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V;;,r,.‘,.f_z,,.,,,,7,, game“, Jun-“161;;5/Ztfl Medal... mgsss s I m‘n‘n‘h‘. . This is to certify that the dissertation entitled THE EXTENT TO WHICH CORE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ARE PERCEIVED TO BE INTEGRATED INTO THE PRACTICES OF SELECTED SCHOOL DISTRICTS presented by Lee Kirk Gerard has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Educational Administration / Majfprofessor \ Date April 7, I986 "(Iii-n- ‘fll——-fi-' ‘ ' ‘ // \m \ mu)", 3." --’ ft”: F“, _f)§‘l 1 $ (2» ,~.-\ ,. ,}\/~ A“ .2- /~. ’ P I fa MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date Etampedfibelow. p y‘- J ‘v .3" 9" 7"}. €4.67”? 2 M": H'. 1 '2.)~.’~1«'n’ "' «'3 ~‘)>\.~:v¢~ 3,)“. ‘ I r v *2 Mi ,. « , r" ; I L A r. L ‘ as; wig-C AEI‘ THE EXTENT TO WHICH CORE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ARE PERCEIVED TO BE INTEGRATED INTO THE PRACTICES OF SELECTED SCHOOL DISTRICTS By Lee Kirk Gerard A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1986 ABSTRACT THE EXTENT To WHICH CORE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ARE PERCEIVED TO BE INTEGRATED INTO THE PRACTICES or SELECTED SCHOOL DISTRICTS By Lee Kirk Gerard W. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which selected core management practices. identified by Peters and Waterman (1982). were perceived to be inte- grated into the practices of third-cl ass school districts in a midwest- ern state. Those selected management Practices identified by Peters and Waterman were conceived. for purposes of this study. as one effec- tive means of applying successful corporate management and leadership practices to meaningful and focused school reform. W5. A response questionnaire, developed by the researcher. was submitted to superintendents and union presidents. This survey instrument contained 78 statements clustered in four categories. Data were subjected to a two-sample t-test to compare the mean results of the two respondent groups. Conclusions. Within the limitations of the study. the follow- ing conclusions were drawn: (1) There was a significant difference between the rating by the superintendents and teacher union presidents. Lee Kirk Gerard indicating a lack of congruence of perception of the degree of integra- tion of the eight core management practices; (2) survey results showed that highest management level leadership was not generally perceived by union presidents as modeling crucial organizational values and culture; (3) central office administrators were not viewed as those who encour- aged either informal. probl em-solving communication or the open inter- change of ideas. concerns. and problems; (4) school district central office administrators. it appears. were not perceived as sensitive to the curriculum concerns of staff and community; (5) in a few cases the superintendent and union leader held common perceptions about the degree of district-wide integration of the selected core management practices; and (6) because of the roles of those being interviewed. it is conceivable they solidified their position at extreme ends of the scale. The potential of the study is to encourage. as stated by Snyder (1984). that ”education on both sides of the labor management relation- ship should regard collaborative workplace arrangements as their single most powerful potential contribution to the future of their profession and to their continued ability to serve the nationJ' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appreciation is extended to the members of my guidance commit- tee: Dr. Louis Romano. chairman; Dr. Charles Blackman; Dr. Phillip Carter; and Dr. Robert Muth. Their guidance and encouragement were most helpful at strategic points in the research and writing of my dissertation. Dr. Larry Lezotte provided helpful counsel with the interpretation and reporting of my data. Two very special friends. Dr. Beverly Bancroft and Dr. Suzanne (rShea. spent considerable time critiquing. suggesting. editing. encouraging. and prodding. Their support and encouragement were invaluable and a source of strength to me. The support of my family and friends in this endeavor often provided the impetus that enabled me to persevere. My wife. Linda. and children. Kerry. Kristin. and Katherine. were most supportive and understanding through the anxious moments and the time that was taken from then. Without their help I could not have become "Dr. Daddy." TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TmLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Chapter I. II. BACKG Rm ND 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Introduction . . . . . . Statement of the Problem Rationale for the Study The Purpose of the Study Methodology . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . Summary and Overview . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Historical Review of Management Theory Definitions of Management . . . . . . Earliest Management . . . . . Classical Management Theory . Scientific Management . . . . Classical Organization Theory . . Classical Management Theory Related to Education Behavioral Management Theory . . . . . . . . . . . Behavioral Management Theory Related to Education Recent Management Theory . . . . . . . Summary of Management Theory . . . . . A Historical Review of Leadership Theory Definitions of Leadership . . Great Man Theory . . . . . . Trait Theory . . . . . . . . Behavioral Approach . . . . Situational Leadership . . . Leadership Theory Related to Management Theory Related to 1n_§eangh_g£_fizggllence Leadership Theory Related to 1n_§eanch_o£_£xgellenge :00... 80.00. m. o o e Page vi III. IV. V. Review of Related Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Review of Related Articles Relationship of W to Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . Population and Sample . Data Design of the Instrument The Instrument . . . . . Hypothesis . . . . . . . Data Limitations of the Study Summary DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . Collection Analysis PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF R DATA Introduction . . . . . . . . . . Statistical Tests and Treatments Core Core Core Core Core Core Core Core Test Summary SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Conclusions Management Practice 1 Management Practice 2 Management Practice 3 Management Practice 4 Management Practice 5 Management Practice 6 Management Practice 7 Management Practice 8 of Hypothesis . . . . IMPLICATIONS. AND Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Study 0 O O O O O O O O O O O Page 48 54 55 57 Education 59 59 59 61 62 68 69 69 7O 71 71 71 72 75 78 81 88 88 91 91 E 100 . . 102 APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O A. LETTERS TO SUPERINTENDENTS AND RESIDENTS O O O C C O O O O C B. SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY . . . . C. UNION PRESIDENT SURVEY . . . . BIBLIOGRAWY O O O O O O O O O O O O O Page 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 104 TEACHER UNION O C O O O C O O O O O O O 105 O O O O O O O O O O O O I 108 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 115 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 122 Table 2.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 LIST OF TABLES Primary Description of Respondent School Districts Mean. Standard Deviation. Number of Cases for Superintendents and Union Presidents. Sample N. and t-Value for Core Management Practice 1 . . Mean. Standard Deviation. Number of Cases for Superintendents and Union Presidents. Sample N. and t-Value for Core Management Practice 2 . . Mean. Standard Deviation. Number of Cases for Superintendents and Union Presidents. Sample N. and t—Value for Core Management Practice 3 . . Mean. Standard Deviation. Number of Cases for Superintendents and Union Presidents. Sample N. and t-Value for Core Management Practice 4 . . Mean. Standard Deviation. Number of Cases for Superintendents and Union Presidents. Sample N. and t-Value for Core Management Practice 5 . . Mean. Standard Deviation. Number of Cases for Superintendents and Union Presidents. Sample N. and t-Value for Core Management Practice 6 . . Mean. Standard Deviation. Number of Cases for Superintendents and Union Presidents. Sample N. and t-Value for Core Management Practice 7 . . Mean. Standard Deviation. Number of Cases for Superintendents and Union Presidents. Sample N. and tPValue for Core Management Practice 8 . . vi Page 60 73 76 79 82 85 87 87 89 CHAPTER I BACKGROUND Introduction Public education is currently being reviewed and studied intensely. In l983. more than 15 reform proposals were released. and others have followed since (National School Public Relations Associa- tion. 1984). A host of suggestions and recommendations for improving the quality of the public schools have been generated by these pro- posals. giving schools and educators an agenda for reform. Many of these suggestions and recommendations have focused on the need to strengthen curriculum. improve the teaching that occurs in classrooms. and attract quality persons to the teaching profession (Odden. l984L Most are also labor dependent if they are to be successfully imple- mented. A major study was undertaken by the National Commission on Excellence in Education. commissioned by former Secretary of Education T. H. Bell. The purpose of this Commission was "to help define the problems afflicting American education and to provide solutions. not search for scapegoats" (National Commission on Excellence. T983. p. iii). The essence of this study was that significantly more time should be devoted to learning the "new basics" of English. mathematics. science. social studies. computer sciences. and. for the college-bound. a foreign language. Further. rigorous programs should be provided to advance students' personal. educational. and occupational goals. such as the fine and performing arts and vocational education. In addition. it was recommended that elementary schools provide a sound base in English-language development and writing. computational and problem- solving skills. science. social studies. foreign language. and the arts. According to this report. foreign languages should begin in the elementary grades. To implement the recommendations. the Commission advised school boards to consciously develop leadership skills at the school and district levels. These leadership skills should focus on persuasion. setting goals. and developing community consensus. In addition. the necessary managerial and supervisory skills should be developed (National Commission on Excellence. 1983). In another report. Ernest L. Boyer (1983). president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and author of fligh_§§nggl. stressed change that would strengthen teachers and teach- ing in high schools. 'This publication followed 30 months of work in l5 states and emphasized that to operate more effectively. high schools should have clearly defined goals. Boyer believed these goals should shape curriculum priorities. essential student outcomes. and opportuni- ties for teachers to grow professionally. He made extensive recommen- dations concerning the recruitment. training. and working conditions of teachers. He also emphasized the crucial need to teach thinking skills effectively through language arts and writing. Discussion of leadership focused on the high school principal- ship since the American high school was the focus of Boyer's study. Boyer stated. "If the goals we set forth in the report are to be accomplished. strong leadership will be needed to pull together the separate elements in the school and make them work" (p. 2l9). A recent report stated that high school principals spend "far more actual time on school management than on either of their top priorities" (National Association of Secondary School Principals. 1983. p. 20). Boyer proposed a strengthening of the leadership skills of high school principals through new preparation and selection programs. grounded in the realities of the classroom. Before actual administra- tive experience. the aspiring principal should serve a year as an "administrative intern." Once in the role of principal. periodic upgrading of leadership skills should occur through a proposed network of academies for principals. Goodlad's multiyear "Study of Schooling." begun in the mid- l970's. culminated in his book. LEW: IDLEUIULQ (1984). Its many recommendations were based on Goodl ad's research in more than 1.000 classrooms and his long experience in working with schools to bring about change. Goodl ad reflected deep concern with the negative consequences of age-graded. timepstructured instructional systems. He recommended maximum enrollments for elementary and secondary schools. eliminating the junior high school. requiring a core of general courses. eliminating systems that track students into high- and low-achiever classes. strengthening the education-responsibility relationships between the school and the home. having teacher unions drop their opposition to differing pay scales for different calibers of teachers. and selecting principals through a continuous effort to identify employees with leadership potential. Goodlad proposed a "decentralization of authority and responsi- bility to the local school within a framework designed to assure school-to—school equity and a measure of accountability" (p. 275). A vital part of this process requires that the individual school become largely self-directing. 'To accomplish this. the people connected with the school must "develop a capacity for effecting renewal and estab- lishing mechanisms for doing thisfl The reason that this capacity is lacking in most schools is. according to Goodlad. because the principal lacks the required skills of group leadership. Superintendents are called on to take as their "first order of business responsibility for selecting promising prospec- tive principals and developing in them--and in present principals--the ability to lead and manage" (p. 276x. He continued: My picture of decentralization is not. then. one of schools cut loose. but rather of schools linked both to a hub-the district office--and to each other in a network. The ship is not alone on an uncharted sea. cut off from supplies and communication. But neither are decisions for the welfare of those on the ship the prerogative of persons in the hub or in charge of other ships. The principal is the captain with full authority and responsibility for the ship. But if reasonably wise and prepared for the post. he or she will make them in the company and with the counsel of others. (p. 277) Five imperatives for better schools were defined by Sizer (l984) in floragegijzmmuzunlse. a report co-sponsored by the National Association of Secondary School Principals and the Commission on Educational Issues of the National Association of Independent Schools. 1. Give room to teachers and students to work and learn in their own. appropriate ways. 2. Insist that students clearly exhibit mastery of their school 3. Oggkthe incentives right. for students and for teachers. 4. Focus the students' work on the use of their minds. 5. Keep the structure simple and thus flexible. (p. 214) While Sizer also proposed a number of specific recommendations for consideration. he emphasized that teachers and principals need to have the authority to adapt their schools to "the needs. learning styles. and learning rates of their particular students" rather than to move toward "orderly standardization" (pp. 214-2l5L These five imperatives were based on decentralization. with the principal assuming the role of lead teacher. active with staff and students. so educational decisions can best reflect local school condi- tions and needs. Leadership focused in such a direction will enable school goals for students to be clear and relevant. W Due to the labor intensiveness of the teaching profession (Sizer. 1984). implementing many of the commission and task force recommendations will require the cooperation and enthusiasm of the Inajority of teachers in a school district. In recent years. school districts have experienced increased unionization. which has resulted in "a higher incidence of strikes and 'job actions'" (Public Service Research CCuncil. rLdJ. Teacher organizations and the resulting strife make cooperative change more difficult. Without teacher cooperation and enthusiasm. meaningful change will be very difficult to obtain. To maximize the implementation of relevant ideas suggested by the studies. all areas affecting a school district's instructional program should be reviewed. One important area for district review. in light of the dependence on labor for implementation. is the examination of current management practices. ‘These practices should promote the Inotivation and enthusiasm of employees t0*work cooperatively with management in bringing about desirable curricular and instructional changes. Private-sector organizations are increasingly recognizing that their human resources are vital to the success of the organization (Heneman. Schwab. Possum. 8. Dyer. 1980). Schools are even more labor intensive than the majority of private industry since the primary product involves students. and the teacher is the dominant factor in instruction. Instructional television. computers. and textbooks are examples of important components in instruction. However. thelability and expertise of the classroom teacher are required to orchestrate such components into an effective instructional program for each student. In addition. direct instruction by the classroom teacher remains the primary factor in the daily life of students. For both private industry and schools. employee cooperation is vital to the success of the organization. Therefore. both types of organizations must recognize the importance of input by employees and respond to that input. One response. in an effort to become an increasingly successful organization. is for core management practices to be acknowledged and incorporated into the organization (Peters & Waterman. 1982). W A study of successful private-sector management practices was recently conducted by Peters and Waterman and documented in their book Wm (l982). Eight core management practices were identified in the study as common in a large number of successful United States corporations. Each of the eight core practices is iden- tified below with a brief description. 1. A Bias for Action. An action orientation in which the organization is actually structured in ways that promote communication among people within the organization. an environment and set of atti- tudes that encourage experimentation. and an organizational fluidity that enables people to get things done. 2. Close to the Customer. A closeness to their customers. through customer contact. feedback. and suggestions. This enables them to understand customer needs in the areas of service. quality. or reliability and is combined with a tremendous responsiveness to meeting these needs. 3. Autonomy and Entrepreneurship. The ability to be a large corporation and yet act like a small corporation at the same time by encouraging individual autonomy and entrepreneurship. Decentralization combined with the encouragement of innovators. intense internal commu- nication and competition. and a tolerance of failure in innovation maintain an entrepreneurial spirit among their people. 4. Productivity Through People. The ability to be productive through people by treating their people with a great deal of respect. People are highly involved in a variety of programs. which results in their commitment and freedom to offer suggestions for improvement. change. and innovation. 5. Hands-On. Value Driven. The organization has a basic set of beliefs on which it bases all of its actions and policies. These beliefs are modeled by a top management team that is visible and accessible and that keeps its people informed. 6. Stick to the Knitting. A knowledge of the strengths of the organization and focusing on these rather than trying to be all things to all people. 7. Simple Form. Lean Staff. A realization of the importance of keeping things simple in spite of the overwhelming pressure to complicate things. Corporate staff are small in number and tend to be out in the field solving problems. 8. Simultaneous Loose-Tight Properties. The co-existence of firm central direction and maximum individual autonomy. The organiza- tion has well-established corporate values and expectations within which people are encouraged to experiment and innovate. While these core management practices were developed from a study of successful American companies. these practices can be translated operationally to school settings. as reflected in the attached survey (Appendix B). The excellent companies are very effective in engenderi ng both commitment and regular innovation from hundreds of thousands of individual employees (Peters & Waterman. 