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I .x. . , . . 7 . 3.. , £111....gs‘gsu A1..L.13?‘\l.15 0.x 1:2! .124 {£37158. .1 «I159: ISAC... 3.11.331... :71: LL: ‘1 6:111... .6. v13vg..~ili(: 1.? .4 . t. affi!5!.tx€ .T.‘ . .51.- .§.:>7$ s .: xx.»,ltu..£c.l...v 135......) .z .1... .93.. .v . I? 3112. Li\)......... . . _ $.u.£1._..- .- .n 1 MSU LIBRARIES m RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date 1 ' stamped below. ” .ocigwm EFFECTIVENESS OF JOB SEARCH INSTRUCTION FOR HANDICAPPED YOUTH: AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION By Carol L. Bergquist A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services, Educational Psychology and Special Education 1982 ABSTRACT EFFECTIVENESS 0F JOB SEARCH INSTRUCTION FOR HANDICAPPED YOUTH: AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION By Carol L. Bergquist Unemployment is one of our most significant social problems, and it is a particularly difficult problem for handicapped individuals who face additional obstacles to their employment. The current study in- volved a training program offered within the context of a high school special education program, which was designed to provide handicapped youth with job seeking skills. The resulting Job Search Program was evaluated experimentally with the pre-test post-test control group design. Thirty-two handicapped students ages 17 to 22 were randomly assigned to receive the Job Search Program (experimental n=16) or normally available services (control n=16). The Job Search Program involved ten instructional sessions util- izing a small group format. Following instruction, support for inde- pendent job search efforts was provided during a four week follow-up period. It was hypothesized that Job Search Program participants, as compared to the control group, would evidence significantly (1) in- creased knowledge of job seeking skills, (2) increased knowledge of employment resources, (3) increased work adaptive attitudes, (4) higher frequency of job search behavior and a (5) higher placement rate. Comparisons of before and after scores, as well as between the experimental and control groups, indicated that the Job Search Program was highly effective as shown by a number of outcome criteria. Analyses of knowledge scores revealed that the experimental group was signifi- cantly higher than the control group on knowledge measures that covered (a) job seeking skills, and (b) employment resources. In regard to the hypothesized effect on job acquisition, a higher placement rate was observed fer Job Search Program participants than controls. Specifi- cally, experimental group subjects evidenced an 88% job placement rate as compared to 30% for the control group. Hypothesized increases in work adaptive attitudes for the experi- mental group were not supported. Similarly, no significant differences were noted in frequencies of job search behavior between subjects re- ceiving the Job Search Program and those in the control group. The current study demonstrated the feasibility of developing an effective training curriculum in the area of job search skills for special education students. Overall, the findings from the present study suggest that increases in knowledge of job seeking skills and employment resources, and job placement rates for handicapped youth can be achieved through a short term systematic instructional program. Theoretical implications and directions for future research are also discussed. Copyright by CAROL LOUISE BERGQUIST 1982 To my children Laurie, Lynn and Don ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many individuals and agencies have contributed to the conceptual- ization and completion of the research reported in this thesis. Committee members made many important theoretical and methodo- logical suggestions. Specifically, I would like to thank my committee chairman Dr. James Engelkes for his expertise and support throughout the thesis project. Other committee members who contributed both guidance and encouragement were Dr. Donald Galvin, Dr. Marianne Maynard and Dr. Charles Johnson. The cooperation of the Ingham Intermediate School District was a key contributor to the success of the present project. Members of the research approval committee who were particularly helpful were Ken Noodring, Dr. Daun Berardo, Dr. David Haarer and Dr. Harrold Spicknall. Grateful appreciation is also extended to the Michigan Associa- tion fOr Career Education (M.A.C.E.) who provided partial financial support fur the research. Finally, many friends and relatives have supported the disserta- tion effort in countless ways. Special friends who were extremely helpful in technical aspects of the production of this thesis include Hilda Parham, Karla Vander Kolk, Juanita Mitchell and Sharon Suska. Very special thanks to my parents Allan and Betty Hollander, my brother Steven Hollander and my children Laurie, Lynn and Don for their love and support. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 - Page LIST OF TABLES ......... ' ....................................... v 1' LIST OF FIGURES ............................................... viii LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................ ix Chapter I. THE PROBLEM .......................................... 1 Introduction ......................................... Need and Background of the Problem ................... 3 Purpose of the Study ................................. 7 Research Questions to be Addressed by the Study ...................................... 10 Overview ............................................. 10 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................. 11 Models of Job Seeking Skill Preparation .............. 11 Specific Applications of Job Seeking Skills .......... 17 Elements of Successful Programs ...................... 22 Integration of the Research .......................... 24 Use of Experimental Design ........................... 26 III. METHOD ............................................... 28 Context of the Research .............................. 28 Subjects ............................................. 29 Design ............................................... 30 Data Collection ...................................... 30 Measures ............................................. 35 Demographic Information ........................... 37 Test of Knowledge ................................. 37 Employability Assessment Scale .................... 39 Work Opinion Questionnaire ........................ 4O Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale .......... 42 Self-Report Behavioral Measures ................... 43 Job Search Program Attendance and Objectives . Completed ...................................... 44 iv Chapter Page Job Placement ...................................... 45 Job Search Program Rating Form ..................... 46 Procedures...................; ....... ~ ................. 46 Referral ........................................... 46 Intake and Informed Consent ........................ 46 Assignment to Conditions ........................... 47 Follow up .......................................... 47 Conditions ............................................ 47 Control Condition: Normally Available Services.... 47 Experimental Condition: Job Search Program ........ 48 IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS ................................... 51 Subject Characteristics ............................... 51 Tests of Specific Hypotheses .......................... 53 Hypothesis One ..................................... 53 Hypothesis Two ..................................... 64 Hypothesis Three ................................... 7O Hypothesis Four .................................... 74 Hypothesis Five .................................... 77 Supplemental Data Section ............................. 82 Summary ............................................... 90 V. DISCUSSION ............................................ 92 Summary of Results .................................... 93 Informal Observations ................................. 98 Interpretive Limitations .............................. 99 Conclusions and Directions for Future Research ........ 102 APPENDICES ..................................................... 104 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................... 149 LIST OF TABLES Page Demographic Characteristics of the Sample Across Treatment Groups ............................ 52 Pre and Post Group Means and Standard Devia- tions on the Employment Seeking Preparation' Activity Questionnaire fer Experimental and Control Groups ..................................... 55 Summary of Analysis of Variance for the Em- ployment Seeking Preparation Activity Ques- tionnaire .......................................... 55 Chi Square Analysis of the Ability to Name Job Lead Sources After Treatment for Experi- mental and Control Groups .......................... 56 Pre and Post Group Means and Standard Devia- tions on the Employment Application Vocabu- lary Worksheet fOr Experimental and Control Groups ............................................. 58 Summary of Analysis of Variance for the Employment Application Vocabulary Worksheet ........ 58 Pre and Post Group Means and Standard Devia- tions on the Application for Employment Form for the Experimental and Control Groups ............ 60 Summary of Analysis of Variance for the Ap- plication for Employment Ebrm ..... . ................. 60 Chi Square Analysis of the Appearance Rating of Completed Application Forms After Treat- ment for Experimental and Control Groups ........... 62 Chi Square Analysis of the Presence of a Resume After Treatment for Experimental and Control Groups ..................................... 63 vi Table Page 4.11 Pre and Post Group Means and Standard Devia- tions on the Employment Resources Test for the Experimental and Control Groups ................ 66 ' 4.12 Summary of Analysis of Variance for the Em- ployment Resources Test ............................ 66 4.13 Chi Square Analysis of Registration at the Michigan Employment Security Commission After Treatment for Experimental and Control Groups ...... 68 4.14 Chi Square Analysis of Referral Status or Clients at Michigan Rehabilitation Services After Treatment for Experimental and Control Groups ............................................. 69 4.15 Pre and Post Group Means and Standard Devia- tions on Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale for Experimental and Control Groups .......... 