This is to certify that the thesis entitled The VCR Use by Korean Minorities in the United States and its Cultural Implications ... An Empirical Study presented by Euisun Yoo has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _Jith___4mgeem_Ielecommunication 7—“ Major professor __.. , _ w, ,_V,v PLACE IN RETURN BOX to ram ova this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. , __—___——| DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE ’ 'U-rl-" - ;’ _ I - “:15 36 if "‘23': ' " MR 2 4 133 " MSU Is An Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution awaits—oi A, — r- iiiV W 7' .: The VCR Use by Korean Minorities in the United States and Its Cultural Implications. ... An Empirical Study BY Buisun Yoo A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS 'Department of Telecommunication 1987 Accepted by the faculty of the Department of Telecommunication, College of Communication Arts, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. Guidance Committee: , Chairman ABSTRACT- The purpose of this study is to attempt to empirically test the relationship between the VCR use by the Korean minorities in the United States and their acculturation into American society. To achieve this goal, several concepts were developed and introduced to the study based on the previous researches about acculturation. Due to the paucity of previous studies about the Korean VCR use, general basic information about mass media motivation and use is described and then several hypotheses are formulated to empirically explore the relationships among individual acculturation potential (ICP), ethnic loyalty, Korean VCR use and the degree of acculturation. A field survey was conducted in the Lansing area to test the hypotheses. The results tend to confirm the hypotheses, with a few significant exceptions. In conclusion, the study found that the Korean VCR use by the Korean immigrants (mostly first generation) help them to maintain their cultural identity whereas American TV showsinverse relationship with the Korean VCR. It implicates that the use of Korean VCR hinders the acculturation of the Korean immigrants. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This Study can not be successfully carried out without having assistance from many persons, directly or indirectly. First of all, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Dr. Joseph P. Straubhaar, who advised and encouraged me to make my study fruitful. His helpful guidance and counsel is most unforgettable. I would also like.to thank Dr. Jack Bain. He introduced many helpful references for this study. I sincerely appreciate his personal affectionate assistance and helpful comments. A debt of gratitude is extended to Mr. Simmons for his c00peration during the drafting and correcting of the manuscript. Special recognition is also given to my parents for their support and encouragement throughout the program of graduate study. Finally, I wish to thank my wife, Hyangsun, for her enormous help in editing the text and preparing the final manuscript. Without her encouragement and smile, this study would not have been possible. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS INTODUCTION O.......OOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.00... Selected Definitions of Goals Rationale Purpose of the Study REVIEW OF LITERATURE 0.00.00.........OCOOOOOOO... Theoretical Concept of Acculturation Theoretical Model for the Study Cultural Traits and Acculturation Contextual Analysis Individual Accluturation Potential of Korean Immigrants Ethnic Loyalty and Acculturation Mass Media Use by Korean Immigrants DESIGN OF THE STUDY ......OOOCOOOCOOOOO0.0.0.0... l RDESCRIPTIVB ANALYSIS ......OOOOCOOCOO0.0.00.00... Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Demographic Characteristics Social and Cultural Characteristics Mass Media Use by the Korean Minorities ‘rANALYTICAL ANALYSIS: HYPOTHESES TESTING ......... Construction of Variable Index The Result of Hypotheses Testing SUMMARY AND DISCUSSIONS 000............OOOOOOOOOO CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS ..................... ‘7 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. The Cultural Differences between the United States and Korea ....................... 14 2. Sample Distribution ...................... 32 2-1. Age Distribution of the‘Sample ............ 34 3. Demographic Attributes .................... 3S 4. Self Evaluation of English Proficiency .... 36 5. English Proficiency and Social Characteristics.. 37 6. Degree of Involvement in the Ethnic Community... 37 7. Attitude toward Korean/American Ways of Thinking ............................... 38 8. Mass Media Use by Korean Minorities ........ 39 9. Korean VCR Use Motivation ................. 41 10. The Amount of Korean-VCR Use .............. 42 11. Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix of IndiVidual Needs ......OOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 44 12. Varimax Rotated Factor Matrix of Korean VCR use Motivation ......IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 45 13. Pearson Correlation Coefficients among Needs, Motivation, and Korean VCR Use ... 48 14. Corelation between Korean Ethnic Media - and the 0.8. Media ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO . so 15. Relationship between Korean VCR Use and Period of Stay in the United States ..... 52 16. The Use of the VCR by the Korean Minorities .. S7 17. Age and VCR Use Pattern .................. 57 18. Correlation among Korean VCR Use, Period Of Stay, and Age ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 58 19. Correlation among Mass Media Use, Ethnic Community Involvement, and Ethnic Pride ... 60 vi 20. 21. 22. Multiple Regression Diagram for the Amount of Korean VCR use 0.0.00.0.........OOOOOOOOO 61 Mass Media Use and Preference for Korean/ American ways Of thinking ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 63 Correlations among the Korean VCR Use, Ethnic Loyalty, Korean way of thinking. ....... 64 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. A Theoretical Model for This Study ....... 9 2. Comparative Characteristics of Community Group ......... 21 2-1. Links Between Acculturation and Related variables ..... 26 3. Multiple Regression Diagram .............. 33 4. A Hypothetical Model: Psychological Conditions and the Korean VCR Use over Time.. 53 S. VCR use and PeriOd Of Stay ......O......... 56 INTRODUCTION It is intent of this paper to provide a detailed analysis of the correlation between the Korean minority in the United States and their usage of mass media. More specifically, the implications Korean VCR films have upon acculturation.// //Koreans are one of the most rapildly increasing immigrant groups in the United States. The 1970 Census found about 70,000 Korean residents in the United States, but since then the number has risen very rapidly, with approximately 30,000 Koreans being admitted into the country annually (Hurh, 1984). This rapid population increase is mainly due to the result of the revised (LS. immigration law (PJL 89-236 of 1965), which has had similar results among other Asians. In spite of the fact 4t many Koreans have migrated to the United States for about a century and form communities in many parts of the country, unfortunately very little sociological research has been done on the Koreans in America. A number of empirical studies recently have been carried out on the new Korean immigrants (Hurh and Kim, 1978: Park, 1981), but these studies are still in the exploration stage in comparison with the extensive studies already available on the Chinese and Japanese- Americans. This lack of research on Korean-Americans in mainly the result of their small number, but it may also derive from the Americans' general ignorance about Koreans as a distinct ethnic group differing significantly from the Chinese and Japanese (Hurh and Kim, 1982). As evidence, a number of sociologists have recently made some valuable contributions by publishing their exploratory studies on Japanese and Chinese-Americans in Prentice-Hall's Ethnic Groups in American Life Series (Kitano, 1976), Randon Housefis Ethnic Groups in Comparative Perspective (Peterson, 1971: Lyman, 1974), and Wadsworthfis Minorities in American Life (HSU, 1971) On Korean-Americans, however, no comprehensive study has been published to date. This raises the necessity of a systematic research about the Korean minority in the United States. Little is known about the use of the VCR by the Korean minority group and its culture implications. Most of the studies about the use of mass media by minority groups are not concerned about new media (Cable TV or VCR), but traditional television impact (Greenbergy 1982). The home video cassette recorder (VCR) has achieved popularity since 1980 due to its capability of increasing the number and variety of entertainment its owners can have plus the falling prices of VCRs. It is well known that the VCR is one of popular items among Korean immigrants in the United States for one or another reason. Many first generation Korean immigrants use VCRs to watch pre-recorded Korean TV programs or movies, whereas second generation Korean immigrants use them maily to watch popular American movies or TV programs. In this sense, VCR use by Korean immigrants seems to show significant cultural connotations in itself. Signification is great enough to warrant research and clarify the relationship between the VCR use by Korean immigrants and its cultural implications, Jae., its influence on the degree of acculturation of Korean immigrants to the host country. Indeed most studies about acculturation have been made in the area of anthropology, which sometimes overlooks the importance of new media in the process of acculturation. We don't know why and how Korean immigrants use VCRs. What is not known about VCR use by Korean minorities far outweighs what is presently known. Furthermore, most of the minority studies have failed to make theoretic conclusions in the sense that they have put too much emphasis on demographic variables to explain their media use pattern. There is no doubt that demographic variables allow us to predict variations in media use. However over- emphasis on demographic variables in predicting the media use by minority groups can lead to some serious misunderstandings, because usually minority groups are in a completely different social and psychological situation from that of the white majority group. In other words, different environmental settings confronting minority groups make their media use unique. In addition to this, it is not unusual to observe that significant number of studies about VCR impact on audience behavior have been interpreted differently with different outcomes (Agostino & Zenalty, 1980; Levy, 1980). This is because most studies were made on a short-term basis, without analyzing the variety of situations in which the VCR can have impact. It . is clear that contradictory findings about the VCR's impact on human behavior, without presenting the theoretical explanation, have not provided any help to the clarification of its impact on the audience behavior. In this vein, the necessity of a systematic analysis of VCR's impact on the acculturation of Korean immigrants based on the wholistic viewpoint has arisen. A wholistic viewpoint provides us with a systematic approach to assess the impact of the VCR on the Korean immigrants in terms of cultural aspect, without overlooking the importance of socio-cultural environment in which they live. // i Based on the rationale mentioned above, this study is designed to empirically explain the VCR use by Korean minorities in the United States and its cultural implications. Qn_the descriptize_lezel, it examines the general individual needs of Korean immigrants, their VCR use motivation, and their VCR use pattern based on their social, cultural backgrounds as well as their demographic traits (idh, age, education level, English ability, period of stay in the United States), and survey the degree of acculturation in terms of attitudinal indices. On the analytical level, a series of hypotheses are tested to examine relationships among individual acculturation potential (education, English ability, period of stay), ethnic loyalty (consciousness of being Korean, degree of involvement in the ethnic communityfl, the amount of Korean VCR use, and degree of acculturation to the host country. For the purpose of this study, the following research W— - M‘gu. -..- ... 0"". inquiries are formulated: a ...—.7. First, how do the Korean minorities use the media, such as the VCR? To examine the VCR use by the Korean minority in the United States, social, psychological and demographic characteristics will be discussed. Who actually watches Korean films on VCR : and what are the demographic characteristics of VCR users, as well as, how often do they watch video films : amount of exposure, and type of content are the major issues to be covered. What is the motivations for the Korean immigrants to watch the VCR : motivation? Also as a basic information for the study of VCR use by the Korean minority, the characteristics of the social setting of the host country, in terms of ethnic confinement, are analyzed here. Besides this, the analysis of relevant factors influencing VCR use by Korean immigrants, such as individual acculturation potential and ethnic envolvement are considered to systematically explain the VCR use by Korean minorities. The uses and gratification approach of mass media is adopted as a basic framework of the study to get more systematic and explanatory power for the VCR use by the Korean minority rather than just mere discription. Secondly; what are the cultural implications of VCR use by the Ist generation Korean immigrants? Two opposing arguments about VCR function exist. As a tool of cultural bridging versus source of cultural conflicts, they will be examined here. Also interrelatedness of VCR use with individual acculturation potential and ethnic loyalty is analyzed in terms of their influence on acculturation by the Korean immigrants. Literature Review Theoretical Concept 2; Acculturation Historically, the study of culture contact, acculturation, and a minority group is a study of comparative ethnic relations. The study of ethnic relations is fostered by decolonization and the emergence of new nations especially after World War II. The emergence of new nations and decolonization gave an impetus to social scientists such as anthropologist, sociologist, economist, and the political scientist, to develop their own area of interest in ethnic relationship. Foremost, the anthropologist has mainly been interested in the process of culture change in terms of inter-ethnic contact (Lee, 1975). Minority group (or ethnic group) is a collectivity within a large society having real or putative common ancestry, memories of a shared historical past, and a cultural focus on symbolic element, for peoplehood. A minority as a group of people is differentiated from others in the same society by race, nationality, religion, and/or language. Furthermore, a minority people are relatively lacking in power and hence subject to certain exclusions, discriminations, and other differential treatment (Rose, 1968 . 365). In this sense, Koreans are one of the many ethnic groups in the United States because they have common values and ethnic identity. They form a minority because of the fact that they are much less than half of the population of American society, and are subject to certain political, social, and economic exclusions (Lee, 1975). 