1982). This happens because the needs of these individuals are met through the translation of a sound theoretical base into operation. Schools should consider using the same theoretical base. translated into similar'management practices. to motivate employees in order to gain commitment. foster innovation. and bring about desired reforms. Wild: The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which selected core management practices. identified by Peters and Waterman. were perceived by superintendents and union presidents to be integrated into the practices of third-class school districts in a midwestern state. The resulting overview relative to the perceived integration of these practices will provide the possibility for further study of selected or individual districts. Assuming the selected core management practices (Peters & Waterman. 19820 are correlated to a successful working relationship between management and employees. they may provide a benchmark for management to use in assessing its own success and identifying areas that need improvement by adding tauor deleting from aspects of current practice. 10 The assumption was that the integration of the core management practices in the labor-intensive school district leads to greater cooperative efforts of teachers and administrators. Implementation of the core management practices enables the energies of both parties to be channeled in directions of program development and improvement. Methodology To determine the extent to which the core management practices were integrated into the selected school districts. superintendents and teacher union presidents were surveyed (Appendices B and C) to assess perceptions of the degree of implementation of the selected practices. The state has classified each school district into one of four classifications. Fourth-class school districts have more than 75 students but fewer than 2.400;'third-class school districts have more than 2.400 but fewer than 30.000; second-class school districts have more than 30.000 but fewer than l20.000; and first-class school districts have more than l20.000 (Michigan General School Laws and Administrative Rules. 19760. As of August l984. there were 337 fourth- class districts. T88 third-class districts. 2 second-class districts. and l first-class district in the state (Williams. 1985). For purposes of this study. the survey sample comprised dis- tricts in the third-class category. The number of staff members in such districts is greater than that in fourth-class districts and more closely approximates employee numbers in the excellent companies studied by Peters and Waterman. 11 W The following terms are discussed as they are used within the parameters of this study. Communication. Refers to a particular style of giving or exchanging ideas or information within an organization. That style would be characterized as informal. face-to-face. straightforward. frequent; top management in regular contact with employees at the lowest levels. .Langn_1ntensixe. Refers to an organization that has a high concentration of employees due to the nature of its product. Hospitals and schools would be examples of labor-intensive organizations. Leadensnjp. A term widely used. but whose meaning is not completely agreed on. Selznick (in Peters & Waterman. l982) described it as: The inbuilding of purpose is a challenge to creativity because it involves transforming men and groups from neutral. technical units into participants who have a particular stamp. sensitivity. and commitment. This is ultimately an educational process. It has been well said that the effective leader must know the meaning and master the art of institution building. the reworking of human and technological materials to fashion an organism that embodies new and enduring values.. . . To institutionalize is to infuse with value beyond the technical requirements of the task at hand. The prizing of social machinery beyond its technical role is largely a reflection of the unique way it fulfills personal or group needs. Whenever individuals become attached to an organization or a way of doing things as persons rather than as technicians. the result is a prizing of the device for its own sake. From the standpoint of the committed person. the organization is changed from an expendable tool into a valued source of personal satisfaction. . . . The institutional leader. then. is primarily an expert in the promotion and protection of values. (p. 85) 12 mm Griffin 1984) referred to management as "the pro- cess of planning. organizing. leading. and controlling an organiza- tion's human. financial. physical. and information resources to achieve organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner" (p. 7% W Chapter I established the need for the study. It reviewed representative samples from current and relevant educational reform proposals and the importance of teacher commitment in order to implement desired curricular and instructional changes based on these proposals. It described a study of successful private-sector management practices and the need for schools to assess their current management practices. Chapter II contains a review of the literature in six areas which are relevant to this study: (a) a historical review of manage- ment theory. (b) a historical review of leadership theory. (c) a dis- cussion of management theory related to In_§eancn_oi_fixcellenge. (d) a discussion of leadership theory related to.In_§§a££h_Q£_EXQ§llfincs. (e) a review of related articles. and (f) a discussion of the relation- ship of 1n_§§ancn_o£_Excellence to education. Chapter III includes a description of the methods and procedures used in this study and contains a description of the survey instrument. Chapter IV contains a review of the findings from the survey of superintendents and union presidents. 13 In Chapter V the study is summarized. followed by conclusions. implications. and recommendations. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The two major emphases incorporated in this study are manage- ment and leadership. The eight core management practices identified in W (Peters 8. Waterman. 1982) focus on both management and leadership principles. Because "past and current management theory ideas need to be woven into new theory" (Peters & Waterman. 1982. p. 102). this chapter begins with a historical recounting of the development of management and leadership theory as they relate to education and to the book W. Journal articles related to W are reviewed. as well. The chapter concludes with an investigation and summary of the literature relating the content of the book to educa- ti onal practice. WWW Woodmen: Webster defined management as the act. art. or manner of managing. or handling. controlling. directing. etc. (McKechnie. 1979). Knezevich (1969b) defined school administration. or management. as "a social process concerned with creating. maintaining. stimulating. Ill 15 controlling. and unifying formally and informally organized human and material energies within a unified system designed to accomplish predetermined objectives" (p. 11). Griffin (1984) referred to management as "the process of planning. organizing. leading. and controlling an organization's human. financial. physical. and information resources to achieve organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner" (p. 7). Levitt (in Sergiovanni. Burlingame. Coombs. 8 Thurston. 1980) described management as follows: Management consists of the rational assessment of a situation and the systematic selection of goals and purposes (what is to be done?); the systematic development of strategies to achieve these , goals; the marshalling of the required resources; the rational design. organization. direction. and control of the activities required to attain the selected purposes; and. finally. the motivating and rewarding of people to do the work. (p. 16) W Interest in management can be traced back thousands of years. Such formidable tasks as building the Egyptian pyramids with only primitive tools. conducting early military campaigns. or establishing and controlling the vast Roman Empire all required some forms of management practices. The Egyptians applied the management functions of planning. organizing. and controlling to construct the pyramids. Alexander the Great used staff organization to coordinate activities during his military campaigns. A well-defined organizational structure was developed in the Roman Empire that facilitated communication and control (George. 1968). 16 Wilson: Business management. however. was not considered a serious field of study until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. when a few people began to concern themselves with such problems. Classical management theory is a label applied to the beliefs about management that emerged during the early years of the nineteenth century. Classical management theory includes two different approaches to management: scientific management and classical organization theory. Scientific management is concerned with the management of work and workers. whereas classical organization theory focuses on managing the total organization. Soiontifloflaoagomont Scientific management theory developed from the work of five people: Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915). Frank Gilbreth (1868-1924). Lillian Gilbreth (1878-1972). Henry Gantt (1861-1919). and Harrington Emerson (1853-1931). Taylor. however. played the dominant role. Taylor's scientific management can be summarized in the following four steps: 1. Managers develop a science for each element of a man's work. 2. Managers scientifically select and then train. teach. and develop the workman.*whereas in the past the workman chose his own work and trained himself as best he could. 17 3. Managers cooperate with the workers so as to insure all of the work is being done in accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed. 4. There is an almost equal division of the work and the responsibilities betweeninanagement and the workmen. Management takes over all work for which managers are better fitted than the workmen. while in the past almost all of the work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrown upon the men (Hicks 8 Gullett. 1981). The work of Taylor had a significant effect on American society. By applying his principles and similar approaches to job equalization. manufacturing organizations came to rely heavily on mass-production techniques. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth created an understanding of motion study and the significance of increasing output by reducing effort. Working individually and together. they developed numerous techniques and strategies for eliminating inefficiency (Spriegel 8 Myers. 1953). One of Frank Gilbreth's more interesting contributions was to the craft of bricklaying. He developed procedures for doing the job more efficiently. specifying standard materials and techniques as well as specifying the actual positioning of the bricklayers themselves. He also developed a special scaffold. a standard mortar formula. and had inexpensive laborers carry the bricks to the scaffold. These changes increased output about 200%. In addition to bricklaying. he studied a wide variety of fields. such as surgical procedures. professional baseball. and golf (Wren. 1972). 18 Lillian. his wife. was a leader in the evolving field of industrial psychology. Wren stated that her book. Ih§_E§ygnglggy_o1 .Management. published in 1916. "is one of the most significant early contributions to the study of the human factor in industry" (p. 159). Henry Ganttfls major contributions included the task and bonus pay plan. the Gantt chart for production planning and control. and an early understanding of leadership theory. His writings are character— ized by a basic recognition of the human factor in industry and by his belief that workers should be provided with the means to find in their jobs a source of both income and pleasure (Rathe. 1961L Harrington Emerson worked as an early efficiency expert. ‘The main thrust of his efforts was aimed at the elimination of waste and creation of wealth. He presented "principles of efficiency" of which the first five concerned relations with men and the remainder concerned methods. institutions. and systems. His first principle was "clearly defined ideals."uneaning the need for agreement among all organizational participants as to their ideals or goals. Second. "common sense." told managers to take a larger view of problems and to seek special knowledge and advice. Third. "competent counsel" involved the necessity of building a compe- tent staff. The fourth was "discipline" and called for obedience and adherence to organizational rules. The fifth principle was the "fair deal)‘ This directed the manager to establish a system of justice and fairness in all dealings with the worker. 19 Seven additional principles were more mechanistic and self- explanatory: "reliable. immediate. accurate. and permanent records" (information and accounting systems); "dispatching" (planning and routine of‘work); "standards and schedules" Onethods and time for tasks); "standardized conditions"; "standardized operations"; "written standard practice instructions"; and "efficiency reward" (the incentive plan) (Dale. 1975; Emerson. 1924). W The major contributors to classical organization theory were Henri Fayol (1841-1925). Lyndall Urwick (1891-1983). Max Weber (1864- 1920). and Chester Barnard (1886-1961). Henri Fayol was a French industrialist who attempted to systematize the practice of management to provide guidance and direction to other managers. He developed a set of management principles. or guidelines. for effective management and was the first to identify the specific managerial functions of planning. organizing. leading. and controlling. Fayol's principles were developed from those he used most frequently in his own experience. 1. Division of labor. Both managerial and technical work can be specialized. resulting in efficiency. 2. Authority. This consists of that held by the manager by virtue of office or rank and personal authority. which was based on intelligence. experience. moral worth. and so on. 20 3. Discipline. People in the organization must respect the organizational governing rules. 4. Unity of command. Each subordinate should report to only one superior. 5. Unity of direction. Similar activities in an organization should be grouped together under one manager. 6. Subordination of the individual to the common good. Interests of individuals should not be placed before the goals of the overall organization. 7. Remuneration. Compensation should be fair to both the employee and the organization. 8. Centralization. Power and authority should be concen- trated at the upper levels of the organization. 9. Scalar chain. A chain of authority should extend from the top to the bottom of the organization and should always be followed. 10. Order. Human and material resources should be coordinated so as to be in the right place at the right time. 11. Equity. Managers should be kind and fair when dealing with subordinates. 12. Stability. High turnover of employees should be avoided. 13. Initiative. Subordinates should have the freedom to take initiative. 14. Esprit de corps. Teamwork. team spirit. and a sense of unity and togetherness should be fostered and maintained (Wren. 1972). 21 Lyndall Urwick. after a career as a British army officer. became a noted management theorist and consultant. He further advanced modern thinking about the management functions of planning. organizing. and controlling. He identified eight principles applicable to all organizations: 1. All organizations should be an expression of purpose. 2. Authority and responsibility must be co-equal. 3. Responsibility of high authorities for work of subordinates is absolute. 4. Chain of authority should extend from the top to the bottom- of the organization and should always be followed. 5. A reasonable "span of control" for a supervisor is five or six subordinates whose work interlocks. 6. One's work should be specialized. or limited to a single function. 7. Similar activities in an organization should be coordinated by one manager. 8. Every duty should be clearly described (Wren. 1972). Urwick is noted not so much for his own contributions as for his synthesis and integration of the work of others (Griffin. 1984). He integrated his ideas with those of others in scientific management and was "optimistic that a general theory of administration could be attained and his own work has represented a substantial step in that direction" (Wren. 1972. p. 358). 22 Max Weber developed the bureaucraticunodel of organization design. He suggested that a bureaucracy is an organizational structure based on a legitimate and formal system of authority. Weber viewed a bureaucratic form of organization as logical. rational. and efficient. The ideal bureaucracy exhibits a division of labor. a consistent set of abstract rules. a hierarchy of positions. business conducted in an impersonal way. organizational employment. and advancement based on technical expertise. His work laid the foundation for contemporary organization theory (Henderson 8 Parsons. 1947). Chester Barnard. former president of New Jersey Bell Telephone Company. made significant contributions to management in his book WW (1938). His best-known idea was the cooperative system. an attempt to bring together human-relations and industrial-management practices. 'hhe basic idea was that management must create a cooperative system. a system able to satisfy the personal objectives of emp10yees while meeting the impersonal objectives of the organization. He also interpreted executive responsibility as the manager's obligation to create values that permit both human and industrial potential to be fulfilled. Mammal—111m BeJotodJLEduoatloD Classical management theory has been related to education by Griffith (19791. He proposed that the five characteristics of Weber's ideal bureaucracy can apply to schools as well because schools have (1) hierarchical structure. (2) functional specialization. 23 (3) prescribed competence. (4) written records. and (5) stable rules and policies. Griffith did not view schools as being rigidly bureau- cratic but saw them as coercive and utilitarian organizations. Etzioni (1964) described the central tenet of scientific management as a correlation of material rewards and work efforts. stating "if material rewards are closely related to work efforts. the worker will respond with the maximum performance that he is physically capable of" (p. 21). Jensen and Clark (1964) saw the scientific movement as having a "theoretical framework which was based on a model of the school as a machine with a definable input (students). a system of production (the educational process). and a measurable output (student attainment)" (p. 62). Griffith (1979). in his pursuit of the application of organiza- tional theory to education. presented Fayol's model for consideration by principals and superintendents. Fayol's indicators for the effective management of an organization are: (1) division of labor. (2) authority. (3) discipline. (4) unity of command. (5) unity of direction. (6) subordination of individual interest to general interest. (7) remuneration of personnel. (8) centralization. (9) a chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest ranks. (10) order. (11) equity. (12) stability of tenure of personnel. (l3) initiative. and (14) harmony and unity among the personnel of a concern. 24 Sergiovanni et aL.(1980) suggested that scientific management and classical management theories help provide administrators with a rational model for conceptualizing the economic considerations involved with people in the work place. According to Sergiovanni et alu persons are primarily motivated by economic concerns. which are controlled by the organization. Organizational rationality is defined by formal organizational charts. job descriptions. policy manuals. and other organizational routines. The traditional organizational chart which illustrates the roles and relationships within the school structure is a rational conception. a product of classical management theory. However. an informal organization tends to develop and function. which. if accurately mapped. would be at odds with the formal organization (Sergiovanni et a1.. 1980). The emphasis in both scientific management and bureaucratic theories is on increasing efficiency of the entire school organi- zation as it achieves its goals. Bureaucracy emphasizes structur- ing the organization properly. defining roles. and assigning functions. Scientific management emphasizes the development of control systems which can engineer the work to ensure standard output. In each case. certain aspects of organization and adminis- tration are emphasized and better understood but other aspects are neglected or given only secondary status. Neither scientific man- agement nor bureaucratic thinking gives adequate attention to the human side of life in educational organizations. Such issues. for example. as individual personality and human needs. and such condi- tions as job satisfaction. motivation. and morale seem clearly secondary. (Sergiovanni et a1.. 1980. p. 52) The emphasis in both scientific management and bureaucratic theories is on increasing the efficiency of the entire school organization while it is in the process of achieving its major goals. Bureaucracy emphasizes structuring the organization properly. defining 25 roles. and assigning functions. Scientific management emphasizes the development of control systems to ensure standard output. In each case. certain aspects of an organization are emphasized. but other aspects are neglected or given only slight emphasis. Neither scientific management nor classical organizational theory appeared to consider adequately the human side of life in organizations (Duncan. 