Ill WW * ‘HHW l SOME BEHAVIORAL CONCGMMITANTS OF TIME ORIENTATION 109 099 THS Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY GEORGE McPHERSON GENTRY 1 9 61 RH :53:— 11111111 11mm WITH 1293 10754 5182 This is to certify that the thesis entitled SOME BEHAVIORAL CONCOMMITANTS OF TIME ORIENTATION presented by George M. Gentry has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Education Counseling and Guidance Major progsor 0mm: 8. 1961 0-169 LIBRARY Michigan State University _ nmomo or ‘7 110M; 8 Sfllll' 390K BINDER! "it. LIIIAIIV nmnrns ll ABSTRACT SOME BEHAVIORAL.CONCOHHITANTS OF TIME ORIENTATION by George McPherson Gentry Problem: The purpose of the research was to Investigate possible relationships between time orientation and behavior in adolescents. It was predicted that several apparently disparate behaviors are related to one's perception of and orientation to time, and that different constellations of behavior could be predicted for subject groups according to the extensiveness of their time orientation, A new instrument for measuring time orientation was also developed and.its efficacy compared with Thematic Apperception.Test pictures used for measuring time orientation. Hypotheses: In order to test the foregoing, the following hypotheses were advanced: l.l More subjects with restricted time orientation will be referred to school authorities for disciplinary infrac- tions than those with extended time orientation. l.2 .Subjects with restricted time orientation will obtain lower scores on a standardized achievement test, ability being held constant, than those with extended time orientation. l.3 Fewer subjects with restricted time orientation will have attained leadership positions in peer organizations than those with extended time orientation. George H. Gentry i.“ More subjects with restricted time orientation will indicate expected vocational goals of an unskilled and semi-skilled nature, which require less foreplannlng and training than those with extended time orientation. 2. Subject responses to Thematic Apperception Test pictures will not provide as effective a basis for prediction of the behaviors covered in hypotheses l.l, l.2, l.3, and l.4 as will responses to the instrument designed for this investigation, the “Terry” test. Procedure: One hundred sixty-three ninth grade pupils in a public school completed a group of tests and questionnaires. The Reading Comprehension section of the Cooperative English Test was used to rank subjects' achievement. Ability was measured by the Verbal Reasoning section of the Differential Aptitude Test. On the basis of performance on the "Terry” test for time orientation, two subject groups were formed; a Restricted time orientation group (tending to be 'present oriented" in their test responses), and an Extended group (tending to project into the future in their responses). These groups were compared according to the behaviors dealt with in the hypotheses. To test Hypothesis 2, Restricted (TAT) and Extended (TAT) groups were formed from the total subject pool according to performance on the IAT, and the experiment was replicated with these two groups. Findings: For the "Terry" test groups, all hypotheses were accepted. Subjects with Restricted time orientation were found to have more disciplinary infractions, achieve more poorly, occupy fewer leader- George H. Gentry ship positions, and anticipate more low status occupations as adults than those with Extended time orientation. For the TAT-based groups, the hypotheses were not accepted. It was concluded that the "Terry” test is a more effective measure of time orientation than the TAT. Copyright by George McPherson Gentry 1962 SOME BEHAVIORAL CONCOMMITANTS OF TIME ORIENTATION By George McPherson Gentry A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education l96l C77, EZ./1/ C3 é/7/f; ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author expresses his appreciation to Dr. Halter F. Johnson, under whose supervision this investigation was initiated and com- pleted, for his many helpful comments and suggestions. He is also indebted to Dr. Donald Grummon, Dr. David Krathwohl, and Dr. Norman Kagan for serving as members of the Guidance Committee. A special word of thanks is due Samuel Pettigrew, William Katzenmeyer and Robert Grant for their many hours of encouragement and counsel throughout the writing of this thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Nature of the Problem ................................. Statement of Problem and Hypothesis ................... Hypotheses ............................................ Definition of Terms ................................... Limitations of the Study .............................. Organization of the Study ..................... . ....... II. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE................ ....... ......... A. Theoretical Considerations ........................ Development of Time Orientation in the lndlviduai..... ................................. Social and Cultural Factors in the development of Time Orientation ............................. B. Review of Experimental Literature. ..... . ..... Time Orientation and Disciplinary Infraction. ..... Time Orientation and Academic Achievement. ........ Time Orientation and Vocational Expectation. ...... Time Orientation and Leadership ................... III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES ................................ A. The Sample ....................................... B. Instruments and Methods of Obtaining Data ......... C. Instruments .............................. . ........ D. Procedures for Analyzing the Data ................. IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA .................................. A. Results ........................................... B. Discussion of Results ............................. V. .SUMHARY AND CONCLUSIONS......... ....... ............... A. The Problem. ...................................... B. The Hypotheses .................................... C. Procedure ...................................... ... D. Findings .......................................... E. Conclusions ....................................... F. Research Implications ............................. G. Concluding Statement... ........................... BIBL'OGRAPHYOOOOOOOO0......0..0.0 ..... .0IIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO PAGE urn-noto— 8 9 9 ll l2 13 IS IS '7 I7 20 22 22 29 TABLE VI. LIST OF TABLES Status of Breadwinner's Occupation .................... Referrals to School Authorities for Disciplinary infractions ............................ Analyses of Variance around Regression Lines .......... Leadership Positions held in Clubs and Organizations ....................................... Socio-economic levels of Expected Adult Occupation.... .Summary of Chi Squares resulting from tests of Hypotheses 2.l, 2.2, 2.3, and 2.h ................... PAGE l6 23 25 26 27 29 Chapter I Introduction flgture of the Problem: Evidence from several investigations (3,5,l2,l8,2h) suggests that some individuals are predisposed to "live in the present”, and to have either little appreciation for, or awareness of, the future. Such people may have a proclivity to act with little apparent regard for the consequences of their behavior. Others seem to be able to think ahead before acting, and to modify their behavior in terms of its possible consequences. People in the first group could be said to have a restricted time orientation, and those in the second to have a more extended time orientation. Until recent years, little attention has been paid by psycholo- gists in the form of either speculation or research to the manner in which people perceive and orient themselves to time. Within the past few years there has been a marked acceleration In attempts to study this factor in human life. Investigators have sought to measure time orientation, and to relate it to behavior. Certain trends, which will be reviewed later, appear to have been discerned. In this dissertation, an attempt is made to predict patterns of behavior in junior high school pupils from knowledge of the extensive- ness of their time orientation, and to demonstrate that pupils with restricted time orientation exhibit general behavior patterns in the school setting substantially different from those of their classmates with extended time orientation. An instrument for measuring extensiveness of time orientation is also presented, and this investigation may be considered tantamount to a validation study of the instrument as well as of the concept that L 2. certain behavior patterns are associated with extensiveness of time orientation. Statement of Problem and Hypotheses: The general purpose of this investigation is to determine whether different behavioral patterns may be predicted for peOple according to the extensiveness of their time orientation. Specifically, it is averred that junior high school subjects who respond in a temporally restricted manner to the instrument used in this study will also be found to reSpond to other aspects of the environment in a similarly restricted manner. Their behavior will suggest that they persistently operate in terms of relatively immediate gratification of their needs and impulses, regardless of the consequences of their behavior. Such behavior patterning is less likely to be found in subjects who re- spond to the instrument in a temporally extended manner. There are many environmental pressures and expectations with which junior high school pupils have to cope, and behavior relating to all of them could not be studied in one investigation. Because all pupils are confronted with school rules and regulations, the curriculum, and peers, and because they respond to these with varying degrees of effectiveness, it was decided to study behavior samples relating to these three phases of the pupil environment. The ninth grade pupil is also expected to begin working toward some vocational goals, for curricular choices based on such decisions are required in high school. It was, therefore, decided to include data relating to vocational expectations of subjects in this investigation. Hypotheses: i. To test the general hypothesis that systematic relationships be- tween time orientation and behavior do exist, the following four sub-hypotheses are offered: (l.l) More subjects with restricted time orientation will be referred to school authorities for disciplinary infractions than those with extended time orientation. (l.2) Subjects with restricted time orientation will obtain lower scores on a standardized achievement test, ability being held constant, than those with extended time orientation. (l.3) Fewer subjects with restricted time orientation will have attained leadership positions in peer organizations than those with extended time orientation. (l.h) More subjects with restricted time orientation will in- dicate expected vocational goals of an unskilled and semi- skilled nature, which require less foreplanning and training than those with extended time orientation. A second hypothesis, not directly related to the foregoing hypotheses, is offered as follows: 2. Subject responses to Thematic Apperception Test pictures will not provide as effective a basis for prediction of the behaviors covered in hypotheses l.l, 1.2, l.3, and l.h as will responses to the test designed for this investigation, the "Terry” test. Definition of Terms: The only term requiring definition to this study is "time orientation”, for which a fully satisfactory definition does not exist in the literature. LeShan (l9) suggests that time orientation refers to the extensiveness of the time span with which the individual Is concerned; the crucial time limit during which he will frustrate himself in order to attain a goal. LewianO) contends that an individual's behavior may encompass more than the present situation. A. He states thatthe psychological past and future are a part of the total life space existing at any given moment, and that the individ- ual's views of the past and future constitute his time perspective, or orientation. This study is concerned with only one aspect of time orientation; extensiveness. The term "time orientation" as used in this investi- gation will be understood to mean the extensiveness of time with which the subjects are concerned, as indicated by the number of years into the future to which the subjects refer on a projective device. Limitations