionnaire

GSR Frequency 3.21 2.72 yes

GSR.Mean Conductance 103 96 yes

(3SR Amplitude when E2entered 7.271 10.018 no

* Significant beyond the .05 level

37

Table 6

Comparison of RWA Subjects and RPA Subjects

.------_----_h----_-------_---_-----

Drawings RWA‘X RPA'X Expected
Direction
GSR Frequency 2.32 2.66 yes
GSR Mean Conductance 115.6 118.5 yes
Time on Drawings 294.8 182.7 yes*
Visual Imagery
GSR Frequency 2.86 3.03 yes
GSR Mean Conductance 104.4 108.9 yes
Number of Responses 26.7 36.8 no
Mean Response Time 30.55 22.49 no
Latency in First Response 15.37 18.7 yes
Verbal Associations 3.9 8.5 yes
Number of Level II Responses 4.2 7.55 no
Number of Libidinal Responses 1.8 5.5 no
Number of Aggressive Responses 1.9 2.45 no
Number of Affective Responses 0.6 0.09 yes
Number of Men, Women, and Automobiles 10.87 13.33 no
Questionnaire
GSR Frequency 3.92 3.48 no
GSR Mean Conductance . 89 101 yes
(38R Amplitude when E.2 entered 10,870 , 11,200 yes

*Significant beyond the .05 level

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

U'l

l3.
IA.

I5.
l6.

l7.
l8.

I9.

20.

38
APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

I enjoy going to dances
I think I'm liked by most girls who know me
At times I feel like swearing

I often wait for girls to speak to me before I show
any interest

Once in a while I think about things too bad to talk
about

I have never been in love

I do not always tell the truth

I am embarrassed by dirty stories

I like to “flirt” or kid around with girls

At times I feel like smashing things

I wish I were not bothered by thoughts about sex

I think a great many people exaggerate their
misfortunes in order to gain the sympathy and help
of others

I am strongly attracted to other men

I do not read every editorial in the newspaper every
day

I am pinned or engaged

I get angry sometimes

I never date

I often hide my feelings

It takes a lot of argument to convince most people
of the truth

It is harder to talk to girls than to guys

2l.

22.
23.
24.
25.
26.

27.

28.
29.
30.
3i.

32.
33.
34.
35.

36.
37.
38.

39.
AO.
Al.
42.
A3.

39

Once in a while I put off until tomorrow what I ought
to do today

I rarely date

I date occasionally (once a month or less)

I date frequently (once a week or more)

I have very few quarrels with members of my family

Most peOple will use somewhat unfair means to gain

profit or an advantage rather than to lose it

It is hard to find anything to talk about when I meet
a girl

Sometimes when I am not feeling well I am cross
I need more information about sex matters
I have poor posture

My table manners are not quite as good at home as when
I am out in company

I have a poor complexion or skin trouble
I'm too short
I'm too tall

Often I can't understand why I have been so cross and
grouchy

I am not very physically attractive
I would like to be more popular

At times m thoughts have raced ahead faster than I
could spea them

I am deciding whether to become engaged
Criticism or scolding hurts me terribly
I'm often disappointed in my dates

I certainly feel useless at times

I am too inhibited in sex matters

I-ILI.
[+50
1+6.

47.

A8.
49.
50.
SI.
52.

53.
54.

55.
56.
57.
58.
59.

60.
6I.
62.
63.
6h.

65.

40

I think I am overweight

I think I am underweight

It makes me impatient to have pe0ple ask my advice or
otherwise interrupt me when I am working on something
important

If I could get into a movie without paying and be sure
I was not seen, I would probably do it

I often feel ill at ease with girls

I have never felt better in my life than I do now
What others think of me does not bother me

I have boring weekends

It makes me uncomfortable to put on a stunt at a party
even when others are doing the same sort of thing

Sexual things disgust me

I find it hard to make talk when I meet new pe0ple
I would rather win than lose in a game

I like my general appearance

I am against giving money to beggars

My sex life is satisfactory

I like to know some important people because it makes
me feel important

I frequently find myself worrying about something
I feel inferior

I get mad easily and then get over it soon

I feel awkward in making a date

When in a group of people I have trouble thinking of
the right thing to talk about

I never attend a sexy show if I can avoid it

66.
67.
68.
69.
70.

7I.
72.

73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.

79.
80.
8I.
82.

83.
8h.
85.

86.
87.

41

At times I am full of energy

I dislike having girls around me
I do not like everyone I know

I like slow dancing

I have periods in which I feel unusually cheerful
without any special reason

Girls often turn me down when asked for a date

I think nearly anyone would tell a lie to keep out
of trouble

My sexual needs are unsatisfied
I gossip a little at times

I lack self-confidence

I worry over money and business
I'm too easily sexually aroused

At periods my mind seems to work more slowly than
usual

I enjoy close contact with girls
PeOple often disappoint me
My friends and I often talk about sex

Sometimes at elections I vote for men about whom I
know very little

Pre-marital sex is accepted and normal
Pre-marital sex is morally wrong

I have sometimes felt that difficulties were piling up
so high that I could not overcome them

I am rarely aroused sexually

I often think, ”I wish I were a child again"

88.
89.

90.
9I.
92.

93.

42

I am distunbed by ideas of sexual acts

I have often met people who were supposed to be experts
who were no better than I

Once in a while I laugh at a dirty joke
I have had enjoyable and satisfying sexual experiences

I find it hard to set aside a task that I have
undertaken even for a short time

I like to let people know where I stand on things

APPENDIX B

HOLT'S SCORING SYSTEM

43

APPENDIX B

HOLT'S SCORING SYSTEM

DRIVE REPRESENTATIONS

 

1. (I) Ideational Drive Representations
(ideas, incontrast with affect which indicate drive
tension).
(L) Drives with Libidinal aims
(0) Oral
(A) Anal
(S) Sexual (phallic-genital)
(E-V) Exhibitionistic-voyeuristic
(H) Homosexual (sexual ambiguity)
(M) Miscellaneous libidinal
(AG) Drives with agressive aims
(refers to preparation for or potentiality for a hostile
or destructive act, to the act itself, or to the results
of aggression)
(P-S) Potential-subject
(P—O) Potential-object
(A-S) Active subject
(A-O) Active object
(R) Results (object)
(Anx) Anxiety and guilt about drive expression

(indicates a projection of instinctual danger or super—
ego punishment; feelings of helplessness)

2. (Aff) Affective Drive Representation
(clear display of affect indicated either in the
verbalization or the behavior)

44

APPENDIX B (cont.)

LEVELS OF DRIVES

 

 

Level 1. Primary, direct, intense, or blatant drive expression;
close to primary process

Level 2. Socialized or secondary drive expression; appropriate to
communication between strangers in a testing situation
LIBIDINAL
Level 1.

O: breasts; an Open mouth; hungry birds waiting for mother to bring
something to eat

A: a pile of feces; a person's backside
S: female organs; intercourse
E-V: human figure, nude

H: some sort of symbol - phallic, not phallic - sexual - guess I'd
say vagina; men with breasts

M: menstruation; birth; urine

Level 2.

