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A STUDY OF PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS, TEACHERS AND
ADMINISTRATORS WITH REGARD TO ORGANIZATIONAL
CLIMATE OF COMPREHENSIVE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN SAUDI ARABIA

presented by

Ali A. Al-Hajji

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

Ph . D . degree in Teacher Educat ion
(Secondary Education)

 

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A STUDY OF PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS,
TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS WITH REGARD
TO ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE OF COMPREHENSIVE
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SAUDI ARABIA

BY

Ali A. Al-Hajji

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Teacher Education

1988

This is to certify that the

dissertation entitled

A STUDY OF PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS, TEACHERS AND
ADMINISTRA’I‘ORS WITH REGARD TO ORGANIZATIONAL
CLIMATE OF COMPREHENSIVE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN SAUDI ARABIA

presented by

Ali A. Al—llajji

has been accepted towards fulfillment
oftlie requirements for

Ph.D. dcgrecinTeaCher Education
(Secondary Education)

Aim at Div/aim

Major professor
Date 31—min «1% ”5‘7

 

M: U tr Ill Affirmative Anion/fig u! Opponunily Inuitun'an 0- 12771

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS,
TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS WITH REGARD
TO ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE OF COMPREHENSIVE
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SAUDI ARABIA

BY
Ali A. Al—Hajji

To overcome the weaknesses of the traditional
secondary schools, comprehensive secondary schools have
been introduced in Saudi Arabia. At the time of
collection of data for this study, there were four well
established comprehensive schools operating in Saudi
Arabia. Since the establishment of the first
comprehensive secondary school in the capital city of
Riyadh, no systematic research has been done to study
the different facets of organizational climate of this
new experiment. This study, being a step in that
direction, has attempted to examine the perceptions of
students, teachers and administrators with regard to
organizational climate of comprehensive secondary
schools in Saudi Arabia. Also, it haS‘”tried to
determine the perceived levels of acceptance of current

conditions; and the degree of desire for change in

Ali A. Al-Hajji

organizational climate by students, teachers and
administrators.

The important findings of the study are: (1) There
are significant differences in perceptions of the
respondents with regard to current conditions of
organizational climate in terms of leadership, communica-
tion, school morale, group relationships, and facilities
and services; (2) The highest levels of perceived
acceptance of current organizational climate were
expressed by administrators in respect of leadership,
school morale, and group relationships; and by teachers
in relation to school morale only. The lowest levels of
perceived acceptance» of current organizational climate
were indicated by teachers in respect of facilities and
services; and by students in relation to facilities and
services, school morale, and group relationships;
(3) All respondents desired medium level of change in
respect of all five elements of organizational climate,
namely, leadership, communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services.

The data for the study were collected through a
structured questionnaire from 648 respondents of four
well-established comprehensive secondary schools in
Saudi Arabia. To analyze the data, multivariate
analysis of variance, discriminant function analysis,

means, frequencies and percentages were used.

i
?

 

 

In the Name of Allah, the
Gracious, The Merciful

DED ICAT ION

To the souls of my father
and my brother Mohammad

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The accomplishment of this research was not
possible without the help, support, and encouragement of
many friends, family members, and officials.

I am deeply indebted to my lovely wife Safiah
Al-Hajji for her patience through the ordeal of the
research process as well as the health situation I
experienced. She took responsibly took care of our
children while I was away from them. In addition I
would like to thank my mother who did not forget me in
her prayers. My thanks are also extended to my chidren
Mohammad, Mudhaffar, Abdulhameed, and Hiba for their
patience and understanding.

I would like to extend my deepest appreciation and
thanks to my academic advisor, Dr. Ben Bohnhorst. He
was very generous, understanding, and supportive of my
efforts to finish this study. He was always available
when I needed him and never gave up on me. He was a
true friend. My feelings toward him are beyond
description in words. For hhn I would say thank you,
Dr. Bohnhorst.

Also II am grateful to my committee members, Dr.
Charles Blackman, Dr. Kenneth Neff, and Dr. John Useem.

V

They were very helpful and sacrificed their valuable
vacation time to attend my oral defense at short notice.

My warmest thanks are expressed to Dr. Abdulla
Al—Hamdan. Through his official position as Dean of the
College of Education at King Saud University, he took
every measure to support my efforts for collecting this
research data. Without his help and personal
involvement, the data for this research would not have
been gathered appropriately.

My gratitude is also extended to Dr. Hamid Shakir
Hillmi for his well-known experience in the area of
translation. He spent an extensive amount of time
putting the study questionnaire into good form. Also my
thanks go to Dr. Abdulhamid Safwat for reviewing the
study questionnaire. He provided very good suggestions
for improving the questionnaire's format.

From the Ministry of Education, Saudi Arabia, I
would like to express my special thanks to Dr. Mohamed
Al-Kunaizi and Mr. Salih Al-Omair for their efforts,
both officially and unofficially, in providing me with
the needed statistical information and other required
data.

A special thanks to Dr. Hamad Al-Ajroush, Chairman
of the Research Center, College of Education, King Saud
University, for his help in copying the study
questionnaire.

vi

My deepest thanks and appreciation to Dr. Ali S.
Asseeri, Dr. Saleh Al-Harthi, Mr. Abdulla Al-Akkooz, and
Mr. Mohanna Al-Lami for their direct involvement in
collecting the study data from the target population of
this research.

Finally, my special thanks to Mr. Gene Purdum for
his dedication in typing the manuscript, to Dr. Noorul
Hussain for some useful editorial comments, and to Mr.
Abdulrazak Habib for analyzing the research data.

To those people, I would like to say that you have
done your best to help me. If there are any faults or
flaws in this research, they are solely my

responsibility.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES 0 a o o a o O 0 o O o I o o 0 0

LIST OF F'IGURES I I o o o I o I I o C o o o o 0

Chapter I.

Chapter II.

INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O I

The Purpose of the Study . . . . .
Research Questions . . . . . . . .
Research Hypotheses . . . . . . .
Need for the Study . . . . .
The Development of the Educational
System in Saudi Arabia . . . . .
Educational System . . . . . . .
Education Policy . . . . . . . .
Levels of Education . . . . . .
Secondary Education . . . . . .
Higher Education . . . . . . . .
Conceptual Foundations of the
Study . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . . .
Definitions and Descriptions
of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . .

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON
COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOLING . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . .
What Is Comprehensive Schooling? .
Comprehensive Schools of the
United States and England . . .
The United States . . .
Drives Behind Establishing This
System . . . . . . . . . . .
Objectives of Comprehensive
Secondary Schools . . . . .
Comprehensive Schools of England
Secondary Education . .
Comprehensive Secondary Schools.
Drives Behind Establishing This
System . . . . . . . . .
Objectives of the British
Comprehensive Schools . . . .
Comprehensive Schooling in Some
Arab States . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . .

viii

Page

xi

H

(11-th

39

40
40

 

Chapter III.

Chapter IV.

Jordan . . . . . . . . . . .
Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kuwait . . . . . . . . .
Comprehensive Secondary Schools
of Saudi Arabia . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . .
The Concept of Comprehensive
Schooling . . . . . . .
Reasons for Establishing the
System . . . . . . . . .
Goals of Comprehensive
Secondary Schools . .
Graduation Requirements
System Development . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .

LITERATURE REVIEW OF SCHOOL
ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE . . .

Introduction . . .
Conceptual Foundations of the
Study . . . . . . . . . . .
Major Definitions of
Organizational Climate . . .
Major Studies by Leading
Researchers . . . .
Dissertation Studies and
Published Papers . .
Dissertation Studies
Research Papers . . .
Summary . . . . . . . .

o o I o
O l l .

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . .

Selected Elements of
Organizational Climate .
Leadership Style . . . .
Communication . . . . .
School Morale . . . . .
Group Relationships . .
Facilities and Services of

the School . . . . . .

Research Method . . . . . .
Population and Samples .
Sampling Method . . . . .
Data Collection Instrument
Instrument Development . .
Instrument Translation . . .
Pilot Study of the Instrument
Data Collection Process . .

C O I 0

Statistical Analysis Procedures.

ix

Page
41
47

50
50

51

51

63
63
64

67

114

116
116
117

119

120
120
120
124
125
126
126
127
128
129

Demographic Characteristics of
Respondents . .
Students . . . .
Teachers . . . .
Administrators .

Summary . . . . .

Chapter V. DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS . . .

Findings Related to Hypotheses
Testing . . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis Number One . . .
Hypothesis Number Two . . .

Findings Related to Research
Questions . . . . . .
Question Number One .
Question Number Two .

Discussion of Findings .
Hypothesis Number Two
Question Number One .
Question Number Two .
Mean Responses for Each Item

Summary . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . .

Summary of the Study . . . . .
Conclusions and Implications .
Recommendations for Further
Studies . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDICES o n o o o o C O o o o o o o o I .

Appendx A - Cover Letter and

English and Arabic Versions of

the Questionnaire .

Appendix B - Bar Graphs Indicating

Mean Responses for Each Item
Appendix C - Correspondence .

Appendix D - List of Instruments
and Questionnaires in the Area

of Organizational Climate and
School Environment . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . o O I I o o o o O o o o o O o

Page

131
131
134
140
145

146

147
147
149

149
151
152
154
166
168
169
169
170

173

173
177

181
182

184

184

209
224

229

231

LIST OF TABLES

Distribution by Province of Elementary and
Secondary Schools in Saudi Arabia at the
End of World War II . . .

I I O O I I I I

Credit Hour Distribution Required for High
School Graduation . . . .

List of the School Compulsory Program . . .

Students Surveyed from the Four Comprehensive
Secondary Schools . . . .

Teachers Surveyed from the Four Comprehensive
Secondary Schools . . . .

Administrators Surveyed from the Four
Comprehensive Secondary Schools . . . . .

Distribution of

Distribution of

Students by

Students by

Being in School . . . . .

Distribution of

Distribution of
Distribution of
Distribution of

Distribution of

Students by
Students by
Teachers by
Teachers by

Teachers by

Teaching in School . . .

Distribution of

Distribution of
of Study . .

Distribution of
of Study . .

Distribution of

Distribution of
Location . .

Teachers by

Teachers by

Teachers by

Teachers by

School Location

Years of

Age . . . . . .
Department . .
School Location
Nationality . .

Years of

Age Group . . .

Major Fields

Minor Fields

Subject Taught.

Administrators by School

xi

Page

54

58

123

123

124

131

132
132
133
134
135

136
136

137

138

139

140

Distribution of Administrators by Nationality

Distribution of Administrators by Years
Working in School . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Distribution of Administrators by Age Group .

Distribution of Administrators by Position.

Distribution of Administrators by Minor
Fields of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Distribution of Administrators by Major
Fields of Study 0 O O O C O O I I O O O O .

Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Group
Effects on Thirty Measures of Current
Condition 0 O O I I O O O I O O O U C O O I

Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Group
Effects on Thirty Measures of Desired
condition 0 O O O O O O O I O O I O O O O 0

Rank order of the Ratings for Five Elements
of Organizational Climate: Mean Scores for
Acceptance of Current Conditions as
Perceived by the Respondents . . . . . . .

Rank order of the Ratings for Five Elements
of Organizational Climate: Mean Scores for
Desired Change as Perceived by the
Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Group
Effects on Each Set of Measures of
Leadership, Communication, School Morale,
Group Relations, and Services and Facilities
in Current Conditions . . . . . . . . . . .

Discriminant Function Analysis of Thirty
Measures of Current Conditions in
Contributing to Performance Differences of
Students, Teachers, and Administrators . .

Planned Comparison Test between Students
and Administrators on Thirty Measures of
Current Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page

141

141
142

143

143

144

148

150

152

153

155

156

158

5.12

Page

Planned Comparison Test between Teachers and
Administrators on Thirty Measures of
Current Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Planned Comparison Test between Students and
Administrators on Each Set of Measures of
Leadership, Communication, School Morale,

Group Relations, and Services and Facilities
in Current Condition . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Planned Comparison Test between Teachers and
Administrators on Each Set of Measures of
Leadership, Communication, School Morale,

Group Relations, and Services and
Facilities in Current Condition . . . . . . 162

Discriminant Function Analysis of Thirty
Measures of Current Conditions in
Contributing to Performance Differences
between Students and Administrators . . . . 163

Discriminant Function Analysis Applied to Each
Set of Five Measures of Leadership,
Communication, School Morale, Group Relations,
and Services and Facilities in Current
Condition for Students and Administrators . 164

Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Group
Effects on Each Set of Measures of Leadership,
Communication, School Morale, Group Relations,
and Services and Facilities in Desired
Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

MPC, LPC, and Group Atmosphere Scales . . . 73
Organizational Characteristcs of Likert's

Four Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Map of Saudi Arabia, Indicating Educational

Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Mean Responses for Current Conditions and

Desired Conditions for Item No. 1, "This

school's administration is open to

suggestions from teachers and students.". 209
Mean Responses for Current Conditions and

Desired Conditions for Item No. 2, "This

school's administration is consistently

supportive of students and teachers." . . 209

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 3, "This
school's administration is adequately
staffed to do its job well." . . . . . . 210

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 4, "This
school tries out new ideas to solve its
problems." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 5, "This
school has rules and regulations which
are clear to everyone." . . . . . . . . . 211

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 6,
"Everybody gets a chance to take part in
this school's activities." . . . . . . . 211

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 7, "This
school's schedule gives students and
faculty the time they need to do their
jobs well. " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Page

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 8, "Faculty
and students are kept well-informed about
what is going on in this school." . . . . 212

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 9, "Students
in this school are continuously well-
informed of how well they are progressing
academically." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 10, "The
rights and duties of all members at this
school are very clear for everyone." . . . 213

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 11, "This
school has high expectations that the
students will learn well." . . . . . . . . 214

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 12.,
"Administration and faculty work hard to
help students succeed in this school." . . 214

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 13,
"Critical thinking and independent action
are valued in this school." . . . . . . . 215

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 14,
"Newcomers to this school are welcomed
and helped by school administration and
teachers, to become acquainted with the
school." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 15, "There
is a rich offering of academic courses and
other learning activities in this school." 216

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 16,
"Morale is high among faculty, students,
and administrators in this school." . . . 216

XV

5.18

Page

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 17, “This
school's system of evaluating students is
thorough and fair." . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 18,
"Beginning first-year students are helped
to get oriented and off to a good start in
this school." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 19,
"Administrators, faculty, and students have
high levels of trust and confidence in each
other in this school." . . . . . . . . . . 218

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 20, "The
faculty and administration of this school
are well qualified to do their jobs." . . . 218

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 21,
"Individual help for students is readily
available in this school when they need it." 219

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 22, "Open
general discussions are a regular feature
of daily life in this school." . . . . . . 219

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 23, "There
is a wide variety of social organizations,
sports activities, and informal group
activities which are regular parts of this
school's programs." . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 24, "This
school's activity program is well suited to
the interests of individual faculty and
individual students. . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 25, "The
teachers in this school make special
efforts to be clear about what they are
teaching and what students should learn." . 221

xvi

Page

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 26, "This
school has a friendly atmosphere among all
who work here." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 27, "The
counseling program in this school is
effective in dealing with students' needs
and problems." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 28, "This
school's library, science laboratories, and
collections of other aids to learning are
well-supported by this school's members." . 222

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 29, "This
school has programs for helping its faculty
develop professionally and improve their
teaching abilities." . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Mean Responses for Current Conditions and
Desired Conditions for Item No. 30, "This
school's buildings, sports arenas,
laboratories, and other facilities are
well-suited to students' and faculty needs." 223

xvii

 

CHAPTER I ’
INTRODUCTI ON
1

General secondary education in Saudi Arabia (as
contrasted with other vocational and technical
secondary-level schools) is currently' composed of two
systems: an old one called "the traditional secondary
school,“ and a nmderately new one called "the
comprehensive secondary school."

In the traditional secondary school system,
"students study general subjects in the first year. In
the second and third years, the program is divided into
twO‘ sections: literary and scientific. Enrollment in
any of these programs depends mostly on the result of
the final examination, which is usually held at the end
of the first year" (Al- alleess, 1980, p. 56).

In the comprehensive secondary school system,
which is the subject of this research, students have the
opportunity to choose their programs from different
academic departments according to their major fields of
study or interests. And to graduate, a student is
required to complete 120 credit hours, which include all
his compulsory and elective courses (Al-Malleess, 1980).

