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MASS MEDIA: THE ROLE OF RADIO BROADCASTING
FOR DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA

BY
Alex L. Mwakikoti

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Communication

1986

ABSTRACT

MASS MEDIA: THE ROLE OF RADIO BROADCASTING
FOR DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA

BY
Alex L. Mwakikoti

The objective of the study was to determine how radio
broadcasting in Tanzania can be effectively used for
development. The study was based on Literacy Campaign of
1972-75, and on the premise that Tanzania has chosen radio
broadcasting as a basic means for disseminating information.

A careful review of library documentation as well as a
number of relevant interviews were done. The review of
literature indicated that radio has been used for
development purposes in many countries. The study also
indicated that radio broadcasting must be supplemented by
other media to be effectively used for development. The
survey revealed that radio broadcasting suffers from a lack
of autonomy and audience-oriented research. Finally, it was
noted that future economic and.social development through
radio broadcasting, will depend in part, on Tanzania
government leadership and its understanding of the

integrative role of media in development

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

May I give great appreciation to Dr. Jack Bain, my
advisor and committee chairperson, for his direction,
guidance, and valuable counsel throughout, and Dr. Joseph
Straubhaar, to whom I have received constructive criticisms
in this work. To Dr. Peter Spain (of the AID) in his
willingness to giving me time for interview, and to William
Shija, former head of the Journalism Department at Nyegezi
Institute in Tanzania for his constructive suggestions of
this study.

I also wish to acknowledge the contribution of Nancy
Keith, for her editing my manuscript, Pat Adams and Mwangi
Kariuki for their support in my early stage of the study.

My graditude goes to various individuals who have
helped me use their resource centers and especially, Judy
Brace (Director and Resource Center Manager) of the Academy
for Educational Development in Washington, DJL, and the
Information and Education Offices of the United Republic of
Tanzania Embassy in Washington, D.C.

Finally, I wish to give thanks to my family for their
cooperation as I took family hours to be able to finish this

study at the right time.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page
I INTRODUCTION

General Information ......................
Purpose ................. .................
Background ...... ............. . ...... .....
Research Rationale .. .....................
Research Questions .......................
Methodology ................. ..... . .......
Limitation of the Study ... ...............
Significance of the Study ........... .....

The Nation . ..... .. .......................
Decentralization ......................

O\]m O‘O‘Uluwai-‘H

é
a

II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Radio Broadcasting in Africa ............. 21
Broadcasting for Development ............. 23
Literature on Radio and Literacy ......... 29
Summary .................................. 32

III A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF RADIO BROADCASTING
FOR DEVELOPMENT

Introduction ............................. 34
Background ............................... 35

Section One

Meaning of Development ................... 36
Development Within a Social Group ........ 39
Traditions and Culture in Development .... 41
The Causes of Underdevelopment ........... 43
Traditional Views ....... ................. 45
The Dependence Theory .................... 48

iii

Two Major Forms of Dependency ............ 49
Overcoming Dependency .................... 52

Section Two

The Role of Broadcasting in a Nation's

Development ................... ......... 54
Relationship Between Broadcasting and
the Government ..... .......... .......... 59
Satisfaction of Aspirations Achieved ..... 61
summary OOOOOOOOOOOO ...... .0... ...... 0.00. 62
IV BROADCASTING FOR DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA
Growth and EqUity ....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ..... 66
Historical Perspective of Radio Tanzania-
Dar‘eS‘salaafll 00.0.0000. ...... 00000.... 69

Observation .............................. 75
The National Literacy Campaign (1972-1975)

The Campaign ........ ....... ..... ...... 86

Campaign's Objectives ........ ......... 86
Organization ....... .................. . 87

Observation ........ ..... . ........ ... ..... 91

Planning ...... ................. . ..... . 91
Implementation ........................ 96

Evaluation ........ . ............. . ..... 99

Conclusion ..... ....................... 101

V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ..................... 103
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................... 109

iv

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table of Figure Page

1 Indices of Mass Media Development in

Rich and Poor Countries ............. 61
2 Tanzania: The Growth of Radio and its

Audience ............................ 79
3 Relation of a Co-ordinated Council and

the Executive Committee .... ......... 89
4 Broadcasting Organization in Relation

to the Ministry of Education ........ 9O
5 Broadcasting Service Structure .. ...... 91
6 Ministry of Educatioin and Research

in Relationship to Broadcasting ..... 92
7 Education Expenditure in Tanzania ..... 95
8 Number of Illiterates to be Covered

During 1972-75 . ..................... 98

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

General Information

 

The invention of radio, like print, has simplified the
disseminationof information. The world seems smaller than
it originally was. Either by lifting up a phone or by a
dial of a radio, one sends or receives messages from the
channel of his or her choice. Nations, groups and
individuals use radio for swift dissemination of information
to the targeted audience. Like television, radio is
reaching millions of people from one source with a similar
message. Unlike television, radio can be carried into a
pocket, listened to as you work, walk, drive or while you
are doing something else. Television, however, calls upon
your presence. Your eyes have to be involved with the
movement of the pictures portrayed. Again, radio penetrates
even into the most remote part of the country, free from

electricity.

Purpose

It is because of this capability which radio has that
many developing nations are deciding to utilize it to its
utmost. And yet the degree to which radio is used
effectively for national development plans suggests a need

for further investigation. It is the purpose of this study

2
to find out how radio broadcasting in Tanzania can be

effectively used for social and economic development.

Background

 

This study hinges on the concern that Tanzania radio
broadcasting, as one of the major government tools for
development, ought to participate fully in the processing
and the dissemination of information needed by the people to
enhance the nations' social and economic development. Such
being the case, the flow of information, the content of
information, the target and the timing have to be
calculated if such information is to be beneficial.

After the attainment of political independence in 1961,
Tanzania realized that it was important to be socially and
economically independent. To achieve this goal, the
government used various strategies in an attempt to involve
all individuals in the national development. Success haas
been very marginal, partly because the dissemination of
information to the millions of Tanzanians scattered all over
the country has met with considerable difficulties.
However, little seems to have been done to find out how
effectively information can be disseminated to the relevant
audience. It is my concern that an information medium like
radio should be given a priority because of the central role
it plays in development process. By disseminating pertinent
information, the targeted audience will be given an

awareness of social and economic problems prevalent in the

country.

Radio broadcasting has been a choice in many developing
nations as one of the most appropriate technologies for
dissemination of information. It is also recognized as a
major medium for mass mobility and development (McAnany
1973). In Tanzania, radio has already played a significant
role in two major nation-wide development campaigns, namely

Mtu ni Afya (Man is Health) and Literacy.

 

Questions have been asked about the role of radio
broadcasting for development in developing countries. More
important is the role radio broadcasting plays in the
developing countries whose radio (and other media) is owned
and.controlled.by the<government. In regard to the media
control in Tanzania, Mwakyembe (1973) says, "personnel have
always maintained that the performance could have been
better had it not been for the problems they encountered
while going about their duties." One of Mwakyembe's
concerns in Tanzaniafls media is that "media are given low

priority in the country”s development polich'

Research Rationale

 

Tanzania committed herself to fighting ignorance,
disease and poverty from the time she attained independence.
Since development is of "things" is not necessary but of
man, Tanzania gave priority to the war, fighting against the

above three "enemies." But to be able to win this battle,

4
the nation needs to be informed, and to have its role to be
clearly defined. Such information in Tanzania can only be
disseminated widely and fast through radio broadcasting.
Thus, it is the duty of Tanzania to ascertain that the means
of disseminating information to the nation, especially radio
broadcasting services, are efficient.

The main objective of this study is to understand how
broadcasting in Tanzania can be effectively used for social
and economic development. Implicit in the above objective,
the following are the specific objectives:

1. To find out what role broadcasting has and will play
in the social and economic development.

2. To find out what role radio broadcasting played in
Tanzania during the nation—wide development campaign--
Literacy.

3. To suggest the role radio broadcasting can continue
to play more effectively in social and economic development

of Tanzania.

Research Questions:

 

It is my objective that this research will be able to
answer the following questions:

1. What role can radio play for the social and economic
development of a nation? A theoretical framework of radio
broadcasting for development will be discussed.

2. What role did radio broadcasting in Tanzania play

during the nation-wide development campaign (Literacy)?

What were the problems encountered in the campaign and why?
Of interest will be to find out the current problems and how
they are trying to overcome them.

3. What are the other social and economic development
roles that radio broadcasting can play in Tanzania? (This
will take into consideration Tanzaniafis present socio-

economic and political situation.)

Methodology

 

Materials included in this study are those which give
information on the theoretical perspective of the use of
radio broadcasting for development: materials on the role
played by radio broadcasting during the nation-wide
development campaign in Tanzania; and those materials that
indicate the present socio—economic and political situation
of Tanzania.

Since this study is mainly a library research,
information is gathered from libraries and various other
sources. These include Michigan State University libraries
(in Lansing, Michigan): the main library, Applegate library
in the College of Communication, Arts and Sciences, and the
International Networks in Education and Development (INET)
library in the College of Education. Other sources include
the Clearinghouse on Development Communication library in
Washington, D.CH, a division of Academy for Educational

Development, and the Tanzanian Embassy in Washington, D.C.

6
Substantial information from various individuals,
especially those who worked directly or indirectly with
radio broadcasting in Tanzania are included in this
research. Information from such leaders and specialists in
the area were gathered through correspondence and or

interviews.

Limitation of the Study:

 

It should be recognized that the findings of this study
will not be generalized beyond the limits of Tanzania Radio
Broadcasting Services and the development of Tanzania.
Considerable care is exercised in making interpretation of
the material collected to make this research as objective

and as systematic as possible.

Significance of the Study

 

This study is centered on development as a major
priority of Tanzania in all its planning. The research
gives suggestions on the use of mass media, specifically
radio broadcasting for development. In addition, the
suggestions included at the end of this study may aid
decision-makers to integrate radio and other mass media with
other government institutions in the development of the
nation.

While the research focuses on the development of
Tanzania, the theory provided is open for adoption and re-

definition for the use in other developing nations. It is

7
my hope that the findings and suggestions incorporated here,
will provide a better insight in preparing future
communication strategy that will bring about the desired

social and economic change in the development of Tanzania.

THE NATION

Tanzania, an East African Republic with a population of
over 21 million was formed by the 1964 union of Tanganyika
and the island of Zanzibar. Mainland Tanzania was a German
colony from the 19th century until the end of World War I,
when it became a League of Nations mandate territory and
later a U.N. trust territory under British administration.

Geographically, Tanzania is known as the land of
Kilimanjaro, the highest mountain in Africa" Tanzania is
bordered by Kenya and Uganda in the north, washed by the
clear and sweet water of the second largest lake of the
world" Lake‘Victoria. lkxthe west lies Zaire, Burundi and
Ruanda; whereas Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique are south of
the country. Tanzania enjoys the coastal line which lies in
the east with the vast Indian Ocean.

Tanzania is a mountaineous country, except in the
central regions and the coastal area which runs from Tanga
in the north to Mtwara in the south. The rains fall heavily
between November and mid-April. From mid-April to the
beginning of November, the land is dry in most parts of the
country, making impossible in some places for the
cultivation of anything. Irrigation systems have started in

various areas to combat drought problems which usually

result in hunger.

About 80 percent of the people in Tanzania live in
rural areas. Their occupation is based on the production of
farm products. Literature suggests that literacy has
climbed from 30 percent to 80 percent in less than five
years, a subject which has been given special attention in
this research.

Tanzania came to independence in December 1961, with
several social-political characteristics that would prove to
be important advantages in its future development. Unlike
other African nations, Tanzania does not have a single
dominant societal group botherwise called ”tribe"L. This
condition has allowed the developmental efforts to go
forward without any organized opposition that such a group
might provide. In addition, most of the people in Tanzania
speak Kiswahili, a language which has offered much
unification among societal groups in the nation.

But perhaps the most important precondition to
Tanzaniafls later development was the dominance of the
Tanganyika African Nation Union (TANU) party, which under
the guidance of the energetic and philosophical leader,
Julius K. Nyerere, had brought the nation to independence.
Although TANU had planned little for the time following
independence, it had conceptualized ideology within which
plans were to be formulated. This was used as a work-bench

for the kind of socialism that was to be the vehicle for

10
development efforts in Tanzania.
The TANU was the only popular party and the only to win
a seat in local and national election. It became the only
Tanzanian official ruling party in 1965 and joined other
Africana states under the one-party-state system.
The TANU, which later came to be known as

Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) or a Revolutionary party in 1977

 

(as a combination of TANU and Afro-Shiraz Party of Zanzibar)
has continued to play a unique role in the development
efforts in Tanzania. The CCM interprets socialism to the
people, and through its understanding of the people, serves
as the communication system between the people and the
government. From the words of the President of Tanzania at
that time, the TANU party is a

two-way, all-weather road, along which the purpose,

plans, and problems of the government can travel to the

people; at the same time as ideas desires and

misunderstandings of the peOple can travel direct to

the government (Mshangama, 1971L

Julius K. Nyerere who was prime minister, and later the
first president of Tanzania in 1961 was re-elected president
in 1965, 1970, 1975 and 1980. His re-election has always
been possible because of the interest of the majority of the
citizens of Tanzania who have always cast their votes for
him. Again and again, Nyerere had indicated the intent of
"stepping down" and letting someone else run for the

presidency, but some of the Tanzanian leaders in the party

system seemed to indicate that the time for someone else as

11
president apart from Nyerere had not yet come. It was not
until 1985, that these leaders (otherwise called "wagee")
accepted Nyererefis desire of not running again for the
presidency.

From the expressions of the leadership he has given to
the nation, Nyerere has always seen unity and cooperative
endeavors as essential to African development, and even
offered to delay Tanzaniafls own.independence if the colonial
government and the other East African nations could agree to
become independent together as a united East African
Federation. Although President Nyerere adheres to the
principles of public ownership and control, universal hard
work, an egalitarianism, he sees the Tanzanian brand of
socialism as capable of borrowing from any system which does
not interfere with Tanzanian self-determination. He is
committed to democratic processes, non-classism (non-racism)
and.to change through.persuasion.rather than.coercion. Ike
has shown himself willing to undertake fundamental change
and to experiment with new methods of achieving the goals of
development.

Although the beginning of what was to become the
Tanzanian brand of socialism and self-determination was
present at independence, it took several years for these
ideas to crystallize and for structural changes to begin to
occur; The institutions of colonialism, with their emphasis

on centralized control, still remained. One wonders why

12
such was the case. Yet, the need to operate with a degree
of stability competed with the need to institute change.