0: two dogs kissing; men, a little drunk over a punchbowl
A: bug in a mudpuddle; a woman — here's one leg, her fanny
8: a bride and groom standing, holding hands

E-V: woman with a transparent dress on; face luring up at something

H: two people - I don't know if they are men or women; two men holding
ladies’ handbags

M: ovaries, embryo, cupid

AGGRESSIVE

 

lLevel 1.

IR—S: something with snappin jaws - there's his hot breath coming
out to get you {hral scored secondarily)

Level

Level

45

APPENDIX B (cont.)

frightened figure - menaced; nightmarish
witches tearing a woman apart
sharp instrument going through penis

animal, looks like it's been in a horrible fight - all torn up;
people with their heads chopped Off

2.

people arguing, swearing at each other; cat's face snarling;
a fist

shield; figure - looks afraid of something

people fighting or a conspiracy; bomb bursting; bull’s face —
charging

an unhappy person - looks like he's being bawled out

blood; man with a wooden leg; dead chicken; blackened trees
after a fire

ANXIETY and GUILT

 

1: Man tied, falling into space helplessly

2: The inferno; devil; a pile of rocks about to topple over

APPENDIX C

EXAMPLES OF DRAWINGS

46

APPENDIX C

Subject rated # l

 

 

47

APPENDIX (3 (cont. )

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Subject rated # 3

 

 

 

 

48

APPENDIX C (cont.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

./ I‘ 7 ’
r s/ -

Subject rated # ll

 

 

"

 

 

 

 

 

49

APPENDIX 0 (cont.)

 

Subject rated # 25

’0’

‘le/

 

 

APPENDIX D

RANK ORDER OF DRAWINGS

51

APPENDIX D

RANK-ORDER OF DRAWINGS BY THREE RATERS

Subject Rater #1 Rater #2 Rater #3
l 13 13 13
2 22 21 28
3 9 12 10
4 15 17 19
5 3 3 5
6 25 24 25
7 5 5 4
8 26 26 14
9 10 11 8

10 7 8 7

.11 4 4 3

12 19 18 22
13 11 9 11
14 17 16 17
15 20 19 20
16 16 15 12
17 12 14 16
18 30 30 30
19 2 2 2
20 8 7 9
21 29 28 24

22 28 25 26

52

APPENDIX D (cont.)

Sub'
__..3_._._23 QCt _R_a__t_le“rl “III Rater #2 Rater #3
27 29
24 27
25 1: 10 15
6 6
:: 23 23 18
28 :: 20 23
29 24 22 21
28 29

30
1
1
1

APPENDIX E

EXAMPLES OF VISUAL IMAGERY

53

APPENDIX E

EXAMPLES OF VISUAL IMAGERY

Subject # 30 Rated # 1

Automobile

 

I see a Volkswagon sitting on the black top driveway. . . there's

a yard to the left. . . a house. . . trees and a yard and green leaves. .
brick along the front of the house. . . dead leaves along the edge of the
house. . . worn path around the edge of the house. . . in the back yard
there's a barbeque grill. . . there's a piece of metal sticking up out

of the sidewalk used for scraping mud Off your feet - right by the back
door - people Often trip over it. . . stairway leading down into the
basement. . . a little hallway with a worn out rug. . . kitchen. . .
refrigerator that's often freezing up because Of the humidity. . . I

see another black top drive lined with palm trees out in California. . .
a conference room. . . men sitting around a table. . . sitting for a long
time. . . back in the living room of the other house now. . . blue
carpets. . . gold curtains. . . table with some books on it. . . same
carpet leads into the bedroom. . . I see twin beds one Of which we just
carried from the basement. . . bookcase. . . and a closet. . . other
bedroom has a double bed. . . blue bedspread. . . and carpet that needs
tO be tacked down. . . more carpet in another bedroom - it's gold - that
needs to be tacked down. . . kind Of a general layout of that gold room. .
motorcycle out in the driveway. . . riding the motorcycle in the sand-

pits down by the river. . . picture of scenes from a book I’ve been

reading - Level Seven. . . 500 people living underground - future

54
APPENDIX E (cont.)

Subject # 3O (cont.)

society in the event Of nuclear warfare. . . the frustration and boredom

in that situation. . . a yoyo. . . I see you frantically turning the
voltage now trying to keep the pen on the paper. . . I see a girl smiling. .
blue ege shadow. . . soft hair. . . soft cheeks. . . lips. . . my

girl pretending that she's peeved at me. . . but she's not really. . .

I see a pontoon boat. . . people fishing on it. . . it has a canvas top

to provide shade. . . a yellow canoe. . . two people paddling on crystal
clear waters. . . sunshine . . . blue sky. . . big trees grow down to

the waters edge - there's a rocky shoreline. . . they’re enjoying the
scenery. . . fishing a little but - mostly paddling along and sightseeing. .

I see a shark. . . mouth full Of teeth. . .

Male

 

Well the man is a little out of proportion - I think his head is too big. .
and I couldn't get his hand to go around the pole right. . . I drew his
head sideways cause that's easier than front view. . . he kind of reminds
me Of me over on Lake Lansing fishing. . . sneaking along under the

trees. . . sometimes getting the line hung up on the trees. . . and
finally getting out on the other side and the ground is real soggy and

you sink in it and you don’t catch any fish. . . now I'm back in a swamp
in a boat where the fishing is better. . . lots Of lilly pads. . . little
bobber that you put on your line is bobbing up and down as the fish fight. .
sometimes it takes Off and goes in one direction or another - the fish are
pulling it. . . I see a big airplane - an airliner in the clouds. . .

I took some pictures like this once. . . I see the Market Place in

55

APPENDIX E (cont.)

Subject # 30 (cont.)

Mexico. . . lots of people running around . . . Americans dickering with
street venders. . . brightly colored paintings. . . hats. . . sandels. .
purses. . . the hotel where we stayed. . . white with black trim . . .
Christmas flowers outside. . . bright red in the sunshine. . . some
Mexican boys playing soccer on the lawn. . . I'm playing with them. . .
the soccer we played here. . . the balls being kicked around a lot . . .
I'm the goalie trying to keep the ball out of the net. . . a girl going
up the stairs in Olds Hall . . . wearing black slacks and a black sweat-
shirt. . . she's not very pretty. . . now she's out Of sight. . . I see
another girl I know. . . her nameEICynthia and she's overweight. . .

I see a railroad track that we were going beside one morning. . . it
goes for miles and miles with blackberry bushes along the side. . .

the heavy traffic on a one way street. . . a police car. . . I'm waiting
to turn left on that street - but the traffic doesn't stop. . . finally
it stops - I turn left. . . I go down Grand River. . . the bank on the
corner. . . across the street from the bank there's a restaurant - Cave
Of the Candles. . . I've always been curious as to what it's like down
there. . . I see my sister riding her horse. . . I see the different

things she built for training horses - a bridge. . . a gate. . .

female
The girl is playing ball by a swimming pool. . . she’s wearing a bathing
suit. . . and she's suppossed to be smiling - having a good time but it
doesn't show in the picture. . . still the same image and I’m critizing

it cause I can't get the right expression. . . I see the park where we

56

APPENDIX E (cont.)