1983). BohaxiomLManaoomontlbooLv As one counterforce to this emphasis. behavioral management theory. also known as the human-relations movement. emerged in the 19305. It evolved from the Hawthorne Studies (Mayo. 1933) and was a popular approach to management for many years. It suggested a more complex process than either the classical management theory or scientific management theory. An underlying assumption of the human- relations movement was that management's concern for the worker would lead to increased job satisfaction. resulting in better work perform- ance. Elton Mayo (1880-1949). Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). and Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) helped advance the human-relations movement through applied research. The Hawthorne Studies (Mayo. 1933). a research project to measure the effect on productivity of conditions in the work environment. were led by psychologist Elton Mayo. These studies introduced behavioral sciences to management and demonstrated that workers are motivated by more than the satisfaction of economic needs 26 and that an organization is a social system. not just a logical arrangement of work functions. The studies also gave managers new techniques that took the human element of managing into account (Hicks 8 Gullett. 1981). Maslow (1943) advanced a theory suggesting that people are motivated by a sequence of needs. arranged in a hierarchy of importance. The needs specified in Maslow‘s hierarchy are: first. the physiologi- cal needs for such things as food. sex. and air. which represent the basic issues of survival and biological function. Second. the safety needs for a secure physical and emotional environment. Examples include the desire for adequate housing. clothing. and money as well as job security. Third. belongingness needs. which include the need for love and affection and the need to be accepted by one's peers. Fourth. esteem needs include the need for positive self-image and self-respect and the need for recognition and respect from others. And fifth. self- actualization needs. at the top of the hierarchy. focus on realizing one's potential for continued growth. Once the most basic needs. those at the bottom of the hierarchy. are met. an individual tends to move "up" the hierarchy until the self-actualization level is reached. While Masl ow's concept of the need hierarchy has been widely accepted by managers. research has revealed certain shortcomings and defects in the theory. For example. some researchers have found that all levels of needs are not always present and that the order of the levels is not always the same as developed by Maslow (Wahba 8 Bridewell. 1976). 27 Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y represent the essence of the human-relations movement. Theory X has rather negative expectations of the worker. 'Theory Y represents a more positive human-relations orientation. Theory Y. in McGregor's view. was a more appropriate foundation for management. 'The basic assumptions of Theory X and Theory Y were described by McGregor (1960) as follows: Theory X assumptions: 1. People do not like work and try to avoid it. 2. People do not like work. so managers have to control. direct. coerce. and threaten employees to get them to work toward organizational goals. 3. People prefer to be directed. avoid responsibility. want security. and seem to have little ambition. Theory Y assumptions: 1. People do not naturally dislike work; work is a natural part of their lives. 2. People are internally motivated to reach objectives to which they are committed. 3. People are committed to goals to the degree that they receive personal rewards when they reach their objectives. 4. People will both seek and accept responsibility under favorable conditions. 5. People are bright. but under most organizational conditions their potential is underused. 28 WW BolandJLEduoatioD John Dewey/'5 publication of Wm appeared in 1916. at about the same time as the human-relations movement began to come into prominence. Dewey emphasized a more humane treatment of children and more participation on the part of teachers in the establishment of educational programs. which was similar to the emphasis of the human relationists (Griffith. 1979). Simon (1967) stated. "The principal normative concern here was to create organizational environments in which employees would be motivated to join the organization. to remain in it. and to contribute vigorously and effectively to its goals" (p. 288). During this era. schools became more child centered. The studies of Kurt Lewin. Ronald Lippit. and Ralph White in 1938 showed the effects on group achievement of three leadership styles. identified as democratic. authoritarian. and laissez-faire. The democratic style appeared to have the greatest effect on achievement. "The widespread knowledge of the results of this study. coupled with the other previously cited factors. created an almost universal acceptance in education of the democratic style as the appropriate model for adninistration" (Miller. 1972). The human-rel ati ons movement. when applied to education. emphasized that teachers need to feel useful to both the school and to their own work group. Consequently. the basic task of the administra- tor becomes that of developing team players. Administrators. by 29 sharing information and encouraging participation in decision making. will satisfy teachers' needs for belonging and for individual recogni- tion. Such actions should increase staff morale and reduce resistance to formal authority. In education. such organizational concepts as team teaching. family grouping. open space. school within a school. open corridor. and integrated day are philosophically based on the human-relations concepts (Sergiovanni et a1.. 1980). However. the individual's desire for maximum sel f-development at work as well as the centrality of work in each person's life are questionable. If work is not the center of an individual's life. then the emphasis on individual involvement and allowance for decision making may not have the desired effect on performance and morale (Leavitt. 1963). Contemporary theorists have noted that many of the assertions of the human relationists were simplistic. inadequate descriptions of work behavior. For example. the assumption that worker satisfaction leads to improved performance has been shown to have little. if any. validity (Fisher. 1980). Walloon! Subsequent to the evolution of classical management theory and the human-relations movement. organizations have grown larger and even more complex. Organized labor. technology. and government regulations have all contributed to organizational change. The organization. its structure. and its demands on managers have changed radically from 30 what they were years ago. Traditional principles are now generally thought of as descriptive rather than prescriptive (Kast 8 Rosenzweig. 1979). Two somewhat overlapping modern theories have attempted to integrate what we know about management today: the systems theory and the contingency theory. W. The systems theory holds that organizations use four basic resources from their environment; (1) human. including managerial talent. labor. etc.; (2) monetary. the financial resources for immediate and long-term operations; (3) physical. including facili- ties and equipment; and (4) information. the data and other kinds of information used by the organization. The role of systems managers is to take these four resources and combine and coordinate them to achieve the goals of the organization (Griffin. 1984). Four major concepts contained in systems theory are open versus closed systems. subsystems and suprasystems. components. and equilib- rium and disequilibrium. Open systems interact with their environment. whereas closed systems do not (Silver. 1983). Knezevich (1969a) stated that a school is an example of one of the most open systems. Another primary assumption of systems theory is that the elements. or subsys- tems. of the suprasystem. or the larger system of which a particular system is a part. are interdependent. A school is a suprasystem that consists of a wide variety of resources that ultimately result in the achievement of objectives (Knezevich. 1969b). The components of a system are the parts that interact with each other to achieve the objectives of the suprasystem. Equilibrium and disequilibrium involve 31 monitoring environmental feedback and making adjustments in order to keep the suprasystem and its components functioning effectively (Silver. 1983). "Systems theory offers managers a useful perspective" (Griffin. 1984. p. 54). Management involves taking the available resources of an organization and combining than to attain the organization's goals. W. A second modern theory is called the contingency approach. Contingency theorists advocate spelling out conditions of the task. people. and managerial jobs as parts of a whole management situation. Then they integrate the elements into an effective solution. Contingency theorists believe there are many effective ways to perform management functions. rather than a single. transferable recipe (Bedeian. 1978). Sergiovanni et a1. (1980) described contingency theory as a general framework for analyzing and selecting from a number of existing theories those appropriate for a particular circumstance. Contingency theory. as opposed to the classical and human-relations schools. holds that the "one best way" approach to all problems is not viable (Griffin. 1984) . Went! Classical management theory. composed of scientific management and classical organization theory. focused on effective management at the level of the worker and of the organization as a whole. 32 The basic premise of the human-relations school was that improving employee satisfaction would lead to improved employee per- formance. Research has not borne this out (Fisher. 1980). More recent theories. such as the systems theory. deal with the interrelationship of the various parts of an organization in achieving the organizational objectives. while the contingency theory encourages the use of relevant portions of various theories. depending on the nature of the organization and the imediate situation. malomCflJoonLoLLoadonsmILIhoorx DefinitLQDLoLLoadoLshjo Webster defined leadership as the position or guidance of a leader; the ability to lead (McKechnie. 1979L CMnningham (1985) defined leadership as "the exercise of influence" (p. 17). Leadership. as described by Welte (1978). is "natural and learned ability. skill. and personal characteristics to conduct interpersonal relations which influence people to make the desired decision" (p. 630). Thompson (1980) stated. "Leadership is best described as 'getting the job done through people'" (p. 2). "The process (act) of influencing the activi- ties of an organized group toward goal setting and goal achievement" is a definition provided by Stogdill (Bass. 1981). Bellows (in Bass. 1981) viewed leadership as the process of arranging a situation so that various members of a group. including the leader. can achieve common goals with maximum economy and a minimum of time and work. 33 .(inoatJJanJhoorx One of the first efforts to understand leadership was the trait approach. which attempted to determine what characteristics. or traits. make a person a successful leader. A trait is defined as a distinctive physical or psychological characteristic that seems to account for an individual's behavior. This concept was later termed the "great man" theory of leadership. It held that a person is born either with or without the necessary traits for successful leadership (Bass. 1981). Several early theorists attempted to explain leadership on the basis of inheritance. Galton (1869) studied the hereditary background of great men. Woods (1913). who studied 14 nations over periods of five to ten centuries. concluded that ”the man makes the nation and shapes it in accordance with his abilities." Wiggam (1931) advanced the idea of the survival of the fittest. proposing that intermarriage produces an aristocratic class (Bass. 1981). ILaJIJheoLx The great-man theory was held in rather high regard until the late 18905. when researchers began to suggest: (l) the leadership traits of "natural leaders" should be possible to investigate and describe and (2) if their unique traits are identifiable. then individuals should be able to acquire these characteristics through learning or experience. Thus came the transition from the great-man 34 theory to "trait" theory. which postulated that leadership could be learned (Bass. 1981). This thinking motivated a host of leadership studies whose intent was to identify a set of universal characteristics that might enable individuals to become leaders. Personality characteristics such as knowledge. assertiveness. enthusiasm. persistence. self-confidence. dependability. need for achievement. and social maturity were investi- gated. In addition. physical characteristics such as height. weight. energy. athletic ability. and attractiveness were also studied (Stogdill. 1948). This assumption gave rise to the trait theories of leadership. L. L. Bernard (1926). Bingham (1927). Tead (1929). and Kilbourne (1935) explained leadership in terms of traits of personality and character. Bird (1940) compiled a list of seventy-nine such traits from twenty psychological 1y oriented studies. A similar review was completed by Smith and Kruger (1933) for educators and by W. O. Jenkins (1947) for understanding military leadership (Bass. 1981. p. 27) In general. the results of such studies were disappointing. Certain relationships were found. but the findings were generally weak and often inconsistent across studies. Limited support was found for the conclusion that the average leader tends to exceed the average follower in these respects: (1) intelligence. (2) scholarship. (3) dependability. (4) activity and social participation. and (5) socioeconomic status (Stogdill. 1948). W Findings were so inconclusive that leadership researchers in the late 19405 began to challenge the possibility of such a set of 3S universal leader traits. Attention shifted to the examination of relationships between leader behaviors and subordinate satisfaction and performance. This focus. termed the behavioral approach. held that leaders are best characterized by behavior patterns rather than indi- vidual traits and that effective leaders use a particular behavioral style when leading individuals or groups toward goal achievement. The results of such leadership behavior would. it was assumed. increase performance and subordinate satisfaction. The main difference between the trait and behavioral approaches is that the former attempts to explain leadership on the basis of what leaders are. while the latter attempts to explain leadership on the basis of what leaders do and how they do it. The behavioral approach received much attention into the mid- 19605. Two relevant and major studies were conducted during this period. The Ohio State University leadership studies. beginning in 1947 and directed by Ralph NL Stogdill. attempted to identify and describe dimensions of the behavior of leaders in organizations. Initially. a list of 1.800 exampJes of leadership behavior was compiled. This list was then reduced to 150 items. which the researchers believed represented the basic categories of leader behavior. A questionnaire was then developed which contained the statements of leader behavior illustrating these different categories. The questionnaire sample was taken from both civilian and military personnel. Included were Air Force commanders and members of B-52 36 bomber crews; officers. noncommissioned personnel. and civilian staff in the Department of Navy; assembly-line supervisors; college adminis- trators; executives of regional cooperatives;lnembers of various stu- dent and civilian groups; and school superintendents. principals. and teachers. The surveys initially identified 14 dimensions of leadership. but only two were actually found to be typical of leader behavior. The two basic behaviors or styles were initiating structure and considera- tion. Initiating-structure behavior is that in which the leader initiates the structure needed to perform the job through directions and orders. In consideration behavior the leader shows concern for subordinates and attempts to establish a warm. friendly. and supportive climate (Stogdill 8 Coons. 1957). The Ohio State leadership studies showed that both consideration and initiating structure are necessary for successful performance. .An effective leader is both demanding and yet sensitive to the needs of subordinates. These studies also indicated that no single leadership style is universally effective. Flexibility is called for in a leader. since the balance of leader behaviors will vary. depending on the situation (Schreisheim 8 Bird. 1974). Also in the late 19405. researchers at the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research. especially Rensis Likert. began studying leadership behaviors. These studies focused on the 37 operation of small work groups and also identified two basic leader behaviors. job centered and employee centered. The job-centered style involves leader behaviors oriented toward close supervision. pressure for better performance. meeting deadlines. and evaluating output. similar to the Ohio State initiating- structure aspect. Job-centered leaders are detached and noninvolved. They consider their main job to be getting the work done. Subordinates are viewed as instruments for doing this rather than as human beings with needs and emotions similar to their own. The employee-centered style involves leader behaviors that are oriented toward human aspects of subordinate problems and development of effective work groups with high performance goals. Employee- centered leaders are concerned with employee needs. welfare. advance- ment. and personal growth. 'This style is similar to the Ohio State dimension of consideration (Likert. 1967L While the behaviors. or styles. identified by Ohio State and Michigan are similar. there are also significant differences. The most obvious is that the forms of leader behavior were not viewed by Ohio State researchers as being at opposite ends of a single continuuuL They were assumed to be independent variables in which a leader could exhibit varying levels of initiating structure and at the same time varying levels of consideration. The Michigan view of leader behavior presumed the two styles to be at opposite ends of a single continuum. That is. a leader may be either job centered or employee centered. but not both. 38 WW Through additional research studies. it became increasingly evident that a serious flaw in the behavioral approach was its failure to examine how differences in situations might influence leader effectiveness. While certain behaviors are associated with leader effectiveness. no single set of behaviors will be appropriate for all situations. By the late 19605. the direction of leadership research began to assimilate this situational perspective (Bass. 1981). As a result. contemporary leadership theories are almost entirely situational. They attempt to explain effective leadership within the context of the work environment or within specific situations. Three theories are the most prominent: (l) Fiedler's Contingency Theory. (2) House's Path-Goal Theory. and (3) Vroom and Yetton's Normative Theory. Fiedler's Contingency Theory specifies that group performance is a result of interaction of two factors: leadership style and situational favorableness. ‘The model is based on the premise that situational conditions determine whether task-oriented behavior or relationship-oriented behavior is more appropriate. Situational conditions are divided into three major categories: (1) leader-member relations. which can range from very good to very poor; (2)'task structure. high to low; and (3) leader position power or legitimate authority. which can be strong or weak. Eight combdnations are then identified along a "favorableness for the exercise of leadership" continuum (Fiedler. 1974). 39 Fiedler's findings suggested it is not accurate to speak of effective and ineffective leaders but that there are only leaders who perform better in some situations. but not all situations; that almost everyone can be a leader by carefully selecting those situations that match their leadership style; and that the performance of a leader can be affected by changing the favorableness of the group situation in which he/she is placed. Evidence has suggested. however. that such situational vari- ables as training and experience play a role in leader effectiveness. Fiedl er's theory has also been criticized for its lack of support in research and for its broad-based assumptions about leader behavior (McMahon. 