To give an example: the first five year development
plan, covering the period from 1964 to 1969, depended on
foreign aid, an aid which in light of colonial experiences
was viewed as a right. The realization that such aid,
irrespective of whether or not it was deserved, was not
forthcoming combined with the realization that no amount of
outside help could create a nation of "not only good farmers
but good thinkers able to judge for themselves" (Nyerere,
1967), resulted in the dramatic events of 1967.

The movement to the left, which Nyerere graphically
described as "groping our way forward towards socialism"
(Nyerere 1968), took an historic turn with President
Nyerere's presentation of the Arusha Declaration to the
annual meeting of the national conference of TANU in
February, 1967 in Arusha. This document made socialism and
self-reliance the central focus in the national development.
It highlighted the ideological commitment to democracy and
egalitarianism, and to achieve these goals it set out plans
for the nation to establish ownership of the commanding
heights of the economy and to limit the opportunities for
leadership to entrench itself as a privileged class.

To give an example, no leader was allowed to collect
more than one salary, nor to own a home for income purposes.

Although it had long been recognized that the wealth of the

13

nation lay in its people and its land, the Arusha
Declaration placed a new emphasis on ruralization. The
Arusha Declaration institutionalized a socialism in which
all Tanzanians of all races and classes were invited to
participate. It is always important to note that
institutionalizing something does not always mean acceptance
as a working policy. The fact that socialism was
institutionalized in Tanzania, does not suggest that all
Tanzanians worked harmoniously in seeing its development.

The Arusha Declaration was followed by a series of
policy statements which attempted to spell out the meaning
of socialism and self-reliance in the realities of life and
development. For example, as stated by Ingle (1972) the
emphasis on rural development was not a new one, but it
seemed to need constant restating. At an address at the
opening of Morogoro Agriculture College (now known as
Sokoine University) in November 1965, Nyerere lamented: "to
talk of the importance of agriculture is like playing a
record that has been heard too often."

In Tanzania, socialism was interpreted to mean the
concentration of development potential on the poorest
classes of the nations, namely, the rural peasants. Under
the emerging theory of development, all citizens were
to be integrated into the social mainstream. Rural
residents were relieved of the head tax, members of the

bureaucracy accepted salary cuts, and additional taxes were

14
levied on wage earners. The statement that."the more you
earn the more you pay" was fulfilled to its iota. While
these measures were calculated for the success, one wonders
how effective they were. For a time these measures worked
all right. But today, there has been a reintroduction of
the head tax to every citizen. Either removing the head tax
did not work as it was planned, or there was an
underestimation of what it takes to develop a nation under
the idiology of Ujamaa system.

As part of the integration process, emphasis in
development was at the level of the village. Education was
seen as most important when directly related to village
life. Villagers and students were expected to interact,
each learning from and teaching the other. Primary schools
were encouraged to take part in self-help projects while
secondary schools were encouraged to be self-supporting.
Unfortunately, university students were not involved in this
self-help education. It would have been encouraging to see
university students working hand in hand with other students
in the nation to defray the cost of running those schools.
On the contrary, university students received a sum of money
as a monthly allowance without doing any work either for the
university or for the nation's development.

The emphasis of participation and self-reliance meant
not only integrating all Tanzanians into national life, but

also systematically wresting control of the nation from all

w£'

15

non-Tanzanians. A massive effort was launched to ensure
total Tanzaniazation (jobs held by citizens irrespective of
race) of both the civil service and the parastatal
corporations. Over 90 percent of all occupied civil service
positions were filled by citizens in 1971, compared with
only 26 percent at independence (Economic Survey, 1972).
Tanzaniazation of the parastatals proceeded more slowly, due
partly to the draining of qualified Tanzanians to the Civil
Service. And although there was a projection that by 1980
there would be a localization of the civil service, this has
not been fully reached due to many unforeseen constraints
which Tanzania faced during the latter part of the 1970s.

Nyerere's unique combination of ideological commitment
and strategic flexibility has baffled many outside Tanzania
watchers. He has been called an "ideological pragmatist"
while he has himself termed the Tanzanian model of
development ”revolution by evolution” and the true African
revolutionary a "realistic idealist" (Speech to National
Assembly, United Arab Republic, April, 1967). This eclectic
approach to development translates into a willingness to
associate economically with any nation, East or West, which
does not violate ideological principles or attempt to
interfere with Tanzanian self-determination. This policy
allows the consideration of any offer of aid as long as the
aid does not deflect development from the desired path.

However, when an ideological principle is to be violated

16
because of the aid, Tanzania will show itself unwilling to
compromise even if severe losses will be the result.

The case in point is Tanzania's dealing with the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) which repeatedly has
called Tanzania to devaluate her shilling from 80 to the
dollar to 35. This Tanzania has not accepted. In 1985
however Tanzania accepted to devaluate her shilling at 18 to
the dollar. Speaking on the issue as interviewed by

Africa Report (December 1985), Nyerere explained:

 

We oppose devaluation--but not on some socialist
grounds .. . When we started the debate with the IMF
some six years ago, it was 8 shillings to the dollar,
but now they want 35. There is no socialist value of
the Tanzanian shilling in relation to the dollaru It
could be 100 shillings to the dollar, it does not
matter. The problem is that I want to see the effect
of devaluation at that time on our people, what it will
mean.
Then, Tanzania has chosen to limit itself ideologically and
refuses to limit itself politically. This policy of non-
alignment, or in Nyerere's phrase, "not letting our friends
choose our enemies," has caused distress among Western
nations, a distress which in the past has been translated
into sanctions against Tanzania's independent stand.

As a result of the policy of non-alignment the pattern
of Tanzania's foreign aid has changed drastically since
independence. In 1966, the United Kingdom accounted for
over 60 percent of all bilateral aid. In 1972, the United
Kingdom accounted for only about 5 percent of all aid while

no single nation contributed more than 30 percent of

l7
Tanzaniafs total aid (computed from data in the Economic
Survey, 1970-1971). Mazrui suggests there are only two ways
of dealing with aid while remaining self-determining, that
is, either reject it or diversify the sources of aid to such
an extent that no nation can place you in a position of
dependence on it. Tanzania is attempting to chart a course

based on diversification.

Decentralization

 

Most of the people in Tanzania live in scattered,

isolated homesteads. Ujamaa Vijijini, or socialism in

 

villages, was a major policy implication of the Arusha
Declaratumn Ujamaa Vijijini emphasized how people could
"live together and work together for the good of all." The
emphasis was on relocating to Ujamaa villages where the
people could set up meaningful cooperative production-
distribution activities. This arrangement would also allow
the government to supply adequate social facilities. While
the idea was a good one in view of the developmental effort
of the nation, the idea in most part, did not work. For one
thing, some authorities forced individuals from their
original domaine to the Ujamaa village. And yet these
leaders would act under the name of the government.

The base on which true decentralization could develop
was present in the concept of Ujamaa villages. .Although the
number of Ujamaa villages created (and the significant

social transformation that has taken place in many of them)

18

is remarkable, the majority of the population has not been
involved and the emphasis in recent years appears to have
changed. The call by President Nyerere in the late 1970s
for ”villagization" in those areas where traditional people
live in scattered areas was even intensified.
Simultaneously, existing villages were urged to press on
with intensified cooperative activities.

The second Five-Year Development Plan (1969-1974)
underscored the desire to return planning responsibility to
local units. It stated that Ujamaa villages would be given
priority in decisions concerning the allocation of resources
and that ways must be found to ensure that the allocation of
resources was in accordance with the wishes and requirements
of the Ujamaa village committees. It was in response to
this recognition of the requirement for greater local
participation that attention turned to attempts to
decentralize authority and services and to make government
at all levels more responsive to the needs of rural areas.

Local planning as it was to emerge, had a precursor in
the Rural Development Fund, an arrangement to make monies
available for self-help projects which were initiated
locally. In 1969, President Nyerere announced a
"fundamental and potentially revolutionary decisionfl' A.
year later, it was realized that structural as well as
attitudinal changes were necessary'in.order to foster the

goals of decentralization.

19

In 1971, a TANU document, Mwongozo, made participation
a central tenet of national policy as well as a strategy to

achieve decentralization. According to TANU Guidelines

 

(1971) "If development is to benefit the people, the people
must participate in considering, planning, and implementing
their development plans." This document turned the nation's
attention to the importance of planning by the people
themselves. The handing of authority to the people
represented an act of faith on the part of the central
government that the people recognized the value of the
socialist path they had been traveling (until then by
central direction). It reflected a belief also in a strong
concensus between the top level of government and the rural
peasant concerning how development should proceed. Yet, an
average person would possibly not say how involved he or she
is in planning for the nation's development. While it may
be so outlined in principle, the involvement of citizens may
be hardly seen in practice.

This policy made explicitly the judgment that less
growth with greater participation was to be preferred to
more growth with less participation. The center was to be
viewed as the responding, not the directing body. In
January 1972, President Nyerere broadcast an explanation of
this policy direction to the people, and the implementation
began soon after to help make decentralization a reality.

The growth has not shown throughout the years, there has not

20

been a developmental effort toward Nyerere's ideology. This
is either because of the problems of implementation or a
lack of understanding of his philosophy by Nyerere's co-

leaders or both.

Summary

History, the geographical location of Tanzania,
political ideology, and economic aspects have all
contributed to the kind of media Tanzania has and will
continue to have, and the impact of media in the overall
national development. The language--Kiswahili--has played a
major role in the unification.of the many societal groups
scattered throughout Tanzania. More important is the
energetic and philosophical leadership of Julius K. Nyerere
for over twenty years as president of Tanzania.

The future economy and social development process of
mass media in Tanzania, and especially radio broadcasting,
will depend in part on the leadership of the nation as well
as the insightful integration of media with other tools for
the development of the nation“ Policies do not work if they
are not accepted by those who do the implementation. In
order for the people to cooperate with authority,
development ideas have to be translated from the blueprint

to actions.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

An important element in the identification and nature
of the research involves an investigation of previous
studies and literature on the subject. In this chapter, an
attempt is made to review the research literature relevant
to the study of radio broadcasting for the development of
Tanzania. A broad view of literature on the theoretical
perspective of radio broadcasting for development is taken
into consideration.

This chapter is divided into four sections: radio
broadcasting in Africa; broadcasting for development;

broadcasting for literacy; and a summary.

Radio Broadcasting in Africa

The continent of Africa is experiencing the growth of
mass communication today. Radio and television broadcasting
industries are increasing in Africa. While television has
not yet been wisely introduced, cheap transistor radios have
brought the spoken word to millions of rural and urban
Africans. In most countries in Africa, broadcasting is
directly controlled by the government. The idea of control
is not necessarily the invention of leaders of these

independent countries. To be sure, such concepts of control

21

22

were introduced years ago by many'of the colonial powers,
especially the British. As observed by Ainslie (1966),
"Africa broadcasting .. . tends away from the concept of
broadcasting as a function independent of the British . . .
in colonial days" (p. 174). What one sees in Africa is the
legislation of broadcasting under direct ministerial
control. In most cases, under the Ministry of Information.
Whether such a move has helped the development of these
countries in Africa, depends on what development itself is
(a section to be treated separate in this research), and how
a given country prioritizes her development programs.

Kargbo (1974) in his studies of African media says

The plight of Africa's news media has been, and still

is, directly related to the circumstance that they are

a Western import, and as such, a byproduct of European

Colonialism. Both print and broadcast came from

outside, with the European incursion so that neither

journalism nor mass communication were indigenous to

African society. (p. 46)
Rainhold (1977) concluded that there is a great dominance of
foreign influence in Africa even in the area of
broadcasting. For instance, the largest part of the
industrial products used in Africa are still produced
overseas. These include radios, televisions, telephones,
school equipments et cetera, which in most cases, are
imported along with the cultural background.

Media have been, not only a means of dissemination of
information to individuals, but they have also been used to

bring individuals together; as observed by Kargbo (1974).

Kargbo's emphasis is that Africans have been, for long time,

23

isolated from each other and from the outside world- But
media have brought not only the knowledge of each other, but

also that of the outside world.

Broadcasting for Development

From the time Fisk and Lazarfeld (1945) introduced the
work of the office of Radio Research, a division of the
Bureau of Applied Social Research in Columbia University,
researchers have been more interested in field researching
the role of radio in various developmental aspects. Fisk
and Lazarfelds attention was directed to the technique of
radio research, including surveys of listening habits and
more specialized research pertaining to the effectiveness of

one section or element of media programs.

At that time, Fisk and Lazarfeld contended t h there
were at least six characteristics of radio which distinguish
it from other media. The most significant characteristics
picked up were; radio's accessibility and the auditory
perception. The combination of its accessibility with its
reliance on auditory perception enables people to listen
while carrying on a variety of other activities which do not
necessarily interfere with their perception.

UNESCO's activity in exploring the use of radio for
development in the developing countries has been rewarding.
In a study of radio and television in Asia (in UNESCO Report
1967), some of the conclusions drawn were that, radio could

be an instrument to promote social and economic development

24

and expand the educational systems of less developed
countries. According to the UNESCO report, this was due to
the independence from traditional ground communication,
instant and flexible production, emotional and intellectual
appeal, individual or group participation, cheapness of
production and reception, lack of necessity for electricity
and personalism.

The above conditions are especially true for Asian and
African countries which were and are characterized by a
small percentage of school age population, irregular
distribution of educational facilities and opportunities,
and the scatteredness of distribution of persons in these

countries. Thus, UNESCO (1980) in Many Voices One World

 

suggests that the inter-link between development and
communication be studied. It also suggests that the
developmental models of the past utilized communication to
disseminate information to make people aware of "benefits"
to come from the "sacrifices" required for development. The
concern is that such a model is deficient in that there is
no active involvement by the people in.making development
their own responsibility.

Riitho (1971) describes uses of radio which offer some
obvious advantages as a communication medium for family
planning education in Africa. The program consisted of
various broadcasting in such formats as short messages, spot

announcements, interviews, panels, talks et cetera. In

25

introducing the context, local customs, holidays, and taboos
were taken into consideration. Problems including getting
the villagers used to fixed schedules, nation-wide
scheduling, the uniqueness of the radio, and the fact that
only six percent of the population owned radios were also
apparent.

Media have been used for development in Africa for a
long time, but there has been a drawback in finding out what
could be done to make media work for development. Spurr
(1952) gives an account in his report on the use of mass
media for development at that early date. He says that an
experiment was done in the use of films for the agricultural
and health education of the Sukuma in Tanzania. The intent
of the film was to try to use a different propaganda than
the traditional form of information dissemination which was
then used by the Sukuma.

Spurr (1952b) says elsewhere that the colonial file
services were set up to encourage the government of Kenya,
Uganda and Tanzania to form groups for the production of
basic educational films for Africa.