Subject # 30 (cont.) ‘

‘Went on a picnic last week. . . lots Of green trees and grass. . . water. .
we might have played ball there but it was raining. . . I see the shelter
where we ate and barbequed. . . good food. . . good friends. . . I see
you writing on the graph. . . a drain pipe inside a house. . . it has a
wire beside it. . . I see the drain pipe all along the edge of the house-
along the edge of the roof. . . full of leaves. . . I see the Old Sigma
Nu House and the new one being built beside it. . . new lumber. . .
sheet rock. . . 3 stories. . . men working on it. . . picnic table
with thermos bottles on top Of it. . . I see the workmen eating lunch
there - watching prople go by. . . talking and laughing to each other as
a coed goes by . . . I see the trailer I've been building. . . splotchy
white paint job. . . needs another coat. . . I see all the leaves and
pipes and things that need tO be cleaned up in the back yard. . . I see
the countryside. . . campus here. . . many students walking around on
campus with no real purpose in life. . . I don't recognize any of the
students - just a lot Of people. . . I see my car sitting there. . .
see the library. . . see a skyline silhouette Of a large city with sky-
scrapers. . . smog. . L airplanes flying over. . . a lounge in a dorm -

a lot Of students meeting there-someone speaking . . . see the new ties
I bought today. . . I see a young girl sitting on the floor looking up
with a surprised look on her face - wearing a bluish-green kind of a
mumu. . .she has blue eyes. . . a round face. . . can't see the rest
Of the room - she's sitting. . . she faded out. . . see some tennis

racquets. . . it's a blurred picture - like they're moving real rapidly...

57

APPENDIX E (cont.)

Subject # 30 (cont.)
I see a man throwing a baseball - they're wearing uniforms - the pitcher
and the catcher - they have blue hats, numbers on the back Of their shirts.

long sleeved blue shirts.

Subject # 23 Rated # 29

Female Drawing

 

she's beautiful. . . has brown hair. . .blue eyes. . . nice shape. . .

she looks like she very pleasant, very nice personality. . . she's very
introverted, very hard to get to know her. . . and yet she’s a very loving
and pleasant person. . . it seems as if you didn’t know her you'd think
she was very, very conceited. . . that is stuck up. . . very dominant. .

. .?. . . nothing. . .?. . . I can see her walking. . . towards me. . .

but she never seems to get any closer. . . ? . . . same thing. . .

Automobile Drawing

 

it looks like a modified Volkswagon. . . with the engine in the front. . .
with a long, low truck. . . looks like it would be used for a road race
of some sort. . . it's painted red. . . has a gold stripe down the side. .
it also has mag wheels on it. . . fuel exhaust . . . racing tires. . .

it has two air? . . . one on the trunk and one that set up on the road. .
the engine has 625 hOrsepower. . . also high compression engine (?) . .. .
picture of the car just sitting there with a crowd of people looking at
it . . .it looks like it won a big race or taken first prize in an auto

show or something. . .

58

APPENDIX E (cont. )

Subject # 23 (cont.)

Male Drawing

 

. . . 0h he's a wierd one. . . (?) . . . he acts real weird now. . .

real shaky . . . very funny looking. . . he has a wierd nose and a very
large pointed nose. . . his eyes are set deep into his head. . . he has

a protruding chin. . . must be about the age of 40 . . . he has a face
that's just like a baby. . . very smooth. . . he has very large features
for his size. . . looks like an Oddball. . . could be a mad scientist, or

a mad man of some sort. . . he's constantly rubbing his hands together. . .
he has a wierd little laugh. . . seems to draw a crowd Of spectators where-
ever he goes. . . spectators seem to sit back and laugh and make jokes
about him. . . all he does is laugh back. . . seems like he'd be very

brilliant, very intelligent. .

APPENDIX F

SURVEY OF THE RESEARCH LITERATURE

 

rn

d.

59

APPENDIX F

SURVEY OF THE RESEARCH LITERATURE

The psychological interest in drawings is not new, dating back
to the late nineteenth century. Art products were probably the first
"projective techniques" or indicators Of both conscious and unconscious
personality trends. As early as 1855 Burckhardt analyzed artistic
productions and with amazing accuracy described the dominant personalities
and sociopsychological atmosphere Of a whole epoch.

Despite this early success, extensive interest in the human figure
drawing as a projective technique was to come almost a century later.
Meanwhile, children's drawings and their relationship to child develop-
ment took the foreground. In 1885, Ebenezer Cooke published an article
on children's drawings describing successive stages Of development as he
had Observed them. Perhaps the earliest collection of children's
drawings is that Of Corrado Ricci (1887) of Italian children. Between
1885 and 1920 numerous studies were untaken in an attempt to establish
descriptive developmental stages. This paralleled the growth Of the child
study movement. One Of the most successful in these endeavors was Cyril
Burt (1921) who published a very psychologically perceptive account Of
developmental stages.

Two other significant research studies during this period were those
Of Lamprecht and Claparede. Lamprecht proposed an extensive plan for
gathering drawings made according to standardized directions from all parts

Of the world and all levels Of culture. Many thousands of drawings were

60

APPENDIX F (cont.)

sent, representing almost every nation in the world, even primitive
African races. Unfortunately, this was never completed. Claparede in

1907 proposed a similar plan, but with different goals, that Of determining
any relationship between aptitude in drawing and general intellectual
ability. This idea was adOpted by several different researchers in the
following years.

One Of the earlist attempts to devise a purely Objective measuring
scale based upon age standards was made by Schuyten, although the plan
was not successful. Lobsien continued work in this area. A very extensive
amd carefully controlled study Of this time was done by Kerschensteiner
who collected and studied almost 100,000 drawings.

Many studies Of an individual's drawings Occurred, with Luquet's
the best Of his time. It involved about 1500 drawings of his daughter
between the ages of three and eight and one—half. Numerous other studies
compared the drawings of modern children and prehistoric man or primitive
races Of that day.

Goodenough's (1926) demonstration that a large intellectual component
existed in the development of children's drawings initiated a somewhat
different direction for the research on figure drawings. This paralleled
the psychometric interest in intelligence and was the major emphasis up
to 1940. Interest and research in the use of the DAP as an intellectual
indicator have continued tO the present, although other areas of interest
in the DAP have also developed.

Goodenough (1926) developed an Objective measure by attempting to

disregard artistic elements, by standardizing the scoring system, and

61
APPENDIX P (cont.)

by specifying the subject which was to be drawn. First, she compared the
drawings of 100 children with their chronological ages and school grades,
in order to assess the differences related to increasing age and
intellectual develOpment. She was primiarily concerned with the accuracy
of bodily proportions and the presence Of absence Of details of the

human figure. Only after five revisions was she able to extract 51

items which occurred as a function of increased age and yet would clearly
differentiate between the performances Of the same age but in different
school grades.' A point scale was then devised from which a mental age
could be derived. Over 5000 drawings were used in the standardization
and verification of the scale, with the ages ranging from four to ten
years.

