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This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

A Descriptive Twelve Year Longitudinal
Comparison of Change in Policies and
Practices Associated with the Same
Select Group of Christian Colleges

presented by

James M. Vandermeulen

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Doctor of _BhilosophL degree in __qucatioL

; Major pmfessoré

“(Iii-nu ‘12-—--d-——‘ ' F1 '0', ' I 1 4 042771

Date November 25, 1986

 

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A DESCRIPTIVE TWELVE YEAR LONGITUDINAL COMPARISON
OF CHANGE IN POLICIES AND PRACTICES
ASSOCIATED WITH THE SAME SELECT

GROUP OF CHRISTIAN COLLEGES

BY

James M. Vandermeulen

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Education

1986

ABSTRACT

A OESCRIPTIVE TWELVE YEAR LONGITUDINAL COMPARISON
OF CHANGE IN POLICIES AND PRACTICES
ASSOCIATED WITH THE SAME SELECT
GROUP OF CHRISTIAN COLLEGES
By

James M. Vandermeulen

Within religious higher education, Christian
colleges espouse a distinctive philosophy of education.
In 1974, Dr. David J. Valle examined one of various
means Of implementing a Christian educational
philosophy by identifying patterns of administrative
policy control regulating 12 specific topics. The
tepics studied included selection Of college personnel
based on religious criteria, chapel attendance,
religious course requirements, service programs,
alcohol, tobacco, drug abuse, curfew hours, parietals,
sexual conduct, dancing, and student dress. This study
is a partial replication of Dr. Valle's research using
the same survey instrument.

Dr. Valle Obtained data from 130 Christian
colleges for his study. The same sample was again
surveyed in July, 1985, yielding usable data from 83

Christian institutions. They were most Often small,

residential colleges, affiliated with one of the
Protestant denominations and located in the North
Central region of the United States.

A research null hypothesis approach revealed that
there was change in all 12 categories relative to Dr.
Valle's previous study. The issue Of student curfew
hours recorded the greatest percentage of change with
412, followed by the issues Of student parietal hours
(402) and dress (382).

In addition, the recorded administrative
perceptions included the primary rationale to institute
policies on the topics in question. Dr. Valle's
research indicates that a predominantly Christian
rationale was given for controlling half of the 12
topics surveyed, compared to only three topics in the
present study--namely, selection of personnel, chapel
attendance, and sexual conduct.

The survey also allowed the participating
administrators to rate the level of importance that the
12 policy areas had in implementation of their
Christian philosophy. In the order of their stated
significance, the participating administrators
expressed the belief that their policies governing
religious course selection, selection of personnel on
religious criteria, chapel, drug abuse, and sexual

conduct were ”essential."

In summary, the present survey indicates that the
majority of Christian colleges now deem more of the 12
policies surveyed to be "essential and important" to
the implementation of their Christian philosophy of

education than 12 years earlier.

DEDICATION

To my loving Christian parents
Gus and Joan Vandermeulen
who were a continuing encouragement

to me toward this completion.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER
I THE PROBLEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Historical Background. . . . . . . . .
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . .
Significance of the Problem. . . .
Objectives and Null Hypothesis . .
Operational Defintions . . . . . . . .
Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
Valle's Study. . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteristics of a Christian College
Christian World View . . . . . . . .
Integration of Faith and Learning. .
Values in Religious Higher Education
History of Christian Higher Education.
Demographics . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mission Statement. . . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

11
14
15
17
21
21
21
23
24
27
.31
36
6O
64

Page

Student Attitudes and Behaviors. . . . 77

III METHODS AND PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . 102
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Method and Procedure of Analysis . . . . 111

IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA. . . . . 114
Results: Demographic Data . . . . . . . 115
Demographic Summary. . . . . . . . . . . 127
Christian College Policy Survey Data . . 129
Religious Selection of Personnel . . . 129

Compulsory Enrollment in Religious
Courses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Chapel Attendance. . . . . . . . . . . 134

Institutional Change in Religious
Affiliation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Research Null Hypothesis . . . . . . . . 142
Results of the Research Null Hypothesis. 142

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Rationale and Importance of the
Regulatory Policies. . . . . . . . . . 145

Rationale for Regulatory Policies. . . . 145
Policy Importance. . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Discussion and Summary . . . . . . . . . 151

V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . 154

iv

Page
Research Null Hypothesis . . . . . . . . 162

Rationale and Importance Of the
Regulatory Policies. . . . . . . . . . 163

Policy Importance. . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Recommendations for Further Research . . 172
APPENDICES
A List of 130 Participating Colleges . . . . 174
B Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
C Survey Form Questionnaire on Policies
and Practices in Christian Higher

Education. 0 O O O O O O O O O I O O O 0 181

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

TABLE

10

11

12

13

LIST OF TABLES

Comparison of the Administrative Area
Represented by Completed Study
Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparative Summary of Respondents to the
Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparison of Enrollments at Participating
Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparative Distribution by Region of
Participating Institutions . . . . . . .

Comparative Distribution by State of
participating Institutions . . . . . . .

Comparative Concentration of Resident
Students at Participating Institutions .

Comparison by the Religious Affiliation of
Participating Institutions . . . . . . .

Comparison of the Protestant Denominations
Represented. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Comparison of the Policies Governing
Religious Selection Of Personnel . . . .

Comparison of the Extent of Compulsory
Enrollment in Religious Courses. . . . .

Comparison of the Extent of Policies
Governing Chapel Attendance. . . . . . .

Comparison of the Colleges Declaring an
Institutional Position on Each of the
12 Topics Surveyed . . . . . . . . . . .

"Change" Resulting from the Categorical

Comparison of Response to the
Questionnaire on Policies and Practices.

vi

Page

109

112

116

118

120

122

125

126

130

133

135

139

143

TABLE Page

14 Comparison Of the Primary Rationale for
Regulatory Policies: An Administrative
Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

15 Comparison of the Importance of Policies in
the Implementation of a Christian
Philosophy of Education: An
Administrative Perception. . . . . . . . . 152

vii

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

Change, the singular unchangeable element of
American life, is reflected in many aspects of our
culture, particularly in the pluralistic nature of
American higher education. Historically, American
society will support a wide range of post secondary
education, reflective Of the society it seeks to serve.

Diversity is a hallmark of American higher

education. It is seen not only in variations of

size, organization, control, and appearance of
colleges and universities, but also in such
fundamental differences as their functions and
their approaches to teaching and learning. (Kerr

in Greeley, 1969, p. v)

Within this diversity and change is a group of
religiously oriented colleges and universities that are
identified as Christian. These institutions attempt to
function within a distinct Christian perspective
eSpousing an institutional predisposition toward the
unity Of truth and a religious priority for the
Christian faith. This distinctive educational

orientation and philOSOphy separates these institutions

from both public and private nonsectarian post

secondary education and-adds to the changing diversity
Of American higher education.

The purpose of this study was to determine
institutional change in the selected policies and
procedures surveyed over a lZ-year period at a select
group of Christian institutions. The original study
was conducted by Dr. David J. Valle in 1974, using the
same study instruments as well as the same sample group
of 130 institutions surveyed. The nature of both
similarities and differences found among these
institutions of common purpose was studied with respect
to 12 selected issues associated with religious

programming and student conduct.
Historical Background

Religion played a prominent role in the birth of
American higher education. The founding of Harvard
College in 1636 (patterned after Emmanuel College,
Cambridge) espoused the mottoes of "Christo et
Ecclesiae" and "In Christi Gloriana" (Morison, 1935).
The Puritan fathers feared a time when all literate
ministers would be dead. Therefore, the college was
primarily for the education of ministers of the Gospel
although the curriculum was broadly conceived along the

lines of traditional liberal education and was intended

for leaders in other fields as well (Brubacher, 1958;
Pulliam, 1968).

The next 135 years saw the rise of nine prominent
Colonial colleges-—William and Mary, Yale, Princeton,
Pennsylvania, Washington and Lee, Columbia, Brown,
Rutgers, and Dartmouth. All of these institutions were
strongly religious in tone and curriculum; and although
they were sponsored by individual denominations, they
were administratively dominated by the clergy
(Brubacher, 1958: PattilLo & MacKenzie, 1966).

As the Colonial period gave way to increased
immigration and the attendant mass migrations of the
19th century, the second generation began shedding some
of their ethnic past including the faith of their
fathers (Miller, 1960). The development of religious
pluralism and the trend toward Secularization
forecasted the positional change that religion would
make in higher education.

Reinforced by the teachings and writings of Dewey
and Mencken, religion in American higher education has
moved from its early position of centrality to a
position of questionable legitimacy (Van Dusen, 1951).
Even in numerous historically church—related colleges,
religion and theological studies have been relegated to

an ancillary position. The general trend over the past

200 years of American higher education has been to
secularize colleges which were founded for religious
purposes; and although religious higher education no
longer dominates American higher education, a
significant segment remains religiously oriented. In a
report conducted in 1965 by the Danforth Commission it
was estimated that over one million students were
enrolled in 788 church-related colleges and
universities. This represents a little more than half
Of all students enrolled in private institutions and
approximately 17% Of the total American higher
education enrollment in 1965 (Pattillo & MacKenzie,
1966). Although there was a projected decline in
college/university enrollment in the 19808 due to
demographic shifts in the pOpulation coupled with
escalating costs, recent research conducted in
December, 1984 has shown that total enrollment is up
(L651 at public colleges and universities and down only
0.88% at private institutions. In addition, the signs
of future enrollment are especially promising for
religiously oriented private colleges due to the
increasing enrollment in evangelical secondary schools
in America (Keylock, 1985).

So, while the general trend historically has been
tO dilute religion and secularize colleges founded for

religious purposes, a modestly significant element of

American higher education continues to exist providing
a religiously oriented philosophical alternative to the
nonreligiously-oriented colleges and universities.
Many of these institutions hold to a philOSOphical
rationale which concerns itself with the education of
the whole person, including one's moral and spiritual
development. Some believe Biblical teaching to be
essential to a liberally educated individual. There
are numerous variations of the theme Of a Christian
philOSOphy of higher education that have been proposed
by Holmes (1975), Mayers, Richards, and Webber (1972),
Miller (1960), Newman (1959), Ramm (1963), Snavely
(1955), and countless others. Although significant
divergence is noted among these authors in their
designs for implementing a Christian philosophy Of-
education, they all agree on a belief in the wholeness
of truth and recognize that a positive
interrelationship between secular and sacred approaches
to learning and understanding must be pursued. To
these authors, specialized pragmatic approaches to
learning which do not include issues of value or
attempt to become versed in the creation without
considering the Creator are limiting and unnecessarily
restrictive.

While the philosophical purposes of a Christian

education are idealistic and noble, Christian higher

education is not free from significant concerns. The
escalating costs in such areas as salaries, energy, and
technological hardware and software offer little hOpe
for improvement of the economic welfare of many private
colleges and universities in the near future. Some
Christian institutions are seeking to alleviate this
financial pressure by seeking financial support from
foundations, governmental agencies, and other public
organizations. To seek such suppOrt would necessitate
major institutional change. INumerous religiously-
oriented colleges have sacrificed their distinctive
religious commitments as they responded to the
marketplace; and in a sense, submitted to the pressures
of economic necessity. 0n the other hand, others
refused and became extinct.

In recent years it became increasingly difficult
for these institutions to find, identify, and recruit
faculty members who reflect their educational
philOSOphy. One of the reasons for this is that many
of these institutions do not Offer the doctorate, so
they must look to the secular universities to educate
their potential teachers. This pressure broadened the
base of faculty viewPoints often at the expense of
traditional religious views. Concurrently, the need to

upgrade faculty professional credentials frequently ran

contrary to a commonness of purpose with historical
Christian institutional distinctives (Holmes, 1975).
In summation, the internal influences toward
professionalism and the external pressures of supply
and demand coupled with increasing economic problems
combine to influence the current Christian college
toward becoming more like their public secular
counterparts. TO counter the seemingly inevitable
drift, Christian colleges may only be able to resist
undesired change if they have effectively determined
their primary reason(s) for being and charted an
Operational direction true to their Christian
historical convictions (Moseley, 1980). The degree of
change over time as reflected in various policies and
practices as perceived by tOp administrative officers
may be reflective Of institutional drift or possibly a
change in direction for these Christian institutions.
The issue of existence may rest with the clear
articulation and effective implementation of a
philosophy of education which is specifically Christian

in character.
Statement Of the Problem

Christian colleges are confronted with difficult
decisions when philOSOphical and operational issues

appear to be in tension. Historically, the Christian

college movement was characterized by the establishment
of a significantly large number of small, struggling,
highly competitive institutions founded on the basis of
ideological, ethnic, geographic, or class distinctions.
Many diverse things have happened to those Christian
colleges over time. Some have changed over time and
adapted competitively to the standards of their secular
counterparts, accomplishing their Objectives at the
expense of traditional religious beliefs and practices.
Others, unable to maintain viable academic programs,
have closed their doors (Baptista, 1980; Leslie, 1981).
Some Christian colleges which started with strong
religious convictions have managed to maintain their
Christian principles to the present; and a few, founded
in the late 60s and early 70s, are flourishing
representations of the current organizations which
combine fundamental religious beliefs with right wing
political views. The diversity of factors contributing
to the differences found among these colleges is very
difficult to isolate and evaluate.

The question is whether this institutional change
was determined by internal factors, external
conditions, or a combination of both. Internal factors
encompass administrative control, religious
requirements in the curriculum, restrictions in hiring

practices, student attitudes, internal fiscal policies

and administrative control, and governance. External
influences may include religious constituencies,
American economic climate, demographic factors of a
changing population, ecumenical changes in mainline
denominations supporting higher education, increasing
governmental legislation, and involvement by the
courts. The problems of identifying the relative
significance of various influences on the changing
patterns of Christian higher education are complex and
not unique to this study.

In many respects, all American institutions of
higher education, including Christian colleges, are
subject to the same internal and external influences
mentioned earlier. However, there are some
characteristics of Christian colleges and universities
that set them apart from other institutions, and there
are administrative controls which are indigenous
influences for the perpetuation of these differences.
Several comparative studies on a variety of issues have
been useful to Christian colleges. Researchers have
attempted to summarize academic offerings (Burckel,
1970), general institutional descriptions (Lovejoy,
1983), costs and fiscal procedures (Haines, 1968),
enrollment (Leslie, 1981), some measures of campus
environment (Astin, 1977; Chickering, 1969; Cummer,

1981; Moseley, 1958, Pace, 1972), and college and

10

university affiliations with church organizations
(Patillo & MacKenzie, 1966).

Although these research studies provide valuable
data about the Operations of these schools, there is
still a question about how the operations reflect a
specific Christian philOSOphy of education and how
changes in institutional policy and practice grow out
of and contribute to the underlying Christian
philOSOphy. To achieve such consistence Christian
college administrators need to identify and consider
those issues which are distinctly Christian and those
issues which are peripheral.

In 1974, David J. Valle, as partial fulfillment
for the requirements of his Doctor of Education degree
at the State University of New York in Albany,
conducted a national survey of Christian colleges on a
range of issues to distinguish them from colleges which
do not maintain a distinctively Christian philOSOphy of
education. Dr. Valle's dissertation included 130
Christian colleges who responded to his 12-tOpic
questionnaire which attempted to determine the extent
and nature of institutional policy formulation and
control.

It was the purpose of this study to re-survey the
same 130 institutions from Dr. Vallefs study using the

same survey instrument for the purpose of determining

11

change over a 12-year period in the 12 selected
lifestyle policies and practices surveyed.

The results of this study could assist Christian
college administrators in determining the significance
of the changes of selected lifestyle policies and
practices which may be of value to the perpetuation of
their Christian distinctives and institutional

stability.

Significance of the Problem

This study was designed to collect and evaluate
data which should be helpful to a variety of peOple
involved in higher education, especially those in
Christian higher education. Administrators,
philOSOphers, and educationally-oriented clergy may
find this study valuable in their reSpective endeavors.

Remaining current is an ongoing problem for many
educational administrators. Comparative data,
especially on Christian institutions, is in short
supply and quickly outdated. This study collected base
line data from a broad spectrum of Christian college
administrators on policies and practices considered to
contribute toward the implementation of a Christian
philOSOphy of education. It was compared to the same
data from Dr. Vallefs 1974 study to determine whether

change took place and which of the 12 policy areas

12

showed the greatest amount of change. This data may
help Christian college administrators to determine the
trends in policy change. In this way, some of these

policy areas could be modified via preplanned

administrative design rather than reactive default,
potentially reflective of institutional stability.

In 1981, the Center for the Study of Higher
Education, located in the College of Education,
University of Arizona, released a study concerning the
patterns of enrollment in higher education from 1965 to
1977 in liberal arts colleges. This report compares
religiously affiliated liberal arts colleges with
others noting that 33 (out of 60 total) religiously
affiliated institutions failed, 4 lost their identity
through mergers, while 8 new church-related colleges
were Opened for a net loss of 29 religiously affiliated
liberal arts colleges during the 12-year period
(Leslie, 1981). The data resulting from this study may
shed some light on the reason(s) for the apparent lack
of stability in some religiously-affiliated liberal
arts colleges, and this could encourage thoughtful
administrative action (if necessary) in policy review
rather than reaction in response to crises. Religious
educators and clergymen, anxious to begin new
religiously-oriented/affiliated institutions of higher

education, will find the results of this study valuable

13

as they progress through the extensive decision-making
processes of starting a new Christian college.

PhilosOphers of education are usually more
concerned with the rationale, purposes, and
significance of policies than they are with specific
content. For philOSOphers, educators' trends are more
important than isolated facts, as they tend to seek
primary causes for significant trends, which lead them
into speculation, testing, and theory-building. The
results of this study should aSsist educational
philOSOphers in their efforts to identify and analyze
those institutional positions most likely and least
likely to change.

This comparative process of identifying policy
change and stability should shed some light on the
distinctives of a Christian philosOphy of education.
It has been suggested, however, that Christian college
policies and regulations may tell more about the nature
and authority of institutional supporters than
educational philosophy (Valle, 1974). This may be
evident if social, cultural, or economic factors are
given precedence in institutional governance over
educational priorities. While institutions of higher
education, especially those that are religiously
oriented, are complex and attempt to reapond to

numerous constituencies simultaneously, and at times

14

with conflicting priorities, philOSOphical evaluation
is needed to assess the significance of institutional
choices (Baptista, 1980). This study did not presume
to provide exhaustive answers to all of the complex
philOSOphical questions, but it was designed to
continue the exploration. By adding this longitudinal
comparative survey dealing with policy change and/or
stability, this study attempted to meet some concerns
of educational philOSOphers. When Valle conducted his
study in 1974, he recommended a similar survey in 5 or
10 years to help determine the direction of change in

policy control at Christian colleges (Valle, 1974).
Objectives and Null Hypothesis

Since this study was designed as a partial
replication of a study completed by Dr. David J. Valle
12 years earlier, the same questionnaire was
administered to the same 130 colleges and universities.
The survey questions were directed toward selected
issues of concern in Christian colleges. The issues
surveyed included institutional purposes and
affiliation, selection of personnel, program
requirements, and student conduct.

Current data was compared to Dr. Valle's data
collected 12 years earlier to determine the extent Of

change or lack of change in the 12 policy areas

15

surveyed. This data should assist Christian college
administrators in policy formulation and decision
making as they direct their institutions.
The following null hypothesis directed the study:
As a result of the resurvey of the 130 Christian
colleges participating in Dr. Valle's study of

1974, there will be no change in the response to
the 12 policy statements surveyed.

Operational Definitions

Due to the fact that all 130 colleges surveyed
(see Appendix A) by Dr. Valle 12 years ago remained the
same, it is consistent to define the meaning of
"Christian college" the way he did. His operational
definition was:
For the purpose of this study, the "Christian
college" is that institution which currently
ascribes administratively to a doctrinal position
or statement of belief which acknowledges the
divinity of Christ. By this definition, it is
expected that a Christian college would have a
statement of its Christian purposes or beliefs
published in its catalog or other official college
publications. (Valle, 1974, p. 15)
For convenience, the term "college" is broadly
interpreted to refer to both colleges and universities.
In this study the term "administrative" will be
defined, operationally, as any action or opinion

written, oral, or implied, that reflects an official

position taken by a college board of trustees, a

16

college president, or one of his chief academic,
business, develOpment, or student personnel officers.

"Institutional affiliation" will refer to the
nature of the relationship between the governing board
of a college and a church, a group of churches, or
other organizations beyond itself. The report of the
Danforth Commission, authored by Pattillo and Mackenzie
(1966), pointed out that the types of relationships
that exist between a college and a religious body are
multidimensional in nature and should take into account
several kinds of affiliations. For the intentions of
this study, the following dimensions are used:

1. Board of Control includes members of church
and/or members nominated and/or elected by the church
body.

2. Ownership of the institution by the religious
body.

3. Financial support by the religious body.

4. Acceptance by the institution of
denominational standards or use of the denominational
name.

5. Institutional statement of purpose linked to a
particular denomination or reflecting religious

orientation.

l7

6. Church membership a factor in selection of
faculty and administrative personnel (Pattillo &
MacKenzie, 1966, p. 230).

The use of the term "institutional stability" will
include a recognition of the lack of extremes, outside
of planned change. In higher education, including
Christian education, there exists a progressive dynamic
which is viewed as "progress" and should not be
confused with instability. For the sake of brevity and
clarity, this study did not consider finances and
facilities as indicators of stability although both are
significant components of a quality Christian higher

education (Pattillo & MacKenzie, 1966).
Limitations

This study was designed to examine selected issues
in a selective group of Christian colleges and
universities as defined by Dr. Valleds study. The
choice of issues was based on personal experience, the
results of Dr. Vallefs study, and interest concerning
the value of the results.

By using the 130 institution sample acceptable for
Dr. Valle's study in 1974, the study was able to
compare data on a longitudinal basis over the 12 year
time period. Unfortunately, this restricted the

inclusion of data from recently established Christian

18

colleges that have been established and included in The

College Blue Book since 1971 (eug., Liberty

 

University). In addition, the criteria established for
Dr. Vallefs study has restricted the SCOpe of Christian
institutions by not including those which: 1) have not
been regionally accredited (e.g., Bob Jones
University); 2) have less than a four-year program
Gag., Emmaus Bible College); 3) enroll only men or
only women (emy, Amherst, Smith, and Wellesley
Colleges); or 4) do not have an undergraduate
concentration of courses in one of the religiously-
oriented areas designated in Dr. Valle's study (e.g.,
Harvard University). By restricting the sample to only
those institutions used in Dr. Vallefls study,
institutional groupings, denominations, and religious
sects were eliminated. This probably proved beneficial
because the study compared only the same institutions.
The survey approach used in this study carried
some obvious limitations. Most of the study
instruments were completed by the college president
(chief executive officer). In some cases, his or her
designate, or other institutional executives supplied
the data. As such, a single administrative response
may have lacked the precision of perception that could

be generated by a more extensive sampling from each

19

institution. In brief, the sample data represents the
single perception of the administrator completing it.

The longitudinal nature of the study provided for
extensive change at the chief executive level which,
understandably, could account for policy focus and
direction changes. The process of comparing survey
results from the same administrator one or two months
apart is difficult enough, so surveying completely
different individuals over a 12 year period could
represent a change in perception rather than an
institutional change. The difference in semantic word
meanings between administrative personnel alone has had
a limiting effect on the comparison of study data.

The primary focus of this study relates to the
longitudinal comparison of institutional policies and
practices as they are perceived, manipulated, and
reported by administrative personnel. As such, this
may be termed an administrative study with limited
input on the actual impact of those policies and
procedures on the learner. Therefore, it is difficult
to use this study to evaluate issues of student
accountability on the most basic level.

The value of this study is to assist Christian
college administrators in analyzing and evaluating
effective policy change and patterns of change. The

results do not have unilateral application to all

20

Christian colleges or Christian college administrators
without prior analysis. The most pOpular practice does
not necessarily describe the most desirable practice.
An evaluative and reflective process may be used in

order to gain the implications and patterns most

applicable to given institutions.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction

Valle's Study

 

Since this study is a partial replication, the
most significant piece of literature available was the
original study itself. In 1974, David J. Valle
surveyed administrators in 130 Christian colleges in an
attempt to examine administrative perceptions of
policies and practices at Christian colleges. He
intended for this information to be valuable in helping
to identify the means and methods the institutions were
employing in order to implement and maintain a
distinctive Christian philosophy of education.

For his survey instrument Valle modified an
instrument used in a 1968 National Association of
Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) Study (Dutton,
Appleton, & Smith, 1968), and he investigated the
administrative controls over four general areas of
campus life: 1) institutional purposes and
affiliation, 2) selection of personnel, 3) program

requirements, and 4) student conduct.

21

22

From his study Valle discovered three patterns of
institutional policy control depending in large part
upon the denominational identity of the institutions.
Institutions affiliated with such groups as the
Southern Baptists, independent evangelicals, and small
Protestant denominations exercised "substantial policy
controls over almost all topics" (Valle, 1974,
abstract). Those institutions affiliated with the
larger Protestant denominations exercised low control,
and those institutions affiliated with Catholic and
EpiSCOpal denominations exercised very little
administrative controls. These findings led Valle to
conclude, "NO single pattern of policy formulation
follows from attempts to implement a Christian
philOSOphy of education" (Valle, 1974, abstract).

Since Valle completed hisstudy in 1974, several
other scholars have contributed significant data and
Opinions regarding the general tOpic of change in
higher education as it relates to religiously oriented
institutions. For the purpose of clarity in this
review, this research has been classified under three
general tOpics: 1) characteristics of a Christian
college, 2) history of Christian higher education, and

3) trends and changes in higher education.

23

Characteristics of a Christian College

Throughout the history of American higher
education, educators and religious leaders have
discussed extensively the distinctive nature of
Christian education. Most of them agree that these
religious values should originate in the founding
philosOphy of the institution, permeate all areas of
instructional and Operational activities, and culminate
in the educational results as seen in the lives of the
students and graduates.