7 Acculturation, a theoretical concept more widely used by anthropologists than sociologistis, is the process by which "the culture of a society is modified as the result of contact with the culture of one or more other societies (Gillin and Raimy, 1940:371 : Thurn-ward, 1932:557). Acculturation requires the contact of at least two autonomous cultural groups : there must also be change in one or other of the two groups which result from the contact. Although, in principle, change can occur in either of the two parties (Bailey, 1937), in practice one group dominates the other and contributes more to the flow of cultural elements than does the weaker of the groups. This domination has taken place in a variety of ways, for, as Parkman (1867) has noted, "Spanish civilization crushed the Indian ; English civilization scorned and neglected him : French civilization embraced and cherished hinn' But in each case, a clear domination of indigenous life resulted (Padilla, 1980). According to past studies, the. following factors generally affect the acculturation of immigrants : (1) racial and cultural similarity between the dominant and immigrant groups: (2) demographic and socio-economic characteristics: (3) nature and area of immigrants' settlement; (4) proximity to homeland: (S) mutual attitudes of the dominant and immigrant groups, and :(6) the length of immigrants'residence in the United States (Warner and Srole, 1945 : Eisenstadt, 1951 : Weinstock, 1964 : Gordon, 1964 : Vander Zanden, 1966:308-313 : Berry and Tishler, 1978:280-287 3 Hurh, 1977a : Schaefer, 1979:42-45). Here acculturation is defined as a cultural adaption of Korean minorities to the American society. The acculturation of the Korean minorities refers to the change of cultural patterns to those of the host society. It also means that the cultural adaptation of the Korean immigrants, is the process by which Korean immigrants modify their attidutinal and behavioral patterns in order to maintain and improve their life conditions in a manner that is compatible with the new environment. To understand acculturation pattern of the Korean minority group to the host society it is necessary to characterize the socio-cultural structure of the white majority society as well as the Korean society. This is because acculturation is the process of dynamic forces of two different culture. In this vein, it is natural to say that cultural distinction between the 0.5 and the Korean culture, characteristics of socio- cultural setting of the host country, and individual traits about acculturation should be studied to comprehend the acculturation rate of the Korean minority group in the United States. Theoretical Model for the Study Based on the theoretical concept of acculturation, a model is formed to systematically explain the research questions mentioned above (See Figure 1). Figure 1. A theoretical model for this study American Society (Individualistic, Agalitarian, Materialistic Culture) I Previous . Media use Media Acculturation Condition Needs . Motivation Use Rate Education [ r . High Acculturation in the 0.8 , The 0.8 Rate : ' \L I Media Americanization _ U ' " Individual A s _ needs of Media use Cultural Korean . Motivation ,Conflict Minority : Generation 5 .Korean ’ Low acculturation Korean ‘_ ! VCR tape Rate : Non- _Imm%grantv Ethnic Use .Americanization Lo alt ’ [Education _in Korea - Korean Society (Spiritualistic, Authoritarian, 1 Group oriented Culture) The model in Figure 1 is designed to outline the theoretical connection of each important concept in this study. This model characterizes the Korean minority into three groups - first generation immigrants, second generation children of immigrants, and Korean students studying in the United States. The model assumes that most first generation Korean immigrants grew up in Korea and received a Korean style education. Accordingly, their way of thinking or value system 10 has been formed under the direct influence of Korean culture. However they also try, to varying degrees, to acculturate into American culture. Most of the Korean students studying in the United States also grew up in Korea and received advanced Korean education. They were mostly college or graduate school students in Korea. They know that they are here temporarily, so they donft have to acculturate themselves into American culture, even though they feel the need for fluency in English for their study. However, the children of the first generation immigrants have grown up in the United States and received American style education. They have grown up meeting American friends, eating American fast food, and watching American television. They have developed a different way of thinking from those of their parents. In short, this study starts with the assumption that the first generation Korean immigrants have different social and individual needs from those of their children. Their media use varies depending on their needs. Their different media use reinforces their different way of thinking, which in turn causes cultural conflicts among the different generations. In this model, a syllogism is developed. i.e., socio- cultural environment.... individual needs ... media use motivation u. different mass media use u. value conflicts among generations. This study was based on two approaches - active audience in media use and cultural norm theory. The program choices by an active audience have been discussed for years in the needs and gratifications literature. Straubhaar clarified the concept of active audience in his 11 article, citing 'VCRs challenge the concept of a passively receptive audience" (Straubhaar, 1985:18). The cultural norm theory states that mass communication has an indirect effect on behavior through its ability to shape norms. According to Melvin Defleur, the cultural norm theory postulates that the mass media, through selective presentations and the emphasis of certain themes, creates impressions among thier audience so that common cultural norms are structured or. defined in some specific way. Since individual behavior is usually guided by cultural norms, the media would serve indirectly to influence their conduct. Based on the theoretical model in Figure 1, the necessity of extensive literature review about cultural differences between American and Korean culture, the characteristics of the social struture of the host country, individual acculturation potential (iJL, relationship between individual immigration conditions and acculturation rate), and the role of the ethnic community will be made in the following section. Cultural Traits and Acculturation To understand the cultural differences between the United States and Korea, a comparative study is made in this section. Traditionally Korean culture has developed and flourished under the strong influence of confucian ideology. As the traditional culture of Korean society has made contact with western cultures, society and social sturucture has changed rapidly. The value system of the society has suffered conflict I 12 and tension between the prevailing traditional values and the new values. Social and cultural changes in Korea have caused value conflicts and disorganization in the value system. In particular, conflict between traditional and modern western values, incongruity-between the value system and the social structure, and differences in value-orientation according to generations, regions and social strata have developed. Traditional Korea had been a closed society for a long time. Changes in the value system and the social structure have continued and the various mechanisms of adjustment have created provisional value systems and ways of behavior. In this sense, Korea has a ”cultural dual structure” with a traditional aspect and the modern aspect. The traditional familism still has a great influence on the consciousness and behavior of the Korean people. Traditional conservatism is still dominant in Korean society. For instance, Public polling of Koreans shows that most Koreans agree that pre- marital sex should not be accepted (Jungang Ilbo, 1979). Similar survey of Korean university students discloses that Korean university students were inclined rather to authoritarianism than to egalitarianism (Lim, 1981). Furthermore, individualism in Korea is said to be different from that of west. Individualism of contemporary Koreans is similar to the "individualism-by- default”. It is a kind of defence mechanism against normlessness (Lim, 1981). In conclusion, contemporary Korean culture can be characterized as a combination of confucian- based traditional values and individualism-based wetern values. Traditional ways 13 of thinking are still dominant in many areas. These Korean values show several distinctions from American culture. First, one of the salient characteristics of the traditional, but still dominant, Korean culture is authoritariznism. For example. the basic principle, of human relations and social ethics have been completely consitituted by hierarchial orders. Every basic human relationship such as the relationships between the ruler and the ruled, father and son, husband and wife, and the old and the young, was prescribed as a hierarchial order. All occupational and-social classes such as civil officials, the two typical classes of old Korea (Yangban, Sangnom) were also based on a hierarchial model. The next important characteristic of the Korean traditional value system is collectivism. It refers to the value-orientation which emphasizes the importance of the group rather than the individual. The traditional collectivism in Korea was familiar collectivism. Extended family systems have developed in Korea, even though nuclear family system is prevalent these days. Thirdly, spiritualism rather than materialism has been dominant in Korean society. This is due to the influence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, which emphasizes the obedience to and the harmony with nature rather than the conquest or control of nature. The cultural differences between thee two cultures can be summarized (See Table 1). 