Beginning in the 1930's, numerous efforts were made to extend the
DAP to adolescents and adults. Much of the research centered upon
mentally defective adults, perhaps expecting their drawings to be more
child-like. Many Of the results have suggested that the DAP may be
an adequate measure of the general intellectual ability Of adjusted
mentally deficient adults, but not Of adults who are of average to above
average intelligence (Murphy, 1956).

There have been many attempted revisions of the Goodenough Draw-A-Man
Scale. Harris (1963) attempted to extend the scale to include the
adolescent years and also to develop an alternate form using the figure
of a woman. He used 1000 SS from five years, nine months to fifteen
years, eight months. Harris concluded that he was successful in developing

an additional fbrm but was unable to extend it tO include the adolescent years.

62

APPENDIX F (cont.)

Beginning in about 1940 with the advent Of the "projective methods"
Of studying personality, widespread research on the projective value of
the DAP was initiated. In a survey Of the literature on artistic
behavior in psychiatric patients, Anastasi and Foley (1940) reported
that the spontaneous art productions of many mental patients revealed
aspects Of their daily behavior, such as, poor organization and a lack
of integration. However, many other aspects of their abnormal behavior
was not reflected in their drawings which could not be distinguished
from the drawings of normals, either in content or style. They concluded
that artistic productions do not provide a clear clinical picture of an
individual, a fact they did not find surprising in light Of the difficulty
and Often arbitrariness Of the classification Of psychopathology into
distinct clinical types.

Interest in human figure drawings as a psycho—diagnostic tool was
greatly stimulated when Machover (1949) published a bOOk on their use
in making a comprehensive personality analysis, stating:

"Again we repeat the basic assumption, verified repeatedly

in clinical experience, that the human figure drawn by an

individual who is directed tO 'draw a person' relates inti—

mately to the impulses, anxieties, conflicts, and compensa—

tions characteristic of that individual. In some sense, the

figure drawn is that person, and the paper corresponds to the

environment (p. 35). "
Machover, used many specific details, line quality, erasures, size,
shading, size, symmetry, reinforcements, ommissions, specific content,
etc. in the evaluation Of the individual's personality. UnfOrtunately,

this was not supported with research evidence, but it did stimulate a

large number of research studies in the following years, even to the

63

APPENDIX F (cont.)

present time. Although the investigations have moved in several directions
the basic premise remained: individuals who exhibit different signs of
psychopathology draw the human figure differently. A number Of investigators
submitted drawings to judges to determine if they could make accurate judge-
ments about an individual's adjustment from his drawing Of the human
figure. If there was success, attempts were made to iSOlate the disting-
uishing variables. Other investigators used the Good enough or similar
scales, tO determine if diagnostically different groups Of individuals
would Obtain significantly different scores on individual items or
total test scores. If successful, this in turn could place individuals
into diagnostic categories. A third group Of researchers tried to disprove
the validity of some Of Machover's conclusions.

Hammer (1958) has very aptly described the foundation stones upon
which the field Of projective drawing interpretation rests:

1) The use Of common psychoanalytic and folklore meaning

of symbols, derived from clinician's study of dreams, art,

myth, fantasy, and other such activities influenced by

unconscious determination.

2) Clinical experience with the mechanisms Of displacement

and substitution as well as a wide range Of pathological

phenomena, especially the conversion symptoms, Obsessions.

and compulsions, phobias, and the psychotic states, all Of’

which become understandable only within the framework Of the

comcept of symbolism.

3) Unraveling of the symbolization employed by inviting the
patient’s associations.

4) Empirical evidence

5) The flooding Of frank symbolization onto the drawing
pages from the unconscious psychotics' mind.

64

APPENDIX P (cont.)
6) The correlation between projective drawings made at inter-
vals during the course Of therapy and the clinical picture
at the times the drawings were produced.

7) Internal consistency between tests and between the data
and case histories.

8) And, most basically, the interpretative framework Of
projective drawings rests upon experimental studies.

(pp. 22,23.)

The remaining sections Of this paper will be devoted to a discussion
of the research, using the outline followed Swensen (1968) and Roback (1968)
in their summaries of the DAP research literature. The following categories
will be considered: 1) Reliability; 2) The "Body Image" hypothesis;

3) Global judgements of drawings; 4) Structural and formal aspects of
drawings; 5) Content Of the drawings.

This article is not intended to be a comprehensive review, including
all the research which has been done. Rather, it will present the major
trends with some supporting studies. Excellent general reviews have
been presented by Swensen (1957), Swensen (1968) and Roback (1968). These
should be consulted for greater deatils concerning a study as well as a

more comprehensive coverage.

1. Reliability

 

In general, the reliability of drawings has been quite high. As
early as 1949, Machover demonstrated that the structural and formal
content is very reliable, although she found the content to be more
variable. The studies by both Bradshaw (1952) and Gunderson and Lehner
(1949) found consistency for both structural and content aspects in the

70-70 % range. Marzolf and Kirchner (1970) found a high reliability of

65
APPENDIX F (cont.)

the coding of 73 variables by two judges, with a mean of 91.8%. There
were no marked changes, except for a few individuals, when the drawings
were repeated after four to six weeks. Stumpfer's 1963 study had reli-
abilities Of .74—.89 for six standardized methods of judging the overall
aspects of drawing. Starr and Marcuse (1959) found high reliabilities
for five of seven indices while Hammer and Kaplan (1964, 1966) fOund some
signs on children's drawings very reliable, others highly variable.

For example, extreme sizes were not reliable. Schubert (1969) in his
consideration Of reliability, related lower quality on repeated DAP tests
to lower motivation.

Inter-judge correlations have been generally high (.79—.97): Casler
et al (1958), Stumpfer (1963). Naive raters who taught themselves the
Goodenough method had inter-rater reliabilities of .938-.954 (Yates,
Barclay and McGilligan; 1969). In Guinan and Hurley's 1965 study, Ph.D's
successfully matched drawings made at five week intervals. They also
review the reliability of the DAP and report it to be very good (at the
.001 level Of confidence). Swenson (1968) concluded that global studies,
based upon the drawings as a whole, achieve levels of reliability that
would generally be considered satisfactory for most psychometric purposes.
However, single signs such as line quality or presence or absence Of
certain body parts are less reliable. This is true Of structural
aspects of drawings as well as the content Of the drawings. Hammer
and Kaplan's studies (1964, 1966) suggest that normal drawings tend to be
reliable, but drawings containing certain indices Of pathology tend to be

unreliable. A recent study by Clodfelder and Craddick (1970) lends

66
APPENDIX F (cont. )

support to this distinction. Psychotics were more varied in their
degree Of control as demonstrated in greater variance in the size of
their drawings than normals.