73 4.16 Summary of Analysis of Variance for Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale ........ , ............ 73 4.17 Chi Square Analysis of Reported Job Search Behavior After Treatment for Experimental and Control Groups ................................. 76 4.18 Chi Square Analysis of Employment Status After Treatment for Experimental and Control Groups ...... 79 4.19 Frequencies of Types of Employment After Treat- ment for Experimental and Control Groups ........... 81 4.20 Percentage of Verbalized Obstacles to Employ- ment Before Treatment by All Subjects (n=32) ....... 84 4.21 Percentage of Participants (n=16) Indicating Agreement or Disagreement with Evaluative Items on the Job Search Program Rating FOrm ........ 87 4.22 Correlates of Employment Acquisition for All Subjects (n=32) .................................... 89 vii LIST OF FIGURES Lime 32.92 3.1 Pre-test Posttest Control Group Design ............. 31 3.2 Subject Flowchart .................................. 32 3.3 Summary of Measures, Administration and Purpose.... 33 3.4 Timeline Summary of the Dependent Measures ......... 36 viii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Egg; A. Demographic Information .............................. 104 8. Knowledge Measures ................................... 109 C. Employability Assessment Scale....................... 119 D. Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale ............. 130 E. Self-Report Behavior Measure ......................... 133 F. Employment Infbrmation Form .......................... 135 G. Job Search Program Rating Form ....................... 137 H. Job Search Program Handout ........................... 141 I. Job Seeking Skills Questionnaire ..................... 143 J. Job Search Program Curriculum Components ............. 146 ix CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction In our society the issue of employment carries far reaching impli- cations at both an individual and a social level. Having a job is for the vast majority of people the key to economic self-sufficiency which in turn has a pervasive influence upon the individual's life style. Of all the different factors for identifying, and distinguishing be- tween, lower and middle class individuals, none is more consistently utilized than employment and income indices. Employment status serves as a shorthand descriptor for a variety of negative traits and life circumstances including poverty, crime, and social difficulties. Triandis (1971) found that, while there are cultural differences in the tendency, all cultures attach strong sig- nificance to the occupation of an individual. High status occupations have the effect of immediately according the holder of that occupation benefits and privileges commensurate with the position. According to Triandis (1971) a doctor or lawyer can reasonably expect preferential treatment because this society assigns unusual and valued traits to people in those occupations. Assigning the characteristics of the occupation to the individual performing the occupation is socially facilitative in many instances and has clear social advantages for those engaged in high status occupations. Not only do others assign these traits but the individual may appropriate the traits of the occupation as self descriptors. Unfortunately, the same attribution process produces social costs for those performing occupations at the lower end of the social desira- bility continuum. Further, to the extent unemployment is one of the least desirable employment conditions, this group is particularly unfor- tunate. It seems likely that as the culture assigns negative attri- butes to the unemployed, the unemployed come to assign those same nega- tive characteristics to themselves. Thus, a devastating combination of limited financial opportunity, social ostracism, and low self-esteem all come to bear on the unemployed person. Given this multiplicity of negative forces in operation, it is small wonder that unemployment has been cited as a major mental health problem (Brenner, 1973). It has also been associated with increased crime rates (Johnson, 1964), alco- holism (Plant, 1967) and institutionalization (Hollingshead and Redlich, 1958). There are obviously a broad range of peOple who fall into the classification of unemployed. Issues of age, sex, education, experi- ence and vocational skills all play a role in determining the intransi- gence of the problem. The subjects in the current study represent a group that faces many severe obstacles to employment. Inexperience, inadequate academic skills, and limited vocational capabilities all combine to narrow the opportunity for the entry of handicapped youth into the employed work force. In recognition of the severe personal stigma and social disinte- gration associated with unemployment, a number of programs have been aimed at ameliorating unemployment in the United States. With unemg ployment figures approaching depression era level (Detroit Free Press, 1982), one may speculate on the efficacy of these effbrts. Whatever the value, or lack of it, that accrues to C.E.T.A. (Comprehensive 3 Employment and Training Act, 1973) training and work experience efforts, these projects appear destined to evidence sharp decreases in size and scope. Faced by the potential of decreased government funded place- ment and job preparation services for the unemployed, and ever growing numbers of unemployed people, inexpensive, self-help services must be explored. The current study examines a low cost set of training pro- cedures fer teaching job seeking skills to unemployed youth. Need and Background of the Problem The Post School Services (P.S.S.) is a program provided by the Ingham Intermediate School District (I.I.S.D.) to special education high school drop outs. The Ingham Intermediate School District is an educational service agency that provides support services to twelve local school districts in Ingham county. Individuals referred to the Post School Service reside in eleven of the twelve constituent dis- tricts of the Ingham Intermediate School District. The population served by the Post School Service are individuals who meet the fol- lowing criteria: 1. Resident of Ingham Intermediate School District. 2. .Age range 16-26 years. 3. Dropped out of school prior to completing an approved course of study. 4. Eligible for special education services. The Post School Service offers a variety of educational, vocae tional, social and employment services. Due to the multiplicity of presenting problems, interventionary measures are aimed at ameliof rating problems prescriptively at the individual level. However, broad program goals include: 1. Implementing an "enablement" program for providing partici- pants with skills necessary fbr entry into the mainstream of society; 2. Assisting with the development of plans for high school com- pletion; 3. Providing individual and group counseling; 4. Structuring vocational evaluation and training experiences; 5. Providing job placement services; 6. Instructing participants in career exploration and planning, job seeking skills, community resource utilization, appro- priate work habits; 7. Assistance in procuring daily living necessities such as medical and psychological treatment, food, housing, clothing and transportation. Due to legal guidelines for special education programs, the Post School Service staff can serve only a maximum of twenty-five students at any one time. The needs of the group served by the Post School Service staff probably exceed those of virtually any other subgroup within this particular school system. These students are targeted for special education services because of difficulties encountered with regular school programming. They are individuals for whom academic achieve- ment, personal-social adjustment and/or behavioral difficulties pref sent major obstacles to school and training performance and subsequent employment. With the establishment of the Post School Service in 1979, two issues became immediately apparent. These were the vast scope of the problem and the large number of individuals involved. Preliminary needs assessment resulted in the immediate identification of approxi- mately 200 youths who might profit from a post school program aimed at Special education students who had terminated high school programming prior to completion. Referrals were obtained from a variety of sources including parents, teachers, social workers, special education directors, the courts, other social agencies, computer searches, and self-referrals. Students initially identified ranged from 15 to 24 years of age and re- presented the special education classification categories of learning disabled, mentally impaired, emotionally impaired and physically handi- capped. The initial 200 individuals represented only a portion of the actual population who qualified for the program and were in need of a continuation of some type of educational service. Outreach, referral and interviewing efforts disclosed the fact that it was extremely rare that any of these individuals had attained full time employment or were involved in any type of vocational train- ing or educational programs. The general pattern was one of isolation and detachment. Presenting problems included unemployment, lack of academic and vocational skills, criminal behavior, problem pregnan- cies, drug and alcohol abuse, lack of awareness of available resources, extreme poverty and a wide range of personalesocial problems. Their circumstances suggested a future picture formed of probable life long poverty, severe underemployment and marginal social roles. During the years 1979-1981, needs assessments were conducted with drop outs (n=50), educators and related professionals (n=34) and par- ents of Post School Service students (n=23). The results of these assessments identified employment as the most salient need fer special education drop outs. A needs assessment was conducted during the 1979-1980 academic year on'a random sample drawn from the 200 individuals eligible for Post School Services. Telephone or in-person interviews were con- ducted with fifty prospective students. Information was gathered re- garding reason for dropping out, school intervention measures, activ- ities since dropping out, community resource utilization, current status and interest in services. Briefly summarized the vast majority of individuals were unemployed (88%), were not currently involved in educational or training programs (90%), and did not have any knowledge of available community resources. Eighty-five percent