For his study in 1974, Valle defined a Christian
college in terms of an expressed philosophy of
education. For the purpose of this study, the
Christian college is that institution which

. . .currently ascribes administratively to a

doctrinal position or statement of belief which

acknowledges the divinity of Christ. By this
definition, it is expected that a Christian
college would have a statement of its Christian

purposes or beliefs published in its catalog or
other official college publications. (Valle, 1974,

p. 15)

Other studies have focused on how that statement
of the doctrinal position makes a significant
difference in the way Christian college teachers teach
and what students learn. One of those focuses is

"Christian World View!‘

24

Christian World View

 

Many proponents of Christian education maintain
that Christian teachers consider their knowledge of the
world and of a particular subject matter through some
kind of biblical filtering system. Thus, the religious
influence on a Christian college campus is far greater
than just formal religious course work. Biblical
knowledge and religious commitment influence and
perhaps even direct the way all teachers think about
their material and conduct their classes. This world
view is what Karl Barth first termed "Weltbild"--a
looking through the world or building a perspective
through which one views the world (Gaebelein, 1954,

p. 36).

In a greater sense, all teaching comes from within
some form of world view. This was articulated by Dr.
Frank Gaebelein (1968).

The fact is inescapable: the world view of the

teacher, insofar as he is effective, gradually

conditions the world view of the pupil. No man
teaches out of a philosophical vacuum. In one way
or another, every teacher expresses the
convictions he lives by, whether they be

spiritually positive or negative. (p. 37)

Holmes explains the idea of a Christian world view
by examining four characteristics.

The first and most obvious is that a world
view is holistic or integrational. It sees things

not just as parts but also as whole. It is a
systematic understanding and appraisal of life,

25

and none of the academic disciplines is exempted
from contact with it.

Second, a world view is exploratory, not a
closed system worked out once and for all but an
endless undertaking that is still but the vision
of a possibility, an unfinished symphony barely
begun.

Third, a Christian world view is likely to be
pluralistic. If it is an open-minded exploration,
you cannot eXpect complete unanimity—-not that
there is much virtue in human unanimity anyway.
Diversity exists not only because of theological
differences but also because we explore Christian
perspectives on the world Of thought at different
points and by different paths and with different
concerns and backgrounds. This is why academic
freedom and intellectual honesty are so essential.

Fourthly, a world view is confessional or
perspectival. We start with a confession of
faith with an admixture of beliefs and attitudes
and values. Good and sufficient reason may be
given for what we believe, but ours is still a
confessional stance and from the perspective of
this confession, we look at life. (p. 59-60)

Obviously, the people who are writing about the
Christian world view as it relates to the Christian
college place that world view at the locus of the
institution. Not only does it direct the thinking of
the teachers, but somehow that world view becomes the
most important, educational goal. Holmes (1975)
explains this process:

If God, too, is rational and man struggles within

the limitations of his creatureliness to think

God's thoughts after him, then the rational life

has religious significance. Like all of human

existence, thinking has religious roots and
proceeds from the heart; in the final analysis it
is a man's religion that unifies his

understanding. To the Christian in the Christian
college, then, the develOpment of rational inquiry

26

becomes an expression of faith and hOpe and love
addressed to God. It is part of man's response to
God's self-revelation. (p. 38)

Thus, these scholars would argue that the educational

outcomes of Christian colleges is significantly

different from the educational outcomes Of a secular
institution.

According to peOple like Holmes and Gaebelein, this
world view is not only essential to both the teacher
and the student, but it is equally essential to the
nature of the institution itself. Without the world
view as a foundation to hold things together, both the
curriculum and the institutional purpose fall apart.
To argue this point, Holmes quotes a speech from Robert
Brombaugh, professor of philOSOphy at Yale University.

We are doing an increasingly brisk and

precise job in secondary school science in
demonstrating the case for a world of facts that
admits no glimmer of caprice, freedom, or chance
in its causal order. We are doing an increasingly
more crucial job of awakening a sense of
reSponsibility in our students. Sometimes they
feel this responsibility toward society, sometimes
toward their own authenticity. But we are doing
nothing at all to eXplain this schiZOphrenic
change in the conception of reality that varies
with each move between classrooms. We are upset
by the attempts of our students to retain some
intellectual integrity, by apathy, by
indiscriminate activism, by distrust of an
intelligence and authority that has set them a
puzzle they must solve with pieces that cannot be
fitted tOgether into any solution. (Brombaugh in
Holmes, 1975, p. 58)

Holmes himself sees the answer to this particular

dilemma in the Christian world view, a common

27

persPective which unites the teachers at a fundamental
position and thus coordinates the curriculum and all
other educational policies and procedures. To
illustrate how this can be implemented, Holmes has
pioneered multi-disciplinary seminars at several
colleges. His approach is to isolate a particular
period in history (the Reformation, the enlightenment)
and then invite in professors from all disciplines for
an extensive two-week study of that particular period.
The thesis is that through this activity, the
professors will see how their subject matter relates to
other disciplines and how their thinking is influenced

by their religious training and commitment.

Integration of Faith and Learning

 

Another pOpular theme among prOponents of
Christian colleges is the integration of faith and
learning. According to these scholars, all knowledge
originates out of a common source. In the beginning
was the act of creation itself when an eternal and
infinite Creator created a natural world out of
nothing. Later, that same Creator gave to humans a

cultural mandate,

Be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth
and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of
the sea and over the fowl of the air and over
every living thing that moves upon the earth.
(Genesis 1:28 - KJV)

28

According to the integration proponents, the task
of the Christian college is to integrate those two
events--the act of creation and the cultural mandate--
into all aspects of the institution including the
curriculum, the administrative policies, and the very
reasons for scholarship themselves. In other words,
Christians, in select fields of endeavor, pursue their
studies under the umbrella of a God-given mandate.

According to Holmes (1975), this principle has not
always been endorsed nor practiced among Christian
colleges.

Sometimes interaction between faith and learning
has been at little more than a defensive level, an
apologetic against challenges to the faith from
the world of thought or a Christian critique of
its competitors. Apologetics undoubtedly have a
place, but the Christian college has a larger and
more constructive job than this. Integration is
concerned not so much with attack and defense as
with the positive contributions of human learning
to an understanding of the faith and the
development of a Christian world-view, and with
the positive contribution of the Christian faith
to all the arts and sciences of man. Certainly
learning has contributed from all fields to the
church's understanding and propagation of its
faith, from the early church to the present day,
and the Christian college can contribute singly in
that way. Now it must algo grasp what is not as
often recognized, that faith affects learning far
more deeply than learning affects faith. (p. 48)

Perhaps for this reason, current literature about
Christian colleges and a Christian philOSOphy of
education in general places heavy emphasis on the

integration issue. For example, Schindler and Pyle

29

(1979) not only talk about integration, but they even
give details about how to practice it.

How is this [integration] done? Aren't facts
facts, whether a student is a believer or an
atheist? Yes, but the interpretation of facts
makes the difference between a life that is being
prepared only for time and one that is being
prepared for eternity. As Dr. Roy Zuck put it:
"In science, Christian teachers refer to the
Creator of the creation. In literature, Christian
teachers evaluate man's writings by biblical
standards. In music and art, Christian teachers
uphold a wholesome expression consistent with
Scripture. In health and hygiene, Christian
teachers point out that man is God's creation
'fearfully and wonderfully made»' In social
studies, Christian teachers help students
understand God's view of the world's cultures,
governments, and problems. (p. 29)

Perhaps one of the more interesting statements of
the importance of integration of faith and learning
comes from David Horner (1983), who as president of
Barrington College, made the following statement
approximately two years before his college merged with
another Christian college.

Integrating faith and learning is central to

education that is Christian and requires a

conscious attempt to relate substantively and

creatively Biblical truth and values of each
academic discipline.
It is interesting to note that the president reaffirmed
this stand as he watched the enrollment at his
institution diminish.
Another aspect of this integration of faith and

learning question is the manner in which both faculty

and students demonstrate it through their personal

3O

.lifestyle on campus. In a 1979 paper James P.
McIntyre, vice president of Boston College, urged
Catholic colleges to maintain their distinctives and
religious character. On the issue of integration he
said

The Christian community of the future must be

willing to examine the morality of all issues and

the social, ethical, and human dimensions of

questions that are of deep concern to students.
This idea was further argued by Curtis (1986), but with
an added dimension. He suggested that the real task of
integration rests with the individual student while the
community also benefits.

The Old Testament idea of wisdom clearly places

the burden for integration of faith and learning

on each individual scholar. At the same time, the
reality is that the effective and creative
integration of faith and learning that produces
significant breakthroughs for the Christian
community will probably require a significant

COOperative effort between scholars from biblical

studies and a variety of other disciplines.

(p. 227)

According to these scholars, integration of faith
and learning is more than an issue relating to
scholarship. It is pertinent to the way the individual
lives his life and the way the community itself
conducts its business. It is both the integration of
faith and subject matter and the integration of
learning and life. Frank Gaebelein (1974) eXpressed it

in the following analogy.

31

We have flour, eggs, sugar, and milk. Those
elements do not look like each other at all. They
are different in texture, material, taste, and
smell. We mix them all together, stir, and bake.
Now, we come up with something totally different--
johnny cake. It doesn't look or smell or feel or
taste like any of the individual elements nor can
we detect any of the elements in the cake, but it
is a combination of all. This is what the person
becomes when we stir together faith and learning.

(9. 17)
Gaebelein (1954) summarized this as it relates to
the Christian college.

Integration in Christian education is the living
union of its subject matter, administration, and
even of its personnel, with the eternal and
infinite pattern of God's truth. This, as we have
already said, is the heart of the integration and
the crux of the problem. (p. 9)

Values in Religious Higher Education

 

Some prOponents and students of Christian colleges
argue that there is another distinguishing
characteristic of the Christian college in addition to
the issues of world view and integration of faith and
learning. According to these peOple, the Christian
college is different from its secular counterparts
because of the way students, teachers, and
administrators arrive at and live out their basic human
values.

Perhaps McIntyre (1979) said it most succinctly
when he said, "A successful way to establish a clear
commitment of a Christian lifestyle is to ensure that

action follows the Christian message" (p. 111). To

32

him, it is the possibility of this action following the
Christian message that gives the Christian colleges and
particularly the Catholic colleges their reason for
being.

In a 1975 report, McGrath argued forcefully for
more values teaching at the university level; but like
McIntyre, he saw a greater possibility of this taking-
place at the Christian college where values arise out
of religious principles and commitments.

Nearly 20 years ago the world of learning as
well as outsiders with intellectual interests and
sensitive social consciences were shocked by a
report authored by Philip E. Jacob entitled,
Changing Values in College. In a research project
of his own, together witl‘Ta review of the results
of other investigations, Jacob concluded that
though there were notable exceptions among some
institutions and especially certain teachers, the
values of students were little influenced by the
college experience. Even among the students in
social science courses, the effect was minimal.

As Jacob says:

The same negative conclusion applies to the

general effect of social science courses.

The values expressed by those who are most

interested in social sciences are little

different from those of other students. This
is true not only of personal, moral and
religious values, but also of attitudes
towards social and political issues regarding
which the social science students are
presumably more concerned and better
informed. Neither the students' interest nor
their instruction in social science seems to
assert a broad influence on their beliefs, or
their judgments of conduct and policy.
In the intervening years these findings have been
both confirmed and contested, and in the 19608
student demonstrations often reflected changed
conceptions of what was "good" and "bad" in our
culture. But there is some evidence that these
attitudes arose more often out of personal

 

33

experience and rap sessions among contempories
than out of formal education-~sometimes in actual
reaction against it. In any event, that the value
questions are still in the forefront of the
thinking of many citizens is evident from the
experience of one of America's oldest foundations
[Lilly Endowment]. When it advertised the
publication of the results of a small conference
on values, it received thousands of letters of
inquiry from persons in all walks of life. To be
sure, social institutions other than colleges and
universities must share the responsibility for
dealing with the problem of values, but the latter
because of their intellectual resources must take
the initiative in these fateful efforts. (PD. 36-
37)

After reaching this conclusion, McGrath observes:

One thing is certain: value questions and their
resolution are central factors in shaping the
lives of individuals and of nations. Whether a
society lives by the basic doctrines of revealed
religion, as has been the case in Western
societies for 2,000 years; or more recently, by
the various forms of civic religion in communistic
Russia or China, the factors that have held
societies together and given meaning and direction
to the lives of their people have been a generally
accepted system of values. These systems have, in
varying degrees, explicitly embraced
presuppositions or dogmas related to the moral
behavior of their adherents. No human being can
really understand the meaning of his own life or
the infinitely complex world in which he lives or
maintain any sense of order in his personal or
social existence without a commitment to such a
relatively stable set of values. As Lippmann
pointed out, in our society only the institutions
of higher education are capable of assuming the
demanding and unavoidable responsibility of
assisting their patrons in understanding the
values by which they will live; and of all such
American academic institutions, the liberal arts
colleges, by their professed concern for the well-
being of the individual and the quality of life in
the larger society, can with the least
justification absolve themselves of this
reaponsibility. If they do so, they will nullify
their reason for being. The task of resuming
responsibility for the clarification of values and

34

organizing the corpus of modern knowledge to
illuminate them may be difficult, but it is
essential to the preservation of a stable social
order and a satisfying, meaningful personal life.

(p. 29)

To summarize this position, McGrath quotes Viktor
Frankl (1965):

If we present a man with a concept of man
which is not true, we may well corrupt him. When
we present man as an automaton of reflexes, as a
mind-machine, as a bundle of instincts, as a pawn
of drives and reactions, as a mere product of
instinct, heredity, and environment, we feed the
nihilism to which modern man is, in any case,
prone.

I became acquainted with the last stage of
that corruption in my second concentration camp,
Auschwitz. The gas chambers of Auschwitz were the
ultimate consequence of the theory that man is
nothing but the product of heredity and
environment-~or, as the Nazis like to say, of
"Blood and Soil)‘ I am absolutely convinced that
the gas chambers of Auschwitz, Treblinka, and
Maidanek were ultimately prepared not in some
ministry or other in Berlin, but rather at the
desks and in the lecture halls of nihilistic
scientists and philOSOphers. (p. 12)

Holmes (1975) develops the same argument, but he
goes even further by specifying the kind of values a
Christian college should be teaching and where those

values come from.

Values are more than feelings. By now the
emotivist theory of value should be dead and can
be buried, for it has been taken to pieces by
philOSOphers who have shown beyond doubt that
valuing also involves reasons that can be argued
and generalized. Yet experience-oriented young
peOple still seem to reduce values to feelings: a
thing is right that you feel right about. It is
"right for me." The result, as C. S. Lewis shows
in his Abolition of Man is a thorough relativism.
For the Christian EheISt, values are more than

 

35

feelings and they are not all relative; they have
their basis in the very nature of what a man is in
God's creation and so in the wisdom and the will
of God. We image our Creator as valuing beings,
for he, too, values: he loves, he delights, he
seeks to realize the values be invested in his
creation, and our values must follow from his.

Another educational goal accordingly follows,
to teach values as well as facts. Somewhere in
the curriculum, the student should be exposed to
ethics, to aesthetics and other areas of value,
and to the logical structure of value judgments.
How do I make a moral judgment that is not a
simple case of black or white, of obvious right or
wrong? Are the consequences of an action all that
matters (its instrumental value) or are some
things intrinsically better than others? 'In a
Christian college one must come to see the
distinctive ingredients and bases of Christian
values, and will hOpefully make those values his
own. (p. 40)

Morrill (1980) goes even further to argue that
this emphasis on values is not only different in the
Christian college but almost limited to it because such
a pursuit requires a commitment from the community as

well as from the individual.

There is a point at which the discussion of
the ultimate ends and values of life becomes
inapprOpriate in certain types of colleges and
universities, while not in others. Public
institutions and those with a secular orientation
should pose ultimate value questions, but not
provide final answers. In contrast, institutions
having a clear religious heritage will, by their
very being, testify to a body of final life
truths. The classroom conduct of values inquiry,
however, will not necessarily be decidedly
different in colleges and universities with an
active religious orientation. If the first place,
like any form of valuing, religious commitments
have no reality unless they are genuinely made and
owned by an individual. Values education and
value change are processes of self-discovery.
Secondly, most religious traditions would insist
that a religious set of values or virtues like

36

faith, hOpe, and love are not simple human
possibilities. The self never fully succeeds in
finding an adequate grounding for its own worth
through its own analytical efforts. Faith is said
to be a gift, not an accomplishment. It requires
participation in a community of memory and hOpe,
and does not emerge through private inquiry alone.

(p. 137)

Perhaps this whole position of how colleges teach
values and what values are taught was best summarized
by Montaigne centuries ago when he said, "The purpose
of education is not to make a scholar but to make a
man" (Bartlett, 1950).

According to the proponents of a Christian
philOSOphy of education, this is more likely to occur
in the Christian colleges than in secular universities
because the curriculum and institutional policies
emphasize such things as developing Christian world
view, integration of faith and learning, and basic
universal human values. This emphasis constitutes the

unique character of the Christian college.
History of Christian Higher Education

The history of change in Christian colleges is
synonomous with the history of Christian colleges which
is in many places paralleled to the history of higher
education in America.

From the very beginning, the colleges were

religious in their purposes, procedures, and policies.

37

For example, at Harvard, the Oldest seat of higher
education in this country, the original goal of a
college education was "to know God and Jesus Christ
which is eternal life, and therefore to lay Christ in
the bottom as the only foundation of all sound
knowledge and learning)‘ Likewise, Yale stated as its
primary goal "every student shall consider the main end
of his study to wit to know God in" Jesus Christ and to
lead a godly, sober lifeJ' inn 1754, Samuel Johnson,
president of Columbia, advertised the primary purpose
of his institution as

to teach and engage the children to know God in

Jesus Christ and to love and serve him in all

sobriety, godliness, and righteousness of life

with a perfect heart and willing mind; and to

'train them up in all virtuous habits and useful

knowledge as may render them creditable to their

families and friends, ornaments to their country,
and useful to the public Weal in their

generations. (Ringenberg, 1984, p. 38)

These were not just isolated cases. This kind of
religious emphasis and purpose encompassed all higher
education during the colonial era, having an impact not
only on the purpose of college education but reflecting
on such issues as curriculum, the hiring of personnel,
and student life itself.

During the colonial period, there was no sharp
distinction between religious and secular institutions.

Eight of the nine pre-Revolutionary seats of higher

education were supported and controlled by a specific

38

religious denomination. Harvard was established by the
Puritans in 1636. William and Mary, established in
1693 was an Anglican school; Yale was established by

the Congregationalists in 1701; Princeton was

established by the New Light Presbyterians in 1746;
Columbia, established in 1754, was essentially
Anglican; Brown, established in 1765, was Baptist;
Rutgers was established by the Dutch Reformed in 1766;
and Dartmouth was established by the New Light
Congregationalists in 1769. The only primarily secular
institution of the colonial period was the University
of Pennsylvania, established in 1755.

Although institutions were established by
religious groups with religious purposes, they were
frequently subject to government rules and policies;
and they were supported, at least partially, from
government funds. This practice of combining religious
and government purpose and support seems to suggest
that to the colonial mind, higher learning, regardless
of form or intent, was somehow woven into the spiritual
nature of the human being.

This issue of whether these colleges were public
or private religious institutions came to the front in
the early years of the new Republic during what has
become known as the Dartmouth College case. In its

origin, Dartmouth had been chartered by the English

39

Crown, but it had always Operated as a private
institution subject to its own board of control.
However, in 1816, with Jeffersonian Republicans in
charge of the New Hampshire legislature, the state made
a strong effort to bring the institution under state
control and to turn it into a public institution. With
most of the other colleges critically interested in the
Outcome, the case made its way through New Hampshire
courts and into the United States Supreme Court where
the judges, including Chief Justice Marshall, held that
the college could and should continue to Operate as a
privately held institution.

At the time, this was a controversial and far-
reaching decision. College presidents saw it as a
guarantee of academic freedom and educational quality
while politicians such as Thomas Jefferson maintained
that the decision could potentially limit the strength
and unity of the new nation unless states passed laws
limiting the power and wealth of the private colleges
(Brubacher & Rudy, 1968).

Nevertheless, it was this court decision which
provided the route by which Christian colleges have
continued to originate, Operate, and flourish
throughout our national history.

Of course, the various denominations supporting

the colonial colleges were not Opposed to using the

40

college to further their own doctrinal position and to
keep their churches free from other influences. For
example, the Congregationalist board of trustees at

Yale, Calvinistic in their religious doctrine, in 1722

fired the president and one of the professors for the

sin of holding certain Anglican leanings. The board
went even further and stated that only Calvinistic
doctrine be taught, all officers of the college
subscribe to the Westminster Confession of Faith, and
that all Yale students be forbidden from attending
EpiSCOpal church services.

Only 25 years later, a similar prOposal to impose
Calvinism upon all members of the Harvard community,
teachers and students alike, failed. Perhaps this fact
in itself indicates something about the nature of
change in Christian colleges in America. Historically,
or at least during the colonial period, the colleges
supported by those religious groups which intended to
use their colleges to perpetuate specific doctrinal
positions, both in belief and behavior, resisted any
change more vigorously than those colleges who saw
their mission to be broader than perpetuating a
specific doctrinal position.

The religious emphasis of the colonial colleges

was reflected in the curriculum as well as in the

support and control. Although it is difficult to

41

translate the colonial curriculum into the present
system of credit hours, semesters, and terms, one can
make some assumptions based on records attesting to how
many hours per week students spent in various studies.
Based on this formula, one student of colonial
curriculum estimated that the Harvard student of the
16408 would have earned 140 hours of credit in three
years of study. Since there were no electives, the
student would have acquired the following hours in the

specific disciplines:

Logic and isputations (in Latin) 30 hours
Greek 24 hours
Hebrew, Aramaic, and Syriac 24 hours
Rhetoric and declamations 24 hours
Divinity 16 hours
Ethics and politics 8 hours
Arithmetic and geometry 6 hours
Physics 2 hours
Botany 2 hours
Astronomy 2 hours
History 2 hours

(Ringenberg, 1984, p. 47)

It is important to note that this is a pre-Enlightenment
curriculum, and as such it contains very limited study
of math, science, or social science.

In later colonial years, as enlightenment thinking
began to grow in the colonies, the predominantly
religiously-oriented curriculum changed slightly as
institutions added more math and science. For example,
in 1727, Harvard created the Hollis Professorship of

Mathematics and Natural PhilOSOphy, and appointed a

42

very influential, creative, and research-oriented John
WinthrOp IV to the position.
During the colonial period, even the teaching

methodology reflected a historical religious influence.

Most professors utilized the traditionally accepted
method of recitation where they listened to each
individual student recite what he had learned (or
memorized). Since this was the method of church
catechism, it apparently carried the blessing of the
church leaders as an accepted, approved method of
instruction.

The faculty of the colonial colleges also
reflected the religious nature of those institutions.
Often the president and the professors were selected
for their positions because of their credibility as
ministers as much as their credibility as scholars.
For example, at Harvard, the civilian authorities
stipulated that the college hire "upright Christians
and not any that had shown themselves to be unsound in
faith or scandalous in their lives" (Ringenberg, 1984,
p. 45). In fact, even through most of the 18th
century, the board of overseers examined each teaching
candidate on the subject of religion.

The information from the colonial colleges most
pertinent to this present study deals with student

life, and there is sufficient extant material from such

43

things as student diaries, school records, and school
catalogs to ascertain in some detail how college
students actually lived during the colonial period and
what was eXpected of them from parents, school
officials, and the community at large.

During this period, the colleges assumed much more
of an "in loco parentis" stance than they do now.
There are several possible reasons for this. Students
were younger than present college students. Often
students were admitted to the college program when they
were about 15 or 16 years of age, and there are cases
of students as young as 12 years of age being admitted
to a full course of study. Another reason for the
strong institutional control of student life was the
British influence which was powerful in many areas of
colonial college Operation. Since the dormitory had
always been such a significant feature of higher
education in England, the colonists saw the need not
only to provide room and board for the students but
also to require that all students live in college
facilities. Another reason for the stringent
requirements of students came from the fact that the
educators viewed their role as more than educators of
the mind. They saw themselves as the supervisors of
the students' spiritual growth as well. In fact, many

of the colonial educators saw themselves first as

44

disciplinarians and spiritual supervisors while they
viewed their secondary role as develOping minds.

Because of these reasons and perhaps others, the
college staffs assumed a position of supervising all
phases of a student's growth and develOpment during his
college career. Evidence of this can be found in the
various rules of the institution itself. For example,
the young student attending Harvard faced no less than
83 rules specifying the consequences of any activity
outside the normal routine. Some of these rules
covered such activities as hunting, sailing, spending
money, and even lying on one's own bed during daylight
hours (Ringenberg, 1984).

Since there were also specific rules for
respecting one's elders, the college even went so far
as to Specify the duties freshmen owed the
upperclassmen. These included such things as tipping
one's hat and even running errands (Ringenberg, 1984).

In addition to these rules, college requirements
specified specific religious activity including
compulsory chapel attendance, daily prayers, and church
attendance on the Sabbath.

A pOpular form of punishing violators of one of
the many rules was a monetary fine (Brubacher & Rudy,

1968).

45

Such was life at a colonial college. Steeped in
religious tradition with moral supervision as part of
their mission, they provided the learning for the
future ministers and leaders of the colonies. But even
these institutions were not free from change. In the
150 years between the founding of Harvard and the
American Revolution even these institutions experienced
significant changes. Often these changes came
gradually over a period of time as conditions
throughout colonial life changed, but sometimes
significant changes came abruptly.

One of the most significant agents of change in
those early colleges and one which merits consideration
in this study was the change in tone and direction of
the religious organizations which sponsored the
institutions. One of those changes during the colonial
period was the introduction of Scottish thinking into
the American churches, particularly the
Congregationalists and Presbyterians. Ministers,
schooled in the Scottish philOSOphy known as Common
Sense Realism, immigrated to the colonies, assumed the
pastorates of various congregations, and were soon
dominant forces of influence in most of the colleges
throughout the colonies.

Another religious phenomenon which had significant

influence on the character of the Christian colleges

46

during this period was the first Great Awakening. This
pOpular revival movement of the 17308 and 17408
dominated college as well as colonial lifeu George
Whitefield, one of the outspoken ministers of the
movement charged, "A8 for the universities, I believe
it may be said that their light is become Darkness,
Darkness that may be felt, and is complained of by most
Godly ministers" (Ringenberg, 1984, p. 40). The major
theological debate of the Great Awakening considered
whether religious experience should be directed by
emotional or rational factors. Since many of the
Presbyterians and others were concerned with trends at
Yale and Harvard, they began to influence other
institutions to adOpt what they called a "New Light"
position to illuminate the darkness which Whitefield
had charged.