Two Of the most recent studies on reliability were by Stumpfer I%-.
(1971) and Beck and Bart (1970). Stumpfer found acceptable rerate,
interrater and retest reliabilities. Beck and Bart, on a measure Of
prOportionality for the male figure drawing found test-retest (.81)

and inter-judge (.91) reliability.

II. Th3 "Body Image" Hypothesis

 

Machover (1949) stated that "in some senses, the figure drawn is
the person, and the paper corresponds to the environment." Hammer (1958)
emphasized that the drawing of a human figure is somehow related to an
individual’s physical or psychological concept of self, an ideal self,
or a depiction of his perception Of other significant individuals. The
very nature Of this concept makes it very difficult to arrive at any
reliable conclusions; fOr example, if a crippled child draws a picture
Of an individual with distorted limbs, it is a self portrait, but if the
drawing is Of a normal person, then it is a drawing Of the ideal self.

As early as 1953, Kotkov and Goodman investigated the basic premise
that one's body image is projected in one's drawings. They compared the
drawing of a person Offered by Obese women with those Of a control
group Of non—overweight women. The drawings Of the Obese women, in

almost all cases, were larger or wider than those Of the control group.

67
APPENDIX P (cont.)

A study by Berman and Laffal (1953) found a significant relationship
between Sheldon's body types of 88 male neuropsychiatric patients
and the body type Of the figure they drew.

In 1957, Swensen in his survey Of research cited minimal evidence
in support Of this hypothesis, but stated that a definitive test Of the
hypothesis seemed impossible. Ten years later Roback concluded
"although there appears to be some support for Machover's hypotheses,
the inconsistent findings indicate that the relationship between
figure drawings and body image is still unclear (1968)." Swensen (1968)
took a closer look at the conflicting results and came up with the
following conclusion: "the data does indicate that scores on various
aspects of the DAP are significantly related to some other measures that
would be expected to reflect a subject’s image Of himself. One interesting
regularity is that all Of the studies using adult subjects, with the
exception Of the Hunt and Feldman (1960) study, found some significant
relationship between the DAP and some other measure of body image or
selfkconcept. However, that one study by Hunt and Feldman did directly
relate body concept to figure drawing performance. Aside from the
Hunt and Feldman study, all Of the studies cited that produced negative
results used children as subjects. This suggests that performance on
the DAP reflects one thing for adults and somthing else fOr children.
In any case, the result Of the last ten year's research provides more
evidence in support Of the body image hypothesis than the previous ten years

had produced."

68
APPENDIX F (cont.)

The following studies are some examples supporting the body-image
hypothesis. Apfeldorf and Smith (1966) successfully matched the DAP
with full length photograohs of subjects. Kamano (1960) found a .59
correlation between the DAP and actual self concept, a .35 correlation
between the DAP and the ideal self, and a .36 correlation between the
DAP and the least-liked self. Fisher (1959) demonstrated a significant
relationship between the GSR directionality and a body disturbance
score. Craddick (1963) had subjects draw a person and then draw a
picture of themselves, finding some support of the body image hypothesis.
Armstrong and Houck (1961) found some resemblance Of the Opposite sex
parent for Subjects who drew the Opposite sex first. Bodwin and Bruck
(1960) developed and validated the DAP as a self concept scale. Schoeberle
and Craddick (1968) found that most nurses drew themselves in uniform
with senior doing it more frequently than freshman. Seniors rated
themselVes closer to the ideal nurse and drew larger figures Of the
"undesirable" nurse than did freshmen. In Rosen and Boe's study (1968),
men in a weight lifting course frequently drew a nude male figure.
Jernigan (1970) had modest success in judging whether a patient was white
or black by his DAP. Ludwig (1969) correlated self perception with the
DAP and Craddick (1969) demonstrated some identification on the DAP.

There haVe also been many studies which have failed to support the
body image hypothesis. The following are some examples. Silverstein and
Robinson (1961) found a low negative correlation between the subject‘s
height and weight and estimated height and weight of drawings. McHugh

(1965) had his subjects uniformly assign ages to their figures that were

69
APPENDIX F (cont.)

substantially higher than their own ages. Bennett (1964, 1966) found no
relationship between self concept and the DAP for sixth grade children.
Hunt and Feldman (1960) found no relationship beumen subjects' ratings
Of twenty-five body parts on the Body Cathexis Scale. Gravitz (1969)
compared the DAP with the sex of the subject drawing them, with no sign-
ificant relationship. This aspect Of the body image will be discussed
more extensively in the final section Of this paper. Maloney and Payne
(1969) concluded that a body image scale was not significantly related to
one established measure of body image and only minimally related to a second
measure. In Solar, Bruehy, and Kovacs 1970 study, scores on drawings
tended to reflect artistic ability rather than conformity or self image.
Additional research is essential to clarify this area Of research.
Meanwhile, clinicians must be cautious in their interpretation Of drawings
as the body-image of the subject, especially when considering children's
drawings.

III. Global Judgements 2f Drawings

 

The global approach to the assessment Of figure drawings has been
discussed in the introduction Of this paper. Some additional studies will
be cited in this section.

One frequently posed problem is if drawings represent adjustment or
artistic ability and to what extent each is important. Swensen (1968)
concluded that drawing a particular part should be considered. The
importance of a control for drawing ability and the specific use Of the

automobile has been discussed in the main body Of this paper.

70

APPENDIX F (cont.)

Several studies support the importance Of artistic ability in the
drawings Of the human figure. Whitmyre (1953) and Sherman (1958) found
significant relationships between psychologist's ratings Of drawings for
adjustment and art teacher’s ratings Of the same drawings for artistic
quality. Billiauskas and Bristow (1959) used art students' drawings,

with higher IQ scores using Buck's system than the controls. Feldman

and Hunt (1958) found that the more difficult a body part is to draw,
the more likely a subject will demonstrate some sign Of disturbance in
drawing that part. Solar, Bruehl and Kovacs (1970) concluded that the
scores on their drawings tended tO reflect artistic ability rather than
conformity. Eysenck and Eysenck (1970) demonstrated tenative support of
the relationship Of extraversion to drawing ability.

In 1968 Swensen concluded: "Global ratings Of drawings are more
reliable than other aspects of drawings, therefore it would be expected
that they would be more likely to be significantly related to a variety
Of personality and behavioral ratings. This expectation is confirmed by
the results of the studies. . . Global ratings do not significantly detect
specific kinds of pathology, however. Itwould appear that global
ratings, by whatever name they are called, are mostly measuring the overall
quality of a drawing, and for the most part, the variables tO which they
significantly relate are variables that are reflections of gross malad-
justment. In the earlier reviews (1957) it was concluded that drawings
rated globally are useful screening devices. That conclusion is confirmed

by the subsequent evidence summarized here."