of the individ- uals surveyed identified assistance with employment as their most needed service. In 1980, a Central Planning Committee (n=34) of educators and related professionals was formed. The purpose of this committee was to provide input into the problem of drop out prevention and post school programming for special education drop outs. This committee rated unemployment, lack of employability skills, underemployment and fear of leaving rural communities for employment as major problems for drop outs. In 1981, a telephone survey was administered to the parents of students enrolled in the Post School Service. When asked what type of services their son or daughter needed after dropping out of school, 90% responded affirmatively to job placement and work experience pro- grams. The various needs assessments, as well as first hand experiences of the Post School Service staff, identified unemployment as a major obstacle to living independently within the community. All input sup- ported the development of a program that would assist participants in learning the skills necessary for accessing the labor market. In evaluating the extent of the need for a job seeking skills program for special education drop outs, two additional groups were identified that experienced similar job search needs. One of these was special educa- tion students who had graduated ‘from high school but were unable to find employment due to the lack of job search techniques. The other group was special education students who could complete their approved course of study in the 1981-82 academic year, but had not received systematic training in job seeking skills. In an attempt to meet the needs of these groups, three existing Job Club programs in Lansing and the Pre-employment Program at the Capital Area Career Center were evaluated. None were found to be appropriate for the group for such reasons as not meeting eligibility criteria, lack of transportation, low academic skills and behavioral problems. Purpose of Study The basic goal of education is to develop independent individuals who can control their life and be contributing members of society. Employment is an extremely important step toward this goal. In recent years programs have been developed within sChool systems focusing on the areas of vocational gUidance, career education and job placement. Often these programs do not facilitate the actual entry of students into the world of work. Placement services many times only refer in- dividuals to a job and do not actually teach skills for an independent job search. A review of the literature shows that only 15% to 20% of people seeking employment actually obtain jobs through a placement service (Mihalka, 1974). An important element that is overlooked in many placement pro- grams, is to require training in independent job search behavior. Studies show that most people obtain jobs on their own or through the help of friends, relatives and acquaintances (Azrin, 1979, 1980; Keith, 1976; Milhalka, 1974). To obtain a job in the shortest period of time a person needs certain patterns of effective job seeking behavior which include specific skills and techniques. These skills and techniques can be learned through a systematic instructional program (Azrin, 1980; McGee, 1981; Keith, 1976; Tesolowski, 1979). Without skills for an independent job search, the individual will revert to contacting the placement counselor each time they are faced with unemployment. Satis- faction with employment and upward job mobility have been correlated with independence in the job search (Salomone, 1971). The purpose of the study was to develop and evaluate the effective- ness of an instructional program in job seeking skills for handicapped youth. The goals of this Job Search Program provided for the following: 1. Instruction in job seeking skills; 2. Instruction in the utilization of community resources for em- ployment such as Michigan Rehabilitation Services (MRS), Michigan Employment Security Commission (MESC), Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA), etc. .; 3. Group support fer an independent job search; 4. Amelioration of obstacles to employment; 5. Parental or significant other involvement as a source of sup- port during the job search process; 6. Identification of positive work behaviors. This intervention was conducted experimentally in a field setting and its effectiveness evaluated. The use of instructional techniques for training handicapped youth was studied. To the extent that effective techniques and procedures were identified they may be utilized in on-going programming. In addition to job placement, theoretical con- nections between attitudes, behavior, self-perception, demographic variables and knowledge acquisition were studied. The program was evaluated in terms of positive changes noted in the attitudes, know- ledges and behavior of the program participants. Process factors were examined correlationally to determine whether the program was more effective with certain types of participants, which factors were of significance, and the proper mix of these factors were identified for future programming. In the current study, a number of outcomes seemed to be important. These outcomes were in the areas of knowledge gains, work adaptive attitudes, job search activities and job placement. Knowledge gains would result from an increased understanding and more infbrmation about job seeking skills. Information would include such areas as knowledge of services offered by the various employment resources, vocabulary related to employment applications, job interview techniques and how to handle problem questions. Work adaptive attitudes refer to atti- tudes that are associated with success in the workplace and may facil- itate the implementation of skills. These attitudes which include such areas as consideration, self-confidence and maturity, were expected to be the principle determinants of success in low skill level jobs. Job search activities included behaviors necessary to obtain employment. These activities included getting job leads, contacting employers, obtaining and completing employment application forms, completing job interviews and distributing resumeS. Job placement referred to ob- taining employment offers and becoming employed. 10 Given these types of outcomes, a number of questions were posed in regard to this study. The most prominent of these questions are stated below. Research Questions Addressed in the Present Study The following research questions summarize the focus of the study: 1. Will Job Search Program participants demonstrate more knowledge of job seeking skills than those subjects in the control group? . 2. Will Job Search Program participants demonstrate greater knowledge of employment resources than those subjects in the control group? 3. Will Job Search Program participants show a greater increase in work adaptive attitudes than those subjects in the control group? 4. Will Job Search Program participants have a higher fre- quency of job search behavior than those subjects in the control group? 5. Will Job Search Program participants have a higher placement rate than those subjects in the control group? Overview The remainder of this work will present the study outlined in Chapter I in greater detail. In Chapter II, a review of the litera- ture relevant to the field of investigation will be presented. Meth- odology will be discuSsed in Chapter III. Included in Chapter III will be discussions of sample selection and procedures used, presentation of the research design, and a discussion of the measures utilized in the study. Analysis of the data and the interpretation of the results will be presented in Chapter IV. A discussion of the results, recom- mendations for future research and conclusions will be the content of Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A basic assumption underlying this research is that the ability to find a job is a set of learnable skills. More precisely, the ability to find an adequate job in a reasonably short period of time is comprised of a series of learnable skills. The following review of the literature examines the major studies in employment seeking and specific variables that are related to job attainment. Important re- lated issues include principles of learning and behavior change that are applicable to the current study. In addition, literature that is related to the development of the proposed program for teaching job seeking skills to handicapped youth, is summarized. Models of Job Seeking Skill Preparation Emplgyment seeking preparation and activity. Keith (1976) con- ducted experimental research that evaluated a training program that directly taught clients procedures fOr obtaining employment. Eighty- four Vocational Rehabilitation clients were ranked on a handicap- difficulty score and assigned to one of three groups. The experimental group was given the Employment Seeking Preparation and Activity (ESPA) training program. One control group was given only outcome measures and to control for reactivity of the measures a second control group was established (Keith, Engelkes and Winborn, 1977). The ESPA training was individualized self-help materials that instructed participants in how to determine vocational interests, assess vocational assets and liabilities, develop resumds, complete job application forms, secure 11 12 job leads and plan a job search. All subjects in the three groups continued to receive usual services from their rehabilitation agency. All counselors were blind to the assignment of their clients to one of the three conditions. Multiple measures were used to determine the effects of treatment. Preepost behavioral measures on job search behavior were administered to all subjects. The "ESPA Achievement Questionnaire" (Keith, 1976) was used as an outcome measure. Sixty-six subjects completed the study. Results showed that 42% of the ESPA group obtained employment as com- pared to 10% and 14% of the control groups. In addition, ESPA Achievement Questionnaire scores and behavioral measures which assessed job leads obtained and interviews completed were higher for the experi- mental group. In a follow up study the ESPA program was used in a group format with mentally retarded and emotionally disturbed rehabilitation clients (Keith, et al., 1977). Eighty percent of the group obtained jobs within a two month period. Job factory. The Job Factory program was develOped using CETA funds in Cambridge, Massachusetts (Wegman, 1979). The study concluded that the quantity and