14 Table 1. The Cultural Differences between the United States and Korea The U.S.A. Korea Individualism Collectivism (nuclear family) (family-oriented) Materialism Spiritualism (monetary success) (humanism) Egalitarinism Authoritarianism (horizantal human- (hierarchical human relations) relations) In sum, Korean culture is changing. However the dominant characteristics of Korean culture are rather authoritarian, collective, and spiritual-oriented when compared with the American culture, which are egalitarian, individualistic and materialistic. Most Koreans, especially the aged, show strong conservatism about the issues of premarital sex, marriage, and family. In this sense, distinctive cultural difference can be made between the United States and Korea. The first generation Korean immigrants had lived and had been educated under the influence of Korean culture before they immigrated to the United States, whereas their children have been growing up with the influence of western culture. When assuming that mass media reflects the society it belongs to, the Korean VCR reflects the Korean culture whereas American mass media does American culture. 15 Contextual Analysis This section is designed to explain the social and cultural environment in which the Korean minority live since it is almost impossible to trace their social and individual needs without considering their context or environment. Previous studies about Korean immigrants show that, like other minority groups in the United States, they have been socially discriminated against by the white majority (Hurh, 1983; Lee, 1975: Choy, 1979: Melendy, 1977; Kim, 1981). Analysis of what causes the white majority to discriminate against a minority is made here, since a clear understanding of the contextual situation facing minority group in the United States helps us to understand the individual needs of Korean immigrants. There can be two approaches to understand the prejudice by the white majority against Korean minorities. The first one, as an ethnical viewpoint, is related to the white majorityks ethnocentrism. The second one is about the role of mass media as an indirect source of social discrimination. First, as an analysis of direct sources of social discrimination, psychological and mental aspects as well as socio-economic aspects can be considered here. Specifically, since the Korean-American population, whose eyes are balck and the color of their skin is yellow, has been steadily increasing, many American workers regard them as competitors for their jobs. Especially when the economic conditions in the United States were worsening, the Asian American, like other minorities, became the l6 targets of racism (Fernandex, 1981). Television has become a medium that stereotypes almost all groups : however, its stereotypes are especially damaging to minority groups (Banks, 1976). Many people believe that television serves as a reinforcer and a source of ethnic stereotypes. Greenberg and Atkin (1978), Banks (1976) and Molden (1975) believe that black stereotypes made by American TV present a major problem to society. For example, 'MASH'(a daily CBS program) deals with a mobile army hospital during the Korean War. This program is full of distorted messages about Korea. This program describes Korea as a poor and dirty country even though the war ended about 35 years ago and Korea is now one of the most industrialized countries in Far East Asia. Here, Chinese (or Japanese) actors play Koreans. Their clothes are shabby and sometimes not in real Korean style. The images about Korea delivered by this program is related to the dirty and poor Koreans. Furthermore most of the topics about Korea, which frequently appear in American magazines and newspapers are related to the dark side of Korean politics, such as student demonstrations against the government, military coups, etc. Topics about the growing Korean economy or Korea culture do not appear frequently. ‘In sum, racial discrimination has not completely disappeared and it continues to plaque Korean minority groups directly or indirectly. Job and promotional discriminations still continue. Social discriminations, inherited within the stubborn 17 social-ethnical structure of the white majority have prevented Korean immigrants from enhancing their political and social status. Indeed many Korean immigrants (especial first generation) were highly educated in Korea before coming to the United States, but their resulting jobs in the United States are mostly menial due to their language barriers and invisible ethnic-based job discrimination. That is, when ethnic confinement (involuntary ethnic segreation) is inherent in the social structure of the host country, it is most likely that the immigrants' assimilation into the dominant groups primary social structure is restricted in its scope and intensity regardless of the immigrants' length of residence, social economic status, degree of acculturation , and desire for assimilation (Hurh and Kim, 1984). This contextual analysis about Korean immigrants provides us with basic general information in examining the frequency of VCR use and motivation. Individual Acculturation Potential of Korean Immigrants. In addition to problems of socio- cultural adjustment, Koreans in America have to cope with individual problems. Most newcomers believe that the United States is the land of opportunity and happiness in terms of economic betterment and political freedom. They soon find that their hopes were exaggerated and they become frusterated. Choy (1979) summarized these problems as follows: 18 First, cultural differences make it difficult for Korean immigrants to adjust to American society. The family-centered, traditional Korean immigrants finds the free-style, aggressive, individualistic American way of'life incompatible with what he was accustomed to in his homeland. The discovery of a communal life style is a shock to many Korean immigrants. Some have attended to initiate the free American style rather hastily, only to be rejected by Americans who expected than to be docile. Secondly, the language barrier is a big hurdle even for those who learned some English before leaving their homeland. They find theseleves unable to communicate adequately with .American employers and friends. Furthermore, most first Korean immigrants do not have the time and energy to learn English even if there are adult evening classes, because they have to work to survive. Cultural and language barriers, too many Korean immigrants, create helplessness and inferiority. According to one Korean community study, reports on age groups over 23, only 10% of Korean immigrants respond that they have no difficulty in English.