During the 18th century, some institutions, in an
attempt to maintain a large enough student body to
keep the school solvent, had relaxed admission
standards and had Opened their doors to a large segment
of the pOpulation which would not have been accepted in
early colonial days. For example, Harvard, in
something of a departure from tradition, Opened its
doors to the sons of the newly-rich merchant class.

These new students brought new problems to the

colleges and to the stringent disciplinary rules

47

governing the institutions. There were frequent
incidents of drinking, card playing, dancing, and
violating the Sabbath. A8 a result, many of the more
pious students united themselves into organizations to
not only guard against these temptations but to try to
win back their lost colleagues. These organizations of
pious students were often the prototypes of campus
clubs and organizations and were in some ways the
forerunner of organized extracurricular activity on
college campuses.

Actually, the college response to the First Great
Awakening is only one example of how changes in all
areas of college operations were prompted by a change
in the religious emphasis of the times.

Throughout the 19th century, religious revivals
were frequent on college campuses. For example, at
Amherst College the faculty led the efforts to "save
the souls of the students before it was too late"
(Brubacher & Rudy, 1968, p. 44). Throughout much of
the first half of the century, Amherst experienced a
religious revival at least once every four years, thus
providing each entering class with one Opportunity for
religious renewal. In 1855, a student, William Otis
Carr, wrote in his diary,

One young man, who gloried in his wicked ways and

seemed the first in any forbidden scheme, was
stOpped in his maddened course and blessed be to

48

God, made a new creature. And what a change! His
first act was to banish from his room the servants
of sin. He threw into the fire his cards. To the
same flame he consigned his immense cane so
carefully prepared to row the Freshmen, and upon
this he poured the contents of his brandy bottle.
Many are giving up their foul feasts on tobacco,

and instead of the curse, from almost every room
may now be heard the v01ce of prayer. It is

wonderful to perceive the holy calm that reigns
around us. (Brubacher & Rudy, 1968, p. 45)

Following the Revolution, the new nation
experienced significant forces of change in national
intellectual tone, religious intensity, and
consequently educational needs. The colonial notion
that higher education was primarily for the training of
ministers and church leaders was soon lost in the new
emerging nation's need for highly trained statesmen,
educators, and even craftsmen. Just the growth of the
numbers of institutions and students alone suggests a
major change in national thinking. At the time of the
beginning of the American Revolution, there were only
nine colleges in Operation. By the beginning of the
Civil War, just over one-half century later, there were
approximately 180 permanent institutions in Operation.
The number of students in colleges between 1800 and
1860 grew four times faster than the general pOpulation
(Ringenberg, 1984).

One of the reasons for this rapid growth in both
institutions and students was the increased demand for

a variety of educational offerings and opportunities.

49

The founding of West Point in 1802 with the distinct
purpose of preparing military personnel was the first
implementation of the idea of established higher

educational institutions with a specific curriculum

designed to meet specific needs. Other specialized and
technical schools soon appeared. In 1824, Stephan Van
Renssalaer established the Renssalaer Polytechnic
Institute, not only to train architects and engineers
but also to train peOple to teach applied sciences to
the general public. Not only was the Institute
innovative in its purpose and curriculum, but the first
head, Amos Eaton, also pioneered the laboratory method
of instruction, utilized branch campuses, and
implemented evening school to serve the local farmers
and laborers.

The Morrill Act of 1862 further recognized the
training of engineers, mechanics, and farmers as a
legitimate educational purpose and provided national
support and recognition to the cause.

Shortly after the Revolution, Thomas Jefferson was
successful in keeping the control and even the thrust
of the newly established University of Virginia out of
the hands of the Anglican Church. He maintained that
no religious denomination should have a preferred
status in higher education. Largely because of his

efforts, the new republic began to accept the idea of a

50

secular state university, and this new kind of
institution began to grow rapidly during the 19th
century (Brubacher & Rudy, 1968).

Early in the history of the new Republic, American
thought turned even to include the education of women,
so another kind of new institution made its way onto
the scene, the women's college. At first, these were
particularly popular in the South Where they were seen
as finishing schools for the southern aristocracy; but
by 1849 such an institution was established in
Rockford, Illinois, and the movement spread to the
North.

Another kind of institution which came upon the
American scene in the mid-19th century was the Catholic
college. Although the Catholic college had a history
dating almost back to the beginning of the new nation
with the establishment of Georgetown in 1789, the rapid
growth during the 19th century was, at least, partially
a response to Catholic immigration into the United
States coupled with some often deep-seated religious
antagonism. For the most part, these Catholic
institutions were conducted by members of the clergy.
Many of them were, in fact, Operated by the Jesuits and
followed the historical Ratio Studitorium in curriculum

and teaching methods.

51

Despite all these new kinds of educational
institutions and the various educational innovations,
the liberal arts, Protestant denominational college
continued to be the most common higher education
institution in the United States throughout most of the
19th century. Perhaps two reasons account for this.
The First Amendment provided for the fundamental
principle of the separation of church and state, and
the Dartmouth College decision of 1819 guaranteed that
private colleges would be free from government
interference. Despite these reasons, these
institutions sprang up everywhere. Called "HilltOp
Colleges" they were often placed in small towns
throughout the midwest because the founding fathers and
denominational leaders wanted to get the young students
as far away from the temptations of big city sins as
possible.

The sheer number of these institutions and their
rural locations caused one observer in Illinois to
remark in the 18308, "A settler could hardly encamp on
the prairies but that a college would spring up beside
his wagon" (Brubacher & Rudy, 1968, p. 73).

For the most part, these colleges were
denominational in purpose and intent. Not only would
they provide an education ministry, but they would

provide an educated laity for leadership in the

52

denomination. Moreover, they would strengthen
denominational loyalty, meet denominational rivalry,
extend denominational influence, offset the secular
influences of state universities, and make higher
education available to a wider number of young peOple
throughout the Midwestern frontier.

For the most part, the curriculum and teaching
methodology combined the colonial college or historical
influence with enlightenment thinking. .Although the
emphasis was still on theoretical and applied study of
the Bible, the colleges did offer classes in math,
science, and social sciences; but even the content of
these new courses was frequently measured and weighed
by biblical standards.

One of the courses which develOped out of this
zeal to apply biblical principle to every piece of
human knowledge and every human activity was the senior
seminar. Called by such names as natural philOSOphy,
moral philOSOphy, or moral ethics, the class, required
for all seniors, was almost always taught by the
president of the college himself. This course was the
capstone course, the one final Opportunity to send the
graduates out into the real world equipped with a
biblical base for all their knowledge and some

direction in how to apply that to their lives.

53

Although this senior seminar had a variety of
titles at all the different Protestant liberal arts
colleges, it was one of the distinctive characteristics
of the curriculum. Originating sometime shortly after
the Civil War when the basic curriculum was undergoing
some changes, the course was a basic part of the
curriculum in a number of these institutions throughout
the 19th century and even into the 20th century.
Ringenberg says of the courses:

(They) were almost taught invariably by the

president to the senior class. The most common

names for these courses included mental, moral,
and intellectual philOSOphy (described by some as

"the science of what ought to be"), evidences of

Christianity, logic, and ethics. The exact

content of the courses varied according to

presidential discretion, but they usually gave
emphasis to the social sciences as well as to
philosOphy and religion. As discussed in detail
by Mark Noll in the introduction to this book,
these courses almost always sought to combine

Enlightenment Rationalism with the Christian

faith, using the former to support the latter.

(Ringenberg, 1984, p. 67)

The increase in both the number of Christian
colleges and the students enrolled and the location of
those institutions throughout the small towns did bring
some change to the nature of student life during the
19th century. The average age of college students
crept up slowly. Some of the colleges even added
preparatory schools to accommodate the younger students
who were either not old enough or not educationally

prepared for college work. Since the student body was

54

older than in colonial days and since many of the
schools were conveniently located, a greater number of
students chose to live at home and commute to the

nearby college.

Two religious factors made significant impact on
the nature of student life throughout the 19th century.
One was revivalism, which was mentioned earlier in this
chapter. On most Protestant college campuses revivals
were often fervent and intense. Often, the faculty set
the tone for the religious zeal and became aggressively
involved in bringing the tone of revival to the campus.
Students would be dramatically saved while others would
alter their lifestyles to fit the eXpectations of the
organized church.

Another factor which also dominated many of these
institutions was the vision of foreign service. Many
historians attribute the beginning of the modern
missionary movement to a group of Williams' students.
In 1804, these students, led by Samuel Mills, retreated
to a haystack during a thunderstorm and there committed
themselves to volunteer for foreign missionary service.
As the students traveled to other campuses, the
movement spread, having a significant impact on both
the purpose of some of these institutions as well as
upon the kinds of lives and visions the students

themselves had toward a college education. Charles

55

Blanchard, the second president of Wheaton College in
Illinois, once remarked that the institution was
centrally located, not just between the two national
coastlines but between the continents of EurOpe and
Asia (Armerding, 1974).

Another very significant influence in the lives of
the Protestant liberal arts college students during the
19th century was that of the literary societies.
Usually, any institution, regardless of size, would
have at least two societies which competed with each
other in literary matters as well as in attempts to
attract the finest and best students. Although the
societies had a social function, their major thrust
was more academic. At regular weekly meetings, the
students would engage in debates of current events,
listen to guest lecturers, or even learn the mechanics
themselves. On many campuses the societies would often
compete with each other in campus-wide debates or
oratorical contests. In many places, professors
themselves would recognize the educational value of
those contests and dismiss students from class to
prepare for the events. William Seward, Secretary of
State under Abraham Lincoln, once remarked of his
education at Union College, New York, "If I were
required not to say what part of my college education I

derived the greatest advantage, I should say the

56

exercises of Adelphic Society" (Brubacher & Rudy, 1968,
p. 48).

Not only did the societies contribute to the
reasoning and oratorical skills of their members but
they also assumed some responsibility for the general
conduct of the members. For example, one society at
Princeton could suspend members for neglecting their
studies, wasting time at taverns, or exhibiting
anything other than exemplary behavior.

On many campuses, the societies also provided
library services for their members when the college
libraries were inadequate or when services were limited
to students. For example, in 1839, the literary
society libraries claimed more than 15,000 volumes
while the college library itself had fewer than 11,000.
In many of the 19th century colleges, the libraries
were almost off limits to students. At Columbia, which
seems rather typical of others, freshmen and SOphomores
were allowed in the library once a month to gaze at the
books. Juniors went once a week with tutors to receive
lectures on the services available. Seniors were
actually permitted to read some of the volumes, but
they were not allowed to take them from the library
itself. Thus, the literary societies filled a need by

providing library services (Brubacher & Rudy, 1968).

57

Other than the organized revival efforts, the
informal organizations of pious students, the
missionary organizations, and the literary societies,
there were few other student organizations or organized
student activities in most of the 19th century
Christian colleges. Organized sports did not come on
to the campuses until almost the 20th century, and
student government organizations did not appear until
several years after the Civil War.

Although the 19th century Christian colleges
provided education for a large number of American young
people who might not have otherwise had an Opportunity
for a college education, they too experienced
difficulties and were subject to changes and changing
times. One of the most significant elements of change
was in the struggle to survive. Of the 500 colleges
founded during the first half of the century, only
about 100 survived as permanent institutions (Brubacher
& Rudy, 1968). There were various reasons for the high
mortality rate. The financial panics of 1837 and 1857
diminished the pool of potential students. Some
colleges encountered natural catastrOphes such as fires
and diseases. But frequently the sum of the difficulty
lay within the supporting denominations and the
changing religious tone. Since some of these

institutions grew out of the revival movement and were

58

supported by the revival-conscious denominations such
as the Baptists and Methodists, the diminishing of the
revival efforts affected the lives of the institutions.

On the other hand, many denominations suffered
internal fights and actually experienced splits and
divisions and during these internal dissensions, the
colleges were often caught in the middle.

But an even bigger influence had a profound effect
on Christian colleges in the last 100 years, and that
was the influence of the change in national attitude
toward religion and life in general. During the
Colonial period and the first half of the 19th century,
many Americans saw some relationship between higher
education and religious life. For many educators, the
chief purpose of higher education had something to do
with moral growth, and moral growth was connected to
spiritual growth; but in the last century, the
purposes, curriculum, and activities of most higher
education is far more secular in its sc0pe. For
example, in 1911, students at Oberlin, which was
historically a Christian liberal arts college, stated
that the develOpment of mental powers was the most
important goal of a college education while develOpment
of religious life was below average (Ringenberg, 1984).

This change in attitudes could be attributed to

several factor8--evolution and the increasing

59

importance on science and science teaching; the
industrial revolution and the need for a more diverse
curriculum and purpose; the changes in the
denominations themselves; the identification of
American pragmatism as a philOSOphy of life and its
appeal to the American peOple; and the changes in adult
attitudes toward college-age people.

Ringenberg (1984) lists seven characteristics
which demonstrate how changes occur in Christian
colleges, moving them from their 19th century
orientation into their current status. Having
documented how these transitions have come to many of
the Christian colleges throughout the nation,
Ringenberg concludes

No longer then, do the avowedly Christian colleges

sit at the apex of the country's educational

structure. That mid—19th century realist is now
gone. Some of the old colleges continue to

Operate as unapologetically Christian institutions

and to their ranks have been added many others

during the last century; but the Christian
colleges today, although growing in program
quality and public respect, do not hold the same

position of restige in society that they once
did. (p. 146

Trends and Changes in Higher Education

Surveying the characteristics of Christian
colleges and surveying the history of Christian higher
education in this country contribute to a general

understanding of both the nature and the current

60

conditions of these institutions. Yet, other factors
must be considered in attempting to predict the
destiny, direction, or even future trends of those
colleges identified as Christian colleges and the kinds
of education they offer their constituency and to the
nation in general.

The survey of the history of Christian colleges
demonstrates that the future of an institution or even
a particular approach to education is not always a
simple linear extrapolation of the past into the
present into the futureu Sometimes changes in social
and economic conditions significantly and abruptly
alter educational offerings, educational eXpectations,
and college life in general. To attempt to understand
the changes and the lack of changes which have occurred
during the past 10 years in the colleges surveyed in
this study, it is necessary to examine general national
,changes and trends in areas including demographics,
school mission statements, and the attitudes and

behaviors of students.

Demographics

 

On the surface, it appears that the small
Christian colleges are in danger and are in fact
fighting for their own survival. Two significant

factors predict bleak futures for all higher education

61

and for the small private college in particular. For
one thing, the potential student pool is diminishing.
There are simply fewer students graduating from high
school. In 1984 alone, the pOpulation of high schools
declined 5.3%. In some areas of the country, this
decline is even more severe where there has been as
much as a 40% decline in recent years (Keylock, 1985).
According to Baptists (1980), "Projections just
released by the National Center for Educational
Statistics predict 500,000 fewer college students in
1988 than in 1979" (p. 1320).

The other factor is the spiraling costs of a
college education which is far more severe for the
private school than the public one. At most of the
institutions surveyed in this study the total cost of a
four-year college education will exceed $40,000.

John L. Glancy, director of university relations at
Seattle Pacific University in Washington, stated
recently that "from 1980 to 1983 family income rose
20%, but private college costs rose 40% during the same
period" (Keylock, 1985, p. 55).

With the combination of these two factors, it
would appear that the small private colleges which must
Operate financially from the limited resources of
student tuition and private giving are having serious

financial struggles. Already, some institutions have

62

failed. Since some of these were so small and
unstructured that it is difficult to identify them as
colleges, the precise number of institutions that have

failed is a bit difficult to establish; but according
to McGrath (1981)

A recent article in the Chronicle of Higher
Education listing the colleges that have
disappeared reveals that since 1970 72 privately
supported institutions either have closed, merged
with another private college or university, or
turned over their assets and management to public
control. (p. 7)

 

 

In a similarly interesting statistic, McGrath
(1981) states, "In 1950, about 502 of the full-time
students were enrolled in independent colleges and
universities while recently that percentage has drOpped
to about 20%" (p. 9).

Mosely and Bucher (1982) give specific figures.

There are 700 colleges and universities with

religious ties in the United States today; they

make up one-fourth of all post-secondary education
institutions and enroll 10% of American college

and university students. (p. 46)

In fact one of the institutions of this present study
has actually merged with another. Barrington College
in Rhode Island merged with Gordon College
(Massachusetts) during the 12 years between the Valle
and Vandermeulen study; and in this process, Barrington

lost its physical structure, its curriculum, its

educational purpose, and its identity.

63

On the other hand, despite these statistics which
indicate survival problems for many of the small
Christian colleges, some of the experts maintain that
the situation is not as bleak as it seems. Astin
(1977) accounts for the failed institutions in the
following way:

One other fact about the 72 which closed
deserves mention. Of the 47 nonpublic, non-
Catholic institutions included in this group, 12
had a Protestant affiliation and 35 were
classified as independent of any church
relationship. Considering the nearly 3,000
American institutions of higher education, the
demise of 12 Protestant, 25 Catholic, and 35
independent colleges, however important they may
have been to the members of their own academic
communities or nostalgically enshrined in the
hearts of their alumni, hardly takes on the aspect
of the major national disaster suggested in
today's headlines. These figures deserve this
extended analysis because they diapel the illusion
that the private, independent colleges are dying
off at an epidemic rate. As far as the youth of
this country seeking an institution in which
religion constitutes a genuine element in the
total educational experience is concerned, they
are more likely to be denied this opportunity not
by the closing of denominational colleges but by
the abandonment of religiously related goals and
practices by institutions which continue to
publicize a nominal church relationship. (p. 4)

McGrath (1975) argues the same point by saying:

The majority, when they closed or merged, had
fewer than 300 and over 202 had fewer than 100
students. The history of most of these colleges
reveals that they had never had sufficient
enrollments or fiscal resources to assure
viability in a period of economic stress like that
of the past several years. With the notable
exception of a few like Parsons College, they were
not robust liberal arts colleges wiped out by
sharp drOps in enrollment, competition from new
community colleges, or the current pervasive

64

economic crunch. Twenty-five were sustained by a
single religious denomination--the Catholic
Church--often located within easy travel distance
of other colleges of the same faith offering
programs with much in comnmnn It is questionable
whether their closing has denied a quality higher
education to many young persons of that particular
religious persuasion. (p. 3)

Another piece of evidence from the research of
Emerson indicates that in spite of the problems
presently besetting Christian colleges, the
consequences have not yet been severe.

The facts of a declining pool of students and
spiraling costs, colleges have upgraded their
recruitment efforts by attracting large numbers of
older students. As a result, though the number of
full-time, first-time freshmen in the 18- to 24-
year-old category declined by 2.85% (according to
a report in the Dec. 20, 1984 issue of USA Today)
total enrollment is up by 0.65% at publIc
universities and colleges and down only 0.88% at
private institutions of higher education. Though
public two-year junior and community college
enrollment declined 2.19%, older college graduates
swelled the ranks of graduate schools with an 8.9%
increase in enrollment. (Keylock, 1985)

 

Mission Statement

Although the research shows a definite decline in
potential student pool and spiraling costs of a four
year college education, particularly at private
institutions such as those considered in this study,
further research does not indicate these factors have
resulted in severe consequences in stable, robust,
liberal arts colleges which maintain a close identity

with a statement of faith.

65

According to research, there are various reasons
for this which merit further investigation. Some of
the institutions have responded to the current trends
in population and costs by either adjusting or
reaffirming their mission statement, and this kind of
activity may have a direct bearing on the results of
this study.

One of the attempts to solidify the position and
survival of Christian liberal arts colleges was to
create an organization of institutions with similar
objectives and missions. In 1976, 70 colleges formed
an organization called the Christian College Coalition
for the purpose of bringing its member colleges into a
cOOperative relationship and to strengthen them by
helping them achieve common goals which are most
effectively accomplished by working together. The
coalition located its main offices in Washington, DJL,
and employed a staff of qualified educators, lobbyists,
and administrators to respond to the political and
educational interests of its constituency.

Although the membership in the coalition includes
more than 30 different Christian denominations,
membership is still limited to "those colleges which
have a policy of hiring as faculty and administration
academically qualified men and women who are personally

committed to the Christian faith and who seek to

66

integrate that faith into the academic realm and into
daily life" (Christian College Coalition, Case
Statement).

For its member institutions, the coalition
attempts to meet objectives.

1. To assist, through cOOperative programs, the
member colleges in improving and strengthening their
efforts to make the Christian faith central for their
students in all areas of life.

2. To provide information to member colleges
about, and when apprOpriate to act upon, legislative or
litigative issues which have special import to
coalition members.

3. To promote and increase the public's awareness
that a major group of deeply committed Christian
liberal arts colleges provides a distinctive Option to
college bound students.

4. To promote and encourage a sense of unity and
cOOperation among the coalition member colleges,
including the sharing of expertise, talents, and ideas
for the benefit of every member institution (The
Christian College Coalition Case Statement)

In order to maintain a constant enrollment during
the time of a decrease in the number of eligible
students, many Christian colleges broadened their

admissions policies to include those who had not

67

previously been considered potential students. For
example, some institutions have altered admissions
policies concerning religious homogeneity. Until
recently, many of these institutions were almost
exclusively denominational colleges serving both the
interests and the students from one denomination.
Often, the admissions procedure included a statement of
the studentds denominational preference; and even if
denominational commitment was not a requirement for
admission, it was a priority. In recent years, this
has changed in many institutions.

One example of this is Northwestern College,
Orange City, Iowa, which is a denominational
institution supported by the Reformed Church of
America. In a 1967 paper, Arthur Van Eck showed the
change in denominational backgrounds of the students
but then went on to explain that this diversity could
actually be educationally positive.

Religious change among students at
Northwestern is significant for while students
from the Reformed Church in America continue to
predominate, there is a strong minority from other
religious groupings. Roman Catholics in numbers
have appeared on the campus for the first time.
This ecumenical impact is bound to have an
acculturating influence on the students, the
faculty, and even the town. The old days of
religious homogeneity (if those days ever existed)
are gone. New ideas, new questions, new urgings,
all within the religious context, will be raised
and will have to be grappled with. This will be

unsettling for many but can also be invigorating.
It can also help prepare Northwestern students for

68

the pluralistic society in which most of them will
have to live. (p. 3)

With a change in policy regarding denominational
commitment of students, institutions could then begin
to implement recruiting efforts among a number of

economically and ethnically diverse constituencies.
McGrath (1981), for example, recommended this new kind
of thinking but, at the same time, suggested new
procedures and a new institutional attitude.

However, in this hour, everyone in the
academic community (except those in the most
selective) must recognize that the large majority
of their students will not be found in this
preferred group. Even in the heyday Of abundant
applicants, Humphrey Doerman, now president of the
Bush Foundation, in a study of the number of
colleges and universities, their standards of
admission, and the available high school graduates
in tOp levels of scholastic aptitudes,
demonstrated conclusively that many institutions
which spent considerable energy and money in
pursuing the upper 10% or 15% were doomed to
disappointment. Hi8 conclusion today, when there
are just not enough students in those categories
to fill the hOped-for quotas is even more valid.
This inference is supported by figures from the
Educational Testing Service which provides some
indication of the number Of high school graduates
in various categories of ability who might in any
one year be candidates for admission. In 1980,
the average scores of the Scholastic Aptitude Test
of seniors was 424 on the verbal and 466 on the
math sections. In estimating enrollments, these
figures must be conditioned by two considerations.
First, a disprOportionate share of those with high
scores will continue to be drawn off by selective
institutions. Second, since about 50% of the age
cohort now attend college, efforts to increase
enrollments will have to be based on an
institutional willingness, indeed determination,
to accept students below the average of their
present matriculantss Faculty members must face
this fact realistically because deeply imbedded

69

attitudes and teaching procedures will have to be

modified if these new students are not to end up

as dropouts. Moreover, if the bottom line of
financial well-being is to be preserved, a larger
percentage of matriculants must be held into the
junior and senior years where at present many
small classes decrease the student-faculty ratio
and thus increase the unit cost of instruction.

Whether the admission and effective instruction of

students in the third, fourth, or even the fifth

of ability groupings is academically and socially
justifiable can only be determined by realistic

answers to two questions. (p. 12)

Already some institutions have responded to
situations occurring as a result of these techniques to
recruit a more diverse student body; Until a few years
ago, Trinity Christian College, a small four year
liberal arts college in the Chicago suburbs, had a
student body which was almost exclusively from the
Christian Reformed Church and the Reformed Church of
America. When the institution began to actively
recruit a more diverse student body, the administration
and faculty became aware of the new developments and
demands in educational and social conditions on campus,
and in August, 1986, the entire pre—school staff
development activity consisted of dealing with the
problems of a more diverse student body; The faculty
studied such practical issues as teaching methods
appropriate for the less-prepared student, and the book

store staff was requested to remove from stock all

bumper stickers which announced, "If you're not Dutch,

70

you're not nuuflfl" (Trinity Christian College Staff
DeveIOpment Schedule, 1986).

Another approach that some institutions took to
meet the challenge of survival in the face of declining
available students and rising costs was to reaffirm the
institutional mission statement and to reaffirm the
mission of Christian liberal arts education in general.
John Sibler of Boston University brought this issue
into sharp focus when he said that the major question
these colleges and universities face is whether they
deserve to exist (Moseley & Bucher, 1982).

Bennett (1982), for example, specifically
addressed the question of the colleges still supported
by the mainline denominations.

The church bodies must also be reviewing this

relationship. Quite unlike the evangelical

colleges, the mainline institutions have no
conspicuous religious profile. Apart from the
college chaplain and denominational
representatives on the governing board, the church
is practically invisible. Student and faculty
alike seem to be no different from counterparts in
public institutions. Virtually all states now
have well-developed systems of tax supported
education. When then should churches divert

scarce dollars to colleges? (p. 101)

Bennett goes on in his article to answer his own
question by develOping the common interests of the
church and the college. He suggests that both have a

shared interest in the value of knowledge and both are

concerned with the welfare of the individual and with

71

opportunities for the full development of his or her
intellectual resources. According to him, "the church
will show greater interest in those educational
communities in which the individual student is
important in some conspicuous fashion" (Bennett, 1982,
p. 162).

He further maintained that these institutions are
in a better position to deal with the issues of value
development.