quality of job seeking efforts, not the back- grounds of the unemployed, were the central problem in competing in the labor market. The Job Factory program involved intensive fOrmal instruction in job search methods with direct supervision of job search efforts. Searching fbr a job was viewed as a full time job, and training allowances were paid to volunteer participants. The first few days were spent in classroom training in job search techniques. Specific techniques included planning and goal setting, writing a l3 resume, completing application forms, job lead identification, tele- phoning skills and videotaped interviews. Following formal training, participants engaged in daily job search activities and started and ended each day by punching in and out at the "factory". Results over two years showed a 66% placement rate (n=159). Statistical data on participants indicated that age, sex, race, lack of education and length of unemployment did not significantly affect placement rates (Wegman, 1979). Self-directed placement corporation. The Self-Directed Place- ment Corporation was described as a private "for profit" business, that reported a 92% placement rate following one week of training and five to ten days of job search activities (Wegman, 1979). Training focused on two aspects, getting an interview with a potential employer and knowing what to do during an interview. Training included confi- dence building, practicing effective interviewing skills and training in telephone techniques. The program served some hard to place groups such as ex-offenders (n=50) with 66% placement and WIN participants (n=36 program completers) with 92% placement (Wegman, 1979). Job club. One of the earliest experimental studies in a job assistance program was conducted in Carbondale, Illinois, (Azrin, Flores and Kaplan, 1975). Volunteers, who were unemployed and desired permanent full-time employment, were matched on the variables of age, sex, race, education, marital status, type of position and salary sought. Participants were randomly assigned to the job finding club model. The purpose of the experiment was to determine whether the treatment group (n=60) would succeed in obtaining employment more effi- ciently than the control group (n=60). The treatment consisted of a 14 small group format where job seekers worked together under the in- struction and encouragement of a group leader. Activities included instruction in specific techniques of job findingisuch as extensive use of the telephone, obtaining job leads, resume writing, interview behavior, letter writing, and planning job seeking strategies. Other unique aspects of the Job Club model included use of a buddy system, psychological support by the group and family, standardized scripts and fOrms, provision for needed facilities and supplies, and the ape plication of behavioral principles to learning (Azrin, 1975, 1980). Results of the Carbondale study (Azrin, 1975) indicated that the average Job Club member started work in 14 days as compared to 53 days fer the control group. One month after the Job Club began two-thirds of the treatment group had obtained employment as compared to one-third of the control group. Within 60 days, 90% of all Job Club participants had obtained employment, whereas only 55% of the control group were employed. Salaries for the Job Club group were 36% higher. In evale uating within group differences, regular attendance was highly corre- lated with early success in finding a job. Following the initial success of the Job Club model, Azrin applied the model to sub-populations that experience unemployment difficulties. In 1976-1978, (Azrin & Philip, 1979) operated five pilot projects for serving WIN (Work Incentive Program of the Department of Labor) clients. In this large scale experimental project (n=971), clients were randomly assigned to Job Club or normally available WIN services. Sites were operated in Harlem (n=211), New Brunswick (n=227), Tacoma (n=265), Wichita (n=176), and Milwaukee (n=IOO). Although some differences existed between sites, participants were 54% female, 52% had 15 completed high school, 22% veterans, 11% handicapped, 35% Black, 15% Hispanic and 83% mandatory clients. The mean age was thirty-five years with a median of three dependents (Azrin et al., 1980). Reported results showed that 62% of the Job Club participants fbund jobs as compared to 33% of the control group. Attendance at the Job Club was considered a substantial determinant of success, as after twenty-three sessions 90% of the participants found jobs. Job Club participants were more successful on all dimensions measured in all five locations, at all follow up durations and for all sub groups. A follow up to the WIN Job Club (Azrin et al., 1980) study, was com- pleted to evaluate the effects on welfare benefits by job club partici- pants (Azrin, Philip, Thienes-Hontos and Besalel, 1981). A six month fbllow up showed that welfare payments were reduced by 48% for Job Club versus 15% for the control group. Azrin and Philip (1979) eval- uated the Job Club model against an alternative method using a com- parison group design. Subjects were 154 job seekers with identified employment problems such as physical, emotional, intellectual and so- cial handicaps, or long term unemployment. Clients were randomly as- signed to the two methods. The Job Club method fellowed the earlier model (Azrin et al., 1975) and participants met for small group activ- ities and support for job search effort each day until employment was obtained. New groups of approximately eight people started every two to three weeks. The comparison group used a job placement program developed for rehabilitation clients (Multi-Resource Center, Inc., 1971). This pro- gram included informational group lectures on how to obtain a job, rehearsal of interview behaviors, preparing resumes, scheduling job l6 seeking efforts and other relevant employment skills. The main dif- ference between the two methods was that the comparison group was in- formed of the need for job seeking behavior, whereas the Job Club group was required to perform the behaviors under supervision. Areas of job seeking skills covered and small group size were similar in each of the two methods. Follow up phone calls were made at least once a month for four months and less frequently for twelve months fer some clients. Only jobs over twenty hours per week were considered in the six month data analysis. Of the Job Club participants (n=80) 95% obtained employment compared to 28% of the comparison group (n=74). All jobs were obtained competively and paid for by the employer. These results added to the findings of earlier Job Club successes at Carbondale (Azrin et al., 1975) and with WIN participants (Azrin & Philip, 1979) have lead to the adaptation of the Job Club model with various populations. Job club in a-college setting. The U.C.L.A. placement center utilizes the Job Club model with college students and graduates (Parsell & Thompson, 1979). Adaptations from the Azrin model include meetings once weekly and assertion training. Although the UCLA Job Club does not follow an experimental design, participant feedback has been positive. Job club for older workers and retirees. Gray (1980) adapted the Job Club model for older workers and retirees. This model involved a half day training workshop and ongoing Job Club meetings twice weekly. Fortyeeight volunteers (age 50 and older) were matched and assigned to either the Job Club or the control group over a six month period. 17 Although the study was less intense than the Azrin model, after twelve weeks 74% of the Job Club members were employed as compared to 22% of the control group. I Job club for out-of—school-youth. Overton (1980) described a Job Club available for out-of—school youth ages 16-21 years. Based on the Azrin (1975) model, the Job Club offers three basic service areas, (1) job seeking skills training, (2) resources and referral and (3) support. Groups of job seekers meet two times a week for two hour meetings for group instruction in job search techniques. After formal instruction is completed, members enter a maintenance group that shares job leads, sets goals and offers support for the often discouraging task of employment seeking. In the first year of the program, 70% of Job Club members acquired jobs. In 1979, a Handicapper Job Club was begun that offered additional instruction and support services to handicapped youth. Job sguad. Baltimore's Job Squad (Matthias, 1981) is based on Azrin's Job Club model. Job Squad results showed 71% (n=133) employ- ment over a two year period. The Job Squad offers five days of in- structional sessions with supportive follow along during the job search. Sessions may be repeated if necessary. One unique aspect of the Job Squad is the reported team effort among employers, community leaders and local businesses that contribute to the program. Specific Applications of Job Seeking Skills In addition to the more comprehensive programs designed to teach a full range of job seeking skills, a variety of programs and techniques have been developed for more specific populations. Some groups that 18 present problems in the job search process are individuals who are disadvantaged (Clark, Boyd & Macrae, 1975), paraplegics (Veglahn, 1976), visually impaired (Inana, 1981), learning disabled (McGee, 1981), drug addicts (Stevens & Tornatzky, 1976) and mentally retarded (Clark et al., 1975). Although individuals with the above character- istics may be successful in the comprehensive programs, specific techniques for job seeking skill acquisition and placement strategies may be more effective. Job_Application Forms Although completing job application forms is required for almost every job acquired, little is written on how to fill out the forms. This task may be overwhelming to some individuals. A systematic program utilizing behavioral principles was developed for teaching delinquent or mildly retarded youth to write biographical information on job application fOrms (Clark et al., 1975). Students were trained using,an item by item structured format to respond core rectly to nine frequently asked questions. Teacher praise and tokens were used for reinforcement for correct responses, writing within the space provided, approximation to the goal and generalization of the skill to application forms on which the students had not been trained. A multiple-baseline analysis showed marked improvement. A program for teaching job seeking skills to learning disabled adolescents was evaluated by McGee (1981) using a pre-post test model. He taught students to complete application forms with increasing ac— curacy by utilizing shaping techniques. Scores averaged 15% on pre- test accuracy as compared to an average 90% on the post test. To 19 assist with the correct completion of application forms, students com- pleted personal data sheets and vocabulary exercises. Other curriculum components included interpretation of classified ads, and videotaped role played job interviews. Job Interview Skills Programs with emphasis on interview skills have been developed for specific populations. In her work with visually impaired students, Inana (I981) stressed the importance of teaching interview behavior in detail. Responses to questions about how a visual disability may re- late to job performance and questions about visual impairments were practiced. One technique involved recording interview questions on audiotape. The student practiced responses, and then Shared answers with the group for additional feedback. Other areas that may require special training, according to Inana, are appearance, grooming and specific mannerisms that the student may exhibit. In their review of employment interview literature, Clowers and Fraser (1977), described the employment interview as the principle method of making hiring decisions. They suggested that counselors might emphasize to their clients communication, interpersonal skills, appearance, attending behavior, presentation of positive self infbrma- ‘ tion and to be infbrmed about the demands of the job for which they are applying. In order to emphasize important aspects of the job interview, several job search programs stress role played interviews. In his work with Job Corps females, Jackson (1972) used interview evaluation forms, audiotape and role playing. Several role playing techniques were found effective such as role reversal, where 20 participants role play as the applicant and then as the employer; mir- roring, where the participants recount and role play incidents from past interviews; and soliloquy, where the role player stops acting, turns and addresses the audience regarding the interview. Results showed that 85% of the participants agreed that the role playing activi- ties were good practice for an actual job interview. Keil and Barbie (1973) used behavior modification techniques with disadvantaged subjects (n=30). Subjects were randomly assigned to experimental or control conditions. Pre and post interviews were videotaped. Following the preeinterview, experimental subjects were shown their taped interview. Both subject and trainer recorded spe- cific behaviors that were done well or needed to be changed. Deficient behaviors were role rehearsed with alternate responses suggested by the trainer. Appropriate behaviors were socially reinforced by the trainer. Trainers attempted to maintain a "real interview climate" and the mean time spent was 38 minutes. Personnel interviewers (n=23) who were blind to the conditions, judged the videotapes and rated experimental and control subjects using a Likertetype format. A minimum of four judges rated each interview. An analysis of prefpost test scores showed that the experimental group improved significantly on nine out of ten items, and changed significantly more than the control group in ability to respond to interview questions, degree of honesty, openness and self-confidence. Findings suggested that interview behavior can be altered, but whether this behavior can be altered significantly on a hire/not hire criteria is in need of further research (Keil et al., 1973). 21 A Jobenterview Skills Workshop with drug abuse clients was evalu- ated experimentally by Stevens and Tornatzky (1976). The authors iden- tified the lack of job skills, significant employer bias and lack of interview skills as major obstacles to employment. Using random assign- ment, clients were assigned to the experimental (n=10) and control (n=16) groups. The experimental group received nine hours of instruction covering areas such as appearance, interview preparation, waiting room etiquette, non-verbal communication, positive explanation of negative aspects on a completed application form and demonstration of interest and job skills. A questionnaire was sent to participants six months after the program. Differences were found in favor of the experimental group in rate of pay, employment status, hours worked per week and co- operation in completing the follow-up questionnaire. The Employment Search Research has shown that some methods of job hunting are more effec- tive than others. In a report of job seeking methods that were used by unemployed workers, (n=3,277,000), Bradshaw (1973) reported that the most frequently used method by job seekers (70%) was direct application to prospective employers. In second place was public employment agen- cies (30%) and classified advertising (25%). Data was obtained from the Current Population Survey (1970-71) by the Bureau of Labor Statisf tics. Azrin reported (1980) that people find jobs most efficiently through establishing a widespread "information network". He stressed the use of informal sources such as friends, relatives and acquaintances and direct application. 22 Zadny and James (1978) surveyed the job search patterns of state vocational rehabilitation clients. Telephone interviews with 273 clients revealed where they looked for jobs, sources of successful job leads and problems they encountered. In seeking job leads, direct ap- plication and newspaper want ads were the most used. Forty-one percent reported finding jobs through family, friends or direct application without prior knowledge of a job opening. Rehabilitation counselors and training facilities were third and fourth. Twenty-five percent of the clients interviewed stated that their disability was their main problem in obtaining employment. Job search methods of 133 paraplegic males who had obtained employe ment were surveyed by Veglahn (1976). Returned questionnaires (n=48) revealed that formal methods such as agencies, newspaper advertise- ments and placement services were used more than the informal methods. The most frequently used source was the rehabilitation agency (n=25) followed by friends and relatives (n=22) and direct application (n=20). In suggesting new methods for securing job leads, Salomone and Rubin (1979) identified some novel, but undocumented procedures. Pro- cedures suggested include paying for job leads, business and industry survey cards, job fair, advertising and using news items in the local newspaper. More traditional suggestions included job finding clubs, combined efforts with industry and city-wide coordination of placement activities. Elements of Successful Programs In response to questions regarding the dynamics of why programs in teaching job search skills work, Wegman (1979) proposed the fol— lowing. A review of labor market statistics revealed that jobs 23 are constantly available. In 1978, an analysis of social security re- cords showed that "new hires" (workers that did not work fer an em- ployer in the previous year), by non-agricultural firms exceeded 90% of their work fOrce. With the job market in dynamic change, a job seeker needs knowledge of how to penetrate it. In a Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin (1975) survey of how Americans find work, the most successful methods reported were direct application to an employer without prior knowledge of a job opening, and to approach an employer on the recommendation of a friend or rela- tive. These two methods are stressed by the job search assistance pro- grams reviewed. Employers generally only list openings with agencies or in the classified ads when spontaneous applicants are in short supply. By limiting efforts to employment services listings or responses to help wanted ads, a job seeker accesses only a small percentage of openings with competition from all other job seekers with the same access. Job assistance programs generally train participants to penetrate the hid- den job market (Azrin et al., 1975, 1979, 1981; Keith, 1976; Gray, 1980; Wegman, 1975). Some of the elements of successful programs include the principle that the more time an individual job seeker spends, the more interviews he/she will obtain, the greater the probability will be of receiving a job offer. Job hunting can be discouraging and the social support of the group can help prevent slowing down or quitting the job search. The factual information on "how to" get a job can be transmitted effectively and efficiently in a group setting. The programs reviewed seem to effect attitudes and behaviors that build self confidence 24 that may be apparent during the job interview. In addition, once job seeking skills are learned they may be utilized in the future whenever necessary. In reviewing the methods used in successful job search programs, there is a strong reliance on behavioral principles of learning. Azrin (1980) described his Job Club approach as an application of operant behavior principles as described by Skinner (1938; 1953). Behavioral principles incorporated in the Job Club model, as well as with several other programs and procedures reviewed, include rein: forcement, desensitization, behavior recording, extinction, and be- havioral contracting (Bandura, 1969; Azrin, 1980; Thoresen and Mahoney, 1974). Principles of social learning theory (Bandura, 1969; Bandura and Walters, 1963) incorporated imitation, observational learning and modeling. Integration of the Research The body of research reviewed generally presents findings which support the efficacy of a behaviorally based approach to teaching job search behavior and success in placement (Azrin et al., 1975; Azrin, 1978; Keith, 1976; Gray, 1980). The majority of studies reviewed pre- sent strong positive results with a variety of client populations in several types of settings. Specific job search skills have been suc- cessfully taught to groups of handicapped students with similar disabi- lities (Clark, et al., 1975; McGee, I981; Inana, 1981). In addition, a number of studies have suggested that job search programs produce favorable attitudinal changes (Salmone, 1971; Azrin, et al., 1975; Sinick, 1976), increased job search behavior (Azrin, et al., 1975; 25 Azrin, 1978; Keith, 1976), and increased knowledge of job search meth- ods (Azrin, et al., 1975; Keith, 1976; McGee, 1981). While many of the studies reviewed showed methodological deficiencies, the general suc- cess of these studies in teaching job seeking skills and offering sup- port during