of the Study: This is an investigation conducted on a subject group of ninth grade pupils, in which an attempt is made to relate certain behaviors to the temporal extensiveness of their responses to a projective de- vice. It is assumed that the types of responses they make to the devices used herein involve time orientation, which itself is a theoretical construct. If the predicted behavior patterns are in fact observed, it simply means that the hypotheses, deduced from a theory of how time orientation may influence human behavior, are accepted. It does not 'prove” the theory, or even the existence of time orientation.. It merely reinforces the usefulness of the con- struct of time orientation as an aid to the understanding of human behavior. The temptation often exists to overgeneralize from data obtained on a limited sample at a certain time under Certain conditons. .Hhatever results are obtained in this study may serve as a basis for investigations on samples drawn from populations of differing ages and status, but sweeping generalizations are not warranted. All 5. possible behaviors were not observed for thisstudy, so generalizations about behaviors beyond those investigated herein are not warranted. It should be noted that the term “time orientation” as used in this investigation is Operationally defined, and refers to extensiveness only. This imposes limitations on the sorts of conclusions which may be drawn. Organization of Study: In Chapter II, Section A is devoted to a general review of lit- erature related to the concept of time orientation, Its genetic‘ deveIOpment in the individual, social and cultural factors in its development, and to gross predictions of behavior related to time orientation. Section B includes a review of literature specifically related to the questions with which this investigation is concerned. Chapter III contains a discussion of the subject pOpulation, the means whereby the samples used in the study were chosen, and the methods of measuring the behaviors with which the investigation is concerned. The methods whereby the data were obtained and analyzed are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter IV is devoted to a presentation and discussion of the data. The summary, conclusions, and suggestions for future research will be found in Chapter V. Chapter II Theoretical Considerations and Review of Pertinent Literature A. Theoretical Considerations: While the manner in which individuals perceive and orient them- selves to time may be an Impmnant determinant of behavior, it is obvious that behavior is influenced by factors far more complex. It Is suggested, however, that this particular factor is a élflgIQEQ'flgfl of what Howrer (22) calls integrative behavior, i.e., "behavior which is more consistently rewarding than punishing." Howrer suggests that time is a concept which humans alone have developed with any degree of refinement, and that one of the essential functions of this concept is to 'bridge the gap" for an individual between an act and its consequences, some of which may be considerably delayed. Without this ability to bridge the gap between act and temporally delayed consequences, the individual could be expected to behave in ways which would be immediately rewarding, but which might well being about consequences which In the long run were punishing. Being unable to ”look ahead”, such an individual would be only dimly able to discern the relationship between his acts and their consequences. He would likely tend to associate the delayed rewards and punish- ments with the persons who administered them rather than with his own acts which brought them to pass. His behavior might be what Howrer terms non-integrative, i.e., 'behavior which is more consist- ently punishing than rewarding.” The psychoanalyst might describe such a person as ld-dominated. Others would possibly describe him as impulsive. Such a person could be said to live in the present; to be “stimulus bound”, and In a real sense a victim of every internal and of every external stimulus. 6. 7. Other writers appear to have reached conclusions similar to those of Howrer. Frank ( l3), for example, states that the individual who is present oriented will, 'exhibit consummatory behavior and act naively, and ignore consequences.” Dewey ( 8 ) writes that, "The person who does not realistically consider consequences, hence, does not plan his behavior will either be I) capricious or 2) routinized in the conduct of his daily affairs.” Development of Time Orientation in the Individual: It is suggested in the literature that the infant is not born with a sense of time; that he is as innocent of knowledge about this aSpect of human exist- ence as he is of any other man made concept. Time orientation Is acquired gradually as a ppoduct of the interaction of biological maturation and of the socialization process. Piaget (21+) concluded from his developmental studies of children that the infant begins to develop a sense of time arising out of the fact that there are intervals and waiting periods between feedings and other events in his life. Although he has no way of conceptual- Izing time, he begins to develop pleasurable anticipations, and the basis for an awareness of time is established. Psychoanalytic writers who have concerned themselves with time sense agree that it is genetically acquired, although they differ among themselves as to which psychosexual or psychosocial stage is primary in its etiology. Yates ( 32) for example, relates its begin*' ning to the pleasurable anticipations of feeding in the oral stage, while Fenichel ( ll) emphasizes the importance of the anal phase and the temporal regularity forced on the Infant during toilet training. With the onset of language the infant continues to develop and utilize a conception of time. Ames ( 2 ) found that by approximately 8. the age of two the child begins to utilize conceptions of the past and future in his verbalizatlons. She states that by the age of five the child refers to the days of the week appropriately, but not until seven can he properly utilize months. Piaget (21+) concludes that it is not until the age of four that the child, with the improvement of its language, cognitive, and memory