The aim is rather to elicit an informed and
integrated self-understanding of the sort achieved
best when students grapple with ultimate
questions. Distinguished by their peculiar
reflexive twist, these questions turn on and
necessitate inquiries into personal identity and
meaning. These conditions are precisely the ones
that the mainline denominational colleges can and
do excel in providing, an atmosphere of tolerance
and an appreciation of pluralism, together with an
emphasis upon critical yet personal inquiry. In
short, the particular competence of these colleges
focuses on that sensitive combination of
understanding of self and understanding the world
that is the goal and mark of a liberal education.
(Bennett, 1982, p. 163)

Bennett concluded his statement by stating that
this kind of free inquiry cannot be fully achieved
under secular conditions because of what he calls the

"tragedy of secularism, there is that inability to
identify any ground for or standpoint about ultimate
meaning.

This idea of value attention to the individual is

supported by several other studies. Astin, in a very

72

thorough study of 200,000 students over a 10-year
period, found that smaller institutions provide a
richer total educational experience than the larger
universities and that private institutions seem to
foster greater student change than public institutions
(Astin, 1979).

Another study by the State University of Buffalo
indicated the same findings. This study attempted to
identify the 20 main reasons why students drOpped out
of the university. The tOp reason was that the
institution was too large. Out of the tOp 11 reasons
given, 9 had something to do with size (McGrath, 1981).

In a 1980 article, Moseley recognized the
challenges of survival facing the Christian liberal
arts colleges at that time, and he saw the solution in
clarifying the mission and the mission statement of the
institution. IHe said, "On each campus we must come to
some agreement on what we are about and put our
educational business and operations in order" (p. 179).
He then suggested five elements of a mission statement:
1) the definition of the college, 2) the basic
commitment of the college, 3) the educational
philOSOphy of the college, f) the distinctiveness of
the college, and 5) the goals and objectives of the

college.

73

Moseley went on to state that he saw five positive
results from an institution clarifying its mission
statement.

1. It can demonstrate the difference between the
mission of the church and the mission of the college.

2. The mission statement can help the college
address the realities of the higher education context
identified earlier.

3. The mission statement can be an important
benchmark against which to evaluate the college.

4. By giving expression to and making known the
college's role and thereby-reducing confusion, it can
free a college to accept challenges that are within its
mission.

5. The statement and process of develOping the
statement can be the means to draw all constituencies
close to the college, facilitate their understanding
about the college, and gather their support (Moseley,
1980, p. 180).

He concluded his article with an Optimistic belief
in the value of the mission statement during the times
of crises and changes. The most basic need in the
changing condition and context of higher education is
the realistic rethinking of the college mission
statement and renewal of the college's commitments as

we enter the 19808 (Moseley, 1980, p. 182).

74

In 1979, McIntyre offered the same advice for
Catholic colleges. He said, "The pivotal question is
not the academic claiber of the Catholic college but
rather its religious commitment" (p. 106). From there
he asked the hard question as to whether the Catholic
college is distinguishable from the secular college.

To answer that question, he offered the following
prOposals to Catholic educators.

Catholic educators must be willing to articulate

their purposes clearly and succinctly, emphasize

their goals and dramatize the importance of both.
Further he suggested

In addition to a clear statement of goals and its

frequent forceful expression by the president and

other prominent administrators a college's
philOSOphy must be known and understood by all
members of the staff, including groundskeepers,

secretaries, and food service employees. (p. 106)

But McIntyre saw these purposes to be bigger than
just the academic structure of the institution. He
said, "The Christian community of the future must be
willing to examine the morality of all issues and the
social, ethical, and human dimensions of questions that
are of deep concern to students" (McIntyre, 1979,

p. 109).

Moseley and Bucher, writing in 1982, saw the need

for colleges to clarify their mission statements and

educational functions in six components: 1) the

structural component, 2) the communal component, 3) the

75

personal component, 4) the moral component, 5) the
spiritual component, and 6) the educational component.
They went so far as to maintain, "Evidence
suggests that institutions that simply expand their
constituency base and do not clarify it may be
jeOpardizing their appeal" (Moseley & Bucher, 1982,
p. 47). One place there they strongly urged
clarification was in the institution's extracurricular
offerings.

Historically, the principle of in loco parentis
had governed extracurricular activities and
parietals were the primary, although not the only
form of in loco parentis. Today, in loco parentis
and parietals remain in some institutions although
they have undergone a significant evolution.
Systems for student's personal and social
accountability have replaced rules. In some
institutions, required chapel has been replaced by
a convocation obligation that ensures choice and
exposure to cultural events. Dormitory resident
assistant programs, student personnel services,
counseling programs, and career develOpment
Opportunities are all examples of the changes in
the extracurricular dimension. (Moseley & Bucher,
1982, p. 47).

Baptists not only saw the need for colleges to
identify and clarify the mission of liberal arts
education and particularly liberal arts education in a
Christian setting, but he even saw the need for each
individual institution to be very clear in clarifying
its own distinctions which separate it from all other
institutions with similar programs, philOSOphies, and

expectations. It is interesting to note that Baptists

76

took this position so strongly since he has been the
dean at two institutions and the president of two
others which have very similar programs and

philOSOphies. He said, "The similarity of Christian

college advertisements is distressing. Names of
schools could be interchanged and the readers would
scarcely notice" (Baptista, 1980).

With this challenge to specific institutions to
clarify their specific missions and thus meet the
challenges confronting higher education in the 19808
and particularly the Christian liberal arts college,
Baptists concluded

There are no short cuts to success. I
believe the key not only to survival‘but to

excellence in the 19808 and beyond is a satisfied
student. When a Christian student understands the

Special mission of the college, when he

experiences a first-rate educational program, when

he has sound opportunities for spiritual growth
and develOpment, and when he is in contact with
peOple on campus who consistently demonstrate
Christian love and concern, it is then that a
student can eXpect a satisfying experience.

Student satisfaction has a "snowballing"
effect. Satisfied students mean happy families
who appreciate the college and spread the good
word. Satisfied students mean loyal alumni who
care. Satisfied students mean constituents who
believe because of what they hear and see. And
student satisfaction depends largely on the
integrity of the institution, its programs, and
its peOple.

Institutional integrity demands a clear sense

of identity and purpose. The Christian college

must define and articulate what it is and what it
does. It matters little if the school specializes

in work-study, biblical concentration,
technological education, or the liberal arts.
must determine its own unique role in the

77

educational spectrum and concentrate efforts
there. And as a Christian school there must be an
uncompromising institutional commitment to
biblical truth and the lordship of Jesus Christ.
(Baptista, 1980).

Trends and Changes in Higher Education

Student Attitudes and Behaviors

 

A factor which must be considered when examining
the nature of and reasons for past changes and
anticipated future changes in the direction of higher
education in general and Christian colleges in
particular is the possibility that student attitudes
and behaviors reflect cultural and technological
changes of the general society. The literature is
filled with articles based on this assumption.

Research articles with such titles as "College Students
of the 19608," "College Students During the 19708," and
"College Students of the 19808" appear regularly in
many of the professional journals. A survey of titles
of the research studies about college life and college
students which have appeared during the past 20 years,
although not a scientific study, does offer some
interesting possibilities of the trends.

In the late 19608 and early 19708, the following
articles and books on the nature of college students

were offered:

78

1. "College Impact on Marriage" by A. E. Bayer,
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 1972.

2. "The Dynamics of Protest" by A. S. Bisconti
and A. W. Astin, Laboratory Research for the University

of California, 1973.

3. The Emotional Problems of Students by C.

 

Blaine and C. MacArthur, 1971.
4. Where Colleges Fail by N. Sanford, 1976.

 

During the past seven years, the following
research studies have appeared:
1. "Students in the 19808; Get Ready for the

Calculating Consumers" by J. Davis, NASPA Journal,

 

1980.

2. "Black Students in Higher Education" by G.
Thomas, 1981.

3. "The Adult Learner on Campus" by.L.Apps,
1981.

4. "The Culture of Narcissism" by C. Lasch, 1979.

This brief survey is intended to demonstrate two
possibilities about analyzing changes and trends in
student behaviors and attitudes. Although some things
do change, others stay the same. The researchers are
now examining the possible reasons for the changes in
trends that do appear. Stodt considers this issue.

Student problems which once might have been

perceived as pathological are now recognized by
student personnel workers as evidence that

79

students are "stuck" in a particular develOpment
task or struggling with an "unfinished"
develOpmental issue. Such problems are still the
most prevalent and will probably continue to make
great demands upon student personnel work in the
foreseeable future. (p. 4)

However, while referring to research presented by
Buckley at a 1981 NAPSA Convention, Stodt goes on to
say

In recent years two phenomena have emerged
among student characteristics: marked increases
in vocationalism and in narcissism. In regard to
the former, although some students have always
subordinated all other develOpment to the
preparation for an occupation, career objectives
represent the major motive for attending college,
according to the Carnegie Council Surveys of 1976
and the ACE/UCLA Survey, 1979. (p. 5)

While referring to research by Levine, Stodt
attempts to show the possible trends of behaviors of
college students.

Although the economic and occupational
constraints that the 19808 college students face
can account for some of the psychological change,
additional insight is needed to cOpe with the
second phenomenon that student personnel
administrators are encountering--an unprecedented
degree of alcohol abuse, vandalism, pansexuality,
avoidance of intimacy and commitment, and even
acts of violence among students. This type of
behavior, although always present to some extent,
has become commonplace on many, if not most,
campuses. (p. 5) -

Levine's 1980 publication, When Dreams and Heroes
‘Qie, attempts to explain with specific data not only
the trends but also the possible reasons for these
trends in student attitudes and subsequent behaviors.

The report itself assimilated information from national

80

surveys of 95,000 undergraduate students from 586
colleges and universities. In addition to that, Levine
conducted and reported on in-depth interviews with
students from 26 different institutions.

All this information led Levine (1980) to the
following conclusion, "Nonetheless, real differences do
exist between college students today and their
counterparts of the 19608" (p. 5). He based this
observation on three changes.

First, the number of college students has
increased substantially. In fall 1969, 7,976,834
students were attending American colleges and
universities. By 1979, the number had risen to
11,669,429, an increase of 42% (National Center
for Educational Statistics, 1969, 1979). With
growth there have been significant changes in
student attendance patterns. The pOpulation
attending college part-time shot up from 31% in
1969 to 41% in 1979 (National Center for Education
Statistics, 1969, 1979). In fact, more than half
of all undergraduates (54%) worked at jobs while
attending college and two out of 5 (41%) attended
at least some of their classes at night. Today‘s
students are also more likely to drOp out of
college or stOp out for a term, or longer. In
1969, 17% of undergraduates stOpped out versus 26%
in 1976. In addition, today's students attend
more than one college in greater frequency than
their predecessors, the prOportion doing so rose
from 24% in 1969 to 34% in 1976 (Carnegie Surveys,
1969, 1976).

Second, the composition of the student body
has changed. High-achieving young people from
wealthier families, with better-educated parents
are, as in the 19608, most likely to attend
college. However, increases have been registered
in the prOportion of enrollment from traditionally
underrepresented minority groups--blacks (from 7%
in 1969 to 11% in 1976), women (from 28% in 1969
to 51% in 1979), and adults 25 and over (from 28%

81

in 1972 to 35% in 1977), among others (National
Center for Education Statistics, 1969, 1979).

Third, student character has changed. When
student personnel administrators at 586 colleges
and universities were given a list of 52 words and
phrases and asked to describe how students on
their campus had changed since 1969-70, they said
that students were more career-oriented (on 71% of
the campuses), better groomed (on 57% of the
campuses), more concerned with material success
(on 54% of the campuses), more concerned with self
(on 44 % of the campuses), and more practical (on
40% of the cam uses). Students were also less
radical (on 58 of the campuses), less activist
(on 57% of the campuses), and less hostile (on 40%
of the campuses). To describe the majority of
undergraduates at their institution, most
administrators selected just five phrases:
career-oriented (84%), concerned with self (73%),
concerned with material success (63%), well
groomed (57%), and practical (55%) (Carnegie
Surveys, 1978). (p. 5)

Levine (1980) found evidence to support his
observation that this rise of individualism or interest
in self or narcissism among college campuses was, at
least in part, indicative of current social attitudes
among the national pOpulation. He stated:

. .. the sense of voluntarism, the perception of
mutuality of individual and community interest,
and the belief in the individual's ability to
profit from COOperation with the community-~began
a precipitous slide, which has continued to the
present. Since the slide began, America has been
in a state of increasing pessimism and declining
community.

This is borne out in the polls. Between 1959
and 1964, national expectations about our personal
futures and the future of our country rose, but
after 1964 both began to drOp and both reached
lows in 1979. What is especially important to
note though is that personal expectations have
fallen just slightly, while expectations for the
nation have plummeted.

A majority of adult Americans now believe

82

that what they think does not count for much; that
the peOple running the country do not really care
what happens to them; that public leaders do not
know that they are doing; that the rich get richer
and the poor get poorer; and that government
wastes a lot of money. (p. 10)

In attempting to identify reasons for this change

in attitudes among the general pOpulation and among
college students in particular, Levine (1980) argued
that Watergate and Vietnam did not affect the lives of
most Americans as deeply as did earlier events such as
the depression and the two World Wars. In analyzing
this evidence, he considered the fact that in 1979 when
he conducted his interviews on college campuses, the
average freshman was only one year old at the time of
John Kennedy“s assassination. When those freshmen were
asked what historical and political event most affected
their lives, the most frequentre8ponses were events
from the late 608 such as the Kent State affair, the
democratic convention, and the burning of cities.
However, most college freshmen in 1979 saw those events
as negative (Levine, 1980).
Levine (1980) explained the reason for this by
stating,
These events had a greater impact on this
generation than they might have for others. Part
of the reason is that the protective and
potentially moderating social institutions most
intimately associated with the develOpment of
optimism and trust in youth--the family and the

schools--waned in influence during this period.
In contrast, the influence of the mass media and

83

in particular of television, increased
dramatically. (p. 13)

Levine continued his argument by thoroughly

documenting the disintegration of the American family

both in actual structure and as an effective education

agent in the life of the student.

By 1976, 18% of all college students reported
having lived in a home without their father or
mother during most of high school (Carnegie
Surveys, 1976). The amount of time parents spent
outside the family also increased. In 1969, 55%
of the mothers of college freshmen were full-time
housewives. By 1979, the prOportion declined to
29% (ACE/UCLA Surveys, 1969, 1979). After a 25-
year study, Uri Bronfenbrenner reported that
'American parents do not spend as much time with
their children as they used to." In fact, by 1972
some 71% of 214,000 college-educated adults
surveyed by Better Homes and Gardens (1972)
believed that familyFIife in America was in
trouble. A8 a result of these changes, the family
acts less as an isolating or protective cocoon
today than it once did and young peOple today
experience contact with the real world at an
earlier age. (Levine, 1980, p. 15)

 

More recent studies indicate a continued growth of
this trend. One recent estimate stated that perhaps as
few as 4% of American school children come from a home
with a working father and a mother at home (COOper,
1986).

Levine (1980) argued that the effectiveness of the
school in shaping positive attitudes had diminished as
well.

The schools have changed in a like manner.

Where they once provided socialization for the

adult world, they now provide an experience more
akin to life in the adult world. In 1977, the

84

1L8. Office of Education reported that school
vandalism cost more than half a billion dollars a
year, the highest level ever and a sum equivalent
to the nationhs annual textbook expenditures.
Moreover a UAL Senate subcommittee on juvenile
delinquency found that between 1970 and 1973 for
the nation as a whole. . . assaults on teachers

rose by 77'.4% for a total of 70, 000 serious
assaults annua 1y by 1973), assaults on students

by 85.3%, robberies by 36. 7%, rapes and attempted
rapes by 40.1%, homicides by 18%, and weapons
confiscations by 34.4%. Therefore, it comes as no
surprise that 84% of Americans--a 19% increase
since l954--think that discipline in the schools
is inadequate.

In the past 10 to 15 years, academic
standards also have changed. This was the
conclusion of a blue-ribbon panel on the decline
of student college board scores, chaired by
Willard Wirtz. "Absenteeism (15% is common, 20-
25% is not unusual) formerly considered
intolerable is now condoned. An A or B means a
good deal less than it used to. Promotion from
one grade to another has become almost automatic.
Homework has apparently been cut about in half"
(Advisory Panel on the Scholastic Aptitude Test
Score Decline, 1977). Between 1969 and 1978, the
percentage of college freshmen reporting high
school grades of A- or better almost doubled
(12. 5% to 23. 3%) while that of freshmen with
averages of C or less drOpped by a factor of three
(23. 7% to 7.1%) (ACE/UCLA Surveys, 1969,1979).

At the same time, the curriculum of the schools
became more eclectic, individualized, and relevant
or worldly. In short, the traditional conception
of the school as an educational haven and
moratorium for the young from the vicissitudes of
the adult world is inaccurate. At worst, schools
force youngsters to contend with the terrors of
the adult world at an earlier age than many did in
the past. At best, the decline in academic
standards requires of young peOple less commitment
to school and provides more time for unplanned
activities--frequently television--in less
sheltered environments.

Levine (1980) further argued that mass media,
television specifically, has in some ways assumed the

educational gaps created by diminishing family

85

influence and positive school experiences. He cited a
1977 study which indicated that television watching now
occupies more of the average child's time than do

parents or friends.

In his interviews with college students, Levine
(1980) found that many of the current studentfis
attitudes and memories had been influenced by
television. He quoted one college student as saying,
"The Vietnam War I remember all my life. As a kid it
was on TV every nightJ' From similar statements as
this, Levine argued that since television brings the
person in contact with the events of the day with more
immediacy and more intimacy than other media have in
the past, television will continue to have a greater
impact on changes in attitudes and beliefs of the
American peOple and American college students. He does
not see this as a positive trend.

The change in the proximity of violence as
well as the new realism of television prOgramming
may contribute to the findings of Gerbner and
Gross (1979) that young peOple and other heavy
television watchers share a heightened sense of
insecurity and risk and exaggerated perceptions of
their own chances of being involved in real-world
violence. Students at the State University of New
York College at Old Westbury complained bitterly
that television had turned them into a generation
of solitary "window watchers," all huddled up in
their houses with fear. The full impact of
television is unclear, but it is certain that in
its very short history it has become one of the
nationhs principal babysitters, exposing the
young to adult issues and problems even in their
preschool years, a time once thought more

86

appropriate for fairy tales and enchantment.
(p. 20)

Levine (1980) saw this attitude prevalent on the
26 college campuses where he conducted his extensive

interviews.

This year's entering freshmen believe that
all social institutions, from large corporations
to the church, are at least somewhat immoral or
dishonest. There is nothing left to hold on to.
Campus interviews at 26 colleges across the nation
show that this feeling is strongest among the
young, who have never experienced better times.
One undergraduate summed up the mood by commenting
simply, "Everything is bad." (p. 21)

According to Levine (1980), the results of this
common attitude is an underlying narcissism which must
be acknowledged in attempting to understand the current
attitudes among students and explain their behaviors
both in classrooms and in other areas of college life.

An emphasis on "me" is what differentiates
periods of individual ascendancy from periods of
community ascendancy; 'The orientation of
individual ascendancy is hedonistic, emphasizing
the primacy of duty to one's self, while that of
community ascendancy is ascetic, stressing the
primacy of duty to others. Individual ascendancy
is concerned principally with rights, community
ascendancy with responsibilities. There is a
comparable dichotomy between taking and giving.
Individual ascendancy is present-oriented,
focusing on the differences among people.
Community ascendancy, in contrast, is future-
oriented and concerned with the commonalities
among peOple.

87

Individual ascendancy

Emphasis on duty to self

Concern with rights

Acceptance of the prOpriety
of taking

Present orientation

Focus on the differences

amxg;panfle
Hedonistic

Cannunity ascendancy

Emphasis on duty to others

Concern with reSponsibility

Acceptance of the prOpriety
of giving

Future orientation

Focus on the commonalities
peOple share

Ascetic

That today's college students have grown up or
lived in an age of individual ascendancy i8 .
unmistakable. As will become increasingly evident
in later chapters, its spirit pervades the
nation's campuses. (p. 25)

Levine (1980) saw the results of this attitude
toward individualism prevalent in several recent trends
in college life in such things as the emphasis on good
grades, the concern for more practical orientation in
courses, and the careful selection of courses and
majors leading to specific professional or employment

Opportunities. But he saw almost a paradox here

because those attitudes came at a time when students
were actually coming into college when they were less
prepared than the students who attended college during

the 19608. According to Levine (1980)

What makes the situation even more extraordinary
is that today's college students are less well
prepared than their counterparts of the 19608.
Undergraduate ability in the three Rs--reading,
writing, and arithmetic-~has plummeted in recent
years. One indication is given by declining
scores on the national college admissions
examinations. Between 1963 and 1979, average
scores on the College Board Scholastic Aptitude
Text, which is taken by more than 70% of all
college freshmen, drOpped from 478 to 427 on the
verbal portion of the test and from 502 to 467 on

88

the mathematical part of the test. There is a
possible total of 800 points on each test.
Similar declines were recorded on the American
College Testing Program college entrance exam,
which is taken by more than half of all college-
bound students. Scores fell in English, math,
social studies, and natural sciences.

Another indication is the National Assessment
of Educational Progress surveys of 17 year olds
described earlier. The studies of student writing
ability, which were conducted in 1969 and 1974,
found a significant decline in the mean quality of
student essays. Fewer were considered average,
and more were rated poor. In general, the essays
contained simpler vocabulary, fewer complex
sentences, more run—on sentences, and a greater
number of incoherent paragraphs. National
Assessment studies of reading were conducted in
1971 and 1975. Over the four-year period, there
was little change in overall student ability, but
there was a significant decline in comprehension
among women students and among students whose
parents were educated beyond high school.
Mathematics surveys carried out in 1973 and 1978
also registered declines both in overall math
achievement and in problem-solving ability. Most
students did not understand the concepts of
fractions, decimals, and percents.

At Harvard, a senior faculty member in
English reported that students show less facility
in reading and do not know grammar. At Columbia
University, an instructor said that students can't
write and won't read. At the University of
California, Berkeley, 40 to 65% of the incoming
freshmen take remedial writing. At Sterling
College, a sectarian liberal arts school, one half
of the students have difficulty with texts written
at the freshmen level. (pp. 73-74)

According to Levine, the increasing attitude of
individualism has had a significant impact on college
life in several areas. Most students interviewed
indicated that apathy was a common condition at their
campus. Nevertheless, the research also indicated that

present students are somewhat more liberal in some of

89

their attitudes than their counterparts in the 19608.
Fifty-four percent would not favor prohibiting
homosexual relations (special note: Levine's research
was conducted prior to the current interest in AIDS,
particularly among homosexuals). Forty—nine percent
believe that premarital sex was all right for peOple
who liked each other. Forty-six percent favored living
together prior to marriage (Levine, 1980).

Levine saw at least three reasons for diminishing
feeling of community spirit among college students.

One factor was where they live. "Between 1969 and
1976, the prOportion of students residing on-campus in
dormitories or sorority and fraternity houses drOpped
by a third" (Levine, 1980, p. 86). One off-campus
student demonstrated what Levine considered a
significant attitude when he remarked, "School is not
the center of the universe for me. It is a means to an
end" (Levine, 1980, p. 86).

A second factor contributing an attitude of loss
of community was in the off-campus world. Levine found
that 54% of all college students hold jobs while in
1969 only 49% held jobs. The results of work was
reflected in a Georgia State student's comment when
asked what he did for fun. "We all work. If we wanted
fun we would have gone to the University of Georgia"

(Levine, 1980, p. 87).

90

Levine found a third factor contributing to the
loss of a sense of community to be the campus itself.
"When students were asked to name the major issues of
concern to undergraduates today, security and parking
were at the tOp of their lists" (Levine, 1980, p. 87).

Levine concluded his research on the loss of
community life by observing, "In at least one urban
area, students thought the city offered a safer and
richer locale for social life than their residential
college" (Levine, 1980, p. 88).

According to Levine's (1980) research, alcohol was
often associated with having fun.

All of this is not to say that campus social life

is dead. Drinking ranks first when college

students are asked what they do for fun. Drinking
is definitely up and students are starting to
drink earlier. Between 1969 and 1978, the
prOportion of freshmen who reported drinking beer
at least occasionally during the year before
coming to college, a year in which the vast
majority were underage, shot up from slightly more
than one-half (56%) to nearly three-quarters

(73%). Happily, though, more abusive daily

drinking has remained low and fairly constant

among high school seniors, at a figure of about 6%

for the past five years. (p. 88)

The following chart shows how students of Levine's
research rated the fun activites. It was included here

because of its direct relationship to the present

study.

91

Individualism and the Decline of Campus Community

Percentage of campuses
at which mentioned

Drinking 77
Dances 58
Sports/intramurals 54
Drugs 42
Parties/beach parties 38
Movies 27
Music 27
No social life/commuter school 27
Fraternities/sororities 19
Dormitory activities 19
Cards/backgammon ' 12
Coffee in cafeteria 12
Running 12
Concerts 12
Go to city 8
Travel/trips 8
Do your own thing 8

(P. 89)
Although Levine found alcohol consumption to be
common among current college students, he found some
changes in attitudes toward drugs.

According to Lansing Lamont, alcohol abuse is
on the rise at colleges from coast to coast. His
research indicates that liquor is the number one
drug problem on campus today, arising from a
combination of the need for release from academic
pressures and an epidemic of de8pair sweeping the
nation's young people. Pressure and despair--the
environment could not be more supportive of
alcoholism if we had planned it.

Nonetheless, students did rank drug use,
particularly marijuana, as a fairly pOpular way of
having fun. However, drug use has changed over
the past decade. It is less worshipped now, less
communal, less part of a shared youth culture, and
less the object of youthful rebellion. Students
are less ritualistic and more matter-of—fact about
drug use. (Levine, 1980, p. 90)

Levine also found some changes in student

attitudes toward clubs and social activities. Although

 

92

he found that the same clubs which were pOpular in the
19608 continued to be pOpular in 1979, there were
shifts in appeal (Levine, 1980). He found that major
or career clubs, athletic groups, religious groups, and
me groups were more pOpular among current students
while political and hobby clubs were less so.

Intramural sports was by far the most pOpular form
of group activity with students listing it as the third
most popular way to have fun. I

He also found that fraternity and sorority
membership was rising again after hitting an all—time
bottom in 1971.