1

2

One of the major goals of secondary education in
Saudi Arabia is to provide students with the opportunity
to pursue their higher education and to prepare them to
work, and have a decent job (Al-Malleess, 1980).

The problems or weaknesses associated with the
traditional secondary schools prompted the need for the
introduction of and experimentation with the
comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia.
Considering the weaknesses of the traditional secondary
school system, Al—Malleess (1980) remarks:

The secondary school system has become an

instrument of wasting human potential; and has

resulted in school failures, drop-outs,
force-outs, etc.

Some of the important weaknesses of the
traditional secondary school system are:

1. It does not allow the students to choose

courses according to their interests and
aptitudes.

2. It does not take into consideration the
individual differences of the students.

3. It does not use various strategies and
methods of instruction.

4. It does not allow or encourage school
participation in decision—making processes

5. It causes poor comprehension of curriculum
contents by the students.

To improve upon these weaknesses of traditional
secondary schools, comprehensive secondary schools were

introduced in Saudi Arabia; and the first comprehensive

3
secondary school was set up in 1974 in the capital city
of Riyadh. A detailed discussion on comprehensive
schools is provided in Chapter II.

Since the establishment of comprehensive secondary
schools in Saudi Arabia, several efforts have been made
to evaluate this system of schooling. But no research
study' has yet been done to study different facets of
organizational climate of this newly introduced
secondary school system.

One of the areas of school systems, which has been
heavily' studied by researchers, is the organizational
climate of schools. Organizational climate, according
to Halpin and Croft (1962), is the organizational
personality' of a school. It refers to the social
interactions that take place among the components of a
school system. As a result, the success or
effectiveness of any school largely depends on the
quality of its organizational climate. This study,
therefore, attempts to examine some aspects of
organizational climate of comprehensive secondary
schools as perceived by' students, teachers, and

administrators in Saudi Arabia.

The Purpose of the Study

 

The primary purpose of this study was to examine
the perceptions of students, teachers, and administrators

with regard to organizational climate of comprehensive

4
secondary schools in Saudi Arabia. The study considered
only five elements of organizational climate, namely,
leadership, communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services with respect
to current conditions as well as desired conditions of
organizational climate.

Besides, the study has also attempted to find out
the perceived levels of acceptance of current
conditions; and the degree of desire for change by
students, teachers, and administrators with regard to
the selected elements of organizational climate of

comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia.

Research Questions

 

The study has tried to answer the following
research question:

1. Are there any significant differences among
perceptions of students, teachers, and
administrators with regard to organizational
climate of comprehensive secondary schools
of Saudi Arabia?

Research Hypptheses

 

In order to answer the above research question,
the following hypotheses in their theoretical form were
formulated:

1. There are significant differences among
students, teachers, and administrators with
regard to their perceptions of the current
conditions of organizational climate of
comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia.

5

2. There are significant differences among
students, teachers, and administrators with
regard to their perceptions of desire for
change in conditions of organizational
climate of comprehensive secondary schools
in Saudi Arabia.

Apart from the two hypotheses mentioned above, the
study has also attempted to answer the following
questions:

1. What are the perceived levels of acceptance
of students, teachers and administrators
with regard to current conditions of

sorganizational climate of comprehensive
secondary schools in terms of leadership,
communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services?

2. What are the perceived levels of desire for
change among students, teachers and
administrators in the organizational climate
of comprehensive secondary schools in terms
of leadership, communication, school morale,

group relationships, and facilities and
services?

Need for the Study

The educational problems associated with the
traditional secondary schools prompted the need for
introduction of comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia. The traditional secondary schools had a number
of weaknesses. Important ones were: poor comprehension
of curriculum contents by students, lack of
consideration of individual differences of students,
lack of school ‘participation in the decision—making
process, lack of optional courses for students, etc.

These problems, combined with other problems, resulted

6
in an increasing number of student drop—outs, force-
outs, and school failures. As a result, to improve upon
these weaknesses of the traditional secondary schools,
comprehensive secondary schools were introduced in Saudi
Arabia; and the first comprehensive secondary school was
set up in 1974 in Riyadh.

Since the introduction of comprehensive secondary
schools in Saudi Arabia, no studies have been done
either to evaluate the effectiveness of such schools, or
to generate data which might be helpful for planners,
administrators, and educators in better understanding,
or in bringing about needed improvements in this new
system of schooling. This study, therefore, is the
beginning of such efforts.

As long as the comprehensive secondary schools in
Saudi Arabia have new goals to achieve and objectives to
be fulfill, they are in need of appropriate methods of
planning their educational activities, and evaluating
the results of these activities. In putting together a
planning method, many internal and external educational
elements and dimensions should be considered. One of
these elements or dimensions is the school's
organizational climate. This dimension consists of the
internal relationships and activities that are
experienced by students, teachers, and administrators.

The study of organizational climate may result in

beneficial effects on the school members‘ self-concepts.

7
The ability to work effectively, and the capacity to
develop mutually satisfying relationships with others,
are the chief effects of improved self-concepts (Newell,
1978, p. 171). Developing self-concept, working
effectively, and developing satisfying relationships
with others are educational perspectives that require a
clear vision of the school's current status, as
perceived by its members, for the purpose of predicting
its internal desired status, as depicted by those
members.

Since the organizational clhnate of the school
consists of relationships between school members, it is
very important to study the Inembers' perceptions of
organizational climate to find out the kind and extent
of change needed to improve the organizational climate
of comprehensive secondary schools in terms of
leadership, communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services.

The Development of the Educational
System in Saudi Arabia

 

 

Since the setting of this study is comprehensive
secondary schooling in Saudi Arabia, it seems
appropriate to provide the readers of this study with a
brief background of educational system and development

in Saudi Arabia.

Educational System
The official starting point of the public

education system of Saudi Arabia was March 15, 1926,
when the General Directorate of Education was
established. Its main objective was to direct the
general education at all levels in the country. The
regulations for this system were announced on March 18,
1938. Hammad (1973) stressed that according to these
regulations, "the General Directorate of Education would
have complete supervision over all the educational
affairs in the Kingdom except for military education."
Hammad also pointed out: "until the end of the Second
World War, there were only forty-six schools in Saudi
Arabia; more than one-half of them were in the Western
province." Table 1.1 illustrates the distribution of
elementary and secondary schools among the different
provinces at the end of the Second World War (Hammad,
1973).

Table l.1-—Distribution by Province of Elementary and

Secondary Schools in Saudi Arabia at the End
of World war II.

 

 

Province Elementary Secondary Total
Western 22* 7** 29
Eastern 6 6
Southern 5 5
Central and Northern 6 6

 

Total 39 7 46

 

*This figure includes 10 private schools.
**This figure includes 3 private schools.

9

The discovery of oil after the Second World War
enabled the government to elevate the General
Directorate of Education to the Ministry of Education in
December 1953. This promotion made the Ministry of
Education "responsible for providing elementary and
secondary schooling for boys as well as general
supervision of all educational institutions from
kindergarten through high school, whether public or
private" (Ghamdi, 1977).

The official public schools for girls were
established in 1961 by forming the Directorate General
of Girls' Schools. Before this date, girls' education
was limited to private schools or "special house-
tutorial system" (Ghamdi, 1977). This Directorate
assumed responsibility for educating girls from
elementary through higher education; whereas the
Ministry of Education assumed responsibility for
educating handicapped girls.

Besides these two main systems, there are other
educational institutions which were formed and
controlled by specific governmental agencies, such as
the General Directorate for Theological Institutes and
Colleges, which operates a school system that
concentrates on religious and Arabic studies; the
Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, which controls
some vocational centers; and the Ministry of Defense and
the Ministry of Interior, which control their

specialized schools.

10
Education Policy

The general policy of education in Saudi Arabia is
oriented by the Islamic doctrines. Al-Shawan (1985)
maintained that "Islamic studies and Arabic language
constitute a large portion of the school curriculmnfl'
He quoted Massialas and Jarrar by emphasizing that
" . . . 108 instructional periods per week are devoted
to Islamic studies in grades 1 through 12." He
concluded that "the instructional system is
characterized by an overall philosophy of religious
socialization" (Al-Shawan, 1985, p. 12).

This perspective is clearly presented in the
general policy of education. One of the major goals of
this policy was to ensure, as specified in the
Comprehensive Secondary School Manual (Ministry of
Education, 1981), that the education is directed to:

support the Islamic faith by which the student
will be able to envision, in the right way, the
universe, human being, and the life in this
present world, and the day after; and to
provide the student with the basic perceptions
and culture of Islam which he will be proud of,
and be able to resurrect and defend.

In addition to this broad orientation, the
education policy, as pointed out by Schmida and Keenum
(1983), further maintained that "education in Saudi
Arabia is available to all who wish to attend but is not
compulsory" (Schmida and Keenum, 1983, p. 87).

Education for males and females, however, is separate in

terms of administration, facilities, and instruction.

ll

Instructional materials are prescribed by the central
authorities for all levels and every region for males
and females. As noted by Schmida and Keenum (1983), the
Saudi government "covers the cost of education at all
levels--from village schools to major universities--for
those who qualify" (Schmida and Keenum, 1983, p. 87).

Besides public schools, which are operated by the
government, there are private schools which are
considered complementary to the public schools, but both
systems--public and private-~operate under direct
supervision of the Ministry of Education for boys or the

General Presidency for Women's Education for girls.

Levels of Education

 

The system of education in Saudi Arabia is
composed of the following levels:

Kindergarten - According to Ministry of Education
statistics (1986), there| is only one officially known
kindergarten in Saudi Arabia. It is located in the
capital city of Riyadh. This may mean that preschooling
is still not widely accepted as a starting point for
public education.

Elementary education - The elementary level of
education (Ministry of Education, 1986) is composed of
six scholastic years and accepts children who are six
years old. Its curriculum includes Arabic language,

Islamic studies, history, geography, science,

12
mathematics, art, and physical education (Schmida and
Keenum, 1983). To be promoted to the next grade,
students must pass the final examination at the end of
each academic year. Students are granted the General
Elementary School Certificate when they pass the final
examination of the sixth year.

Intermediate education - The duration of this
level is three academic years. The student has to
successfully finish the elementary level to be accepted
into the intermediate school. Most of these schools
operate during daytime, but there are some evening
schools for older students or those who are, for some
reasons, unable to attend the regular daytime schools.
Besides the regular intermediate school, there are
intermediate schools for Qur'an instruction, and the
Modern Intermediate School, which concentrates on
vocational studies as well as the regular curriculum
that enables students to continue subsequent levels of
education (Ministry of Education, 1986). The student is
awarded the Intermediate Education Certificate when he
passes the exams at the third academic year. As Schmida
and Keenum (1983) stressed, after this level the student
has the chance to continue on to general secondary.
school, to teacher training, or to technical education.
The subject matters at this level include Arabic

language, English language, mathematics, history and

13
geography, general science, industrial arts, and

physical education.

Secondary Education

This level consists of three academic years after
the intermediate level. Most students at this level
attend daytime sessions but some of them study in
evening secondary schools. It embraces both general and
specialized programs, plus other "special education"
programs for handicapped students.

The general secondary schools are divided into two
systems: (1) traditional secondary schools, and
(2) comprehensive secondary schools.

In the traditional secondary schools, students are
usually distributed through departments of scientific
track or literary track. The first year of this
academic cycle is a general one (Ministry of Education,
1986). Schmida describes it in the following words:

Both girls and boys follow similar curricula,

although girls do not participate in physical

education, and they must take home economics,
needlework, and child care. At the end of the
first year, students are divided into
scientific or literary tracks. Students must
attahi a grade of at least 60 percent in all
first year subjects in order to qualify for the

scientific track. (Schmida and Keenum, 1983,

p. 80)

The scientific track curriculum includes Arabic
language, Islamic studies, English language, algebra,

statistics, geometry, physics, chemistry, and biology.

The literary track curriculum includes Arabic language,

 

l4

Islamic studies, English language, geography, history,
sociology, and psychology. At the third academic year,
students have to pass the national General Secondary
Examination to attain the General Secondary Certificate.

Comprehensive secondary schools, in contrast to
the traditional two-track system, contain different
departments for arts, vocation, and academic education.
They intend to provide educational opportunities for
students according to their abilities, interests,
skills, and capacities; and to enable them to continue
their education through higher education. These
schools, in contrast to the traditional secondary
schools, practice different instructional strategies and
methods, use different examination and evaluation
systems, and pursue a different overall philosophy of
education. For greater details of this system, please
see Chapter II.

There are several types of specialized secondary
education:

1. Teachers' Institutes

2. Technical and Vocational Training Programs

3. Commercial Schools

4. Agricultural Schools

5. Secondary Schools for Religious and Arabic

Studies

The Teachers' Institutes consist of three years,

and train teachers for elementary schools. These

institutes will be upgraded gradually to be replaced by

junior colleges (Schmida and Keenum, 1983). Besides

,Ti

15
these institutes, there are some specialized institutes
to train teachers in specific disciplines; these include
physical education institute, art education institute,
and the Centers for Complementary Studies.

The Technical and Vocational Training Programs are
operated by the General Organization for Technical
Education and Vocational Training. Students who
complete the intermediate school have the chance to
enroll in these programs. The curriculum includes
general mechanics, electrical wiring, and television and
radio repair. At the end of the third year, the student
will sit for the final exams to be awarded the secondary
vocational certificate.

Commercial Secondary Schools accept students who
complete the intermediate school level. These
three-year schools provide programs such as typing,
accounting, and personnel management. Those who
successfully complete these programs are awarded the
commercial secondary education certificate.

The Agricultural Secondary School also accepts
students after the intermediate school level. It is a
three-year secondary school, and graduates are awarded
an agriculture diploma.

Finally, there is a type of secondary school which
concentrates on religious and Arabic studies

(Al-Malleess, 1980, p. 56).

16

Special Education: According to the Ministry of
Education (1986), the "Secretariat General for Special
Education" supervises the blind and visually impaired in
the Noor institutes, the deaf and hearing impaired in
the Amal institutes, and the mentally impaired in the
Ficriyah institutes.

Students who are deaf or hearing impaired and
mentally retarded are prepared for two years before they
are enrolled in regular institutes. Education for the
mentally retarded ends by the completion of the
elementary school level, while the education of the deaf
or hearing impaired continues until the end of the
intermediate school level. Blind students, however,
have the opportunity to continue their education through
the graduate level of education. In addition, the
Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs conducts programs
for vocationally qualifying individuals who are
physically handicapped (Ministry of Education, 1986).

Adult Education: The Ministry of Education (1986)
provides programs for adult education. There are
evening centers which offer special programs to combat
adult illiteracy' or to prepare adult illiterates for
further education.

Two kinds of programs have been designed to
eradicate illiteracy among adults who cannot read or
write. Each program lasts two years. The individual

who finishes the first one is supposed to be able to

17
read and write, and will be considered a literate
person, and is able to continue to the second program.
Successfully completing this program means that the

individual has completed the elementary education level.

Higher Education

Higher education in Saudi Arabia is supervised by
the Ministry of Higher Education and the General
Presidency for Female Education. As Schmida and Keenum
(1983) point Out, "Saudi higher education institutions
include technical schools, teacher training institutes,
and undergraduate and graduate programs of six
universities." To qualify for admission to higher
education, students must obtain the appropriate
secondary education certificates and must successfully
pass an entrance examination.

The higher education institutes are segregated.
Women have, according to Schmida, "separate facilities
and women tutors, and where there are not enough of the
latter, closed-circuit television and two-way telephone
systems bring instant communication between male
instructors and female students during the televised
lectures." But, in general, female students can enroll
in most universities, as well as the colleges which are
limited only to females.

The institutions of higher education are

distributed through the Kingdom's regions in accordance

18
with each region's nature and special needs
(Al-Malleess, 1980).

The system of higher education in Saudi Arabia,
however, is divided into two levels. The first level
consists of institutes below the graduate level.
Students may spend two or three years of higher
education in some specialized institutes or colleges.
In general, this level promotes technicians or teaching
graduates. In the technical institutes, students may
spend two or three years training, and may be able to
teach in secondary vocational schools. Also, there are
two-year higher commercial institutes which accept
graduates from the commercial secondary schools. The
teacher training institutes train graduates to be
teachers in intermediate and secondary schools. These
institutes include colleges of education, elementary
teacher training institutes, Qur'anic intermediate
schools, Qur'anic secondary schools, physical education
institutions, art institutes, English, mathematics and
science centers, and general upgrading centers (Schmida
and Keenum, 1983).