functions, can begin effectively to utilize and talk about temporal concepts. He states that by the age of seven the child is less egocentric and accordingly more able to appreciate the social relevancy of time, to compare his concepts with those of others, and to make appropriate social accommodations. Friedman ( l4), and Harrison ( I7), who studied the development of the sense of time in elementary school children, both concluded that development of the ability to 'break.out of” the present by means of a concept of time is closely related to the development of mental maturity. Harrison concluded that, ”time is a rather abstract concept and develops as the child's use of language and concepts of numbers develops". Eson (Iii) concluded from his investigation of time perspective at five different age levels that by the time a normal child is ten, his dbllity to deal with time concepts appears to be rather well developed. Social and Cultural Factors in the develgpment of Time Orientation At the same time the child is maturing biologically and becoming capable of developing a sense of time, social and cultural forces are being brought to bear on him. There is evidence from the field of anthropology that time is an important part of the culturally determined world of reality, and that perception of and orientation to time differs among different cultural groups. 9. Margaret Mead ( 2i), for example, points out that Greeks, Spanish-American, Burmese, Tivs, and Anglo-Americans conceptualize and view time in widely different manners. Many facets of their lives differ according to their time orientation. TheAnglo-American tends to regulate his life according to an accurate reading of the clock. One eats when it is time to eat, leaves work when It is time to do so, makes future plans for definite times, etc. To not be punctual is to be socially unacceptable. If a Greek is punctual for an appoint- ment, Mead writes, he is laughingly called "an Englishman". The Spanish- Americans, similarly, have a casual attitude toward time, and an appoint- ment is likely to be made for, 'wwo or four o'clock this afternoon." 4 Such a time orientation, says Mead, has little place in It for planning, and much life is spontaneous and present oriented. Other workers report differences in time orientation according to socio-economic subcultural experiences. Gist and Halbert (IS), in Australia, Davis ( 7 ), in America, and Spinley (28), who worked in England, agree that lower socio-economic class members tend to be preoccupied with the present and its problems and pay relatively little attention to the future. Experimental evidence.of time orientation differences of this sort between social classes was reported by Le Shan ( l9). B. Review offgxperimentgj Literature Time-Orientationpgnd Disciplinary Infractions: One might expect that an Individual who ignored or was not functionally aware of the consequences of his actions would have a difficult time accommodating his behavior to the social demands of institutions and other individ- uals. One should expect a higher than chance concentration of such individuals in a population of social deviates, e.g., criminals or IO. delinquents, or even disruptive, troublesome school pupils. If this is true, then it could be expected that social deviates would reveal a time orientation more concerned with the present than would non- deviates. If it could be demonstrated as well that individuals with restricted time orientation were more likely to be social deviates than those with extended time orientation, the possibility of a clear relationship between deviant behavior and time orientation would be strengthened. An investigation by Barndt ( 3 ) appears to point to such a relationship. He did not attempt to predict behavior from time orientation, but Instead compared extensiveness of time orientation of two groups of l6 year old boys; one of Institutionalized delinquents and one of public school pupils. He measured time orientation by hav- ing the subjects complete a story, and then tell him how long a time had elapsed from beginning to end of the story. The results were placed into categories ranging from "under I hour” to “3 months or more". He found that the delinquent boys, as a group, had a signifi- cantly more restricted time orientation than the non-delinquents. It should be noted that one of Barndt's groups was Institution- alized and one was not. This fact somewhat obscures the significance .thch may be attached to his results, particularly in light of a study by Fink ( l2), which suggests that institutionalization affects time orientation. Fink concluded that the dreary and monotonous routine of an institution removes from the individual much of his control over the future. In such a setting, life has a day to day similarity and the individual has little expectancy for change. He thus tends to lose hope and his future time orientation becomes more restricted. ll. Barndt's investigation fails to answer the question of whether relationship between time orientation and deviant behavior would be found among Individuals.jg.thg'§gmg setting. The first hypothesis of the present study Is specifically addressed to this question. Time Orientation and Academic Achievement: If individuals with restricted time orientation are prone to behave In a consummatory manner, it might be expected that they would have a difficult time accommodating their behavior to the limitations and expectations encountered in the classroom learning situation. This lack of academic effectiveness might be expected to reveal itself in the results of standardized achievement tests. Pearson (23) asserts that the child who is a school failure is very often one who is unable to postpone gratification of his needs. He is, in Pearson's words, "Id dominated". Hhen placed in a school setting, where self control is needed for concentration and study, he is unable to function adequately, for his energies are, Pearson says, "in the service of the pleasure principle and he has none left over to devote to the business at hand in school.” In an unpublished paper, Drews and Teahan ( 9 ) compared ex- tensiveness of time orientation of high and low achieving intel- lectually gifted junior high