the job search process is promising. However, little has been reported in utilizing a group format in teaching comprehensive job search skills to handicapped youth. These youth, who may experi- ence primary handicapping conditions such as mental retardation, learning disabilities, emotional impairments and physical impairments, coupled with severe reading difficulties, present an inordinantly problematical and unique population. The success of reported studies in enhancing job finding and reducing unemployment gives sufficient reason to evaluate a job search training program with handicapped youth. The research that has been reviewed above has been used by the author to develop three participant workbooks and an instructional guide for the Job Search Program. The workbooks have been written to accommodate handicapped youth with limited reading abilities. The first workbook Entering the Labor Market includes activities such as completing job application forms, contacting employers, writing a resume, obtaining job leads and recording job search be- havior. The second workbook Working For the Future covers appro- priate work habits and problem solving in the world of work. Activ- ities include the selferating of behavior, affirmative action in- fbrmation and getting along with cofworkers and supervisors. .gpipg Communitngesources, the third workbook, assists participants in identifying and utilizing available employment resources. The 26 instructional manual gives behavioral objectives and procedural les- son plans for each activity. Additional information and alternative methods gathered from the literature are also included. Use of Experimental Design Due to the fact that the skill issues covered in the study could have been examined in a variety of ways, a brief discussion of re- search design is in order. Correlational (Cooley & Lohnes, 1962), quasi-experimental (Crano & Brewer, 1973) and certain types of time series (Campbell & Stanley, 1963) approaches are potentially useful in studying the relationship between training and skill acquisition. However, Fairweather (1967) has argued effectively that these ap— proaches lack the power of a true experiment. Fairweather and his col- leagues (Fairweather, 1972; Fairweather, Sanders, & Tornatzky, 1974) have demonstrated the feasibility of experiments in real world set- tings, and there is widespread agreement (Campbell & Stanley, 1963; Anderson, 1971) on the value of an experiment for making causal as- sertions. Fairweather (1967) has outlined an approach for developing and evaluating the effectiveness of programs that he terms the Exper- imental Social Innovation (ESI) model. Evaluation involves an exper- imental test of the innovative program in which it is pitted against other treatment models, including no treatment whatever. The ESI model’ emphasizes social experiments rather than correlational approaches and secondary data analysis (Campbell, 1969) as a means for creating social change through research. Correlational approaches are helpful in identifying relationship between variables, but even when relationship between two variables 27 such as (a) training and (b) superior skill levels have been demon- strated, causal interpretations are not possible. Variable (a) may have caused (b), or (b) caused (a), or some third variable may have caused both (a) and (b). Correlational techniques were utilized in the current study mainly for studying l'process" (Fairweather, 1967) variables. The primary research questions were answered in the con- text of a true experiment. Campbell and Stanley (1963) indicated that the principal defining characteristic of an experiment which distin- guishes it from less powerful approaches is initial random assignment to comparison group (i.e., conditions). Random assignment is the optimal technique for insuring initial equivalence of comparison groups (Crano & Brewer, 1973) and is probably underused in field research (Fairweather, et al., 1974). Although the design details of the current study are presented in detail in subsequent sections, it may be helpful to put this research in context. In order to derive a clear picture of the efficacy of the skill training program, subjects were assigned randomly to either the skill training (experimental) or servicegasfusual (control) group within the context of Campbell's Design IV: Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design. The study is consistent with Fairweather's (1967) ESI model of evaluating an innovative program by testing its effects through an experiment. The multiple follow-up measures after the cone clusion of the project are consistent with Fairweather's call for the /) necessity of longitudinal emphasis in social problem research. CHAPTER III METHOD Context of the Research This study was completed in conjunction with Special Education Services provided by the Ingham Intermediate School District (I.I.S.D.), Mason, Michigan. The Ingham Intermediate School District is an educa- tional service agency that provides support services to twelve local school districts in Ingham County. These services include accounting, data processing, professional deVelopment, consultive services, voca- tional education and special education. The specific services involved were the Post School Service and Teacher Consultant Services for Special Education students enrolled in vocational programs at the Capital Area Career Center (C.A.C.C.). All subjects referred to the Job Search Pro- gram were receiving services from special education based at the C.A.C.C. The C.A.C.C. site was chosen because all subjects were familiar with the facility, and needed resources and school bus service were available from eleven constituent districts. The Post School Service has offered a wide range of services to special education eligible dropouts since September, 1979. These services have included instruction in vocational evaluation, job seeking skills, independent living skills, academic skills, career counseling and referral to other community and school resources. Teacher Consultant support services were offered to all special education students enrolled in C.A.C.C. vocational programs. Two 28 29 Teacher Consultants provided support services on an as-needed basis. Their individual caseloads at any given point were limited to twenty- five students, and students served were drawn from all special educa- tion categories. The study began in March, 1982, and continued through June, 1982. The study adhered to all I.I.S.D. research requirements. Subjects All subjects were volunteers from a population of referrals pro- vided by the Post School and Teacher Consultant Services. Individuals referred to the study met the following criteria: a) Resident of Ingham Intermediate School District; b) Age range 16 to 26 years; c) Receiving or eligible for special education services; d) Dropped out of high school prior to completing an approved course of study; e) Completed an approved course of study prior to July, 1982, or f) Graduates who have been unable to find employment. All subjects referred to the program evidenced severe reading problems with equivalent scores less than the fourth grade level. Most of the students were classified as functionally illiterate. Subjects who volunteered for the study were randomly assigned to either an ex- perimental or control condition. Subjects in the control group were offered the Job Search Program after the experiment had been completed and all outcome measures were obtained. A total of thirty-four sub- jects were assigned in equal numbers to the experimental (n=17) and 30 control (n=17) groups. Subsequently, one subject from each of the com- parison groups discontinued participation in the first two weeks of the study. Both subjects were identical in regard to age, sex, special education classification and resident school district. m The research design for the study was the Pre-test Post-test Con- trol Group Design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). Subjects were randomly assigned to either the Job Search Program (treatment) or Normally Available Services (control). Randomization insured initial equiva- lency in the two groups. (See Figure 3.1.) Figure 3.2 presents a time referenced diagram of experimental design and assessments. Subjects were interviewed (intake) approximately two weeks prior to program commencement. Premeasures were completed one week prior to the beginning of the Job Search Program. The Job Search Program lasted five weeks. Post measures on both groups were completed the last week of the program. Telephone interviews for four weeks fel- lowing the Job Search Program provided the follow-up data. Data Collection Data was gathered by the experimenter, three teacher consultants and a graduate student. All individuals involved in data gathering were trained by the experimenter in accurate data collection techniques. With the exception of the follow-up telephone interviews, all data was gathered in faceetoeface interviews at the C.A.C.C. facility or in the students' home. The data collected by treatment stage is listed on Figure 3.3. The data includes demographic information, knowledge test scores, 31 Design: Pretest-posttest Control Group Subjects referred to R /;a 01 X 02 O3 04 05 06 andom Job Search Program Assi nment from special educa- ("234) tion programs. 