1972). The "expectancy" theory of motivation is the primary basis for the path-goal theory. Expectancy is simply a person's estimate of the likelihood that a specific act or behavior will result in a specific outcome or reward. The path-goal theory is based primarily on the worker's expectancy that efforts will lead to successful task results. This expectancy may be unclear when the task is uncertain. when required work activities are vague. or when participants are inexperi- enced at the job to be done. In such situations the leader must let subordinates know what is expected of them and give guidance and direc- tion. In the case of tasks that are highly structured. the primary role of the leader may be merely to express support as a reward for effective performance. 40 The current version of path-goal theory identifies four kinds of leader behavior: (1) directive leader behavior. (2) support- ive leader behavior. (3) participative leader behavior. and (4) achievement-oriented leader behavior. These varying kinds of leader behavior assume that leaders can change their style to meet the demands of a particular situation. In so doing. the leader makes valued rewards available and clarifies to subordinates the kinds of behavior that will lead to the accomplishment of goals and thus to valued rewards (House 8 Mitchell. 1974). Instead of concentrating on factors such as productivity and satisfaction. Vroom and Yetton (1973) focused on how to get decisions made and implemented. They started with seven questions regarding the problem: (1) Does it have a quality requirement? (2) Is it structured? (3) Do I have enough information? (4) Is subordinate acceptance important? (5) If I make the decision am I reasonably certain that subordinates will accept it? (6) Do subordinates share organizational goals in solving the problem? (7) Is there likely to be conflict regarding preferred solutions? Using the criteria from these seven questions. managers may use three strategies for their decision making: (1) the autocratic strat- egy. which involves personally solving problems with information avail- able or by acquiring necessary data; (2) the consultative strategy. which means sharing the problems and consulting with involved indi- viduals; and (3) the group-process strategy. which requires acting as a facilitator so that the group reaches consensus. 41 Two additional conditions are significant in this process. If time is an important factor. the autocratic approach may be the best. If development of subordinates is important. a more participative approach may be necessary (Vroom 8 Yetton. 1973). The Vroom-Yetton model as well as the path-goal theory both recognize the flexibility of leader style. They are in contrast with the contingency theory of Fiedler. which presumes that a leader's style is inflexible. LoadoEshipJIIooELBolatod Won The topic of leadership was of interest to the business world long before educators became involved. The theoretical and practical aspects of leadership have been investigated by students of business administration for at least 90 years. while it has been a topic of interest and concern for educational researchers for only the past 25 years (Griffith. 19791. While the great-man theory and the trait theory were early leadership approaches. no specific work was conducted with these theories in relation to education. It was during the time of the behavioral approach that educa- tional administrators and supervisors began to be studied from the perspective of leader behavior. Halpin (1966) used an instrument called the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire to isolate two categories of leader behavior: initiating structure and consideration. Initiating structure refers to a leader's behavior in organizing a work group in terms of procedure and communication channels. Consideration 42 refers to a leader's behavior emphasizing mutual trust and friendship between the leader and members of his group. Halpin stated that both initiating structure and consideration are important behaviors for educational leaders. although they reportedly value consideration behavior more highly. Getzels and Guba described a school system or organization as a social system with three possible styles of leadership: nomothetic. idiographic. and transactional. The nomothetic leader stresses insti- tutional requirements such as the established procedures. rules. and regulations. The idiographic style emphasizes the needs and personal- ity of each member. concerned with good human relations and satisfac- tion of individual needs of group members. The transactional style varies depending on circumstances. The transactional leader may be more nomothetic in one instance and more idiographic in another (Griffith. 1979). This model has been used to clarify the relationships and conflicts that confront administrators. It has also been used to analyze. understand. and predict leader behavior. It focuses on administrative relations as a function of interaction between the nomothetic and idiographic dimensions (Knezevich. 1969b). Contingency theory provides for the multifaceted world of the educational administrator. Not only the environment and the immediate situation are to be considered. but also other factors. all in light of past experiences and future goals. Sergiovanni et aL.(l980) pointed out three major strengths of contingency theory for educational 43 administrators: (1) It states there is no "one best way" to handle situations. (2) it provides a framework for administrators to think about and deal with change. and (3) it helps administrators to recog- nize and deal with the complexity of administration. Two weaknesses of contingency theory when used by educational administrators need to be considered: (1) When making decisions. administrators must keep in mind their larger vision and goals for the organization. and (2) when reacting to specific situational variables. administrators must avoid becoming neutral in terms of their own organ- izational value (Sergiovanni et a1.. 1980). The path-goal theory is based primarily on the worker's expectancy that efforts will lead to successful task results. The administrator lets the staff know what is expected of them and gives guidance and direction in how to meet the expectations. Over a period of time. administrators can affect their employees' perceptions of tasks in terms of perceived outcomes (Silver. 1983). In this process. Vroom (1976) acknowledged the importance of the ability of the employee in successful performance. The normative theory specifies what should be done in situa- tions. It presumes a high level of rationality on the part of the people within the organization. It would assume that the leadership of a school might place the highest priority on moral and rationally correct decisions. a challenging standard for people in organizations. A serious weakness of the normative approach is its lack of regard for how people think and act and how organizations truly function. 44 .Manaoomont_IbooLx_Bo1atod_to_In_§oanch_o£_fixoellenoo While Peters and Waterman (1982) discussed eight attributes that can be commonly identified with excellent companies. they believed these eight to be interwoven within thercontext of an organizational culture that is both dominant and coherent. Kottkamp (1984) defined culture as: Shared values and interpretations of social activities and commonly held definitions of organizational purpose and work orientations. all embraced by the normative perspective taken by members of the organization.. . . When culture is strong and cohesive. it provides a sort of multiplier effect for individual work efforts. Individuals are supported. guided. and given identity by a social web which moves them toward common goals. (p. 136) Deal and Kennedy (1982) wrote that every organization has a culture. In some organizations it may be fragmented and difficult for an outside observer to understand. In others. culture "is very strong and cohesive." According to the authors. "whether weak or strong. culture has a powerful influence throughout an organization” (p. 4% "Culture gives people a sense of how to "behave and what they ought to be doing." stated Howard Schwartz. vi ce-presi dent of Management Analy- sis Center ("Corporate Culture." 1980. p. 149). Culture implies values that set a pattern for a company's activities. opinions. and actions ("Corporate Culture." 1980). Value systems generally include such content as the importance of people. quality and service. innovation. informal communications. and paying attention to detail. The values incorporated into the organizational culture are what give meaning to life in the organization. This meaning can be so 45 significant to individuals within the organization that they are able to relate these purposes to their own lives. The role of the chief executive in an excellent corporation is to manage the value system. Typically. the management of culture is implemented through consistent behavioral example enacted in close proximity to those who perform the essential work of the organiza- tion ("hands-on. value driven"). As culture develops over years. members come to believe in and act on the values that undergi rd and direct behavior. and once employees are truly enculturated. the need for volumes of specific rules disappears. Members become free to act autonomously. to experiment and innovate. and even to fail ("autonomy and entrepreneurship") so long as specific behaviors are generated in close adherence to the value framework of the culture ("simultaneous loose-tight properties"). (Kottkamp. 1984. p. 137) The various schools of management theory provide a variety of philosophical emphases which translate into practical guidance for managers. Although the approaches differ. even radically. most elements of previous philosophies are not completely eliminated when a new approach is embraced. "Thus. the schools of management thought should be viewed in a complementary. not contradictory. light. Each has something of value to offer. The key is understanding how to use than effectively" (Griffin. 1984. pp. 58-60). Wren (1972) referred to past management theory as footprints of the men who left them and the times in which these men lived. The past must not be buried but used as a foundation and guide for the foot- prints which will be made in the future. Within the practices of the past there are the lessons of history for tomorrow; there is a flow of events and ideas which link yesterday. today. and tomorrow in a continuous stream. (p. 493) 46 LoadoLshJthoomBoJatodJLILSearohoLExceuonoo In contrast to management theory. which over the years has been well researched and documented. leadership research has produced a mass of bewildering findings. Stogdill wrote. "the endless accumulation of empirical data has not produced an integrated understanding of leader- ship" (Bass. 1981. p. xvii). "The directions pursued by researchers are many. and the knowledge acquired is great. However. much is still unknown about this important area of management and administrati on." concluded Duncan (1983. p. 254). According to Bass (1981). "a multiplicity of themes is likely to appear in any one leadership study. Leadership itself may be the independent. dependent. or intervening variable" (p. xiii). Leadership must be viewed in the social and cultural context within which it functions. Bass explained that to appreciate effective leadership in modern West Germany requires understanding of what kinds of participatory practices have been legislated since World War II. as well as what firmly entrenched traditions accepted by both leaders and subordinates about the "leadership principle" have been carried forward from the Second Reich of a century ago. (pp. xiii-xiv) Similarly. the attributes and philosophy postulated in In W must be perceived in the context of corporate existence in the United States in 1982. According to an editorial in M. It took no great genius to realize that something was terribly wrong with (LS. management. The country was well on its way to becoming a second-rate industrial power. Thousands of managers. worried by decline in corporate success and in personal sel f- respect. were uncomfortable with what they perceived as a shift in val ues: The customer matters less than the maximization of assets; personal advancement matters more than loyalty; current management 47 theory matters more than the lessons of experience. ("The Real Search for Excellence." 1984. p. 144) The leadership theme that echoes throughout Peters and Waterman's (1982) work primarily emphasizes a behavioralist approach. focusing on both the initiating behaviors and the consideration behav- iors of leadership. The authors were initially inclined to discount the major role of leadership in the excellent companies. However. as they conducted their research they found that "associated with almost every company was a strong leader (or two) who seemed to have had a lot to do with making the company excellent in the first place" (p. 26). The overall initiating behavior of leaders in the excellent companies can be described as building meaningful direction and values into the fabric of the organization. Virtually every employee sup- posedly would share the vision of the organization. "Be innovative." ”product quality." "business integrity." and "fair treatment of employ- ees" are terms that illustrate this concept. Contrast these precepts with those articulated in poorer-performing companies: "focus on internal politics rather than the customer." or "focus on 'the numbers' rather than on the product and on the people who make it and sell it" (Peters 8 Waterman. 1982. p. 76). The authors contended that the strong direction and values so obvious in excellent companies attract people who "buy into their norms" (p. 74). The norms are so strong that people either buy into them or get out. Closely aligned with initiating behavior is leader consi dera- tion behavior toward empl oyees. A climate of warmth. support. and 48 positive reinforcement is exhibited by top management. The authors drew from the writings of B. F. Skinner to describe asymmetrically positive and negative reinforcement. "In short. negative reinforcement will produce behavioral change. but often in strange. unpredictable. and undesirable ways. Positive reinforcement causes behavioral change too. but usually in the intended di rection" (Peters 8 Waterman. 1982. p. 68). Named were five components of positive reinforcement: l. Reinforcement should be specific. incorporating as much information as possible. 2. Reinforcement should have immediacy. 3. The system of feedback mechanisms should take account of achievability. rewarding small as well as major achievements. 4. Intangible reinforcement should come from top management in the form of attention. 5. Reinforcement should be unpredictable and intermittent. WW Peters and Waterman (1982) stated that We hazard that Chapters 3 and 4 may be daunting because they are devoted largely to theory. . . . We do suggest that the reader skim them. at least. and consider giving them careful attention. We urge this. because the eight basics of management excellence dontt just "work because they work)‘ They work because they make exceptional sense. The deepest needs of hundreds of thousands of individuals are tapped--exploited. if you will--by the excellent companies. and their success reflects. sometimes without their knowing it. a sound theoretical basis. . . . It is not. we would add. new or untested; most of the theory has stood the scientific test of time and defied refutation. (p. xv) 49 In 1977. the authors visited United States and European busi- ness schools. They discovered a renewed interest by researchers in the work of Elton Mayo and of Chester Barnard. According to Peters and Waterman. both Mayo and Barnard challenged the ideas put forth by Max Weber. who defined the bureaucratic form of organization. and Frederick Taylor. who made an exact science out of management. In their second chapter they reviewed the replacement of rational. scientific management principles with newer principles. citing the shortcomings of the rational model as: (1) Cost reduction becomes the first priority. thereby reducing the emphasis on product development in order to enhance revenues; (2) the exclusively analytic approach leads to a philosophy that omits the human element; (3) to be narrowly rational leads to a negative reaction to new ideas and pro- posals; (4) rationality. in today's thinking. does not promote experi- mentation and demands punishment for mistakes. which reduces the incentive to experiment; (5) anti-experimentation leads to a reliance and insistence on complexity. also reducing the ability to be inno- vative; (6) the rationalist approach leads to formal well-defined development procedures. which hinder the ability to make responsive changes in product development; (7) major decisions come to be shaped by rational. analytic processes. rather than propelled by strong val- ues; and (8) the rationalist world does not allow for healthy internal competition. The authors pinpointed the most important failing of the rational model as its complete emphasis on decision making. while 50 neglecting both pathfinding and implementation. Pathfinding was described as an aesthetic. intuitive process of design. Implementation referred to people "getting into a problem and understanding ity-and then owning it for themsel ves" (Peters a Waterman. l982. p. 53). Carroll (1983) argued that the evidence cited against the rational model has been drawn. with few exceptions. from secondary sources such as the W and Mung. He cited concern about the fact that the authors so unquestioningly used such sources. Agreeing with Carroll regarding questionable research and obscure referencing. Lear (1984). however. noted that Peters and Waterman produced a "highly readable. interesting. and provocative book." which stimulated "hundreds of companies and thousands of managers to think constructively about their managerial styles and their corporate goals" (pp. l78~79). In support of Carroll's viewpoint. Zak (1984) stated. "Rather than telling me’what to do. as a more rigorously academic book might have. Peters and Waterman have given me’a number of things about which I can think" (p. 179). Carroll criticized Peters and Waterman for quoting leaders of companies not Judged to be excellent. The quotations from these company leaders generally were critical of the rational model. Carroll took issue with the inclusion of these quotations because the leaders' qualifications. which would lend credence to their statements. were never addressed. 51 Gilchrist (l984) challenged this criticism. stating. "The strength of W is precisely that the authors have shared with us the source of information with which the leaders of many of America's most famous companies operate" (p. l78). Carroll's contention that leaders of the identified excellent Companies were not the only ones quoted missed the point. according to an editorial in mm. which stated that "managers began to miss the book's point: Good management is a human act and not a science. Mindless adherence to formula almost certainly will produce the opposite result" ("The Real Search for Excellence." l984. p. 144). In ”Man Waiting for Motivation.” Chapter 3. the authors took the writings of a number of people who had commented on the condition of human beings and what motivates them and related these to insights into management behavior. Carroll contended that the chapter used small bits and pieces of research. not necessarily related to the major tenets of the chapter; He illustrated this with two or three examples of what he termed questionable or unrelated research. In Chapter 4. "Managing Ambiguity and Paradox." the authors "try to combine some recent contributions in the evolution of management theory with some of the theoretical implications of the excellent compani es" (Peters & Waterman. 1982. p. 89). They described management theories chronologically: first. the "closed system- rational actor” era. l900-l930; second. the'"closed system-social actor" era. 19304960; third. the “open system-rational actor" era. 52 l960-l970; and fourth. the "open system-social actor" era. l970- present. Peters and Waterman argued that today's theorists do not develop exclusive theories but instead provide vignettes that contradict much of the traditional wisdom perpetrated in earlier theories. While Peters and Waterman never intended to propose a new theory of management. they suggested that researchers and managers study the findings of excellent companies. Waterman (1984). in a letter to the editor. stated "what we did not write--and said so--is new management theoryuthough we do challenge the old” (p. 9). To understand the eight basic attributes one must start at a point of acceptance of the limits of rationality. which the authors explained in Chapters 2 and 3 of their book. Four major elements of new theory include the authors' observations on basic human needs in organizations: (1) people's need for meaning; (2) people's need for modicum of control; (3) people's need for positive reinforcement. to think of themselves as winners in some sense; and (4) the degrees to which actions and behaviors shape attitudes and beliefs rather than conversely. The authors did suggest that important ideas from past and current management theory must permeate the fabric of a new theory. Two they stressed*were the notion of companies as distinctive cultures and the emergence of the successful companies through purposeful. but specifically unpredictable. evolution. 