A REPLICATEQN $FUDY GF AN EXPEREMENT APPLYENG NON—ARBSYOTELIAN PRINCiPLES N THE MEASUREMENT OF ADJUSTMENT AND MALADJUSTMENT Thesis for» Hue Degree of Ed. D. MICHEGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Robert F. Hopkins 1958 . \_— 0-169 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A rtiflrLICA'l’ION STUDY Oi" AI‘I Eii'mtII-LNT AH‘LYI 3'le F301 I-ABJ STLiszLI/al-I FRI NCI H.235 IN THE i‘~‘l;.ASU?.LI-IZT. OF ADJ U 3TH; FIT A I’D E ALA DJU STPIENT presented by Robert F. Hopkins has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ed.D dareeinCounseling & Guidance . l ’ \_ 1 , -' ' , / ,. 1' [t/Z/i’ 77/ ’ /: .x‘J/L/Azfo 1, Major profess Walter F. Johnson Date i-‘ay 16: 1958 LIBRA R Y Michigan State University MSU LIBRARIES “ RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book dr66_to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. taaztlimdix ,."er ’_ ' “(M“L\2_fl L ,5- K: 380 A269’ A REPLICATION STUDY OF AN EXPERIMENT APPLYING NON—ARISTOTELIAN PRINCIPLES IN THE MEASUREMENT OF ADJUSTMENT AND MALADJUSTMENT by Robert F. Hopkins AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of Administrative and Educational Services Counseling and Guidance 1958 Approved (ig;;%;2;23é;;fi2;2 ;;2?/J',5 2 ROBERT F. HOPKINS ABSTRACT Objectives Fundamental in the undertaking of this investigation was the objective of replicating an experimental study based on non-Aristotelian principles in which a one-hundred item, true-false test was established as an instrument to determine the degree of social adjustment and maladjustment among individuals. The "IS of identity" concept, formulated by Alfred Korzybski in his book, Science and Sanity, formed the foundation on which this instrument was devised by Dr.- Thomas M. Weiss. Other objectives which formed an extension of the basic work were as follows: A A. To determine if the "IS of identity" instrument would discriminate among institutionalized and noninstitu- tionalized Caucasians and Negroes. B. To determine if social status were a factor in the use of the "IS of identity." C. To determine if the instrument would discriminate between two institutionalized groups. Selection of Sample A total of 21A individuals from the following high schools were randomly selected as the noninstitutionalized group: Allen Park, Dearborn Township School District Number 8, Ecorse, Melvindale, and Romulus. The institu- tionalized group consisted of 116 adolescents at the Wayne 3 ROBERT F. HOPKINS ABSTRACT County Juvenile Detention Home, and 57 mental patients at the Wayne County General Hospital. For the noninstitution- alized group the following information was obtained: I.Q., sex, age, religious affiliation, church attendance, self- rating, teacher-ratings, occupation of the principal income worker, race, and "IS of identity" test score. With the exception of teacher—ratings and occupation, the same infor- mation was obtained for the adolescents at the Juvenile Detention Home. For the mental patients the following data was collected: l.Q., sex, age, religious affiliation, church attendance, race, and diagnosis. Methodology In replication of the Weiss study, the analysis of variance statistical technique was applied to: (1) age, (2) sex, (3) religious affiliation, (A) church attendance, (5) self-ratings, (6) teacher-ratings, (7) institutionalized versus noninstitutionalized. As an extension of this work the following categories were also analyzed in like manner: (1) noninstitutionalized Negroes versus Caucasians, (2) institutionalized Negroes versus Caucasians, (3) prestige of occupation, (A) diagnosis of mental patients, and (5) Juvenile Detention Home persons versus mental patients. Where significance was indicated, covariance adjustment was used to eliminate the I. Q. influence which was shown by 14, ROBERT F. HOPKINS _ ABSTRACT correlations between intelligence and test score to be an influence. Findings Highly significant differences (at the 0.01 probability level) were found between the means of the "IS of identity" test scores and, (l) self—rating category 103 (a part of the "IS of identity" test), between institutionalized and non— institutionalized, (2) intelligence (institutionalized, noninstitutionalized), (3) institutionalized versus non— institutionalized, with covariance adjustment to hold intel— ligence constant, (A) Negroes and Caucasians (noninstitu- tionalized), (5) teacher-ratings (Romulus high school), (6) teacher-ratings (a composite of all high schools), and (7) Juvenile Detention Home persons and mental patients. Significant differences (at the 0.05 probability level) were found for: (1) age levels at the Juvenile Detention Home, (2) self-rating categories 101, 102, 103, 10A, and 105 for noninstitutionalized persons, (3) self- rating category 101 (institutionalized, noninstitutionalized), and (A) self—rating category 104 (institutionalized, non- institutionalized). A REPLICATION STUDY OF AN EXPERIMENT APPLYING NON~ARISTOTELIAN PRINCIPLES IN THE MEASUREMENT OF ADJUSTMENT AND MALADJUSTMENT by .37 Robert FTAHopkins A THESIS Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of Administrative and Educational Services Counseling and Guidance 1958 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his most sincere appre- ciation to Dr. Walter F. Johnson, under whose supervision this research was initiated and completed, and without whose untiring and invaluable assistance and frequent en— couragement such an undertaking would not have been culminated. The researcher is also indebted to Doctors Wilbur Brookover, William Roe, and Cecil Millard for reading and offering valuable criticism of the thesis. To Dr. Thomas Weiss grateful acknowledgement is due for the many hours spent at the beginning of this under- taking in helping to lay the groundwork for the research as well as for encouragement, suggestions, and criticisms offered throughout the course of the investigation. To the principals at Allen Park High School, Dearborn Township School District Number Eight High School, Ecorse High School, Melvindale High School, Romulus High School, and the principal at the Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home as well as to Juvenile Court Judge Nathan Kaufman and probation officer Cyrus Pilsner, many thanks are extended for allowing the testing of selected persons within each school. Also to Dr. C. Belisle, Chief Psychiatrist, of the 11 Wayne County General Hospital, Eloise, Michigan, thanks are extended for permission to test selected mental patients at this institution. Thanks are also extended to the many other persons, too numerous to mention, who assisted in gathering data and without whose help the work would have been greatly pro- longed. iii Robert F. Hopkins Candidate for the degree of Doctor of Education Date of Examination: May 13, 1958 at 1:00 P. M. Dissertation: A Replication Study of an Experiment Applying Non-Aristotelian Principles in the Measurement of Adjustment and Maladjustment. Outline of Studies: Major subject: Counseling and Guidance Minor subject: School Administration, Sociology Biographical Brief: Born: September 2A, 1925, Owosso, Michigan. Undergraduate studies: Central Michigan College, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan. Alma College, Alma, Michigan. Michigan State College, East Lansing, Michigan. Graduate studies: Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1951-1958. Experience: Employee Interviewer, 1948-1949; Teacher, 1950- 1952; Jr. Educational Consultant, 1952—1953; Counselor, 1953-1954; Director of Guidance, 1954-1958; School Psychologist, 1957-1958; Assistant Professor Division of Business Administration (Evening Division), Detroit Institute of Technology, 1955-1958. Professional Affiliations: Member of American Personnel and Guidance Association, American School Counselors Association, International Society for General Semantics, Michigan Education Association, National Education Association. Professional member, National Vocational Guidance Association. President, Michigan Counselors Association. Treasurer, Guidance Association of Metro- politan Detroit. Representative to the Michigan Council of Personnel and Guidance Organizations. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM. . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem. 5 Assumptions of the Study. . . . . 6 Null Hypotheses to be Tested 7 Definition of Terms . . . . 9 Importance of the Study . . . . . . . 12 Limitations of the Study. . . . . . . 15 Plan of the Study . . . . . . . . . 18 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . . . . 21 Group Dynamics and College Teaching . . . 21 Education. . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . 23 Counseling and Psychology . . . . . . 23 Development of the "IS of Identity" Test in the Original Investigation. . . . . 24 III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Procedures . . . . . . . . .. . .’ 32 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA.. . . . . . . . . 35 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . 35 Analysis: Males and Females . . . . . 36 Analysis: Age Levels. . . . . . . . 39 V CHAPTER V. VI. Analysis: Religion Analysis: Church Attendance and Non— Attendance. Analysis: Self-Ratings Analysis: Teacher—Ratings Analysis: Test Scores and Intelligence. Analysis: Intelligence . Analysis: Self-Rating Category 101 . Analysis: Self-Rating Category 103 Analysis: Teaching-Ratings for All High Schools. . . . Analysis: Test Scores and Ins and Outs. OF THE REPLICATION STUDY. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA COMPRISING AN EXTENSION O o Analysis: Negro and Caucasian. Analysis: Prestige Ratings. . . . Analysis: Mental Patients Analysis: Juvenile Detention Home Persons and Mental Patients. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . General Objectives of the Research Specific Objectives Methodology and Sample Findings Conclusions . . . Implications of the Study Specific implications Vi PAGE A2 an A5 A9 52 52: 55 56 57 58 59 60 62 63 63 66 66 67 68 69 71 73 74 CHAPTER PAGE Suggestions for Future Research . . . . 75 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . 110 vii LIST OF TABLES TABLE , PAGE I. All Schools (Allen Park, Dearborn Township District Number 8, Ecorse, Melvindale, and Romulus) "IS of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (Males and Females) . . . . . . . . . 38 II. All Institutions (Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home, Wayne County General Hospital) "IS of Identity" Test Scores-~Classes (Male and Female) . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 III. All Institutions "IS of Identity" Test Scores-- Class (age levels). . . . . . . . . . Al IV. All Schools "IS of Identity" Test Scores-— Classes (age levels) . . . . . . . . A3 v. All SChOOlS'"IS of Identity" Test Scores-- Classes (Catholic, non-Catholic) . . . . . AA VI. All Schools "IS of Identity“ Test Scores-~ Classes (church attendance, non-attendance) . 44 VII. All Schools "IS of Identity" Test Scores-- Classes (self— ratings 101,102, 103, 104, and 105) . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 VIII. “"18 of Identity" Test Scores for the Self- rating Categories-~Classes (ins and outs) . . A? IX. “"IS of Identity" Test Scores for each High ighool--Classes (teacher-ratings l, 2, 3, and o o o o o o o o o I o o o 0. o 50 X. Correlation between "IS of Identity" Test Scores and Teacher-ratings at Romulus High School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 XI. Correlation between Intelligence and "IS of Identity" Test Scores, All Groups. . . 53 XII. Intelligence--Classes (ins and outs). . . . 5A viii TABLE XIII. XIV. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XXII. Analysis of Variance (with Covariance Adjust- ment) and Test of Significance for Self- -rating Category 101. "IS of Identity" Test Scores-- Classes (ins and outs) . . . . . Anal sis of Variance (with Covariance Adjust- ment and Test of Significance for Self-rating Category 103. "IS of Identity" Test Scores—- Classes (ins and outs) . . . . . . . Anal sis of Variance (with Covariance Adjust- ment and Test of Significance. "18 of Identity" Test Scores-~Classes (Teacher-rating) Analysis of Variance (with Covariance Adjust- ment) and Test of Significance for Intelli- ence. "IS of Identity" Test Scores--Classes ins and outs) . . . . . All Schools "IS of Identity" Test Scores-- Classes (Negro, Caucasian) . . . . . Analysis of Variance (with Covariance Adjust- ment) and Test of Significance. "IS of Identity" Test Scores-~Classes (Negro, Caucasian) . . . . . . . . '. . Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home "IS of Identity" Test Scoresv—Classes (Negro, Caucasian) . . . . . . . All SChOOlS'"IS of Identity" Test Scores-— Classes (prestige ratings) . . . . Wayne County General Hospital'"IS of Identity" Test Scores--Classes (diagnoses) . . . . . ‘"IS of Identity" Test Scores-~Classes (Juvenile Detention Home persons, Mental Patients). . . . . . . . . . . . ix PAGE 55 56 57' 58 6O 61 62 62 63 6A 1\. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM Since the formalization of the science of General Semantics by Alfred Korzybski in 1933 much has been written by a constantly increasing number of individuals who have found this to be an immensely interesting area of study. Nearly all of this writing has taken a philosophical approach to the quest for advanced knowledge in General Semantics. Mathematicians, biologists, physicists, economists, physi- cians, psychiatrists, psychologists, psychoanalysts, and persons in many other fields are becoming more and more aware of the significance of this new science and its broad impli- cations in many areas. The writer is primarily concerned with the implications that General Semantics may hold for the fields of education and psychology. Since there is such a complete lack of experimentation in this new approach to human relations and understanding, it becomes clear that scientific attempts should be made to apply the principles of General Semantics. A scientific investigation based upon whatever experimental work has preceded the present stage of development will lead to greater enlightenment and possibly open an entirely new realm of thought in the study of mankind. In 1954, Dr. Thomas M. Weiss (116) presented a thesis in partial com- pletion for the Ph.D. degree at Michigan State College in which he originated a paper-and-pencil test based on the '"IS of identity" concept as formulated by Alfred Korzybski in his book, Science and Sanity (5A). As a result of this work, at the urging of Dr. Weiss and others, and feeling as Paul Lazarsfeld (59) does that not often enough are doctoral dissertations concerned with validating the work of others, this investigator has pursued the object of replicating and extending the work of Dr. Weiss. Furthermore, scientific investigation to be of value must be verified sufficiently and errors must be discovered so that applications of findings and future research may proceed on a sound, scien- tific foundation. Stuart Chase (22) states that the scien- tific method as a form of communication demands that it must be so clear that any experiment carried on by one individual can be repeated by another to verify the reported results or uncover errors. Thus, in many respects, the verification of a scientific investigation is as important and useful as the initial work undertaken. Language, as a form of communication depends on the ability of words to relate themselves to reality and so be commonly accepted by others. Words, as such, are based on referents which are possible to verify through the human senses of touch, smell, sound, or sight. These words with their referents in reality have established the basic 3 foundation of language. The human being has the particular facility of being able to transmit to other human beings symbols or sounds in the form of language and thus to pass on experience and learning from one generation to the next. This facility for formulating language and building upon the foundation a communication structure to express ideas and thoughts has been constantly expanded with each new generation. The introduction of abstract words to be used to refer to things not in reality has lead inevitably to misconceptions, misevaluations, and misinterpretation. Such errors have been due to the limited knowledge and experience : of early man. This language structure built upon erroneous conceptions, evaluations, and interpretations has been handed down through the ages from one generation to the next. Although man has corrected many of these errors, the structure still remains and leads to grave social conse— quences. Nesbit (86) relates that, as a word passes from the class of concrete words with an easily identifiable referent into that of increas- ingly abstract words which are ideas or ideas about ideas its meaning becomes increasingly indefinite and the likelihood of misunderstanding, and all of the manifold social ills, including social conflict and war that insue, becomes greater. One of the primary functions of language has been to communicate to each succeeding generation the particular culture of the group. The passage of cultural concepts from one generation to another relies entirely on the matter of communication through language as presented in a spoken or written form, or both. Reciprocally cultural changes and innovations that arise are due to the factor of communi- cation through language and its symbolization of those very changes and innovations. Culture prescribes those limits of socially acceptable behavior and conduct for every member of the group. Each cultural group has its deviates-~some of these being much more deviant in their behavior than others. In the culture of American society those who go beyond the limits as culturally defined are either taken care of by legal means--usually in the form of placement in a penal institution--or such deviates may be placed in a medically prescribed situation which normally means hospitalization ‘ for a mental condition. Since language is the form of com- munication by which the culture delimits satisfactory and acceptable behavior it seems obvious that those individuals who place themselves outside such limits have failed to communicate with the rest of the human beings who act, live, and survive satisfactorily within the framework of a partic- ular culture. They have, particularly in the case of serious deviates, built up for themselves a false—toefact set of assumptions from which they operate. This premise as expressed in more detail by such writers as Hayakawa (38), Malinowski (78), Chase (22), and Whorf (120), together with the philosophical development of the science of General Semantics formed the broad back- ground from which Dr. Weiss experimentally devised a paper- and-pencil test to measure adjustment and maladjustment. This premise also serves as the cornerstone for the study which this investigator has undertaken. Statement of the Problem The purposes of this study can be outlined as follows: Figst to replicate for validation purposes the experi- mentally developed paper-and~pencil "IS of