7 08 09 010 011 012 X = Treatment 01 and 07 = Pre measures 02 and 08 = Post measures 03 O4 05, O6 09 010 011 012 = Follow up Measures All 0's involve multiple measures. Figure 3.1: Pre-test Post-test Control Group Design Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 4 5 6 7 Week 8 Week 9 10 11 Week 12 Figure 3.2: 32 Program Description to Referral Source Referral to Program Intake interview Confirm Participation Pre-Measures Random Assignment Treatment: Stage 1: Job Search Program (Instruction-5 wks.) Post Measures StaJe 2: Follow up 1 Follow up 2 Follow up 3 Follow up 4 Termination of Data Collection Subject Flowchart Conirol: Normally Available Services PosL Measures Fol:ow up 1 Follow up 2 Follow up 3 Follow up 4 Control: Job Search Program meeep -wuue eeeewee xeez we egzmeez :eweeELeweH ecwwemem emeew nzecx ucecgeo we useEmmemm< meeceemem Auwcesseo we em: ece seceem nee we :ewpeELew new eewwemem 3 3 emeecaa eee cewpecumwcw5e< .mecememz we acesssm um.m ecemwm Awwece eeceamwcw5e< \meeeweEee peenezm zwwece eecepmwcwse< \mepeweeee peewezm Awwece emceemwcwse< e + e\mepewasee Heenezm Lepces uwceexm e» xwwege :ewp -eELewcw meew>ece peeweam mcweccewumeeo :ewcweo xcez .e ecweccewpmeeo aewxeem nee .m age; cewpeewwee< new .e geesmxcez aceweeeee> mcewpeewwae< “geezeweEm .e eeweecewpmezo meeceemem “geezeweEu .e ecweceewpmezo useEe>ewse< zuw>wpe< ece :ewuegeeeem mewxeem peesxewesm .e uceEmmemm< emeewzecx .N ecemeez Lew>egem ceceem new .H mecemeez-ece Fewecepea auwwweexeweEm mcweec mexee eeceem weccewem AewwweexeweEm we eweem .m Lepceswceexm :ewpeELewcw ea awwece :eweeELew ewzeegmeeeo new meew>eee weeneem 3ew>cep:H exeucw .N weeneem :e . :ewpeagewcH cewuescewcw meew>eca A.u.w.av aged ewseecmeseo eeceem weLLewem cewuescewcH “seawewugea .w exep:H\—eccewem mmoamzm zowwgeucm eceseewew pceexeweEM\uceseeewa .N :ewuerwwua eeceemem xuwcza -Eeo ece mewpw peeneem we ageeemTwwem Afiamecsmee21eca eemv u>wpe< :egeem new zew>ceucH ececeewew ecemeez Lew>ecem :egeem new .H gauzewwem Amnmecemeezueca eemv eweem m\H m.ceupem .m Acumecemee21ega eemv ecweccewumeec :eweweo gee: .e AmumecemeeZTeca eemv , ecweecewpmeeo mcwxeem new .m Amimecemeeziece eemv peeEmmemm< emeewzecx .N eewueewmwaem zwweee eecepmwcw5e< Axweo ezeco pzesueeng seem uceewewegea \meueweeee peeneem mcwpem Segmega :eceem new .H mecemeeZTpmea . aces AA—co geecw acesueecwv -aeecu we pcaee< mcweceeem wwweo eeueweeeo me>wueeweo .N coweeewmweem weene:m\ucee Axweo asecw useEueecwv -ueeew we eczes< mcweceeem wwweo eeceeeepu< .H mecemeeZTmmeeeLa weepceu weeceaxm \wecceucH xpwece eeeepmw:_5e< weesewpceev we mesmeez \meuewaeee weeneem epeem M\H m.ceuuem .m mecemee21eca mmoamaa onwweeanae teeeeeceap< eweem M\H m.Leeeem ecweecewpmeso :ewcweo gee: ecweceewpmeec mcwxeem nee Ae a eme.ev peesmmemm< emeewzecx mesmeez Lew>esem geceem nee mcwpemceeo ”wewwweexeweam we eweem 3ew>ceuew exeucw seem cewpescewew uceawewegea m N a: 3OA4om mmm=meH eeecw mcweeem N m m ez .m.z aH mH KN me> eecewceexu xcez meew>eca w NH om 8:35 :55: a H m 828.5 8.233 .m.z a m A 8:35 3:885 :ewaeewwwmmewu eewueeeem Heweeem a m w NN-HN w a HH omimH .m.z m m eH mHin m3 H m a :eewcee< smwceem o H H xeewm .m.z mH NH wm mews: eeem m oH oH . eweaea .m.z 0H m eH eHeEII xem a x 8H n 5 SH u 5 3m u 5 eeceewwwmmwm Hecuceu Heeceewgeexm mueeneem eHeewLe> we umew HH< mmzomw wzm2h>.05 74 that seemed most relevant to this hypothesized relationship were the Work Opinion Questionnaire and the Internalexternal Control Scale. Prejpost comparisons for experimental and control subjects failed to support the hypothesis, although InternaleExternal Control did show a near significant effect in the predicted direction. Failure to cone firm the hypothesized effect of training on adaptive work attitudes sug- gests at least three possibilities: a) the Job Search Program was in- effective at changing work attitudes, b) the measures selected were insensitive to changes that did occur, or c) the work attitudes meas- ured are not associated with job acquisition. Hypothesis Four Job Search Program participants will have a higher frequency of job search behavior than subjects in the control group. Although the primary emphasis of the current research is on training rather than direct placement, the issue of job search activi- ties is still of importance. To the extent knowledge was gained in the Job Search Program, an increase in job search activities could be ex- pected among members of the experimental group. Self-reported job search behavior was measured before and after the Job Search Program on all subjects. The premeasure was completed on the week period prior to intake. Subjects were asked to list all activities they had completed during the preceding week (See Appendix F for the job search behavior instrument). Possible activities in- cluded: contacting employers, use of employment resources, obtained application forms, interviews completed, etc. The intent was to establish a base rate of these activities against which the rate of '75 subsequent activity could be compared. Selfgreported behavior was zero for all subjects on the preemeasure. None of the subjects responded affirmatively to any of the listed behaviors, yielding a base rate of zero for preprogram job seeking behavior. This low, or essentially nonexistent, rate of effective search behavior mirrors the observation of many job placement personnel that clients typically claim to be con- stantly "looking" for a job, although the frequency of actual behaviors is low. Follow up measures on job seeking behavior were administered weekly during a four week period at the end of the instructional phase of the project. Frequencies of self-reported job Search behavior at the con- clusion of the first follow up week are listed in Table 4.17. Virtually all subjects, regardless of group membership (i.e., experimental vs. control), reported some job search behavior during the preceding week. The resulting chi§Square analysis was not significant, and the hypothe- sized superiority of experimental subjects in regard to job search bee havior was not confirmed. Measurement of job search behavior was discontinued in the event subjects attained employment. This fact, while obvious, provided an interesting methodological twist in the present study, and points up the fact that seemingly simple behavioral measures can be deceptively attractive. Data on job placement is reviewed in the following section, but due to their relevancy to testing Hypothesis Four, those results must be previewed here. Virtually all of the experimental group secured 76 Table 4.17 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF REPORTED JOB SEARCH BEHAVIOR AFTER TREATMENT FOR EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS No Yes Condition Experimental 2 14 16 Control 3 13 16 5 27 x2: 24 p= N S 77 employment well before the follow up period had expired. Indeed, the majority of the experimental group were employed within two weeks after the conclusion of the instructional phase of the project. Summary. It may be accurate to assert that Hypothesis Four was untested rather than unconfirmed. The abbreviated follow up period may have precluded true differences from emerging, or alternatively no differences in self-reported job search behavior would have been obe served between participants and nonparticipants regardless of the length of follow up. In view of the significant differences in the actual placement rates noted in the next section of this paper, the latter possibility has potentially alarming implications for self- report behavior. The fact that two groups who were substantially dif- ferent on job acquisition, but essentially identical on self-reported job search behavior, raises questions about the veracity of self- report in this case. _ It is of course possible that subjects' self-report was an accu- rate indication of their actual behavior. That is, control subjects may have completed as many job search behaviors as experimental subf jects. The Job Search Program may have affected the effectiveness but not the frequency of job search behavior. Unfortunately, this view also carries the implication that a simple report of the frequency of job search behavior must be cautiously interpreted when used as an outcome measure. Hypothesis Five Job Search Program participants will have a higher place- ment rate than subjects in the control group. 78 Training rather than placement was the principal outcome of the Job Search Program. Mastery of instructional exercises by special ed- ucation students was the stated goal of the program. It seemed plau- sible that the program.might be an effective educational intervention without showing an immediately high job placement rate for low skill students in this difficult economic era. These caveats aside however, job placement data is important from the view of whether subjects are able to apply skills once acquired. Indeed, many researchers cite job placement rate as the only credible outcome variable. Whether or not one adheres to this extreme view, employment is unquestionably a desirable outcome for a job search training program and in the test of Hypothesis Five a critical evalua- tion issue. The main outcome measure was a categorical tally of the frequency of employed and unemployed subjects among the two comparison groups. It was hypothesized that experimental subjects would evidence higher rates of employment than control subjects. Descriptive data on each job acquired was also gathered in order to verify job placement. The incidence of employment and unemployment among experimental and control subjects is presented in Table 4.18. The chi-square analysis revealed a significant relationship (p (.01) between employ- ment status and group membership. These results support Hypothesis Five in that Job Search Program participants were more likely to obtain employment than controls. Remarkably, 87.5% of the experimental group were employed at the conclusion of the follow up period. In addition to employment ratios 8 more fine grained analysis of type of employment was examined. Descriptive data on whether the Table 79 4.18 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF EMPLOYMENT STATUS AFTER TREATMENT FOR EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Unemployed Employed Condition Experimental 2 14 16 Control 10 6 16 12 20 X = 8.52 80 position was publicly subsidized or unsubsidized (private sector) was of particular interest. Job type frequencies are presented in Table 4.19 for both experimental and control groups. The most frequent cate- gory was partftime (25 hours per week) subsidized employment for both groups. All employment obtained was at the minimum wage ($3.35 per hour) level. A significant association (p<:.01) between group member- ship and employment status was again observed. The most striking dif- ferences between controls and experimentals are attributable to unemploy- ment among control subjects. Summary. Employment status, while not the only important outcome of the Job Search Program, was an important indicant of its impact. An increased rate of employment among Job Search Program participants re- lative to control subjects was hypothesized. This fifth research hy- pothesis was supported. Nearly all of the subjects who attended the program were employed at the end of the follow up period. Given the obstacles to employment facing subjects in the current study, the employment rate was encouraging and suggested that attaining employment is a viable possibility for educationally handicapped youth. The fact that many (n=6) of the control group also attained employ- ment is also noteworthy. It should be recalled however, that these controls were not actually "untreated". The control group received customary services, which among other services, provide for some assis- tance in employment. In fact, two of the control subjects acquired jobs through direct placement efforts by their special education con- sultant. These facts suggest that the employment comparisons cited above probably represent a conservative test of the effectiveness of the Job Search Program. 