(Choyy 1979). .A command of English is the most important factor in determining onefls oportunity for employment. It is also a necessary tool for the pursuit of higher education, social adjustment, and economic betterment. It is difficult for Korean immigrants to secure employment in American firms, factories, and public or private institutions becasue of racial discrimination, lack of proper training, and- the communication problems. It is known that 20% of the Korean immigrants are unemployed (Choy, 1979) 19 To survive in this society, each Korean immigrant should have strong individual acculturation potential. Here individual accultuation potential refers to English proficiency, education level, period of stay in the United States, and age. Several studies were made to investigate the acculturation rate of Korean immigrants, depending on individual pre and post immigration conditions (erp, education level, English ability, period of resiodence in the United States, sex, income). Padilla (1976) disclosed, in his survey, that sex did not differentially affect acculturation rates of minorities. He believes that educational level is positively correlated with acculturation. He found that the less acuulturated immigrants fall into the lower educational levels while significantly acculturated repondents are found among the higher educational groups. Hurh and Kim (1984) summarized the relationship between some acculturation potential variables and degree of acculturation as follows: 1. In general, the longer the immigrantsf length of residence in the host society, the higher the degree of their acculturation becomes. 2. In general, the higher the levels of the immigrants' socio- economic status, the higher the degree and the faster the rate of acculturation will be, Hurh and Kim (1978), in their survey, also tested the several hypotheses about the relationship between SES (socio- economic status) and acculturation rate. They found that among Korean immigrants, those with high SES (socio-economic status) achieves a higher degree of cultural assimilation than those with low SES. Hurh and Kim (1979), in another Korean immigration study in Los Angeles, found that about 80 % of the Korean 20 residents in Los Angeles do not generally use English, even though English proficiency is very important tool in the process of acculturation. Only 7.5 percent of respondents were found ito use English exclusively. - In short, the majority of Korean immigrants were found to be bilingual-English at work and Korean at home (Hurh and Kim, 1976:24). Ethnic Loyalty and Acculturation Padilla (1980) said ethnicity factor is as important as language familiarity and cultural heritage. Ethnicity factor, which constitues an essential part of the total acculturation process, refers to ethnic pride (or identity) and involvement in the ethnic community (emp, Korean ethnic church and Korean voluntary association). Compared with Chinese and Japanese immigrants, Korean immigrants have been known as ”church goers." Bok-Lim Kinfls recent study on Asian-Americans in the Chicago area reveals that the Korean immigrantsireligious involvement (church paticipation) is greater that that of any other Asian group except the Filipinos (1978:178). Hurh and Kim (1978) supported the findings. There were 264 Korean churches throughout the United States in 1976, but the number jumped to over 400 in late 1977 (Dong-A Ilbo, January 10, 1978). The number of Korean churches is rapidly increasing. Religious participation appears to be one of the integral parts of the Korean immigrants? acculturation in the United 21 States. Past theories on the ethnic role of immigration churches thus generally emphasized the communal function, iJL, Gemeinschaft bonds (Francis, 1945: Greeley, 1972, Herberg, 1955; Sklare, 1955).‘_-,_ . ' ‘3 For instance, Greeley elucidates this point well: In the United States, the churches came to serve an ethnic role; they helped sort out "who one was” in a bewildering complex society. As a result, the various demonstrations have been immeasurably strenghened, as they serve not only a religious need, but a social one as well (1972:125). The Korean immigrants appear to crave both types of _association, spiritual - fellowship and ethnic fellowship Kim 1979,- Hurh and Kim (1984) charted that the Korean ethnic church provides the best best both fellowship for the Korean immigrants as shown in the following chart: Figure 2. Comparative Characteristics of Community Group. l Christian Fellowship ' l l/ i Yes No Yes Korean Ethnic Korean Voluntary Ethnic Church Association Church Association Fellowship q No American American Voluntary 22 As compared with other ethnic associations, the ethnic church provides the immigrants with frequent and regular opportunities (at least once a week) for primary-group and secondary group interactions. The Korean ethnic church usually provides not only a communal bond (the primary group) but also a Gesellshaft (the secondary group),*which the immigrant also left behind. In other words, the immigrants are drawn together in the ethnic church not only to meet intimate friends but alsot to see "new faces” other than their family members, relatives, and close friends. In short, they miss both the informal and formal aspects of the Korean society back home, and the Korean ethnic church seems to providea microcosm of both (Kim and Hurh, 1984). Choy (1979) analyzed that the Korean ethnic church emerged as the center of hope and social life for the Koreans in the United States in the sense that Korean immigrants, who are discriminated against for racial reases, could enjoy meeting friends and talking to each other in their native language. In this sense, his analysis was made based on gesell shaft function of the church. Several research findings about ethnic loyalty (iJL, involvement in ethnic community and ethnic pride) and acculturation were made as follows (Hurh and Kim, 1984): 1) The first generation Korean immigrants tend to maintain an or even enhance their strong ethnic attachment regardless of progressive acculturation. 2) The immigrants' ethnic attachment tends to enhanced by: 23 a) the dominant groups prejudice and discrimination b) the immigrantsf perception of limited social assimilation c) the immigrantsf perception of their limited adaptive . capacities (e.g., language, economic resources) d) relatively well-defined largy ethnic communities 3) The immigrants' strong ethnic attachment functions: a) to satisfy primary group needs b) to preserve ethnic identity c) to lower the levels of their frustration and dissatisfaction d) to evoke a false sense of success and satisfaction e) perpetuate ethnic confinement and marginality acceptance f) to evoke in the dominant group a rational that the immigrants “want to be with their own kind and resist assimilation." In sum, ethnic loyalty seems to have a reverse relationshp with acculturation rate. The logic being that the lesser acculturated individual will prefer ”ethnic" related activities and will maintain a network of close friends, including spouse, of the same ethnicity. In this sense, the proliferation of the Korean ethnic church shows significant implication in terms of acculturation rate of the Korean immigrants. Mass Media Use by Korean Immigrants Not enough study has been made about the mass media use by the Korean immigrants. Furthermore, most of studies on the immigrants' use of ethnic media is rather descriptive than being> 24 explanatory. Kim (1978) disclosed that ethnic media use by Korean immigrants rapidly decreases over the years while that of American media steadily increases. (Also he found that the use of ethnic mass media is negatively associated with an immigrantfs perceptual complexity (r== -.19, p<.01). The immigrant's consumption of ethnic mass media and that of the host mass media show contrasting trends. While the ethnic media consumption decreases, the host media vonsumption increases linearly over the years. This suggests that the process of change in an .immigrantfs cultural interests can perhaps be directly inferred from media behavior better than from interpersonal communication behaviors. Jun (1984) also found that use of the ethnic mass media, by and large, decreased in relation to length of stay in the host society. (Althoug males tended to read more ethnic newspaper than females, a significant sex effect was not found. For American mass media communication, males read more newspapersd than females regardless of their American tenure. magazine reading, however, increased over the year regardless of sex differences. Television plays a very important role for acquaintance and familariariity with the host language and. culture. That is, 88.4% of the respondents indicated that television aided English proficiency and 94.2% learned of general patterns of American culture through television viewing. This surprising figure will suggest further implications of importance of the television medium over other mass media in the adjustment process within the host society. As an example, English 25 proficiency was positively correlated with the amount of TV exposure, magazine reading, and movie attendance. Park (1981), in his MA thesis, showed that the degree of adaption of the Korean residents in the United States and the American mass media exposure is positively correlated. 