In his study of mass media, Reinhold (1979) concluded
that mass media in general works as a strategy for the
social change. To him, what development scholars have
described as "collaborative and participatory communication
as a strategy for social change in a given nation" will only
be visible when people and systems begin to change, and the

"effectiveness of the medium of communication depends

26

essentially on the overall organization of services into
which it is integrated and the socio-political framework in
which it operates. In the same manner, Schramm (1964)
pointed out that for "national development, the mass media
are agents of social change" (p. 65).

Jamison and McAnany (1978) have maintained that "radio
is the single most pervasive means of communication with the
majority of the world's population, and that many countries
will use . . . to promote development goals" (p. 59). There
are many ways radio may be used for developmental purposes.
Perhaps one of the major uses of radio is for information.
As Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) suggest, if innovation of a
particular product has to take place, the first stage must
be the awareness. And awareness is promoted, in most cases,
through mass media like radio. Likewise, media is used to
inform a large illiterate population in matters of politics
or development plans as found in Colclough and Crowley
(1974) studies of Botswana broadcasting.

The use of a humorous 15-minute drama by the Voice of

 

Kenya was aimed at motivation. According to UNICEF (1975)
the drama is intended to get rural listeners to think about
their families' health problems. Such was the case in USA
when the operas were so common in the 1950s. Another
example of motivation would include the study of Hall and
Dodds (1977) in the health and food growing campaigns in

Tanzania.

27

In recent years, radio has been used to teach skills in
many developing countries. Tanzania, for example (Hall and
Dodds, 1977), used radio and printed materials to teach
courses in village bookkeeping, boiling water before
drinking, et cetera.

The importance of radio as an instructional medium had
been previously pointed out by the European Broadcasting
Unionfs International Conference on Educational Radio and
Television (1967). A 600 page report was documented
discussing the applications of instructional radio from all
parts of the world.

There are also some studies which claim that radio has
been used to change behavior of the target group. Those who
have engaged in such studies include Hudson (1977), who used
radio for meeting arrangements; Hall and Dodds (1977) claim
to have used radio as the only feasible means in instructing
rural dwellers in Tanzania on how to vote for the first
time, and Manoff (1975) whose radio spot in Ecuador
instructed that iodized salt be added to the diet.

Peigh et a1 (1979) view radio as a powerful medium for
improving the quality of life whether it be in a developed
or developing country. Likewise Khair (1973) points out
that such a powerful and effective means of mass
communication would support developmental functions in
various developing countries. It can not be overemphasized
that radio, just as any other modern technological

discovery, stands as a major means for development if it is

28

wisely utilized.

Abell (1965) on the other hand, conducted a study of
the Farm Radio Forum Project:in.Ghana. The project which
was carried out in eight villages, divided into four groups:
two for experimental purposes, and the other two as control
villages. Through pre- and post-test broadcast
questionnaires, it was found the listening groups
contributed to villagers'lcomprehension of inter-village
cooperation, the formation of cooperatives and better food
nutrition.

Matiko (1976) writes about Tanzania radio campaigns
within the context of Tanzania's approach to education for
self-reliance and health. Matiko gives historical
perspective, planning and implementation.(including problems
encountered) and evaluation of the campaigns. Riitho (1971)
in his article, "Radio in Family Planning in Africa" makes
comments that family planning through radio in Kenya, proved
to be useful for the distribution of family planning
information. In a like manner, Berrigan (1975) points out
the role of media in teaching underdeveloped nations about
birth control methods and that it has been very successful.

It remains true that without the spoken word through a
medium like radio, many people in the developing nations
would not have heard about the "good news" on healthful
living. As Atkin (1981) emphasized, the review of theory

and research has indicated that mass media can play an

29

important role in communicating health information not only

to adults, but also to a young audience.

Literature on Radio and Literacy

Radio broadcasting in conjunction with other media have
reached their way to training illiterate people how to read
and write. Such a contribution of broadcasting is proving
to be of paramount importance in the developing countries.

Maddison (1971) made a study covering forty nations
giving brief summaries on the use of radio and television in
adult literacy work. He concludes that broadcasting has
brought about a tremendous change in reading and writing on
the part of the illiterates in the few years adult programs
have been aired. Van 801 and Fakhfakh (1971) compiled more
than 2,000 entries of published works and periodical
articles on the use of radio for literacy showing how
extensive radio broadcasting has been used for literacy.

Practical advice and guidance on the use of radio and
television broadcasting in adult education has been given by
Waniewicz (1972). His practical information is best suited
to educational planners and.administrators, educators and
those responsible~for(curriculum development and teaching
methodology, field work organizers as well as broadcasting
administrators and producers, especially those in the
developing countries.

Mason (1958) gives his experience on programs in Upare

in Tanzania where teaching and writing for the community

30

development was done at that early date. IHe also points out

that they had newspapers Habari za Upare (Pare News) and

 

Mambo Leo (Daily News), and that these newspapers were the
organ of the local administration as a forum for the
citizens.

Brumberg (1972) provides an excellent overview of
Action Cultural Popular (ACPO) experiences. 'The ACPO was
established in Colombia in 1947. Broadcasting as "Radio
Sutatenza" it has become the most important institution in
the field of popular education in Colombia and is a model
for the promotion of rural development in all Latin America.

Some of the findings evident to Brumberg were: mass
media education programs combining radio, printed materials
and local staff, appears to be effective in teaching
campesi nos (peasants) to read and write. Multiple media
must be employed in a coordinated manner, and personal
contacts must be eliminated. The educational content of
mass media a program need to be practical and motivational,
appliable and applied. In a mass education program that
seeks to treat the "whole man" a clear ideological stance is
important. He says that a mass education program must gain
the support and approval of the local power structure if it
has to be effective within a given community.

In his analysis, Brumberg says that mass media
educational programs require effective feedback mechanisms
to ensure that the right messages are being broadcast, that

they are being accurately perceived and that a loyal

31

listening audience is being built up while the learning
offered is being practiced. An important element included
in Brumberg”s research is that a mass education program
should be a long term effort and should depend in large part
on the presence of other development inputs into rural
communities.

In view of the importance of radio broadcasting in
Tanzania, Ndugu Wakil (1965) then minister for Information
and Broadcasting, emphasized that an illiterate country
should use the radio toiexplain.to the people the nation's
development projects.

Without doubt, radio broadcasting has its limitations.
In his analysis of "Radio and the Educational Needs of
Africa” Quarmyne (1985) points out that the use of radio as
a stand-alone system, requires creative compensation for
interpersonal and other support inputs. Likewise in the
author's interview with Peter Spain (who was working with
A.I.D. to introduce and expand the use of interactive radio
in schools in developing countries), Spain (1985) emphasized
that broadcasting ceases to be a means of communication if
there is no interaction between the source and the receiver.
Thus broadcasting must depend on other'inmerpersonal
communication or otherwise for the medium to be "alive".
There must be feedback from the receiver. In this way,

radio can accomplish its goals.

32

Summa

Broadcasting for development in developing nations has
become one means of bringing about change in the nation, In
spite of the complex situation African countries have,
Africa has accepted to try the use of media in reaching the
once unreached masses. The role, as it has been
established, has been not only to inform, but also to bring
about some tangeable results in the lives of individuals.

Throughout the world, radio has been used as a major
force for improvement of people's lives. The promotion of
social development has for a long time been realized. Yet,
there is another side of it. That is, radio has been used
by'developing nations to promote healthful living through
health campaigns, as well as for eradicating illiteracy
through literacy campaigns.

As Schuphan and Peigh et al (1979) declared,
broadcasting serves a threefold purpose: the maintenance,
extension and transmission of a culture. It must concern
itself with emergent values, but it must concern itself even
more with those transmitted values without which no society
can achieve continuity and stability.

It is therefore, necessary that such a powerful medium
be explored and utilized to its utmost for the development
of a nation. To do this, several considerations ought to be
looked upon if such a medium is to produce the desired

outcome. Having said this, it remains to see the

33

theoretical perspective of radio broadcasting for a nation's
development. The following chapter has been designed just

for that.

CHAPTER III

A Conceptual Framework of Radio Broadcasting
For Development

Introduction

 

This chapter is designed to outline some concepts that
explain the use of radio broadcasting for economic and
social development. There are two main sections included:
the first section gives the concepts or definitions of what
development is. The second section deals with the role of
broadcasting in fulfilling what has been described as
development.

In the section dealing with the definition of
development, an attempt has been made not only to define
what development is, but also to pinpoint some important
variables related to development. For example, brief
discussions have been included on what causes
underdevelopment: discussions on dependency theory and
some strategies which could be used to overcome dependency.

The section on the role of broadcasting for a nationws
development points out some theoretical aspects of radio
broadcasting for development: the relationship of
broadcasting to a government; and some aspects of balancing
developmental achievements as perceived by a social group
and as weighed by phiIOSOpher William James' model (to be

34

35

discussed later).

Background

 

A review of the literature on economic development
leaves one strong impression: most economic development
writers assume an outside intervention, usually by
professional staff, as the focus of development activity in
a given country. The possibility of self-perpetuating,
completely independent development is not always considered.
There is also confusion and contradiction resulting from
different conceptions of the development definition and its
process.

As observed by Coombs (1973) the general literature on
development is not very helpful in answering questions such
as the role of rural areas on national development; the
criteria and evidence appropriate to judge progress of rural
development; and the manner in which.the process of rural
development gets started and unfolds (p. 20). Part of the
reason for such observation is that much of the literature
on development tends to be quite general and theoretical,
focusing on national needs. In order to answer Coombs,

attention must be focused on the human element and the

 

perspective must include that of development from the local

upward as well as from the national level downward.

36

SECTION ONE

Meaning of Development

Individuals, especially those from what has been called
"undeveloped" nations (the terms "developed" or
"undeveloped"; "first world" or "third world" are used only
to express some commonly understood concepts; the author
does not share the concepts and the meanings assigned to
these terms), have been searching for the meaning of
development. What is "development“? What labels one
country as "developed" and another as "undeveloped"? What
causes undevelopment and what are the obstacles of
development?--are questions which always perplex modern
scholars in developing nations.

In the past, definitions of development have always
evolved around a model which heavily emphasizes GNP. Today,
the emphasis is turning from "things" to "people." Emphasis
on the improvements in peoplefls lives, and changes in socio-
economic relationships within and between countries which
help to make such improvements possible is evident. It is
today, that such view is being translated from concepts into
actions.

The dominant view of the UN on the definition of
development has been characterized by the existing
technology of the US and European countries, where "macro"
social and economic indicators such as GNP growth, has been

the measure of "success." But as far as the definition of

37

"development" is concerned, hardly do two individuals agree
in all its aspects. IBelow, are examples of some definitions
as provided by different developmental scholars:
Rogers (1976) defines development as
a widely participatory process of social change in a
society, intended to bring about both social and
material advancement (including greater equality,
freedom, and other valued qualities) for the majority
of the people through their gaining greater control
over their environment (p. 346).
Rogers's 1976 definition of development is a great
improvement from his former 1969 definition in which he
suggested development to be a
great type of social change in which new ideas are
introduced into a social system in order to produce
higher per capita income and levels of living through
more modern production methods and improved social
organization.
It is an improvement in that the focus on "higher per capita
income" and "new ideas" which are introduced do not say
where such ideas come from. Thus, the focus is changed from
income to a general "social and material advancementfl'
Ihayatullah (1981) suggests that
development is a change toward patterns of society that
allow better realization of human values, that allow a
society greater control over its environment and over
its own political destiny, and that enables its
individuals to gain increased control over themselves
(p. 101).
According to Streeten as quoted by Tadero (1977), he

suggests that development be defined as

38

an attack on the chief evils of the world today;
malnutrition, disease, illiteracy, slums, unemployment
and inequality. Measured in terms of aggregate growth
rates, development has been a great success. But
measured in terms of jobs, justice and the elimination
of poverty, it has been a failure or only a partial
success (p. 68).

In his words, Tadero says:

Development must therefore be conceived of as a
multidimensional process involving major change in
social structure, popular attitudes, and'national
institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic
growth, the reduction of inequality, and the
eradication.of absolute poverty. Development in its
essence, must represent the entire gamut of change by
which an entire social system, tuned to the diverse
basic needs and desires of individuals and social
groups within that system, moves away from a condition
of life widely perceived as unsatisfactory and toward a
situation or condition of life regarded as materially
and spiritually 'better' (p. 71).

Tadero points out that "development" should be seen as
both a physical reality as well as a state of mind in which
society has, through some combination of social, economic,
and institutional processes, secured the means of obtaining
a better life. Regardless of the components of the "better
life," development in all societies, suggests Tadero, must
have at least the following objectives:

1. To increase the availability and widen the
distribution of basic life-sustaining goods such as
food, shelter, health and protection. 2. To raise
levels of living including, in addition to higher
incomes, the provision of more jobs, better education,
and greater attention to cultural and humanistic
values, all of which will serve not only to enhance
materiaal well-being but also to generate greater
individual and national self-esteem 3. To expand the
range of economic and social choice to individuals and
nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence,
not only in relation to other people and nation-states,
but also to the forces of ignorance and human misery
(p. 73).

39

At a later time, Rogers (1976) decided to abbreviate his
definition of development by saying that it is "a purposeful
change toward a kind of social and economic system that a
country decides it wants"(;n 347). This is perhaps what
many people in developing nations would see as a fit-in-the-

puzzle definition of development.

Development Within a Social Group

Development means change, that is, change in people's
attitude, values and institutions. It means dynamic
alterations of fabric of all societies, that is, in the
already highly industrialized countries of Western Europe,
North America, and Japan, as well as in the still developing
countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. Individuals in
all these societies are subject to the stresses and
conflicts resulting from change. But development cannot
simply concern itself with the attainment of economic goals.
The development process by its very nature involves some
very profound social and cultural transformations as well.

As a country develops economically, there is usually a
dramatic population shift from the countryside to the
cities. This migration increases unemployment and poverty,
and produces vast urban slums. The urban migration also
brings an increased awareness of impoverishment. And as
levels of education.and literacy increase for'both.men and

women, so do the choices and problems.

_;f\\

40

Perhaps one of the major questions in development one
has to ask is the very choice and direction of the
develoment. For instance, who is to say which attitude is
more applicable in partiuclar countries: which is the road
to "development” and personal fulfillment? Indeed, who is
to choose which course to follow--proceeding rapidly to
political democracy, or following an alternative course with
the hope that democracy will come later? Should the people
choose, and if so, how should they do it? Or should a
leader and his followers choose, and impose their program of
development? As President Julius Nyerere insisted that the
choice is not between changing or no change; the choice for
Africa is between changing or being changed. Changing our
lives under our own direction, or being changed by the
impact of forces outside our control.