identity" test constructed by Dr. Thomas M. Weiss (116).1 Second to determine by more intensive experimentation whether the conclusions reached by Dr. Weiss regarding the difference existing between institutionalized and noninsti- tutionalized groups and their use of the "IS of identity" continues when comparison is made between the institution- alized as repreSented by mental patients and the noninsti- tutionalized group. Third to determine if differences exist between Caucasian and Negro persons among the noninstitutionalized group with regard to their performance on the "IS of identity” test. Fourth to determine if differences exist between Caucasian and Negro persons among the institutionalized group with regard to their performance on the "IS of identity" test. 1The original study is reviewed in Chapter II, pages 24-27. Fifth to determine if differences exist in the use of the "IS of identity" among men and women in the institu- tionalized group. ‘ngth to determine if differences in the use of the '"IS of identity" exist with differences in social status as determined by the occupation of the principal income worker of the family. Seventh to determine if, among the mental patients classified as to diagnosis of mental illness, there exist differences in the use of the "IS of identity." Assumptions of the Study Replication requires that the same conditions must prevail in the validation study as those that existed in the original. Logically then, the investigator attempting to validate a previous experimental project must allow the same assumptions to form the basis for his work as were pro- pounded by the original investigator. Such is the circum- stance here. The original assumptions were as follows: 1. In reality there is no identity, no absolute sameness. 2. The‘"IS of identity" language pattern exists and is measurable. 3. Persons vary in the extent to which they use the ‘"IS of identity." A. A paper-and-pencil test can be constructed to 6 measure the extent to which the "IS of identity" is employed. 5. Structure of reality as inferred from language differs from the structure in "reality" (116:73). In addition to the foregoing assumptions, two other assumptions suggest themselves as a result of the type of investigation that was undertaken. 1. A paper-and-pencil "IS of identity" test can be constructed which is a valid testcfi‘social adjust- ment and maladjustment. 2. A paper-and-pencil test will discriminate between those individuals who are socially adjusted and those who are socially maladjusted. Null Hypotheses to be Tested As with the assumptions, the hypotheses also must follow those of the preceding investigator. As set forth in his dissertation these are (116:7-8): 1. Different age groups do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity." 2. Males and females do not differ in the use of the '"IS of identity." 3. Persons of different intelligence levels do not differ in their use of the "IS of identity;" A. Persons with different social adjustment do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity." Church attenders and non-attenders do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity." Catholic and non-Catholic students do not differ in the use of the‘"IS of identity." Students who rate themselves differently with respect to attitude toward people do not differ in the use of the "IS of identity." Since this work is not only a replication but also an extension of a doctoral thesis, the added data collected also warrant hypothesizing. Consequently the following hypotheses are presented: I. Caucasians and Negroes among the noninstitution- alized group do not differ in their use of the '"IS of identity" concept as determined by a paper- and-pencil test. Caucasians and Negroes among the institutionalized group do not differ in their use of the "IS of identity” concept as determined by a paper-and- pencil test. Persons institutionalized because of social malad— justment as recognized by law do not differ sig- nificantly in their use of the "13 of identity" from.those persons institutionalized because of maladjustment due to mental illness. Persons of differing social status do not differ in their use of the ”IS of identity" concept as determined by a paper-and-pencil test. 9 5. Among institutionalized persons, males and females do not differ in their use of the "IS of lientity" concept as determined by a paper—and-pencil test. 6. Persons of differently diagnosed mental illnesses do not differ in their use of the "IS of identity" as determined by a paper—and-pencil test. Definition of Terms Because this study is built upon the proposition of replicating and extending an experimental project it becomes necessary for complete scientific authenticity to utilize the terms and conditions as previously applied. Since this becomes an integral part of the study the definition of terms must of necessity be a repetition of those presented by Dr. Weiss. IS of identity. The term "IS of identity" refers to any form of the verb "to be" which is used to ascribe a property to a thing, process, or event, with lack of recog- nition that in so doing the part of the observer is ignored (45:121). Thus, for example, the statement, "Grass is green" does not take into account all factors involved. IS of identity test. A test experimentally constructed by Dr. Thomas M. Weiss (116) based on the theory of the "IS of identity" as proposed by Alfred Korzybski (5A). A means of symbolic communication primarily Language. vocal or written which transmits thought and ideas about 10 reality or real situations. The communication takes place about reality or real things after a symbol has been assigned to that real thing or reality and has received acceptance by two or more human beings. Language structure. The organization of symbolic relationships; the extension of these relationships to bind several thoughts or ideas; and the changing pattern of that organization in conformance with the acquisition of new information. Socially adjusted. Individuals whose behavior and conduct toward others is generally acceptable and accepted. The following of societies self-imposed rules and regulations for satisfactory existence among and with other human beings. Socially maladjusted. Those persons who have not followed the generally acceptable modes of behavior as society has developed them. Such persons are taken from the normal stream of societal living either by virtue of the enforcement of arbitrarily prescribed rules or by virtue of "professional" judgment recognizing their inability to live within and/or accept the behavioral schema as society has patterned it. Institution. The term‘"institution" refers to a closely defined area set aside for correction, rehabili- tation, treatment, for for incarceration. With respect to ll this study it shall refer specifically to the Wayne County General Hospital at Eloise, Michigan, and the Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home of the Juvenile Division, Probate Court, Detroit, Michigan. Normalgpopulation. Those individuals constituting the“normal population" or noninstitutionalized group con- sisted of boys and girls attending the public high schools of Allen Park, Dearborn Township School District Number Eight, Ecorse, Melvindale, and Romulus, Michigan. Abstractifiabstracting. A process of selecting with reference to reality in which some characteristics are utilized and others are ignored in the process of communi- cation. Reality. ‘"Reality" refers to objects and process in '"nature" to which all organisms must adjust in order to survive; that which exists irrespective of what man says about it. Structure of reality. It is the relationship among the infinite variety of facts, events, objects, et cetera, in man’s environment and within man himself, including facts, events, et cetera, on submicroscopic levels, characterized by continuous change. Communication. The attempt on the part of one person to convey some of the products of his own abstracting to 12 another person. Communication then is the attempt of an individual to verbalize and convey his experience to another. Defined terms. Definitions by common agreement among human beings in society. Undefined terms. "Undefined terms" are unconscious assumptions implicit in our language structure; terms that are still undefined after all other words in a definition have been defined. Selfjrating. '"Self-rating" is the testee's own ap- praisal of his attitude toward people. (The last five items in the "IS of identity" test constitute a "self-rating;" Testee's are asked to select the one statement among the five which best describes their own attitudes about people.) Semantic reaction. The physiological response to the stimuli of words, either spoken by another or thought by the individual himself. Teacher rating. A composite rating of seVeral teachers of the social adjustment of an individual noninstitutionalized testee constitutes a'"teacher rating." Importance of the Study As presented previously the rationale for the repli- cation part of this study rests on the contention that language represents a major force in the survival of man. 13 If this be true we also are aware that language, because of its inaccuracies, may also become a force in hindering man's survival. Thus experimental efforts which show promise of achieving further insight into the nature of language mal- functioning and which may have practical application need urgently to be re-investigated to prove their worth or rejected because of error. In every moment of every day all human beings use the