71
APPENDIX F (cont.)

Numerous studies have provided positive support for the global
approach Of interpreting figure drawings. Nichols and Stumpfer (1962)
concluded that the largest single factor in their drawings was the
overall quality Of the drawing. They had reliabilities in the 80's and
90's for the global measures and reliabilities from .26 to .51 for the
individual measures. Lewinsohn (1965) correlated the overall quality with
several personality and behavioral measures. Bruck and Bodwin (1963) cor-
related self ratings based on the DAP with grades. Kahn and Jones (1965)
successfully predicted hospital admission by the DAP. Lapkin, Hillaby,
and Silverman (1968) used a checklist for figure drawings and differentiated
between schizophrenics and neurotics. Engle and Suppes (1970) found
that human figure drawing scores were related to selfereported test anxiety,
defensiveness, and response latency in problem solving. Individual
indices and subscales had little predictive value. Fuller, Preuss, and
Hawkins (1970) distinguished between normal and disturbed children on
nine emotional indicators. Gardiner (1969) compared 26 cultural groups
Of eleven thirteen year Old boys, finding variations in both the degree
Of hostility as well as the kind of hostile content portrayed. Mebane and
Die (1970) used the Leary diagnostic system and the TAT, finding only
gross discrimination Of those having loving or hating, dominant or passive
interpersonal attitudes.

One line Of research involves sexual differentiation. Rabin and
LimuacO (1959) found that Filipino children produced drawings with
significantly greater sexual differentiation than American children.

Hadworth and Normington (1961) demonstrated that sexual differentiation

72

APPENDIX F (cont.)

improves with age and Murphy (1957) found that women differentiate sign-
ificantly better than men. Sherman (1958) found that sexual differentiation
was significantly related to the rated artistic quality of the drawings.
Armon (1960) failed to find a significant relationship between sexual
differentiation and female sexuality. Pustel, Sternlicht, and Deutsch (1971)
used male homosexuals and revealed a strong feminine tendency in the
DAP of passive more than active homosexuals.

Several studies using a global approach have failed to find sign—
ificant results. Atkinson, Handler, and Shrader (1969) fOund the DAP
to be invalid in assessing religious beliefs. Koppitz (1969) compared
lower and middle class fourth and fifth grade children and any differences
disappeared when the subjects were matched fOr age, sex, and I.Q.
Ziv and Shechari (1970) stated that the DAP was not a valid measure Of
social adjustment in schOOl for Isreali children. Cauthen, Sandman,
Kilpatrick, and Deabler (1969) found no significant differences in the
ratings of bizareness on the DAP for schizophrenics and non—schizophrenics.
Lingren (1971) fOund no significant differences between shy and aggressive
five to twelve year Olds. Jensen, Prandoni, and Abudabbeth (1971)
found no significant difference between sex Offenders and a random sample

IV. Structural and Formal Aspects 2f Drawings

 

Structural and formal aspects Of drawings include general charact-
eristics such as size, position upon page, the quality of the lines drawn,
etc. In Swensen's 1968 summary, he found the reliability of these various
indicators to vary mostly between .30 and .50 "Since the reliability Of

these indicators is lower than the reliability Of global measures, it

73
APPENDIX P (cont.)

would be expected that they would less consistently relate significantly
to other measures of personality or behavior. A survey Of the research
evidence would be expected to produce contradictory results." Swensen
found this to be true in both his surveys (1957, 1968). Handler and
Reyher (1965) also found conflicting results for several structural
characteristics. However, in addition to the preference for a global
approach, they attributed some of the conflicting results to the failure
to differentiate between external and intrapsychic stress, as has been
discussed in the introduction to this paper.

Drawing Size

 

Handler and Reyher (1965) concluded that both small and large drawings
seem to indicate anxiety. Size increase and decrease seems to be a fairly
reliable index. Head size and head to body ratio appears to be less
reliable. Both Machover (1949) and Hammer (1958) asserted that size is
related to self esteem and energy level, with high energy 4 high self
esteenlsubjects drawing larger figures and low selfeesteenlsubjects draw-
ing smaller figures. Hammer adds that the size of the drawing may also
reflect "fantasy selfeinflation." Swensen (1968) concluded that there
is some evidence that the size Of the figure reflects selfaesteem, but
the evidence is not consistent.

The following studies are examples Of the research which has found
size related to se1f4esteem. Cramer-Azima (1956) reported that a patient
at the beginning Of treatment, when he was meek and depressed, drew a figure
about 3% inches high. After twenty-one days of treatment, when the

patient showed signs Of euphoria and later became grandiose, the figure

74
APPENDIX P (cont.)

was 8% inches tall. As the patient's behavior became less expansive and
less euphoric, the figure drawn was 6% inches tall. Gray and Pepitone
(1964) found that the drawings of high self esteem subjects covered
significantly more area than low self esteem subjects. In Lakin's
study (1960), institutionalized aged subjects (with presumerably lower
self esteem) had smaller drawings than noninstitutionalized subjects.
Koppitz (1966) demonstrated that shy children draw smaller figures as
do depressed subjects according to Lewinsohn (1964). McHugh (1966)
found that children suffering from conduct disturbances drew larger
figures than neurotic children. And in Rosenberg's study (1965) a
paranoid's drawings grew smaller as he improved. A recent study by
Clodfelder and Craddick (1970) demonstrated that psychotics are more
varied in their degree of control as indicated by the size of their
drawings. Generally, the results suggest that either a very large

or a very small drawing are pathological.

Size of the drawing has also been found to be related to; father's
presence in a boy's home (Lawton and Sechrist, 1962); presence of a brain
tumor (Mabry, 1964); mental age (Zuk, 1962); being a well-adjusted child
(Koppitz, 1966); and anxiety in male alcoholics (Craddick and Leipold,
1968).

Other studies have failed to demonstrate any significant relationship
between size and selfLesteen1(Bennett, 1964, 1944; Reznikoff and Nichols,
1968; Craddick, 1962; Goldstein and Rawn, 1957; and Exner, 1962). Swensen
(1962) also summarized the other conflicting results; "size has been

found to not be related to: diagnostic categories of mental illness or

75
APPENDIX P (cont.)

chronicity of illness (Strumpfer, 1963; Strumpfer and Nichols, 1962;);
school achievement (Koppitz, 1966); (Lourenso, Greenbery and Davidson,
1965); Dominance (Shry, 1966); or seeking a furlough from a V.A.
center (Apfeldorf et a1, 1966)."

Swensen (1968) concluded; "The size of the drawing does seem to reflect
self esteem, and probably fantasied selfLinflation, but with an ineon—
sistency that is the reflection of the relative lack of reliability of
the size of the drawings."

Placement

Machover (1949) suggested that a figure placed on the right side
of the page indicates a person who is selfeoriented. Placement high on
the page indicates optimism, while placement low on the page indicates
pessimism. Hammer (1958) suggested that placement high on the page
indicated striving, and drawing near the center indicates more self-
centeredness, while placement on the left indicates impulsiveness and
placement on the right indicates impulse control.