The concepts and definitions of development may not
have clear and universal answers. But it is important that
the meaning of what development is and how it is to be
understood in a nation's development should be made within
the developing countries themselves. Outsiders cannot
impose attitudes, nor transplant institutions into cultures
that may not be able to use or even understand them.
Development can only come in the act of doing. Developing
countries, including Tanzania, must make choices in accord
with the values of their'aociety,that is, with what the
society feels to be ultimately compatible with its ideals

and desires.

41

An oriental fable which suggests the difficulties that
result when different cultures come together. It is the
story of a monkey and a fish caught in a great flood.
Skillfully, the monkey climbed a tree for safety. Looking
down, he saw the fish struggling in the current. The monkey
succeeded in pulling the fish from the water, but the fish
was most ungrateful for this "aid" (See "Attitudes and

Values," The Development Puzzle, 1977).

 

So it is with development. What one values may not
necessarily be important to someone else. Or what another
wants may not seem desirable to others. Observers, for
example, believe that the developing world does not need
products such as Coca-Cola. But if they want to put a
premium on consumer goods, who is to tell them that they
cannot do so? Clearly, the developing countries should be

left to make their own decisions about the meaninggof devel-

 

opment and about what should go into it.

Traditions and Culture in Development

It is true that traditional values of developing
countries may present some obstacles to development. Change
and development necessitate choices between the old and the
new. Often the very beliefs and morals that help peole to
survive in traditional society give rise to resistance to
development. The fatalism inherent in the "Karma" of
Hinduism, the "Kismet" of Islam, or "God's Will" of
Christianity, may do little to inspire people to make

changes to improve their present life.

42

Patterns of culture which have been used for centuries
are not given up overnight. A family planner in Java has
difficulty in providing contraceptives because the Javanese
believe that God will provide food for all children allowed
to be born, hence the number of children one has is not
really important. Moreover, many women feel ashamed to
accept family planning because they believe that to accept
contraceptives implies that they are poor and cannot afford
to feed or clothe their children or send them to school.
Thus efforts to control population growth--a prerequisite
for further development--are often impeded by traditions.

On the other hand, traditions can sometimes be helpful
in promoting new techniques for development. In a small
village in Panama where the "compesinos" had long used a
slash-and-burn technique of agriculture, the villagers
willingly accepted fertilizer for their sugar cane crop but
shied away from using available tractors or insecticides.
They were willing to use the fertilizer because they
concluded that it had the same effect as the ashes from the
fire used in the traditionaal method of clearing land; it
"fit in? with their traditional techniques, whereas other
proposed new methods of agricultural practices did not.

Thus, it is essential that the values and attitudes of
people be understood, for it is only then that struggles
with development can best be understood and learned, As His

Excellency Soedjatmoko (1971) said:

43

It is a manfs vision of the future, his hopes, fears
and expectations that determine his actions in the
present; his awareness of the past influences him as
well. It is impossible to understand the dynamics of a
social system responding to new problems and
challenges.....unless one also has an understanding
of these hopes and aspirations as well as one of the
self-image of the people within that system. And until
we take into account how a man in a given society
perceives his own problems, his interests and his
goals, we really have no clue as to how and why he
will react in a particular way and not in another (p.
46).
It is, therefore, necessary to note that any success of the
future development strategies in Tanzania, will depend, in
part, on the mutual appreciation and acceptance of different
cultures, ministries and other organizations which would

take part in development within and outside the country.

The Causes of Underdevelopment

One approaches and chooses to solve a problem based
upon one'sldefinition of the problem. This is especially
applicable to development in the developing nations. For
example, the strategy of the UN first development decade
(1960-1970) generally assumed that the problem of
underdevelopment was a matter of inherent deficiencies--
economic, social, and cultural--within the Third World
countries. To confront this problem, the Third World needed
to "catch up" to technologically advanced countries, through
imputs of capital and technology and through adopting modern
values.

At present, this deficiency view on the causes of

underdevelopment has been challenged by new analyses. The

44

analyses link the conditions of underdevelopment to a
history of unequal power relationships between the Third
World and technologically advanced countries, from the era
of colonialism to the present. This new view does not
suppose that the Third World can "develop" merely by
changing certain external relationships. As did the former
deficiency perspectives, the historical analysis recognizes
that concrete economic and social problems do exist in the
Third World.

In contrast to the deficiency perspective, the
historical analysis does not see the causes of these
problems as inherent. While certain climatic or religious
factors in the Third World may have contributed to present
social and economic problems, the problems were largely
aggravated by colonialism. Today, the problems have a
momentum of their own and must be confronted directly.

Thus, the historical analysis points to the need for a
two-pronged approach to the problems of underdevelopment:
confronting internal economic and social difficulties and
changing external relationships with technologically
advanced countries.

This redefined view of the causes of underdevelopment
should not be considered a total explanation of the problem.
However, the view does provide a fuller and more accurate
picture than did the deficiency perspective; the historical
analysis does not see the causes of these problems as

inherent. ‘While certain climatic or religious factors in

45

the Third WOrld may have contributed to present social and
economic problems, the problems were largely aggravated by
colonialism. Today, the problems have a momentum of their
own and must be confronted directly.

Thus, the historical analysis points to the need for a
two-pronged approach to the problems of underdevelopment:
confronting internal economic:and.social difficulties and
changing external relationships with technologically
advanced countries.

This redefined view of the causes of underdevelopment
should not be considerred a total explanation of the
problem. However, the view does provide a fuller and more

accurate picture than did the deficiency perspective.

Traditional Views

Generally, traditional views of underdevelopment have
supposed that the absence of certain conditions, present in
technologically advanced societies, caused underdevelopment.
Szentes (1976) presents what he calls the "lack and lag"
theories into five types, based on: 1) quantitative
statistical indices; 2) the aggregate of certain criteria
and limiting factors, such as unfavorable natural
endowments; cultural factors, high population growth rates,
et cetera; 3) "specific forms of motion," for example, a
cycle limiting factors; 4) the sociological view of a:
stagnant, traditional society; and 5) Rostow‘s five staages
of economic growth (traditional-transitional-take off-drive

to maturity-high mass consumption).

46

However, the five "lack and lag" theories confused the
symptoms of underdevelopment with their causes. Depending
on one's definition of the goals of development, some of the
indicators and conditions listed above may or may not be
representative of underdevelopment. But, these cannot be
identified.as the causes of underdevelopment. Looking at
the details of the five definitions, they all have two
shortcomings in their assumptions that: 1) the
underdevelopment situation of Third World countries was the
same as that of the technologically advanced countries
before their own development "revolutions" and 2) that
deficiencies within Third World countries were the major
force preventing their own development.

Briefly, the two views have been summarized by Goulet
and Hudson (1971) that

the first view postulates that while some nations are

unfortunately backward, they can evolve in the

direction of developed nations if they adopt acceptable
behavior and modern goals.

The second view rejects this language as historically

unreal. Underdevelopment is not rooted in providence,

inferior personality traits, or traditional values.

Rather, it exists because the Third World has been the

object of systematic subjugation action by the dominant

nations. Following centuries of colonialism and neo-
colonialism, a world-wide system has been 'aidedfl

'technologized,‘ and 'mutual securitied' into place
Jackson (1965) explained that the traditional analyses of
underdevelopment were dominated by theories evolved during
the period of the Marshall Plan. When applied to Third

World.countries these theories proved ineffective because

they ignored history.

47

One should not underestimate the idea that
underdevelopment began with colonialism. The so-called
developed countries of the world today were un-developed in
their pasts, but never underdeveloped (as expressed by
Wither and Weaver, 1975L. In other words, prior to their
industrial revolutions, the resources of technologically
advanced countries were largely untapped; however, these
countries never experienced the large-scale exploitation of
their resources by another country. The underdeveloped
condition occurred as a "by-product of development" of the
West (as observed by Goulet, 1975) which depended heavily on
the low prices of commodities from and markets to the Third
World nations. Jackson (1965) explained:

The raw materials were sent out to pay for the original
investment. Profits, capital gains, and sometimes ten-
fold amortization returned to the metropolitan
investors. What local purchasing power was generated
was mopped up by the sale of western manufacturers
imported through large trading companies.

From the colonial period through the present, Hunt and
Sherman (1972) suggest that formal independence has changed
the essential patterns of economic relationships very
little. The historical analysis of underdevelopment
indicates that the fundamental cause of the problem can be
attributed to the unequal power relationship between
technologically advanced and Third World countries, rather
than attributed to Third World countries themselves. While
the history of the Third WorldflS'unequal relationships to

the technologically advanced world may not account for all

48

the conditions which characterize underdevelopment, the
imbalance has undoubtedly had a strong impact on Third World
economies, social systems, and cultures.

In a word, historical pespective sheds new light on the
causes of underdevelopment. It suggests a causal
relationship between the development of some countries and
the parallel underdevelopment of others. In contrast, the
traditional view represents an example of what has been
called by Ryan (1971) "blaming the victim." And developing
nations have been held responsible for conditions actually

caused by systemic forces.

The Dependency Theory

The distinguishing feature in the unequal relationship
between Third World and technologically advanced countries
as seen by Dos Santos (1973) is dependency, in which the
economies of certain countries are conditioned by the
development and expansion of other economies to which the
former are subjugated. The dependency theorists believe
that the unequal relationships of international trade and
investment:are beneficiai.to the technologically advanced
countries and detrimental to the Third World.

For example, Frank (1973) characterized
underdevelopment as an on-going process, "the development of
underdevelopment," caused by the unequal economic
relationships between Third World and technologically
advanced countries. His historical research, focused mainly

on Latin America, showed that countries or regions of those

49

countries most closely tied to the technologically advanced
countries, "metropoles," tended to be least developed.

Hunt and Sherman (1972), for example, noted that U.S.
corporations invested $5.2 billion but transferred to the
United States $14~3 billion in profits, a gain of $9.1
billion or almost two hundred per cent. Speaking of the
unequal distribution of income, Wilber and Weaver (1975)
say:

As a result of the highly unequal income distribution

created by narrowly based growth, stimulated by foreign

business, the upper income groups adopted the
consumption patterns of their counterparts in the
developed countries. This shaped both the import and
domestic manufacturing sectors of the underdeveloped
countries. The luxury consumption demands of this
group were catered to instead of the subsistence needs
of the vast majority (p. 208).
Furthermore, colonialism created a local elite in Third
World countries. The gap in the elite-majority income has
increaased and the poor members of society have gained only
minimally from development efforts. The structures and
processes of production have neither provided them with
basic necessities nor with needed jobs and income. For
example, private cars are produced before adequate public

transportation networks; modern urban hospitals are

established before clinics.

Two Major Forms of Dependency:

 

From the observation of Szentes (1975), one sees two
major forms of dependency in the developing nations. These

are external and internal. External forms of dependency

50

fall into five groups: 1) direct control by foreign
monopoly capital; 2) trade dependent on a few countries and
subject to fluctuations in the world market; 3) poor terms
for banking and credit, including increasing indebtedness
which further exacerbates dependency; 4) technical
dependence; and 5) income drain and losses of numerous
kinds: profit and interest repatriation, foreign exchange
transaction, monopoly pricing of primary products, and costs
of shipping, insurance, and other related services.

Explaining this issue, Szentes said:

As long as the influx of material and intellectual

resources into the underdeveloped countries is

connected with an increasing outflow of resources,
which follows from the spontaneous mechanism of the
caapitalist world economy and the structural
characteristics of the underdeveloped countries, and as
long as in consequence of all this the unequal
distribution of the dynamic factors of growth (science,
technology, and the industries closely related to them)
is maintained (and even increased), there is no hope of
narrowing the gap, nor even preventing its further

widening (p. 228).

Szentes listed a number of specific factors of internal
dependence: a narrowness of the home market, a lack of
capital accumulation, outward-directed transportation links,
and the grossly unequal distribution of income.

In the discussion of external and internal dependency,
Goulet (1975) maintained that, even though inequalities have
always existed, they are much greater today because of the
structural paternalism dominating the relationships between

technologically advanced and Third World countries;

politically, economically and culturally.

51

Politically, the influence of Third World countries on
international issues and sometimes even their own domestic
issues, has been limited by the power and interests of the
technologically advanced countries. Economically, Third
World economies have been beholden to the technologically
advanced economies; and culturally, attempts have been made
to change Third World values and social patterns judged
incompatible with modernity, while Western values have been
exported to the Third World through media.

In his book, Goulet makes a statement based on what he
suggests to be one of the keys in understanding dependency,
i.e. vulnerability. He says that the underdeveloped
countries have a weak bargaining position and provide little
defense against external forces which shape the direction of
their change. In some cases, countries have not been able
to chart futures based on goals and strategies most
supportive of their own developmental needs. Instead, they
have made choices which, at best, attempted to minimize
their vulnerability.

Although attempts to overcome dependency and
vulnerability cannot by themselves alleviate the conditions
of underdevelopment, such efforts are necessary and
important. They enable peoples and countries to develop
confidence and exercise greater control over decisions which

shape their futures.

52

OvercomingiDependency

 

Based on historical analysis and the writings of
dependency theorists, the fundamental cause of
underdevelopment has been attributed to the unequal and
dominant-dependent relationships existing between
technologically advanced and Third World countries.
Responding to this definition of the problem, development
theorists, as well as planners, have proposed new approaches
to confront underdevelopment. Generally, the proposals
emphasize the need for structural changes: between Third
World and technologically advanced countries and within
Third World Countries.

This can occur only if people involved in development
assistance and the people of the Third World countries both
experience the "shock of underdevelopment," that is,"the
realization that what appears normal is abnormal and that
what appears aberrant is the lot of common man" (suggests
Szentes). Wither and Weaver (1975) on the importance of
redistribution of income, maintain that

If income is distributed more equally, the problem will

more or less take care of itself. The new pattern of

consumption demand would lead to a new outbasket
embodying less capital and foreign exchange inputs and
more labor inputs. This would make more effective use
of limited capital and foreign exchange resources. New
patterns of consumption demands would, therefore,
maximize the employment of labor and reinforce equality

in income distribution (pp. 218-219).

The redistribution of income is viewed.as a catalyst in a

chain reaction. Wilber and Weaver contend that the

additional income for the poor would create demands for new

53

consumer goods, many of which could be produced by labor
intensive rather than capital intensive technologies. The
new production activities would create more jobs and thus
enable the poor to enter the modern sector and further
increase their income, thus, contributing to the solution of
some of the problems.

On the one hand, Grant (1972) supported other kinds of
changes within Third World countries, including: adoption
of labor-intensive production technique; revising tax laws;
production of basic consumer goods rather than luxury items;
land reform; tailoring social services to meet the needs of
the poor; encouraging the poor to save and invest; and the
establishment of credit services. On the other hand, Parmar
(1975) advocated ”self-reliance" in terms of rejecting
imitative development approaches; ensuring that social
justice accompanies‘growth; and.giving priority to social
and institutional change. And changes within the
technologically advanced countries were proposed by Goulet,
particularly "voluntary austerity" to provide the resources
to meet all people's needs.