school pupils. They found that high achievers assigned greater ages to characters in fictitious auto- biographies they had written than did low achievers. From this, they inferred that the high achievers may have more extensive time orien- tation of the two groups. Teahan (29) studied the time orientation of 60 seventh and eighth grade parochial school boys, 30 of whom were high achievers and 30 were low achievers. His results substantiated his main l2. hypothesis that high achievers would have a more extensive future time orientation than low achievers. Hypothesis number two is con- cerned with relationship between time orientation and achievement in this subject Time Orientation and Vocational Expectation: One hypothesis Teahan tested and accepted was that low achievers would be found to reveal a more pessemistic tone in their TAT stories than the high achievers. He also found that subjects with extended time orientation were the more Optimistic of the two groups. He also found that sub- jects with extended time orientation were the more optimistic of the two groups. He felt that these results bore out Lewin's (20) contention that, “...hope, an ingredient in morale, implies a psycho- logical future. Good morale implies the choosing of goals neither too immediate nor too distant, and being convinced that one's action leads in the desired direction.” Teahan speculates that the pupil with restricted time orientation will tend to be pessemistic and to have little confidence in his ability to change his present situation or to make a better future for himself. He states, of the individual with restricted time orientation, 'His aspiration level would ..... be low, and he would perceive the future as one in which only marginal success....could be expected.” Although Teahan here Is speaking of success in an academic setting, it is suggested that this might be extended to include expected vocational success. One might expect that the subjects with restricted time orientation would choose vocations for themselves which would require less in the way of formal preparation. The occupations would be of a lower status and socio- economic Ievel than those chosen by subjects with extended time orienta- tOon. The third hypothesis of this study was formulated to shed light on this question. l3. Time Orientgtionpgnd Leadership: There are no studies known to the writer which specifically deal with possible relationships between time orientation and leadership. Drews and Teahan ( 9 ) found that high achievihgr gifted pupils had attained more leadership positions and belonged to more clubs and organizations than did the low achiev- ing gifted pupils. They also found, as referred to above, that the high achieving pupils had a more extended time orientation than the low achievers. But they did not relate time orientation to leadership. If It is true that the present oriented individual Is unable to postpone the immediate gratification.of his needs, It would seem to follow that he would have a relatively more difficult time subordin- ating the gratification of his needs and impulses to any set of externally imposed rules, expectations, and demands. This should be true no matter what the source of the limitations on behavior. By the same.token that individuals with restricted time orientation might be expected to contribute more than their proportionate share to the total of impulsive, disruptive behavior in a public school, such individuals might also be expected to behave similarly in formal clubs and organizations. Because of compulsory school attendance laws, children of junior high school age must attend school, and the schools must somehow cope with the impulsive, disruptive pupil as ,well as the child who can accommodate his behavior to the limitations set up by the school. Membership In clubs and organizations of peers, however, is voluntary. ,According to Sherif and Cantrll (26»), the Individual whose behavior deviates too widely from the group norms set up by any club or organization first has pressure to conform to the norms brought to bear on him by the other group 14. members. If such pressure does not bring the Individual's behavior into conformity with the norms, he will tend to be relegated by his peers to the status of a marginal member at best, and possibly be rejected completely by the group and cease to become a member. Sherif points out that the very impulsive child who is unable or unwilling to adopt the group's standards and controls as his own is most often a ”lone wolf“. The leaders, even of anti-social street corner gangs, according to Sherif (.27), are those who are most adequately socialized, and who are sensitive to the needs and motivations of the other group members. They are able to check their own Impulses and needs, and, bring the expression of these needs Into line with the norms of the group. Such peopJe should be more capable of waiting, biding their time, seeing the picture from a longer range point of view than their followers. If for some reason, they do not behave thusly, they cease to be recognized as leaders by their peers. If the individual with restricted time orientation Is In fact found to exhibit the consummatory behavior of which Frank speaks, It should be expected that he will be less likely to belong to formal organizations than his peers with more extended time orientation, and even less likely to have ascended to leadership positions in such groups as he may belong to. It is to test the validity of the above line of thought that the fourth hypothesis is presented. Chapter III Methods and Procedures A. The Sample: The tests and questions utilized in this dis- sertation were given to the entire ninth grade in one of the three junior high schools In Jackson, Michigan. Of the 203 pupils In the class, complete standardized test data were available on I63. The #0 pupils for whom there were incomplete data were not included in the base sample from which the groups used in the investigation were drawn. This sample was composed of pupils from varying ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds, and also included some pupils from non- urban families. The student body of the junior high school from which this sample was picked is felt