53 Carroll (l983) stated. "In effect. readers are being told that the new theory is something less than self-evident and self- demonstrating. but is. nonetheless. better than past and present strivings" (p. 82). He pointed to the authors' promise to provide some "new theory" through the relationship between the performance of the excellent companies and the eight attributes. Instead of a new theory. continued Carroll. the authors talked about "linkages . . . observed in the excellent companies." Carroll concluded that the authors realized that the eight attributes do not comprise an entire management theory. However. again quoting Waterman (l984). "What we did not write-~and said so--is new management theory-- though we do challenge the old" (p. 9). The eight management principles espoused by Peters and Waterman were viewed by Kottkamp (l984) as an integration of grounded theory with the scholarly work of such leading organizational theorists as March. Mintzberg. Pfeffer. Scott. Salancik. and Weick. He stated that the "book is popular. but not atheoretical" (p. 136). Kottkamp went on to point out that the one conceptual theme that bound together many of the authors' eight attributes was that of organizational culture. Culture may be construed as: shared values and interpretations of social activities and commonly held definitions of organizational purpose and work orientations. all embraced by the normative perspective taken by members of the organization.. . . When culture is strong and cohesive. it pro- vides a sort of multiplier effect for individual work efforts. Individuals are supported. guided. and given identity by a social web which moves them toward common goals. (p. 136) 54 We: Peters and Waterman. in their defense. reminded readers that their intention was not to write a book devoted to theory but to address those qualities of management that too many managers have ignored. It was written in the context of time when Japan's organiza- tional acuity was a grave concern to previously U.S.-dominated markets. The essence of the book is: "LLS. companies could regain their competitive edge by paying more attention to people. both customers and employees. and by sticking to the skills and values they know best." When virtually all eyes were turned to Japan for answers. "the book showed there were worthy models of management in our own backyard" ("Who's Excellent Now." 1984. p. 77). When Wage appeared in November. 1982. it took no great genius to realize that something was terribly wrong with U.S. management. The country was in a severe recession and seemed well on its way to becoming a second-rate industrial power. Thousands of managers. worried by a decline in corporate success and in personal sel f—respect. were uncomfortable with what they perceived as a shift in values: The customer matters less than the maximization of assets; personal advancement matters more than loyalty; current management theory matters more than the lessons of experience. In short. managers were ready for something else. What they got was a best-selling book that made it acceptable for managers once again to care about their customers. their employees. their products. and their corporate values. It was all enormously exhilarating. Tom Peters. one of the authors. jokes about managers walking around with the book's famous "eight attri- butes" of excellence printed on flash cards. It turned out to be no joke. People have a fatal attraction for turning useful ideas into formula responses and managers began to miss the book's real point: Good management is a human art and not a science. Mindless adherence to formula almost certainly will produce the opposite result. The fact that nearly a third of the 43 excellent companies are not looking so excellent anymore makes that point abundantly clear: There is no single. patented. fool proof way to run a company. The only constants are flexibility and the willingness to change. The 55 book's authors thought that they had preached this lesson success- fully. Now they intend to try again. in other books. May they have better luck. ("The Real Search for Excellence." 1984. p. T44) WW Boyer (l985) found it ironic that while the nation's industries and businesses. as described in Winn. are encour- aging more responsible involvement of the workers. the public sector appears to be taking the opposite approach. The national reports of the early 19805 and the resulting activity regarding improving educa- tion emphasized trying to fix education from the top and. in the pro- cess. imposed more bureaucracy and control. Boyer concluded that a follow-up study of the various commis- sion reports summarizing school reforms in all 50 states found a vast majority of the initiatives were centrally imposed at the district level. Focus was on "more courses. more testing. more teacher prepara- tion." 0f the 20 school-improvement categories cited in this report. only two gave support to the renewal of school people. The focus was on the institutional rules and regulations. Spady (l984). in his analysis of them implications for schools. believed that schools have to shift away from thinking about people as isolated specialists and get them to become members of organizational teams. These teams would operate at the building level and would be a challenge for the building administrators and for the teachers themselves. He believed that he could make a case that "there is tremendous promise in the better utilization of teach- ers. instructional time. and resources for improved student achievement 56 if we do this" (p. 21). The outcome of such teaming would be to enable schools to group children together at the right time to deliver instruction. thereby improving productivity and accountability. Kottkamp (1984) cited the evidence that supported the organiza- tional-culture thesis of 1n_§eanch_o£_fixcellenge. He contrasted the organizational culture focusing on the whole organization with that of a school. He found that school culture is usually identified with an individual building rather than a district. Excellent companies have leaders with rather lengthy tenure. School superintendents and princi- pals may experience more frequent turnoven. Increasing the tenure of school district superintendents and principals might enable schools to develop a stronger culture and ultimately improve school effectiveness. In an interview with TUrsman (1984). Peters reported that the most important characteristics of excellent companies are focusing on customers and providing superior quality and service. Kottkamp (1984) found the ability to stay close to the customer to be more problematic in educational organizations than in the corpo- rate world. Companies can respond to customer demands through new product development or service divisions. Schools have to deal with "mul ti ple single 'customers' making conflicting demands about the same product" (p. 138). There are also external political interventions from state. national. or local sources that confound and constrain educational organizations. Peters (in Tursman. 1984) noted that the educational system has problems similar to the "professionally-managed health care system" and the run sch Kni COP. be and 57 the "professionally-managed businessJ' "That is. the people who are running the show very often are extremely detached from the basic deliv- ery of the product in the classroom. or at the sales force level. or with the patients in the hospital" q» 12). He urged administrators to spend generous amounts of time in classrooms and with teachers. They must not lose touch with the "customer." The planning basics offered by Peters and Waterman apply to schools as well as to private-sector organizations. according to Knight (1984). She suggested that strategic planning in schools should consist of: 1. Boiling the problem down to manageable size. 2. Keeping your efforts specific. 3. Giving staff members free rein on achieving goals. 4. Devising a plan for keeping a program running smoothly and that will enable the momentum to continue. 5. Not letting roadblocks stop progress. 6. As a leader. not letting yourself be cut off from feedback and suggestions. W Management and leadership within an organization are closely intertwined. While both have gone through an evolutionary process of development. lessons gleaned from earlier times are historically car- ried forth and woven into the fabric of new theory. 58 Current theory focuses on the human element of management and leadership as related to morale. productivity. and commitment. The importance of leadership is emphasized heavily as it relates to the underlying culture and focus of the organization. .1n_§eanch_o£_£xcell§n§§ is often maligned by researchers and theorists because of its dearth of empirical research. Its purpose. however. was to focus the attention of management and leadership on the importance of the human element. The authors did not discount the obviously important influence provided by leaders in organizations. Educational institutions are complex organizations. and much of the past and current leadership and management theory can be applied to their structure. Recent studies and reform recommendations for educational improvement appear to focus on changing organizational requirements. They fail to stress the importance of renewing people within the organization. An emphasis on personnel renewal could positively influence the commitment of people within the organization. Predictably. the improvement in the effectiveness of the organizational culture would positively affect the lives of students as well as faculty. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY IDILQQHQIIQD The basic objective of this study was to determine the extent to which selected core management practices identified by Peters and Waterman (1982) were being integrated into the practices of third-class school districts in Michigan. The eight core management practices were identified in Peters and Waterman's study as common in a large number of successful United States corporations. .Ennulatlon_and_§amnle The population from which the sample of interest was drawn consisted of public school superintendents and teacher union presidents of third-class school districts in the state. Superintendents were selected because they represent the viewpoint of management and teacher union presidents because they represent the collective viewpoint of teachers. As of August 1984. there were 188 third-class districts in the state (Williams. 1985). W Two questionnaires were mailed to each third-class school district. one to the superintendent and one to the union president. totaling 376. A listing of superintendents was obtained through the 59 9? cf 7'9 9" an 5L m Te 60 Michigan Education Directory. Inc. (1985). The Michigan Education Association mailed the survey to union presidents affiliated with their organization. and the researcher contacted individual districts not so affiliated to obtain the union president information. 0f the 376 possible respondents. a total of 180 returns were received. From these 180 returns. both superintendents and union presidents from 67 districts returned the survey. Those 67 represented 36% of the third-class districts and provided the basis for data analysis. The 67 districts were also surveyed to determine the primary description of their school district: urban. suburban. or rural (see Appendix B). The largest number. 42. of respondent districts were suburban. representing 22% of the 67 districts. The next largest number. 15. were rural. representing 8% of the 67 districts. The smallest number of respondent districts. 10. were urban. representing 5% of the 67 districts (see Table 3.1). Table 3.l.--Primary description of respondent school districts. Description Number Percent Suburban 42 22% Rural 15 8% Urban 10 5% an cf IE 8? Je TE '6 61 Want The instrument was designed by this researcher. based on an analysis of the main components of the eight core management practices of Peters and Waterman (1982). These eight core management practices were the dependent variables of the study: (1) a bias for action; (2) close to the customer; (3) autonomy and entrepreneurship; (4) productivity through people; (5) hands-on. value driven; (6) stick to the knitting; (7) simple form. lean staff; and (8) simultaneous. loose-tight properties. Information and guidance in the preparation of the survey was taken from Dillman's (1978) W and Conway. Jennings. and Milstein's (1974) W. The initial instrument was critiqued by a professional public opinion pollster from the Depariment of Education of the State of Michigan (Feaster. 1984). Upon completion of revisions. the survey instrument was sent in November 1984 to five superintendents and union presidents for their review. Their packet included the survey instrument. a correlation of each question to one of the eight core management practices. and a description of each of the eight core management Practices. Revisions were made based on their suggestions. Finally. in February 1985 the researcher met individually with two superintendents and two union presidents. each of whom had received the revised survey instrument. a correlation of each question to one of the eight core management practices. and a description of each of the 62 eight core management practices. Additional revisions were made as a result of these discussions. All of the superintendents and union presidents who were described above were not employed in any of the districts that were part of the sample population. The general mailing of May 28. 1985. contained a cover letter signed by the researcher. the questionnaire. and a self-addressed envelope to be returned to the researcher. Following the general mailing. a letter reminder was sent on July 13. 1985. to those who had not returned the questionnaire. This mailing included a reminder letter. another copy of the questionnaire. and a selfiaddressed enveloped to be returned to the researcher. Wm: The survey instrument (Appendices B and C) contained a total of 78 statements under one of four categories: (1) Our School District. (2) Central Office Administrators. (3) Building Administrators. and (4) Staff Members. For each statement the respondents checked the frequency with which they perceived it occurred in their districts: (3) usually. (2) occasionally. (1) seldom. or (0) never. The survey statements listed by core management practice. category. and order are: 63 14__A_Bin§_£QL_A&119n Our School District Has a reasonable number of yearly goals Appoints voluntary. ad hoc committees to seek solutions to specific problems Disbands these committees when problems are resolved Central Office Administrators Share district-wide goals and priorities with all staff members Are willing to spend the necessary money to develop student programs in response to needs expressed by staff While in the buildings: Talk about the goals and priorities of the district Encourage staff members to discuss ideas. concerns and problems in an open. straightforward manner Building Administrators Talk informally with their staff members Staff Members Feel free to try innovative and creative instructional techniques Women Central Office Administrators View parents as partners in achieving district goals Are sensitive to the needs of staff and community in regard to the school program Encourage parental input into the school program Are responsive to parental input Are willing to spend the necessary money to develop student programs in response to needs expressed by parents and community members 64 Frequently recognize staff members for quality instruction in informal contacts as well as through formal means (i.e.. coffees. dinners. ceremonies. etc.) Encourage parents to discuss ideas. concerns and problems in an open. straightforward manner Building Administrators View parents as partners in achieving district goals Encourage parental input into school program Are responsive to parental input Encourage parents to discuss ideas. concerns and problems in an open. straightforward manner Staff Members View parents as partners in developing a strong educational program Encourage parental input into school programs Are responsive to parental input Keep parents informed about what is going on W Central Office Adni ni strators Encourage staff input into the school program Encourage individual buildings/departments to develop new programs/ curricula to better meet the needs of students Accept failure of an innovative program/curricula approach without condemning the individuals concerned Give individual school building administrators a great deal of latitude in decision making Have systems in place to obtain staff input at all levels of the district Encourage communication across all levels of the district; especially informal. problemrsolving oriented communication 0U 65 Building Adninistrators Encourage staff input into school program Create an environment that is supportive of innovation and creativity in instructional techniques Encourage individual classroom teachers to try innovative and creative instructional techniques Accept failure of an innovative instructional approach without condemning the individuals concerned Encourage their staff to discuss ideas. concerns and problems in an open. straightforward manner Staff Members Our Feel free to discuss ideas. concerns and problems with building adninistrators in an open. straightforward manner Feel free to discuss ideas. concerns and problems with central office administrators in an open. straightforward manner W School District Recognizes staff members who contribute toward the achievement of district goals and priorities Provides useful training and in-service for school district personnel Central Office Administrators View the staff as partners in achieving district goals Share budget information with all staff members Treat staff members with respect and dignity Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on people 66 Building Administrators Understand the district-wide goals and priorities View their staff as partners in achieving district goals Feel they are partners in developing a strong educational program Are responsive to staff input Treat their staff with respect and dignity Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on people Staff Members Feel they are partners in developing a strong educational program Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on people W Central Office Adninistrators Support the district's goals and priorities Provide opportunities to acquaint staff members with the entire operation of the district and how it affects students and parents While in the buildings: Keep people informed about what's going on While in the buildings: Are accessible to all employees in the building Building Administrators Support the district's goals and priorities Understand the operation of the district and how it affects students and parents Talk with the staff about the goals and priorities of the district Keep their staff informed about what is going on Are accessible to all employees in the building Ste: 'H I i 01 67 Staff Members Understand the district-wide goals and priorities Understand the operation of the district and how it affects students and parents fiL__jfld£iLJELJJELIEUJJdflQ Our School District Focuses on the fact that our primary mission is education and does not venture into programming unrelated to this mission Has specific programs for meeting student needs that are recognized as being very successful by community members. parents and staff Central Office Administrators Encourage programs to be tried on a small scale to determine their value prior to expansion WW Our School District Has a minimal number of central office administrators Central Office Administrators Are responsive to staff input Allow buildings a great deal of autonomy in decision making Spend a great deal of time in individual school buildings While in the buildings: Talk informally with all employees WWW Our School District Has a sound set of long-range goals and priorities that serve as guiding principles for district employees 68 Central Office Administrators Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high perfonmance expectations of students Building Administrators Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high performance expectations of students Staff Members Support the district-wide goals and priorities Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high performance expectations of students Hypothesis The null hypothesis is that there is no significant difference between the rating by the superintendents and teacher union presidents indicating a congruence of perception of the degree of integration of the eight core management practices. Symbolically: Ho: M1 = M2 Legend: M1 = superintendent mean "2 = teacher union president mean The alternate hypothesis is that there is a significant difference between the rating by the superintendents and teacher union presidents indicating a lack of congruence of perception of the degree of integration of the eight core management practices. 