To a certain extent, Tanzania has adopted strategies
representative of those proposed above. Tanzania tries to
espouse policies emphasizing self-reliance, which attempt to
structure economies appropriate to her own resources and
needs and to bulid cultural esteem. This is important in
that, if development goals are to reflect the values of a

population, members of that population must have access :9

 

54

decision-making. Thus, development shaped by a people's
values is not only ethical, but also potentially more
effective because it is based on changes they can accept.

In summary, this section has given a lengthy discussion
of what development is. An attempt has been made to give
some views as to what could be done to alleviate the
problems of underdevelopment which are essentially caused
by both internal as well as external factors, as has been
substantiated by economists. It seems basic that for any
development to be successful, people who are to be affected,
must take part in planning and executing developmental
goals. But what has this to do with radio broadcasting?
The following section details the role of broadcasting in a

nation's development.

SECTION TWO

The Role of Radio Broadcastingpin a Nation's Development

Development is the development of people. To achieve
it requires learning, motivation anui effective
communications. A broadcasting system provides the
government with means to promote and explain development
plans and their implementation, to provide a link of
communication between.the government and the people.

Stockwell and Laidlaw (1981) observed that economic
development has been enhanced by the development of mass
means of communication. Their table, as presented below,

shows the direct association between economic status and

55

mass media development. They’see the need for communication
occupying high priority in the national development plans of
the developing nations and calls for the closure of the gap
which the table seems to show.

Table 1. Indices of mass media development in rich
and poor countries: circa 1970*

 

 

Annual per Newspaper circulation Radios: number
capita income copies per 1,000 of receivers
(U.S. dollars) inhabitants per 1,000
inhabitants
$1,500 or more 354 (15) 421 (15)
$500 - $1,499 195 (21) 234 (22)
Under $500 36 (75) 78 (94)
$300-$499 95 (14) 156 (17)
$100-$299 34 (38) 91 (44)
Less than $100 5 (23 22 (33)

 

*Indices are averages for the countries in each income
group. Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of
countries on which averages are based.

 

Source: ELG. Stockwell, "The Dimensions of Development: An
Empirical Analysis," Population Review 18 (1974): 35-51.

 

Too often those who engage in developmental planning think
only of providing the economic prerequisites of development
such as capital, or, if they think of motivation at all, of
economic incentives. While these are important
considerations, attention should also be given to
psychological planning for mobilization. Broadcasting
organizations should be attuned to fulfilling that role. It
is one of the main contributions they can make to
development. Broadcasting organizations can explain to

government departments and other authorities the potential

56

of electronic mass media in support of development as well
as their limitations. They can advise government and other
development agencies on the psychological dimensions of
programs and can advocate before planning and other
development agencies the requisite communication aspects and
resources for persuasion.

It is important that developmental broadcasting demand
close co-ordination with the concerned government
departments and other institutions responsible for
'implementation. It would be pointless for instance, to
promote a new seed variety if it is unavailable in the
localities where it is to be used.

Special skills are required for those who broadcast for
development purposes, skills which not all broadcasters
possess. Pool (1975) suggests that developmental broadcasts
should have entertainment value as well as other qualities,
and that broadcasting organizations should provide training
which goes beyond classical broadcasting training and
includes an understanding of all aspects of the development
process and the use of communications media.

Broadcasting organizations have not only a critical
role of activating the human potential of the country for
development, but also they have the role of providing not
only serious educational programs but also those programs
which are primarily for entertainment. It is through these
programs of entertainment that the role models are presented

for new ways of life. Pool also suggests that broadcasting

57

as an integral part of communication for development
purposes, should establish credibility with a diverse
audience, and bring forth the priority goals of development.
In other words, broadcasting can not bring about
development in isolation. Other means of communication
should go hand in hand with broadcasting. Book, museum
exhibits, training in schools, motion pictures, production
of diverse materials in an attempt to reach everyuone at his
level of understanding should constitute the development
process of a nation. The broadcasting industry ought to
help develop other cultural institutions which would
otherwise lag behind. Since such related activities are not
central to the organization, a broadcaster might perhaps
spin them off when and if they acquire the ability to become
self-sustaining. Thus, for a broadcasting organaization to
fulfill its role as promotor of economic and social
development, it must branch out into auxiliary activities.
For example, in teaching courses over the air, it must
distribute printed matter for that cause. Or, to engage in
agricultural advice, programs must maintain liaison with
field agents. This is to say, the goals should define the
activities rather than the activities defining the goals.
Since broadcasters need a two-way relationship with
their audience, credibility and effectiveness in promoting
development will depend on the understanding and the
interaction with the audience. Research, therefore, is an

important element in this setting, for getting to know the

58

audience better; This helps the broadcaster to avoid the
danger of communicating his own view and that of his own
social group. This could be a library research for the
benefit of programming; audience research, which would
provide information about the audience one is dealing with,
including size, type, interests, attitudes, values and
behavior et cetera. Other types of research would be
organizational and systems research on the broadcast
institution itself. This would be a kind of evaluation in
resources and management in response to developmental
projects.

It is also important to have program testing evaluation
of materials contributed to the development of innovative
concepts before using them nationwide. For any research
consideration that has to do with programming, an operating
policy should be decided. As argued by Pool, research ought
to report to the highest policy level: there should be rapid
dissemination of research results to all levels of the
organization where they may be used; researchers within the
broadcasting organization should maintain contact with
professional colleagues in other institutions and should act
as translators of research results into terms that are
understandable research provides background information and

post facto evaluation. In: addition, ‘by operating

 

interatively in the productions cycle research should answer
questions raised by producers as they arise; research can,

at times, provide useful program material by identifying

59

people's interests and concerns.

The Relationship Between Broadcasting and the Government:

From one end of the globe to the other, one finds a
variety of arrangements for the governance of broadcasting,
ranging from government monopoly to commercial systems.
Other arrangements include public broadcasting corporation,
broadcasting by universities or churches or other voluntary
associations. In this case one may expect some differences
just as the kinds of broadcasting systems differ. To be
sure, any structural form of broadcasting organizations is
determined by particular socio-economic, cultural and
political factors operating in any given society, the
resources available and the number of channels.
Relationships between media and government change as new
social, economic and technological advances emerge.

It happens that a given government needs channels to
communicate to the people, on the same vein, people need
informaation about their government. But it is the
government at any rate, which determines the basic policies
and structures under which the national communication.system
operates. Thus, there is always that relationship between
the government and broadcasting. Since in most developing
nations government provides most or all of the monies for
broadcasting, the government may, by their control undercut
the effectiveness of broadcasters.

Conversely, it can be argued that there is a strong

60

protection of the autonomy'of broadcasting organizations,
whether broadcast monopolies or competing networks.
Autonomy simply refers to the independence of broadcasters
in their professional role. The autonomy that is desired is
that of broadcasting professionals acting responsibly. To
achieve it while resisting the temptation to become a happy
few requires the continous interaction of the independent
professionals with their audience by such various means as
research, feedback and participant programming and
decentralization of the system.

Broadcasting organizations should not be narrow minded;
they must provide access to the air for diverse elements of
the population. To do this, availability of specialized
channels, or programs through advertisements, public service
announcements, or by local and decentralized programming is
important.

One of the major crises of the developing nations is
the cry of insufficient funds for effective operations of
broadcasting services. In most cases, broadcasting revenue
may come directly out of the government budget. To meet the
needs of funds for broadcasting services, Pool suggests that
the formula for broadcasting revenue should be related to a
fixed percentage of the national budget or to those
components of the national budget relevant to communication.

The choice between having payment by the public, the
advertisers or the government is partly a function of who

can best afford it. But this puts in a disadvantageous

61

position developmental goals; because whoever pays for
programs broadcasted, will be biased and have the power to
dictate what is to be broadcasted. Perhaps the best way is
to have a mixed system, part of which is responsible
primarily to audience tests, part to serve primarily
government objectives and part to be purely commercial.
This would eliminate the bias and control of those programs
which are sponsored by and controlled by one group, and
prevent one interest group from thwarting developmental

projects.

Satisfaction of Aspirations Achieved:

The other way of looking at how broadcasting can be
used for development purposes is by using the model of
philOSOpher William James:

ASPIRATION
SATISFACTION = ACHIEVEMENT

 

This formula or model could.be explained simply by saying
that people are always satisfied as long as their
achievements live up to their aspirations, in other words,
getting what they want (Leaner, 1963). When there is an
imbalance, people get frustrated and begin to develop some
sort of behavior aimed at bringing up the balance. On the
other hand, when there is a satisfaction, that is, when
people are getting mpg; of what they want, they become less
likely to try to change the situation. To resist any change

becomes obvious in such situation.

62

Keeping this model in mind, it can be argued that one
of the development functions radio broadcasting could
perform, would be tolunbalance the model if it is deemed by
the society that there is a need for a certain developmental
project. This could be something like helping people to
achieve a certain ratio by creating higher aspirations, thus
encouraging people to work a little harder rationally to
raise their needed achievement. This could be done by
showing what other people from a certain village, or
township have accomplished, and that everyone would have
such privilege of achievement if he or she tries.

While there are shortcomings in this aspect of the use
of radio broadcasting for development; such as not reporting
dangers of exposing grains at a certain time of the year
before harvest; or the fact that media can take some of
those issues as very simple and not realize the impact that
they will bring to the individual. Nevertheless, it is
important to say that radio broadcasting has more potential
to be used in a definitely positive way to promote the
overall process of development than many other media

combined.

Summary
An attempt has been made in this chapter to define what

"development" is, as well as providing some references on
how development has been understood in a social group
setting. The chapter has also included information on how

traditions and cultures may hinder or aid developmental

63

goals. A mention of what causes underdevelopment through
traditional view and dependency theory has been made. It
has been shown that there are ways to overcome dependency.
But such effort has to begin within the society rather than
being imposed from the outside.

The second section has looked at how radio broadcasting
can be. involved in a nation's development. From the past,
radio had taken an active role in the nation's development.
But in order for radio broadcasting to work effectively in
the developmental projects, it has to collaborate with other
institutions in the dissemination of information for
development.

An underlying factor in the use of radio for
development, seems to be the research aspect. Radio can be
a powerful tool for the development if research is done
before the broadcasting of the intended messages. Such
research would include audience, message content, tools of
dissemination of the massage aand the organizational
structure of the broadcasting industry itself. An
assessment of the audience’s attitude is vital in helping to

determine the usefulness of those messages thus sent.

CHAPTER IV

BROADCASTING FOR DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA

This chapter is designed for the discussion of the role
of radio broadcasting for the development of Tanzania.
Discussion begins with the indication of the general goals
and objectives for the national development. Second, a
historical perspective of radio broadcasting and its
relationship to development is discussed. Third, a case
study on literacy is introduced. This sets as an indicator
of what role radio Tanzania has played in a national
development. Fourth, a brief observation is made on the
case study as well as an evaluation of the overall
broadcasting system for development in Tanzania.

The goals and objectives of independent Tanzania can at
best be summed up by the slogan once very well known by

Tanzanians in 19605, "ghpgp pg Maendeleo" meaning,

 

"Independence and Development." This meant that the getting
of independence was to be marked by development. In order
to encourage active participation of its citizens in the
local, state and nation, Tanzania government adopted the
following specific objectives as specified by Maliyamakono
(1980):

1) Education for Self-Reliance: Education for self-
reliance was supposed to provide an important tool for

64

65

fostering cooperation, responsibility and self-independence.

2) African Socialism: This was characterized by

 

nationalization of all means of production, especially
industries; all public service institutions, and created
developmental cooperatives.

3) ”Ujamaa” (Familyhood): In theory, Ujamaa meant that
villagers were to live and work together and the profit of
the products were to be shared equally according to the work
each one has contributed. While the tools and technology of
production would be as modern as possible, the work would be
done in a family level.

4) Egggptrgliggtigp: This meant a complete
restructuring of the administrative systems such as of
education; involving the functional operations at national,
regional, district and divisional levels.

Among other things, an understanding of the concept of
"Education for Self-Reliance" is crucial to an understanding
of the country"s mass education program, of which the "work-
oriented functional" literary program is a part. The aim of
Education for Self-Reliance was to instill in the students
new attitudes and values of education (that education could
be made relevant to rural life, and that education need not
to be elitist). Also the values which were promoted‘
included cooperation, the importance of social service, and
community development through participation. Thus, the
importance and values of development of Tanzania meant

growth and equity.

66

Growth and Equity

Tanzania has attempted to build a society to overcome
some of the major problems of modern societies, whether they
be socialist, communist or capitalist societies. By
choosing a socialist approach, Tanzania hopes to achieve
both growth and equity.

Through the leadership of President Julius Nyerere,
Tanzania chose to depart from the notion that socialism is
simply a more efficient means of producing a high material
standard of living associated with an industrialized
society. Rather, Tanzania has advanced a model of an
economic order based on an agrarian society, with
limitations on the accumulation of material wealth, yet
believed to be capable of providing adequate levels of
material existence for all citizens. The main intent is to
avoid the emergence of distinct social classes.

This vision was made plain and addressed by President
Julius Nyerere in the A£p§h§_ggglgggtigp and

Mwongozo Guidelines. In the Arusha Declaration (1967), two

 

major strategies were laid. First, private ownership of
industry was abolished and replaced with state'ownership.
Second, private ownership and control of agricultural
production was restricted and was replaced by collective
ownership and production of agricultural products within the
framework of the Ujamaa village.

The Mwongozo Guidelines declared that the mode of

 

leadership in the society must change from the

67

individualistic to the collective in politics, government
administration, industrial and agricultural management.
This meant that workers' councils, sharing of managerial
responsibilities between the bureaucratic and the elected
political leadership, and the active participation of small
farmers—-in the planning and implementation of agricultural
and rural development would be the result. Second, it meant
the establishment of a peoples"militia--primarily to assist
the army in defense, as well as enhancing political
consciousness of Tanzanian youth. Third, the guideline
claimed to be a critical aspect of development, that is, the
expansion of political consciousness toward freedom,
personal independence, and responsibility.

Tanzaniafs long term goals include that of equity,
which has ramifications for the ownership of property, for
the distribution of income from labor, and for the
distribution of public services. The goal was to achieve
equity in these areas without regard for place of residence,
urban or rural, rich or poor region, employment status--
whether in large or small enterprise; and irrespective of
the time preference of generations.

The goals of participation, however implies more than
the traditional meaning of political democracy--the choice
of who governs and the capacity to influence political
decisions. In Tanzanian context, participation meant both
this political democracy and economic decision-making

process at the workplace.