language of their forefathers. As very young children a vocabulary is acquired based on repetition and mimicry. With each passing year there is introduced a larger number of words and finally children enter that haven of enlight— enment, the school. At this point, with the initial entrance into the world of formalized learning begins in earnest the ever quickening pace of teaching the awesome structure of a language which appears to prevent most human beings from com- municating and thinking in a realistic manner. It is at this point that human beings are also lead down the pathway of misevaluations of fact, misconceptions of reality, and the never-ending process of utilizing a means of communi- cation which repeatedly causes frustration and distress. The impact of such a devastating role that language seemingly plays in the life of a human being and in his relationships with others can only lead to discord and social upheaval. In innumerable instances in the lives of human beings it appears that fears, antagonisms, frustrations, et 1A cetera result from his attempts to communicate with those around him and sometimes rise up within the individual him- self. These conditions are reflected, at least partially, in the fact that there seems to be a continuously growing incidence in the crime rate and particularly is this true among the younger members of society. Also the intake of patients in mental hospitals apparently has increased (6: 338). Further evidence of social maladjustment may be seen in the large number of persons seeking treatment from psy- chiatrists, psychologists, social case workers, family service agencies, and other specialists in the area of personal—social adjustment. Appreciating the fact that there is a rapidly growing number of human beings who are seeking means whereby they will know themselves better; seeking means to understand themselves and their fellow men to’a greater degree than has been true in the past, it becomes essential that better methods of differentiating between those who are socially adjusted and those who are maladjusted be developed. By constant attention to the problems of language and communi- cation and the part they play in bringing about maladjust- ment as well as how language and a reorientation of its structure with reality can be used as a tool by which individuals can be lead back to an existence which may be deemed socially acceptable, that General Semantics may prove to be a great step forward in man's attempts to better com- prehend the world around him. 15 By utilizing the knowledge that has been built up with its foundation in the science of General Semantics, this may prove to be a most significant departure in the area of human understanding. The relative newness of this science demands that it be given a chance to add whatever knowledge may be gained by applications of its principles to any field of specialization that may be able to use it. It is with this thought in mind that this investigator has attempted to substantially replicate a previously unsupported experi— ment in General Semantics. The possibility of replication proving the applicability of the original work for use in every day practice is sufficient justification for under- taking such a task. If proven to be of unverifiable worth, then it constitutes a step in the direction of eliminating further efforts in the application of General Semantics to this particular use. Limitations of the Study The limitations of this study are in some respects the same as those which Dr. Thomas M. Weiss (ll6) enumerated in his thesis. Because of the inclusion of patients in a mental institution, the broadening of the institutionalized group to inelude females, and the fact that a totally new group of both institutionalized and noninstitutionalized individuals were used to replicate his study, the limitations have been somewhat overcome. 16 Nevertheless, the following limitations remain in the present study: First, there continues to be the limitation of the noninstitutionalized population with respect to its metro- politan orientation. Those persons of the normal group tested are all from locations within the so-called "metro- politan Detroit" area. The possible exception to this classification might be those students from the Romulus high school since this community is not generally considered to be a part of the metropolitan area and is in many respects rural in its orientation. Second, the fact that this is a paper-and-pencil test and that there may be a misinterpretation of the directions in taking the test remains. As in the previous study every effort was made to detail instructions in such a manner that they would be clear and precise to avoid any possibility of misinterpretation. In like manner the physical conditions were, as nearly as possible, the same in every instance with the noninstitutionalized group. Obviously those persons of the institutionalized group were not necessarily administered the test under the same physical conditions as the normal population. A third limitation arose, as before, over the inability of the investigator to validate the test against another established test of similar character. Not only the Mooney Problem Checklist but also the Thurstone Temperament Scale 17 was considered. In both cases these tests were not available with respect to every subject. This writer feels, however, that this limitation, at least in one respect, is not as significant for this study as it was in the initial work. Essentially the reason for undertaking this project was to validate the work of a colleague. In an entirely new area of experimentation it is usually impossible to validate work with other similar research since such does not exist. It is this writer‘s contention that until further experimen— tation has been conducted, replication represents the best method of validation. To those who might suggest that this writer could have undertaken a new experimental approach to this problem it must be stated that this, of course, is true. However, there would still remain the work of validation and to do this with an original experiment will provide some foundation for future researchers as well as setting forth an instrument of proven worth. The fourth limitation pertains to the rating of students by teachers with respect to their assumed degree of adjustment or maladjustment. This limitation, a part of the of the original study obtains in the present study, since it is part of the replication. To justify the use of the term replication, particularly for establishing validity in the initial phase of an investigation, it is necessary that all essential elements of the original work be repeated as nearly as possible in the same manner. Since the rating of students 18 was done by teachers in the original study, this same pro~ cedure was followed in this study, recognizing full well the limitations imposed. The personal attitudes, subjective in nature, play a most important role in rating scales. One does not usually rate "down" an individual that has given no trouble or acquired a reputation for good conduct, whether deserved or not. Thus teachers may judge the degree of adjustment or maladjustment of any single student not from an objective and unbiased appraisal of the student but rather from such factors as personal appearance, past experi- ences with the student, and other unsuitable criteria. Since these factors play a part in every rating of individuals by others it seems that the avoidance of these factors is practically impossible in such a simple rating scale as employed for this study. Obtaining ratings on each student by several teachers will overcome in part the biases of one or two raters. Furthermore, it is necessary in the development of a new test to have some comparative data for establishing validity and reliability. Plan of the Study Chapter II contains a review of the literature dealing With General Semantics. Since this area of specialization is relatively new and because there are no other investi- gators who have completed or are in the process of completing projects which use the concept or experimental approach adopted in the original investigation being replicated in 19 this study, of necessity this chapter is rather limited. The literature reviewed is concerned with presenting philo- sophical treatises and reports of some attempts to apply, experimentally and with small groups, the concepts expounded in the science of General Semantics. Essentially the pur- pose in reviewing the literature becomes one of inducting the reader into the various facets to which this new science is applicable. Additionally this serves as an aid in gaining insight into the tenents of General Semantics. The next Chapter (III) is concerned with the methodo- logy of the study. Specifically the method used in obtaining the data is explained. Also forming a part of this chapter is a discussion of the areas in which this dissertation ex- tends the work of the original investigator. Lastly the treatment of the data collected is set forth. A reiteration of the proposals and justifications for various techniques is made to fulfill the need for discerning the manner in which the basic material was organized. Chapter IV presents the statistical analysis of the data to be used for replication purposes. The same statis- tical treatment is carried out where true replication calls for such procedures. Specifically this refers to the use of the analysis of variance, and the analysis of variance with covariance ajustment. In Chapter V the application of statistical treatment to that data which constitutes the material forming the extension of the original study will be discussed. 