The second level consists of institutes with four
or more years' studying cycle. These include
undergraduate or graduate facilities, which originated
from the following universities:

King Saud University, established in 1957, which

was “considered the beginning of university education in

19
the modern sense" (Al—Malleess, 1980, p. 7). This
university is composed of one inajor campus in the
capital city' of Riyadh with two branches, one in
Al-Qaseem province of the central region of the country,
and the other in the southern region of Abba.

Since the beginning, the institutions of higher
education have continued to grow, and covered most of
the country's major cities. They include:

King Abdulaziz University, established in 1965 and
located in the port city of Jeddah;

King Fahad University (formerly known as the
University of Petrolewn and Minerals), established in
1963 and located at the oil headquarters of Dhahran;

Al-Imam Mohammed Ibn-Saud University, established
in 1975, with a main campus in the capital city of
Riyadh and several branches around the country;

Islamic University, established in 1961, at Medina
City. This university's mission is to "encourage the
advancement of Islam throughout the world" (Al-Malleess,
1980).

King Faisal University, established in 1975 and
located at Al-Ahsa region with a branch in Dammam city.

Umm Al-Qura University, established in 1981 and
located in the holy city of Mecca. Before this date, it
was a branch of King Abdulaziz University (Al-Otaiby,

1987).

20

Conceptual Foundations of the Study

 

This study is based on conceptual frameworks
advanced by Halpin and Croft (1963), by Likert (1978),
by Steinhoff (1965) and Stern (1970), and by Willower,
Eidell and Hoy (1967). Discussion of these frameworks

will be presented in Chapter III.

Limitations of the Study

 

The limitations of this research were as follows:

1. There were only four well-established
comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia at the
time of data collection for this study. As a result,
this study is limited in its scope and coverage.

2. Since only four well established comprehensive
secondary schools were included in this study, the
number of administrators was so small that the use of
random sampling for this segment of the population was
considered undesirable. However, the random sampling
technique was comfortably used to draw samples from
student and teacher groups.

3. Another limitation of the study is that it
considered only five elements of organizational climate,
namely, leadership, communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services. It is
almost impossible to have an exhaustive list of all
variables and sub—variables in any study, but it is

logical that inclusion of a greater number of variables

21
and sub-variables provides a better and fuller picture
of the problem studied.

4. The findings of this study are based on
perceptual data. The very nature of perceptions being
fluid makes the task of measurement difficult and
complicated. As a result, findings of studies based on
perceptual data are rarely conclusive.

5. The questionnaire for this study was developed
on the basis of questionnaires used in studies in the
United States. As a result, there is a possibility of
cultural differences in interpreting the meanings of
statements in the questionnaire. But the researcher
thinks that this problem was Ininimized since the
original questionnaire developed in English was
translated into Arabic, and modified according to the
suggestions of some educators in Saudi Arabia.

6. Some of the items of the questionnaire have two
or more different variables, which might have created

problems for the respondents in responding to them.

Definitiogg and Descriptions of Terms

 

Traditional Secondary Schools: For the purpose of
this study, traditional secondary schools consist of
grades 10, 11, and 12. These public schools accept
students who have successfully completed their
intermediate schools. In this system of secondary

schools, students are tracked either in an arts program

22
or in a science program at the end of the tenth grade
(Al-Malleess, 1980).

Comprehensive Secondary Schools: These are also

 

public schools, and accept students after they have
successfully completed their intermediate schools. They
are multipurpose schools in which students are offered a
much wider choice of subjects, and are not forced to
concentrate in one area (arts or science) after the
tenth grade (Al—Malleess, 1980).

Organizational Climate: An "enduring quality of

 

internal environment of an organization that (a) is
experienced by its members, (b) influences their
behavior, and “fl can be described in terms of the
values of a particular set of characteristics (or
attributes) of an organization" (Owens, 1981).

Leadership and Administrative Style: The

 

managerial type process that initiates a "new structure
or procedure for accomplishing an organization's goals
and objectives or for changing an organization's goals
and objectives" (Griffiths, 1964). In this case, the
organizations were the comprehensive secondary schools
of Saudi Arabia.

Communication among Members. The "process by which

 

a person learns the values, norms and required behavior
which permits him to participate as a member of the

organization" (Roloff and Berger, 1982).

23

School Morale: This expression refers to the
feelings of the organization members which arise from "a
combination of (a) perceived productivity or progress
toward the achievement of the tasks of the organization
and (b) perceived job satisfaction of individual needs
through the interaction of the participant in his role
with the work group and the total organization"
(Griffiths, 1964).

Group Relationship: Refers to the "plurality of

 

individuals who are in contact with one another, who
take one another into account, and who are aware of some
significant commonality" (Newell, 1978).

Facilities and Services: Physical facilities and

 

accessories of the school, and which are designed to
help accomplish certain goals and objectives. These
include necessary tools, space, buildings, furniture,
academic counseling, etc.

Current Conditions: Current conditions refer to

 

the present conditions or state related to the
organizational climate of the comprehensive secondary
schools as perceived by students, teachers, and
administrators.

Desired Conditions: Desired conditions, on the

 

other hand, refer to those future conditions or state
that the students, teachers, and administrators would
like to see as part of the organizational climate of the

comprehensive secondary schools.

24

Students: Those who were enrolled in the
comprehensive secondary schools during the fall term of
1986.

Teachers: Those professional staff who were
assigned by the Ministry of Education to teach in the
comprehensive secondary schools during the fall term of
1986.

Administrators: Refers to the appointed

 

administrative staff who were employed by the Ministry
of Education to hold specific administrative positions
in the comprehensive secondary schools during the fall
term of 1986. Some examples are: principal,

vice-principal, librarian, laboratory workers, etc.

Summary

Comprehensive secondary schools have been
established to overcome the weaknesses of the
traditional secondary schools in Saudi Arabia.

Since the setting of this study is comprehensive
secondary schooling in Saudi Arabia, a brief background
information related to the educational system and
development in Saudi Arabia has been provided for the
readers. Also, for greater understanding of the
theoretical base of this study, a brief reference to the
conceptual foundations of this research study has been
included in this chapter. Further discussions of

underlying concepts are presented in Chapter III.

25

Also some of the important limitations of this
study have been pointed out; and definitions and
descriptions of important terms used have been provided
for clarity and quick understanding.

Chapters II and III basically present reviews of
literature :related in) comprehensive schooling and
organizational climate of schools, respectively.

Chapter IV deals with the research design used to
do this study. Also, it points out the population and
samples for this study, presents the data collection
plan, provides information regarding the data collection
instrument, .and finally describes the statistical
procedures and techniques used to analyze the data of
this study.

Chapter V contains the results of the data
analysis, and highlights the findings of the study.
Chapter VI, being the concluding chapter, presents a
brief summary of the study, and provides conclusions
drawn, and recommendations made for future studies on

the basis of the findings of this study.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON
COMPREHENSIVE SCHOOLING

Introduction

 

The comprehensive secondary school system is
comparatively a new venture as opposed to the
traditional secondary schools in some of the Arab
states. This study has focused on the organizational
climate of comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia. As a result, the review of literature related
to comprehensive schooling is provided here in this
chapter with the following objectives:

1. The review will help researchers and readers to
understand the meaning, nature, scope, advantages, and
limitations of this new system of schooling.

2. It will provide a brief background of
comprehensive schools' development in two pioneer
countries, namely, the United States and England, which
will, in turn, help the readers to understand the
structures, objectives, and the fbrces behind the
introduction of this system.

3. The review will also provide brief descriptions

of the comprehensive schooling currently in practice, in

26

27
Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. These brief
descriptions will help the researchers and the readers
tn) appreciate the similarities and differences of
comprehensive schools, as practiced in the above
mentioned Arab states, and in the United States and
England.
For a better and quick understanding, this chapter
has been divided into five sections:
1. What is comprehensive schooling?
2. Comprehensive schools in the United States and
England.
3. Comprehensive schooling in some Arab states.
4. Comprehensive secondary schools of Saudi
Arabia.

5. Summary of the chapter.

What Is Comprehensive Schooling}

 

The system of comprehensive schooling evolved
between 1905 and 1930 in the United States (Hoke, 1965).
This evolution has started a variety of discussion and
debates about the meaning of this kind of schooling.
Educators in England and the United States provided
different understandings in defining this system.

Each educator tried to clarify it according to his
theoretical background. Conant (1967), as an American
leader in this field, looked at comprehensive schooling

as a product of American history, in which he emphasized

28
that high school became an accepted doctrine "that
instruction shouLd be provided for youth with a variety
of ambitions and abilities" (Conant, 1967, pp. 4-5).

In this context, Conant quoted the president of
the Carnegie Corporation of New York to define this
system:

The comprehensive high school is a peculiarly

American phenomenon. It is called comprehensive

because it offers, under one administration and

under one roof (or series of roofs), secondary
education for almost all the high school age
children of one town or neighborhood. It is
responsible for educating the boy who will be
an atomic scientist and the girl who will marry
at eighteen; the prospective captain of a ship
and the future captains of industry. It is
responsible for educating the bright and the
not so bright children with different
vocational and professional ambitions and with
various motivations. It is responsible, in sum,
for providing good and appropriate education,
both academic and vocational, for all young
people within a democratic environment which
the American peOple believe serves the

principles they cherish. (Conant, p. 3)

This perception not only outlines the overall
picture of this system, but also highlights some
characteristics of the American high school. According
to Conant, the high school is utilizing the elective
system as contrasted to the selective system. In other
words, schools are expected to provide varied offerings
from which the students are expected to choose. But the
most important feature of this system is the
"heterogeneity of the student body." According to
Conant, "This heterogeneity was recognized early as one

advantage of the public high school; boys and girls from

29
different environments came to know one another"
(Conant, p. 4).

This system has been looked at from another angle
as well. The focus of this approach was on the
humanistic movement in curriculum development.
According to Hampton and Lauer (1981), the American high
school (eventually the comprehensive system) has been
caught by the struggle between liberal and vocational
education on the one side, and the humanistic movement
on the other. Hampton and Lauer write (pp. 122-123):

The humanistic movement emphasizes the

development of the individual, the relevance of

learning, the various dimensions of learning

(learning is more than a cognitive process),

and the interpersonal relationships in the

learning situation.

In England, the comprehensive schooling has been
approached from two general perspectives. The first
perspective points out that:

the comprehensive secondary school is simply an

extension of the comprehensive primary school,

and has the same aims. It takes practically
all the children from a given district between
eleven and fifteen and those who wish to stay
on at school until eighteen or nineteen.

(Pedley, 1963, p. 22)

This specification proposed also a systematic
approach in which the school should follow pupils'
interests while they are growing up; provide a wide
range of courses to meet the different needs of

different pupils; and arrange the grouping of children

according to age, general ability, special abilities,

30

special interests, or a combination of some or all of
these (Pedley, 1963, p. 22). This perspective employs
the elective procedures of enrollment, i.e., according
to Bellaby (1977), children and their parents decide for
themselves what school they will attend or what courses
they will enroll in. To summarize this perspective,
Shaw (1983, p. 7) says: "A school is classified as
comprehensive when its admission arrangements are
without reference to ability and aptitude."

The second perspective highlights the social
function of the school. The analytical assumption of
this direction is that "the secondary school is an
agency for educating all the nation's children, and so
it must inevitably reflect, in its curriculum and
organization, the patterns of social and economic change
in the society it exists to serve" (Holt, 1980, p. 1).
According to this viewpoint, schooling systems should be
more relevant to specific demands of the society.
Viewed from this standpoint, schools become "avenues to
jobs" (Bellaby, 1977). This entails that the
comprehensive school should provide equal opportunities
among its students, which brings to the fore the fact
that the system of comprehensive schooling is opposed to
the idea of segregation among students at the early age
(Bellaby, 1977).

Perhaps the key difference between U.S. and

British concepts has to do with expectations as to

31
whether graduates of comprehensive schools may go on to
study at universities. British comprehensive schools
aim primarily at preparing of graduates for jobs,
whereas a majority of graduates of U.S. public high
schools enter a college or university.

Comprehensive Schools of the
United States and England

 

 

The United States

 

A major model for shaping American secondary
schools was created by the establishment of an English
classical school in Boston in 1821. It was a tax-
supported school which offered United States history,
bookkeeping, algebra, geometry, and surveying. Another
milestone in the development of secondary education was
the precedent set by the Kalamazoo case. In 1874, the
Michigan Court legalized the use of tax funds to support
secondary education. This decision was cited through
the upper Mississippi Valley states and later on through
the other states (Hoke, 1963, pp. 24-25).

This advancement was also important for the
establishment of the comprehensive schools, as long as
secondary education was financed by tax funds. In 1918
the Commission on Reorganization of Secondary Education
recommended the comprehensive institution as, "the
standard type of secondary school in the United States'

(Hoke, p. 26).

32

Drives behind Establishing This System

 

Hoke (1965) identified two kinds of drives or
reasons behind the evolution of the comprehensive
schooling system in the United States. The first one
was social, and the second one was philosophical in
nature.

The social drive can be summarized in the
following words:

This kind of schooling is said to be an agent for
social unity. Hoke, in his dissertation, quoted
historian Henry S. Commager: "most of what we may call
the non-academic functions of the schools in the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries have been
performed to give unity to a heterogeneous population;
to create a sense of belonging; to inculcate democracy
and equality" (Hoke, p. 38).

Before the reformation, the high school was
accused of having been representative of middle-class
values, and this class bias was considered "as one of
the major obstacles preventing the formation of a
stronger, i.e., more comprehensive high school" (Hoke,
p. 40).

Middle-class interests were to control the world
of business and commerce, and also to ensure that public
schools provide the society with skilled artisans and
mechanics at the public expense. Working class

interests also recognized that they too have a vital

33

stake in comprehensive secondary education. Organized
labor "has consistently supported proposals for the
extension of educational opportunities" (Hoke, p. 41).

The big cities of the United States faced drastic
social and economic change after World War II. This
change caused the migration waves of blacks, poor
whites, Puerto Ricans, and Spanish-Americans. They
exerted pressure on middle-class householders to move to
the suburbs. This situation produced another
educational problem. According to Hoke (p. 43):

Two distinct types of high schools have

crystallized in the past decade, both stemming
in large part from‘the Negro migration

northward. Both cast doubts as to the
authenticity of American secondary schools
acting as comprehensive institutions. One is

the 'ghetto' high school of the cities; the
second one is the suburban high school, which,
quoting Harold M. Hodgkinson, by teaching the
values of participation, warmth, understanding,
and group activity, is much more in the main-
stream of contemporary American education and
philosophical thought than is the city school.

Important features of the philosophical drives, on
the other hand, can be summarized as follows:

A democratic society, as depicted by American
educators, ought to live in harmony. By common
education this harmony may provide social integration.
The comprehensive school is a systematic part of this
common education. Hoke (1965) points out this fact in
these words: "the American concept of secondary

education is linked to an attempt to serve social

needs. And this is an imperative need . . . for only in

34
a harmonious and balanced society can the principle of a
democratic society work properly" (p. 55).

The emergence of a technological elite produced
some changes in the political philosophy in the United
States. This elite, according to Hoke, recognizes no
national boundaries, and it "may very well provoke
similar effects in the educational philosophy" (Hoke,
p. 58). To clarify this impression, Hoke (p. 58) cited
Dr. Harry Broudy:

Political liberalism no longer entails a

commitment to the belief that mass popular

education shall be used to redeem the promise
of an egalitarian democratic dream. The
political liberal of today has not lost his
commitment to the welfare of the common man,
but he is likely to believe that in a mass
technological society, the common man's welfare

is best served by training a scientific and

technical elite that will define his goals and

prescribe the means.

Discussions of U.S. secondary education are often
characterized by controversy and debate. The above

citation from Broudy may be the issue underlying much of

the recent educational debate in the U.S.

Objectives of Comprehensive Secondary Schools

Conant (1967) tried to make a clear distinction
between the American comprehensive schooling and the
European comprehensive system. He tried to link the
American system to social and political ideals:

The comprehensive high school attempts to
accomplish these ends: it endeavors to provide

35
general education for all future citizens on
the basis of a common democratic understanding;
and it seeks to provide in its elective
offerings excellent instruction in academic
fields and rewarding first-class vocational
education. (Conant, p. 4)
In the above citation, three major objectives of
the comprehensive schooling can be identified:
1. Provision of a general education for future
citizens from all walks of American life,
2. Provision of good elective programs for the
students, and

3. Excellent preparation of students for college

and university education.