26 Design of the Study Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Due to the paucity of previous studies and leterature on the new media use by Korean immigrants as noted earlier, the present study was meant to be primarily exploratory in nature, based on the assumed interaction among variables (emp, ethnic loyalty, individual acculturation potential, VCR use, and acculturation rate of Korean immigrantsL. For a systematic study of it, a diagram showing dynamic links among them was invented here (See Figure 2-1) Figure2-1.Links between acculturation and related variables x1 Individual Acculturation “ x:-— ..i_‘\_~ Y . Potential 3 . ”7" ' lMass Medial Degree of ur t'on X2: _,. '- 7 , Ethnic - ’ Loyalty» Here, X1 - Individual Acculturation Potential: period of stay, education level, language proficiency, the place of being educated. X2 - Ethnic Loyalty: Degree of involvement in ethnic community, Degree of ethnic pride (consciousness of being Korean) X3 - Mass Media Use: American mass media.(American TV, VCR), ethnic mass media (Korean VCR tape) Y - Degree of Acculturation: Attitudinal difference (Preference for American way of thinking, preference for Korean way of thinking) 27 The theoretical contention and analytical framework, in Figure2;l,may thus be illustrated by the relationships among major variables (individual acculturation potential, ethnic loyalty, mass media use) related to the mode of Korean immigrants' acculturation. The first hypothesis is based on the uses and gratification approach of mass communication but more specifically on Rosengrenfls proposition that certain basic human needs of lower and higher order lead to different media use motivation (Rosengren, 1974M. That is, individual human needs derived from individual psychological situation and structure of the surrounding society, result in different media use motivations. This in turn leads to differential patterns of actual media consumption. From this proposition the following hypothesis is derived: Hypothesis 1: Korean VCR use pattern by Korean immigrants. will be varied with individual VCR use gratification sought. Rosengren assumed that active audiences seek for media behavior or other behavior to gratify thier needs (Rosengren, 1974). Kim (1978) disclosed that the use of ethnic mass media is negatively associated with use of the host mass media. 'While the ethnic media consumption decreases, the host mass media consumption increases linearly over the years. For example, Koreans who watch Korean VCR tapes for one or another reason tend to watch less American TV. Thus the second hypothesis is formulated as follows: 28 Hypothesis 2: The amount of Korean VCR tape use by Korean immigrants will show negative correlation with the amount of American mass media use. Jun (1984) tested the hypothesis that use of ethnic mass media decreased in relation to length of stay in the host society. Also he found that males tended to read more ethnic newspapers than females. In addition, the ethnic language proficiency of the young Korean immigrants paralleled their use of ethnic newspapers: those with less language proficiency also read ethnic newspapers less. According to Jun, English proficiency was positively correlated with the amount of TV exposure, magazine reading, and movie attendance. Park (1981) disclosed that English proficiency, length of stay in the United States, and education level influence the subscription rate to American newspapers by Korean immigrants in Los Angeles. He also found that the amount of American TV news viewing varied with English proficiency and education level of Korean immigrants. In this sense, the degree of ethnic mass media use will be influenced by the individual acculturation potential (Pre-immigration condition: education level, sex, English proficiency and Post-immigration condition: period of stay in the United States, income). Thus the following hypotheses are formulated: 29 Hypothesis 3: The amount of Korean VCR use will be varied with the individual acculturation potential (age, sex, education level, language proficiency, period of stay in the United States). 3-1: The amount of Korean VCR use will be positively correlated with the age of the respondents 3-2: The amount of Korean VCR use will be varied with the sex of respondents. 3-3: English proficiency will show negative relationship with the amount of Korean VCR use. 3-4: As the period of stay in the United States gets longer, the use of Korean VCR tapes will be decreased. Hurh and Kim (1984) found that the lst generation Korean immigrants tend to maintain or even enhance their ethnic attachment (or loyalty). Choy (1979) explained that Korean immigrants go to church on sunday to meet friends and to talk to each other in their native language. He also believes that Korean churches became centers of the Korean ethnic community. Kim (1981) said the Korean church became a center of ethnic activities. One of the main functions of Korean churches is to provide church members with a ”family atmosphere”, which presupposes a small congregation in which everyone knows everyone else and everyone elsefls business. Through church-centered activities Korean immigrants attempt to cope with their overwhelming sense of alienation from the host society. Korean churches unite the Korean immigrants with an ethnic bond. From the previous findings, hypotheses are derived: 3O Hypothesis 4: Degree of ethnic loyalty (degree of involvement.in ethnic community and degree of ethnic pride) will show positive relationship with the amount of Korean VCR use. 4-1: Those who frequently attend the ethnic community will use Korean VCR more than those with less attendance. 4-2: Those who have strong ethnic pride will watch Korean VCR tapes more than those with weak ethnic pride. Kim (1978) confirmed the hypothesis that the use of ethnic mass media is negatively associated with an immigrantks perceptual complexity (r= -.19, p<.01). The greater the Korean immigrantfs consumption of ethnic media, the lower the cognitive complexity in perceiving the host society. He also found that the process of change in an immigrantfs cultural interests can be directly inferred from media behavior. Jun (1981) disclosed that use of the ethnic mass media decreased in relation to length of stay in the United States. Hurh (1984) concluded that the longer the immigrants' length of residence in the host society, the higher the degree of their acculturation becomes. These findings implicate that as the Korean immigrants stay in the United States longer and longer, they rarely watch Korean VCR tapes, and their acculturation rate increases. Jun (1981) founded that the ethnic language proficiency of the young Korean immigrants paralleled their use of ethnic newspapers. It means, in other words, as the English proficiency of Korean immigrants develop as time lapses, their use of ethnic media decreases and then they are becoming more and more acculturated into the host 31 society. Thus, the hypothesis developed here: Hypothesis 5: Degree of acculturation to the American culture (preference for American way of thinking) will be varied with the mass media use by Korean minorities. 5-1: The amount of exposure to the Korean VCR tapes will show negative relationship with the degree of preference for the American way of thinking. 