68

Self-reliance on the other hand, meant a reasonable
symmetry between the country's ability to produce and
consume basic goods. That is a minimum of external
disequilibrium, or the ability to finance imports from
exports so as to minimize dependence on capital flows to
finance imports. In other words, the government's goal is
to be able to supply its people with food, clothing,
housing, water and education.

There may be some contradictions in formulating these
objectives. There may be a contradiction between equity and
the rapid economic growth which is required in pursuit of
self-reliance. Or contradictions between growth and
participation. Yet, Tanzania's efforts to achieve these
sometimes contradictory objectives must be seen in a
comparative and historical as well as political context. (km
the other hand, one wonders what benefit self-reliance have
in the lives of the individuals who seem to have no promise
of improvement of their economic life twenty years after the
program started.

In each case, broadcasting has played a significant
role in the dissemination of information. Program after
program has emphasized the mobilization of the citizens and
passed on the information as the government wanted. Yet it
is one thing to disseminate information to the nation, and
it is another thing for the information to be understood and
be implemented. What becomes important at this point is to

see the role of radio for such developmental goals for the

69

nation. But first, the introduction of the historical
background of radio broadcasting in Tanzania.

Historical Perspective of Radio Tanzania-

Dar es Salaam (RTD)

Radio broadcasting in Tanzania, as in many other
countries, is such a household phenomenon that one hardly
stops to think that it is less than forty years since it
began. With the increase and modification of radio output
from manufacturers, radio has become smaller and relatively
cheaper than when it was first introduced.

In Tanzania, radio broadcasting was first introduced by
the British Colonial Administration in 1951 in most part as,
a social amenity for its expatriate staff. At that time it
was confined to Dar es Salaam and its suburbs with a
coverage radius of about 40 kilometers (24 miles). A
building at Kichwele Street located near East African
Brewery, housed the studio. This radio station was known
Sauti ya Dar es Salaam or (The Voice of Dar es Salaam), and
was under the Tanganyika Social Development Department.

Although broadcasting was introduced primarily as a
social amenity for the colonial expatriates as suggested by
Ignatus Mhumbile (1981), its impact in 1954 was, as observed
by Mhumbile, felt by the local city residents. With the
introduction of the South African made "Saucepan Radio" many
local residents were able to listen to the broadcasts from

Sauti yg Dar pg Salaam.

70

When broadcasting became popular, the Colonial
.Administration realized its potential in terms of its use
for propaganda. As such, the authority installed a new 20
kw HF Marconia 1956 transmitter and moved to a better
location. The broadcasting house at that time meant a few
offices, two studios, a main control room and a small
library of records. Even with these few facilities,
Tanganika Broadcasting Services (TBS--as it was known then),
was recognized as the most powerful station in East Africa
(see Mhumbile, 1981).

Broadcasting in Tanzania, as in many other colonial
countries in Africa, was introduced by using the high-
frequency band, since high-frequency coverage was relatively
cheaper in respect to the area covered. The colonial
administration might have believed (as in the case of
Tanzania) that they were there for a limited time, hence
their concentration on cheap high-frequency broadcasting as
opposed to medium frequency broadcasting which was being
carried out in Britain.

After acquiring new transmitting and studio equipment,
broadcasting in Tanzania made a big impact on the citizens.
Radio receivers were slowly spreading throughout the
country, and, since the high-frequency broadcast bands were
not so crowded, people enjoyed relatively good reception
except occasionally when there were some atmospheric

disturbances.

71

TANZANIA: 'I‘tegrmfiuofradioanditsaudience

1950-1973
Year Number of Number of Licenses Oontenporazy
trarsnitters imported sold estimates" of
receivers actual nunber
of sets in use
1950 1 SW n.a. - 1,400
1952 1 SW 1 NW n.a. -
1954 1 SW 1 m 19,045 -
1955 1 SW 1 m 21,225 -
1956 2 SW 1 MN 11,418 - 60,000
1957 2 SW 1 m 14,685 -
1958 2 SW 2 NW 10,721 20,480
1959 3 SW 2 NW 12,486 18,176
1960 3 SW 2 m 12,479 18,000 72,232
1961 3 SW 2 m 14,488 34,404
1962 3 SW 3 MH- + 22,520 37,620
1963 3 SW 3 m+ + 27,892 62,280
1964 4 SW 3 PW 86,502 144,581
1965 4 SW 3 m 58,351 139,010
1966 5 SW 4 m 26,009 124,057
1967 5 SW 4 :44 me. 113,000 500,000
1973 5 SW 4 nu ma. - 1,787,000
+ 3 regional

*Ehcperimental regicnal transnitter, later closed.
me. Not available

+Fransurveys

Source: Mytbm, Graham (1983). Mass Oatmmication in Africa, London:
Edward Arnold.

 

72

British Government in Tanganyika granted the TBS the
status of corporation in 1958 and became Tanganyika
Broadcasting Corporation (TBC) under Director-General Mr.
Tom Chalmers (from British Broadcasting Corporation--BBC).
As radio listening increased, it was found to be necessary
to have another transmitter to cater to the English
services, and in 1958 another 10 kW high-frequency
transmitter was installed. At the same time, three medium-
frequency transmitters, each of 1 kW high-frequency capacity
were installed for the residents of Dar es Salaam. The
transmitters were for Swahili, English and School Services,
while another high-frequency transmitter of 5 kW was
installed for standby purposes.

In terms of programs, £95919 (comedy) and

Mchezo wa Radio (Radio Play) in Swahili Service, proved to

 

be very popular among listeners. Swahili Service depended
on local talent, whereas the English Service relied heavily
on BBC transcription programs. The BBC used to relay world
news both in English and Swahili from London.

With the Swahili, English and Schools Broadcasting
Services firmly established, it was also found that radio
could be used for commercial advertising. Soon advertising
was introduced in the form of spot announcements in the
Swahili and English Services, which provided a lucrative
source of income for the young corporation.

At the time of independence in 1961, broadcasting was

well established with a high proportion of locally recruited

73

staff, including the Director-General, Mru Miki Mdoe. .At
that time Tom Chalmers who was the Director-General before
independence, remained to be his advisor. Two years after
independence, the TBC was probably the first public
institution in Tanzania to be Africanized.

The broadcasting system was financed, by a Government
subsidy and through revenue obtained from advertising.
Radio advertisements were inserted between the main programs
in both Swahili and English, but it was soon realized that
there was a need for a separate commercial service. The 100
kW for the new service was installed in 1967. This made TBC
the only broadcasting organization in East Africa to have a
separate channel for its commercial service. Coupled with
the fact that the signal was able to be picked up throughout
East Africa, TBC proved to be very popular. As a result
(according to Mhumbira, 1981), many advertising agents in
Nairobi-Kenya bought air time, and it was necessary for
Tanzania to open a TBC liaison office in Nairobi to cater
to clients there.

When Tanganyika gained its independence, the country
committed itself to help Liberation Movements in Africa,
particularly, the neighboring countries. The TBC gave air
time to Liberation Movements from Zambia, Mozambique,
Malawi, Angola and Namibia. In 1963, the TBC started the
external service to cater to the Liberation Movements in
these areas. The impact of the service was evident. In

1964, Zambia gained its independence, followed by Malawi in

«L

74

1966. The broadcasts for these movements certainly played
an important political role in helping the countries
involved to achieve their independence.

While TBC was introducing most of all these services,
the government too was reviewing the status of the
corporation and in 1965, the government decided to make TBC
a department of the Information and Tourism. It was at this
time that the corporation changed its name to "Radio
Tanzania-Dar es Salaam" (RTD). This change meant, among
other things, that while the Director of Broadcasting was
responsible for the day-to-day running of the radio station,
financial control and major decisions were under the
Permanent Secretary of the Ministry. It also meant that the
government was to control most of the productions for
broadcast at the station.

In spite of this, RTD has been involved in many
activities for the development of the nation. Among others,
is the major drive against illiteracy, the details of which
will be seen later. .Although there have been problems in
the operation of the broadcasting in Tanzania, suffice it
to say that radio broadcasting has played an important role
in the nation building at best, and won listeners both
outside and inside the nation. To be able to reach
listeners in Tanzania, RTD installed three medium wave
stations in Arusha, Mbeya and Mwanza. Each with 50 kW and
one 10kW standby. In this way the broadcasts from Dar es

Salaam are boosted around these areas.

\

75

I
N) At present, RTD is the only broadcasting organization
in East Africa that does not operate a television. However,
there are indications that television will be introduced in

the near future. According to The 1981-2000 LongyTerm Plan

 

presented by the Ministry of Economic and Planning in
Tanzania, the statement says,

. . . 124 Investigation for the introduction of
television for the whole nation of Tanzania will be
made. .A radio station will also be installed to enable
broadcasting to be received throughout Tanzania without
the aid of booster stations (p. 25).

Observation

 

Historically; broadcasting in many African countries
including Tanzania, has been perceived as an instrument in
the hands of the government for achieving the government
defined goals. This is but a heritage from the colonial
government. What the independent governments have done, is
to take broadcasting's existing structures from the colonial
government and redefine the purposes for which radio was to
be used. As noted by Mytton (1983):

The British colonial rulers did not genuinely believe

in independent, publicly owned public service

broadcasting because when in government, they made sure
that they had full control. Only when independence
under majority rule seemed assured, were statutory
corporations established by the departing British in
attempt to distance broadcasting from the newly

Africanized political and governmental arena (p. 65).

Since radio was the medium that reached the largest
number of people, Ansah (1985) suggests that "government

leaders saw it as an instrument to get hold of, for fear

that if it went under different control, it would make the

76

task of nation building more difficultfl' As observed by
Cantril and Allport (1935),

when a million or more people hear the same subject
matter, the same arguments and appeals . . . it is
psychologically inevitable that they should acquire in
some degree, common interests. It seems to be the
nature of radio to encourage people to think and feel
the same.

Thus, the government took control of it.

As in most African countries, the government of
Tanzania made it clear that broadcasting was to be
controlled by the government, otherwise it would fall under
the control of a few wealthy people who would use it for
their own commercial purposes rather than in the promotion
of the ”national interest." .As one Tanzanian member of
Parliament stated it

A broadcasting system is a very powerful instrument and

it can be a very dangerous instrument if those who are

responsible for running it happen to hold different
views from those of the Government, and great harm can
be done to this country by giving emphasis to the wrong
thing paying very little attention to those things
which need special attention. 11:13 my view that to
avoid this powerful instrument being used by people who
may not have the interest at heart, this instrument
should be taken over by the ministry of Information

Services and run as one of the Government Departments.

(See Tanganyikan Parliamentary Debate, February 16,

1961)

The reasoning behind the control explains the physical
nature of radio broadcasting stations in many African
countries. In this continent, many radio stations are
veritable fortresses with sandbags, barbed wire fences and
armoured cars guarding the premises at night. No wonder in

almost all coups d' etat, a seizure of radio transmitters is

77

a must. The success in most cases is determined by those
who control the radio.

Although such government control and protection of
broadcasting seem to be important, and somewhat necessary,
radio broadcasting suffers in a number of ways. .As noted by
Ansaah (1985) there seem to be no real alternative
to government involvement with broadcasting operations in
Africa. Perhaps what needs to be discussed, is the nature
and amount of control over broadcasting and how it is to be
exercised. Ansah indicated; "Where the broadcasting system
is directly controlled as a government department, there is
the danger of the Ministry interfering with the day-to-day
supervision of operations, and professionalism may be given
short shrift in the processfl' He points out further that
professionalism is likely to be lost whenever broadcasting
is treated purely as a civil service function with the same
procedure for recruitment and promotion as in other parts of
the civil service. He emphasized that most of those who are
promoted to higher levels become administrators rather than
professional creative broadcasters, thus leading to the loss
of talent. Furthermore, he noted that broadcasting has been
perceived as the voice of the government, even by the
broadcasters themselves, thus leading to shying away from
those topics which are considered sensitive or embarassing
to the government. The result is the eroding of the
credibility of broadcasting as a trustworthy medium. It has

been noted in a number of countries that people have tuned

78

in to foreign stations to find out about what is happening
in their own.country, thus, developing a cynical attitude
towards the nation's media.

It would be in the governmentfis interest to allow
broadcasters a certain measure of autonomy so that
creditability can be built up for the system. Tanzania in
particular, will do well to entrust the governance of its
operations to»a reasonably independent board of directors
whose membership may be taken from identifiable groups
within the government and community as indicated by the
models given below. Such members would be those who are
perceived by the public to be trustworthy and respectable.
As seen by Ansah:

If broadcasting is too important to leave to the

professional broadcasters alone, it is equally true

that leaaving it entirely to the government in both
policy and operations it may lose its impact to the
nation. A statutory board composed of government

representatives and individuals vnxa have stablished a

reputation for devotion to public service would seem to

be a right mix for regulating broadcasting in Africa

(p. 9). '

In view of the foregoing description, it has been necessary
to suggest the following organizational-structural models,
which detail the relationships of communication or media and
education for development. The relationship of a co-
ordination council and the executive committee aS‘well as
its various sub-committees. Also a model of broadcasting
organization as related to the Ministry of Education or any

other government department for that matter, has been drawn.

Note the interlink of education (which is used here as an

79

example of any other ministry) and the broadcasting
organizational components. Thirdly a model which explains
the broadcasting structure itself and its relationship
within various departments outside the organization, as well
as within the organization. Finally, taking again the
ministry of education as an example, note the interlink of
Research and Evaluation on all subject matter and the sub-
committees such as Utilization, Services Branch and
Educational Broadcasting Branch. The structure of these
models are borrowed from UNESCO (1972), but the author has
reconstructed some parts of the models in order to make them
apply to the situation in Tanzania.

Having seen the historical perspective of radio
broadcasting and its relationship to development, it is
important to turn to at least one of the nation-wide
campaigns as a case study showing the role radio
broadcasting has played. The author is aware of the fact
that there have been various national campaigns in Tanzania

including Mtu ni Afya "Man is Health," Chakula Bora

 

 

"Nutritional Food" et cetera, but he has limited himself to

the "National Literacy Campaign" which started in 1972.