Comprehensive Schools of England

 

n3 England, secondary education became compulsory
in 1944. The Education Act of 1944 specified "secondary
education for all" (Shaw, 1983). This act was a turning
point in the history of British education because it
stipulated "sufficient variety so as to provide for the
age, ability, and aptitude of pupils" (Shaw, 1983).

According to this system, the compulsory education
was divided into two stages: the first stage involved
children up to the age of twelve; and the second stage
included children up to the age of fifteen, and beyond

that if they wished (Pedly, 1963, p. 36).

36

Comprehensive Secondary Schools

 

The Education Act of 1944 did not suggest the
establishment of the comprehensive system. But it gave
the Local Educational Authorities (LEA) the opportunity
to interpret its content on the basis of the already
existing system (M5 the grammar-technical-modern
structure. It was not a particular encouragement to the
comprehensive system (Cohen, 1959, p. 117).

In 1948 the London LEA decided to establish some
comprehensive schools. The Ministry of Education was
hesitant to go along with the idea, and asked the London
LEA to reconsider the decision (Shaw, 1983; Cohen, 1959,
p. 118).

The idea of going comprehensive started to gain
solid ground and, in 1958 and 1959, a number of schools
were reorganized as comprehensive schools.

Finally, in 1976 an education act was passed by
the Parliament by which comprehensive education was to
be enforced; it emphasized that "education is to be
provided only in schools where the arrangements for the
admission of pupils are not based (wholly or partly) on
selection by reference to ability or aptitude" (Shaw,
p. 1). By 1980, more than 83 percent of secondary
school students were attending comprehensive schools
(Shaw, p. 2). Only a very small minority of these

students, however, are expected to attend a university.

37

Drives Behind Establishing This System

 

Two kinds of drives or reasons could be identified
behind establishing the comprehensive school system in
England: the first was social and the second was
philosophical in nature.

Social drives. Hoke (1965) points out that the
comprehensive movement in England was founded in a
"desire to ensure equality of opportunity and to break
down social class barriers by promoting a feeling of
social unity among adolescents" (p. 31).

Educational reformation was used as a political
issue. The two major parties--Labour and Conservative--
took different positions (”1 how to gnomote this
reformation, especially at the secondary education
level. Hoke (1965, p. 34) writes:

The Labour Party accepts social equality as a
major educational goal, the leaders of the
Conservative Party generally deny this is a
legitimate aim of education. In essence: the
Labour Party offers social equality as a
primary political goal; the Conservative Party
does not. Thus traditional class patterns,
political dogmas, and educational objectives
become intermingled in the drive for
comprehensive schools.

The growth of urbanism was caused by mass
migration to the cities. According to Hoke (1965),
rural areas had limited facilities. In contrast, the
urban centers were well facilitated with governmental,

commercial, research and educational activities. This

kind of mass influx of people "fosters critical problems

38
for the comprehensive secondary school and for all other
forms of urban schooling" (Hoke, p. 36).

The London County Council was the first to
recognize this issue, and pushed strongly toward the
comprehensive formation as a drive for social equality.
In this regard, Hoke (1965, p. 37) quoted the London
County Council: "The Council thought that in a modern
society it was essential that school life should promote
a feeling of social unity among adolescents of all kinds
of degree of ability and that this could best be
achieved in a comprehensive school."

Philosophical drives. Cohen (1959) has provided

 

three philosophical reasons for the establishment of the
comprehensive school system in England. They can be
summarized as follows:

The political, economic and technical
circumstances entailed the reform. The old system of
education was inadequate to serve the expanding needs of
the time. The reformation was necessary, first, to meet
the changing requirements of modern society; second, to
prevent segregated education which may lead to the
development of one section of the community; and third,
the common school with all types of children from all
social strata which will "meet all the educational needs
of a heterogeneous group of young children, and which
does attempt to allow all children to grow up naturally

one with another" (Cohen, pp. 121-123).

39

No educational justification was found for the
early separation of children into types of schools.
Thus the comprehensive school represented an improvement
over the old educational system in this regard.

Comprehensive schooling, finally, can offer
administrative and financial advantages over the old
system. The old system is composed of three kinds: the
grammar, the modern, and the technical secondary
schools. It was very costly for the local education

authorities (Cohen, p. 124).

Objectives of the British Comprehensive Schools
Referring to the objectives of comprehensive
schools, the National Association of Schoolmasters
(1964) remarks: "What is new in the present situation is
the growing agreement . . . that the time has come when
a more comprehensive view requires to be taken of the
educational task which the needs of adolescence impose
on the country." So what does the comprehensive
education hope to achieve? The following objectives or
aims were identified by the National Association of
Schoolmasters (1964):
l. Offering students with equal academic
opportunity, by not removing them at the age
of eleven and segregating them into

different types of school;

2. Developing their cultural and social side,
as well as promoting their academic fields;

3 In these schools, the concentration is not
merely on the academic or vocational

4O

principles, but it is also directed toward
the social integration of the child.
Children of all ages and abilities mix
together socially--comprehensive education
can achieve something not gained in grammar
and modern schools; such as morale,
interests, and sense of belonging for those
with less academic abilities. This can be
done without lowering the feeling and
standards of the able pupils;

4. Providing general courses for two, three, or
four years to open the opportunity to follow
a specialist course according to the child's
ability or choice;

5. To fit the pupil into a school which is
large enough for him to associate with
children of all ages between eleven and
eighteen years, and all social classes and
intellectual abilities; and finally

6. To provide the opportunity for the teaching
staff to raise culture and values standards
and care for social well-being.

It is interesting to note that no mention is made

in the above listed aims of preparation for university

admission.

Comprehensive Schooling in Some Arab States

 

Introduction

 

Some Arab educators (Al-Dujayly, 1981) have
pointed out that secondary education of the Arab states
is beset with several problems. Important ones are: an
imbalanced situation between academic and vocational
education, the continuing existence of the old system of
education without any worthwhile renovation efforts, and
the tendency for students to lean increasingly toward

literary and scientific tracks of education, which

41

creates a big gap between academic, vocational, and
technical education. Problems like these have created a
big hindrance to the developmental projects of these
nations. This situation necessitated (and is still
demanding the search for better secondary education) an
education system that can promote more flexibility and
produce balanced instruction. This atmosphere has
motivated some Arab authorities to try "comprehensive"
systems of schooling of Western nations.

In this section, the comprehensive school systems
of Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait are reviewed. The
comprehensive schools of these states are reviewed in
terms of their understanding of this system, their
reasons behind establishing this system, the goals they
intend to accomplish, and the teaching processes within
these schools. For Saudi Arabia, because it is the main
focus of this study, the review will be in greater

details and under a separate heading.

Jordan

The Jordanian Ministry of Education and Learning
(1985) justified the establishment of the'comprehensive
schooling on the basis of its specific traits and
features which were in congruence with the change and
development currently taking place in this country. In
1976, the Jordanian authorities established two

comprehensive secondary schools, one for male students

42
and the other for female students. By 1980, there were
six comprehensive schools; four of them for female
students.

Reasons for the Establishment: The main reasons

 

which pushed Jordanian educators to try this system were
the problems associated with the traditional secondary

education. Some of these problems are:

l. The traditional secondary school curricula
lack dynamism, and are old-fashioned in the
use of instructional methods. This system
is very rarely providing students with a
thinking process, or new skills and
directions which might help them to continue
their higher education;

2. The traditional system was directed to help
students gain higher grades in final examina-
tions, which distorted the essence of the
educational process and its overall goals;

3. The education was not directed toward the
needs of work market.

4. The separationof education from the nature
of the society's developmental and changing
processes; and finally,

5. The inability of the 'education system' to
provide each individual with the appropriate
orientations that fit his capabilities, and
enable him to succeed (Ministry of Education
and Learning, 1985).

Jordanian Perception of Comprehensive Schooling.

 

Jordanian educators have identified comprehensive
schools as schools which contain different types of
academic and vocational education, and provide students
with vocational literature which increases their

vocational capabilities.

AS

following features

schools
Learning,

1.

Goals of Comprehensive Schools.

Jordanian authorities,

43

perceived by the Jordanian authorities,

the

of the comprehensive secondary

were important (Ministry of Education and

1985):

Comprehension perspective which includes
many dimensions of vocational and academic
education for all students regardless of
their academic specialization. In addition,
this system involves students with different
individual differences and capabilities and,
with different socio-economic and cultural
backgrounds.

This system is flexible, which enables
students to choose what is suitable to their
interests and abilities. The curriculum
contains academic and vocational disciplines
appropriate to the needs of the different
regions and climates of the Jordanian
society.

This system integrates the diverse
educational activities, and instructional
subjects that promote the thinking,
artistry, and morality perspectives on the
horizontal level during each academic year,
and on the vertical level for the whole
secondary schooling years. For this,
students are expected to be able to develop
their physical, mental, moral, and spiritual
potentialities, and enhance their capabili-
ties, skills, and sense of directions.

are expected to:

1.

Provide students with enough education
regardless of his future academic or
vocational specialization, so that he will
be able to carry out his citizenship duties
in the best way possible.

Provide individuals with information and
skills which increase their vocational
abilities and, at the same time, help them
to continue their higher education.

According to the

comprehens ive' secondary school 5

44

3. Educate the qualified individuals for
pursuing vocational work by utilizing the
available facilities of the school.

4. Prepare individuals for life by enhancing
their inclinations and capabilities to
complete higher education.

These four general goals are linked to some
specific objectives, e.g., economic objectives which
stress the need for the country's economic development;
social objectives which emphasize building a cooperative
society; human objectives which stress the need to
educate youths to participate in the progress of their
society as well as the well-being of humankind; and
finally, political objectives which emphasize the
promotion of a democratic spirit, patriotism, and
national consciousness (Ministry of Education and
Learning, 1985). The statements above appear to

parallel Conant more closely than the British system.

Stages of Comprehensive Schools. Jordan's

 

comprehensive school is a four-year institution. The
first year is a general one for all students. .In the
second year, the student chooses either the vocational
or the academic field.

The vocational field is similar to the program
offered by the vocational secondary school, and the
academic field is similar to the one offered by the
traditional secondary schools. But the only difference
is that a student has to enroll in about 15 percent of

his course plan in some vocational and academic courses.

45

yes

The Ministry of Education organized a symposium to
identify and suggest a new form of secondary education
which will be able to integrate the academic and
vocational studies in one school. The participants
(Ministry of Education in Iraq, UNESCO, and the World
Bank) started their deliberations in 1970, and finally
proposed a project which caused the establishment of
four comprehensive secondary schools. The practical
preparations began in the same year, and students were
first accepted in 1972-73.

Al-Bassam (1975) points out that the comprehensive
schooling in Iraq is divided into two levels:
intermediate and secondary levels; each level with
three-academic-year cycle. Out of the four
comprehensive schools, three were for boys, and one was
for girls.

Goals of the Comprehensive School. Mahmood (1983)

 

summarized the major goals for this system:

1. The concentration on academic, vocational
and artistic fields in education; and to
utilize the available resources, namely,
faculty, equipment, capacity, facilities and
services, etc. for these fields of study.

2. Emphasis on the practice of the
instructional principle which says: Teach
students how to learn. This will provide
the students with the knowledge and skills
needed to discover facts by utilizing school
resources, e.g., faculty, library, media
resources, etc.

46

3. Emphasis on extra-curricular activities, and
use these activities to promote cooperative
spirit and collective work habits among
students.

4. Help students understand their roles in the
society, and prepare them to shoulder their
responsibilities as working members of the
society who experience and participate in
the development projects of the society.

In addition to these two goals, there were other

objectives; they were social, economic, and political

objectives.

Comprehensive Grades. This system was designed to

 

prepare students for higher education as well as to
train them for technical and vocational jobs. In
addition, these schools, as proposed, were to be divided
into two stages (Al-Bassam, 1975). The first stage was
the intermediate stage, which was designed to provide
youths with:

1. General education, including the nation's
language, social sciences, general sciences,
mathematics and foreign language. Students
will study these disciplines in the first
two academic years. In the third year, the
students will have the chance to select from
these disciplines.

2. Elementary vocational education which will
help students to experience simple work
tasks in the fields of industry,
agriculture, commerce, and domestic arts.

3. Art education which will enable students to
experience different types of fine arts.

4. Extra-curricular activities which will
enable students to practice some scientific,
artistic, literary, and sports activities as
well as participate in social services.

47

The second stage was the secondary stage, which

was designed to provide students with:

1. General studies for all students, including
religious and moral education, Arabic and
foreign languages, contemporary Arabic
society, physical education, and Kurdish
language for sixth graders.

2. Specialization in one of the following
fields: academic studies, which have two

divisions: literary and scientific;
vocational studies; and artistic studies.

3. The opportunity to select courses from the
other two above mentioned areas, if they
have specialized in one of the above
mentioned fields.

4. Extra-curricular activities for students'
personal interests. The program of
comprehensive schools attaches great
importance with these activities, and the
students are supposed to experience them
every Monday and Thursday afternoon
(Al-Bassam, 1975).

Kuwait

The system of secondary education in Kuwait is
called "Course Credit System" (Shana‘a, 1977). This
system was designed in 1977 through a general plan to
develop the educational system in a way which could be
linked to the general goals of education based on
theories and directions of contemporary education
(Ministry of Education, 1982).

In 1978-79, this system was established to

overcome the major problems of the traditional secondary

schools of Kuwait. Officials in the Ministry of

48
Education justified the establishment of this system on
the following grounds:

1. We are living in the information revolution
era. This entails that the academic
curriculum should concentrate on the basic
infrastructures of human knowledge; concern
about the ways and methodologies which lead
to discovering the ideas and facts; and
develop students' skills for self-learning
by reading, understanding, putting together,
abstracting, implementing, criticizing and
making use of what they have learned
accompanied with the work on the development
of the student's relationship to his major
academic field to accomplish the ideology of
continuous education.

2. The new development in evaluation procedures
which entails an integrative way not only to
measure academic achievement or for a
specific period of time, but this process
should accompany the educational process
which enables the teacher, in a confident
manner, to evaluate his student continuously
by using scientific methods of evaluation.

These justifications were strong enough to

encourage Kuwaiti officials to establish the
comprehensive secondary school system. The committee
which planned and designed this new system also
suggested that the traditional secondary education
should be preserved with some changes.

Goals of This System. In accordance with the

 

foregoing, the general goals of this system as
identified by Abdul Mu'ty, et. al. (1982) are:
1. Giving students a bigger role, and a better
chance to choose the courses that fit their
interests, abilities, and capacities.

2. Provision of opportunity to all students for
self-learning.

49

3. Stressing the fact that work is a valuable
basis for life; and teaching and learning
activities should be based on modern
theories.

4. Educating students to be able to make
decisions, to be responsible for their
decisions, and to be dependent on themselves
in implementing what decisions they have
made.

Instructional Plan of the System. To realize
these specified goals, the following plan for
instruction was considered. The academic year of this
system, according to the student directory published by
the Ministry of Education (1981), was divided into two
semesters: fall and spring; with the possibility of
offering one or two summer sessions. To graduate from
high school, a student is required to complete 40
"educational units," each unit equal to 75 credit hours
for two major semesters of the academic year, or 70
credit hours for summer sessions. The semester length
is 15 weeks plus examination and break periods.
According to this system the student is required to
complete about 57.5% collective studies, 15% selective
studies, 20% departmental studies, and 7.5% complemental

1

studies. Accordingly, the student will spend about

 

1Collective studies refer to compulsory courses
for all students; selective studies refer to courses
which students can choose from; departmental studies
refer to the department of specialization; and
complemental studies are courses which are not from
departmental studies of the student, but he is required
to take them to complete the program.

50
four academic years in the school, in which he is
required to accumulate at least 3000 credit hours (he
has to take 25 credit hours each week for 8 academic
semesters. Each semester consisted of 15 weeks).

The students will be directed, according to their
abilities, interests, and individual differences, in one
of the following departments: Islamic studies, Arabic
language, English language, social studies, mathematics,
sciences, commercial studies, or industrial studies.

Student Academic Counseling. The course credit

 

system provides students with a: continuous and
integrative program of counseling. The main objective
of this program is to enable students to discover their
academic abilities and capabilities as well as to help
them to design academic plans which are suitable to
their interests and personal concerns. This system, as
has been suggested by the Kuwait Ministry of Education
(1981), helps students to overcome any academic or
personal difficulties they may encounter in their
academic years at the school.