69 Symbolically: Ho: M1 7 M2 Legend: M1 superintendent mean M2 teacher union president mean We The data were analyzed using a two-sample trtest. The independent variable was the rating by superintendents and teacher union presidents. The dependent variables were the characteristics contained in the eight core management practices. In addition. the survey obtained information regarding the category of the respondents' school districts: rural. suburban. or urban. These data were also analyzed to determine if any of these variables had a significant effect on the degree of implementation of the selected procedures. W The research was limited by the following constraints: 1. The study was limited to superintendents and union presi- dents of third-class districts in Michigan. having 2.400 through 305000 students. 2. The study was limited by factors intrinsic in the use of any questionnaire. including (a) the problems of nonreturn of the survey. (b) the bias of the respondents. (c) validity depending on the willingness and ability of the respondent to provide information. (d) the possibility of misinterpretation of the statements. and (e) the measurement of perception. 70 Sum An overview of the research design was presented in Chapter III. The population for this study was described. Succeeding sections included a description of the data-collection procedures. a detailed description of the researcher-developed instrument. a presentation of the hypothesis formulated for the study. a description of the data analysis. and the limitations of the study. G-iAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction The principal objective of this study was to determine the extent to which selected core management practices. identified by Peters and Waterman (1982).'were perceived as being integrated into the practices of third-class school districts in a midwestern state. This chapter includes the hypothesis tested. description and interpretation of the statistical treatment of the data. evaluation of the hypothesis by means of an established criterion of statistical significance (p < .05). and the decision to reject or accept the hypothesis. Details of the statistical analysis of the data were computed by use of the Sta- tistical Package for the Social Sciences. Wm Summary statistics were computed to describe the distributions of the attitude responses of respondents who chose the attitude closest to their feelings: never. seldom. occasionally. usually. The respond— ents were classified in one of two groups. superintendents or union presidents. These data tested the hypothesis that there is no signifi- cant difference between the rating by the superintendents and teacher union presidents indicating a congruence of perception of the degree of 71 72 integration of the eight core management practices. The criterion of p‘<.05 statistical significance was selected to accept or reject the hypothesis. A two-sample t-test was performed on the data for each dependent variable. In addition. superintendents were asked to classify their school district into one of three categories: rural. urban. suburban. The purpose of this was to run a chi-square test comparing the extent to which the differences in perception were influenced by district category. The results of this test basically echoed the responses of superintendents and union presidents to the questionnaire. The type of district--rural. urban. suburban--did not appear to be a factor in responses. Each of the following tables is accompanied by a narrative highlighting the items of greatest and least discrepancy. For ease of reading. the two positive categories. usually and occasionally. were collapsed into one percentile rating and are located in parentheses. By implication. the two negative categories. seldom and never. were a subtraction from this percentile. W A two-sample t-test indicated significant differences between the responses of superintendents and union presidents in all statements under each category at the .01 level. (See Table 4.1.) Under the first category. Our School District. the greatest discrepancy focused on the statement. "Our school district has a reason- able number of yearly goal 5" (superintendents. 98%; union presidents. 73 Table h.l.--Mean, standard deviation, number of cases for superintendents and union presidents, sample N, and t-value for Core Management Practice l. . . Superintendents Union Presidents Signif. A Bias for Action -——————- Mean 5.0. N Mean 5.0. N t-Value* Our School District Has a reasonable number of yearly goals 2.8 .A55 67 2.2 .898 67 9.978 Appoints voluntary, ad hoc committees to seek solutions 2.6 .681 67 2.0 .778 67 4.371 to specific problems Disbands these committees when problems are resolved 2.9 .AHB 66 2.5 .800 63 3.127 Central Office Administrators Share district-wide goals and priorities with all 2.8 .373 67 l.7 .950 66 8.763 staff members Are willing to Spend the necessary money to develop student programs in response 2.6 .495 66 l.h .711 67 ll.580 to needs expressed by staff While in the buildings: Talk about the goals and priorities 2.3 .632 66 l.0 .806 67 10.0ll of the district Encourage staff members to discuss ideas, concerns and 2.9 .359 67 1.7 .91“ 67 9.329 problems in an open, straight- forward manner Building Administrators Talk informally with their staff members 2.9 .310 66 2.4 .583 67 5.680 Staff Members Feel free to try innovative and creative instructional 2.6 .523 66 2.1 .729 67 h.h20 techniques *These are all significant at the .01 level unless otherwise noted. 74 73%). Less discrepancy in responses pertained to the school district appointing "vol untary. ad hoc committees to seek solutions to specific problems” (superintendents. 92%; union presidents. 73%). and the least amount of discrepancy occurred concerning the item "Disbands these committees when problems are resol ved" (superintendents. 99%; union presidents. 87%). Perceptions differed greatly regarding central office sharing "district-wide goals and priorities with all staff members" (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 58%). 'The variance was considerably greater than that regarding whether the district "has a reasonable number of yearly goalsfl (superintendents. 98%; union presi- dents. 73%) under the category. Our School District. Superintendents and union presidents responded diversely regarding the degree to which they perceived central office administrators"talk about district-wide goals and priorities with staff members when they are in the buildings (superintendents. 91%; union presidents. 26%). The greatest difference in perception was revealed regarding the willingness of central office administration to fund student programs in response to needs expressed by staff (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 67%). There was less discrepancy between superintendents and union presidents in their view of building administrators talking "informally with all staff members" (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 96%). ”Staff members feel free to try innovative and creative instructional techniques" (superintendents. 98%; union presidents. 82%) 75 assumed less significance than some items in this section. but still was disparate between the two groups of respondents. W A two-sample t-test highlighted significant differences between the responses of superintendents and union presidents in all statements under each category at the .01 level. with the exception of one state- ment. (See Table 4.2.) Under the first category. Central Office Administrators. the greatest discrepancies focused on the sensitivity of central office administrators to the needs of staff and community as they pertained to the school program (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 64%) and the frequency of recognition of staff members for quality instruction in informal contacts as well as through formal means (superintendents. 97%; union presidents. 34%). More moderate variance occurred on two items: "Are willing to spend the necessary money to develop student programs in response to needs expressed by parents and community members” (superintendents. 100% union presidents. 41%) and "Encourage parents to discuss ideas. .0 concerns and problems in an open. straightforward manner" (superintend- ents. 100%; union presidents. 72%). More similar in responses. although still statistically variant. were three items: "View parents as partners in achieving district goal 5" (superintendents. 98%; union presidents. 80%); "Encourage parental input into the school program" (superintendents. '76 Table 4.2.--Mean, standard deviation, number of cases for superintendents and union presidents, sample N, and t-values for Core Management Practice 2. Superintendents Union Presidents Signif. Close to the Customer -——————- Mean 5.0. N - Mean 5.0. N t-Value* Central Office Administrators View parents as partners in achieving district goals 2.7 .499 67 2.1 .839 66 4.604 Are sensitive to the needs of staff and community in regard 2.8 .376 66 1.8 .808 67 9.517 to the school program Encourage parental input into 2.6 .487 67 2.1 .803 67 4.164 the school program Are responsive to parental input 2.9 .327 67 2.4 .681 66 4.940 Are willing to spent the neces- sary money to develop student programs in response to needs 2.6 .492 66 1.8 .821 65 6.567 expressed by parents and community members Frequently recognize staff members for quality instruction in informal contacts as well as through formal 2.5 .559 67 1.3 .859 67 10.250 means (i.e.. coffees, dinners, ceremonies, etc.) Encourage parents to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an open, 2.9 .344 67 2.0 .852 67 7.977 straightforward manner Building Administrators View parents as partners in achiev- ing district goals 2.6 .523 66 2.0 .712 66 5.712 Encourage parental input into school program 2.6 .530 66 2.1 .814 67 4.198 Are responsive to parental input 2.6 .498 66 2.4 .699 66 1.721 Encourage parents to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an 2.7 .463 66 2.1 .791 66 5.508 cpen, straightforward manner Staff Members View parents as partners in devel- oping a strong educational program 2.3 .664 66 2.0 .712 66 2.654 Encourage parental input into school programs 2.2 .677 66 1.9 .690 67 1.905 Are reSponsive to parental input 2.4 .609 66 2.4 .671 66 0.543 Keep parents informed about what is going on 2.5 .588 66 2.3 .705 67 1.255** *These are all significant at the .01 level unless otherwise noted. **Significant at the .21 level- 77 100%; union presidents. 80%); and "Are responsive to parental input" (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 89%). The Building Administrator category had the greatest perceived differences in two of the items: "View parents as partners in achieving district goals" (superintendents. 98%; union presidents. 74%) and "Encourage parents to discuss ideas. concerns. and problems in an open. straightforward manner" (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 75%). Building administrator responsiveness to parental input was perceived far less dissimilarly between the two sets of respondents than were the other items in this category (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 88%L Staff members. in all items. did not have the significance in variance that occurred under the Building Administrator and Central Office Administrator categories. "Are responsive to parental input" (superintendents. 94%; union presidents. 89%) and "Keep parents informed about what is going on" (superintendents. 95%; union presi- dents. 87%) had the least respondent discrepancy in this category. However. the latter statement was significant at the .21 level. There were two items common to all three groups: "Encourage parental input into school program" and "Are responsive to parental input." The first common item. "Encourage parental input into school program." showed central office administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 80%) and building administrators (superintendents. 99%; union presidents. 73%) to be fairly close in the amount of variance 78 and staff members (superintendents. 83%; union presidents. 71%) to be less variant in regard to this item. The second common item. "Are responsive to parental input." had central office administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 89%) more discrepant in this item and building administrators (superin- tendents. 100%; union presidents. 88%) and staff members (superintend- ents. 94%; union presidents. 89%) more closely aligned. The one common item between central office administrators and building administrators. "Encourage parents to discuss ideas. concerns and problems in an open. straightforward manner." revealed the building administrator (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 75%) was per- ceived to be slightly more Open to this than central office administra- tors (superintendents. 100% union presidents. 72%). W A two-sample t-test denoted significant differences between the responses of superintendents and union presidents in all statements under each category at the .01 level. (See Table 4.3.) Under the first category. Central Office Administrators. the greatest discrepancies pertained to encouragement of staff input into the school program (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 61%) and encouragement of "communi cati on across all levels of the district. especially informal. probl em-solving oriented communication" (superin- tendents. 97%; union presidents. 3%). The least amount of discrepancy focused on the acceptance of failure of an innovative program/ 79 Table 4.3.--Mean, standard deviation, number of cases for superintendents and union presidents, sample N, and t-values for Core Management Practice 3. Superintendents Union Presidents Signif. Autonomy and Entrepreneurship Mean S.D. N Mean S.D. N t-Value* Central Office Administrators Encourage staff input into the school program 2.9 .359 67 1.7 .876 67 9.546 Encourage individual buildings/ departments to develop new programs/curricula to better 2.8 .435 67 1.9 .808 67 8.259 meet the needs of students Accept failure of an innovative program/curricula approach without condemning the indi- 2.8 .393 64 2.0 1.000 59 6.016 viduals concerned Give individual school building administrators a great deal of 2.8 .424 67 2.1 .893 65 5.764 latitude in decision making Have systems in place to obtain staff input at all levels of 2.5 .636 67 1.5 .910 67 6.824 the district Encourage communication across all levels of the district; especially informal, problem- 2.7 .533 67 1.4 .938 67 9.621 solving oriented communication Building Administrators Encourage staff input into school program 2.8 .361 66 2.0 .778 67 8.330 Create an environment that is supportive of innovation and creativity in instructional 2.7 .506 66 1.8 .854 67 7.421 techniques Encourage individual classroom teachers to try innovative and 2.6 .495 66 1.8 .809 67 6.480 creative instructional techniques Accept failure of an innovative instructional approach without con- 2.8 .391 65 2.0 .838 58 7.038 demning the individuals concerned Encourage their staff to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in 2.8 .389 66 2.1 .773 67 6.850 an Open, straightforward manner Staff Members Feel free to discuss ideas, con- cerns and problems with building 2.7 .525 66 2.0 .778 67 6.043 administrators in an open, straight- forward manner Feel free to discuss ideas, concerns and problems with central office 2.7 .495 66 1.6 .855 67 9.180 administrators in an Open, straight- forward manner *These are all significant at the .01 level unless otherwise noted. 80 curriculum approach without condemning the individuals concerned (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 71%) and giving individual school building administrators a great deal of latitude in decision making (superintendents. 99%; union presidents. 79%). In the category of Building Administrator. encouragement of staff input into school program (superintendents. 100%; union presi- dents. 72%) and creating an environment that is supportive of innova- tion and creativity in instructional techniques (superintendents. 98%; union presidents. 61%) had the greatest degree of variance. The other items in this category. while still statistically variant. were not perceived as discrepantly as the previous two items. Staff members were perceived to feel less comfortable discuss- ing ideas. concerns. and problems with central office administrators in an open. straightforward manner (superintendents. 98%; union presi- dents. 49%) than they were discussing these with building administra- tors (superintendents. 97%; union presidents. 76%). However. in both cases. there was a significant difference in the perceptions of super- intendents and union presidents. In the one common item between central office administrators and building administrators. "Accept failure in an innovative instruc- tional approach without condemning the individuals concerned.” the dissimilarity in responses was slightly less toward central office administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 71%) than building administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 72%L 81 W A two~sample t-test highlighted significant differences between the responses of the superintendents and union presidents in all statements under each category at the .01 level. with the exception of one statement. (See Table 4.4.) Under the first heading. Our School District. both items were perceived discrepantly based on the responses of superintendents and union presidents. "Provides useful training and inservice for school district personnel" had a slightly greater degree of perceived variance (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 61%) than "Recognizes staff members whoicontribute toward the achievement of district goals and priorities" (superintendents. 94%; union presidents. 54%). Items under the second category. Central Office Administrators. were also viewed differently by the two respondent groups. with "rate stafflnembers with respect and dignity" being the least discrepant of the four items (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 76%). Building Administrators. the next category. were viewed more discrepantly in terms of their responsiveness to staff input (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 72%) than were any of the other items. Two areas of least discrepancy in this category were building administrators "Understand the district-wide goals and priorities" (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 85%) and ”Feel that they are partners in developing a strong educational program" (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 79%). 82 Table 4.4.--Mean, standard deviation, number of cases for superintendents and union presidents, sample N, and t-values for Core Management Practice 4. S . t d . P . . . . Productivity Through People uperin en ents Union reSIdents Signif Mean 5.0. N Mean S.D. N t-Value* Our School District Recognizes staff members who con- tribute toward the achievement of 2.5 .704 67 1.6 .834 67 6.715 district goals and priorities Provides useful training and in-service for school district 2.7 .473 67 1.7 .827 67 8.076 personnel Central Office Administrators View the staff as partners in achieving district goals 2.9 .308 67 1.8 1.000 66 8.658 Share budget information with all staff members 2.4 .585 67 1.4 .873 66 8.309 Treat Staff members with reSpect and dignity 3.0 .171 67 2.2 .903 67 7.043 Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify 2.9 .265 67 1.9 .967 67 8.040 the value placed on peOple Building Administrators Understand the district-wide goals and priorities 2.8 .401 66 2.3 .756 65 5.134 View their staff as partners in achieving district goals 2.8 .389 66 2.0 .800 65 7.601 Feel they are partners in developing a strong educational 2.8 .376 66 2.2 .814 66 5.632 program Are responsive to staff input 2.9 .348 65 1.9 .721 67 9.759 Treat their staff with respect and dignity 2.9 .290 66 2.2 .735 67 7.054 Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the 2.8 .376 66 2.1 .773 67 7.040 value placed on people Staff Members Feel they are partners in developing a strong educational program 2.6 .581 66 1.7 .927 67 6.286 Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value 2.7 .480 66 2.6 .558 67 l.099** placed on people *These are all significant at the .01 level unless otherwise noted. *nSignificant at the .27 level. 83 There was less discrepancy in the next category. Staff Members. in terms of understanding how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on people (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 97%). although this particular item was significant at the .27 level rather than the .01 level. One item. focusing on staff members. was that of the degree to which staff are viewed as partners in achieving district goals. Central office administrators were perceived to view staff members less in a partnership role (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 53%) than building administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 74%). although both were statistically significant. Responses toward central office administrators (superintend- ents. 100%; union presidents. 76%) and building administrators (super- intendents. 100%; union presidents. 