in the district to represent more segments of the school district population than either of the .other two junior high schools in the city. It was for this reason that this school was selected for the investigation. It might be assumed that this sample represents a population of mid-adolescent individuals enrolled in public schools. Two samples, hereafter designated the ”Restricted” and the "Extended” groups, were obtained from the base sample of I63 according to performance on an Instrument which served as the measure of time orientation as defined in the investigation. The "restricted" group consisted of the Ah subjects who obtained a time orientation score of 2 years or less. The "Extended" group was made up of the 30 subjects who obtained a time orientation score of 10 years or more. IS. I6. In the light of LeShan's (l9) findings that children from lower class families have a more restricted time orientation than those from upper class families, it was decided to compare the socio-economic status of the two groups In this Investigation. This test was also done because socio-economlc status was not a dependent variable, and It seemed desirable to rule out the possibility that any obtained differences were due to socio-economic status rather than the depend- ent variable of time orientation. This was done by rating the occupational status level of the breadwinner of each subject's family, according to the scale developed by Warner, Meeker, and Balls (30). The significance of any obtained frequency differences of subjects in upper and lower status families was determined by Chi Square. The results are found in Table I. Categories l, 2, and 3 represent higher status occupations; 6 and 7 represent lower status occupations. Table l Status of Breadwinner's Occupation (frequency in each level) Levels Levels Total 1,2,3. 6.7 Extended time or. 7 (h.67)* 7 (9.33) lh Restricted time or. _§_(8.33) .12_(l6.67) .25_ Total l3 - 26 39 x2 - 2.720 df l p n.s. *(expected frequencies In parentheses) It can be seen that there are no significant concentrations of subjects from either lower or higher status occupational groups. 17. The possibility of a relationship between ability and extensive- ness of time orientation was examined by computing a rank-order correlation between scores on the DAT and the "Terry Test” for the total base sample of l63 subjects. An r~of .276 was found to exist between these two variables. With such a correlation, the coefficient of determination Is 7.6. In effect, this means that 7.6%.of the variation of the ”Terry Test" scores In associated with ability as measured by the DAT. Therefore, although a positive relationship between time orienta- tion availability exists, it is apparent that the influence of ability on time orientation ls slight. B. Instruments and Methods of Obtaining Datg: All subjects were tested by their teachers in groups during regular English periods approximately one month before the end of the l959-‘6O school year. They had previously been given the Verbal Reasoning section of the Differential Aptitude Test and Reading Comprehension section of the Cooperative English Test as part of the school system's group testing program. C. Instruments: The variables with reference to which the subjects were studied are listed below, together with the tests or instruments according to which the subjects were ranked. I. Scholastic aptitude: The Verbal Reasoning section of the Differential Aptitude Test ( A ) was employed, 2. Scholastic achievement: The Reading Comprehension section of the Cooperative English Test ( l ) was used to rank the subjects according to achievement. 3. Socio-economic status of family: This was determined by The l8. rating the occupation of the family breadwinner according to the Warner, Meeker, Eells (30) scale. Disciplinary infractions: Each subject was rated by the school principal, the assistant principal, and a counselor according to the frequency with which he had come to the attention of the raters for disciplinary infractions during the current school year. Socio-economic level of subject's expected adult occupation: Each subject was asked to state what occupation he expected to engage in as an adult. The occupation was rated accord- ing to the Warner, Meeker, Eells scale, and the level re- corded for each subject. Leadership positions: Each subject was asked to list the offices he presently held in the clubs and organizations of which he was a member. The number of such positions for each subject was recorded. Time orientation: A. This was measured first by a device developed for use in this paper, which will be discussed below. Time orientation is defined in this study In terms of this device. subjects were presented with the following task: ”Fourteen year old Terry Is nearly finished with junior high school, and is sittingalone one day thinking,-"What are some of the things that might happen to me?" 'Name five things Terry may be thinking about, and Terry's age at the time these things might happen.” What Terry thought about Terry's age then 19. The Terry test furnishes the subject with a definite temporal beginning point, which can be adjusted according to the age and status of the subjects. Because Terry is approximately the same age and has the same educational status as the subjects in this study, identifica- tion with Terry and interest in the task should be facilitated. Since the name ”Terry" is one which could belong to either a male or a female, there would appear to be little danger that the device would favor either sex. There are no external criteria of right or wrong answers, and no hints as to how far into the future the sub- jects should project Terry or what sorts of things Terry ought to be thinking about. The responses to this device, therefore, should be considered as projective in nature. Time orientation, as used in this study, is defined as the score obtained on this device, the ”Terry test”. Scoring is done as follows: Terry's age of IA is subtracted from the age the subject gives Terry for each event listed. This yields the number of years of future projection for each event. The arithmetic mean of the total years of future projection for all five events is calculated, and the resulting average number of years which each subject projects Terry into the future is the time orientation score used In this study. 