In establishing the pOpularity of religious
activity, Levine had some difficulty analyzing the data
because he could not acquire accurate participation
statistics. He could establish that the numbers and
varieties of the groups were mushrooming. Although
there were some counter-culture groups among the list
of the new groups, most of the newly formed
organizations were Christian in character, including
such groups as Just Christians, The Way, and
Collegiates for Christ (Levine, 1980).

But here Levine found a paradox.

Nevertheless, religious commitment among
college students seems to be drOpping. Although
the majority of freshmen (58%) believe that the

nation's churches are doing a good job, some
freshmen feel that organized religion is

A ,_ “Ii

93

responsible for considerable dishonesty/immorality
(182) and that it should have less influence
(122). Attendance at religious services is down
slightly in comparison to the late 19608. Eighty—
four percent of freshmen went to services at least
occasionally in 1978 versus 892 in 1969. Even
more to the point, students in the 19708 are twice
as likely to say that they are opposed or
indifferent to religion (302) as that they are
deeply committed (152%. At the same time, the
proportion of college students who state no
religious preferences has risen noticeably (152 in
1969 versus 212 in 1976).

This leads to a seeming paradox——religions
proliferate, yet student interest in religion
declines. However, it is not much of a paradox.
When faith or interest in traditional religion
declines, new religions are a common development,
particularly when trust in normally competing
social institutions is low. To a subgroup of
young people looking for something to believe in,
nontraditional religions with an emphasis on
community or a well-defined dogma for guidance
have been particularly appealing. In 1976, one in
every 20 college students belonged to a
nontraditional religious group outside the
Protestant, Catholic, or Jewish faiths. The rise
of neo-Christian groups, which owes much to the
post-Vietnam/Watergate malaise, is a similar
phenomenon, involving the rejuvenation of an
existing religion rather than its wholesale
rejection. Today nearly one in three college
freshmen describes himself or herself as a reborn
Christian.

Others attribute the religious revival at
least in part to a reaction against drugs, liquor,
and sex. In this sense, the religious revival is
an instrument for avoiding the excesses of others,
a safe harbor after a bad experience, or
legitimation, conscious or unconscious, for
abstinence in a peer culture that views such
behavior as antisocial. (pp. 98—99)

In considering the evidence about what current

college students do for fun, Levine (1980) concluded:

All of the things that college students did
to have fun a decade ago, they do for fun today.
Nonetheless, new activities--like jogging,
practiced by every student interviewed at the

 

94

University of Oregon--have become fashionable, and
old ones--8uch as streaking--have become passe.

In colleges and universities, as in a
kaleidoscOpe, the pieces remain the same, but
their configuration is always changing. What
stands out in today‘s configuration is diversity,
individualism, escapism, and searching. Although
these qualities were present 10 years ago, they
are more distinctly visible now. (p. 99)

Another research publication of particular
interest to this present study was A. W. Astin's F22:
Critical Years published in 1977. Astin began his
study with a basic intention. "The basic issue is
whether attending a given college changes the
predictions of how the student will develOp" (Astin,
1977, p. 13). Concerning this issue, he saw three
problems associated with studying college impact.

First, the fact that students change in
certain demonstrable ways while attending college
is not sufficient evidence to conclude that
college attendance per se had produced the change.

Second, because the college experience has
the potential to affect many aspects of students'
lives the impact of college cannot be adequately
assessed in terms of one or two simple outcomes
such as attaining a degree or earning a certain
outcome.

Third, the factory or production model of
higher education in which credits, degrees, and
graduates are "produced' by the institution, has
been rejected as a conceptually inadequate
representation of the process of higher education
(Astin, 1977, p. 29)

One of the issues of major concern to this study
examined by Astin was the religious affiliation and
commitment of the students during the four years of

college. With pretest and posttest measures, he

95

examined the changes of religious affiliation of three
major religious groups, Protestants, Catholics, and
Jewish students.

Protestant Affiliation. Even though the
Protestant category comprises many diverse
religions, the correlation between pretest and
posttest responses is relatively high (r = .67).
(Since both measures are dichotomous, this
coefficient is actually a phi coefficient.)
Parents' religion can affect students' chances of
changing their own religious preferences from
pretest to posttest. Protestant students whose
parents' religion was also Protestant are more
likely to maintain their Protestantism over time
(partial r = .23) than students whose parents
professed other religions. Another freshman
characteristic positively related to a posttest
preference for Protestantism is the behavioral
factor "religiousness" which involves such items
as praying and reading the Bible. The student's
chance of indicating Protestantism on the follow-
up is also negatively related to the "hedonism"
behavioral factor and to college admission test
scores. In other words, even when the religion of
the student and the parents at college entry is
considered, the brighter and more hedonistic
students are less likely to choose Protestantism
four years later.

Living with parents as a freshman increases
the students' chances of indicating Protestantism
on the follow-up, whereas living in a dormitory or
private room is negatively associated with this
preference. This suggests that parental influence
on students' traditional religious beliefs is
diminished by going away from home to attend
college.

Since the ACE-Carnegie follow-up also
contained a religious preference item, it was
possible to replicate the analysis of college
impact on religious preference in two separate
follow-ups. The results were confirmed in both:
Attending a Protestant college reduces the
student's chances of changing from Protestant to
some other religious choice. But the strongest
association occurs with other institutional
characteristics: The student's chances of giving
a Protestant preference on the follow-up are
substantially reduced by attendance at a

96

prestigious institution. Other institutional
characteristics positively related to a Protestant
religious choice are colleges for men,
predominantly black colleges, and a southern
location. Characteristics other than prestige
that are negatively associated with the Protestant
choice are being Roman Catholic or nonsectarian
and institutional size.

Roman Catholic Affiliation. The pretest-
posttest correlation for a Roman Catholic
religious preference is also high (r = .74) which
suggests considerable stability in this choice.
Being reared as a Roman Catholic reduces the
student's chances of switching to some other
religion. Other entering characteristics
positively associated with maintaining Catholic
identification are attending a private high school
and being Mexican-American. Women are less likely
than men to drOp their Catholic preference.
Living with parents or in a private room as a
freshman increases the student's chances of
maintaining a Roman Catholic preference over time,
while living in a dormitory decreases these
chances. Analyses of the effects of college
characteristics produced a pattern that also
resembles that for Protestant choice. Thus, Roman
Catholic choice is strengthened by attending a
Roman Catholic institution or a men's college and
weakened by attending a prestigious institution or
a Protestant college. .A midwestern location is
also associated with maintaining a Catholic
preference.

Jewish Affiliation. The pretest-posttest
correlation for Jewish preference is the most
consistent over the four-year period (r = .83).
The only other entering characteristic with
substantial predictive weight is having parents
who are also Jewish. The student's living
arrangements do not appear to affect a Jewish
preference one way or another. In fact, the only
college characteristic that contributes
significantly to the prediction is a northeastern
location. Since a high prOportion of Jews in the
United States live in the Northeast, this finding
suggests that attending institutions in areas
where the Jewish pOpulation is substantial
reinforces the Jewish student's religious
identification. Another possibility is that a
northeastern location may be a surrogate measure
of the closeness of the college to the studentfia
home. In other words, Jewish students who attend

97

college far from home (in regions other than the

Northeast) may have more difficulty maintaining

their Jewish identification than students who

attend college close to home. (Astin, 1977,

pp. 56-58)

Astin did see a definite connection between where
the student lived and changes in his religious

identity. "Living with parents reduced the chances
that the student will express no religious preference
on the follow-up while living either in a private room
or in a dormitory increases those chances" (Astin,
1977, p. 58).

He also found that

Attending either a Protestant or Roman Catholic

college seems to retard the decline in traditional

religious preferences and to strengthen students'
altruistic tendencies. Attending a private
nonsectarian institution, however, is associated
with greater-than-average declines in traditional
religious preferences and larger-than-average
increases in liberalism, interpersonal self-
esteem, artistic interests, and intellectual self-

esteem. (p. 69)

Other factors which appeard to affect the values
formations of students or attributed to effective
changes included such things as major fields of study.
Majoring in mathematics or natural sciences apparently
contributed to intellectual self-esteem while majoring
in social sciences contributed to interpersonal self-
esteem and enhanced artistic interests and liberalism

(Astin, 1977). This data led Astin to conclude

Findings from this chapter indicate that
affective changes facilitated by the college

98

experience (increased liberalism, interpersonal

self-esteem, and artistic interests, for example)

are enhanced both by the residential experience
and by attending a private rather than a public

institution. (p. 71)

Astin (1977) also investigated the impact of
college life on the impact of the relationship between
religious convictions and hedonism. He discovered that
students undergo a marked decrease in religiousness and
increases in hedonism after entering college. The
consequences of these changes within the students were
significant.

Declines in traditional religious preferences are

accompanied by greatly reduced church attendance

and praying. Liberalization of beliefs and
attitudes is accompanied by increased drinking and
drug usage, and increase support for students'

independence and autonomy is accompanied by a

greater tendency to come late or miss class and

decreased interaction with instructors. (p. 77)

In considering the behavioral consequences of
decreased religious commitment, Astin reaffirmed his
data that showed that living in dormitories during the
freshman year is associated with greater-than-expected
declines in religiousness whereas living with parents
is associated with smaller than expected declines. In
other words, dormitory residents are no less religious
than students living with parents when they enter

college but they are substantially less religious four

years later (Astin, 1977).

99

He also saw another correlation in regard to
religious preference and hedonism.

However, although attending a Protestant college
increases the student's tendency to express a
Protestant affiliation, it does not curtail the
decline in religious behavior that occurs among
most students after college entry.

Although students reared as Protestants have
relatively low follow-up scores on hedonism, their
increases in hedonism are actually greater than
average. (p. 79)

Regarding the activities of smoking and drinking,
Astin (1977) found

A measure of freshman and follow-up drinking
behavior was obtained by summing the scores on
drinking beer and drinking wine. Consistency with
this behavioral factor over time is substantially
less than with smoking: The pretest-posttest
correlation is only .36. Greater-than-average
increases in drinking occur among men, Catholics,
younger students, smokers, and students with
strong athletic or business interest. Smaller-
than-average increases occur among Jews and
students with high intellectual self-esteem and
strong artistic interests.

The effects of residence patterns are
identical for both drinking and smoking behavior.
Dormitory living during the freshman year and
fraternity or sorority membership are associated
with greater-than-average increases in both
behaviors, whereas living with parents is
associated with smaller-than-average increases.
These results duplicate the findings reported for
hedonism. The association between smoking and
membership in fraternities or sororities has also
been demonstrated in a recent national survey at
50 colleges.

Except for the fact that attending a two-year
institution is associated with reduced drinking
and reduced smoking, the effects of college
characteristics are uite different for these two
behaviors. Smoking 18 positively related to
attending a midwestern institution and negatively
related to attending a western institution.
Drinking behavior, on the other hand, is
positively affected by a number of institutional

100

types: prestigious or selective institutions,
public institutions, Roman Catholic colleges, and
black colleges.

Age has small but statistically significant
negative relationships with increases in both
drinking and smoking, a finding that suggests the
presence of a significant maturational effect on
these behaviors. (p. 81)

He also investigated the impact of Specific kinds

of institutions upon student attitude and behaviors.
Astin (1977) found

Almost all forms of student involvement in campus
life are increased by attending a small rather
than a large institution. Students at small
colleges are more likely to interact with faculty,
to get involved in campus governance, to
participate in athletics, to get involved in
honors programs, and to be verbally aggressive in
their classrooms. The only exception is student
involvement in demonstrations, which is increased
by attending large and selective institutions.
Single-sex colleges, compared with coeducational
institutions, increase the student's chances of
becoming involved in academic pursuits, of being
verbally aggressive in the classroom, and of
interacting with faculty. Attending an all-male
institution increases the manfs chances of
participating in honors programs and of becoming
involved in athletics, whereas the opposite
pattern occurs for women: attending an all-female
college decreases their chances of participating
in honors programs or of becoming involved in
athletics. (p. 98)

After concluding this, Astin (1977) anticipated
significant consequences from two national trends--the
conversion of many single sex institutions into
coeducational institutions and the trend toward larger
institutions.

In an attempt to summarize the available data

concerning the trends and changes in college students'

101

attitudes and behaviors and the causes of consequences
of those trends and changes, Levine (1980) quoted
Aristotle's Rhetoric of nearly 2500 years ago.

Nearly 2500 years ago, Aristotle described
young men and old men in his Rhetoric. In
attitude, today”s college students—resemble his
old men more than the young.

Young men have strong passions and tend to
gratify them indiscriminately; They are hot
tempered and quick tempered, owing to their love
of honor they cannot bear being slighted and are
indignant if they imagine themselves unfairly
treated. They love money very little, not having
yet learnt what it means to be without it. They
have exalted notions because they have not yet
been humbled by life or learnt its necessary
limitations. They would rather do noble deeds
than useful ones; their lives are regulated more
by moral feeling than by reasoning. They think
they know everything and are always quite sure
about it; this, in fact, is why they overdo
everything.

[Old men] have lived many years; they have
often been taken in, and often made mistakes; and
life on the whole is a bad business. The result
is that they are sure about nothing and under-do
everything. They ”think” but they never "know"
and perhaps because of their hesitation they
always add a "possibly” or a "perhaps." Further,
their experience makes them distrustful and
therefore suspicious of evil. They guide their
lives too much by considerations of what is useful
and too little by what is noble--for the useful is
what is good for oneself and the noble what is
good absolutely. They lack confidence in the
future; partly through experience--for most things
go wrong or anyway worse than one expect.

Like Aristotle's old men, today’s college
students live in a time when dreams and heroes
have died. (p. 26)

According to the literature historical and
current, studying the changes in the colleges and
produced by colleges, is a time-honored and worthwhile

endeavor.

CHAPTER III

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Sample

Since this study was based on Dr. Valle's earlier
study, it was feasible to use the same survey sample of
130 Christian colleges. Since the Valle study was
intended to be national in sc0pe, it is important to
note that "the 130 institutions from the original study
were determined to be representative of the sample
[national]" (Valle, 1974, p. 80).

As such, Dr. Valle placed several limitations on
the selection of institutions for the sample. In order
to have reasonably comparable educational institutions,
he eliminated from the sample colleges offering less
than a baccalaureate degree program, institutions which
were not regionally accredited by 1970, and
institutions with religious programs not available to
the laity. He considered only coeducational
institutions because some aspects of the study dealt
with student conduct which could possibly have a
different meaning in the context of a single sex

campus.

102

103

Valle utilized two procedures in order to select
institutions that most conscientiously adepted a
Christian philosophy of education. First, be
identified a preliminary sample of institutions which
offered an undergraduate concentration of courses in
religion or Biblical studies. This procedure was used
as a symbolic reading of an institution's curricular
commitment to religious education, assuring more than a
nominal investment in courses and faculty.

In order to determine if that institution's
commitment to religious education was within the
intended sc0pe of this study a second procedure was
used. The presidents of all institutions noted in the

13th edition of The College Bluebook (Burkel, 1970) as

 

having regional accreditation, offering baccalaureate
programs including a concentration in religious
studies, and having a lay coeducational student body
were surveyed concerning their own view of Christian
education at their institution. Presidents at 362
private colleges were asked if their institution's
statement of purpose was designed to implement a
distinctly Christian philOSOphy of education. Only
colleges whose presidents answered in the affirmative
and further expressed interest in participating in the
study were included in the study sample (Valle, 1974,
pp. 73-74).

104

In addition, only the 130 Christian colleges
providing usable data in the Valle study were re-
surveyed in the present study because the individual
responses to the corresponding survey questions were
necessary for comparison purposes in this study.
Therefore, numerous religiously oriented colleges which
meet the aforementioned criteria which do not appear in

the 13th edition of The College Bluebook (Burkel, 1970)

 

but are currently listed in the 19th edition (Lovejoy,
1983) such as Liberty College have not been included in
this study.

Similarly, institutions included in Dr. Valle's
study which have merged with other institutions
(Barrington College), changed their name (Morris
Harvey College to the University of Charleston) or
religious affiliation (Kalamazoo College), or simply
ceased to exist over the 12 years were surveyed to
maintain consistency in the sample survey and to verify
their specific status at this time (see Appendix A).

Because the intent of this study was to survey the
Opinions of the t0p administrative personnel, the 130
questionnaires were specifically addressed to the
respective college presidents individually by name
as identified in the 20th edition of The Blue Book
Narrative Descriptions, 1985. Of the 130 institutions

surveyed, 92 responded. Of the 92, 9 were unusable due

105

to a variety of reasons which included: institutional
change or discontinuance of religious affiliation;
change in institutional ownership; lack of desire to

participate (Moravian College), etc. Therefore, 83 of

the 130 institutions in the sample survey provided

usable comparable data (see Appendix A).
Instrumentation

The instrument used in this study was the
questionnaire on Policies and Practices (see Appendix
C) used in Dr. Valle's study 12 years earlier. In
turn, Dr. Valle modified a questionnaire used in a 1968
NASPA study (Dutton, Appleton, & Smith, 1968). Since
the original NASPA instrument gathered both prima facie
information and information about values perceptions,
Dr. Valle was able to utilize the questionnaire method,
technique, and form; but be modified many of the
questions to make them specifically apprOpriate to
Christian colleges.

Prior to its administration, the revised study
instrument was reviewed by administrators and faculty
affiliated with a Catholic college, an independent
Protestant college, and a public university. In
response to the review, further modifications were made
in order to ease completion of the survey questions and

maximize clarity of responses.

106

Like the NASPA study, this study was designed to
identify the extent, nature, and rationale for policy
formulation on selected topics. T0pics appearing in
both studies included college regulation of alcoholic
beverages, drug abuse, curfew hours, parietal hours,
sexual conduct, and dress and appearance.

This study included the following topics not
surveyed in the NASPA study: religious selection of
personnel, religious course requirements, chapel
attendance, service programs, use of tobacco, and
dancing. These t0pics were chosen because of their
controversial character and special interest on many
Christian college campuses.

To keep the length of the study instrument as
brief as possible, the following t0pics surveyed in the
NASPA study were not included in this study: financial
reSponsibility, off-campus behavior, required on-campus
living, recognition of student organizations,
invitations to controversial speakers, student
demonstrations, reSponsibility of student publications
to the college, faculty drinking with students,
provision of contraceptives, use of student records,
and use of students as research subjects. In most
cases, these t0pics were believed to be more remotely

related to a distinctly Christian approach to higher

107

education than the t0pics which were included in this
study (Valle, 1974, p. 77).

This study also differed from the NASPA study in
that the current study sought to generate
administrative perception of the significance of the
tOpics in question to institutional purposes,
specifically a Christian philosophy of education. In
order to identify administrative opinion, the
questionnaire was addressed specifically to the
respective college president of each of the 130
Christian institutions surveyed. Fifty college
presidents completed the survey while the remaining 33
usable survey responses were completed by other
administrative officers as designated by the president
(see Table 1).

In the case of Duquesne University (Pittsburgh,
PA), it was decided that both the Vice President of
Student Services and the Director of Residence Life
complete c0pies of the questionnaire, thus providing
two completed questionnaires from Duquesne.

To obtain additional information or to clarify
statements made on the questionnaire, 41 of the
institutions were further surveyed by telephone. In 28
of the 41 calls, the president provided the additional

data.

108

Table 1 includes both a listing of the
administrative areas represented by completing
usable study instruments as well as the opportunity for
comparison of the same data from valle's study 12 years
earlier. Note that the category "Administrator not
Identified" was added as a result of this study.

The designated administrator completing the survey
responded to objective questions regarding the nature
of policies and practices on each of the selected
topics. The survey instrument requested that the
administrators make an evaluation concerning the
rationale for the current policy and the importance
their institutional policy had in the implementation of
their Christian educational philosophy (Valle, 1974).

It could be argued that a single administrative
Opinion lacks the validity of being a true
representation of the college community concensus
(Ivey, Miller, & Goldstein, 1967, 1972). In addition,
a single administrative Opinion might not even be
considered a valid representation of administrative
concensus. A further complication was that the same
administrator completing the survey 12 years earlier in
response to the Valle study may have responded to the
questions differently under seemingly identical campus
conditions. It was interesting to note that identical

handwriting during the comparison of the questionnaire

109

Table 1

Comparison of the Administrative Area Represented

by Completed Study Instruments

 

 

1974 Valle Study 1986 Study
Office of the President 49 50
Academic Administration 30 10
Institutional Research 14 4
Student Affairs 13 4
Religious Affairs 11 1
Executive Officers 8 8
DeveIOpment 5 1
*Administrator not 5
Identified
Total 130 83

 

* Category added for the 1986 study

110

data gathered from the Valle study and this study
revealed that the same person from Simpson College in
California completed both surveys 12 years apart. This
was verified by a telephone conversation with that
administrator. This remains a recognized limitation of
this study.

In Dr. Valle's (1974) words:

The Opinions generated Concerning the
importance of policies should be considered
representative of community concensus. Rather,
they represent an administrative point of view
close to the president, if not the president's own
evaluation.

The limitations imposed by basing findings on
one administrative Opinion for each institution
was a calculated limitation which enabled a larger
sampling of institutions. In this way, this study
attempts to represent more of a comprehensive
descriptive study of a segment of Christian higher

education than an in-depth study of individual
institutions. (p. 79)

Data Collection

The Questionnaire on Policies and Practices was
personally addressed to each college president and
prepared for mailing to the 130 sample institutions in
early July, 1985. A self-addressed, stamped enveIOpe
was enclosed with each questionnaire in order to make
it as convenient as possible to Obtain the completed
surveys. A cutoff date for responses was established
for December 31, 1985 in order to facilitate data

analysis without eliminating too many late returns. No

111

survey materials were received after December 31, 1985.
Ninety-two institutions reSponded for a 71% return;
however, only 83 of the completed survey instruments
were usable, for a usable return rate of 64%.

A comparative summary of the distribution of
reSpondents and nonrespondents to the Questionnaire on

Policies and Practices is presented in Table 2.
Method and Procedure of Analysis

The main objective of this study was to determine
institutional change in the selected policies and
procedures surveyed over a 12 year period at a select
group of Christian institutions of higher education.
This investigation was a descriptive study designed to
answer one research question posed in the form of a
null hypothesis. The survey instrument discussed
earlier was used to generate comparative descriptive
information which was compared directly to each survey
response from each individual institution completing
the same survey 12 years earlier. Each response to each
policy question from the same institution on two survey
forms gathered 12 years apart was compared to determine
if change took place, such that the following null
hypothesis research question was answered:

As a result of the re-survey of the 130 Christian
colleges participating in Dr. Valle's study of

112

Table 2

Comparative Summary of Reapondents to the Questionnaire

 

1974 Respondents 1986 ReSpondents

 

Groups Number Percent Number Percent
Regions:
New England/ 14 ll 9 11
Middle States
Southern 42 32 28 33
North Central 57 44 38 46
Western/ l7 l3 8 10
Northwest
Total 130 100 83 100
Affiliation:
Independent 14 ll 9 11
Catholic 10 8 6 7
Protestant 106 81 65 78
*No Religious ' 3 4
Affiliation
Total 130 100 83 100

Enrollment:

Less than 1500 89 68 55 66
1500 to 4000 35 27 21 25
More than 4000 6 5 7 9
Total 130 100 83 100

 

*Category added for the 1986 study

113

1974, there will be no change in the response to
the 12 policy statements surveyed.

Simple arithmetic procedures were used throughout
to determine totals and percentages germane to
reporting the results concerning policy change, if any.
Where the comparison reflected a change in policy, the
research also recorded whether the change was an increase

or decrease in policy control.

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

This chapter contains the presentation and
analysis of the data as they relate to the research
null—hypothesis. The null hypotheSis states:

As a result of the resurvey of the 130 Christian

colleges participating in Dr. Valle's study of

1974, there will be no change in the response to

the 12 policy statements surveyed.

Demographic data profiling the participating
institutions is presented first, followed by an
examination of comparative data as it is available
relative to the research question. It is important to
remember that this study is both descriptive and
comparative, which precludes that only a limited amount
of the data from Dr. Valle's original study fits these
criteria.

In addition, the 130 institutions used in the
Valle study of 1974 and the 83 institutions in the

present study can be more accurately compared by

percent rather than number.

114

115

Results: Demographic Data

In Chapter III, the 83 colleges in the usable
sample were representative of coeducational, regionally
accredited Christian colleges which offered
undergraduate course concentrations in religious
studies. The scope in enrollment varied from 159
attending Academy of the New Church (Pennsylvania) to
13,110 in attendance at Fordham University (New York).
This compared favorably to the Valle study, as his
study varied in student enrollment from under 300 to
over 13,000 (Valle, 1974, p. 86).

Most institutions were small, as 55 institutions
enrolled less than 1,500 students compared to 89 in
this category from the Valle data, for a difference of
22 more institutions in this category 12 years ago.
Twenty-one colleges enrolled between 1,500 and 4,000,
compared to 35 from the Valle study for another 2%
decrease in the number of medium enrollment
institutions in the 1986 study, while 7 enrolled more
than 4,000, up 1 institution from 12 years earlier and
42. Small and medium institutions declined 22 in each
category over the 12 years, while large institutions
increased 42 in their participation in the 1986 study

(note Table 3).

116

Table 3

Comparison of Enrollments at

Participating Institutions

 

 

Enrollment 1974 Respondents 1986 Respondents
Number Percent Number Percent
Small (under 1,500) 89 68 55 66
Medium (between 1,500 35 27 21 25
& 4,000)
Large (over 4,000) 6 5 7 9

Total 130 100 83 100

 

117

Regional representation of participating Christian
institutions was concentrated in the Southern and North
Central regions identical to the Valle study and
noticeably characteristic of church-related higher
education, The New England and Middle States regions
had 9 colleges, compared to 14 in the previous study
(identical percentage), while the Southern region was
represented by only 28 institutions, down from 42
twelve years earlier, reflecting a 22 comparative
increase. In addition, the North Central region had 38
colleges, down the greatest number of Christian
colleges (19) from 57 earlier. Ironically, this 19
institution drop reflects a 22 increase in
participating colleges from the North Central region in
the 1986 data compared to the Valle study. The
combined Western and Northwest regions had 8
participating institutions, down from 17 for a net loss
of 42, compared to the results in 1974 (note Table 4).