Comprehensive Secondary Schools
of Saudi Arabia

 

 

Introduction

 

The comprehensive schooling system of Saudi Arabia
was suggested in the second developmental plan of 1973.
Consequently, the first comprehensive secondary school

was established in 1974 in the capital city of Riyadh.

51

The Concept of Comprehensive Schooling

 

According to the Ministry of Education (1975), the
concept of comprehensive schooling stems from the word
"comprehensive." It consists of different departments
of arts, vocation, and academic education. It provides
educational opportunity for students with different
abilities, interests, and skills. It also provides
activities which enable the capable students to continue
their education through higher institutes and colleges
that are in tune with their interests and mental
abilities. In addition, it helps prepare other students
to work in different fields and lead a decent life.
This approach appears closer to the U.S. concept than to
the British concept of comprehensive schooling. Also,
it is interesting to note that there is no comprehensive
school for girls in Saudi Arabia, but all the other Arab
countries mentioned in this chapter have introduced

comprehensive secondary schools for girls.

Reasons for Establishing the System

 

Two driving forces seem to be responsible for the
introduction of comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia: (1) the weaknesses associated with the
traditional secondary schools, and (2) the strengths of
the comprehensive schooling as demonstrated by

experiments and practices in other countries.

52
The traditional secondary schools in Saudi Arabia
are beset with a number of problems or weaknesses, which
have been threatening their future existence. Some
important weaknesses of the traditional secondary school
system in Saudi Arabia are listed below:

1. It does not allow or encourage school
participation in the decision-making process
(Al-Shihri, 1983).

2. It does not allow the students to choose
courses according to their interests and

aptitudes.

3. It does not take into consideration the
individual differences of the students.

4. It does not use various strategies and
methods of instruction.

The above weaknesses of the traditional secondary
system have tempted Al-Malleess (1980) to remark that
"the secondary school system has become an instrument
for wasting human potentials."

These apparent weaknesses of the traditional
secondary schools forced the Saudi authorities to think
seriously about improving the existing system of
secondary education.

Comprehensive schooling, on the other hand, as
demonstrated by the results of its practice in the
United States and England, has shown great promises.
The expected benefits of the comprehensive schooling in
Saudi Arabia can be enumerated as follows:

1. The focus of this system is the student--
the learner whose learning ultimately matters in any
educational setting.

53

2. It provides students with options to choose
from different academic disciplines and programs.

3. It considers students' individual
differences.
4. It gives students opportunity to select

appropriate instructional time and the amount of
instructional materials in any semester.

5. This system provides students with more
time to utilize school experience through ways other
than school books, such as library, laboratory, and
other learning activities.

6 The system requires students to repeat only
those courses in which they have not qualified.

7. It allows students to organize their study
time in consultation with their teachers, and not in
accordance with school bells (Al-Zaid, no date

given).
8. It encourages students to continue their
education irrespective of their age. It allows

students to leave schools and come back any time his
circumstances allow them to do so, with consideration
of their previously completed courses.

9. In this system, the student evaluation
process includes a student, his teacher and his
school; the central administration has nothing to do
with it.

10. This system allows teachers to deal with
subject matters in greater detail by giving them more
time through the use of different teaching modes and
materials.

11. It will help minimize the artificial
segregation among students. The most important
example of this segregation in Saudi Arabia is the
restriction of university admissions to those who
graduate from the traditional secondary schools.
This situation has forced the authorities to set up
some other independent colleges for those who
graduate from vocational, theological, and religious
secondary schools (Ministry of Education, 1976).
This problem would be eliminated by the system of
comprehensive schooling.

Goals of Comprehensive Secondary Schools
The goals of the comprehensive secondary schools
are as follows:
1. Making students sensitive to the noble goal
of their existence, and enable them to

realize this goal and discover and develop
their own capability to achieve it;

S4

2. Arbitrate Islamic law ix) regulate human
behaviors and relationships;

3. Help students develop independent thinking,
creativity, and interest in knowledge;

4. Promote skills needed to acquire knowledge;

5. Increase the concern among students for
physical and aesthetic education;

6. Improve the individual's relationship with
the social organization and services;

7. Educate students to bear responsibility;

8. Account for individual differences among
students, and ease their academic programs
in spite of these differences (Al-Zaid, p.
40).

Graduation Requirements

 

In order to graduate from high school, according
to this system, the student is required to complete 150
credit hours, distributed as shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.l--Credit Hour Distribution Required for High
School Graduation.

 

 

Courses Credit Hours Notes
Departmental 75 Maximum
Elective 25 Minimum
Required 20

Activity 30 Different types

of activities

Total 150

 

(SOURCE: Ministry of Education, Secondary Education,
Comprehensive Secondary School Guide. Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia, 1981.

55
The comprehensive secondary schools of Saudi
Arabia consist of the following academic departments:

1. Religious and Human Relations;

2. Languages (Arabic, English and French) and
Social Studies (Social Sciences);

3. Mathematics and Natural Sciences (Physics,
Mathematics, Chemistry, and Animal Science);

4. Education;

5. Commercial Studies;

6. Agriculture;

7. Industrial Studies (Al-Shihri, 1983, p. 41).

System Development

 

Since its establishment in 1974, this system has
undergone different developmental changes. The first
one was dedicated to evaluating the comprehensive school
system in its first year. The Ministry of Education
formed a committee in 1975 to evaluate the progress of
the school during the first year of its operation.
After several meetings, the committee concluded that the
experimental school had progressed toward its goal,
student turnover was large, and there were high hopes
that the system would be successful. This evaluation
process was dependent upon a questionnaire distributed
to students and teachers to asseSs their opinions about
this system. Based on the results of this evaluation,

the committee made the following recommendations:

56

1. The curriculum of each department be
reviewed for more improvement; and

2. To facilitate the school's progress, all
necessary resources be made available
(Ministry of Education, Secondary Education,
1975).

The second developmental process was another
evaluative effort undertaken by Abo-Ali and Saba. They
evaluated the same school in 1976. The results of this
effort revealed that:

l. The school building is not large enough to
accommodate the growing number of students
and the newly opened technical departments;

2. The library collection was very small;

3. The administrator was working cooperatively
with students and teachers, but was in need
of well qualified administrative staff
members;

4. Students and teachers were preferring this
school because they had the appropriate time
to do their work, and the program was
designed to consider individual differences
among students (Abo-Ali and Saba, 1976,
pp. 34-41).

The third developmental process was conducted by
the Ministry of Education through a series of debates
initiated in 1977. The participants in these debates
were educators from the Ministry of Education,
comprehensiver secondary school principals, and
university educators. They discussed different issues
related to the development of these schools and made a

variety of recommendations. Some of them are:

1. With regard to curriculum development, it is
important to make use of the experience of

57

the school's teachers in preparing the
developmental plans for curriculum, and
presenting these plans to the educational
centers in the universities for further
development.

2. They stressed the teachers' qualifications
because of their important roles in these
schools.

3. It is important for the time being to agree
upon a unified system for these schools. As
a result of the debates on the viewpoints of
the workers in these schools, an agreement
was made to put together a plan for a new
manual for these schools.

4. They recommended pursuing these schools'
graduates to know how far they are in their
higher education or work and what are the
differences between them and other students.

5. It is important for this experience
(comprehensive secondary school experience)
to make practical and objective judgments.
For this kind of judgment, they recommended
formation of a committee to evaluate this
experience and provide a final report to the
Ministry of Education.

The fourth process consisted of putting these
suggestions and recommendations in action. The Supreme
Council of Education Policy decided in 1984 to move
forward and put new developmental perspectives in the
system of the existing comprehensive schools. They
changed the name from "comprehensive secondary schools"
to "developed secondary schools." They built this new
system on the experience of the old one. Both systems
have the same goals and objectives, but the new one
concentrates on the academic fields of education and
takes into account the admission conditions of some

colleges and universities. For example, some colleges

58
require students to take at least 24 credit hours in
English language to be accepted into some of their
departments. For executing this system, the Ministry of
Education formed a liaison committee to supervise and
assess and supply it with its needs.

According to this system, the student has to
complete at least 168 credit hours, compared to 150
credit hours in the old system. The instructional
program is divided into three different parts: the
general program, the specialization program, and the
selective program. The general program is compulsory
for all students. They have to take at least 67 credit
hours, as illustrated ix: Table 2.2. This program
generally covers most of the academic fields of the

school.

Table 2.2--List of the School Compulsory Program

 

Program Credit Hours

 

Arabic Composition

Arabic Grammar

Arabic Literature
Computer Science

English Language

Islamic Theology
Jurisprudence in Islam
Mathematics

National Education
Natural Sciences
Prophetic Deeds and Islamic Culture
Qur'an and Its Commentary
Social Sciences

mmbmwmpnmmnmh

 

O\
\l

Total

 

59

The specialization program is designed to give

students

the chance to specialize in one of the

following academic fields by completing at least 78

credit hours:

1. The Islamic and Arabic language program,

2. Administrative and Humanities program,

3. Natural Sciences program, which is divided

into:

a.

'The

the joint program, including mathematics,
physics, chemistry, animal science, and
geology.

then the student has to choose either the
physics and mathematics group or the
chemistry and animal sciences group,
completing 16 credit hours.

selective program gives students the

opportunity to select at least 23 credit hours from the

following disciplines:

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Physical or Art Education

English Language

Computer Science

Typing

Any discipline from the specialization
programs except the program that the student
is specializing in.

Any discipline provided by the school and

supervised by the Ministry of Education.

60

Summary

This chapter contains a brief review of literature
related to comprehensive schooling under four separate
sections: (1) Meaning of Comprehensive Schooling;
(2) Comprehensive Schools in the United States and
England; (3) Comprehensive Schooling in Some Arab
States, and (4) Comprehensive Secondary Schools of Saudi
Arabia.

The comprehensive secondary schools, as opposed to
the traditional secondary schools, is a new venture in
some Arab countries. The first comprehensive secondary
school was established in 1974 in Saudi Arabia.

The United States and England are pioneer
countries in respect to introducing and spreading the
concept of comprehensive schools. In the United States
this system of schooling evolved between 1905 and 1930.
It was in 1918 when the Commission on Reorganization of
Secondary Education recommended the comprehensive
institution as the standard type of secondary school in
the United States. The driving forces behind the
establishment of this new system of schooling in the
United States were: recognition of the need to have a
common school where children from all socio-economic and
cultural backgrounds can go; recognition of the need for
social unity; and recognition of the need to expand the
school curriculum for better training and development of

the students.

61

In England it was in 1958 and 1959 when the
comprehensive schools were established by reorganizing a
number of schools. The comprehensive system of
schooling was founded on the desire to ensure equity of
opportunity, and to break down social class barriers by
promoting a feeling of social unity. Also the need to
expand the school curriculum to meet the needs of the
changing society was another consideration that
necessitated the introduction of comprehensive secondary
schools in England.

In some of the Arab states, e.g. Jordan, Iraq,
Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, comprehensive secondary schools
have been established during the 19705 as experimental
projects. In Saudi Arabia the first comprehensive
secondary school came into existence in 1974. Currently
there are four comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia, which are called developed secondary schools.
The weaknesses associated with the traditional secondary
schools created the need for the introduction of the
comprehensive school system in Saudi Arabia.

The review of the literature indicates that there
are differences in goals of comprehensive schooling of
the United States and that of Saudi Arabia. In the
United States the comprehensive schooling has been
introduced to remove the problem of segregation of
students, to bring about social unity, and to expand the

school curriculum for better training and development of

62
the students. Whereas, in Saudi Arabia comprehensive
secondary schools have been introduced to expand and
diversify the school curriculum, to make the school
system more flexible to provide more Options for the
students; and to make the admission to colleges and
universities of all school graduates easier. At
present, graduates from some secondary schools are not
admitted by colleges and universities. Besides, the
comprehensive schools in Saudi Arabia put a significant
emphasis on teaching of religious subjects along with
vocational and academic subjects. The comprehensive
schools in the United States, on the other hand, do not

include religious studies in their curricula.

CHAPTER III

LITERATURE REVIEW OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CLIMATE OF SCHOOLS

Introduction

 

The purpose of this chapter is to review studies
done in the field of organizational climate of schools.
The following sources were searched to identify relevant
studies:

1. Major research studies by leading researchers

in the field.

2. Dissertation studies and published research

papers.

The chapter has been organized into three

sections:

1. Major definitions of organizational climate.

2. Major studies by leading researchers.

3. Dissertation studies and published research

papers.

Studies, dissertations and published articles
reported in this chapter are either directly related to
the variables, or remotely connected with some of the
variables of this study.

63

64
The review of the literature related to the
organizational climate of schools has been done to
derive the following benefits:

1” To have :3 better understanding of the
definition of organizational climate;

2. To note the different aspects of organizational
climate which have been studied by researchers;

3. To be familiar with the findings of the studies
done;

4. To get help in identifying elements of
organizational climate which will be the focus
of this study;

5. To have needed directions and insights of the
problem, which will help this researcher to do

this study.

Conceptual Foundations of the Study

 

This study is based on four conceptual frameworks
advanced by Halpin and Croft, Likert, Steinhoff and
Stern, and Willower and his associates.

Halpin and Croft's concept of open and closed
climates is, perhaps, the most widely known
conceptualization and measurement of the organizational
climate of schools (Boyan, 1988). Using their OCDQ
(Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire),
Halpin and Croft studied 71 elementary schools, which

resulted in identification of eight climate factors.

65

Four of the factors are concerned with teacher
relationships and attitudes: hindrance, intimacy,
disengagement, and esprit. The four other factors are
concerned with principal-teacher relations: production
emphasis, aloofness, consideration, and thrust. Boyan
(1988) points out, "Halpin and Croft found six types of
climate that characterized the schools in their sample.
These climates fall on a continuum from open to closed:
open, autonomous, controlled, familial, paternal, and
closed. Where a given school falls on the continuum
depends on the configuration of its overall profile on
the eight climate factors.

Another important conceptualization of
organizational climate comes through Likert‘s concept of
managerial systems that range from exploitive-
authoritative to participative. Boyan (1988) summarizes
Likert's conceptualization in the following words:

Likert (1961) posited a conceptualization of
organizational climate that, like Halpin and
Croft's, was based on a theory concerned with
the relationship of superordinates and
subordinates. He argued that organizations
fall on a continuum of four types of managerial
systems: exploitive-authoritative, benevolent-
authoritative, consultative, and participative.
Likert also identified eight crucial
organizational characteristics: leadership
processes, motivational forces, communication
process, interaction-influence process,
decision-making process, goal setting, control
processes, and performance goals and training.
Placement of an organization on the managerial
continuum is based on its profile of eight
organizational characteristics. For example, a

participative system is characterized by the
following: supportive leadership; highly

66

motivated employees; communications that flow
throughout the organization, including upward;
warm and friendly interpersonal relationships;
shared decision making; shared goal setting;
collegial control processes; and high
performance goals.

Steinhoff and Stern's needs-press model is yet
another conceptualization of the organizational climate

of schools that has generated discussions in the

literature. Referring to the conceptualization
developed by Stern and Steinhoff, Boyan (1988) points
out:

Stern and Steinhoff, building on the ideas
of Lewin (1935) and Murray (1938), developed a
conceptualization and an instrument of climate
that have found their way into the literature
on educational administration. Basically,
Lewin and Murray took the position that human
behavior is the result of the relationship
between an individual and the environment. In
articulating this model, Murray developed the
notion of environmental presses, the conditions
of the external situation that correspond to

internal personality needs. He posited that
behavior will occur when environmental presses
and individual needs are congruent. Murray

identified 30 basic needs that individuals seek

to satisfy and 30 corresponding environmental

presses.

Willower and his associates also developed a
conceptualization of the organizational climate of
schools based on the widely shared observation that the
control of student behavior is an important aspect of
schools (waller, 1932; Willower and Jones, 1963).

Willower and his associates' concept of

pupil-control orientation has been summarized by Boyan

(1988) in the following way:

67

Willower et a1. (1967) developed a continuum of
staff orientations toward pupil control. The
pupil control ideology (PCI) names a continuum
that ranges from custodial to humanistic. A
custodial orientation is characterized by the
stereotyping of students by appearance,
behavior, and parents' socioeconomic status
(SES); a tendency to view the school as
autocratic with a rigid hierarchy of pupil-
teacher status; the unilateral and downward
flow of power and communication; and the
expectation that students will unquestioningly
accept teachers' decisions. In sharp contrast
to the custodial orientation, the humanistic
orientation views learning and behavior in
psychological and sociological terms,
emphasizes self-discipline, and is
characterized by two-way communication between
students and teachers.