7.8. Time orientation was also inferred from subjects' reSponses to pictures I, I38, and IA from the Thematic Apperception Test. The subjects were asked to write stories about these pictures. After the stories were completed, they were asked to check on a scale how long each story had taken to occur, as follows: 20. How long did it take for this Story to happen? It took a matter of:: (check one) seconds minutes hours days weeks months years vvvvvvv D. Procedures for Analyzipg the Data: I In order to test the hypothesis l.l, the frequency of reported referrals for disciplinary infractions was recorded for each subject. The numbers of subjects in each group who had never been referred for disciplinary infractions and of those who had been so referred to at least one authority were compared, and the significance of differences in frequencies of re- ferral between the groups was tested by means of Chi Square. Hypothesis l.2 stated that subjects with restricted time orienta- tion would obtain lower scores on a standardized achievement test, ability being held constant, than those with extended time orientation. This hypothesis was tested by an analysis of covariance. In effect, the DAT scores of both groups were equated, and the Co-op English achievement scores of the two groups were compared, and significant differences noted. To test hypothesis 1.3, the numbers of subjects in each of the two groups who had attained leadership positions in peer organizations were compared. The significance of differences in numbers of leader- ship positions between the two groups was tested by means of Chi Square. Hypothesis l.h was concerned with the expected level of adult occupation for the subjects. A comparison was made of the numbers of subjects In each group who expected to engage in high and low 2]. status occupations. The significances of differences between the two groups was tested by Chi Square. II Hypothesis 2, that subject responses to the TAT pictures will not provide as effective a basis for prediction of the behaviors covered In hypotheses l.l, l.2, l.3, and l.h, as will responses to the test designed for this investigation, the "Terry test”, was tested as follows: Hypotheses l.l, l.2, l.3, and l.h~were renumbered 2.l, 2.2, 2.3, and 2.h for the testing of hypothesis 2. Restricted-TAT and Extended-TAT groups were formed according to subject responses to the question of how long the TAT story took to happen. The responses were ranked as follows: seconds minutes hours days weeks months years \IO‘U‘I.PWN—o The rankings for all three TAT stories were totaled for each subject. Subjects whose rank totals were lO or less were included In the Restricted-TAT group. Those whose rank totals were 20 or more were included in the Extended-TAT group. There were 35 subjects in the Restricted-TAT group and 3i in the Extended-TAT group. The signifi- cance of any obtained differences between the Restricted-TAT and Extended-TAT groups for hypotheses 2.l, 2.2, 2.3, and 2.h was tested by Chi Square. Chapter IV Analysis of the Data It should be noted at this point that the hypotheses in this study are stated In such a way as to compare a number of behaviors of the Subjects as they are associated with subjects' time orientation. This represents a reversal of the method used in the previous studies referred to herein, In which a comparison was made of the differences in time orientation of subjects picked according to some behavior criterion. An effort Is made here to predict behavior from know- ledge of the variable of time orientation, not to predict time orientation from knowledge of some given behavior variable. This procedure appears to be tantamount to a validation of both the "Terry” device used in the study to measure time orientation and also of the concept that certain behaviors are systematically associ- ated with time orientation. A. Results: Time Orientation and Disciplinary Infractions Hypothesis.l.l deals with possible relationships between time orientation and ability to postpone the gratification of impulses and momentarily felt needs. It was posited that the individual with restricted time orientation would be less able to effect such control than the person with extended time orientation. Hence, he would more likely have difficulty adhering to a system of rules, which necessarily demands that the individual check many of his impulses and postpone the gratification of many of his needs. 22. 23. This assertion as stated in the form of the hypothesis that more subjects with restricted time orientation will be referred to school authorities for disciplinary infractions than those with extended time orientation. The null hypothesis to be tested is: there are no obtained differences in the frequency with which subjects with re- stricted time orientation and those with extended time orientation are referred to school authorities for disciplinary infractions. This hypothesis was tested by Chi Square, and the results are presented in Table II. Table II Referrals to School Authorities for Disciplinary Infractions Never Referred Referred Tbtals Extended time or. 26 (l9.0)* A (ll.0) 30 Restricted time or. 2i (28.0) 23 (l6.0) 4h Totals #7 27 .22 x2 - 11.68u2 df - l p - .OI * expected frequencies in parentheses The Chi Square is significant beyond the .Oi level, and the null hypothesis is rejected. By inspection of the table, it may be seen that subjects with restricted time orientation are far more likely to experience difficulty conforming to school rules than those with extended time orientation, as predicted. 