Twelve of the 30 states had 1002 participation,
compared to the previous study. They were: Arkansas,
Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, New
York, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South
Carolina, and Virginia. Five states did not have a
single participating institution. These five were:
Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Alaska, Idaho, and Rhode

Island. The states with the largest number of

118

Table 4
Comparative Distribution by Region of

Participating Institutions

 

 

Region 1974 Respondents 1986 Respondents
Number Percent Number Percent
New England & 14 ll 9 11

Middle States Region

Massachusetts, New
York, Pennsylvania,
Rhode Island

Southern Region 42 32 28 34

Florida, Georgia,
Kentucky, Louisiana,
Mississippi, North
Carolina, South
Carolina, Tennessee,
Texas, Virginia

North Central Region 57 44 38 46

Arizona, Arkansas,
Colorado, Illinois,
Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,
Michigan, Minnesota,
Missouri, Nebraska,
New Mexico, Ohio,
Oklahoma, South
Dakota, West Virginia,
Wisconsin

West & Northwest Region 17 13 8 9

Alaska, California,
Idaho, Oregon,
Washington

Total 130 100 83 100

 

119

institutions providing data for this study were
California and North Carolina, with 6 each; whereas
California and Tennessee each had the largest number of
participants at 10 each in 1974.

Ironically, Dr. Valle began this study while Dean
of Students at Barrington College, located in the
smallest state, Rhode Island, which provided two
participating colleges. In 1986 there were no
participating Christian colleges from Rhode Island.

In all, the 83 institutions were from 30 different
states in this study, compared to the 130 Christian
colleges from 36 states in 1974.

Fifty—four percent of the Christian colleges were
predominantly residential campuses, compared to 52%
twelve years ago. Forty-five institutions housed more
than two-thirds of their total Student enrollment in
college—supervised housing on campus, compared to 68
colleges in the Valle study. Twenty—eight institutions
(compared to 44 twelve years earlier) housed between
one-third and two-thirds of their students on campus
for an identical 342 of the participating institutions
in both studies. Only 10 Christian colleges housed
less than one-third of their students on campus (down
22 from the 18 institutions in this category from Dr.

Valle's research (see Table 6).

120

Table 5

Comparative Distribution by State of Participating Institutions

 

Region/State

1974

1986

 

North Central Region

t
+
t

4.

Arizona
Arkansas
Colorado
Illinois
Indiana

Iowa

Kansas
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Nebraska

New Mexico
Ohio
Oklahoma
South Dakota
West Virginia
Wisconsin

Western & Northwest Regions

*

*

Alaska
California
Idaho
Oregon
Washington

England & Middle States Regions

Massachusetts
New York

Pennsylvania
Rhode Island

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Region/State

121

Table 5 (continued)

1974

1986

 

Southern Region

+
+

4,.

Florida
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
Mississippi
North Carolina
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas

Virginia

Total

+ States with 1002 participation from the previous study

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130

* States with no participation in the present study

Total States Participating

1974

36

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83

1986

30

 

122

Table 6

Comparative Concentration of Resident Students

at Participating Institutions

 

1974 Respondents

1986 ReSpondents

 

Concentration of Residents Nunber Percent Nunber Percent

Less than one-third 18 14 10 12
residential

Between one-third and 44 34 28 34
two-thirds

More than two-thirds 68 52 45 54
residential

Total 130 100 83 100

 

 

123

The overwhelming majority (802) of the sample were
Protestant church-related colleges, compared to 812 in
the Valle study. There were an additional 12
institutions (nine independent plus the three in the
new category, no religious affiliation) that might have
been either Protestant or Catholic in historical
outlook but no longer maintain any official church
affiliations, compared to 14 in the earlier research.
Interestingly, a letter was received from the Assistant
to the President of Huron College (South Dakota)
indicating that after 101 years of affiliation with the
Presbyterian Church, a management contract was signed
with Midwest Educational Systems, Inc".in July of
1984, severing their religious ties. Similarly, in a
telephone conversation during the summer of 1985, the
Dean of the Chapel at Kalamazoo College (Michigan)
stated that two weeks previously, the institution
officially severed its ties with the American Baptist
Church, following a 152-year affiliation. From this
specific input, the new category of "no religious
affiliation" was created for this study. The remaining
six institutions were Catholic colleges/universities,
down from 10 recorded by Dr. Valle for a 12 decrease.

The six Catholic colleges differed from the other
Christian colleges in that they had higher numbers of

non-resident students than their Protestant,

124

independent, or non-affiliated counterparts. This
remains consistent with Dr. Valle's research.
Obviously, because none of the Catholic colleges in the
study 12 years earlier were located in the Southern
region of the United States, none were identified in
the Southern region of the country in this study.

A comparative summary of institutions by
religious affiliation is contained in Table 7.

In Dr. Valle's study, the Baptist-affiliated
colleges were the largest numerically with 22, and also
dominated the present study with 16 institutions.

Seven denominations had the exact same number of
colleges in both studies: Christian and Missionary
Alliance, Christian Reformed, Church of the Brethren,
Church of the New Jerusalem, Congregational,
Evangelical Friends, and Friends. Seven denominations
which had representation in the 1974 study had no
representation in the present work: Assemblies of God,
Brethren in Christ, Church of God, Episcopal,
Mennonite, Moravian, and the Reorganized Latter Day
Saints. It should be noted that although the Christian
Science denomination was not represented in the earlier
study, it was added due to denominational
representation in the present study. In all, there
were 22 different Protestant denominations among the

106 total Protestant colleges in 1974, compared to 15

125

Table 7
Cbmparison by the Religious Affiliation

of Participating Institutions

 

1974 Respondents 1986 Respondents

 

Affiliation Nunber Percent Nunber Percent
Independent 14 11 9 11
Catholic 10 8 6 7
Protestant 106 81 65 78

*No Religious Affiliation 3 4

Total 130 100 83 100

* Category added for the 1986 study

 

126

Table 8

Comparison of the Protestant Denominations Represented

 

Denominations 1974

1986

 

Assemblies of God
Baptist
Brethren in Christ
Christian and Missionary Alliance
Christian Church (disciples of Christ)
Christian Reformed
Church of Christ
Church of God
Church of the Brethren
Church of the Nazarene
Church of the New Jerusalem
Congregational
EpisCOpal
Evangelical Friends
Friends
Lutheran
Mennonite
Methodist
Moravian
Presbyterian
Reorganized Latter Day Saints
Seventh Day Adventists
* Christian Science

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Total 100

* Category added for the 1986 study

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127

different identifiable Protestant denominations from
the 65 Protestant institutions in 1986. Protestant
denominations represented 812 of Dr. Valle's study and

only 782 of the sample in 1986.

Demographic Summary

The characteristics most commonly found among the
Christian institutions in this study were that they
were most often small residential colleges, affiliated
with one of the Protestant denominations and located in
the North Central region. Only 17 or 202 of the
Christian colleges in the sample met these criteria,
while 212 of the participating institutions in Dr.
Valle's research coincided with the aforementioned
characteristics.

Concern over the limited number (six) of Catholic
institutions was explained by Dr. Valle.

Several factors in determination of the sample
worked against obtaining a larger number of
Catholic colleges. As this investigation was
designed to study only institutions with four year
regionally accredited programs that were
coeducational, and further offered a course
concentration in religious studies, many Catholic
colleges demonstrated variance with at least one
of these institutional characteristics. This
study should not be considered a survey of
Catholic higher education but rather of Christian
higher education among institutions with
reasonably comparable and, therefore, rather
homogeneous educational profiles. (Valle, 1974,
p. 91)

128

The results of this study are identical to Dr.
Valle's study conducted 12 years earlier as it related
to institutions with enrollments of over 4,000 students
and the percentage of resident students living on those
campuses. Christian colleges enrolling over 4,000
students had a lower concentration of resident students
than institutions enrolling fewer students.

Dr. Valle observed that most of the Catholic
colleges in the sample operated primarily commuter
campuses which were significantly different from the
mode of residence life on both independent and
Protestant college campuses (Valle, 1974). Fifty-four
percent of the Protestant colleges in this study
(compared to over half in the earlier study) and 672 of
the independent Christian institutions (compared to 712
twelve years earlier) had at least two—thirds of their
students in college residence facilities, while this
applied to only 202 of the Catholic colleges in the
Valle study and 172 today.

Generally, the Christian institutions composing
this sample provided a profile of characteristics which
described the contexts within which a Christian
philosophy of undergraduate education was being
implemented. Institutional size, religious
affiliations, and regional distribution are indicative

of the historical influences of colonization,

2.!-

. I: X. "ll

 

129

immigration, western migration, the advent of the land
grant colleges, missionary activities, and the

secularization of America.

Christian College Policy Survey Data

As both a comparative study and a partial
replication of Dr. Valle's study, this section only
contains the selected areas apprOpriate for comparisons
that meet the aforementioned criteria, The data are
presented in both raw numerical and/or percentages

rounded to the nearest percent.

Religious Selection of Personnel

 

The Christian college respondents were asked to
indicate which individuals at their institutions, as a
condition of their selection and employment, must be a
member of a particular religious body and/or must agree
with a statement of religious belief. The
classifications of personnel considered in the study
instrument included trustees, administrators, faculty,
staff, and students.

Table 9 indicates the comparative results of the
nature of the policies regulating the religious
selection of personnel at the participating

institutions.

130

Table 9

Comparison of the Policies Governing

Religious Selection of Personnel

 

 

Nature of Policy 1974 1986
Percent Percent

Should not have a policy l3 16

No policy but concerned 19 12

Policy affecting only trustees 18 12

Policy affecting one classification in 10 19
addition to trustees

Policy affecting most categories 38 41
of personnel

No response 1

Total 99 100

 

131

Almost one—third of the Christian colleges in the
Valle research did not have policies regulating the
selection of personnel on religious grounds compared to
282 in this study (Valle, 1974). The percentage of
Christian colleges with a policy affecting only
trustees dropped 62; while institutions with policies
affecting another classification in addition to
trustees increased 9 percentage points from the 102
level in Dr. Valle's research to 192 in this research
(almost doubling it).

The category with the greatest percentage in both
studies, namely policies affecting most categories of
personnel, was up 3 percentage points to a 412
representation level in the present study, compared to
the data collected 12 years earlier. Consistent with
Dr. Valle's data, the greatest percentage of the
Christian colleges responding to this question have
policies affecting most of their areas of personnel
selection on some religious basis. In fact, the 32
increase may indicate a slight increase in the trend
for participating Christian institutions to select and
employ most categories of their personnel on religious

grounds.

132

Compulsory Enrollment in Religious Courses

 

The term "religious courses" is understood to be
academic offerings in theology, religion, comparative
religion, biblical studies, biblical archeology, or
philosophy of religion (religious life) as distinct
from other academic disciplines.

The data in Table 10 indicate that only 162 of the
Christian colleges did not have policies regulating
student enrollment in religious course work, whereas
this was reduced to 112 in the present study. Of the
892 requiring some religious course work in religion,
83 institutions in the earlier research compared to 61
in this study required less than 10 semester hours;
while the remaining 13 Christian colleges (compared to
Valle's 25) required more than 10 semester hours of
religious course work. As noted in Table 10, the
largest group of Christian colleges in both Dr. Valle's
study and the present research required 3 to 6 hours of
religious course work with an increase of 8 percentage
points in the number of Christian institutions
requiring more than 6 hours of religious studies.
Interestingly, one institution 12 years ago required 55
semester hours of all students, while in this study
Philadelphia College of the Bible required 52 semester
hours as the institutional leader in this category of

the participating institutions.

133

Table 10
Comparison of the Extent of Compulsory

Enrollment in Religious Courses

 

Number of Institutions

 

1974 1986
Semester Hours Required Number Percent" Number Percent
O 20 15 9 11
No response 1 l 0 0
Some but undesignated 2 1 5 6
3 to 6 60 45 44 53
7 to 10 22 17 12 14
11 to 15 11 9 7 8
16 to 29 6 5 3 4
30 to 55 8 6 3 4

Total 130 100 83 100

 

134

Chapel Attendance

 

The Christian institutions surveyed were asked if
their college maintained a policy requiring attendance
at chapels or religious convocations. Table 11
indicates that there is a lot of diversity on the topic
of compulsory attendance at religious convocations,
which is consistent with the Valle study. Seventy-two
institutions from the previous study compared to 42
from the present research did not have policies
governing regular attendance although several provided
such programming on a voluntary basis.

The Catholic colleges participating in this study
perceived compulsory attendance at mass quite
differently than either the Protestant or independent
institutions. Dr. Valle stated it this way:

As a group, Catholics generally conceive of

attendance at mass and other religious programs as

a religious concern quite distinct from

administrative concerns of the college or

university. (Valle, 1974, p. 119)

All six of the Catholic institutions participating
in this study did not require attendance at mass or
religious convocations which was generally consistent
with the Valle data collected 12 years earlier. In
fact, one of the Catholic college administrators made a
statement to the effect that the campus ministry team

encourages attendance and participation by the quality

of the experience they provide.

135

Table 11
Comparison of the Extent of Policies

Governing Chapel Attendance

 

Number of Institutions

 

1974 1986
Minimum Frequency Required Number Percent Number Percent
O 64 49 4O 48
Irregular 8 - 6 2 2
Regular less than every 6 5 3 4
two weeks
Every two weeks 2 1 O 0
One per week 15 12 15 18
Two per week 15 12 9 11
Three per week 8 6 3 4
Four per week 3 2 2 2
Five per week 8 7 6 6 7
Six per week or more 1 l 0 0
Unspecified ‘ 3 4
Total 130 100 83 ' 100

‘Category added for the 1986 study

 

This category represented slightly over 502 of all participating

Christian colleges in both studies.

136

Interestingly, the same independent institution,
Philadelphia College of the Bible, which required 55
semester hours of religious course work in the Valle
study, also maintained the most comprehensive chapel
requirement 12 years earlier as they required all
students to attend religious programs five times each
week, in addition to twice on Sundays, reducing that to
only five times per week in the present study.

Dr. Valle (1974) captured the difficulty in
articulating the results of this section concerning
compulsory attendance at chapels or religious
convocations in the following statement:

It was difficult summarizing policies governing
compulsory attendance at religious convocations
because of the difficulty in discerning the
differences between firmly entrenched campus mores
which did not appear in writing and practices
which were more clearly developed by
administrative initiative and further reinforced
by policy. For example, one institution reported
that, "chapel attendance is not required but is
expected." .Another institution indicated it had
some requirement but did not state the policy nor
was the policy delineated in either its catalog or
student handbook. Yet another institution had
required programs "periodically, as determined by
the administrationJ" With the notable exceptions
exemplified by these examples, most institutions
that exerted control in this area did so with
clarity, even though some instances approach the
unenforceable. (p. 118)

As a group, the participating Christian colleges
in both studies requiring attendance at religious
programs constituted a substantial minority with less

than 302 (272) in Dr. Valle's study and only 242 in the

 

137

present research requiring attendance at more than one

program per week.

Institutional Change in Religious Affiliation

 

In the past 12 years (since Dr. Valle's study),

five of the original sample of 130 Christian colleges
indicated a change in their religious affiliation.
Three of these institutions did not provide usable

data for inclusion in this research. They provided the
following information:

Heritage College (formerly Fort Wright College) -
Washington

Our institution changed names and sponsorship in
1982.
— President Ross

Huron College - South Dakota

Huron College is no longer affiliated with the
Presbyterian Church. In July of 1984 the Huron
College Board of Trustees signed a management
contract with Midwest Educational Systems, Inc.

At that time the affiliation with the Church was
dropped. Financially, the Church wasn't very
active with the college for many years prior to
that.

- Assistant to the President M. J. Wepking

The University of Charleston (formerly Morris
Harvey College) - West Virginia

Although founded as a religious institution we
became independent. . . Since we are a non-
denominational institution, I do not feel that
your survey is intended for us.

- President Breslin

The remaining pair of institutions participated in

both surveys contributing usable results

138

notwithstanding their change in formal religious
affiliation.
Kalamazoo College — Michigan
The connection with our founding denomination, the
American Baptist Church, was severed this year!
- Dean of the Cahepl - Demy
Oklahoma Christian College - Oklahoma

Oklahoma Christian indicated a change from
"independent" 12 years ago to "Protestant Church

related" with denominational ties to the Church of
Christ.
— President's Office, L. Phillips
For this minority of five institutions, a change
of ownership/management precluded the change in
religious identity; for others the obscurity of motive

may have been lost in institutional politics or

historical transformation.

Summary

The extent to which the Christian institutions had
policies concerning the topics surveyed in this study
varied for each particular topic.

Table 12 is a comparison of the percentage of
participating Christian colleges in both studies that
provided data on each topic.

More than half of the participating Christian
colleges in both studies adopted policies delineating
an institutional position on use of alcohol, parietal

hours, religious course requirements, drug abuse, and

139

Table 12

Comparison of the Colleges Declaring an Institutional

Position on Each of the 12 Topics Surveyed

 

 

Topic 1974 1986
Percent Percent
Use of Alcohol 88 96
Parietal Hours 87 87
Course Requirements in Religious Studies 84 89
Drug Abuse 73 99
Curfew Hours 68 42
Selection of Personnel Based on 68 72
Religious Criteria

Social Dancing 48 37
Sexual Conduct 46 82
Chapel Attendance 45 48
Use of Tobacco 42 49
Student Dress 37 40
Service Programs 13 10

 

140

the selection of personnel based on religious criteria.
Less than half of the religious institutions reported a
policy over the 12 years regulating social dancing,
chapel attendance, use of tobacco, student dress, and
service programs.

Two policy areas reported an interesting change in
the percentage of Christian institutional positions.
The study in 1974 showed that 682 of the reporting
Christian colleges had a policy on student curfew
hours, compared to only 422 of the institutions
surveyed in 1986. The reverse was true for the policy
area of student sexual conduct. The Valle study
reported 462 of the religious colleges with policies,
while the present study reported 822 of the
participating institutions as having a policy
statement.

It is interesting to note that the extremes in the
sample groups reporting various policy positions were
higher, with 992 participation (82 Christian colleges)
on the topic of drug abuse, and lower (only 102) on the
topic of student service programs than the extremes
reported 12 years earlier in the Valle study of 882
(use of alcohol) and 132 (service programs).

The percentage of institutions with policies
governing the selection of personnel on religious

grounds increased slightly over the original study. In

141

fact, the category with the highest percentage in both
studies were the policies affecting most categories of
personnel, which was up to 412, demonstrating a slight

increase in the trend from Christian colleges to select

and employ most of their personnel on the basis of
religious criteria.

There is an increase in the percentage of
Christian colleges with policies requiring enrollment
in religious courses. Both studies found the largest
percentage of institutions required three to six
semester hours of religious course work with an
increasing percentage of Christian colleges requiring
more semester hours.

Policies governing Chapel or religious
convocations were not in effect at over half of the
institutions in both surveys. None of the Catholic
colleges required students to attend, with less than
one—fourth of the participating Christian colleges
requiring student attendance at more than one program
per week.

Five of the Christian colleges surveyed from the
Valle sample were confirmed as having changed their
religious affiliation. Three of the five did not
provide apprOpriate data to warrant inclusion in this

study; of the remaining two, one simply dropped their

142

church affiliation, while the other changed from

independent to Protestant - Church of Christ status.
Research Null Hypothesis

As a result of the re—survey of the 130 Christian
colleges participating in Dr. Valle's study of 1974,
there will be no change in the response to the 12

policy statements surveyed.
Results of the Research Null Nypothesis

The data revealed that there was change in all 12
categories surveyed relative to the previous study by
Dr. Valle in 1974. The complete results compared
question by question, institution by institution, are
presented in Table 13.

The following categories reported a greater
percentage of change than other issues surveyed. The
highest percentage of change among the 12 issues
surveyed was the issue of institutional curfew hours,
with 412 change; secondly, parietal hours with 402
change; and thirdly, student dress and appearance at
382. Correspondingly, the issues registering the
highest percentages of "no change" were compulsory:
student enrollment in religious courses at 742, drugs
at 692, and student use of alcoholic beverages at 642;

while the average for the "no change" category

143

 

 

 

 

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144

registered 512. Interestingly, all of the percentages
of the top three issues in "no change” were greater (a
higher percentage) than the highest percentage in the
"change" category.

The tap three issues which were not responded to
(no reponse”) included: compulsory service programs
362 of the time, followed by dancing and student dress
and appearance both at 302. The average issue surveyed
for which there was ”no response" was 182. It should
be noted that the issue surveyed with the highest
percentage without a response (compulsory service
programs at 362) is a smaller percentage than the third
highest issue in the "change" category-~namely, student
dress and appearance at 382. In addition, the highest
percentage for any issue in the "change” category
(curfew hours) at 412 is a lower percentage than the
third issue, alcoholic beverages (642) in the "no

change” area.

Summary

In summary, all 12 policy issues recorded some
percentage of change when compared to the results from
Dr. Valle's study 12 years earlier. The issue of
student curfew hours recorded the greatest percentage
of change with 412, followed by the issues of student

parietal hours (402) and dress (382).

145

In addition, the survey results indicated that a
lack of change (no change) in the 12 policy issues
surveyed was generally more important than the
percentage of issues reflecting "change" (curfew,
parietals, and dress) and that the issues for which
there was "no response" (service programs, dancing, and
dress) received the smallest percentages recorded. It
should be noted that the issue of student dress and
appearance was the only issue ranked in the top three
(third) of two of the categories—-namely, "change"

(382) and "no response" (302).

Rationale and Importance of the

Regulatory Policies

As a partial replication of Dr. Valle's research
conducted in 1974, it was determined that the data from
the earlier study was comparable to the present data in
the areas of the primary rationale for participating
institutions to institute policies on the topics in
question and their importance to each Christian

college.
Rationale for Regulatory Policies

Dr. Valle (1974) used some of the data reported in
Table 14 to answer Research Questions 3 and 4 in his

Study.

146

What rationale is given for each of the policies
surveyed and to what extent is each policy of
importance in carrying out the Christian
educational philosophy of the institution? These
questions are treated together in the following
section because they both are answered from an
administrative perspective, representing a single
opinion from each of the sample institutions.

(p. 161)

Similarly, the rationale given for each of the
policies provided a comparison with Vallefs data
resulting in a comparative trend reflective of the
importance of each in carrying out their Christian
educational philOSOphy on the campuses of the
participating institutions.

Dr. Valle's research indicates that a
predominantly Christian rationale was given for
controlling half of the 12 topics surveyed, compared to
only three topics in the present study--namely,
personnel, chapel, and sex. Over the 12 years, only
two topics, personnel and sex, recorded a majority of
the Christian institutions indicating a Christian
rationale as the dominant reason for policy control.
The greatest agreement among administrators on the
Christian rationale in 1974 was for policies regulating
sexual conduct. This tOpic moved to 582 in the present
study, behind policies for the selection of personnel

based on religious criteria which maintained a 602

level of consistency over the 12 years.

147

Policies regulating service requirements were
adopted in 1974 primarily for their educational benefit
received a majority vote for a Christian rationale in
1986. Policies on tobacco recorded an interesting
switch from a Christian to an educational rationale,
while curfew policies changed from "Practical" to
"Educational.” Rationale for student ”Parietals"
recorded almost a perfect reversal.with 402 indicating
a Christian rationale in 1974 and 232 an educational;
followed by 402 with an educational rationale and 242 a
Christian bias in this study. Notably, policies on
dancing reported a majority (552) of the Christian
colleges identifying a Christian rationale in 1974,
while 312 indicated a practical motive for these
policies in the present research. Similarly, student
dress policies with one-third Of the institutions
indicating educational motives for policy development
in Dr. Valle's research, 372 indicated practical
reasons for their present student dress policies.

The trends in the primary rationale indicated for
policy formulation among the participating Christian
colleges are changing from principally a Christian
rationale to other rationales with the notable
exception of policies on the selection of personnel and
sexual conduct. Policies formulated on alcohol,

tobacco, and dancing--formerly Christian--are perceived

148

Table 14
Comparison of the Primary Rationale for Regulatory Policies:

An Administrative Perception

 

 

PUblic Several

Christian deational Relations Practical Canbined

1974 1986 1974 1986 1974 1986 1974 1986 1974 1986

z z z z z z z z z z
Persornel 6o 60 21 15 8 11 8 10 3
Courses 37 39 50 46 5 6 4 4 5
Chapel 48 57 38 24 5 5 3 10 5
Service 29 44 59 33 o 5 o 14 12

Alcohol 57 36 16 35 4 7 17 16 7 6
Tobacco 57 21 20 37 4 7 13 26 6

Dngs 53 4o 20 36 5 6 14 12 8 6
Qn'few 17 16 25 47 10 9 41 24 7
Parietals 4o 24 23 4o 6 10 28 21 3
Sex 70 58 13 25 3 7 7 6 7

Dancing 55 19 9 20 25 22 5 31 5 8
[less 29 18 33 27 17 12 13 37 8

 

149

by the administration today to be motivated by
educational pursuits for alcohol and tobacco, and
practical reasons in the case of dancing, while student
dress policies have shifted from educational to
practical.

Policy Importance

The significance of Christian college policies in
implementing their Christian philosophy of education
varied widely among the administrative opinions that
were expressed. Christian institutions without a
policy on a given tOpic were evaluated as considering
that particular area "not important." The data in Table
15 reflects the comparative importance of
administrative perception of the policies' effect in
implementing their particular philosophy of Christian
education and has led to some changing trends over the
12 years.

In order of their stated significance to the
Christian philosophy of their institutions, the
participating administrators expressed the belief that
their policies governing religious course selection,
selection of personnel on religious criteria, chapel,
drug abuse, and sexual conduct to be "essential." This
remained generally consistent with the Valle research

with the exception of the chapel policy, which was

150

added as a result of the present study. Unlike Dr.
Valle's results, the present study indicated that the
majority of the respondents felt that their policies on
tobacco and student curfew were "important" in
implementing their Christian philOSOphy.

The results of both studies remained consistent,
as a majority of the institutions viewed dancing as
”not important," while Dr. Valle's.research pointed out
that a majority of the Christian colleges found only
student service programs, tobacco, and student dress
was "not important" to the implementation of their
Christian philosophy of education.

There is a trend over the 12 years between the
studies for the participating Christian institutions to
deem personnel selection, religious course work, drug
abuse, and sexual conduct as "eSsential" to the
implementation of a Christian philosophy. Chapel
policies were added to the "essential" group in recent
years, as a result of this study. The change to
"important" of institutional policies on tobacco and
curfew from "not important" expressed by over half of
the Christian administrators is also a noteworthy
trend, while the stability on policies affecting
student dancing and dress in the "not important"

category speak for themselves.