85%) in rel ation to treating staff members with respect and dignity were more closely aligned. The last item with commonality across groups was "Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on peopl e." Central office administrators were perceived most discrep- antly (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 63%). followed by building administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 81%). By far the least statistically significant different were responses concerning staff members (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 97%). although this was significant at the .27 level rather than the .01 level. greet centr inf 01 lent: ent: 84 ComManaoomenLELaotiou A two-sample t-test indicated significant differences between the responses of superintendents and union presidents in all state- ments under each category at the .01 level. (See Table 4.5.) Under the first category. Central Office Administrators. the greatest discrepancy in responses occurred regarding the item. "While central office administrators are in the building they keep people informed about what's going on" (superintendents. 100%; union presi- dents. 37%). Considerably less discrepancy focused on central office administrators being accessible to all employees when they are in the building (superintendents. 98%; union presidents. 54%) and providing “opportunities to acquaint staff members with the entire operation of the district and how it affects students and parents" (superintendents. 89%; union presidents. 37%). The least amount of discrepancy pertained to the support of district goals and priorities by central office adninistrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 95%). Two areas provided sharp variance under the category of build- ing administrators. Respondent perception of building administrators talking with staff about district goals and priorities (superintend- ents. 94%; union presidents. 52%) and keeping them informed about relevant occurrences (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 62%) was quite discrepant. More moderate variance occurred on the other items. which involved support for the district's goals and priorities (super- intendents. 100%; union presidents. 91%). understanding the operation of the district (superintendents. 99%; union presidents. 85%). and 85 Table 4.5.--Mean, standard deviation, number of cases for superintendents and union presidents, sample N, and t-values for Core Management Practice 5. Hands-0n, Value Driven Superintendents Union Presidents Signif. Mean S.D. N Mean 5.0. N t-Value* Central Office Administrators Support the district's goals and priorities 3.0 .171 67 2.7 .555 62 3.660 Provide opportunities to acquaint staff members with the entire operation of the district and how 2.3 .899 67 1.2 .642 67 8.257 it affects students and parents While in the buildings: Keep people informed about what's 2.6 .483 67 1.3 .809 67 11.932 going on While in the buildings: Are acces- sible to all employees in the 2.8 .435 67 1.8 1.012 67 7.651 building Building Administrators Support the district's goals and priorities 2.8 .389 66 2.4 .661 65 4.098 Understand the operation of the district and how it affects 2.8 .448 66 2.4 .742 67 3.476 students and parents Talk with their staff about the goals and priorities of the district 2.6 .610 65 1.7 .794 66 7.536 Keep their staff informed about what is going on 2.8 .412 66 1.8 .842 66 5.919 Are accessible to all employees in the building 2.9 .267 66 2.6 .549 67 4.161 Staff Members Understand the district-wide goals and priorities 2.3 .576 66 1.7 .841 66 4.712 Understand the operation of the district and how it affects 2.3 .612 66 2.1 .716 67 1.592 students and parents *These are all significant at the .01 level unless otherwise noted. 86 accessibility to employees in the building (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 97%). The third category. Staff Members. found the greatest degree of variance focused on their understanding of district-wide goals and priorities (superintendents. 94%; union presidents. 58%) and the least variance related to their understanding of the operation of the dis- trict and how it affects students and parents (superintendents. 92%; union presidents. 84%L .CoLLManaoomenLELaotjoeo A two-sample trtest highlighted significant differences between the responses of superintendents and union presidents in all statements in each category at the .01 level. (See Table 4.6.) The first category. Our School District. had the greatest respondent discrepancy pertaining to the item "Has specific programs for meeting student needs that are recognized as being very successful by community members. parents. and staff" (superintendents. 98%; union presidents. 78%). Far less variance occurred on the item. "Focuses on the fact that our primary venture is education and does not venture into programming unrelated to this mission" (superintendents. 97%; union presidents. 84%). Central office administrators were perceived dissimilarly regarding their encouragement of programs to be tried on a small scale to determine their value prior to expansion (superintendents. 96%; union presidents. 63%). 87 Table 4.6.--Mean, standard deviation, number of cases for superintendents and union presidents, sample N, and t-values for Core Management Practice 6. 1 Superintendents Union Presidents Signif. Mean S.D. N Mean 5.0. N t-Value* Stick to the Knitting Our School District Focuses on the fact that our primary mission is education and 2.7 .533 67 2.4 .792 67 2.687 does not venture into programming unrelated to this mission Has specific programs for meeting student needs that are recognized as being very successful by 2.8 .414 66 2.2 .821 67 5.656 community members, parents and staff Central Office Administrators Encourage programs to be tried on a small scale to determine their 2.7 .551 67 1.8 .930 67 6.895 value prior to expansion *These are all significant at the .01 level unless otherwise noted. Table 4.7.--Mean, standard deviation, number of cases for superintendents and union presidents, sample N, and t-values for Core Management Practice 7. ' 1 F S ff Superintendents Union Presidents Signif. Sump e orm, Lean ta Mean S.D. N Mean S.D. N t-Value* Our School District Has a minimal number of central office administrators 3.0 .213 64 2.1 1.074 66 6.079 Central Office Administrators Are responsive to staff input 2.8 .386 67 1.6 .763 67 11.996 Allow buildings a great deal of autonomy in decision making 2.7 .536 66 2.0 .849 66 5.762 Spend a great deal of time in individual school buildings 2.2 .708 67 1.1 .677 67 9.228 While in the buildings: Talk informally with all employees 2.8 .478 67 1.6 .875 67 10.168 *These are all significant at the .01 level unless otherwise noted. 88 Woe]. A two-sample t-test denoted significant differences between responses of superintendents and union presidents in all statements under each category at the .01 level. (See Table 4.7.) The number of central office administrators being seen as minimal was perceived dissimilarly (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 76%) by the two sets of respondents. Under the category Central Office Administrators. the greatest discrepancies pertained to their responsiveness to staff input (super- intendents. 100%; union presidents. 52%) and their talking informally with all employees when they are in the buildings (superintendents. 97%; union presidents. 45%). This was followed by the perception of the amount of time they spent in individual school buildings (superintendents. 84%; union presidents. 28%). The least variant in this category was "Allow buildings a great deal of autonomy in decision making" (superintend- ents. 97%; union presidents. 6%). W A two-sample t-test highlighted significant differences between responses of superintendents and union presidents in all statements under each category at the .01 level. with the exception of one. (See Table 4.8.) Sir-.hanec i: Ethos ias as goals a as (.743: aiszri; illding 57e to: :ealit. Studen' Have h (iors Staf‘ lie SbDQOr Are :0: Gal it- St.:en- lave h; 89 Table 4.8.--Mean, standard deviation, number of cases for Superintendents and union presidents, sample N, and t-values for Core Management Practice 8. Simultaneous Loose-Tight Properties Superintendents Mean S.D. N Union Presidents Mean 5.0. N Signif. t-Value* Our School District Has a sound set of long-range goals and priorities that serve as guiding principles for district employees Central Office Administrators Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high performance expecta- tations of students Building Administrators Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high performance expecta- tions of students Staff Members Support the district-wide goals and priorities Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high performance expecta- tions of students 2.8 .789 .000 .344 .123 .389 .533 .346 .432 66 67 67 66 66 66 66 66 - .0 .905 .4 .763 .4 .738 .5 .612 .4 .792 .1 .630 .9 .308 .7 .540 67 67 67 67 67 60 67 66 3.680 6.083 4.804 6.020 4.242 3.712 .561** 1.245 *These are all significant at the .01 **Significant at the .58 level. level unless otherwise noted. pierce; overa‘ regari prior' (supei he 9 qual i' dents. tende dents. union degre Stude “‘9 a tow Presi defits Villa Pilor .0l 1: 90 This section. while all items had significant differences in perception between the two sets of respondents. had the least amount of overall variance in responses. Under the category of Our School District. perceptions differed regarding the district having a "sound set of long-range goals and priorities that serve as guiding principles for district employees" (superintendents. 88%; union presidents. 72%). Central office administrators were perceived differently by the two groups of respondents regarding the concern they have for providing quality education for all students (superintendents. 100%; union presi- dents. 81%) and their performance expectations of students (superin- tendents. 100%; union presidents. 88%). Building administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presi- dents. 94%) and central office administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 81%) were perceived as having a somewhat similar degree of concern in relation to providing quality education for all students. However. there was less respondent discrepancy toward build- ing administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 86%) than toward central office administrators (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 88%) in relation to the performance expectations of stu- dents. The next category. Staff Members. had the greatest respondent variance regarding the item "Support the district-wide goals and priorities" (superintendents. 99%; union presidents. 88%) and. at the .01 level. was less variant regarding staff members having "high performance presidents. quality ec ents. 100 89.6% usu nlflcanci between indicat lie eig 0n the ”th6 the dat Criter‘ differ: dents ‘ i '“tegr. lldivi Slgnif and un‘ 91 performance expectations of students" (superintendents. 100%; union presidents. 97%). The concern of staff members pertaining to providing quality education for all students was the least variant (superintend- ents. 100%-~86.4% usually. 13.6% occasionally; union presidents. 100%- 89.6% usually. 10.4% occasionally). however at the .58 level of sig- nificance. We The null hypothesis was that there is no significant difference between the rating by the superintendents and teacher union presidents indicating a congruence of perception of the degree of integration of the eight core management practices. A two-sample t-test was performed on the data for each dependent variable. The null hypothesis was rejected after a careful interpretation of the statistical treatment of the data and an evaluation of the hypothesis by means of an established criterion of statistical significance at p < .05. Therefore. the alternate hypothesis that there is a significant difference between the rating by the superintendents and union presi- dents indicating a lack of congruence of perception of the degree of integration of the eight core management practices can be accepted. Sum The following summary of the previous tables highlights those individual items from the questionnaire that exhibited the greatest significance in terms of differences between superintendent responses and union president responses. 92 In Table 4.1. A Bias for Action. the most significant items were under the category of Central Office Administrators: "Are willing to spend the necessary money to develop student programs in response to needs expressed by staff"; "While in the building: Talk about the goals and priorities of the district"; and "Encourage staff members to discuss ideas. concerns. and problems in an open. straightforward manner." Table 4.2. Close to the Customer. had the most significant items under the category of Central Office Administrators: "Are sensi- tive to the needs of staff and community in regard to the school program" and "Frequently recognize staff members for quality instruc- tion in informal contacts as well as through formal means (i.e.. cof- fees. dinners. ceremonies. etc.)." In Table 4.3. Autonomy and Entrepreneurship. the most signifi- cant items were under the categories of Central Office Administrators and Staff Members. The two items most significant under the category of Central Office Administrators were "Encourage staff input into the school program" and "Encourage communication across all levels of the district. especially informal. problem-solving oriented communication." The one item from Table 4.3 under the category of Staff Members was."Feel free to discuss ideas. concerns and problems with central office administrators in an open. straightforward manner." Table 4.4. Productivity Through People. had the most signifi- cant items under the categories of Central Office Administrators and 93 Building Administrators. The item from the Central Office Administra- tors category was "View the staff as partners in achieving district goalsJ' The item from the Building Administrators category was fiAre responsive to staff inputJ' Table 4.5. Hands-On. Value Driven. found the most significant items.under the category of Central Office Administrators: "Provide opportunities to acquaint staff members with the entire operation of the district and how it affects students and parents" and "While in the buildings: Keep people informed about what's going on." The most significant item in Table 4.6. Stick to the Knitting. was under the category of Central Office Administrators: "Encourage programs to be tried on a small scale to determine their value prior to expansion." Table 4.7..Simple Form. Lean Staff. found the most significant items to be under the category of Central Office Administrators: "Are responsive to staff input" and ”While in the buildings: Talk informally with all employees." The most significant items in Table 4.8. Simultaneous Loose- Tight Properties. were under the categories of Central Office Administrators and Building Administrators. The item under Central Office Administrators was "Are concerned about providing quality education for all students." The same item surfaced under Building Administrators: "Are concerned about providing quality education for all students." 94 A review of the significant data from each table revealed some commonalities across tables. Of the four categories in the survey instrument. Our School District. Central Office Administrators. Building Administrators. and Staff Members. the only category that consistently appeared in all eight tables was that of Central Office Administrators. In five of the eight tables some area involving communications was highlighted as being one of the most significant discrepant areas. Also found in five of the eight tables as one of the most discrepant areas were items related to the program provided for students. In addition to the eight categories in which Central Office Administrators appeared. Building Administrators appeared in two of the categories and Staff Members in one. Of the two items relating to the Building Administrator. one dealt with communications and one with the program provided to students. The item related to Staff Members dealt with communications. CHAPTER V SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS. IMPLICATIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter contains the following subsections: (1) summary. (2) conclusions. (3) implications. and (4) recommendations for further study. Summary The purpose of the study was to determine the extent to which selected core management practices. identified by Peters and Waterman (1982). were perceived by superintendents and union presidents to be integrated into the practices of third-class school districts in a midwestern state. Chapter I presented background information on representative samples from current and relevant educational reform proposals. A preponderance of the studies appeared to focus on specific curriculum reforms. Some emphasized improvement of classroom teaching and the future prospects for attracting quality persons to the teaching profession (Odden. 1984). Others addressed the leadership and management skills of administrators. Facilitating effective reform efforts was an overarching concern of most reform proposals. The important relationship between human resources and organizational success highlighted by Heneman. Schwab. and Dyer (1982) 95 96 transfers to the complex organization of schools as they individually and collectively endeavor to achieve successful outcomes spurred by the various reform efforts. Those core management practices identified by Peters and Waterman (1982) were conceived. for purposes of this study. as one effective means of applying successful corporate management and leadership practices to meaningful and focused school reform undertakings. Chapter II presented a conceptual framework for the study through a review of the literature. This literature review focused on a historical recounting of management and leadership theory. a discussion of management and leadership theory related to 1n_§eazgh_gf flagellenge (1982). and a review of related articles. The procedures employed to implement this study were described in Chapter III. A response questionnaire. developed by the researcher. was submitted to superintendents and union presidents of third-class school districts in Michigan. The survey instrument contained 78 statements clustered in four categories: (1) Our School District. (2) Central Office Administrators. (3) Building Administrators. and (4) Staff Members. For each statement the respondents indicated the frequency with which the activities occurred in their district: (3) usually. (2) occasionally. (1) seldom. or (O) neven. Data were subjected to a two-sample t-test to»compare the mean results of the two respondent groups. 97 In Chapter IV a detailed analysis of the results was presented. The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate hypothesis was accepted. ConoJosJons l. The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate hypothe- sis was accepted. after a careful interpretation of the statistical treatment of the data and an evaluation of the hypothesis. using an established criterion of statistical significance at p < .05. 2. All the items in the survey were significant in terms of discrepancies between superintendent and union president responses. The discrepancy was that superintendents rated each item the same as. or higher than. the union presidents. The items having the most significantly discrepant responses were highlighted from each of the eight core management practices that comprised the survey. Seventeen items were selected for discussion. Of the l7. 14 were within the category of Central Office Administrators. .A Central Office Adminis- trator item appeared under each of the eight core management practices. According tOnPeters and Waterman. the eight core management practices represent the basic values found in those companies identified as excellent. The authors suggested an organization's values and culture are shaped at the highest management level. Within school districts the central office administrators. especially the superintendent. are the high-level managers. Survey results showed that top school leadership was not generally perceived by the union presidents as modeling the values and culture described by Peters and late cull res; rela ment eltl lnte Min to a idea llgl Of: 101‘: and ass: Ceri 5P9! thai 98 Waterman. Superintendents. however. did perceive the values and culture as being modeled by top school leadership. 3. When the 17 items with the most significantly different responses were extracted from each of the eight areas. eight items related to communications. Six of these pertained to central office administrators. one to building administrators. and one to staff members. Central office administrators were not viewed as those who either encouraged informal. problem-solving communication or the open interchange of ideas. concerns. and problems. Both central office administrators and building administrators were viewed as unresponsive to staff input. Staff members felt little permission to openly discuss ideas. concerns. and problems with them. 4. The most significantly discrepant of the 17 items high- lighted included six related to the school curricular program. and five of six targeted central office administrators. One referred to build- ing administrators. These results. it appears. indicate central office administra- tors are not perceived as sensitive to the curriculum concerns of staff and community. Neither do they seem to encourage staff input. The assumption can be made. then. that they might also be lacking in con- cern for providing quality education for all students and unwilling to spend the necessary money for program development. It is interesting that the only other category of notable significance concerned building “ .c. J‘.