The 'reliability of placement has generally been poor. Hammer and
Kaplan did not find the placement of the figure beyond chance reliability
(1966). Swensen's 1957 survey found that the hypotheses concerning
placement were not supported. Handler and Reyher (1965) reported seven
studies supporting the hypotheses and eight studies either not supporting
the hypotheses or producing conflicting results. Swensen (1968) concluded:
"the evidence suggests that for every study finding a significant relation-
ship between placement and some other behavioral characteristics, there

exists a study relating similar kinds of data without significant results.

76

APPENDIX P (cont.)

The reliability of placement suggests these results are precisely what
should be expected." Reference is made to one of the three summaries
mentioned above for a detailed discussion of the research.

Perspective

 

Drawing the figure in profile is hypothetically related to evasive-
ness (Machover, 1949). However, Swensen (1968) has concluded that it is
more related to sex and handedness, with females drawing the figures
facing forward. Those who do draw profiles, right handed subjects are

‘ more likely to draw profiles facing left, while left handed subjects draw
the profiles facing equally in both directions. Exner (1962) found that
neurotics and character disorders drew profiles more often than normals,
but McHugh (1966) failed to find profile drawing related to behavior
problems in children.

According to Machover (1949), stance indicated perceived stability
with insecure subjects drawing figures that are falling down or floating.
An early study by Goldworth (1950) reported a difference between normals
and neurotics in the stance of the drawings. No normal subjects drew
figures which lacked equilibrium or were floating. Drawings by schizo-
phrenics tended to be similar to the drawings by neurotics, except that
there were a substantial number of floating figures drawn by schizo-
phrenics. The brain damaged subjects drew the least number of figures
having a definite equilibrium. The reviews by Swensen (1957), (1968) and
Handler and Reyer (1965) all tend to support this hypothesis, although the

reported reliability is only between .31 and .43. All of the studies report-

Om
/—__._

77
APPENDIX P (cont.)

ing contradictory results used children and adolescents, which may be
significant.

Line Quality

 

Heavy lines indicate assertive, aggressive individuals who wish
to erect a strong barrier between themselves and the environment, while
light lines are drawn by passive, meek persons who are unable to different-
iate themselves from the environment (Machover, 1949; Hammer, 1958).
Paint "ectoplasmic" lines are drawn by hysterics. Angular and jagged
lines are masculine and indicate aggressiveness while curving lines are
feminine.

Hammer (1958) reported line pressure as being reliable; however,
there has not been adequate research in this area. It is more likely
that the reliability is in the low range of the other structural variables.
Swensen (1957) reported conflicting findings. The more recent reviews
(Handler and Reyher, 1965); (Swensen, 1968) also report conflicting
findings, but with substantially more significant than insignificant
results.

An early study by Gutman (1952) reported that patients who did
not improve in therapy tended to draw continuous and reinforced lines; while
patients who did improve tended to draw their figures with light or
sketch lines. Heavy emphasis has been associated with induced stress
(Handler and Reyher, 1964), and paranoid subjects (Reznikoff and Nicholas
(1958). Firm outer boundaries occurred for subjects less likely to be
admitted to a hospital (Kahn and Jones, 1965). Sketch lines have been

associated with low self concept (Bodwin and Bruck (1960) and character

 

 

78
APPENDIX F ( cont.)

disorders and neurotics (Exner, 1962). Others found no differences
between groups and no effects on anxiety: Goldstein and Rawn, 1957;
Holt and Baron, 1958; McHugh, 1966; Hilter and Nesvig, 1965).

Handler and Reyher (1965) concludes that heavy line, and line
pressure increase seem to be better predictors of anxiety than does
light line. They also suggest that light line may indicate intra-
psychic stress while heavy line may reflect external stress.

Swensen (1968) concludes that the one consistency is the inconsistency.
Shading

Shading is suppossed to indicate anxiety. However, the reported
reliability is only .31, lower than for most other structural aspects
of drawings. The early review by Swensen (1957) reported nonsignificant
results. Handler and Reyher (1965) reported equal numbers of studies
reporting significant, nonsignificant, and conflicting results, while
Swensen (1968) found nonsignificant results predominating.

Shading has been associated with; adjustment problems (Koppotz, 1966);
physical crippling (Wysocki and Whitney, 1965); and intrapsychic anxiety
(Handler and Reyher, 1964).

Handler and Reyher (1966) have proposed several explanations for
the conflicting results. The issue of internal vs. external sources of
anxiety must be considered, as discussed in the introduction to this paper.
The issue of methods of coping is also relevant. Some subjects cope
with anxiety by shading while others withdraw and therefore do not shade,
resulting in a cancellation 'effect or nonsignificant findings. The degree

of external stress must also be considered.

79
APPENDIX P (cont. )

Swensen (1968) warns of another problem, that is that shading is a
sign usually found in drawings of good quality. Since drawing quality
is positively related to adjustment, shading is confounded with the
adjustment variable.

Erasures

According to Machover (1949) "this form of conflict treatment is
seen mostly in neurotics, obsessive compulsive characters, and in
psychopaths with neurotic conflicts." The early studies indicated that
where differences did exist, they occur in the opposite direction, with
normal producing the greatest number of erasures (pral, 1949; Holzberg
and Wexler (1950) and Goldworth, 1950). Swensen (1968) found the
significant and nonsignificant results about evenly divided. Handler and
Reyher (1965) suggested similar explanations for erasures as they do for
shading.

Omissions

 

Omitting significant details in drawings (Hammer, 1968) is related
to using defenses of withdrawal, and feelings of emptiness. Omissions
are found in relatively primitive drawings, and thus are more likely to
be noted in the drawings of psychotics, organics, and young children.
Omissions appear to be somewhat more reliable than other structural
indicators', with a reported test—retest reliability of .54, (Swensen, 1968).
The majority of the studies report significant results (22 out of 24 in
Handler and Reyher's 1965 review). Omissions have been positively
related to: disturbed children and intelligence (Koppitz, 1966); stress

(Handler and Reyher, 1964); disturbed adolescents (Hiler and Nesvig, 1965);

80
APPENDIX P (cont.)

admission to a psychiatric hOSpital (Kahn and Jones, 1965); the aged
(Lorge et a1, 1958); poorly adjusted kindergarten children (Vane and
Eisen, 1962); regressed schizophrenics, (Baldwin, 1964); and anxiety
(Morgar, 1962).

Other studies have found no significant results. These studies
have generally related normals to outpatients or have related omissions
to measures of anxiety.

Swensen concludes (1968); "Tt seems probable that omissions are
characteristic of severly regressed patients, and thus to distinguish
between normal, or relatively normal subjects and severly disturbed
subjects, but fail to distinguish between normals and other patient
groups, such as homosexuals and character disorders, who are not
suffering from an overwhelming severe disorder. Omissions among the
very young, would probably be a relatively sensitive indicator, but lose
this sensitivity as the children grow older and their drawing skills
improve. It must be concluded that, ingeneral, omission of significant
body parts is a fairly dependable indicator of severe pathology."