81 Table 4.19 FREQUENCIES 0F TYPES OF EMPLOYMENT AFTER‘ TREATMENT FOR EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS Type of Experimental Control _§mployment (n=16) (n=1g) Unsubsidized full-time (35+ hrs per week) 2 O Unsubsidized part-time (less than 35 hours) 4 2 Subsidized part-time (20-25 hrs per week) 8 2 Subsidized (sheltered workshop) 0 1 Unemployed 2 11 n=32 xi: 13.50 p <.01 82 §gpplemental Data Section In addition to the formal testing of the hypotheses, supplemental data was gathered during the course of the study. Some of this informae tion was incorporated into descriptive and correlational analyses. The purpose behind the collection of this data was to provide further in- sights regarding process and outcome variables. Job Seeking Skills Questionnaire The Job Seeking Skills Questionnaire was administered to all sub- jects on a pregpost basis. The purpose of pre test administration was to assess the subjects' readiness to complete a job search and to iden- tify possible obstacles to gaining employment. The posttest admini-‘ stration was to assess change over the program's duration. The first four questions utilized a Likert type rating format (5=strongly agree to 1=strongly disagree) and dealt with the subject's feelings of con- fidence about job search activities such as completing application f0rms and job interviews. Additional questions inquired about career development issues, specific obstacles to finding employment, use of employment resources and sources of occupational information. Pre-post results on the four confidence questions showed little change within and between groups. Responses seemed to reflect individ- ualized response sets to the questionnaire items. Patterns emerged such as checking all "strongly agrees" or all "disagrees". In addi- tion, these expressed feelings of confidence ratings were not seemingly related to observed or measured competence. For example, subsequent correlational analyses indicated a negative correlation between 83 preerating of confidence and the attainment of employment. Following program completion, several experimental group subjects were asked about the lack of correspondence between their expressed confidence on the post test and their skill gains. These participants stated that when they completed the pre-test they really did not understand the process that was involved in completing an interview or an application form. Many participants had never called a prospective employer on the tele- phone prior to the Job Search Program, and they had little knowledge regarding the importance of employment inquiries at the time of pre- testing. It appears that the subjects' expressed confidence was re- lated more to naivete than competence. This pattern of results has serious implications for using self-reported confidence as an outcome measure, because it may actually be a negative predictor of employment success. As a part of the Job Search Questionnaire, subjects were asked to identify obstacles that might preclude them from gaining employment. They responded to a list of common employment seeking problems and were asked to identify any additional obstacles. The results of this survey compiled f0r all subjects (n=32) are summarized in Table 4.20. Of the five most frequently identified problems, three were in the area of job seeking Skills. These were "getting job leads", "completing job interviews" and "calling employers on the telephone." Each of these skill areas was addressed in the current program. Only 16% of the re- spondents viewed their handicap as an obstacle to employment. This view was in contrast to referral sources as all subjects had been 84 Table 4.20 PERCENTAGE OF VERBALIZED OBSTACLES TO EMPLOYMENT BEFORE TREATMENT BY ALL SUBJECTS (n=32) Obstacles Getting Job Leads Transportation Not Enough Skills Completing Job Interviews Calling Employers on Telephone Lack of Education Handicap Personal Problems Legal Problems Poor School Record Poor Work Record Child Care Percent Responding AffirmativeLy 66% 66% 59% 50% 50% 47% 16% 16% 16% 16% 13% 6% 85 directed to the study because their handicaps and low reading abilities were identified as probable obstacles to gaining employment. (See Appendix I for Job Seeking Skills Questionnaire.) Job Search Program Attendance Attendance and objectives completed were measured as an assessment of the amount of treatment received, as well as an indicator of subject satisfaction with the program. Analysis showed that although there was little variation in attendance, there was a significant correlation between attendance and employment (r= .56; p<<.001), as generally all participants attended each session. When the Job Search Program was cancelled due to school closings (in service, snow days, etc.) it was rescheduled. Participants who were absent from a session or who needed additional assistance with specific problem areas such as resume writing, or answering specific interview questions, sought additional time with program instructors after regularly scheduled class sessions. Employability Assessment Scale The purpose of this instrument was to provide the Job Search Pro- gram staff with a rating on the ability of participants to get and keep a job. The Employability Assessment Scale (E.A.S.) was to be completed by the referral source and the score was to be correlated with outcome variables. The resulting correlations were to yield additional in- sight in subject variations which affected success outcomes. Due to the fact that prior reliability estimates using the E.A.S. were low, the Scale was to be completed by two independent raters. However, only a small portion (20%) of the Scales were completed by referring teachers. 86 In spite of training and repeated urgings, the teachers reported that the E.A.S. was too cumbersome and items difficult to respond to ace curately for this sample. Of the few sets of paired Scales returned, there was little consistency between the two independent raters. Due to the low return rate 0f completed Scales, and the fact that the pur- pose of this measure was not of primary importance to the study, the E.A.S. measure was dropped from the analyses. Job Search Program RatingForm Following the completion of the Job Search Program, all experi- mental group participants completed the Job Search Program Rating Form. Specific program components were rated on a five point Likert type scale (5=strongly agree to 1=strongly disagree). Participants were asked to indicate their degree of satisfaction with various program components. They were asked to respond to eleven evaluative statements in terms of the extent of theiragreement with each statement. Thus agreement was indicative of a positive evaluation while disagreement reflected dissatisfaction with a particular program area. Results of the rating form in terms of relative frequencies of different response options, are summarized in Table 4.21. It appears that the majority of participants were satisfied with the type of training they had re- ceived. This was also confirmed verbally by participants and was in agreement with the program outcomes by knowledge gain and employment. 87 Table 4.21 PERCENTAGE OF PARTICIPANTS (n=16) INDICATING AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT WITH EVALUATIVE ITEMS ON THE JOB SEARCH PROGRAM RATING FORM (SA - strongly agree to SD - strongly disagree) SA A N p so I learned a lot of useful infor- 19% 75% 6% -- -- mation in the Job Search Program. I am satisfied with the training 25% 63% 12% -- -- I received in the Job Search Pro- gram. - I know more about community re— 25% 44% 25% 6% -- sources now than before I started the Job Search Program. I understand more about how to 19% 43% 19% 19% - -- get job leads than before I started the program. I would recommend the Job Search 25% 38% 25% 12% -- Program to one of my friends who is looking for a job. I have more confidence about how 6% 63% 19% 12% -- to look for a job after the Job Search Program. The Job Search Program motivated 12% 58% 12% 12% 6% me to look for a job. I learned more about good work 37% 44% 19% -- -- behaviors in the Job Search Pro- gram. My teachers did a good job of 44% 44% 12% -- -- running the class. My teachers were concerned that 25% 75% -- -- -- the class learn the Job Search material. I would like more of this type of 20% 37% 37% -- 6% training. 88 Correlational Analyses In an effort to identify variables associated with attaining emf ployment, correlations were computed between subject demographic and personality variables on the one hand, and employment on the other. The intent was to identify factors which might predispose a participant to- ward success in obtaining employment. Table 4.22 contains the results of these correlational analyses. Examination of Table 4.22 points up a number of interesting findings, regarding the relationship between subject attributes and subsequent success. The demographic variable of race was a significant correlate of employment, with white participants being more likely to obtain employ- ment. Other demographics such as sex, age and handicap did not reach significance. Internal control as measured on Rotter's Internal- External Control Scale was associated with subsequent employment, and was the most effective predictor of any personality measure in the pre- sent study. Most of the correlates of employment success were actually pro- gram process variables. For example, the variable evidencing the strongest relationship to finding a job was program attendance. Subf jects who showed better attendance were more likely to find subsequent employment. One interesting, and unexpected, outcome pertained to the issue of referral source ratings of predicted student success. Prior to intake, teachers and/or counselors rated all participants on a five point scale as to the probability of their success in the Job Search Program, and in attaining employment. The motivation behind these comparisons is that on a day-to-day basis counselors and teachers make 89 Table 4.22 CORRELATES OF EMPLOYMENT ACQUISITION FOR ALL SUBJECTS (n=32) Correlation with Variable Employment Significance Race -.32 p<.05 Age -.11 p<.30 Sex -.06 p<.40 Handicap Category -.16 pi<.20 Attendance .56 p <.001 Pre-Rotter's I-E Scale .28 p<(.059 Post-Rotter's I-E Scale .39 - p