It should be noted that the research literature
related with the organizational climate of schools is
largely rooted in the four conceptualizations presented

above (Hoy and Miskel, 1982).

Major Definitions of Organizational Climate

School organizational climate has been defined by
many leading researchers. Halpin and Croft (1962)
identified school organizational climate; as "the
organizational personality of a school; figuratively,
'personality' is to the individual what 'climate' is to
the organization." They adopted this description of
school climate because they believed:

that schools vary considerably in their

climate. As any teacher or school executive

moves from one school to another he inexorably

is struck by the differences he encounters in

organizational climates. He voices his

reaction with such remarks as, 'you don't have

to be in a school very long before you feel the

atmosphere of the place.‘ (Halpin and Croft,
1962, p. 5)

 

68
This feeling is what makes each school different,
and as a result creates its personality, or climate. In
addition, these researchers did not accept that school
climate means school "morale." It is more than that,
because this leads to "such an oversimplification" of
the reality. According to Halpin and Croft, school

climate is shaped by numerous factors, such as:

the socio-economic status of the school's
patrons, the biographical and personality
characteristics of the principal and the
teachers, the 'quality' of the students, the
attitudes of the parents toward the school, the
school's physical plant, the teachers' salary
schedule, the educational and administrative
policies of the school district, the location
of the school, and of prime importance for the
present phase of the study, the social
interactions that occur between the teachers
and principal.

In spite of this recognition of those factors,
researchers have restricted themselves with a very
limited meaning of organizational climate. They
referred to organizational climate as "the social
interaction between the principal and the teachers"
(Halpin and Croft, 1962, p. 9).

The other major definition of school organiza-
tional climate was developed by George Stern (1970). He
suggested that organizational climate, as has been
summarized by Silver (1983), is "the social context in
which each individual's personality is expressed or

repressed in varying degrees." This social context

presents itself in two different ways, remarks Stern

69

(1970). The first one is the development process, which
deals with environmental aspects "that are supportive of
intellectual and interpersonal forms of activities."
Four factors are identified to deal with these aspects:
(1) group life versus isolation, (2) intellectual
climate, (3) personal dignity, and (4) achievement
standards (pp. 226-269).

The second one is the control process, which
contains factors that "describe the degree to which the
organization of the training program stresses
bureaucratic administrative procedures, encourages
social isolation, and restricts individual expression"
(p. 269). These factors are: (l) orderliness, (2)
impulse control, and (3) isolation versus group life.
Stern (1970) included these factors in an instrument
called "organizational climate index," or OCI.

Newell (1978) identified organizational climate as
"subtle and pervasive interpersonal affective relation-
ships" (p. 170). These interpersonal relationships are
what shape the climate in putting it in an organiza—
tional context. Climate in this manner refers to the
relationship in any situation that is experienced by the
people in the situation.

Brookover (1979) theorized that "the behavior of
children in school, especially their achievement in
academic subjects, is partly a function of the social

and cultural characteristics of the school social

70

system" (p. 6). He stressed the importance of school
personality, as Halpin and Croft did. He said that
"each school has a set of students status-role
definitions, norms, evaluations, and expectations
characterizing the behavior expected of students in
general and various student subgroups in particular
(P. 6).

Finally, Owens (1981) identified school
organizational climate as a "concept of behavior arising
from the interaction of person and environment." Based
on this concept, he advances the following definition:

Organizational climate is a relatively enduring

quality of internal environment of an organiza-

tion that (a) is experienced by its members,

(b) influences their behavior, and (c) can be

described ix: terms of the values of a

particular set (M? characteristics (or

attributes) of an organization. (9. 193)

The foregoing definitions have highlighted many
facts related to school organizational climate. The
first one is that each school has its own personality
and is different from other schools. The second one is
the concentration usually on the social interrelation-
ships among the school's members. The third one is
related to how the situational climate gives the degree
of the chance for the individual to express or repress
his personality. The fourth and final one is the school

social and cultural characteristics and their effects on

the school social system and students' achievement.

71

Major Studies by Leading Researchers

 

Four basic works have been considered as a basis
of conceptualization for the organizational climate of
schools. The first one was done by Halpin and Croft
(1962). They put together a basic instrument to measure
the school organizational climate. They built their
work on eight subsets and called it the "organizational
climate description questionnaire" (OCDQ). These
subsets were (Halpin & Croft, 1962, p. 176):

l. Disengagement

2. Hindrance

3. Esprit

4. Intimacy

5. Aloofness

6. Production Emphasis
7. Thrust

8. Consideration

The second one was developed by Fiedler (1967).
In his study, Fiedler based his logic on the assumption
that "groups and organizations will succeed and thrive
under good leadership and that they will fail under poor
leadership" (p. 3). To deal with this assumption, he
tried to build a theoretical framework for understanding
leadership effectiveness. In this study, "the major
organizational concern is with the effectiveness and
performance of a group . . . labor turnover, job
satisfaction, morale, and personnel adjustment are here

seen as contributing to group performance, but they are

not in themselves criteria of performance" (pp. 9-10).

72

For measuring leadership effectiveness, the
researcher developed the "contingency model" which
"postulates that the effectiveness of a group is
contingent upon the relationship between leadership
style, and the degree to which the group situation
enables the leader to exert influence" (p. 15). He put
together a scale to measure leadership effectiveness and
called it the "least preferred coworker scale" (LPC).
Results of applying this model suggested that group
performance can be accomplished either by modifying the
leadership style, or by modifying the group task
situation (p. 151). The following scales have been
developed for this model.

The first one deals with best preferred worker the
respondent has worked with (most preferred coworker MPC
scale). The second one deals with the least preferred
worker the respondent has worked with (least preferred
coworker scale LPC). Finally, the third one deals with
group atmosphere of the worker (GA)(pp. 268-269)

(see Figure 3.1).

The third work was done by George G. Stern (1975).
He put together four important indices containing
different characteristics for learning environment:

1. High school characteristic index

2. Elementary and secondary school environment
index

3. College characteristic index

4. Organizational climate index

73

MPC Scale

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youwkwithm.uhmybomyoubewinthepm

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LPC Scale

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myoumkwithm,ahcmybomyoukncwinchoput

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Group AtmosphIrI ScalI

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" W“ k L I I _I 1 L I I M“.
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.m M L L . L 4 4 L L L Umm-mu

Figure 3.l-—MPC, LPC, and

Group Atmosphere Scales

74
In the organizational climate index, Stern tried
to "describe the environment in which people work"
(Stern, 1975, p. 1). His concern was to describe:
1. daily activities
rules and regulations and policies

typical interests and projects
features of the physical environment, etc.

Iwa
III

The fourth work was developed by Likert (1978).
In this work, Likert was trying to help school
administrators "use a: more effective management
system." This system, which Likert has named "system
4", is "based on a large volume of research in business
organization" (Likert, 1978, p. l-l).

In his study, Likert produced indices to measure
school organizational performance. These indices are
interrelated factors which produce the profile of the
school. These are (Likert and Associates, 1978):

A. Organizational climate
B. Causal leadership
1. leader support
a. respectivity of subordinates' ideas
b. decision making
2. goal emphasis
3. team building
4. work facilitation
5. technical competence
C. Communication
D. Mutual trust
E. Other intervening variables, such as:
l. the amount of influence the respondent
group members feel they have
2. self-motivation and
3. students' acceptance of goals
F. End results, such as:
1. the level of educational achievement
2. cost performance measures
3. student dropout, etc.

75

These interrelated key factors or indices are
represented in several questionnaires called "The
Profile of a School" (P08) published by Rensis Likert
Associates, Inc.

Likert also produced four distinctive systems for
measurement. Each one can be described in terms of
organizational climate and leadership behavior.
System 1 is called the exploitive-authoritative system.
It is based on classical management concepts. System 2
is called the benevolent—authoritative system. It is
based on a one-to-one relationship between subordinate
and leader in the work environment. System 3 is called
consultative. In this system, a more participative
leadership is used. The leader consults with his
employees individually in the process of making
decisions. Finally, system 4 is called the
participative system. This system emphasizes team
interaction in all of the critical organizational
processes (Owens, 1981, p. 205) (see Figure 3.2).

In addition to these four major works, there are
several studies which, in one way or another, are based
on the above-mentioned works. But these studies are
very important because they were done by well-known
researchers in this field. The following is a brief
review of some of them:

1. Wilbur Brookover (1979) and others have

conducted a study to discover the relationships between

Organizational
variables

How much confidence and trust
is shown in subordinates?

How free do they feel to talk
to superiors about jobs?

How often are subordinates'
ideas sought and used
constructively?

Leadership

ls predominant use made of
l fear, 2 threats.
3 punishment, 4 rewards,
S involvement?

Where is responsibility felt
for achieving the
organization's goals?

Motivation

How much cooperative teamwork
exists?

What is the usual direction of
information flow?

How is downward communication
accepted?

how accurate is upward
communication?

Communication

How well do superiors know
problems faced by
subordinates?

76

System 1 System 2 System 3

virtually

none

I I 1 l 1

I

[III

I

substantial

IMOUflt

L I 1 I

I

System 4

a great deal

L111J

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

not vggy somewhat quite very
free free free free
I I 1 I I J 1 I l L III L LIL I I I 1 1_l
very
seldom sometimes often frequently
I 1 1 1 I I l 1 1 IL I III—L L I 1 1 I _I
occasionally 4 some 3 4 some 3 S I 4 based
and S on group
1 I I 1 I 1 1 l I L 1 I 1 1 I I 1 I 1 I
mostly at top and fairl
y at all
t0? 'iddl' general levels
I 1 1 L I I l 1 l 1 I I I I L LI 1 1 I I
very relatively moderate great
little little amount deal
I I 1 I I L I J 4 I I II I I I 1 1 II J
mostly down and down, up &
downward downward up sideways
I I I I I L IIL_I I I 1 1 1 I I I I I I I
with a
with possibly with receptive
suspicion w/suspicion - c.“g;°n mind
1 I 1 I I 1 J l 1 I I I L I I 1 1 1 1 I
almost
32233. “3“" L “m “m:
'CCUIO G accurate accurate
I 1 1 _1 I I 1 I l I I I I I I I I I 1 I I
not very rather quite very
well well well well
I 1 I 1 I I l 1 l 1 J I I I 1 I 1 1 1 1__I

 

Figure 3.2-Organizational Characteristics of Likert's Four
Systems. (From Owens, 1981, p. 208).

Goals Decision

Control

Organizational
variables

At what level are decisions
made?

Are subordinates involved in
decisions related to their
work?

What does the decision-making
process contribute to
motivation?

flow are organisational goals
established?

how much covert resistance to
goals is present?

how concentrated are review
and control functions?

is there an informal
organisation resisting the
formal one?

what are cost. productivity.
:nd other control data used
or?

Figure 3.2-continued.

77

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4
mostly at policy at broad policy throughout
top top. some at top. more but well

delegation delegation integrated
llllIlIIIIILLIIIIIIIII
almost occasionally generally fully
never consulted consulted involved
ILIIIIIIIIIIIILIIIIIIJ
not very relatively some substantial
much little contribution contribution
[IILIIIJILIIIIILIIIIIJ
orders orders, some after group action
issued comments decision. (except in
by orders crisis)
lIIIIIILlIIIIIlIlIlJII
strong moderate some little or
resistance resistance resistance none
at times
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
moderate
very highly quite highly delegrarion widely
at top at top to lower shared
level
lIJIIlJIIIJIIIIIIlJLILJ
no. same
yes usually sometimes goals as
formal
lljlllIIIIIIIIILLIIIIILJ
self-
policing reward and reward, some guidance,
punishment punishment self-guidance probxgu-
solving
[IIIILILIIIIIILIIII1ILLI

 

78

the elementary school students' achievement and the
school social systems. They have "examined the relation
between three sets of school social system variables and
three school outcome variables" (Brookover et a1., 1979,
p. 12). The school social system variables are:

1. input;

2. social structure; and

3. school climate.

The school outcome variables are:

1. mean social achievement;

2. mean student self—concept of academic ability;

3. aggn student self-reliance

Brookover's work has concentrated mainly on the
school social climate. This climate is composed of the
schools members' norms, expectations, and beliefs. In
addition, he has assumed that the best sources for
information regarding the school social climate are
students, teachers, and principals. In conclusion,
Brookover and his colleagues have considered that school
members' feelings, attitudes, beliefs, values,
expectations, and norms are more directly related to
school social climate than social composition,
personality traits, or, in other words, organizational
characteristics which have mostly been used in other
studies in this field.

2. Clarence A. Newell in his work (1978) has
discussed organizational climate in terms of its:

1. identification;

2. importance;
3. effect on a child;

79

4. administration;

5. status;

6. feeling system;

7. interpersonal dysfunctions; and

8. improvement

He stressed that school organizational climate
could be identified by its behavioral social system.
The "climate as used in an organizational context
consists of the total affective system of a human group
or organization, including feelings and attitudes toward
the system, subsystems, superordinate systems, or other
systems of persons, tasks, procedures,
conceptualizations, or things." To improve this kind of
organizational climate many necessities should be
considered. These necessities are ". . . the learning
of subject matters; skills, procedures, and attitudes;
the quality and quantity of books, supplies, and
equipment; the buildings and grounds; the lunches; and
the transportation" (Newell, 1978).

Besides, there are "human aspects" related
directly to school organizational climate. These
aspects have been discussed as major elements to improve
school organizational climate. They are outlined by
Newell as follows:

1. considering the relationships between the
learners' behavior and the functioning of
others in the schools;

2. considering the influence of administra-
tors' values, attitudes, practices,

beliefs, and expectations throughout the
school organization;

80

3. emphasizing the school administration
needs to be concerned with the school
curriculum;

4. considering intrinsic motivation for
learners;

5. considering the status factors, such as
socioeconomic status of the students;

6. considering the emotional climate of all
students by both teachers and peers;

7. considering the selection of school staff
by administrators;

8. considering the communication between
students, teachers, and administrators;
and

9. considering the quality of the inter-
personal relationships of school members

3. Marvin W. Peterson has done an analytic
research on the planning approaches. He has discussed
the theoretical planning models and dimensions. One
important model in this work was the organizational
development model which is related to the dimensions of
the organizational climate. This model focuses on the
institution's members themselves in terms of their
needs, abilities, attitudes, activities, and culture.
One major assumption of this model is to make the needed
changes in "organization's cultural, management style,
work structure, decision-making patterns, communication,

interaction, and influence" (Jedamus et al., 1981,

p. 133).
4. Robert G. Owens considers the organizational
climate as an internal psychological environment. He

has stressed that the term "climate" could mean
atmosphere or feeling. It deals mainly with the

internal characteristics of educational organizations.

81
So, it could be called also the culture or ethos of the
organization (Owens, 1981, pp. 190-191).

In describing and assessing organizational climate
in schools, Owens has reviewed the major organizational
climate techniques and studies, such as works by Halpin
and Croft, George Stern, and Rensis Likert which have
been mentioned earlier in this review. However, Halpin
and Croft, according to Owens' view, assumed that
"organizational climate is experienced by people in the
organization." Stern has viewed organizational climate
as a product of both the characteristics of the
individuals and the characteristics of the environment.
Finally, Owens' work has reviewed Likert's concept of
organizational. climate. Six organizational variables
were used by Likert to describe the school climate:
leadership process
motivational process
communication process
decision making process

goal-setting process
control process

OSUIIbUJNH
e e e e

5. Bill R. Hampton and Robert H. Lauer have
concluded in their work that human organization focuses
on people and their needs. They have depended on
Likert's theory of human organization. School
performance characteristic variables, :hn their view
(Hampton and Lauer, 1981, pp. 11-21) are:

1. leadership process

2. motivational process
3. communication process

82

4. interaction-influence process

5. decision-making process

6. goal-setting or ordering process

7. control process

6. Lezotte et al. (1980) published a monograph on
school learning climate and its relationship with
student achievement, and how this climate can be
improved. They defined school learning climate as "the
norms, beliefs and attitudes reflected in institutional
patterns and behavioral practices that enhance or impede
students' achievement" (p. 4). The concentration in
this monograph is on the problems most frequently
encountered by students with socioeconomically
disadvantaged backgrounds, both minority and
non-minority.
They based their argument on two points of view.