 

80

Figure33

Relation of Co-ordinated Council and
the Executive Committee

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CO-OROINATION COUNCIL
Canyon-d d W o!
W W and
ova-tam
T‘s; policy Moo. mm o! '
mum and Iooifitiu. W I
a! ms at unites. |
| RESEARCH CENTRE
I-- Round! m
I
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE |
Tm: “diction d W "‘J r
d com mm ' at am . .4
. I , . . at I I r
I
L___ I
‘ I
I
SUBJECT-MATTER |
SUB-COMMITTEES '
l
f- -------- 4P-r- ————————————————— «b—--- --'-——--IL---—1
I I Y I L 1
BROADCASTING UTILIZATION EDUCATIONAL PROVISION OE
INSTITUTIONS EDUCATIONAL
—- MATERIAL
Pm . but (other than
.. executive F a“)
Ptogtammmo Recent-on comm W Con-Mona Manuats.
. . . counts textbooks
Producuon o! Fm sum
mm and Consultotton. Film slodos.
aocovmnm 13th ot toochmg muons tape. mead:
Mm mm
mats Emotions Patton. tits
Tym-on .
at :3er Food-back OW?“ on.
“’I new 3" touching ads
And-once (clam. Trimno o! comm .1
food-bod: Wham '
Wad
Trotting ot
mm W Houston
Source: Waniewicz, Ignacy (1972) Broadcasting for Adult
Education. Paris: UNESCO.

 

81

Figure 4

Broadcasting Organization in Relation
to the Ministry of Education

 

 

EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING
AUTHORITY ORGANIZATION

4 I J ‘
r

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

. I
, I '
: PROJECT I
'_1... EgbOYRo'NAnNG ‘4_,:
UTILIZATION ‘ _ _,' | : .__ BROADCASTING
l
| |
I I I I F
Reception I SubrocI-mottor I Production
network | sub-common I
I I
I
' I
T I I I I
Instructronal I Programmrng I Transrmssron
procedures I I
I I
' I
I
1 l I I I
Provision or I Accompanvino I Trltnmg or
teechrng I “WW I productnon
moron»: I I personnel
I I
I I
I I I I I
Turning OI I Food-beck I I
utrItzat'Ion I | I
personnel : i :
I I I
T
I I If I I
I : Producrion o! l I
I AV and: | I
I I I
I | I
I ' ' .
I | t
I L_.._— .., ,- ._ .. ..r I
I I I I
I t I
I Eleuot'ron I
L __________ u and research ‘ ___________ J

 

 

 

Source: Waniewicz, Ignacy (1972). Broadcasting for Adult
Education. Paris: UNESCO.

 

82

Figure

Broadcasting Service Structure

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MINISTRY
OF EDUCATION - ------ “I
I RESEARCH AND
_ EVALUATION
‘ F
I I
I ADVISORY I
L-I COUNCIL ON ‘J -__—+
EDUCATIONAL I'-
BROADCASTINO l
I
I |
I
SUBJECT-MATTER I
r-—--‘*--‘ SUB-COMMITTEES |
I I
I I
I l
I
l
l

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(0)1246!T EDUCATIONAL UTILIZATION
PAR MENTS BROADCASTING SERVICES
AND SERVICES *‘D BRANCH +I'" BRANCH '-----J
r
Programmg Reception
neuron:
ProducIIon Logrstocs

 

 

[ I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Trammg OI Tmnmg OI
programme UIIIIzaIIon
personnel L personnel
EveIueTion
teed - beck

 

 

 

F—_—-———_————_-—-—---

Source: Weniewicz, Ignacy (1972) Broadsasting for Adult
Education. Paris: UNESCO.

 

83

Figure 6

Ministry of Education and Research
in Relationship to Broadcasting

 

 

BROADCASTING

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ORGANIZATION 4 ----- - a
I
I RESEARCH AND
I-~ EVALUATION
f I
I I
I ADVISORY I ‘
L COUNCIL ON I
r EDUCATIONAL ‘ r' "“1
I PROGRAMMES I I
I I I
I I |
T IL I I
§ V Y j I I
OTHER DEPARTMENT UTILIZATION l I
PROGRAMME _ OF EDUCATIONAL SERVICES ____|
DEPARTMENTS “- " PROGRAMMES *I'. DEPARTMENT " I
AND SERVICES p. I
' I
I
I I I I
I
I Programmg Reception I
l 'm““ I
I l
I I
I L I I
I Producuon LogISTICS I
I
I I
I I I I
I TreInIng DI TraInIno OI I
program UtIIIzeIIon
I personnel personnel I
l l
l I
I Auduence reIBIIon I
I feed-back I
l I
I I
L ____________________ J
Source: Weniewicz, Ignacy (1 97 2 ). Broadcasting for Adul t

Education.

 

Paris:

 

UNESCO.

84

The National Literacy Campaign (1972 to 1975)

”First we must educate adults. Our children will not
have an impact on our economic development for five, ten, or
even twenty years. The attitude of the adults . . . on the
other hand, have an impact now" (President Julius K.
Nyerere, at the inaugeration of the First Five Year
Development Plan in 1964).

Thus was the declaration on adult education eight years
before it was put into practice. It was not until
Septempber 1971 during the 15th Biennial Conference of TANU
that it was officially directed by Nyerere that illiteracy
in Tanzania should be completely eradicated by the end of
1975 (see TANU Guidelines 1974). This was not an easy
determination for a country like Tanzania which had more
than five and a half million illiterates. The Tanzanian
government decided to use the functional literacy approach
in this mass literacy campaign.

The emphasis placed by the Tanzanian Government on the
development of adult education is an outgrowth of Tanzania
commitment to socialist development. It is an extension in
educational policy of the ideas expressed in the Arusha
Declaration in 1967 which formally committed Tanzania to a
socialist path and of the subsequent policy which emphasized
that development depended upon the development of man, not
of things (as it has been noted above) and further that it
depended on the development of people in rural areas, where

more than ninety percent of the population lives.

85

As the plan began to be visualized, the budget for the
adult education began to show a difference. For instance,
the money allocated to adult education within the budget of
the Ministry of National Education rose substantially since
1970/71 as can be seen in the table below. The figures,
however, do not include the adult education expenditure in
other ministries or other parastatal organizations such as
rural development cooperative education or the Ministry of

Labor.

Figure 7

Education Expenditure in Tanzania (in T2 Shillings)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Year Total Expenditure Adult Education
1969/70 277,922,060
37,056,274*
1970/71 300,039,085 9,960,500
44,005,211* 1,328,067*
1971/72 368,642,200 9,306,800
49,815,293* 1,240,907*
1972/73 181,520,785 18,732,700
24,202,771* 2,497,693*
1973/74 233,630,760 20,185,400
31,150,768* 2,691,387*

 

Source: Ministry of National Education

*Figure to the nearest US S.
Computed by the author from the exchange rate of
7.5 Tanzania shillings to 1 US S in 1972.

86

The Campaign:

 

Thus, Tanzaniafs adult education was selected as an
immediate priority for the nation's development.
Educationists agree that illiteracy is a very disabling
handicap to development. Tanzania had in 1970 roughly over
70 percent of its adult population illiterate. Hence in
1971 it was nationally decided that illiteracy be wiped out
as indicated above. It was decided however, that the
training in the skills of reading and writing be conducted
hand in hand with practical skill and.knowledge in anonf
the occupations or vocations. For example, corn faarmers
would learn how to read and write using primers that would
teach them better farming in a very practical way. Likewise
cotton farmers. Thus, the functional approach to adult
education--where education is tied down to practical
application of skill, attitude and knowledge gave a sound

basis for continuing education in anyone's walk of life.

Campaign Objectives
The major specific objectives for the campaign were

outlined as indicated by Kinunda (1975):

Literacy and Math Skills:

Learning to read and to write and to solve simple
problems of arithmetic using basic vocabularies used in the
agricultural, industrial, health, practices, etc.:

Knowledge and skills: Learning knowledge and skills

about agricultural practices, health and nutrition, home

87

economics, etc., while at the same time learning how to read
and write:

EQEEBELEX-§EEQ$E§3 Policy of self-reliance,
participation in the development of the community;

Post-literacy Program: Creating opportunities for

 

continuing education.

Most of these educational programs were supported by
radio programs. Groups met on the scheduled radio time and
carefully listened to the radio talk which was punctuated
with relevant music. Radio scripts were given out in simple
language, important points were discussed, while few, but
pointedly questions for reflection were asked for
stimulating discussions. Group leaders read from the
relevant book the topic in more detail, and a general
discussion on basic points was generated. Finally a group
outline for itself practical actions to be taken as a result
of the session. To what extent this arrangement worked, and

for what results, remains to be seen.

Organization:

 

The number of known illiterate towards the end of 1971
was estimated to be 5.2 million people aged 10 years and
over. But by September 1975 figure, according to Kassam
(1978) stood at 5.9 million, an increase which was
attributed to the villagization program, and a more
intensive survey was done during the course of the campaign.

Mbakile (1976) says that of the 5.9 million people, 44

88

percent were male while 56 percent were female. IBased.on
the original estimate of about 542 million illiterates, the
following table shows the projected phases of the campaign
in terms of the number of people who were to be covered

between 1972 and 1975.

Figure 8

Number of Illiterates to be Covered
During 1972-75

 

1972/73 1973/74 1974/75 1975
1,300,000 1,700,000 1,700,000 500,000

 

Source: Ministry of National Education "The National
Policy of Adult Education in Tanzania."
1974a.

Most of these adult classes were conducted in primary
schools. Other classes used places such as an office,
factory, dispensary, church, TANU office, the backyard of an
individual house and even under the shadow of a tree. The
total teachers involved in the campaign was estimated to be
98,000. Of these, school teachers were 14,000; the rest
being volunteers, most of whom were primary school leavers.
These primary school leavers received an honorarium of Shs
30 (about $ 4) per month. According to Kinunda (1975) this
caused serious trouble as the number of students increased
because of insufficient funds available for this purpose.

Some of the adults had problems with their eyes in

reading and writing, and so a total of about 12,500

89

spectacles were provided free to those learners in need.
Mbakile (1976) indicates that the enrollment rose
dramatically from about 745,000 in 1971 to more than 2.5
million in 1973, and to about 5:2 million in 1975. Although
Mbakile says that the final enrollment figure accounts for
88 percent of the total known illiterates, that is about 5.9
million, Kassam (1978) explains that "the enrollments do not
indicate the number of regular and effective learners nor do
they indicate the number of those learners who might have
eventually dropped out.

What is important at this stage, is to see how the
Tanzania Party resolution of 1971, that illiteracy would be
completely wiped out in Tanzania by 1975—-with the
implication that 5J21nillion illiterates would have to be
made literate within four years worked out. But according
to the UNESCO sources, and as indicated by Fischer (1980) a
comparative study and simple arithmetic calculations from
the data available, the statistical information on Tanzania,
show the following:

(hm one hand, cumulative total of 4.48 million
enrollments had been made for literacy classes during the
five year period, and that during the same time, a total of
1,91 million peOple were made literate. By the same token,
the percentage of illiterates adults (15 years and older)
had declined from 63.1 percent in 1970 to a 52.5 percent in

1980 and a projection of 36.6 percent in 1990.

90

On the other hand, the actual number of adult
illiterates has increased fromI4.6 million in 1970 to 5.0
million in 1980 despite the decrease in percentages, and is
projected to be still 4.8 million in the year 1990. And
that only 42.63 percent (1.91 million out of 4.48 million)
of the actual number of enrollees for the five-year period
(1971-1975) had been made literate, particularly emphasizing
the high percentage of dropouts and the unsuccessful
candidates. Linked with this is the seemingly downward
trend in the actual number of enrollments for literacy
classes from 1.48 in 1973 to 0.31 million in 1974 and 1.18
million in 1975.

It is clear that Tanzania's population growth.rates
together with the perpetuation of the problems experienced
during the campaign are outpacing the country”s concentrated
efforts to wipe out illiteracy which has been designated as
the most detrimental factor to development. For one thing,
this case study can be said to illustrate "how to mobilize
all efforts for the provision of functional education to the
masses, with particular emphasis on rural development" and
"how the provision of mass education could be linked with
national development" (Compare with UNESCO 1976).

But what can be learned from this experience, and
particularly, as related to the radio broadcasting? Perhaps
it is important in the first place, to see the rationale for
using radio broadcasting for this campaign, and then to give

some critical assessment of the broadcasting as it was used

91

in this campaign.

Observation

 

As it has been stated above, the rationale for using
the radio in the campaign was two-fold: first, radio is the
only means of communication to which the greatest number of
Tanzanians have access, and second, radio is the only
effective mass medium for communicating messages to
illiterates. But for the success of any campaign; planning,
implementing, and evaluation are necessary components. For
the purpose of observations, it is important to look at each

of these variables closely.

Planning

Planners are usually thought to be experts who
translate ideas and principles of policy makers into
a workable model for a specific project or program. But
planners need more than that. They have to understand a
number of other things including the type of the terrain of
the ground which has to be covered, the availability of
resources, the time and the speed of implementation.
Planning a radio campaign, just like planning any other
campaign, one has to put into consideration the above
mentioned elements. There are some factors which need to be
noted for the planning of a radio campaign. These include
the purpose of the campaign, resources, the timing of the

campaign and the methods of meaningful evaluation.

92

In the case of Tanzania, the purpose of the literacy
campaign was to fit into the general purpose of education
explained elsewhere in this research, and as defined in
"Education for Self-Reliance" and in various party and
government statements. This knowledge would lead the
planners to decide upon the best methods to be used in order
to convey the message that would achieve both the general as
well as the particular purpose of the campaign. It is here
that knowledge of teaching and broadcasting techniques are
needed. It is not easy to find one individual who combines
both types of knowledge. Thus, the knowledge of the overall
purpose of the campaign was critical.

The second factor in planning is the focus of the radio
campaign. It is very important to know the type of audience
one is speaking to inIorder to decide the type of language
as well as the material and approach the speaker should use.
It is also important to know the audience if evaluation of
the campaign is to be scientifically done.

In the case of the campaign in question" the audience
was supposed to be the adults, which means,for the purpose
of adult education, persons above ten years of age. This is
a very mixed audience. It has a wide range in terms of age,
educational experience in life, knowledge of Swahili
language, and a varied interests. This audience may be
organized in study groups but it is not necessarily a

captive audience like a formal school class.

93

The campaign had organized study groups of fifteen to
twenty people under a group leader. This size of the group
was thought to be ideal for effective democratic group-
discussions which were planned to follow after every radio
broadcast. This is the audience which was subjected to
evaluation. However, the size of the audience poses a
couple of problems. First, since the main purpose of
education is to educate the public as a whole, then the
planners should have aimed at reaching as many people as
possible without restriction. Everyone who wanted to
participate should have been allowed. But on the other
hand, meaningful discussion becomes impossible when the
group is too large, thus the less effective the message
intended for the listener.

Connected with this, is the choice of the theme of the
campaign. Since the audience was not a captive audience,
its attendance could only be maintained by interest in the
lesson. It is argued that a person will be interested in a
subject s/he wants to study. If this argument follows, then
the planners should have let the audience select the subject
they wanted to study. This can be done to a certain extent.
But there will come a time when the planner will feel that
it is necessary to guide the audience by choosing a subject
that is of relevance to the audience.

The third factor in this consideration is the
communication facilities. In Tanzania, the communication

system is very poor. There are two types of problems.