20 Chapter VI will be devoted to a discussion of the findings and the significance of those findings. The con- clusions to be drawn, the implications for practical appli- cation of the experimentally devised test, implications for continued research, and suggestions pertaining to the use of the test for predictive and diagnostic purposes also will form a part of this chapter. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Literature pertinent to the area of General Semantics has been reviewed. For the convenience and clarity of the discussion of General Semantics and their reference to specific topics, each area has been organized under appro- priate subtitles. Group Dynamics and College Teaching The application of General Semantics principles to practical situations has been slow in evolving. However several efforts in various fields have been made which begin to open the way for further study and use. Those persons interested in group dynamics have gradually utilized the theoretical framework of General Semantics particularly at the National Training Laboratory in Group Development. Beginning from the work started by Lewin this group has developed some practical applications to human understanding. Much of their work focuses its attention on the evaluation of words and their meaning as related to the person who uses them. Stuart Chase (22) describes the work of this ll organization as, focusing attention on primary sources of human energy." Still further, a number of exponents of group dynamics attempt to use the approach of General 22 Semantics in their college and university classes. Murray (8A) describes rather vividly the methods he uses to bring about greater skills in language usage among his students as well as in the process helping students to bring out and discuss their own problems in an atmosphere of permissiveness. Murray contends that the necessary insights are gained and appropriate action comes about for the solution of individual and group problems. Education Probably no other area of human endeavor has received as much attention from those who are interested in General Semantics as has education. Though the applications have been meager in comparison with the investigations of other approaches to the problems of this field, what has been done has been shown to hold great promise. The need for the application and instruction in General Semantics prin- ciples at the secondary school level is explained by Corbin (28). He states that the linguistic insights which he enu- merates would provide students with a fund of knowledge to better comprehend the world about them. Lee (66) cites the presentation of General Semantics principles to 1A0 police- men attending a traffic control course given at Northwestern University. Others have used the little known techniques and propositions of General Semantics in other ways. LaBrant and Davis (58), among others, have utilized General Semantics principles in presenting textbooks for English classes. 23 Persons such as Cunningham (30) and Gans, Stendler, and Almy (35) have investigated the language of young people and its General Semantics implications. Many others have either introduced the concept of General Semantics into various courses or have pursued inquiries into the nature of com- munication, both written and Spoken, to better present the theoretical aspect of General Semantics as a means of over- coming the errors of language. Architecture Architecture has received the enlightenment of General Semantics. Hanson (36) has likened the growth of architec— ture and design to the growth of semantics and its impact on society. As in most areas the strength and breadth of General Semantics has seemed to pervade the realm of the more materialistic fields of mankind. Counseling and_Psychology Of considerable importance to the writer is the influ- ence of General Semantics in the area of counseling and psychology. Various authors who have written in the field of counseling and psychotherapy as well as practioners themselves have begun to realize the significant part that words play in the pathways of sanity and insanity. Walpole (114) at great length stresses the fact in his book, Semantics: The Nature 9: Words and their Meaning, that language inappropriately used may be a direct threat~to 2A sanity. The work of many psychologists and psychiatrists with the mentally ill points consistantly to the persistence with which such patients believe that words themselves are real. Schizophrenips, our largest group of the mentally ill, seem to respond in this way to words to such an extent that it has become a characteristic of the illness. Kelley (51) introduced the idea of General Semantics theory in his group therapy sessions with mentally disturbed soldiers during World War II. The success of his work by this method can be readily appraised when it is reported that ninety- six per cent of the soldiers treated returned to active duty. Insofar as the psychotherapist's and counselor‘s actual work is concerned the possibility of his own tech- nical language becoming a stumbling block to successful treatment of patients is emphasized by Johnson (A8) who draws attention to the fact that the vocabulary of the specialist may cause him to relate peoples problems only to his own special area. Arbuckle (3) cites specific examples of semantic problems among counselors and Rogers (97) warns of the dangers in judging, evaluating, and approving or disapproving a persons ideas or attitudes merely on the basis of the words he uses. Development of the "IS of Identity" Test in the Original Igyestigation For purposes of clarity and to emphasize the impor- tance of the original study conducted by Dr. Weiss, it seems 25 appropriate at this point to outline briefly the disserta- tion referred to by this investigator as the cornerstone for the work of this study. In the author‘s note preceeding the main portion of the thesis, Dr. Weiss discusses with great clarity the reliance human beings have placed in the past on such individuals as Aristotle, Euclid, Newton, and Dalton and the philosophical arguments regarding right and wrong, reality, and the physical aspects of the world around us, et cetera, which these individuals and others have set forth for all to accept, use, and assimilate into their “ . the con- very existences. However, as Weiss states, cepts that Aristotle, Newton, Euclid, or any authority pro- poses are only tentative and subject to revision when empirical testing demonstrates such a need." Further, as a partial basis for the development of the original "IS of identity" test, Dr. Weiss contends that, ". . . empirical evidence (is) available to every human who uses language, and who is his own authority so far as evaluation is con— cerned." The basis for the formulation of the paper-and-pencil “IS of identity" test stems from the writings of Alfred Korzybski. The concept outlines here relates to the physio- logical process of the individual in his reaction to the world about him. It is contended that man, in ascribing a property to a thing, fails to take into account that physio- logical process involved in seeing, evaluating, and reacting 26 to a thing in reality as well as falling to comprehend the inadequacy of the language he uses to ascribe a property to a thing or convey his feelings about the thing in reality to another. In addition he not only inadequately, and probably inappropriately, abstracts from reality but he also tells something about himself when he attempts to con- vey by means of language and/or the symbolic process his personal reflections about that bit of reality in question. Following this Dr. Weiss discusses briefly the relationship between language and behavior patterns and from this sets forth the two-valued system under which human beings operate and the relationship this has to a true-false instrument which would operate to measure the tendency of the testee with regard to the two-valued, either-or forced type of situation. Thus it waSvfrom this background, using the "IS of identity" hypothesis of the General Semanticists, that Dr. Weiss produced a one-hundred item, true-false, paper-and-pencil instrument to test the hypotheses reiter- ated in a later portion of this replication study.2 In each of the areas discussed above and particularly with reference to counseling and psychotherapy it has been pointed out that our language and its use in communication constitutes an important part of our social existence. Its breakdown leads to maladjustment, conflict, and social 2A copy of the "IS of identity" test is found in Appendix A. It‘ 27 discontent. Because of the tremendous part which language plays in our lives it isimportant that we study and experi- ment on the effects of language and communication failure. With this thought in mind, the object of this thesis becomes important in enlarging upon our fund of knowledge about an area which is so dramatically lacking in experimentation and the development of practical applications. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Language, as an essential element in the lives of human beings, plays a most prominent role in the common bond of communication that enables everyone to present his ideas, thoughts and rememberances before others. The commonality of this human activity is derived from its supposed exact- ness-~its sameness in content to everyone. Yet every human has experienced the frustration of being unable to commu- nicate with and among others because of a lack of agreement over the ideas that a word or group of words is supposed to convey. It is relatively easy to understand, then, the significance of this linguistic phenomenon. 