‘_-L_m1- 99 administrators. who appeared to be perceived as showing minimal concern for providing students a quality education. 5. While. on the average. the discrepancies between the union presidents and superintendents were great. in a few cases the union leader and superintendent were in positive agreement. Fave of the districts had quite similar responses from both the superintendent and the union president. In these five districts. the union president and superintendent.held common perceptions about the degree of district- wide integration of the eight-core management practices. As a compari- son. seven other districts evidenced extreme differences between how superintendents and union presidents viewed this level of integration. 6. These survey results may have produced a "worst case scenario." however. because of the roles of those being interviewed: (1) the superintendent. as the chief school manager. and (2) the union president. as the principal union representative. Since both parties were aware they were completing the same survey instrument. it is conceivable they solidified their position at extremerends of the scale. If other persons had been selected for responses. for example. the principal or rank-and-file teachers. the results might have been different. However. in the excellent companies the discrepancies were very minimal between management and labor and even between management leadership and labor leadership. 100 Implications While there are numerous impl ications. the most significant will be highlighted for discussion. Peters and Waterman (1982) found that the excellent companies were characterized by eight attributes or core management practices. These were "clearly visible. quite distinc- tive." woven into the culture and shared values of the organizations. Kottkamp (1984) stated it is the role of the chief executive of an organization to manage the culture and value system "through consistent behavioral example enacted in close proximity to those who perform the essential work of the organization." The study conducted by this researcher found a significant discrepancy between superintendents and union presidents with regard to the degree of integration of these eight core management practices in the school districts surveyed. To minimize this discrepancy. superin- tendents may be assisted by further training directed at the concept of organizational culture and values. This training should include (1) developing a thorough understanding of the concepts and (2) recognizing the superintendent's role in the shaping. promotion. and transmission of the culture and values. Infrequent or unclear communications may have contributed to the marked differences in perception concerning the degree of integra- tion of the eight core management practices and the existence of shared organizational values. The union presidents reported. through the data. that they did not perceive a continuing occurrence of inter- active communication throughout the district. and He in CO] lnfor ialki at al infer tors. trat‘ read blun to t lunc TOUl acci Ol‘ adn Sta cur on ti: '0 101 Interactive communications may be promoted. according to Peters and Waterman. by central office administrators insisting on informality in communications. They suggested three strategies for achieving informal communications. The first is a technique termed Management By Walking Around or Visible Management. This tactic involves management. at all levels. spending considerable time out of the office. talking informally with employees. If modeled by central office administra- tors. it would provide accessibility to all employees and show adminis- trative responsiveness and concern for staff input. Second is an "Open door." which refers to administrators being readily accessible with an openness and willingness to discuss issues bluntly and straightforwardly. The third involves encouraging people to talk and interact with each other by arranging schedules so lunchtimes are shared. providing conducive physical support such as round tables rather than rectangular ones. having blackboards readily accessible to promote the exchange of ideas. and forming employee clubs or leagues. Union presidents commonly held the idea that central office administrators were highly insensitive to curricular concerns from staff and community and also unwilling to spend the money essential for curriculum development. These beliefs could be attributed to reliance on surface behaviors of central office administrators or false assump- tions derived from lack of consistent communication practices. Central office administrators and building principals should work on increasing their dialogue with staff. They need to show how 102 personally important they believe curriculum and student issues are. Ample opportunities should be created for staff members to give input into program development and evaluation. It is important to note that exceptions existed in a few districts. where superintendents and union presidents held similar. positive perceptions about the degree of integration of the eight core management practices. These cases led the researcher to conclude that continuing staff development in current management and leadership theory and practice would help all superintendents as they work on meaningful school reform. Snyder (1984) stated. "Education on both sides of the labor management relationship should regard collaborative workplace arrangements as their single most powerful potential contribution to the future of their profession; and to their continued ability to serve the nation." BooonmendatjonLIoLEuctnoLStudx The following suggestions are based on insights gained during the course of this study. 1. It is recommended that this study be replicated using a different sample population. As previously indicated. superintendents and union presidents may have solidified their positions at extreme ends of the scale. For example. comparing the perceptions of superin- tendents and building principals or rank-and-file teachers might gen- erate less solidification of responses. 103 2. When the 17 items selected from the core management practices were grouped. eight focused on communications. In fact. discussion of communications permeated the eight core management practices. Therefore. it would be prudent for superintendents and union leaders to analyze and use these findings as a basis for studying local district communication practices. 3. While the discrepancies found between the responses of union presidents and superintendents were usually great. a few dis- tricts revealed quite similar responses from both superintendent and union president. An in-depth study of varying types of districts might extract the crucial differences between school districts that have. or have not. integrated the eight core management practices. 4. It is recommended that a variation of this study be con- ducted using fewer school districts and sampling a broader representa- tion of administrators and teachers. This would result in less like- lihood of solidified positions along strict management or union lines. APPENDICES 104 APPENDIX A LETTERS TO SUPERINTENDENTS AND TEACHER UNION PRESIDENTS 105 106 \lay 28, 1985 Dear Colleague: A study of successful private sector key management practices was recently documented in the book, in Search of Excellence. Eight management practices were identified in the study as common in a large number of successful United States corporations. You have been selected to participate in a doctoral study which I am conducting to gain insight concerning the degree of implementation of these management practices in local school districts, as perceived by the superintendent and teacher association president. Due to the select population of this study it would be greatly appreciated if you would take about ten minutes to provide the information asked for in the enclosed questionnaire. After completing the questionnaire please place it in the stamped self-addressed envelope and return it within five working days. The results of the study will be presented statistically; individual responses will remain anonymous and completely confidential. Neither the respondent nor the school district will be identified in any manner. The code number found on the survey will be used only to determine those who do not respond and, therefore, are to receive a follow-up letter. As an educational colleague 1 can appreciate the demands which are placed upon your time. Please accept my thanks and appreciation for your time and professional interest. Sincerely, Lee Gerard 107 July 13, 1985 Dear Colleague: A few days ago you received a questionnaire concerning perception of the degree of implementation of eight key management practices in local school districts. As noted in the previous letter, the results of the study will be presented statistically; individual responses will remain anonymous and completely confidential. Neither the respondent nor the school will be identified in any manner. If you have not completed the questionnaire, your cooperation is urgently needed and will be greatly appreciated, in view of the fact that there is a select sample involved in the study. After completing the questionnaire, please place it in the return envelope and mail it as soon as possible. If you have already completed and mailed the survey it probably had not been received at the time this letter was mailed. Thank you for your assistance. Sincerely, Lee Gerard APPENDIX B SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY 108 109 Check the appropriate line indicating the freguency with which the following occur (check only one line per question): OUR SCHOOL DISTRICT: 4;} 9’ Has a sound set of long-range goals and priorities that serve as guiding principles for district employees. Has a reasonable number of yearly goals Recognizes staff members who contribute toward the achievement of district goals and priorities Focuses on the fact that our primary mission is education and does not venture into programming unrelated to this mission Has specific programs for meeting student needs that are recognized as being very successful by community members, parents and staff Provides useful training and in-service for school district personnel Appoints voluntary, ad hoc committees to seek solutions to specific problems Disbands these committees when problems are resolved Has a minimal number of central office administrators CENTRAL OFFICE ADMINISTRATORS: Share district—wide goals and priorities with all staff members | l l I 110 Support the district's goals and priorities View the staff as partners in achieving district goals View parents as partners in achieving district goals Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high performance expectations of students Provide opportunities to acquaint staff members with the entire operation of the district and how it affects students and parents Are sensitive to the needs of staff and community in regard to the school program Encourage parental input into the school program Are responsive to parental input Are willing to spend the necessary money to develop student programs in response to needs expressed by parents and community members Encourage staff input into the school program Are responsive to staff input Share budget information with all staff members Are willing to spend the necessary money to develop student programs in response to needs expressed by staff Encourage individual buildings/departments to develop new programs/curricula to better meet the needs of students 1]] Encourage programs to be tried on a small scale to determine their value prior to expansion Accept failure of an innovative program/curricula approach without condemning the individuals concerned Frequently recognize staff members for quality instruction in informal contacts as well as through formal means (i.e. coffees, dinners, ceremonies, etc.) Give individual school building administrators a great deal of latitude in decision making Allow buildings a great deal of autonomy in decision making Treat staff members with respect and dignity Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on people Spend a great deal of time in individual school buildings While in the buildings: Talk informally with all employees Talk about the goals and priorities of the district Keep people informed about what's going on Are accessible to all employees in the building Have systems in place to obtain staff input at all levels of the district Encourage communication across all levels of the district; especially informal, problem-solving oriented communication 112 Encourage staff members to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an open, straightforward manner Encourage parents to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an Open, straightforward manner BUILDING ADMINISTRATORS: Understand the districtdwide goals and priorities Support the district's goals and priorities View their staff as partners in achieving district goals View parents as partners in achieving district goals Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high performance expectations of students understand the operation of the district and how it affects students and parents Feel they are partners in developing a strong educational program Encourage parental input into school program Are responsive to parental input Encourage staff input into school program Are responsive to staff input Create an environment that is supportive of innovation and creativity in instructional techniques ll3 Encourage individual classroom teachers to try innovative and creative instructional techniques Accept failure of an innovative instructional approach without condemning the individuals concerned Treat their staff with respect and dignity Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on people Talk informally with their staff members Talk with their staff about the goals and priorities of the district Keep their staff informed about what is going on Are accessible to all employees in the building Encourage their staff to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an open, straightforward manner Encourage parents to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an open, straightforward manner STAFF MEMBERS: Understand the district~wide goals and priorities Support the district-wide goals and priorities Are concerned about providing quality education for all students 1]“ Have high performance expectations of students Understand the operation of the district and how it affects students and parents Feel they are partners in developing a strong educational program View parents as partners in developing a strong educational program Encourage parental input into school programs Are responsive to parental input Keep parents informed about what is going on Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on people Feel free to try innovative and creative instructional techniques Feel free to discuss ideas, concerns and problems with building administrators in an open, straightforward manner Feel free to discuss ideas, concerns and problems with central office administrators in an open, straightforward manner Please indicate the primary description of your school district. urban suburban rural APPENDIX C UNION PRESIDENT SURVEY 115 116 Check the appropriate line indicating the frequency with which the following occur (check only one line per question): OUR SCHOOL DISTRICT: 0‘} 49 Has a sound set of long-range goals and priorities that serve as guiding principles for district employees. Has a reasonable number of yearly goals Recognizes staff members who contribute toward the achievement of district goals and priorities Focuses on the fact that our primary mission is education and does not venture into programming unrelated to this mission Has specific programs for meeting student needs that are recognized as being very successful by community members, parents and staff Provides useful training and in—service for school district personnel Appoints voluntary, ad hoc committees to seek solutions to specific problems Disbands these committees when problems are resolved Has a minimal number of central office administrators CENTRAL OFFICE ADMINISTRATORS: Share district—wide goals and priorities ‘Vith all staff members l l I l 117 Support the district's goals and priorities View the staff as partners in achieving district goals View parents as partners in achieving district goals Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high performance expectations of students Provide opportunities to acquaint staff members with the entire operation of the district and how it affects students and parents Are sensitive to the needs of staff and community in regard to the school program Encourage parental input into the school program Are responsive to parental input Are willing to spend the necessary money to develop student programs in response to needs expressed by parents and community members Encourage staff input into the school program Are responsive to staff input Share budget information with all staff members Are willing to spend the necessary money to develop student programs in response to needs expressed by staff Encourage individual buildings/departments to develop new programs/curricula to better meet the needs of students 118 Encourage programs to be tried on a small scale to determine their value prior to expansion Accept failure of an innovative program/curricula approach without condemning the individuals concerned Frequently recognize staff members for quality instruction in informal contacts as well as through formal means (i.e. coffees, dinners, ceremonies, etc.) Give individual school building administrators a great deal of latitude in decision making Allow buildings a great deal of autonomy in decision making Treat staff members with respect and dignity Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on people Spend a great deal of time in individual school buildings While in the buildings: Talk informally with all employees Talk about the goals and priorities of the district Keep people informed about what's going on Are accessible to all employees in the building Have systems in place to obtain staff input at all levels of the district Encourage communication across all levels of the district; especially informal, problem-solving oriented communication 119 Encourage staff members to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an open, straightforward manner Encourage parents to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an open, straightforward manner BUILDING ADMINISTRATORS: Understand the district-wide goals and priorities Support the district's goals and priorities View their staff as partners in achieving district goals View parents as partners in achieving district goals Are concerned about providing quality education for all students Have high performance expectations of students understand the operation of the district and how it affects students and parents Feel they are partners in developing a strong educational program Encourage parental input into school program Are responsive to parental input Encourage staff input into school program Are responsive to staff input ’Create an environment that is supportive of innovation and creativity in instructional techniques 120 Encourage individual classroom teachers to try innovative and creative instructional techniques Accept failure of an innovative instructional approach without condemning the individuals concerned Treat their staff with respect and dignity Understand how people ought to treat each other to exemplify the value placed on people Talk informally with their staff members Talk with their staff about the goals and priorities of the district Keep their staff informed about what is going on Are accessible to all employees in the building Encourage their staff to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an open, straightforward manner Encourage parents to discuss ideas, concerns and problems in an open, straightforward manner STAFF MEMBERS: Understand the district-wide goals and priorities Support the districtdwide goals and priorities Are concerned about providing quality education for all students 121 Have high performance expectations of students Understand the operation of the district and how it affects students and parents Feel they are partners in developing a strong educational program View parents as partners in developing a strong educational program Encourage parental input into school programs Are responsive to parental input Keep parents informed about what is going on . 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