2h. Time Orientation and Achievement Hyppthesis l.2 states that subjects with restricted time orientation will obtain lower scores in a standardized achievement test, ability being held constant, than those with extended time orientation. The null hypothesis would be: no obtained differences will be found in achievement test scores, ability being held con- stant, between the Restricted and Extended groups. This hypothesis was tested by a covariance type of analysis, as found in Quenouille (25). The use of this technique, in effect, equates the Differential Aptitude Test scores of the two groups and allows a comparison of the mean scores of the two groups on the Co- operative English Test. in Quenouille's words, ”This approach shows that testing the distance between the regression lines Is equivalent to testing the differences between (achievement) when the effect of possible differences in (ability) have been removed. This difference allows the difference between the two groups to be Specif' fied more accurately....by eliminating the effect of differences in (ability) the comparison between the two groups is made...more accurately.” (p.l38) In order to test the difference between the two means, it was first necessary to test whether the estimated variances in the groups was significantly different. The regression coefficients for these two observations were: Restricted group r = .668 Extended group r I .589 The analyses of variance are shown in Table III 25. Table III For Restricted T.O. For Extended T.O. D.f. S.s M.s. D.f. S.s. M.s. Regression l 2l,699.3l2 l l2,h03.86 Residual variation #2 9,lOl.9 216.7l 28 6,298.8 224.96 .Total #3 30,80l.2 29 l8,702.7 Variance Ratio - l.0h (n.s.) The variance ratio of I.Oh of the residual mean squares was tested and found to be non-significant. A pooled estimate of variance was obtained (220.0l), and the standard error of the difference be- tween regression coefficients was found to be .lO33l5. This yielded a ”t" ratio of -IIO;3T§- = .76h6, and the two regression coefficients were found to be not significantly different. They were combined to yield an overall regression coefficient of .63h. To determine whether the distance between the two regression lines was significantly different from zero, the standard error of the distance between the two lines was determined. The equations for the two regression lines are: x a 32.7 + .63h (y -30) x'= 53.1 + .634 (Y"47) The distance between the two regression lines, therefore, Is: 32.7-52.l-.634(30-h7) = 8.622 The standard error of this distance Is: 2 9\/F l l O-h = 222 “In:— + —30 + srzg'g'tfz— 35”” The ”t” ratio for the significance of this difference ls: 8.622 3.528I7 = 2.4h4 d.f. = 7i p = .02 26. The probability of the obtained differences In achievement be- tween the two groups happening by chance are less than.2 in one hundred, and the null hypothesis is rejected. It seems apparent that subjects in the Restricted group do not achieve.as well In relation- ship to their ability as do those in the Extended group. Time Orientation and Leadership .flypothesls l.3 states that fewer subjects with restricted time orientation will have attained leadership positions in peer organi- zations than those with extended time orientation. The null hypo- thesis, that there will be no obtained differences.in number of leadership positions reported in the Restricted and Extended groups, was tested by chi square. The results are presented In Table IV. Table IV Leadership positions held in clubs and organizations None One or more Tetals Extended time pr. I6 (2I.h5)* l3 (7.55) 29 (2 not reported) Restricted time or. 38 (32.55) 6 (ll.45) #4 Totals 54 I9 ,1} *(expected frequencies in parentheses) x2 - 8.99 df - l p - .OI Inspection of the table indicates that the subjects in the Extended group hold more than the expected number of leadership positions. The probability of such a preponderance of leadership 27. positions in this group Is less than l.in.lOO. ,The.null hypothesis, therefore, is rejected, and hypothesis l.3 may be considered as accepted. Time Orientation and Soclo-Economic Level of Expected Adult Occupations Hypothesis l.4 is that more subjects with restricted time orientation will indicate expected vocational goals.of an unskilled and semi-skilled nature, which require less foreplanning and training, than those with extended time orientation. The null hypothesis is that there will be no obtained differences In levels of expected adult occupation between the two groups. Because there was a fre- quency of zero in one of the cells, chi square was not applicable, and the Fisher exact probability test was used to test the hypothesis. The results of the test are presented in Table V. Table V Soclo-economic levels of Expected Adult Occupation (Harner, Meeker, Eels classification of occupations) Levels Levels Tetals 1.2.3 6.7 Extended time or. l6 (l2.hh)* O (3.56) I6 Restricted time or. l2 (I5.56) 8 (h.4h) 20 Totals 28 8 3§_ *(expected frequencies in parentheses) p - .OOAIOB The Fisher test was significant at the .OOA level, and the null hypothesis Is rejected. It is apparent that subjects with restricted 28. time orientation, as a group, expect to move Into lower level occupa- tions as adults than do subjects from the extended group. Use of TAT responses as the Independent Variable Hypothesis 2 states that subjects' responses to the TAT test will not provide as effective a basis for the prediction of the behaviors covered by hypotheses l.l, l.2, l.3, and l.“ as will their responses to the ”Terry" test. In order to test this hypothesis, the experiment was replicated, but with one major difference; performance on the TAT was used as the independent variable. Restricted time orientation and Extended time orientation groups were formed according to subject responses to the TAT, as explained In Chapter 3. Hereafter, these groups will be termed Restricted (TAT) and Extended (TAT). Although drawn from the same base sample of I63, the TAT-based groups were composed of different subjects than those who made up the "Terry"-based groups. The null hypotheses employed to test Hypothesis 2 are identical with those used to test Hypothesis l, but they have been re-labeled as 2.l,2.2,2.3, and 2.“. Acceptance of the null form of hypotheses 2.1, 2.2,2.3, and 2.“ may be construed as indicating that reSponses to the TAT do not provide an effective basis for the prediction of the dependent variables, and that Hypothesis 2 may be considered as verified. Significance of obtained differences between the two TATebased groups was tested by Chi Square. The results are presented in summary form in Table VI. 29. Table VI .Summary of Chi Squares Resulting from tests of Hypotheses 2.l, 2.2, 2.3, and 2.“ 2 X d.f.. p Null Hypothesis Hypothesis 2.l ‘(Disciplina Infractiong)