0f even greater significance, however, is the interesting hypothesis pre- sented by general semanticists that the degree to which an individual identifies a word as being the "thing“ itself, determines the degree to which this person is socially adjusted or maladjusted. More concretely, it is the use of the “IS of identity" concept, described in Chapter I, and somewhat more extensively on pages 2A-27 in Chapter II, with which the material of this thesis deals. And it is this concept that serves to anchor the structure of the test being replicated by this study. 29 As an essential feature of a replication study it is necessary that the same procedures be carried out with refer- ence to data collected from new sources as that which was done in the original work. This procedure was followed, where applicable, in the present investigation. A complete analysis of the data collected was made, using the same statistical procedures as those utilized by Dr. Weiss. Sample For replication purposes the "IS of identity" test was administered to a sample of 21A individuals randomly selected from the following high schools: Allen Park, Dearborn Town- ship School District Number Eight, Ecorse, Melvindale, and Romulus. This group constituted the noninstitutionalized or normal population. To obtain data from an institutionalized group, a total of 173 persons were tested. This group con- sisted of the total adolescent population of inmates at the Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home, Detroit, and a group of mental patients consisting of fifty-five adults and two adolescents at the Wayne County General Hospital, Eloise, Michigan. Representativeness of the sample from the Wayne County General hospital could not be obtained since the selection of the patients to be tested necessarily had to remain in the hands of the chief Clinical Psychologist. The determination of what patients would be tested here depended on their availability, willingness to cooperate, accessibility to testing, and the completeness of the case history. 30 The raw data collected for each individual in the normal population consisted of the following: I.Q., sex, age, religious affiliation, church attendance, self~rating, teacher-ratings, occupation of the principal income worker, and race, as well as the "IS of identity" test score. For the institutionalized group at the Wayne County Juvenile 'Detention Home, the same data were collected with the ex- ception of the teacher—ratings and the occupation of the principal income worker. Among the patients at the Wayne County General Hospital, the following raw data were col- lected: I.Q., sex, age, religious affiliation, church attendance, race,and diagnosis. An attempt was made to have each patient complete the self-rating aspect of the test; however, this proved to be too traumatic an experience for the majority, consequently this item was omitted for analytical purposes. It should be pointed out that the intelligence scores obtained for the mental patients should not be construed as being a true indicator of their ability. Clinically it is generally accepted that intelligence scores for mental patients are generally depressed due to the psychotic condition of the patient and to the degree of the severity of the illness. This condition would obviously dis- courage any attempt at a direct comparison between psychotic testees and testees among the normal population if intel- ligence were shown to be a crucial factor in the acquisition of scores on the "IS of identity" test. The original I." 31 investigator, Dr. Weiss, did find such a positive correlation existing between test score and intelligence when the analy- sis of variance statistical technique was applied to the data. Should this result be substantiated by the present investigation, it would then be inappropriate to undertake a comparison of the "IS of identity" scores of those individuals who were tested at the Wayne County General Hospital with the normal population by this same statistical procedure. One omission was made in this study which appears in the research conducted by Dr. Weiss. This is the obtaining of a prognosis in the case of the institutionalized group. In gathering the raw data from the institutionalized popu- lation the item of prognosis was deleted by this investigator because it was felt that this was inappropriate to the sources from which the material was obtained. In the case of the population at the Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home any prognosis would be Tmpossible since final dispo- sition of the persons in this institution rests with the courts. At the Wayne County General Hospital it was impos- sible to to obtain a satisfactory prognosis since the patients used were in such a severe state of mental illness that any prognosis would be purely speculative. In addition to these arguments for not including this item in the data it can also be stated that although a prognosis was obtained by Dr. Weiss, this information was not used in the statis- tical treatment of the material. 32 Procedures As in the original study, the raw data were analyzed by the application of the statistical techniques of analysis of variance, simple correlation, and analysis of variance with covariance adjustment when deemed necessary to eliminate the influence of intelligence. This analysis appears in Chapter IV. Chapter V contains an analysis of data which forms the extension of the original study, or a modification of that study. In the first instance the data concerning the occupation of the principal income worker in the home was used to determine if any differences existed, based upon the "IS of identity" test scores, between occupations carrying a high prestige value and thus conceivably being considered to place the individuals in those occupations in a high socio-economic position, as opposed to occupations carrying a low prestige value and consequently placing the individuals in these occupations in a low socio—economic position. The occupations were first converted to a prestige score on the basis of a scale as presented in the work by Bendix and Lipset (6:Al2-A1A) in an analysis of occupations. Occassionally it was necessary to make arbitrary determin- ations of where specific occupations listed by testees should fall in the prestige scale. However, in every in- stance where such a determination had to be made reference was sought fromtflmaDictionary 9; Occupational Titles (32) . 33 to align a particular occupation with a comparable occupation given in the scale. In this manner as much bias as possible was eliminated from the assignment of a particular prestige rating to a particular occupation. The analysis consists of investigating the magnitude of correlation between the two factors and also by means of the analysis of variance procedure, to determine if a significant difference exists based on the "IS of lientity" test scores between those individuals whose socio—economic position may be classed as low and those individuals who may be classed as ranking high in thesocio-economic hierarchy. A second item which extends this work beyond the scope of the original research concerns itself with race. An analysis of racial differences that may or may not exist has been made. Essentially this is broken into two parts, the first consisting of an analysis of racial differences among the noninstitutionalized group, with the second analysis having been made on the basis of race among the ' institutionalized group. A third variation from the first work consists of an analysis between scores earned on the "IS of identity" test and the diagnosis--grouped as to specific classifications-- of the mental patients at the Wayne County General HOSpital. Although, upon occasion, an arbitrary decision had to be made in the case where a diagnosis did not fit exactly in the pre-arranged pattern, the decision regarding the 3A appropriate category into which a specific case should be placed was based on the closeness in content and over—all characteristics to a particular classification, broadly drawn. Due to the limited number of patients tested, this analysis can in no way be considered as being more than sug- gestive. Since this particular approach to the study of mental patients represents a new undertaking in General Semantics, this alone may be deemed sufficient to include such an analysis. As in the case of the statistical work connected with the replication of Dr. Weiss' study, the extensional portion of this thesis is treated in the same manner. Analysis of variance, simple correlation, and analysis of variance with covariance adjustment are the statistical techniques thus employed. This further provides consistance in the analysis of all the data contained in the present study. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction To preserve the continuity in presenting the repli- cation of this study, the tables of analysis have been developed in the same order and manner as they appear in the original study. As related in Chapter III, the analysis of material which has been divided into classes must for replication purposes use the technique of analysis of vari- ance. This technique mentioned in Chapter III, can be described as testing the significance of the differences between the class means which entails comparing the variance within classes with the variance of the class means. (To accomplish this requires analyzing the sum total of squares of the deviations of the test scores from their grand mean into two parts.) The first part is the sum of the squares: of deviation of the test scores from their class means. The second part consists of the sum of squares of the devia- tions of the class means from the grand mean. Each of these parts divided by the appropriate degrees of freedom gives a separate estimate of the variance of the original popu- lation. Using the larger of these estimates,stipulated by the formula, as the numerator, the resulting ratio is the 36 value of F. This value is then compared with the critical table of F values in a standard F table. If the ratio is larger than the appropriate value in the table, the means of the classes differ significantly at the indicated prob- ability level. Because this is, in part, a replication study, it behooves the investigator to be even more critical of the results of the analyses. Such a critical attitude will buttress any results which are in agreement with those found by Dr. Weiss. Should the results not coincide, then adher- ence to a highly discriminating level of significance will tend to point up such statistics as being unsubstantiated and, therefore, in need of further study. To present such a critical appraisal of the results the following practice " means not significant at the has been followed--"not sig. 0.05 probability level, "*" means significant at the 0.05 probability level, "**" means significant at the 0.01 prob- ability level. Analysis: Males and Females This study, replicating an earlier work, presents on the following pages an analysis of sex, age levels, religion, church attendance, self-rating, teacher-rating subdivided into classes. Following in the exact order of the work of Dr. Weiss, the first analysis is of males and females in the noninstitutionalized group. This noninstitutionalized group, referred to in the table headings aS'"All Schoolsfl‘ 37 consists of the high schools of Allen Park, Dearborn Town- ship School District Number Eight, Ecorse, Melvindale, and Romulus. Randomness of the total sample was obtained in the following manner. Testees were randomly selected from five separate schools with the over-all object of obtaining fifty students from each of the high schools selected thus making a total noninstitutionalized population of 250 testees- This sample,selected from five high schools to match the sample used by Dr. Wiess, was then obtained through the process of numbering in alphabetical order regardless of age, sex, educational level, race, or other factors, all students in each individual high school. Following this, the individuals in the sample were selected by employing a table of random numbers. For the institutionalized group, all juveniles con- fined to the Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home were utilized. Thus, it was possible to obtain a sample approxi- mating in age the noninstitutionalized samples in both the present and the original investigations and the institue tionalized sample employed in the original study. Mental patients were used to complete the sample of institutionalized testees. This group was utilized for several reasons. Dr. Weiss did not have available a sample of mental patients which fact was included as a limitation of his study. This investigator was able to overcome this limitation in the replication study. Also mental patients 38 may logically be considered to be the most socially malad- justed group in our society and thus might test more string— ently the validity of the test instrument. Age was not a deterring factor since Dr. Weiss presented statistical evidence which pointed to the fact that age did not enter into the test's ability to discriminate social adjustment or maladjustment. The conditions of their selection are set forth in detail in Chapter III. Table I summarizes the analysis Of the data on the males and females selected by random sampling among the noninstitutionalized group. This analysis on the basis of sex shows that this factor had no effect on the variation of test scores among the testees and thus can be discounted as being an influence in the use of the "IS Of identity." TABLE I ALL SCHOOLS (ALLEN PARK, DEARBORN TOWNSHIP SCHOOL DISTRICT NUMBER 8, ECORSE, MELVANDALE, AND ROMULUS) "'18 OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES-- CLASSES (MALES AND FEMALES) fi_—q“—*—‘ v_-_f —‘_‘~'_v r .- —: —— ——-_ I m d.f. S.S.* M.S.** Between class means 1 196 196 Within classes 212 50,087 236 Total 213 50,283 _ F .0-831 (not. sis) v j —v V wfi w * S.s.-~Sum Of squares ** M.S.-—Mean Square (estimate of population variance = s.s./d.r.) . 39 The second analysis Of males and females is of those individuals in the institutionalized group. The institutions used, and referred to in the table caption as "All Institu- tions,’ are, as previously stated, the Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home and the Wayne County General Hospital. Again in this analysis the results indicate that the factor of sex plays no part in the acquisition of test scores and conse— quently supports the contention that this is not a factor in the use of the "IS Of identity" concept. TABLE II ALL INSTITUTIONS (WAYNE COUNTY JUVENILE DETENTION HOME, WAYNE COUNTY GENERAL HOSPITAL) "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCOREs--CLASSES (MALES AND FEMALES) fie we ~ rvm d.f. s.s.* M.S.** Between class means 1 A63 A63 Within classes l7l A0,08A 23A Total 172 AO,5A7 F = 1.979 (not Sig.) F ' F' ‘ F I fl V ' Jfim * s.s.--Sum of squares ** M.S.—-Mean Square (estimate of population variance = s.s./d.f.) Analysis: Age Levels As in Dr. Weiss' study, analyses were made of the two institutions used in this research on the basis of age A0 levels. Tabulations were made as to the number of individ- uals who fell within specified age groups. This was nec- essary to enable this researcher to adequately utilize the data collected as well as being a prerequisite to the use of the analysis of variance technique. As an aid in pre- senting this material and other data throughout this chapter, and to present the data in a more concise form, where appro- priate the following designations will be usedee“A“ means “Between class means," and "B" means "Within classes;" Table III shows the analysis of age levels at the two institutions specified earlier in this chapter. The data for the Wayne County General Hospital indicates that age does not affect the variation of test scores and thus does not enter as a factor in the use of the "IS of identity" by these individuals. The results of the analysis of the data at the Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home, when all juveniles tested were examined in the analysis, showed significance at the 0.05 level of probability. Because of the inconsistancy of this result with the rest of the analyses based on age level and due to the fact that the results in this instance do not coincide with those reported by Dr. Weiss, an attempt was made to uncover the reason for this difference. It was found that the means for each age grouping were centered about the same point with the excep- tion of the seventeen and eighteen year~olds who were grouped together for purposes of analysis. The mean score A1 of this age group deviated to the extent of over twenty points from the central mean scores of the other groups. No satisfactory explanation can be offered for this variance except to point out that such a result, in all probability a very unusual one, might develop in any experimental under- taking. A retest, if time permitted, of a similar group might very well uphold the hypothesis of this investigator that age is not a factor in the variation of score achieved on the "IS of identity" test. TABLE III ‘"IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES--CLASSES (AGE LEVELS) F d.f. s.s. M.S. Value Wayne County Juvenile Detention Home A 5 2.374 475 B 110 19,A62 177 Total 115 21,836 2.68A* Wayne County General Hospital A 5 2,016 A03 B 50 13,255 265 Total 55 15.271 1.521 (not Sig.) A2 The next table, Table.IV, is an analysis Of the classes of age groups for each of the high schools from which testees were randomly selected. As with the institutions, specified age groups were set up to handle the data collected. In these instances the results Of each Of the cases presented in Table IV indicate that the factor of age is not associated with test score variations and thus it may be assumed that age does not play a part in the use of the "IS of identity" concept. Analysis: Religion Table V is an analysis applied to the classes of religion--divided into Catholic and non-Catholic. Before the administration of the test is begun, each testee is asked to indicate in the appropriate space on his test paper whether he is Catholic or Protestant. In a number of instances individuals would write in the term "other." Those individuals falling in this latter group were lumped together with the Protestant group on the basis of the rather common acceptance Of the idea that Catholics will identify themselves readily even though they may not be practicing their religion at the time. The results of this analysis do not coincide with the results Dr. Weiss Obtained. In his analysis, the results were significant at the 0.05 probability level. The study undertaken by this investigator shows that this factor is not associated with test score variation. It is possible 43 TABLE IV '"IS 0F