151

In summary, there is a slight trend for the
majority of Christian colleges to deem more of the 12
policies surveyed to be both essential and important to
the implementation of their Christian philosophy of

education than 12 years earlier.
Discussion and Summary

An interesting relationship emerged as the
comparison between the majority of survey respondents
considering a topic essential to the implementation of
a Christian educational philosophy (Table 15) was
compared to the majority of Christian college
administrators indicating that the primary rationale
for the same topic was a matter of Christian principle
(Table 14). The longitudinal comparison of both
studies revealed that the topics of personnel and
sexual conduct were the only ones administrators
considered to be essential to the implementation of
their institution's philosophy. They also noted that
the primary rationale for that policy was a matter of
Christian principle. The topic of drugs fits this
category 12 years earlier; however, the present
research does not. Conversely, the tOpic of chapel met
the criteria according to the present research, while

it did not qualify based on Dr. Valle's data.

152

Table 15
Comparison of the Importance of Policies in the
Implementation of a Christian PhiloSOphy

of Education:

An Administrative Perception

 

 

_ Not

Essential Important Important
1974 1986 1974 1986 1974 1986

TOpic 2 2 2 2 2 - 2
Personnel 60 77 18 18 22 5
Courses 67 80 ' 22 14 12 6
Chapel 43 64 19 26 38 10
Service 16 40 27 46 57 14
Alcohol 46 4O 33 47 21 13
Tobacco 21 19 16 6O 63 21
Drugs 61 61 30 34 9 5
Curfew 16 13 40 51 44 36
Parietals 37 30 43 49 20 21
Sex 56 58 26 34 18 8
Dancing 22 17 17 28 61 55

Dress 15 15 29 41 55 44

 

153

There was noteworthy input that some
administrators believed that ”limited" to ”no" control
over some policy areas was essential for the
implementation of their college's Christian philOSOphy
of education. This is consistent with Dr. Valle's

research.

There were, however, some administrators who
believed little or no control over some policy
areas was essential for the implementation of the
institution's Christian philosophy of education
and they further stated that their policies of low
control were so designed as a matter of Christian
principle. For example, one-third of the
administrators who considered their institution's
policy on religious selection of personnel to be
essential and also gave Christian principle as the
primary rationale for the policy were from
institutions that did not limit appointment of any
personnel, including trustees, because of
religious reasons. A similar minority viewpoint
was held by about one-fourth of the administrators
who considered their policy on chapel attendance
to be essential; they believed attendance should
be voluntary, as a matter of Christian principle.
(p. 170)

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This 1986 study is a partial replication and
comparison of the results derived from a study
initiated by Dr. David J. Valle in 1974. This
comparative study was designed to survey policies and
practices at a select group of Christian colleges on a
range of issues concerning the implementation of their
Christian philosophy of education. The nature and
extent of policy formulation in 12 areas of
administrative concern was identified and described as
a result of the data gathered and compared with the
survey results 12 years earlier. Finally, an
administrative perception of the rationale for existing
practices, in addition to the importance of each topic
in the implementation of their Christian philosophy of
education, was obtained in both 1974 and 1986 and
compared from each institution participating in the
samples. Data were compared from both studies as
appropriate, recognizing that not all of the data from
both studies were comparable. For this reason, this

study only partially replicated Dr. Valle's research.

154

155

Dr. Valle obtained data from 130 Christian
colleges for his study. The same sample was surveyed
for this study, yielding usable data from 83 Christian
institutions. The sample was composed of regionally
accredited, coeducational colleges which offered an
undergraduate concentration in religious course work
and ascribed to a Christian philOSOphy of education.
Dr. Valle's sample contained colleges from 36 states,
while only 30 states were represented in the present
research. Twelve of the 30 states had 1002
participation when compared to the previous study; The
states with the largest number of institutions
providing data for this study were California and North
Carolina with six each; whereas California and
Tennessee each had the largest number of participants
with 10 each in 1974.

Christian institutions representing each of the
areas associated with national accrediting associations
(of the New England, Middle States, Southern, North
Central, West, and Northwestern Regions), were present
in both studies, with the majority of the colleges in
both studies found in the Southern and North Central
regions of the United States. Interestingly, while the
North Central region had the largest number of colleges
in the present study, it registered the greatest

numerical loss of participating institutions of any

156

region as compared to the research 12 years ago.
Ironically, this resulted in a 22 increase in the
participating colleges from the North Central area. It
is noteworthy that the Southern region also reflected a
22 comparative increase in participating Christian
institutions.

The colleges in the 1974 research ranged in size
from 300 to over 1,300 in student enrollment. This
compared favorably with the present research which
indicated that enrollment varied from 159 to 13,110,
with most of the colleges (in both studies) enrolling
under 1,500. Small institutions enrolling fewer than
1,500 students increased 22, while there was a 22
decrease in the number of medium size (1,500 to 4,000
students) colleges, and a 42 increase in large (4,000
plus enrollment) Christian institutions from 1974 to
1986.

There was a slight increase in the percentage of
participating Christian institutions who housed more
than two-thirds of their student enrollment on campus.
Fifty—four percent of the Christian colleges were
predominantly residential campuses, compared to 522
twelve years earlier. Only one college in eight,
compared to one in seven, had less than one-third of
its students living in college—owned (controlled)

housing.

157

Ten of the colleges from Dr. Valle's study and six
from this study were associated with Catholic
institutions for a 12 decrease. One hundred six
institutions from 22 different Protestant denominations
were recorded in 1974 compared to 65 from 15 Protestant
groups in 1986; while the independent Christian
colleges registered a consistent 112 over the 12 year
study. Interestingly, three institutions discontinued
their religious affiliation completely over the 12
years.

In Dr. Valle's study, the Baptist-affiliated
colleges were the largest numerically with 22, which
also dominated the present study with 16 institutions,
followed closely by the Presbyterians with 19 and 14
respectively. Seven denominations had exactly the same
number of colleges in both studies, while seven
(denominations) which had representation in the 1974
study had no representation in the present work. It
Should be noted that the Christian Science denomination
first appeared in the 1986 research.

As a partial replication of Dr. Valle's study, the
same survey instrument (Appendix C) was sent in July,
1985 to the chief administrative officer of each of the
same 130 Christian colleges that composed his sample in

1974. By the December 31, 1985 response cut-off date,

158

83 of the 92 institutions responding provided usable
data for this investigative study.

Dr. Valle (1974) provided the following
information concerning the origination and his use of

the survey:

The method used in obtaining the sample and data
for the investigation included a review of the
thirteenth edition of The College Bluebook to
identify regionally accredited coeducational
colleges offering an undergraduate concentration
related to religious studies. The 362
institutions which were identified as meeting
these criteria were mailed a cover letter
explaining the project and a questionnaire
designed to identify institutions with a Christian
educational philosophy. An indication of a
willingness to participate in the study was also
included in the questionnaire. Of the 270
responses to the initial questionnaire, 175 were
found to be appropriate for the study and were
mailed the study instrument in the spring of 1973.
By the response cut—Off date of the end of June
1973, 130 institutions returned completed survey
forms, providing the data for the investigation.

The study instrument was modified from the
form used in the 1968 study on controversial
tOpics by the National Association of Student
Personnel Administrators (NASPA). Of the 18
topics studied by NASPA, 6 were duplicated in this
investigation (use of alcoholic beverages, drug
abuse, curfew hours, parietal hours, sexual
conduct, and dress and appearance). The remaining
6 topics included in this study were selected
because of their association with Christian
colleges; they included the religious selection of
personnel, religious course requirements, chapel
attendance, service programs, use of tobacco, and
dancing. (pp. 175-176)

The survey instrument was designed to obtain
comparative information as applicable and to answer the

null-hypothesis research question, assuming a lack of

159

change in the responses to the 12 policy statements
among the 130 Christian colleges resurveyed.

Comparable data were available for the following
areas: religious selection of personnel, enrollment in
religious courses, and chapel attendance.

The Christian colleges were asked to indicate
which individuals at their institutions must be a
member of a particular religious body or in agreement
with a statement of religious belief as a condition of
their employment. Almost one-third of the institutions
in the Valle research did not have a policy in this
area compared to 282 in this study. The percentage of
Christian colleges with a policy affecting only
trustees dropped 62. In contrast, institutions with
personnel policies affecting another classification in
addition to trustees almost doubled over the 12 years.
The category with the greatest percentage in both
studies--namely, policies affecting most personnel
categories--was up 32 to the 412 level. This 32
increase may indicate more participation by Christian
institutions to select and employ most categories of
their personnel on religious principles.

A higher percentage (892) of participating
Christian colleges in the present study had policies
requiring some type of religious course work as

compared with the earlier case study; The largest

160

group of Christian institutions in both Dr. Valle's
study and the present research required three to six
hours of religious course work, with an 82 increase in
the number of Christian colleges requiring more than
six hours of religious instruction. The data reflects
a definite trend for an increase in both the percentage
of Christian colleges requiring religious course work
and the amount of religious instruction that they
require.

The Christian institutions surveyed were asked if
their college maintained a policy requiring attendance
at chapels or religious convocations. The data
indicated that there is a great deal of diversity on
this topic, which is consistent with the Valle study.
Fifty-five percent of the participating institutions
from the Valle study and 502 from the present study did
not have policies governing regular chapel attendance.
All six of the Catholic institutions participating in
this study did not require attendance at mass or
religious convocations, which remained consistent with
the Valle data. Generally, the Christian colleges
requiring attendance at religious programs constituted
a minority, with 272 in Dr. Valle's study and only 242
in the present research requiring attendance at more

than one program per week.

161

In the past 12 years, five of the original sample
of 130 Christian colleges indicated a change in their
religious affiliation. Three of these colleges did not
provide usable data. Two changed institutional
sponsorship and affiliation, while the third changed
its name and became religiously independent. The
remaining pair of Christian colleges contributed usable
results. One dropped its religious affiliation,
while the other changed from "independent" to
"Protestant church related" with denominational ties to
the Church of Christ.

More than half of the participating Christian
colleges in both studies adopted policies on the use of
alcohol, parietal hours, religious course requirements,
drug abuse, and the selection of personnel based on
religious criteria. Less than half of the religious
institutions reported a policy over the 12 years
regulating social dancing, chapel attendance, use of
tobacco, student dress, and service programs. The
study in 1974 showed that 682 of the sample had a
policy on student curfew hours, compared to only 422 of
the institutions surveyed in 1986. The reverse was
true for the policy area of student sexual conduct,
with the Valle study reporting 462 having a policy

statement, while the present study reported 822.

162

The extremes in the present study are higher and
lower than the earlier study wtih a 992 response on the
tOpic of drug abuse (compared to Dr. Valle's 882 on the
use of alcohol), and lower on the topic of student
service programs (from 132 in the 1974 research to 102
in 1986). f

The following are the findings of this study as

they related to the null hypothesis.

Research Null Hypothesis

 

As a result of the resurvey of the 130 Christian
colleges participating in Dr. Valle's study of 1974,
there will be no change in the response to the 12
policy statements surveyed.

The data revealed that there was change in all 12
policy areas surveyed when compared to Dr. Valle's
study 12 years earlier. The issue of student curfew
hours recorded the greatest percentage of change (with
412), followed by the issues of student parietal hours
(402) and dress (382).

In addition, the survey results indicated that a
lack of change ("no change") in the 12 policy issues
surveyed was generally more important than the
percentage of issues reflecting "change" (curfew,
parietals, and dress), and that the issues for which

there was "no response" (service programs, dancing, and

163

dress), received the smallest percentages recorded. It
should be noted that the issue of student dress and
appearance was the only issue ranked in the top three
(as third) of two of the categories--namely, "change"
(382) and "no response" (302).

The rationale and importance of the regulatory
policies within Christian colleges were two additional

areas with comparable data.

Rationale and Importance of the Regulatory Policies

The rationale given for each of the policies
provided a comparison with Valle's data resulting in a
comparative trend reflective of the importance of each
in carrying out their Christian educational philOSOphy.

Generally, among the participating Christian
institutions, the trends in the primary rationale given
for policy formulation are changing from principally a
Christian rationale to other rationales, with the
notable exception of policies on the selection of
personnel and student sexual conduct. Policies
formulated on alcohol, tobacco, and dancing--formerly
Christian--are perceived by the administration today to
be motivated by educational pursuits (as in the case of
alcohol and tobacco), and practical reasons (as in the
case of dancing), while student dress policies shifted

from educational to practical.

164
Policy Importance

The data in this section reflected the
administrative perception of the comparative importance
of the policies' effect in implementing their
particular philosophy of Christian education.

In summary, there is a trend over the 12 years of
this study for the participating Christian colleges to
deem policies on personnel selection, religious course
work, drug abuse, and sexual conduct as "essential" to
the implementation of their Christian philosophy.
Chapel policies appeared on the "essential" list as a
result of this inquiry. The change to "important" of
institutional policies on tobacco and curfew from "non-
important" expressed by the majority of the Christian
administrators is also noteworthy, while the stability
of policies affecting student dancing and dress in the
"not important" category remained unchanged. In
general, there is a slight trend over the 12 years for
the majority of Christian colleges to deem more of the
12 policies surveyed to be both essential and important
to the implementation of their Christian philosophy of

education.

165

Conclusions

The results of the survey, research null
hypothesis, and comparable areas of the selection of
personnal, religious course work, chapel attendance,
and the rationale and importance of these regulatory
policies in the participating Christian colleges led to
the following conclusions.

There was very little variation over the 12 years
in the characteristics most commonly found among the
Christian institutions participating in this survey.
They were most often small residential colleges,
affiliated with one of the Protestant denominations and
located in the North Central region of the United
States.

Demographic comparisons of the data from 1974 to
1986 relative to student enrollment, concentration of
resident students, distribution by geographical region,
state location, institutional affiliation, and
denominational preference of the Protestant colleges
remained within 22 of each other with the following
exceptions. There was a 42 increase in participation
by larger Christian colleges enrolling over 4,000
students in contrast to a 32 decline in the number of
participating Protestant colleges. Four percent fewer

institutions responded from the West and Northwestern

166

regions, and 172 fewer states were represented (down
from 36 to 30). Demographically and in terms of
general institutional characteristics, there was very
little change in the Christian institutions
participating in this study over the 12 years. It is

noteworthy that 62 of the colleges responding in this

 

study changed their religious affiliation for numerous
reasons. E

Fewer participating Christian colleges (from 322

 

to 282) had specific policies regulating the selection
of personnel on religious grounds. The colleges with
policies only for trustees dropped 62, while those
colleges with policies affecting trustees and other job
classifications almost doubled. This indicates a
conservative trend, as slightly fewer participating
Christian colleges implemented more religiously-related
job specifications for more positions as terms of their
employment.

There is an increasing trend for Christian
colleges to implement policies requiring religious
course work, as 892 of the Christian institutions in
the present study required some religious course work.
This represents an increase relative to the Valle
study. The largest group of Christian colleges in both

studies required three to Six hours, with an 82 percent

167

increase in the number of Christian institutions
requiring more than six hours of religious studies.

The six Catholic institutions participating in
this study did not require attendance at mass or
religious convocations, which was consistent with the
Valle data. In addition, half of all the participating
institutions in both studies did not have policies
governing regular chapel services with only a distinct
minority requiring attendance at more than one program
per week. In short, Catholic colleges continue to
retain a "no-religious convocation” requirement, while
a lot of diversity on the tOpic pervades many of the
other Christian colleges.

A reasonable amount of diversity in institutional
response to the 12 topics was received. However, it
was found that over three-quarters of the Christian
colleges in both studies declared a position on the use
of alcohol, parietal hours, and religious course
requirements. This would lead to the conclusion that
these specific policy areas are consistently
significant over the 12 years to merit Christian
institutional policy control.

It is noteworthy that while almost three-quarters
of the Christian colleges maintained a policy on drug
abuse in 1974, this accelerated to include all but one

of the participating institutions in the present study.

168

This is reflective of the national trend articulated in
the 18th Annual Gallop Poll concerning national
educational concerns voiced by parents and educators
over drug abuse (Elam, 1986).

The use of the research null-hypothesis determined
that there was institutional change in all 12 selected
topics over the 12 years between surveys. The highest
percentage of institutional policy change took place on
the issues of curfew hours, parietal hours, and student
dress and appearance. The topics most resistant to
change at a higher percentage rate included student
enrollment in religious courses, drugs, and student use
of alcohol, while the leading topics with no
institutional response included compulsory service
programs, student dancing, and dress. This leads to
the following conclusions: that change in Christian
institutional policies over the topics surveyed will
change over a 12 year period and that the greatest
amount of that change will tend to be in the area of
student time restraints outside the classroom.

With only five institutions identifying a definite
change in their religious affiliation, it was
determined that institutional stability in religious
affiliation tended to be the norm.

Interestingly, the topics of student dress and

appearance, compulsory service programs, and tobacco

169

received almost one-third of their evaluative responses
in all three categories (change, no change, and no
response), which led to the conclusion that these
policy issues are in a state of examination and
evaluation on the Christian campuses surveyed.

On the topic of tobacco, there was a trend among
the institutions geographically located in the Southern
region of the United States (particularly the
Carolinas), to not have policies restricting its use.

Dr. Valle's research indicated that a
predominantly Christian rationale was given for
controlling half of the topics surveyed compared to
only three topics in this study. Those three policy
areas were selection of personnel, chapel attendance,
and sexual conduct. Over the 12 years, only two
topics, personnel selection and student sexual conduct,
recorded a majority of the colleges indicating a
Christian rationale as the dominant reason for policy
control.

The trends in the primary rationale indicated for
policy formulation among the participating Christian
colleges are changing from principally a Christian
rationale to other rationales with the notable
exception of policies on the selection of personnel and
sexual conduct. Policies formulated on alcohol,

tobacco, and dancing (formerly Christian) are perceived

170

to be motivated by educational principles for alcohol
and tobacco and practical reasons in the case of
dancing; while student dress policies shifted from
educational to practical.

The significance of Christian college policies in
the implementation of their Christian philosophy of
education varied widely among the administrative
Opinions expressed. The trends over the 12 years are
for the Christian colleges to value policies for
personnel selection, religious course work, drug abuse,
and sexual conduct as "essential” to the implementation
of their Christian philosophy, with the topic of
chapel policies added to this group as a result of the
current research. The change to "important" for

institutional policies on tobacco and curfew from not
important" expressed by over half of the
administrators surveyed in 1986 is a noteworthy trend,
while the retention of policies affecting student

dancing and dress in the "not important" area reflect a

12-year consistency.

Implications

The results and conclusions of the present

research suggest the following implications.

171

Change in selected policy areas can be anticipated
on Christian college campuses in every region of
America.

Students pursuing a college education within the
context of Christian higher education can choose from a
variety of campus environments located in all regions
of the United States.

In selected Christian colleges administrative

specialists are in a unique position of both

 

interpreting institutional policies (and distinctives)
to the campus community, as well as influencing the
policy modification process toward a greater sense of
philosophical consistency.

There is a growing interest on the part of
Christian college administrators to evaluate their
institutional policies and procedures within the
context of their institutional philOSOphy.

Selected Christian college administrators view
some policies with greater significance than others in
the implementation of their particular Christian
philosophy of education.

Catholic college administrators perceive required
chapel/convocation policies differently than their
counterparts in independent or Protestant-related

Christian higher education.

172

Recommendations for Further Research

Based on the findings of this study the following
recommendations are made for additional research.

Longitudinal studies of individual Christian
colleges could be conducted on selected policy areas
germane to the implementation of their particular
Christian philosophy of education.

The issue of institutional effectiveness could be
examined at Christian institutions. This study would
examine and evaluate the traits of students who make
the most satisfactory adjustments while maximizing
their growth for each of the different types of
Christian colleges.

This study could be replicated in 10 or 12 years
in an attempt to determine the rate and direction of
change in policy control at Christian institutions.

Replication of this study comparing the survey
results from the same sample of Christian colleges,
with the survey results derived from the ”new"
Christian institutions founded since the original
sample was selected in the early 1970s would yield
additional valuable data.

Longitudinal studies on selected policies could be

completed on Christian colleges to determine their

degree of stability.

173

Longitudinal studies on selected policies related
to the implementation of their Christian philosophy of
education could be completed to determine their degree
of stability. In turn, research could be conducted
comparing the policy stability with general

institutional stability.

APPENDICES

 

APPENDIX A

List of 130 Participating Colleges

 

174

List of 1:!) Participatirg (blleges

 

College Affiliation Rxnded C1 C2 C3 04
Alaska

Alaska Methodist [hiversity Methodist 1960
Arizona

Grand Canyon O511ege Baptist 1949
Arkansas

Arkansas College Presbyterian 1872 *

Ihrdixg College (lunch of Grist 1924 *

Jom Brown lhiversity Irxieperxient 1919 *
California

Bethany Bible (bllege Assaubliea of God 1919

Biola College Irdependent 19m *

California Baptist College Baptist 1950 *

Cnapnan College Disciples of Christ 1861

lhiversity of laVerne dutch of the 1891 *

(IaVerne College) kethren
Pacific Christian (bllege Affiliated with 1928
(lunches of Glrist

[hiversity of Badlands Indeperdent 1907 *

University of San Francisco Ram Cattnlic 1855 *

Simpson Cbllege Christian and 1921 *

Missionary Alliance

Southern California College Assenblies of God 1920
(blorado

Lhiversity of Denver Methodist 1864 * +
Florida

Betl‘nme—Coolcnan (bllege Lhited Mathorfist 1904 *
Georgia

IaGrarge (bllege Methodist 1831 *

Piedmt College (brgregational 1897 *

 

175

(bllege Affiliation Fomded Cl (2 C3 (‘4

 

Idaho

Northwest threne (bllege

111° .

PhKerdree College
Millildn lhiversity
Olivet thzarene (bllege
Principia (bllege

Indiana

lintirgton (bllege
Karim (bllege
Saint Francis (bllege

Iowa

Elena Vista (bllege
kale lhiversity
Graceland (bllege
[other College
lbrnixgside O311ege
Wartbmg College
Wesullar (bllege

Kansas

FYiends lhiversity

Kansas Wesleyan University
Sterlitg (bllege

Thbor College

Kentucky

Berea (bllege

Centre College of Kentucky
amberland (bllege
Georgetown College
Kentuzky Wesleyan (bllege

1..

Louisiana (bllege

Nazarene

Methodist
Presbyterian
Marene
Indeperdent/
Ou‘istian Szience

Ihited Btethren
Catholic
Ramm Catholic

Presbyterian
Bidependem:
latter Day Saints
Iutheran
Methodist
[otheran
Methodist

Friends

Methodist
Presbyterian
Mannmite Brethren

Baptist
Medalist

Baptist

1913

1828
1901
1%7
1898

1897
1851

1890'

1891
1881
1895
1861
1893
1852
1890

1898
1885
1887
1908

1855
1819
1889
1787
1860

1906

i

1'...

176

 

(bllege Affiliation Funded Cl CZ C3 C4
Massachusetts
Cordon (bllege Independent/ 1889 *
Blargellcal'
M' l .
Alma College Presbyterian 1886 *
Calvin College Reformed 1876 *
Kalauazoo College Baptist 1833 * -
Madorna College Ronan Catholic 1947 *
Minnesota
hgsburg (bllege Lutheran 1869 *
Bethel College Baptist 1871 *
Gustavus Adolplus College [utheran 1862 "
Saint Phry' s College Baum Catholic 1912 *
Mississippi
Mississippi College Baptist 1826 *
Willian Carey College Baptist 1906 *
Missouri
Giver-Stockton (bllege Disciples of Grist 1853 *
Evmgel (bllege Asselblies of (bd 1955
School of the (harks Independent 1906 *
Tarlcio College Presbyterian 1883 "
Willian Jewell Callege Baptist 1849 *
Nebraska
Concordia Teachers College Lutheran 1894 *
Dam College Intheran 1884 “
Ihstirgs (bllege Presbyterian 1882 *
lhion (bllege Seventh Day Adventist 1891
New Phxico
Lhiversity of Albuquerque Ronan Catholic 1920
(bllege of Santa Fe Hanan Catholic 1947

177

 

College Affiliation Founded Cl 02 c3 C4
New York
Fordhan University Hanan Catlblic 1841 "‘
Iblghton College Wesleyan Methodist 1883 "'
Nyack Cbllege Gnristian and 1882 *
Missionary Alliance
North Carolina
Atlmtic Christian (bllege Disciples of Gnrist 1902 *
Canpbell University (Gallege) Baptist 1887 *
Elan (bllege Ulited Gurch of 1889
Glrist
High Ibim: (bllege Methodist 1924 ‘*
Lenoir Rhyne College Intheran 1891 *
Mars Hill College Baptist 1856 *
North Carolina Wesleyan Phthodist 1956 *
(bllege
Snow University Baptist 1865
St. Andrews Presbyterian Presbyterian 1958
0311ege
(hio
Bluff ton (bllege Mernmite 1899
More College Blargelical Friends 1892 *
Miskirghan (bllege Presbyterian 1837
Glio Northern University Metl'ndist 1871
Wittenberg University lutheran 1845
Oklahoma
adanma Baptist university Baptist 1910 *
Oklahoma Christian College Gmrch of Glrist 1950 "‘ —
(Independent)
Oklaho'na City Utiversity bbtlndist 1901
Oregon
George Fbx Callege Friends 1891 *
lbrthwest Cristian College Disciples of Girist 1895

178

 

(bllege Affiliation Founded C1 (2 03 C4
Pennsylvania

Albright (bllege Methodist 1856 *

Duquesne University Ramn Catholic 1878 "'

Geneva (bllege Presbyterian 1848 *

Messiah College Brethren in Gnrist 1909

Moravian (bllege Moravian 1742 "

Acadany of the New Gnurch General Gurch of 1876 "

the New Jerusalen
Philadelphia College of Independent 1913 *
the Bible

'Ihiel ('bllege Lutheran 1866
lede Island

Barrington (bllege Independent 1900

Providence College Hanan Catholic 1917
South Carolina

Erskine (bllege Presbyterian 1837 *

Furman University Baptist 1826 *

Presbyterian (bllege Presbyterian 18$) "
South mm

Augustana College Lutheran 1860 *

11mm College Presbyterian 1&3 “
Tiemessee

Carson Newman (bllege Baptist 1851

David Lipsconb College Gurch of Gnrist 1891

Knoxville (bllege Presbyterian 1875 "'

nee College G‘nurch of Cod 1918 *

Milligan (bllege Gnristian Gnurch 1866

Scarritt (bllege for lhtlndist 1892 *

Gnristian Workers

University Of the Sluth Episcopal 1860

'Il‘eveoca Nazarene allege Nazarene 1942 "

Tbsculun Prebyterian 1794 *

Union University Baptist 1825 *

179

 

College Affiliation Founded C1 C2 C3 04
Texas
Abilene Christian University (hutch of Gnrist 1906 *
(College)
Bishop Gnllege Baptist 1&1 *
East Texas Baptist University Baptist 1912 *
(Callege)
Phrdin Simnons University Baptist 1891
finston—‘I‘illotson College United Gurch of 1876
Gnrist/Methodist
Jarvis Gnristian College Disciples of Gnrist 1912
University of nary Hardin- Baptist ‘ 1845 * |

Baylor (College)
Texas Gnristian University Disciples of Gnrist 1873 * +

Virginia
Bridgeater (bllege Gnurch Of the Brethren 1&0 *
Phshirgton
Heritage (bllege (Fort Roman Catholic 1907 * + -
Wright College)
Seattle Pacific University Methodist 1891
Wnitnnorth College Presbyterian 1890 *
West Virginia
Alderson-Broaddus (bllege Baptist 1871 ‘
Bethany College Independent 1840 *
University of Gnarleston Independent 1&8 * +
(Morris Harvey College)
Wisconsin
Carroll (bllege Presbyterian 1846 *
Carthage College Iutheran 1847 "‘

 

 

Cl‘=1986respondent
C2+=Unusableinl986smdy
c3_=Gnargeinaffiliation

Cn|=onmgeininstitutionalnene

APPENDIX B

Letter

180

Letter

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
“If m

July 8, 1985
Dear College Presldont.