5-2: The amount of exposure to the Korean VCR tapes will show positive relationship with the degree of preference for the Korean way of thinking. B. Method The data for the study were obtained from the Korean population in the Lansing area. Originally, 90 were to be randomly selected as the sample, but the sample size had to be eventually reduced to 71 due to a number of unexpected difficulties encountered during the sampling and interviewing process. Contrary to my expectations, no comprehensive and up-to-date directory of Korean immigrants in the area was available at the Census Bureau. A number of ethnic organizations, including Korean churches, alumni associations, and Korean Students Directory of MSU were used here. In addition, the Michigan area Korean telephone directories were used. When overlapping memberships and those living outside the Lansing area were eliminated, a list of 213 Korean immigrants was obtained. Among 213 Korean immigrants, 49 first/ second generation Korean immigrants were selected with a random sampling technique. In addition to this, 22 Korean students were selected 32 from about 300 to compare the Korean VCR use pattern with the i mmigrants (see Table 2) . Table 2. Sample distribution N (%) First Generation 26 (36.6) Korean Immigrants Second Generation 23 (32.4) Korean Immigrants Students 22 (31.0) Total 71 (100) In order to describe the individual needs and VCR use motivation by the Korean minorities and to explain relationships among individual acculturation potential, ethniGci loyalty, mass media use, and acculturation rate, a questionnaire was developed to measure them. The questionnaire, consisting of 111 items, required 20 minutes to complete. The questionnaire items were' then translated into Korean by researcher because language competence of respondents in English and Korean was crucial to construction of the questions. During the interview, each respondent (especially first generation Korean immigrants) was asked if he wanted Korean-written questionnaire. Expcet some first generation immigrants, the others completed questionnaires written in English. A pilot test was administered before conducting this survey. Therefore, ambiguous wording can be revised and new items, which were considered to be necessary, added. 33 To test the hypotheses mentioned earlier, several statistical techniques such as chi-square, Person Correlation are employed in this study. Besides these, a multiple regression analysis is applied here to systemtically examine the relationship between the amount of the Korean VCR use and its related variables (emh, individual acculturation potential and ethnic loyalty). Figure 3. A Multiple Regression Diagram Individual Acculturation - Potential The Amount ' ’ of Korean VCR * Use Ethnic ' Loyalty Descriptive Analysis Demographic Characteristics The age distribution for the sample is presented in Table 2-1. On the whole, the respondents range in age 17 to 64. Among these age groups, about half of the respondents (49.3%) belong to the age from 26 to 35. About one-fifth of them (21.1%) are older than 35. Table 2-l.Age Distribution of the Sample Age N % 17 - 25 21 29.6 //" 26 - 35 35 49.3 over 35 15 . 21.1 Total 71 100 .Among respondents (male = 54.3%, female = 45.7%), 66.2% of the respondents show that they are married, and more than half of the total respondents (63:3%) revealed that they had received a college education. This figure is somewhat higher than previous studies, since this study includes Korean students in the Lansing area. Kim and Hurh (1979) reported that 77.8% of Korean immigrants are college-graduates. However, when compared with their educatiton level, their income is relatively low. About 42.3% of the respondents show that their annual income is less than $15,000. Their annual income, however, will be increased if Korean students, who stay here temporarily, are excluded. To 35 summarize demographic attributes of the Korean minority respondents, the following Table is made (See Table 3). Table 3. Demographic Attributes Marital Education Income Status N(%) Level N(%) (S) N(%) Single 24(23JH College 45(63.3) 50,000 - 8(11.3) and more Married 47(66.0) Technical 1(1.4) 30,000 - 20(28.2) School 50,000 High 25(35.2) 15,000 - 13(18.3) School 30,000 ' - 15,000 30(42.2) Total 71(100) Total 71(100) 71(100) Social and Cultural Characteristics In order to assess the magnitude of language problems among the respondents, they were asked to self evaluate their English proficiency. Results are summarized in Table 3. The majority of them (62%) are reluctant to say that their English proficiency is at a high level. no problem in English. the Korean minorities, except second generation Koreans, experience language difficulties in English. Only 34% of the respondents show that they have Their result implicates that almost all English proficiency of Korean minorities shows the negative correlations with the degree of involvement in ethnic community and age (See Table 4). 36 Table 4. Self Evaluation of English Proficiency English Level N (%) Very High Level 13 (18.3) High Level 14 (19.7) Average 23 (37.4) Low Level 19 (26.8) Very Low Level 2 (2.8) Total 71 (100) This implicates that the aged Korean minorities are usually suffering from poor English. Therefore they can not adjust themselves into American society successfully because of communication problems they have as well as ethnic discrimination the host society has. English proficiency is negatively correlated with the degree of involvement in the ethnic community (r= -.3889, p< .001). i As shown in Table 5, period of stay in the United States shows positive correlation with English proficiency (r= .2061, P1 c m 0) H o :2 . . . . (Psychological Period of Period of Period of Period of conditions Excitement Frustration Confidence )‘L Identity overtime) 61mxmhfi 21ru2% 10 Mans owa:103mmms Figure 4 shows four periods of pshchological conditions, with ‘which we can predict the use of the Korean VCR tapes. These stages can be interpreted as follows: 54 (1) Period of Excitement (Just before coming to the United States --- about 6 months' stay) : New hope and expectations about the United States exist at this initial period. Most of the Korean immigrants have strong willingness to reach their expectations and a stable life. They also show a strong interest in their mother land. According to a pilot study conducted in March before this survey, about 80% of the Korean minorities responded that they want to know what is going on in Korea (Yoo, 1987). They tend to seek information about Korea. In this vein, their VCR use for viewing Korean TV programs is understandable. (2) Period of Frustration (about 6 months --- 2 years' stay) : During this period, Korean minorities begin to realize that their American dream is beyond reality and difficult to achieve. Also they feel the social discrimination against them as well as cultural heterogeneity of the host country. They realize that it is almost impossible to master a new language- English. Even though there are some night language schools, they don't have enough time to attend the lectures. Most Korean immigrants spend all their time to manage their lives in this competitive society. Hurh and Kim (1984:41) described this stage as ”exigency" characterized by problems of (a) language barrier, (b) unemployment or underemployment, (c) social isolation, (d) culture shock in general. Significant number of Korean minorities may regret that they had left "home" for this society and yearn to return to their familiar milieu. A survey conducted by one Korean daily newspaper shows that most of Korean immigrants would like to return to their motherland especially during this period (JoongAng Ilbo, September 25 of 1979). 