The first one is the view that "schools don't make a
difference in achievement, and because of home and
family backgrounds, school can't make a difference"
(p. 12). The other point of view, and the one they
used, is that "school definitely can and does make a
difference" (p. 12). They discussed the reasons behind
each view, and they came to the conclusion that low
achievement is not caused by socioeconomic status. They
believed that the nature of effective school learning
climate is best explained by an examination of the

school as a social system and of school learning as a

socialization process" (p. 24).

83

Their review of the major studies on school
organizational climate supported their assertion that
school is a social system.

As long as the evidence indicates that school can
make a difference in students' achievement, it is
important to propose a change process that can turn
schools from low-achieving schools to high-achieving
schools. The change process, according to Lezotte et.
al., should concentrate on the school social system,
examination of the general resistance to the change
process, and on the dynamics of the change process
itself. For this kind of change, they suggested how
planned change in school learning climate can be
conceptualized and subsequently implemented. This
planned change should be built on "those school-level
institutional patterns that appear to be critical in
creating and maintaining effective school learning
climates on 'instructional practices'" (p. 83).

Finally, they suggested the need for better
understanding of high schools because of their size and
complexity. They proposed three important issues for
improving the high school learning climate. They were:
(1) the relation of structural features such as size,
organization, and curriculum to the social system;
(2) the impact of these structural characteristics on
the school learning climate as reflected in the

achievement levels between and within schools; and

84
(3) the problems and possibilities of changing the
school learning climate" (p. 113).

7. Rutter et a1. (1980) conducted a longitudinal
research on twelve London secondary schools. The study
was based on the following questions: "do a child's
experiences at school have any effect; does it matter
which school he goes to; and which are the features of
school that matter?" (p. l).

The findings of their study revealed that schools
have a very important effect on children's development,
and "it does matter which school a child attends."
Moreover, the results provided strong indications of
what "are the particular features of school organization
and functioning that account for success" (p. 1).

This study was actually based on earlier research
done by the researcher in which he compared all
ten-year-old children living in inner London with
children of the same age having homes on the Isle of
Wight. This comparison produced two findings. "First,
it was found that emotional, behavioral, and reading
problems were twice as common in inner London as on the
Isle of Wight . . . Second, the results indicated that
the problems and difficulties shown by the children were
strongly linked with various types of family adversity"
(p. 27).

The research strategy and tactics of this study

were systematic measures of children's characteristics,

85
school-by-school comparison. In addition, they used
three main measures: (a) the pupil's verbal reasoning
scores at the age of ten; (b) parental occupation; and
(c) children's scores on a behavioral questionnaire
completed by teachers. In addition to that, they held a
series of interviews with these schools' staff, and

group discussions and interviews with groups of

students.
Rutter et al. (1980) summarize their ten important
conclusions as follows:

1. Secondary schools in inner London
differed markedly in the behavior and attainments
shown by their pupils.

2. Although schools differed in the portion
of behaviorally difficult or low achieving children
they admitted, these differences did not wholly
account for the variation between schools in their
pupils' later behavior and attainments.

3. The variation between schools in
different forms of "outcome" for their pupils were
reasonably stable over periods of at least four or
five years.

4. In general, schools performed fairly
similarly on all the various measures of outcome.

5. Those differences in outcome between
schools were not due to such physical factors as the
size of the school, the age of the buildings, or the
space available; nor were they due to broad
differences in administrative status or organization.

6. The differences between schools in
outcome were systematically related to their
characteristics as social institutions.

7. Outcomes were also influenced by factors
outside teachers' immediate control.

8. Effect of balance in the intake was most
marked with respect to delinquency and least

86

important in the case of children's observed behavior
in the classroom and elsewhere about the school.

9. The association between the combined
measure of overall school process and each of the
measures of outcome was much stronger than any of
the associations with individual process variables.

10. The total pattern of findings indicates
the strong probability that the associations between
school process and outcome reflect in part a causal
process.

In addition to the foregoing studies, there are a
number of unpublished dissertations and published
research papers in this field. The following section is

devoted to the review of these works.

Dissertation Studies and Published Papers

 

Dissertation Studies

 

Darnieder (1969) studied the authority dimension
of secondary school climate. He built his study on the
notion that the private schools have been characterized
as authoritarian institutions permitting little, if any,
freedom of responsible action among students, while the
public schools have been proclaimed the bastions of
freedom. From this notion, Darnieder designed his study
to answer one basic question, which is related to the
difference, if any, in the authority dimension of
climate in the public schools, the private separated
boys and girls schools, and the private coeducational

schools. In addition, he tried to find out the degree

87
of acceptance or rejection of school regulations by
students.

The main objective of this research was to provide
these schools' administrators with information which
will help to decide whether to keep or revise them.

He concluded that there were significant
differences among the students of all schools in the
area of the authority dimension of school organizational
climate. In terms of the extent to which the students
accept or reject the school's regulations, he concluded
that tenth grade boys in private schools were most
inclined to the school's regulations, followed by the
boys of coeducational schools and public schools.
Twelfth grade boys of private and coeducational schools
were also more in the realm of accepting school
regulations than those of public schools. Tenth grade
girls of private schools were most willing to accept
school regulations, followed by their counterparts in
the coeducational private and public schools,
respectively. Finally, twelfth grade girls of the
coeducational private schools were most likely to accept
school regulations, followed by girls from private
schools and public schools.

Gehrman (1970) proposed that a substantial amount
of research has been conducted to discover the
relationship between organizational climate and

participation in the process of decision making. His

88

findings indicated that individuals who actively
participate in the decision making process tend to
perceive their organization having favorable climate.

Depending on this logic, Gehrman designed a study
to examine senior class students', teachers',
principals', and superintendents' perceptions of
organizational climate and control in five innovative
and five non—innovative high schools. He hypothesized
that students and teachers in innovative schools would
perceive the organizational climate of their schools
more favorably than their counterparts in non-innovative
schools. On the other hand, he hypothesized that
students and teachers in innovative schools would
perceive themselves as having more control over

determining policies and practices of their schools than

their counterparts in non-innovative schools. This
study was conducted in Massachusetts. The researcher
used Likert's "Profile of Organizational

Characteristics" and Tannenbaum's "Organizational
Control" questionnaires to obtain this study's data.
The results of this study indicated that members'
participation in their school decisions and practices
were not promoted by innovations used these schools.
Kelley (1970) studied the psychological
environment of organizations and its impact on
individuals interacting within organizational settings.

In this study, the researcher tried to deal with three

89
areas related to the secondary school environment:
morale, organizational climate, and conflict. The data
for this study were collected from two secondary schools
in Michigan. One of these schools was described as a
school in conflict; the other one was described as
stable. The data of this study were gathered from four

groups from each school. These groups were: sophomores,
juniors, seniors, and faculty members. They were asked
to complete the organizational climate index (OCI) which
was prepared by George Stern (1970) for measuring the
environment in which people work.

The findings of this study indicated that:

Students' perceptions are not a direct function

of teacher perception . . ., the longer the

student faces the school environment . . . the

less his identification with teacher
perceptions of behavior of the organization,
the school analyzed seems to be most strongly
characterized by a press for order and
control. Decisions may be more a result of
community values and pressures than a result of
decision making by students and teachers, and
finally, the dissonance of perceptions
regarding the organization may be a source of

potential future conflict" (p. 114).

Waldman (1971) conducted a study in a sample of
secondary schools in New Jersey. He used the
Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ)
and the Pupil Control Ideology Form (PCI) to collect the
data for his study.

Two themes were conceptualized to be tested by the
findings of this study. The first one was "pupil

control orientation," which identified along two

90
continuums: "humanism" at one extreme and "custodialism"
at the other. The second one was "organizational
climate," which was measured on a range from "open" at
one side, to "closed" at the other.

This. study's major results indicated that
secondary schools with a more open organizational
climate tended to have less custodialism on pupil
control orientation (H? the school. Finally, the
researcher found that communities with more population
tended to have a more closed school climate and a more
custodial pupil control orientation of the schools; and
teachers tended to be more custodial in their pupil
control orientation than were the principals.

Bellows (1971) designed a research study to
examine the professional operation of the schools of a
religious congregation of men in Canada. The
researcher's intention was to examine the relationship
between organizational climate, the openness of the
school organizational climate and students' social
behavior, constructs of achievement, affiliation, and
inclusion. The researcher built his theoretical
perspective on the notion that the openness of the
school climate was considered as the transectional
element that helps achieve individual integration and
institutional adjustment. He hypothesized that in a
healthy school organizational climate, openness is

significantly related to student social behavior.

91

To measure this notion, the researcher
administered two types of questionnaires in sixteen
schools that were administered by the Canadian Province
of the Congregation of Christian Brothers. The first
questionnaire related with students' social behavior.
It was designed by Croft and called the "Student
Behavior Description Questionnaire" (SBDQ). The second
one was Halpin and Croft's Organizational Climate
Description Questionnaire (OCDQ), which was related with
the school climate openness. Bellows administered his
questionnaire to principals and teachers in selected
schools.

The general finding of this research indicated
that there is a relationship between school climate
openness and students' social behavior. In more
specific terms, this study concluded that the degree of
climate openness is more related to student social
behavior in elementary schools than in the high schools
because, according to this researcher's findings,
students' behavior in high school is less influenced by
teacher behavior than in elementary schools.

Kocher (1971) studied junior high schools'
organizational climate. The variables of this study
were: size of school faculty and its relationship to the
organizational climate; length of experience as a
principal and as a teacher; teacher's age, length of

teaching experience and membership in a local teachers'

92
organization. Depending on these variables, the
researcher's intention was to determine the
organizational climate of each of the junior high
schools surveyed, and determine the differences among
these schools' climates.

The findings of this research indicated that there
was a difference in organizational climate of the
junior high schools. In addition, the researcher found
no significant relationship between organizational
climate and faculty size, between principals' age and
organizational climate, between principals' years of
experience and organizational climate, between teachers'
age and years of teaching experience and school climate.
The researcher also did not find any significant
relationship between the percentage of teachers in each
school holding membership in a local teachers'
organization and the school's organizational climate.

Marchione (1972) conducted a research study in
twenty-four secondary schools in Baltimore County,
Maryland. The major aim of this study was to study the
organizational climate in relation to selected schools'
departments and classrooms climates, and the
relationship between the climate in the classroom and
the climate in the department.

The findings of this study indicated that the
organizational climate of the schools and their

departments were interrelated. But there was no

93
indication that school climate influenced the department
climate. In addition, the researcher failed to support
the notion that classroom climate is related to school
and/or department climate, because of the possibility of
insufficient differentiation between department and
classroom climate.

Pappalardo (1972) investigated 30 New Hampshire
and 20 Western Massachusetts junior and/or senior
secondary schools. This investigation involved 511
teachers who responded to the Organizational Climate
Description Questionnaire (OCDQ) and the Leader Behavior
Description Questionnaire (LBDQ).

The main purpose of this study was to investigate
the organizational climate of the secondary schools in
terms of the function of faculty size, existence of a
negotiation agreement, and principals' leader behavior.

From the findings of this study, it appeared that
the complexity of the nature of schools' organizational
climate makes it difficult to be accurately predicted by
the OCDQ instrument. In addition, the researcher found
that faculty size and existence of a negotiation
agreement were not significant to analyze organizational
climate. But principals' leader behavior (LBDQ) was
found, according to this study, to be more significant
in analyzing a school's organizational climate.

Manuie (1976) conducted a research study in Saudi

Arabia. This study was concerned with school

94

organizational climate in relation to location of
school, type of school building, type of education (boys
and girls), and the type of nationality (Saudi or
non-Saudi) of the teacher. This study was conducted in
fifty-five selected elementary and intermediate schools
of the educational district of the city of Riyadh. The
researcher surveyed the teachers' and principals'
perceptions regarding their schools' organizational
climate.

The study concluded that the teacher-principal
relationship was reasonably satisfactory but relatively
formal. In terms of school location, the researcher
found that interaction among teachers was limited in
schools located in low socioeconomic areas compared to
those in higher socioeconomic areas. In addition, the
school environment was more flexible in areas with high
socioeconomic status with non-rented school buildings.
Communication and understanding between Saudi and
non-Saudi teachers was reasonably satisfactory, but in
non-rented school buildings the interaction and
communication between teachers was more extensive than
in rented school buildings. The researcher also found
that the girls' school environment was more rigid than
that of boys' schools.

Still (1979) investigated the interrelationships
between leadership style, organizational climate, and

group effectiveness among selected high school

95

administrative teams. Furthermore, this investigation
focused on the relevance of the contingency model of
leadership effectiveness developed by Fiedler. To
identify the principal leadership style, the researcher
used the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale that was
developed by Fiedler. For measuring the organizational
climate of the administrative team, the researcher used
the group atmosphere scale (GA) which was also developed
by Fiedler.

Finally, for the effectiveness of the high school
administrative teams, the researcher utilized the High
School Characteristics Index (HSCI) developed by Stern.

This investigation was conducted in twenty high
schools in which the principals and administrative teams
responded. The conclusion of the study was that there
were no significant interrelationships among leadership
style, organizational climate, and team effectiveness
among high school administrative teams.

Sisson (1979) compared principals' and teachers'
perceptions of their elementary schools' organizational
climate. This research was conducted in 32 elementary
schools in Fairfax County, Virginia. The results of
this study showed that principals perceived their
school’s organizational climate as more open than did
the teachers. In addition, principals in the more open
schools had longer tenure than those in the less open

school climates. And the teachers in the more open

96
school climates were much older than teachers in the
less open climate schools.

Kabiry (1980) investigated the relationships
between teachers‘ perceptions of schools organizational
climate, and students' perceptions of their classroom
climate. The data for this study were gathered from 140
students and their eight teachers in three public
schools within the Murfreesboro, Tennessee school
system. The findings of this study indicated that there
was no relationship between teachers' perceptions of
overall organizational climate of schools and students'
perceptions {of overall, organizational climate of
classrooms.

Leslie (1980) studied school climate to determine
whether there were stable perceptions of the school
climate among the department subgroups of high schools
in the suburban school district in north central Texas.
Eight of this district's schools were selected for this
study. A sample of these schools' teachers was asked to
respond (Hi the Organizational Climate Description
Questionnaire and Supervisor Behavior Description
Questionnaire.

The general finding of this study indicated that
climate perceptions of high school teachers are stable
among the departmental subgroups of the high schools.
In addition, teachers' perceptions (”5 their school

climate were not significantly influenced by the subject

97
area of the department, or by the leadership behavior of
the department head.

Crane (1981) was trying to develop a new
questionnaire for measuring organizational climate of
schools. Based on existing models and previous
research, Crane built a model to measure climate of
contemporary, suburban edementary schools. This study
was conducted in nine schools to determine whether
relationships, if any, existed between climate and
teaching experience, teacher tenure, and school size.
Six factors or dimensions were included in the
questionnaire. They were: consideration, support/
caring, purpose and commitment, autonomy/structure,
decision centralization, and cohesiveness. The major
question of this study was: what relationships do exist
between teachers' perceptions (H? actual climate
conditions and their expectations of ideal climate and
school size, teaching experience, and teaching tenure?

The population of this study consisted of
principals and teachers of nine elementary schools. The
researcher found that inverse relationships existed
between ideal climate and teaching experience, and
between ideal climate and teaching tenure. The findings
also indicated that there were no significant
differences in the perceptions of principals and

teachers, with regard to school climate.

98

Ghonaim (1986) conducted a study which related to
organizational climate of schools, and job satisfaction
of teachers and administrators in 41 schools in Saudi
Arabia. The major concern of this study was to examine
the relationship between organizational climate, job
satisfaction, school size, educational district size,
and educational experience. The research was also
designed to discover the differences and similarities in
perceptions of cuganizational climate, and job
satisfaction by male administrators and teachers in city
public schools in Saudi Arabia in terms of position
level, school level, type of school building, school
size, educational district size, educational experience,
and educational level.

Major findings of this study are:

1. Educational level and experience of
administrators and teachers did not affect the
perception of organizational climate;

2. There was a positive relationship between
educational (district size, job satisfaction, and
organizational climate according in) administrators'
perceptions;

3. Administrators perceived both job
satisfaction and organizational climate more positively
than did teachers; and

4. Elementary teachers rated job satisfaction

and climate higher than did secondary school teachers.