Transparency

 

"A drawing contains a transparency when a body part shows through the
clothing or internal organs show through the skin" (Swensen 1968). The
reported reliability is quite low (.26). Handler and Reyher (1965) and
Swensen (1968) both found about half of the studies obtaining significant

results.

~_ . .‘HTD’XMK‘

" A

arr-“gram

.I . v in

81

Transparencies have been positively related to: disturbed
adolescents (Hiler and Nesvig, 1965); and negative selfeconcept (Bodwin
and Bruck, 1960); and behavior promblems in children (Koppitz, 1966).

Distortion

 

Distortion is considered to indicate a subject suffering a severe
emotional upheaval (Hammer, 1968), and is characterized by body parts
being drawn out of proportion, parts not connected to the body, and
parts drawn in inappropriate areas of the body.

Most studies have shown positive results: Swensen (1968); Handler
and Reyher (1965). Distortions have been positively associated with:
disturbed adolescents (Hiler and Nesvig, 1965); adolescents with a low
self concept (Bodwin and Brusk, 1960); disturbed children and low
achievement (Koppitz 1966); anxiety (Handler and Reyher, 1964); admission
to a psychiatric hospital (Kahn and Jones, 1965); the aged (Kahn and
Jones, 1965); and poorly adjusted kindergarten children (Vane and Eisen,
1962).

Swensen (1968) concluded: "The cited evidence overwhelmingly
indicates that distorted drawings differentiate between severly disturbed
subjects and other kinds of subjects. Distortion of the drawings is the
external manifestation of severe emotional disruption.
1W

Symmetry is the extent to which the two sides of the figure are
symetrical. Presumably, a drawing which stresses bilateral symmetry of
the figure indicates rigidity and obsessive-compulsiveness (Hammer, 1958).
Swensen (1968) reported three out of four studies had nonsignificant

results, Little research has been done in this area.

82
APPENDIX F(cont.)

V. Content Analysis 3f Drawings

 

There has been a large body of research dealing with the significance
of the drawing of particular body parts. Swensen (1957) summarized the
earlier research, reporting either that most of the hypotheses concerning
the :significance of a particular kind of treatment for a particular
body part were not supported by the evidence, or the hypotheses had
not been tested, In the later summary (Swensen), 1968, the evidence is
either conflicting or negative. One clear exception is the sex of the
first drawn person. This is the only area which will be discussed at
length in this paper. All other content categories will be briefly
summarized.

Swensen (1968) further summarized: "... for most of the body parts
acceptable reliability information is either not available, or the rend-
ering of a particular part in a particular manner is not consistent.
Subjects' drawings of body parts are not reliable. This should not be
surprising, since the drawing of a particular body part is a very small
sample of behavior. Global ratings of the drawings encompass all of the
behavior sampled by a drawing and have relatively high reliabilities.
Structural aspects of the drawings sample a smaller amount of the
universe of the figure drawing behavior, and have reliabilities that are
somewhat lower than the global ratings. The drawing of a particular
body part samples an even smaller sample of the subject's figure drawing
behavior, and thus would be expected to have still lower reliability.
Low reliabilities would be expected to result in few or no consistent

relationships between the rendering of a particular body part, and a

particular psychological symptom."

 

83
APPENDIX P (cont. )

Sex on the First figure Drawn

 

Swensen (1968) stated: "Since the first figure drawn by a subject
was presumed to be, in fact, the subject’s drawing of his unconscious
perception of himself, it was hypothesized that if the first figure the
subject drew was of the opposite sex, then the subject was identified with
the other sex. This hypothesis lent itself to relatively easy empirical
tests, which failed to produce significant evidence (Swensen, 1957)."
The evidence of more recent research suggests "that the sex of the first
drawn figure is a more complex phenomenon than the simple sexual ident-
ification hypothesis would suggest. The sex of the first drawn figure is
significantly related to a variety of behavior deviances. . . The proportion
of subjects drawing the opposite sex on the first drawn figure varies
with both age and sex, suggesting that this particular sign needs to be
interpreted with some consideration of the specific subject producing
the drawing."

Through grade school, both boys and girls predominantly draw their
own sex first, (Butler and Marcuse, 1959; Hammer and Kaplan, 1964). After
grade school, less than half the girls draw a female first (Butler and
Marcuse, 1959); (Craddick, 1963; Gravitz, 1966). A recent study with
adults (public school teachers) by Cull and Hardy (1971) indicated that
the female figure is drawn first most of the time by females (79%) and is
drawn first only by a minority of males (21%). A significant differentiation
could also be made on the basis of a high or low masculinity score
between females who draw the female figure first. In another recent study
using Japanese, Navajo, American white and Negro seven year olds (Henderson,

1971), only one figure was drawn with the following results: girls drew

 

84
APPENDIX P (cont.)

self-sex more frequently than boys; both sexes drew their own sex more
frequently than the opposite sex; and the tendency to draw the selfésex
was the strongest among the Japanese.

The sex of the first figure drawn has also been related to: hono-
sexuality (Whitaker, 1961; Armon, 1960); complications in delivering
children (Davids and DeVault, 1960); drug addicts (Kurtzberg et a1,

1966); male alcoholics (Laird, 1962: Wisotsky, 1959): impotence following
priapism (Pollitt et a1, 1964); neurotic children (McHugh, 1966); admission
to a psychiatric hospital (Kahn and Jones, 1965); Identification with
opposite sex parent (Armstrong and Hauck, 1961); and low self concept
(Bodwin and Bruck, 1960).

Several recent studies have not followed the general trends. Gravitz
(1969) found no significant relationship between the DAP and the sex of
the subject drawing it. Vroegh (1970), using three to five year olds,
found that sex role identity scores were not related to reported sex of
the figure drawn. Gravitz (1969) reported that the normal female figure
choice was not related to an MP score on the MMPI, and males with high
MP scores drew more same-sex figures then didthose with low scores.
Melikan and Wehab (1969) did a cross-cultural study, with a significantly
larger number of women than men drawing a picture of the opposite sex first.

Swensen (1968) concluded: "The research review has produced enough
significant results to suggest that the sex of the firstedrawn figure is

related to self concept, but in a complex manner that is not yet clear.
The attempts to relate the sex of the first drawn person to symptoms of

pathology have also produced significant results, but the proportions of

85
APPENDIX P (cont. )

abnormal persons drawing the opposite sex first do not deviate sharply
enough from the base rates of normals drawing the opposite sex first to
warrant using it as a diagnostic sign in the individual cases."

Other Content Categories

 

Roback (1968) has summarized the following: head, face, facial expres-
sion, mouth, lips, eyes, eyebrow, ear, hair, nose, contact features, and
miscellaneous body features such as trunk, breasts, shoulders, hips
and buttocks, waistline, anatomy indications, joints, and clothing.

For each of these categories, Roback presents Machover's (1949)
hypothesis, Swenses’s 1957 conclusion, a review of the literature
since 1956, and the current (1968) summary. None of these signs
have received adequate support, and thus will not be discussed further in
this paper. For additional information on this area, referral is made

to Roback's summary.

86

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