55 The loss of confidence and psychological frustration make them seek Korean VCR films as an outlet for their tension. (3) Period of Confidence ( 2 - 10 years): As time goes on, acculturation starts, and the resolution phase comes. At this stage, most Korean immigrants are getting confident about the daily life in the United States. Their communication problem is, to some extent, eliminated and their lives are settling down. They satisfy their past decision to immigrate to the United States. They adjust to the ELS. culture. They feel that they are members of the American society; Accordingly, they pay less attention to Korea than during the excitement and frustration periods. During the confidence period, less than a third of the Korean minorities (32.4%) tend to use VCRs to watch Korean TV program. (4) Period of Self-Identity (After 10 years): This period can be defined as the confusion of self-identity. During this period, Korean immigrants realize an invisible limit of reaching their social expectation. Even though they gain some economic successes, they come to realize the ethnic confinement by the white majority; In addition to this, value conflicts with their children ,who have grown up under the direct influences of American culture, make them confuse'l about their way of life. They think that they lost something valuable in stead of gaining economic stability. So they turn their attention to their homeland ,Korea . Accordingly, their exposure to the Korean VCR film is increasing again. 56 In this sense, Figure 5 clarifies the tendency of Korean minorities in terms of Korean VCR use over time. Figure 5. VCR use and Period of Stay (To watch American movie) Amount of VCR Use (To watch Korean TV program) / 2 years 10 years Period of Stay Figure 5 shows that at the initial period of stay in the United States, Korean minorities tend to use VCRs mostly for viewing Korean TV programs. However use decreases during the period of confidence. After 10 years, their Korean VCR use is again increasing. I Table 16 reveals that those with high English proficiency tend to use VCRs mainly for watching American movies ,whereas people with low English ability use VCRs for Korean TV programs. This result is consistent with the previous studies about mass media use by the Korean immigrants (Yum, 1982: Jun, 1984). It implicates that Korean VCR use is influenced by language competences The amount of Korean VCR use will be inversely correlated with the English proficiency. 57 Table 16. The Use of the VCR by the Korean Minorities. r _ "" English Ability Low Medium High N % N % N % VCR Use American films 4 (20) 12 (57.1) 14 (57.7) Korean films 11 (55) 8 (38.1) 11 (42.3) Others 5 (25) l (5) O (0) Total 20 (100) 21 (100) 25 (100) As shown in Table 16, English proficiency shows inverse relationship with the use for the Korean VCR programs (P< .05). Likewise, a relationship between age and the amount of Korean VCR use was examined with the use of crosstabs (See Table 16). Table 17. Age and VCR Use Pattern Age 17-25 26-35 over 35 N % N % N % VCR Use to watch American TV 3 14.3 3 9.7 1 6.7 American Movie 12 57.1 11 35.5 1 6.7 Korean TV 5 23.8 11 35.5 8 53.3 Korean Movie 1 4.8 5 16.1 0 0 Others ' 0 0 1 3.2 5 33.3 Total 21 100 31 100 15 100 58 Table 17 shows that relatively young Korean minorities tend to use‘VCRs mainly to watch American movies whereas people, whose age is over 35 use VCRs to see Korean TV programs. Age, however, does not show significant relationship with the Korean VCR use when Pearson correlation coefficients between Korean VCR tape use and age is drawn in Table 18. Table 18 shows that age is positively correlated with Korean VCR use (r=.0442, p>.05) but is not significant. Table 18 indicates that ages shows significant, positive correlation with period of stay. It goes without saying that as the period of stay gets longer, the older the person gets. I Table 18. Correlation among Korean VCR Use, Period of Stay, and Age Korean VCR Period of Age Use Stay Korean VCR \\\~.“ Use “‘ \ tat Period of .3819 Stay (p=.002) * Age .0442 .1984 (p=.371) (p=.049) ** p<.01 * p<.05 In summary, hypothesis 3 is partially confirmed by the survey. Specifically, a hypothesis that the amount of Korean VCR use will be varied with age is not confirmed in this survey (p9.05) even though relatively older people tend to watch Korean VCR tapes. 59 The correlation between them is not significant at the level of P=.05. The study reveals that people with high level of English proficiency tend to use American mass media “Lg., American TV) rather than Korean ethnic media such as Korean VCR tapes. Depending on the English proficiency, the amount of VCR use for Korean TV programs differentiated. The amount of Korean VCR use increased at the initial period of stay in the United States, however, as Korean minorities get accustomed to American culture and begin to overcome language barriers, their Korean VCR use decreased. Then after 10 years of stay in the United States, the amount of Korean VCR use once again increased. In this sense, the hypothesis that period of stay will have a significant positive relationship with Korean VCR use is not confirmed successfully. These findings implicate that language proficiency is more predictable variable rather than any other acculturation potential variables. H4: Degree of ethnic loyalty (degree of involvement in the ethnic community and degree of ethnic pride) will show positive relationship with the amoungt of Korean VCR tape use. H4-1: Those who frequently attend the ethnic community will use Korean VCR tape more than those with less confidence. H4-2: Those who have strong ethnic pride will use Korean VCR tapes more than those with ethnic pride. To test this hypothesus, Pearson correlation was employed. Table 19 shows the correlation between ethnic loyalty and maSs media use. 60 Tabel 19. Correlation among Mass Media Use, Etngic Community Involvement, and Ethnic Pri e Ethnic Community Korean VCR American Pride Involvement Use TV Use Ethnic \"\\\ Pride ‘\\\N Community .0213 H\\\\\ Involvement (p=.430) ‘ ** Korean .5155 .0455 VCR Use (p=.001) (p=.367) ** American -.0752 -.3665 .0357 TV Use (p=.268) (p=.001) (p=.395) **Np<.01 As shown in Table 19. ethnic pride (pride of being Korean) shows strong positive correlation with Korean VCR use (r=.5155, p<.01), therefore, it is negatively correlated with American mass media use even though it is not significantly strong. Ethnic community involvement is also positively correlated with Korean VCR use (r=.0455, p>.05). The correlation between ethnic community involvement and Korean VCR use is not significant in terms of r=.05. In conclusion, hypothesis 4 is partially confirmed. In other words people who have strong ethnic pride tend to watch Korean VCR tapes. The correlation between them is very strong in a positive direction. However, ethnic community involvement, even though it also has positive correlation with Korean VCR use, it is too weak to be significant. It was found that ethnic community involvement shows negative correlation with the amount 61 of American TV use. Hypotheses 3,4 show that some of individual acculturation potential variables and ethnic loyalty have influence on the amount of the Korean VCR use. To systematically examine the relationship among the Korean VCR tape use, individual acculturation potential, and ethnic loyalty. Multiple regression analysis is employed. This is necessary to trace the cause and effect among these factors. The multiple regression analysis shows how independent variables can explain (or predic) the dependent variable. To follow causal sequence, direct multiple Rs were estimated with the standardized regression coefficients obtained from multiple regression analysis. Here, ethnic loyalty and individual acculturation potential are considered as independent variables. The amount of Korean VCR tape use is regarded as the dependent variable in this regression model. Table 20 shows the final regression results. Table 20. Multiple regression diagram for the amount of Korean VCR use Independent Multiple Rz’ R F Significance ...—variable R change ** f/Ethnic pride .51546 .26570 .26570 19.90104 .000 \Period of * stay .57334 .32872 .06302 5.06928 .028 Education .59601 .35552 .02650 2.17843 .146 English proficiency .60028 .36033 .00511 .41547 .522 Age ‘ .62222 .38716 .02682 2.23214 .141 Ftllnic community involvement I .62275 .38781 .00066 .05667 .818 62 According to Table 20, ethnic pride is the most influential variable to explain the amount of the Korean VCR use. Ethnic pride refers to the consciousness of being Korean. Without having this consciousness, they do not feel any necessity to use ethnic media. <’Ethnic pride can explain the 26.57% of the total variance of the Korean VCR use2> The next influential variable is period of stay in the United States.1