94

First, there is a problem of poor communication links by
roads, railways, air, telephones, and even radio. Some
areas are inaccessible by some and even all of the above
means of communication. Second, is the inadequacy of
communication or equipment such as motor vehicles,
telephones and radio sets. Because of these problems, a
much longer time is needed to prepare and carry out the
campaign than would be needed in a situation where a good
communication system exists. Thus, poor communication was
one of the major factors which contributed to the failure of
the campaigns in some villages and districts.

The fourth and probably the major factor is the
resources availability for the campaign. There are three
types of resources needed. First is the personnel for
planning and supervising the campaign at the national,
regional, district and village levels. There is also a need
for group leaders or advisors. These have to be trained for
the task they’are to perfomnu But they are so mobile that
some of those who had been trained had been transferred by
the time the campaign began. The second type of resources
needed are the teaching aids and or study materials such as
books, posters, and radio sets. The training and the
personnel and production or purchase of study materials have
to be financed. So the third type of resource is finance.
This has been the major constraint in Tanzania radio
campaigns. It has limited the scale of the campaign as well

as the amount and types of preparations and evaluation

95

needed to be done.

The timing of the campaign is another factor of
consideration by planners. This has three components.
There is the duration, the preparation and implementation.
It is not only important to have enough time for preparation
of campaigns but it is also important to decide on the
optimum period of the campaign which will allow the
participants to absorb the message of the campaign without
becoming bored with the campaign. But if a campaign is to
succeed, there is a second and third component of timing.
The are the seasons of the year and the day as well as the
time of the day chosen.

The season of the year is important in Tanzania,
because the attendance of the people, particularly in the
rural areas, will very much depend upon what they are doing
at that time of the year; In Tanzania, the choice for the
campaign was the dry season (summer). But the choice has
not been ideal for the whole country because there are
slight seasonal variations in the country, and also dry
season is not ideal for demonstraation work, particularly in
farming.

The day and time of the day are important because there
are certain.days that are set aside for religious or other
functions. The time of the day is also important. The
participants will depend on the time of the day the campaign
is scheduled. Furthermore, the quality of radio reception

in many parts of Tanzania varies from time to time. The

96

reception is usually good in the mornings and evenings. But
it is usually bad during the day.

Another factor is that of evaluation. In most cases,
evaluation has been done as a post mortem exercise.
Evaluation is supposed to be a work-bench, a check point,
and an assessment of what the campaign has accomplished.
One evaluation is worse than no evaluation. It is so
important to evaluate the preparations as well as the
implementation to allow for corrective measures to be done.
The planners have to decide on what factors should be
examined and what instrument should be used for the
evaluation right from the beginning of the plans for the

campaign.

Implementation

 

In the implementation of the Tanzania radio campaign,
five types of problems have been experienced. These are
inappropriate personnel, organizations of study-groups,
study materials, inadequate radio sets and poor reception of
radio broadcasts, and rising or falling attendance of
participants. It is difficult to get the right personnel,
both in number and quality, for implementing the campaign.
Since the participants are adults and since the campaigns
were supposed to help people understand the problems and
take corrective actions themselves, it was decided that the
study groups should discuss and make decisions in order to

encourage maximum participation. In other words, the

97

participants were to be actively involved rather than
passive receivers of knowledge. To achieve this, each group
as to have a group advisor rather than a teacher. To
produce a group advisor or leader rather than a teacher,
requires training people with potential to lead. It was not
easy to find such people. So what happened was that some
groups did not have "qualified" group-leaders and hence, did
not conduct the campaign in the expected manner.

The other problem was the organization of the study
groups. In a number of cases, the study groups were not
organized in time. In some cases, the groups were too
small, whereas others were too big; Hence the difficulty of
leading them.

The third problem was the study material. There were a
number of problems here. The study materials did not reach
all the areas in time because of the problems of
communication. The study material, especially books, became
inadequate where the interest is high, and the other problem
was the difficulty of the material to some participants to
understand.

The medium, radio, had problems in itself. First,
there were too few sets in the country. According to a
survey done in December 1973 and January 1974, and as
described by Kassam (1978), there were 157,000 and 1,579,000
radio sets in urban and rural Tanzania respectivelyu The
adult population at that time was estimated to be 6,441,000.

This gives a ratio of one radio set per 3.7 adults but in

98

the rural areas the ratio is one radio set to every 3.8
adults. From this ratio there would be no problem with the
use of radio. Unfortunately the distribution of radio is
not always so rational. In fact only 28 percent of the
adult population owned radio sets and only 59.6 percent
listened to radio everyday. Thus, during the campaign some
study groups had no radio sets, and were not therefore able
to follow the radio broadcast.

The other problem connected with radio is the poor
reception. In many parts of Tanzania which are far from Dar
es Salaam, the reception is very poor. This problem has
been partially solved as booster stations were built after
the campaign to improve reception (as was pointed out
above). While this part is solved, it remains to increase
the number of radios and make them cheap and affordable to
as many people as possible.

The fifth problem in the implementation is the
participants' interest. Interest is governed by several
factors, some of which are the amount of and quality of
preparations (including publicity, mobilization of the
people, et cetera), relevancy of the subject to the
participants and the quality of the group leaders. In some
areas the interest was so good that the organizers failed to
cope with the number of participants. Some groups had from
20 to 50 and even 100 people. When the interest is good,
then the organizer has a cause for rejoicing that the

campaign is likely to succeed, but they have also a cause

99

for worry because they cannot meet the demand. Financial
and manpower became very serious contraints in such cases.
However, in other areas the interest falls as the campaign
continues. When this happens, then the organizers have to
try to revive the interest. In some cases they succeed and

in others they fail and so some study groups break up.

Evaluation:

 

There is no way of knowing whether the campaign has
achieved the purpose for which it was intended without some
kind of evaluation. Evaluation is done for two purposes.
To find out whether or not the campaign was a success and to
what extent it was a success if it was. The factors to be
examined on the components of success must be agreed upon at
the planning stage so that methods of evaluation can be
devised before the campaign begins. The second reason for
evaluation is to establish causes of failure or less success
so that corrective measures can be taken in future
campaigns. More important, the campaign progress should be
checked and improved whenever a mistake is detected.

In Tanzania, radio campaign has revealed the following
factors which contribute to failure or less success:

1) Poor communications caused delays in the
transportation of equipment and study materials to
participants. In some cases, these materials reached the
participants a month after the start of the campaign..

2) Lack of enough radio sets made it impossible for

some study groups to receive radio broadcasts.

100

3) Lack of cooperation with local party leaders
hampered the mobilization and stimulation necessary for good
participation in the campaign. Although adult education is
a party activity and all the party leaders from the national
to the local level are supposed to make the pushing of adult
education campaignIas one of their important duties, some
local leaders tended to neglect it and therefore made it
difficult to the campaign to succeed.

4) The study material was too difficult for some
participants to understand. Some participants could hardly
read, others could not understand illustrative diagrams and
pictures, and others found it difficult to understand the
language used in both the books and radio broadcasts.

5) The knowledge gained by the study groups was
supposed to spread to the rest of the community, in the same
way'as waves spread from the center of the pool, tended to
dissipate as it passed from one person to another.

6) Differences in education, age, sex and experience of
members in the same study group prejudiced maximum popular
participation in the discussion, which were usually
dominated by a few people. Every broadcast was supposed to
be followed by democratic group discussions so that the
decisions taken by the group were reached by a consensus and
therefore be easily implemented. But when the discussions
are dominated by a few people, the decisions taken were
somewhat imposed and could not therefore be properly

implemented.

101

7) Unsatisfied demands generated by the campaign tended
to prejudice future campaigns. That is imposing decisions
on one group the decisions made by another of other study-
groups.

The need for corrective action generated demands for
material and equipment essential for each action. Society
must be prepared to meet such a demand. If it is not
prepared to meet it, then the people become disillusioned.
They begin questioning the usefulness of the campaign, and
may, in the end, look upon the campaign as a mockery, and

therefore turn a deaf ear to any future campaign.

Conclusion:

 

In conclusion, several lessons have been learned from
this campaign. Planning a campaign needs much longer time
than most planners assume. There is a lot of coordination
needed and if ample time is not given to planning, a number
of important factors will be overlooked. Campaign materials
must be related as closely as possible to the people's
needs, cultural background and level of education. The
campaign must be publicized early enough to allow time for
receiving feedback on the extent to which it has been
received among the people and if possible the likely
response. Also, as far as possible, the campaign must be
decentralized and maximum use of local manpower must be
made. Training of group advisors must be well done and

timely: and any campaign must be sure to have a

102

comprehensive evaluation system right before the beginning
of the campaign.

Perhaps one of the major lesson here is that radio
campaigns are an effective means of educating the masses and
their effects go far beyond the formal study group. The
education received by the masses generates demands which if
not met may lead to cyncism or apathy or more questioning of
the wisdom and competence of leadership at various levels.
Radio on the other hand must prove itself to be reliable,
trusted by the citizens of the country, and able to provide
adequate information in order to minimize the need for
citizens to tune their radios to stations outside of their
own country in order to find out what is happening in their
own country. Finally, if the campaign raises needs of the
participants, the planners should be able to provide the

need if the campaign is to be successful.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The purpose of this research has been to find out
how radio broadcasting in Tanzania can effectively be used
for social and economic development. In the developing
nations like Tanzania, broadcasting for development has
become a means of bringing about change in the nation. In
spite of the many constraints found in Africa, and Tanzania
in particular, the nation has accepted the challenge of
trying to use the broadcasting medium in reaching the once
unreachable masses. Not only is radio used for the
dissemination of information, but it is also used for the
promotion of the nations' development goals.

Conceptually, radio has always been part and parcel
of the developmental process in many countries. As an
information channel, radLo has no barriers, it passes
through social and economic boundaries to be able to
disseminate pertinent information to the societyu In the
case of Tanzania if it is to be successful, development has
to involve people. Individual citizens have to take some
part in planning and executing developmental goals. This is
important in that individuals get the reward of belonging

through their contribution to the society they belong.

103

104

The involvement of radio broadcasting in the nation's
development is very important. In the past, radio has not
been very well integrated with other institutions in the
preparation, planning, implementation and the evaluation of
the nationfs project or campaign. Radio itself has not
really accepted the task of research before, during and
after a certain project. Although there are constraints
which have contributed to the difficulties radio has had in
the dissemination of information such as personnel, finance,
transportation, equipments, et cetera; it is still equally
important that a project be evaluated before, during and
after it is done.

In the first place, constraints have been contributed
by the very way radio broadcasting is organized; that is in
most cases, radio broadcasting, being government controlled,
has inherited the colonial function of radio, which made
very little contribution to the nation's development. As it
was pointed out above, British colonials had no interest in
having functional broadcasting which would improve the life
of the individual citizens. Their interest was for their
information and the security of the colony and their
positions. Today, broadcasting seems to follow the same
pattern.

As far as machinery, that is, the broadcasting itself
is concerned; it is too much controlled by the government,
so much so that the day-to-day supervision is threatened,

making professionalism of little importance. Thus, little

105

creativity is encouraged. Since broadcasting is perceived
as the voice of the government even by the broadcasters
themselves. They shy away from "sensitive" issues and the
credibility of the broadcasting has become eroded. This has
led the public to tune into foreign stations to hear what is
happening within their own country. As a result, cynical
attitude toward their national system is developed.

The recommendation given above as far as the
structuring of radio broadcasting and its relationship with
other institutions should be considered. It is strongly
believed by the author that for a nation like Tanzania,
development is not a choice, but a necessity. While it is
the task of the government to bring about some corrective
measures in the radio industry, it is the radio broadcasting
system which should initiate these changes and sit together
with the government to discuss ways in which to bring more
understanding between them.

Furthermore, from the case study drawn from the
literacy campaign, it is important for the institution which
plans to use radio for its campaign to recognize the role
and ramifications radio broadcasting has. In other words,
radio should have a central role in planning, implementation
and evaluation of all programs for broadcast. They are the
ones who know the intricacy of broadcasting and the
psychological impact on the individual.

Another thing is the lack of research in this area.

For instance, radio broadcasting showed in the case study

106

that they were not so sure as to how many people were
literate. They based their plans on estimate figures. It
is not surprising that the discrepancy which came in after
the campaign had started was a miscalculation of :7 million
people (as shown above). This distorted the whole planning
of the campaign objectives. Prior research lays the
foundation for the whole campaign. It also gives the bases
for evaluation rationale as well as an indication to whether
or not there is a true success in the campaign. This basic
research.is as important as that which is done during the
campaign and after the campaign. And as for the case study
incorporated in this research, this was not evident.

The other important thing is the evaluation itself.
There must be a clear-cut basis for evaluation agreed upon
right before the beginning of the campaign if the campaign
is to be objective. The questions posed in the previous
chapter need to be considered carefully in any evaluation
for any project or campaign.

The author has full confidence that Tanzania has the
potential of being a leading nation in terms of development.
There is plenty of land, an enormous increase of manpower in
many and diverse disciplines, and an increased usage of
modern technology. With what little the nation has today,
there is still the potential of being a leading nation in
both the political world as well as in its economy. The
structure of the information machinery like radio

broadcasting ought to operate in the climate of being people

107

oriented and for development-oriented. When this is done,
confidentiality of citizens will be won and they will in
turn, cooperate more with the national goals for
development. Without this "glue" of trust, people will act
like machines without the inherent inner heart "Egg"
(humanness) contributing to the development of the nation.
Rather each will concentrate on self interest and as such,
the spirit of national development will be completely lost.
Because of the love the author has for his country Tanzania,
he would not like this to happen.

Thus far, the government through the leadership of
President Julius KL Nyerere has done tremendous work for the
benefit of the nation--as a foundation. It is my prayer
that President Hassan A. Mwinyi will have a similar
energetic vision and the radio broadcasting will work
together to see that the nation is informed and development,
that especially economic development, become the central
theme of the nation's planning.

Future researchIon radio broadcasting would.probably
focus on the broadcasting industry itself, looking at how
information is processed and its effect to the receiver.
Also it would be of even greater interest to do a research
on the perception of the television medium among the
Tanzanian mainlanders before it is introduced. Such
research would help to lay foundations and better plans for
the use of television for national development and not make

the same mistakes which many other countries have made in

108

the introduction of television. It remains to say that the
future of the Tanzanian broadcasting will be determined by
how the present broadcasting is treated today.

Since this research is basically based on library
findings, there may be some errors which were beyond the
control of the author. And because imperfection is human,
and being one of them, to err is a crime which can be
corrected. It will be gratefully acknowledged should the
reader of this thesis find such an error and be able to
point it out to the author. To see an error and remain
silent, is to commit an even greater crime than that of the

author. To God be the glory.

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