As a doctoral student at fllchlgan State University. my dissertation includes the
replication of a study that your institution participated in durllu; 1974. At that
time the study was a significant part of Dr. David J. Valle's doctoral dissertation
at the State University of New York (S.U.N.Y.) Albany cams. Dr. Valle's coqnlctcd
dissertation was entitled ”A Survey of Policies and Practices Associated With a Select
Group of Christian Colleges.”

In this nation-wide survcymm of only 130 selected Christian colleges used;
therefore. it is imperative that l elicit your cooperation in completing and returning
this survey in order for me to recover sniflclent valid data. I would be happy to
send you a copy of the survey results. Please indicate your desire for the results
by marking the appropriate request area on the last page of the survey lnstrnmcnt.

The survey takes approxlutely twenty minutes to complete. In the event that you
(personally) are unable to complete the smsy. please have a member of your M-
stratlve team conlcte it as we are interested in receiving input from administratlve
decision takers who determine institutional policy and direction.

The purpose of this study is to compare the input from this survey with the data you
gave us approximately ten years ago and determine whether there is any observable
change in the twelve policy areas surveyed.

The purpose of surveying those twelve policy areas is to collect information about

a) the extent to which Christlan colleges and unlversltlcs have formulated institution-
al policies on selected topics. b) the nature of these policies. c) the purposes and
rationale for these policies. and d) the pcrcelved lwortance these policies have in
the implementation of a Christian philosophy of education.

For a variety of excellent reason. many colleges and universities have not enacted
policies even in areas which are of obvious concern to them. Therefore. on many of
the topics in this survey we expect that only a portion of the institutions in our
sample may have formally enacted policies. At the same time Plnstltutlonsl pollcy"

ls _n_o£ here restricted to matters on which there is a formally enacted. written policy.
Re are interested in those policies and practices which while not formally enacted.
are clearly agreed upon and understood-qt least among the administration.

The topics selected cluster on issues related to religious selection of personnel.
program requirements and control of campus conduct. In limiting the nn-ber of topics
as much as possible. ltems were selected which many Christian colleges have treated
differently than otter lnstltn‘lons of higher education.

Please supply the requested information on each of the following pages. A similar
pattern of questions ls presented for each topic in order to enable you to move quick-
ly throngh the survey. If a simple check (It) or rank order which is called for in the
survey seems inadequate. please add your co-Ients using the margin next to the appro-
priate question.

when judgment or opinion is required to respond to a question asked in the survey. an
administrative point of view is desired. Your estimate of administrative concensus

is desired when your administrative staff varies in opinion. be assured that the report-
ing of any information derived from this questionnaire will carefully maintain anonymity
for lndlvldual lnstltutlons.

It would be helpful if you would send a copy of your catalog and student handbook with
y. as this msy'help in the interpretation of some survey ltcms.
time and effort to contributing so significantly to this study.

  

  

Ph.D . Candidate

. W
Dr. . Arden Moon
Professor. Michigan State University
Doctoral Cool-lttee Chairmrsnn

APPENDIX C
Survey Form
Questionnaire on Policies and Practices

in Christian Higher Education

. C L'n‘h'll' .fi

 

181

Survey Form

QUESTIONNAIRE ON POLICIES AND PRACTICES

IN CHRISTIAN NIGHER EDUCATION

Reporting institution

 

title of person completing questionnaire

 

Type of institution (check one):
Independent college or university
Catholic church-related college or university

Protestant church-related college or university
Total student enrollment (check one):
less than 1.500: 1.500 to 4.000: more than 4.000.

Approximate percentage of student body living on campus (check one):

less than 33\ more than 66\ but not all

33‘ to 66‘ all~

 

Regional accreditation held by your institution (check 233):
New England or Middle States
Southern
North Central

western or Northwest

OVER

182

mm PNIIDSOPRY
In general would the abinistration at your institution view individual and social con-
duct regulations as (choose one) F
primarily a means for maintaining order within the college mity.

essential expressions of a value system which the institution wishes students to
accept. as well as a means for maintaining order within the college coauunity.

In general would the administration at your institution view program requirements as
(choose one) '

primarily a means to assure the integrity of the degree awarded by the institu-
tion. .

 

essential expression of a value system which the institution wishes students to
accept. as well as a scans to assure the integrity of the degree.

momma; 155035 or sxcuxrxcmcr

In addition to the religious qualifications of personnel. the few program requirements
and guidelines for caspus conduct already surveyed. what remaining issues might be con-
sidered sufficiently important by your administration in the implementation of a
flistian philosw of education to warrant policy control?

Additional cosments you may wish to provide are most welcome: It would be appreciated
if you would enclose a collgge catalog and student handbook for reference.

‘l'hank you.

A.

183

I. 321.16st SWIG! or FEW

Does your institution have a policy which regulates the selection of any personnel
(trustees. ahinistration. faculty. staff or studaits) on the basis of religious

qualifications? (choose one response)
1. lo. the institution should not have a policy on religious selection of per-

 

2.

 

3.

 

that purposes or rationale best describe the

sonnel. (If you choose this alternative. proceed to the next issue). I 3

lo. but we maintain an institutional concern for the religious qualifications
of personnel. (If you choose thifi alternative. answer the following question
aid then proceed to the next issue: ”Under what circusstances. if any. would
your institution find it necessary to take abinistrative action in this area?

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

Yes. If so. indicate all persons at your institution who as a condition of
selection must be a med>er of a particular religious body and/or met declare
agreement with a statenent of religious belief adopted by your institution
(check all appropriate).

lust declare

agreement with
religious belief

thistbeamefier

of particular
religious body

Alltrustees................ .....
So-(butnotall)trustees........
All administrators . . . . . . .
Some(butnotall)ahinistrators
Allfaculty .
Some(butnotall)faculty ..
Allstaff ..........
Sosearutnotalustaff ...

 

“1 .‘mt. I I I I I I I I
Some (but not all) students

 

 

I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I I

I

I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I

 

 

reasons why you have the current policy?

Ian): each response in order of significance (4 for the most significant reason through
1 for the least significant reason)

1.
2.

 

 

 

I.

 

This is a matter of Christian principle (spiritual or religious issue at stake)

this is a matter of educational value (part of a comprehensive educational pro-
gram).

this is a matter of. institutional lic relations (affects support of constitu
ency).

'l'his is a practical consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

low iQortant does the administration of your institution perceive your policy en reli-
gious selection of personnel to be in the inlementation of your distinctly Christian

philosophy of higher education?

 

 

(choose an: response)

he policy represents a qurtant but not essential aspect of the institu-
tion's Gnristian character.

The policy does fl represent an inrtant aspect of the institution's
Gnristian character.

OVER

184

II. CWULSORY ENROLIHEN‘I‘ IN RELIGIOUS (1118538

A. Do you have an institutional policy requiring enrollment in Biblical studies or religion

courses?

1.

 

2.

 

 

'(choose _on_e response)

lo. the institution should not have a policy requiring enrollment in religious
courses. (If you choose this alternative. proceed to the next issue). 3 8

lo. but we maintain an institutional concern for student selection of reli-
gious courses. (If you choose th s alternative. answer the following question
and then proceed to the nest iss : “Under what circumstances. if any. would
your institution find it necessary to take adsinistrative action in this area?“)

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

Yes. If so. indicate which statement most closely represents the nature of
your policy (choose one response):

a. All students are required to najor in Biblical studies or religion.

accmlating at least senester hours credit in the najor.

b. All students are required to take a minimi- of senester hours
of biblical studies or religion courses.

c. Some classifications of students. but not all students. are required

to take a nininus of semester hours of biblical studies or

religion courses.

d. Other

 

 

 

B. that purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
Ian): each response in order of significance (4 for the scat significant reason through
1 for the least significant reason).

I.
2.

 

 

 

4.

 

This is a matter of Christian principle (spiritual or religious issue at stake).
'i‘his is a matter of educational value (part of a coqrehensive educational pro-
gram). .

This is a natter of institutional Eblic relations (affects support of consti-
tuency).

nu. is a practical consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

C. Ilow inortant does the administration of your institution perceive your policy on requir-
ed enrollment in. Biblical studies or religion courses to be. in the inplementation of
your distinctly Gristian philosophy of higher education? (choose one response)

I.

 

 

 

The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character. _
The policy represents an iyortant but not essential aspect of the institu-
tion's Christian character.

The policy does 35:; represent an iflrtant aspect of the institution's
Giristian character.

185

III. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT CflAPELS OR RELIGIOUS CONVOCATIONS

A. Do you have an institutional policy requiring attendance at chapels or religious convo-

cations?

1.

 

2.

(choose 99; response)

In. the institution should not have a policy requiring attendance at campus
religious programs. (If you choose this alternative. proceed to the next
issue). I a

lo. but we maintain an institutional concern for student attendance at campus
religious programs. (if you choose this a ternative. answer the following
question and then proceed to the nest iss : "Under what circumstances. if
any. would your institution find it necessary to take administrative action
in this area?')

I

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

2... If so. indicate which statement most closely represertts the nature of
your policy (choose one response):

a. Attendance is required for Q; students—en average of programs
per week for of the students' 8 semesters.

b. Attendance is required for root students—an average of pro-
grams per week for of the students I semesters.

c. Attendance is required for some students but not most students-an

average tag—program per week for of the students' 0

semesters.

d. Other

 

 

 

 

 

h. Ilaat purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
Rank each response in order of significance (d for the mast significant reason through
1 for the least significmt reason).

 

l.

 

2.
3

 

‘.

 

'this is a matter of Christian principle (spiritual or religious issue at
stake).
This is a matter of educational value (part of a coqrehensive educational

program).

This is a matter of iutitutional Elic relations (affects sipport of con-
stituency).

‘i'his is a practical ‘ “ ‘im (sense of convenience and/or order).

 

C. llow inortant does the ministration of your institution perceive your policy requiring
attendmce at chapels or convocations to be. in the inlementation of your distinctly
Christian philosophy of higher education? (choose one response)

I.

 

lid IN

The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character.

The policy represents an grunt but not essential aspect of the institu-
tion's Christian character.

The policy does £3 represent an grunt aspect of the institution's
Christian character.

OVER

A.

186

IV. COMPULSORY SERVICE PROGRAMS

(Christian. campus and/or community service)

Do you have an institutional policy requiring participating in a service program?

(choose pp: response)

I.

 

2.

I“
e

 

lo. the institution should not have a policy requiring participation in a ser-
vice program. (If you choose this alternative. proceed to the nest issue).£ u
lo. but we maintain an institutional concern for the involvement of students
in service programs. (If you choose this ternative answer the following
question and then proceed to the next issue: “Under what circumstances. if
any. would your institution find it necessary to take administrative action

in this area?') ‘

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

Yes. If so. indicate which statement most closely represents the nature of
your policy (choose one response):

a. All students are required to participate in a caspus approved ser-

vice program each semester they are enrolled.

b. All students are required to participate in a campus approved ser-
vice program during part of their enrollment but not every semester.

c. Participation in a college approved service program is required for
some students but not all students.

d. Other

 

 

 

what purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
Rank each response in order of significance (4 for the most significant reason through
1 for the least significant reason).

1.
2.

 

4.

 

This is a matter of Christian principle (spiritual or religious issue at stake).
This is a matter of educational value (part of a comprehensive educational
Mam) .

This is a matter of institutional ppplic relations (affects support of con-
stituency).

This is a practical consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

how important does the administration of your institution perceive your policy on com-
pulsory perticipation in a service program to be. in the implementation of your dis-
tinctly Christian philosophy of higher education? (choose one response)

I.

 

 

J.

The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character.

The policy represents an igportant but not essential aspect of the institu-
tion's Christian character.

The policy does 223 represent an igpprtant aspect of the institution's
Christian character.

187

V. ALCOHOLIC IEEEBAGES AND VI. USE OF TOBACCO

A. no you have an institutional policy governing the use of alcohol and/or tobacco on cam-

pus?
alcohol tobacco

I.

 

 

 

 

 

 

(choose one response for each issue)

lo. the institution should not have a policy on this matter. (If you
choose this alternative. proceed to the next issue) I U

No. but we maintain an institutional concern in this matter. (If you
choose this alternating. answer the following question and then pro-
ceed to the next issue: 'Under what circumstances. if any. would your
institution find it necessary to take administrative action in this
area? ~

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

fee. If so. indicate which statement most closely represents the
nature of your policy (choose gpp_response for each issue):

Alcoholic beverages and/or use of tobacco are not permitted on campus
at any time.

Alcoholic beverages and/or use of tobacco are pessdtted on campus under
specific institutional guidelines which are more restrictive than regu—
lations required by civil authorities.

Guidelines established by civil authorities are sufficient norms for
college policy.

Other

 

3. flat purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
Rank each response in order of significance (4 for the most significant reason through
l for the least significant reason)

alcohol tobacco

l.

 

 

 

3.

 

I.

This is a matter of Christianyprinciple (spiritual or religious issue

at stake).

This is a matter of educagional value (part of a comprehensive educa-

tional program).

This is a matter of institutional public relations (affects support of
constituency).

This is a practical consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

C. flow inortant does the administration of your institution preceive your policy on
alcoholic beverages and/or use of tobacco to be. in the implementation of your distinctly

Christian philosophy of higher education?

 

alcohol tobacco
l.
2.

 

IN
a

(choose one response for each issue)

The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character.

The policy represents an inportant but not essential aspect of the
institution‘s Christian character.

The policy does pgp_represent an ippgrtant aspect of the institution's

Christian character.

OVER

188

V11. DRUG ABUSE

A. Do you have an institutional policy with regard to drug abuse? (choose one response)

1.

 

'9

lo. the institution should not have a policy on this subject. (If you choose
this alternative. proceed to the next issue). I 3

lo. but we maintain an institutional concern in this matter. (If you choose
this alternative answer the following question and then proceed to the nert
iss 'Onder what circumstances. if any. would your institution find it
necessary to take adninistrative action in this area?')

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

Yes. If so. indicate which statement most closely represents the nature of
your policy (choose one response): '

a. Students are prohibited fron using all chemical stinulants md depres-

sants. even when permitted by law and acceptable to the general panic.

b. Students are prohibited from all forms of drug abuse. including

illegal drugs. unauthorised prescription drugs and drugs used in

quantity of manner contrary to their authorised purpose.

c. Students are couseled concerning the harards of drug abuse but are
only prohibited froo using illegal drugs.

d. Other

 

 

 

 

 

I. that purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
Ian): each respmse in order of significance (4 for the most significant reason through
1 for the least significant reason).

1
2

 

 

J

 

d

 

his is a matter of Christian principle (spiritual or religious issue at stake).
his is a matter of educational value (part of a coqrehensive educational pro-
gram).

This is a matter of institutional public relations (affects support of consti-

tuency).
his is a practical consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

C. low isportant does the abinistration of your institution perceive your policy on drug
abuse to be. in the inlementation of your distinctly atrietian philosophy of higher edu-

cation?

1

 

 

IU

(choose £1 response)

The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character.

The policy represents an mnmt but not essential aspect of the institu-
tion's Ouistian character.

The policy does at represent an flrtant aspect of the institution's
Otristian character.

189

VIII. CORPS“ flOURS

(lstablished time when resident students must be in their residence hall)

A. Do you have an institutional policy with regard to curfew hours for resident students?
(choose one response)

1.

 

2.

3.

No. the institution should not have a policy on this subject. (If you choose
this alternative. proceed to the next issue). 9 B

No. but we maintain an institutional concern in this matter. (If you choose
this lternative answer the following question and then proceed to the next
issueg ”Under what circumstances. if any. would your institution find it

necessary to take adninistrative action in this area?‘)

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

Yes. If so. indicate which statement not closely represents the nature of
your policy (choose one response)

a. All_resident students are required to keep curfew hours.

b. éii resident women students are required to keep curfew hours but
resident men are not.

c. Sooe resident women and some resident p=2_are required to keep cur-
few hours.

d. Only sone resident women are required to keep curfew hours.

. £2 resident students are required to keep curfew hours.

f. Other

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I. Ihat purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
Rank each response in order of significance (4 for the most significant reason through
1 for the least significant reason).

1.
2.

 

J.

 

4.

This is a matter of Christian principle (spiritual or religious issue at stake).
This is a matter of educational value (part of a comprehensive educational pro-
gram).

This is a matter of institutional public relations (affects support of con-
stituency).

This is a practical consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

C. How important does the adninistration of your institution perceive your policy on curfew
hours to be. in the iepleeentation of your distinctly Christian philosophy of higher edu-

cation?

1.

 

2.

3.

(choose one response)

The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character.

The policy represents an important but not essential aspect of the institu-
tion's Christian character.

The policy does 222 represent an ippgrtant aspect of the institution's
Christian character.

OVER

190

XX . PARIS?“ MRS

(Visitation in residence hall rooms by members of the opposite sex)

A. Do you have an institutional policy with regard to campus parietal hours? (choose one
response)

1. lo. the institution should not have a policy on this subject. (If you choose
this alternative. proceed to the next issue). (I B

2. No. but we maintain an institutional concern in this matter. (If you choose

this lternative answer the following question and then proceed to the next

issue: "Under what circumstances. if any. would your institution find it

necessary to take adninistrative action in this area?")

 

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

1). Yes. If so. indicate which statement most closely represents the nature of
your policy (choose one response):

a. students are not E rmitted to visit residence rooms of neabers of
the opposite sen at any time.

b. Students are permitted to visit residence rooms of members of the
opposite sex only during infregppntly scheduled open houses.

c. Eggplarlx scheduled parietal hours. in the college supervised
residence with the greatest latitude. are permitted up to
days per'week and up to a maximum of hours per day.

d. Other

 

 

 

 

 

 

I. met purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
Rank each response in order of significance (4 for the most significant reason through
l for the least significant reason).

1. This is a matter of Egristian principle (spiritual or religious issue at stake).
2. This is a matter of educational valu: (part of a comprehensive educational pro—

 

 

 

 

gram).
3. This is a netter of institutional pgplic relations (affects support of con-
stituency).

4. This is aspracticai consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

 

C. how important does the administration of your institution perceive your policy of
parietal hours to be. in the implementation of your distinctly Christian philosophy of
higher education? (choose one response)

l. The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character.

2. The policy represents an igportgnt but not essential aspect of the institu-

tion's Christian character.

The policy does 22; represent an igpgrtant aspect of the institution's

Christian character.

3.

A.

191'

X. SEXUAL CONDUCT

Do you have an institutional policy with regard to sexual conduct? (choose one response)

1.

 

2.

 

 

No. the institution should not have a policy on this subject. (If you choose
this alternative. proceed to the next issue). p 3

lo. but we maintain an institutional concern in this matter. (If you choose
this ternative answer the following question and then proceed to the next
issue ”Under what circumstances. if any. would your institution find it
necessary to take administrative action in this area?')

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

Yes. If so. indicate which statement most closely represents the nature of
your policy (check one response):

a. behavioral standards of sexual conduct are clearly defined and con-
sistently enforced: abinistrative awareness of sexual proniscuity.
honoeexual conduct or premarital pregnancy would result in separa-
tion frou the institution.

b. lehavioral standards of sexual conduct are clearly defined but en-
forced with considerable latitude in response to individual situa-
tions.

c. Sexual conduct is principally a personal counseling concern which
becooes a disciplinary concern only after a coeplaint is made or
when a social problem becomes evident.

d. Other

 

 

 

 

what purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
hank each response in order of significance (4 for the most significant reason through
l for the least significant reason).

1.
2.

 

3.

4.

This is a setter of Christian principle (spiritual or religious issue at stake).
This is a matter of educational value (part of a comprehensive educational pro-
gram).

This is a matter of institutional pgplic relations (affects support of con-
stituency).

This is a practical consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

how inportant does the administration of your institution perceive your policy on sexual
conduct to be. in the inlementation of your distinctly Christian philosophy of higher
education? (Check one response)

1.

2.

 

3.

The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character.

The policy represents an inportant but not essential aspect of the institu-
tion's Christian character.

The policy does pp£_represent an ippgrtant aspect of the institution's
Christian character.

OVER

A.

192

no 2112129.

Do you have an institutional policy with regard to dancing? (choose one response)

1.

 

2.

 

 

lo. the institution should not have a policy on this subject. (If you choose
this alternative. proceed to the next issue).l 3

lo. but we maintain an institutional concern in this matter. (If you choose
this :lternative answer the following question and then proceed to the next
issue “Under what circumstances. if any. would your institution find it
necessary to take administrative action in this area?')

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

Yes. If so. indicate which statement most closely represents the nature of
policy (choose one response):

a. Students are prohibited from participating in all forms of dancing
while under college jurisdiction.

b. Dancing is permitted on campus only as an educational offering.
under faculty supervision.

c. Dancing is pernitted in social and recreatienal settings under pre-
scribed guidelines.

d. Dancing is permitted with little or no college supervision.

e. Other

 

 

 

Inst purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
Rank each response in order of significance (4 for the most significant reason through
l for the least significant reason).

 

l.
2.

 

3.

This is a matter of Christian principle (spiritual or religious issue at stake).
This is a matter of educational value (port of a comprehensive educational pro-
gram).

This is a matter of institutional pgplic relations (affects support of con-
stituency).

This is a practical consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

how important does the adninistration of your institution perceive your policy on dancing
to be. in the ispdenentation of your distinctly Christian philosophy of higher education?

(Choose gpp'response)

 

The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character.

The policy represents an important but not essential aspect of the institu-
tion‘s Christian character.

The policy does 22; represent an ippgrtant aspect of the institution's
Christian character.

193

XII. DRESS AND APPEARANCE

A. Do you have an institutional policy with regard to dress and appearance? (choose one
response)

1. No. the institution should not have a policy on this subject. (If you choose
this alternative. proceed to the next issue). I I

2. No. but we maintain an institutional concern in this matter. (If you choose
this ternative answer the following question and then proceed to the next
issue: “Under what circumstances. if any. would your institution find it
necessary to take administrative action in this area?')

 

 

(use reverse side if needed)

3. Yes. If so. indicate which statement most closely represents the nature of
your policy (choose one response):

a. Expectations of dress and appearance are defined by specific descrip-
tion for most of a student's campus life.

b. General standards of dress and appearance are outlined for students
without specific reference to types of attire (eg. neat. clean and
modest).

c. Students are permitted choice of dress and appearance within stand-
ards of health and decency acceptable to the general public.

d. Other

 

 

a. “hat purposes or rationale best describe the reasons why you have the current policy?
Rank each response in order of significance (4 for the most significant reason through
i for the least significant reason). Q

1. This is a matter of Christian principle (spiritual or religious issue at stake).

2. This is a matter of educatigpal value )part of a comprehensive educational pro-
gram).

3. This is a matter of institutional pgplic relations (affects support of con-
stituency).

4. This is a practical consideration (sense of convenience and/or order).

 

 

C. how important does the adninistration of your institution perceive your policy on dress
and appearance to be. in the ioplementation of your distinctly Christian philosophy of
higher education? (choose one response)

1. The policy represents an essential aspect of the institution's Christian
character.

2. The policy represents an important but not essential aspect of the institu-
tion's Christian character.

3. The policy does pg£_represent an igpprtant aspect of the institution's
Christian character.

OVER

194

ESTIMATION OF STAQILITY OF CURRENT POLICIES

how would you estinate the stability of your current policies on the topics sur-
veyed in this questionnaire? Indicate when the current for. of your institution's
policy first took effect and then indicate your estimation of when the current policy
is likely to receive its next revision. (choose a past 22! future estimate for each
tOPXC).

Current form
of policy Expect policy
took effect revision within
within the past: the next:
no policy no policy over over
Topic at present ggpected 2 yrs. 5 yrs. 5 yrs. 2 yrs. 5 yrs. Spyrs.

1. Religious
selection of
personnel

 

 

2. Religious
course re-
quirements

 

 

3. Chapel re-
quirenents

 

 

4. Service progran
requirements

 

 

5. Use of alcohol

 

 

l -|

6. Use of tobacco

7. Drug Abuse

 

 

a. Curfew hours

 

 

9. Parietal hours

 

 

19. Sexual conduct

ll. Dancing

 

 

 

 

12. Dress

 

 

Yes. please send an a copy of the results.

No thank you.

Please return in the enclosed self-addressed stamped envelope to: James M. Vandermeulen
230 Green Hill Drive
Tallnadge. Ohio 64278

 

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"Illlllll'lllllll