IDENTITY" TEST SCORES——CLASSES ‘(AGE LEVELS) .f. s.s. M.S. F value Allen Park A A 782 196 B 45 10,368 230 Total A9 11,150 0.852 (not Sig.) Dearborn Twp. No. 8 A A 1,238 310 B 28 6,28A 22A Total 32 7,522 1.38A (not Sig.) Ecorse A A 597 149 B 30 5,028 168 Total 3A 5,625 0.887 (not Sig.) Melvindale A 3 345 115 B A6 12,A69 271 Total 219 12,8le 6 .1124 (not sis.) Romulus A 3 A2A 1A1 B A1 10,8A7 265 Total AA 11,271 0.532 (not 818-) AA the disagreement in results may stem from the fact that a greater percentage Of individuals tested by this researcher indicated that they did not profess any religious affili- ation, than was indicated in the raw data Of the Weiss study. TABLE V ALL SCHOOLS "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES-—CLASSES (CATHOLIC, NON-CATHOLIC) d.f. s.s. M.S. F value A 1 629 629 B 356 95,817 269 Total 357 96,AA6 2.338 (not.sig.) ml - ' - J—lr gm:- Analysis: Church Attendance and Non-Attendance Table VI is an analysis applied to church attendance or non-attendance. TABLE VI ALL SCHOOLS "IS OF IDENTITYH TEST SCORES--CLASSES (CHURCH ATTENDANCE, NON-ATTENDANCE) m M d.f. s.s. M.S. F value A 1 576 576 B 355 97,172 274 Total 356 97,7A8 2.102 (not sig.) v—r ww— w—(fifi— A5 The results supported the work of Dr. Weiss in his original study that church attendance or non—attendance played no part in the variation of test scores obtained and consequently can be said to have no effect on the use of the "IS of identity." Analysis: Self-ratings Table VII follows the plan of the original study in presenting the analysis of self-rating categories against the "IS of identity" test scores. These self-rating items are included as a part of the ”IS of identity" test and serve to illicit a response by the testee on his feelings about himself and his relations with others. Item 101 states, "I like almost everyone"; item 102 states, "I am very careful in choosing my friends"; item 103 is as follows, “I like more people than I dislike“; item 10A, "I make no friends until they prove worthy of my friendship"; and 105, "I like and dislike about the same number of people;" The results of this analysis vary with those found by Dr. Weiss. His results indicated that no association is to be found between the self-rating items and the variation in test scores. However, this investigator in the results of this analysis finds that there is significance at the 0.05 level of probability. The difference in results may be attributed to the greater number of cases of omissions in self-rating among the testees from the Romulus high school. Every attempt was made to obtain all essential data, however, A6 school routine could not be too greatly interfered with and for this reason the data in this instance was not as complete as this investigator desired. TABLE VII ALL SCHOOLS "IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES-~CLASES (SELF-RATINGS 101, 102, 103, 104, AND 105) w fififi d.f. s.s. M.S. F value A A 2,793 698 B 271 63,073 233 Total 275 65,866 2.996* The next table depicts an analysis of the institu- tionalized group versus the noninstitutionalized group on each of the self-rating categories described above. The -institutionalized group, in this instance, however, does not include the persons from the Wayne County General Hospital for the reason described on page 30 of Chapter III. In this instance, for purposes of clarity, the termS'"INS" and "OUTS" are used where "INS" refers to the institution- alized group, and "OUTS" refers to the noninstitutionalized group. These terms will be carried on throughout the remainder of the analyses where appropriate. A7 TABLE VIII ‘"IS 0F IDENTITY" TEST SCORES FOR THE SELF-RATING CATEGORlEs-—CLASSES (INS AND OUTS) fl _u Self-rating Category d.f. s.s M.S. F value 101 A l 844 844 B 125 24,483 196 Total 126 25,327 4.306* 102 A l 423 423 B 25 4,022 161 Total 26 4,445 2.627 (not Sig.) 103 A 1 3,745 3,745 B 87 20,442 235 Total 88 24,187 15.936** 104 A 1 2,169 2,169 B 12 2,920 243 Total 13 5,089 8.026* 105 A l l l B 17 4,023 237 4,024 0.004 (not Sig.) 'V v w v— 48 In these analyses, only on the analysis of self-rating category 104 does the evidence presented here differ with the findings of Dr. Weiss. This variation from the findings reported in the original study may be the result of a real or chance difference. It would seem most reasonable to presume that the difference existing in the Weiss study and the replication study of this investigator with respect to self-rating category 104 is the result of chance. Casual reflection on such facts as the matter of both noninstitu- tionalized groups (the sample used by Dr. Weiss and the sample used by this investigator), being drawn from high school populations; a comparison of these two noninstitu- tionalized groups on the basis of age, sex, and intelligence presenting no appreciable differences which would affect in any way the results of the testing; and the consistency of statistical results as shown on such analyses as "IS of identity" test scores and age levels in this replication study, all point to the element of chance as being the best explanation for the difference in results in analyzing category 104. In addition this same type of comparison with respect to the two institutionalized groups (the institu- tionalized group used by Dr. Weiss and the institutionalized group, excluding the Wayne County General Hospital, used by this investigator), are not at variance with each other except with respect to the matter of sex. Though the insti- tutionalized group of the replication study includes females “9 it was shown statistically in Table II, page 28, that sex is not a factor in the matter of test score variations. Analysis: Teacher-ratings Table IX is an an analysis of the teacher—ratings by classes 1, 2, 3, and 4 for each of the high Schools as well as a composite of all these schools. With the exception of the analysis of Romulus high school and the composite analysis of all the high schools, the results of the statistical application of the variance in Table IX do not correspond to those found by Dr. Weiss. The apparent contradiction in the composite analysis and the individual schools may be explained by the fact that the significance found in the Romulus high school analysis was so great that it influenced the composite analysis to the extent of indicating significance here. An explanation of this over-all difference in the findings of this repli— cation study with those reported in the original study seems most reasonably to be associated with the possibility that the teachers in the schools where non-significance was the result were not as concerned over or lacked the knowledge of their students as did the teachers at Romulus. A high school counseling program has been in operation for many years in Romulus as well as the high schools from which Dr. Weiss drew his sample population. A high school counseling program generally contributes in large measure to the increased awareness by teachers of the intellectual and TABLE IX BO '"IS OF IDENTITY" TEST SCORES FOR EACH HIGH SCHOOL-- .CLASSES (TEACHER-RATINGS l, 2, 3, AND 4) Allen Park Total Dearborn Twp. No. 8 Total Ecorse Total Melvindale Total Romulus Total Composite-- All Schools Total d.f. fifiv—w a ——v v "wv— s.s. M.S. P value 2 448 224 47 10,702 228 49 11,150 0.982 (not sis.) 4 917 229 28 6,605 236 32 7,522 0.970 (not Sig.) 4 967 242 30 4,841 161 34 5,808 1.503 (not sis ) 4 1,649 412 45 11,165 248 49 12,814 1.661 (not Sig.) 3 3.657 1.219 41 7,614 186 44 11,271 6.554** 4 5,107 1,277 208 45,128 217 212 I 50,235 51 social differences between individual students. Such a counseling program has not existed in the other schools of this study for nearly as long a period as has been the case in the schools mentioned above. To strengthen the results which he found by means of the analysis of variance technique as applied to teacher- ratings for each school, Dr. Weiss further analyzed this factor by means of the correlation technique between "IS of identity" test scores and teacher-ratings. Since the repli- cation of this analysis by this investigator did not sub- stantially support the findings of Dr. Weiss,and non-sig- nificance resulted in all cases except one, it therefore is unnecessary to analyze by the use of the correlation procedure the majority of the high school sample with respect to teacher-ratings. Since the analysis of variance technique applied to the Romulus high school did, however, result in supportative data, the following table, Table X, presents the adaptation of the correlation procedure in this single instance. It can be observed that the findings achieved by this statistical method continue to bear out the results of the application of the analysis of variance technique and are significant at the 0.05 level of prob— ability. 52 TABLE X CORRELATION BETWEEN "IS 0F IDENTITY" TEST SCORES AND TEACHER-RATINGS AT ROMULUS HIGH SCHOOL —v— fi fi—' fl w fi if a W Sum of Sum of Sum.of (Sum of CrOSSr Teacher- Test Teacher- Teacher~ Prod— N ratings Scores ratings)2 Scores)21uct‘s) 1” Romulus 45 130 2226 392 121384 6192 -0.5544* f a a vv V a V‘fifi fi v fi w v V w w—— v a Analysis: Test Scores and Intelligence Correlation results of "IS of identity" test scores with intelligence are given in Table XI. This analysis was carried out for the same purposes as expressed in the discussion of Table X-—to completely replicate the work of Dr. Weiss. The analysis by means of the correlation pro- cedure agrees with the results obtained in the first study except in two instances. 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