99
Research Papers

Researchers have studied different dimensions of
organizational climate. One of the dimensions is the
efficacy of organizational modes of the decision making
process. Brides (1964) tested modes of involving
teachers in decision-making process, namely, testing,
soliciting, and delegating. The findings of his study
showed that the soliciting was the most effective.
Bridges concluded that school size tends to determine
the degree of teachers' participation in decision making
process, and that the combination of small schools and
older principals would tend to result in the greater
amount of teachers' participation in decision making.

Kahn and his associates (1964) examined
organizational stress by conducting a clinical case
study in combination with a large scale statistical
design. This procedure was to focus upon an individual's
perception of his own role in an organization, and to
contrast this with the descriptive evaluations of his
role made by his "significant others" in order to derive
each individual‘s role set. Indices of role conflict
and ambiguity were based on an assessment through
interviews and questionnaire data.

Using the well established premise that much
psychological stress can in; traced through the
interaction (HE internal dispositions with socio-

environmental factors (especially significant others),

100
they analyzed the kind of stress common to large and
complex organizations. They concluded that one type of
stress common to educators was the role ambiguity stress.

Wilson (1964) identified and isolated eight
elements that affected communication within school
organization. These eight elements were then viewed as
falling into two dimensions: an operational dimension
involving the more mechanical, procedural aspects of
communications, and an organizational dimension
encompassing those aspects related to the establishment
and maintenance of the organization and the structure of
the communication process.

Investigating the different communication networks
that develop around different issues within a school,
Greenham (1964) implied the nature of the issue itself
appears to be the major factor in determining the pattern
and mode of communication.

Herr (1965) administered tflua High School
Characteristics Index (HSCI) to 725 high school students
to examine their perception of thirty environmental
presses, the conditions of the external situation that
correspond to internal personality needs.

The results indicated that student responses to the
items of the HSCI could provide descriptions of
environmental demands faced by students. The chi-square
test demonstrated that perceptions of the environment of

the school were associated with the variables examined.

101

Otto and Veldman (1966) were concerned with the
affective aspects of decision making in elementary
schools. They studied the staffs of 38 elementary
school systems, using the Organizational Climate
Description Questionnaire and the McLeod Control
Structure Description Questionnaire. Although
significant relationships were found between principals'
perceptions of the allocation of decisions and
principals' climate scores, and between teachers'
perceptions of the allocation of decisions and teachers
climate scores, substantial agreement appeared between
principals and teachers in the same schools on the
appropriate allocation of decision-making power and
influence and on most of the climate dimensions. Thus,
principals and teachers did not use a 'common frame of
reference for viewing their relationships with each
other. Also, they saw decision-making and school
climate from dissimilar vantage points. Perhaps, the
most startling finding of this study indicated that
there was no clear relationship between teachers'
evaluation of organizational climate and their perceived
general autonomy.

Smith (1966) points out that research on
communication patterns and process as aspects of
organizational behavior is relatively sparse. Analysis

of the communication patterns of an organization is

102

indeed an analysis of the social dynamics of that
organization. In a case study on organization, Smith
hypothesized that communication patterns are expressions
of the perceived status structures and the functions of
the organization. Using an interview technique he found
support for this hypothesis, and concluded that most
communication takes place without groups of persons with
shared statuses. The greater the number or variety of
statuses, the greater were the barriers to communication
within the organization.

Mitchell (1968) conducted a study to identify and
interpret the critical variables or dimensions in the
high school environment that have the greatest capacity
for empirical differentiation among schools. The main
instrument used to accomplish this objective was the
Stern "High School Characteristics Index" (Stern, 1964).
This instrument was administered to students of senior
classes of eleven high schools in a large metropolitan
area. The thirty scores of the HSCI were subjected to a
principal component. factor analysis. This study
concluded that the structure of the domain of
environmental perception appears to be reducible to the
four primary' factors: strong intellectual orientation,
school activities, negative attitude toward the
environment, and strong environmental control.

Coughlan (1970) conducted a study to identify the

major dimensions underlying the morale of elementary and

103

secondary school teachers. A self-reporting
questionnaire, called the school survey, was constructed
to gather the teachers' perceptions of important factors
in the work environment. The questionnaire was
administered to 554 teachers in 19 midwestern
middle-class, suburban schools. The data were factor
analyzed by tetrachoric covariances for the responses to
the 125 items. Thirteen factors were identified by this
study, namely, (1) administrative operations (board
functioning, system (administration, materials and
equipment, and building and facilities); (2) working
relations (principal relationships, colleague relations,
and community relations); (3) school effectiveness
(instructional program and student development); and
(4) career fulfillment (performance appraisal, financial
incentive and professional autonomy).

Wiggins (1972) investigated the behavioral
characteristics of elementary school principals as they
are related to school climate. The method included the
collection of data on thirty-one randomly selected
elementary schools and the behavioral characteristics of
their principals. Statistical analysis was accomplished
by means of canonical correlation analysis and trend
analysis. [A significant relationship was found between
the principals' interpersonal orientation and the school
climate. As the length of the principals' incumbency

increased, the level of significance of the relationship

104
between principal behavioral characteristics and school
climate increased. The findings also indicate the
presence of a compelling school climate stability which
has the effect of socializing the school principals'
behavior.

James and Jones (1974) reviewed previous
organiztional climate research, definitions, and
measurement approaches. They identified three
categories: (a) the multiple measurement-organizational
attribute approach; (b) the perceptual measurement-
organizational attribute approach; and (c) the
perceptual measurement-individual attribute approach.
They pointed out that many climate researchers appeared
to be more concerned with measurement techniques than
with understanding and explicating the underlying
concepts or constructs they were attempting to measure.
Only after the conceptual boundaries of organizational
climate are spelled out should the measurement and
operationalization become matters of major concern. As
the first step in reconceptualization, it was
recommended that a differentiation be made between
climate regarded as an organizational attribute and
climate regarded as an individual attribute. When
regarded as an organizational attribute, the term
"organizational climate" appears appropriate. When
regarded as an individual attribute, it was recommended

that a new designation such as "psychological climate"

105
be employed. With respect to the three approaches, the
term organizational climate included the multiple
measurement-organizational attribute approach subsumed
since it was recommended that the stipulation of only
perceptual measurement be dropped. .

Brimm and Bush (1978) studied students' reactions
to environmental factors in the school for two purposes:
(1) to identify areas within the school environment with
which students felt greatest satisfaction and
dissatisfaction, and (2) to determine if there was a
difference in the way students who are classified as
activists felt about their experiences from those
classified as non-activists.

The students expressed greatest satisfaction with
the size of the classes, teachers' knowledge of subject
matter, the readability of the texts, and the importance
and relevance of the courses. They expressed greatest
dissatisfaction with the liveliness and interest of
their classes, class expectations made by teachers, and
classroom methods of teachers.

Activists" and non-activists' responses were also
compared. The activists expressed significantly greater
dissatisfaction than did the non-activists.

Miskel, Fevurly, and Stewart (1979) conducted a
study to build on the literature dealing with school
configurations, interpersonal processes, and performance

indicators. Their findings suggested that more

106
effective schools, as perceived by teachers, are
characterized by more participative organizational
processes, less centralized decision-making structures,
more formalized general rules, and more professional
activities.

Kalis (1980) argued that every school is unique.
What makes each one different is organizational
climate. This study dealt with the assumption that
climate and teacher morale are closely related. He
defined teachers‘ morale as the "mental or emotional
attitudes of teachers toward components of their job."
Many attitude statements were considered to be relevant
to principal/teacher roles and teachers' morale. These
statements could be put in three groups:

a. attitude toward the principal;

b. attitude about the faculty; and

c. attitude toward the administration and
administrative duties.

The instrument of this study consisted of 16
statements which teachers responded to on a five-point
scale ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly
disagree." The researcher conducted his study in one
school. He divided the teachers into four groups on the
variable of how many years they had taught in the
district: group (A), those with one to two years; group
(B), those with three to five years; group (C), those

with six or more years; and group (D), those with more

than ten years of experience. The results indicated

107

that the more years of experience in the school, the
more negative the attitude toward the school climate.

Anderson and Anderson (1982) reviewed the research
related to school climate with a multitude of variables,
methodologies, themes, and models, resulting in a not
easily defined body of research. The analysis of the
school climate literature, based on over 200 references,
used an organizational theory taxonomy to organize the
diverse body of research, and to draw conclusions about
common findings. The history of school climate research
was reviewed, noting the influence of climate
instruments developed to study climate in settings other
than the total school building, such as business,
college, and classroom settings. The difficulty of
defining school climate was reflected in the diversity
of climate typologies that have evolved, despite their
often common roots. The debate about school climate was
tied to differences among researchers in theory base,
variables to study (and their hypothesized
interrelationships), unit of measurement choices and the
validity of subjective and qualitative data (based upon
participation or observer perception). The exact
mechanisms by which individual and group level variables
interact to create a climate conducive to positive
student outcomes was very unclear. The full extent of
climate differences and the differential effect of

climates on different individuals within them were not

108
considered in any depth except to the theoretical level.
Also, the need was for conceptually based research aimed
at improving models of school climate effects rather
than merely adding to the already long list of separate
variables or reaffirming their association with climate
or outcomes.
In this thorough paper, Anderson and Anderson
formed four dimensions to describe school climate:
a. ecology,
b. milieu,
c. social system, and
d. culture
School climate research studies are mostly related
to these four dimensions. This researcher put together
dependent and independent variables of the school
climate. The following are some of these variables:
1. administrative practices,
2. workloads,
3. supervisory practices,
4. trust,
5. esprit,
6. orientation,
7. school activities,
8. school size, facilities, and equipment,
9. rules and regulations,
10. school building,
11. staff experiences, and
12. teachers', principals', and students'
attitudes and relationships.
Reed (1982) studied urban secondary school
leadership. He pointed out that in order for a positive
change to occur in schools; for there to be a healthy,

supportive school climate in which a full range of

opportunities for all students can be developed,

109

nurtured and sustained, and in which affective teaching
and learning will occur, schools must have outstanding
leaders--leaders who are knowledgeable and skilled in
areas pertaining to curriculum and instruction,
supervision and evaluation, group dynamics, motivation,
communication, and school-community relations; leaders
who set high standards and expectations for students and
staff, who inspire others to be the best they are
capable of being, and who demonstrate respect for others
and themselves.

Silver (1983) put special emphasis on the
description of Halpin and Croft's (1963) identification
of school climate. She stressed that the core of school
organization climate (or social climate) resulted from
the reciprocal effects of the teachers' behavior pattern
as a leader. "Thus the reciprocal dynamic of leadership
and group are viewed as the key to identifying diverse
school climate" (p. 121). She explained extensively the
school climate as a range along a continuum starting
from the most open climate and extending to the most
closed climate. Then she suggested four aspects of the
principals' behavior as they were adopted by Halpin and
Croft (1963). These aspects were: aloofness, production
emphasis, thrust, and consideration. For teachers'
behavior, she also identified four dimensions:

disengagement, hindrance, esprit, and intimacy.

110

Sharif (1985) studied the organizational climate
of Kuwait traditional secondary schools and the credit
system secondary schools (comprehensive secondary
school) and its relationships to the teachers' job
satisfaction. She pointed out that the study was
designed to discover some aspects that affect teachers'
performance and satisfaction with their jobs, and
identify the differences attributed to the kind of
educational system.

To collect the data, Sharif used the Halpin and
Croft (1963) OCDQ instrument. She used eight schools;
four were using the old traditional system and the other
four were using the newly applied credit system. From
each system, she selected two boys schools and two girls
schools. Her samples were 127 teachers from the credit
system schools and 124 teachers from the traditional
schools. The findings of her study indicated that:

l. The organizational climate of the credit hours
system was more open, whereas the traditional school
climate was what has been known as "the family type."

2. There were no significant differenCes between
the two types in relation to teachers' behavior in terms
of their engagement, disengagement, frustration, and
intimacy.

3. There were no significant differences between
girls schools and boys schools in some measures of the
instrument.

4. There were significant differences in the level
of teachers' job satisfaction, the differences were

leaning toward credit system schools and toward girls
schools in a general manner.

111

5. There is a relationship between teachers' job
satisfaction and the type of the organizational climate.
The open climate type of the credit system was the
reason behind the differences in the job satisfaction of
these schools (credit system schools).

Dufour (1986) suggested that a highly motivated
staff and effective school are not mutually exclusive.
According to Dufour, "simultaneous loose-tight
properties" can be applied to the school setting.
Dufour believed that one cannot read the affective
school literature without visualizing strong, dynamic,
aggressive principals who roam their schools with a
clear vision of what they want to achieve and
determination to achieve it regardless of obstacles. It
is a picture that is difficult to reconcile with the

message of increased autonomy for teachers that comes

from the research on motivation.

Summary

This chapter was devoted to the review of
literature related to organizational climate of
schools. For a better and clear understanding, this
chapter has been divided into three sections, namely,
major concepts and definitions of organizational
climate, research studies by leading researchers, and
dissertation studies and published research papers.

The main purpose of the review was to get needed

insights and directions for this study.

112

The review indicates that the term "organizational
climate" has been applied to different school
characteristics.

In the section entitled "Research Studies by
Leading Researchers," four basic works related with
organizational climate of schools have been reviewed.
It includes the works of Halpin and Croft (1962),
Fiedler (1967), Stern (1975), and Likert (1978). The
review reveals that a majority of the research studies
done in the area of organizational climate of schools
are rooted in the conceptualizations advanced by the
above leading researchers. All four of these
conceptualizations have led to the development of
instruments that record respondents' perceptions. These
conceptualizations focus primarily on the social-system
dimension of climate.

According to Anderson and Anderson (1982), the
majority of the studies on school climate have been done
from two perspectives: (1) school climate as a form of
organizational climate, and (2) the effect of school-
1eve1 characteristics on student performance.

In the section entitled, "Dissertation Studies and
Published Research Papers," a number of studies on
organizational climate of schools have been reported.
These studies have investigated or examined a number of
elements of organizational climate of schools. The

following elements of organizational climate were

 

113
emphasized: leadership, school morale, conflict,
members' interaction, decision-making process,
innovativeness of schools, openess of schools,
organizational structure, relationship between
departmental climate and classroom climate, school size,
communication process, and physical facilities of

schools.

CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter contains information about research
design, population and samples of the study, sampling
technique used to draw the needed sample, data
collection procedures, data collection instrument, and
statistical techniques and procedures used to analyze
the data Of this study. It also provides a brief
description of the purpose of the study, and the
selected elements of organizational climate, and lists
the null hypotheses of the study. In addition, a brief
description of demographic characteristics of
respondents is included in this chapter.

The primary purpose of this study was to examine
the differences, if they exist, in the perCeptions of
students, teachers, and administrators with regard to
organizational climate of comprehensive secondary
schools in Saudi Arabia in terms of its current
conditions as well as levels of desire for change in
conditions of organizational climate. The study has
also attempted to find out the perceived levels of
acceptance of current conditions; and levels of desire

114

115
for change by students, teachers and administrators with
regard to the selected elements of organizational
climate of comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia.
In order to answer the general research question,
the following hypotheses were developed. These

hypotheses are presented below in their null form:

1. There are no significant differences among
students, teachers, and administrators with
regard to their perceptions of current
conditions of organizational climate of
comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia.

2. There are no significant differences among
students, teachers, and administrators with
regard to their perceptions of desire for
change in conditions of organizational
climate of comprehensive secondary schools
in Saudi Arabia.

Apart from the two hypotheses mentioned above, the
study has also attempted to answer the following
questions:

1. What are the perceived levels of acceptance
of students, teachers and administrators
with regard to current conditions of
organizational climate of comprehensive
secondary schools in terms of leadership,
communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services?

2. What are the perceived levels of desire for
change among students, teachers and
administrators in the organizational
climate of comprehensive secondary schools
in terms of leadership, communication,
school morale, group relationships, and
facilities and services?

116

Selected Elements of Organizational Climate

After reviewing the literature related to
organizational climate of schools, the researcher was
able to identify a number of elements of organizational
climate which were studied by different researchers.
From the list of identified elements of organizational
climate, the researcher arbitrarily decided to include
the following:

1. Leadership Style

2. Communication

3. School Morale

4. Group Relationships

5. Facilities and Services

For clarity and better understanding, a brief

description of these elements of organizational climate

is provided below:

Leadership Style

 

School climate provides the opportunity for its
members to function toward achieving their goals and
objectives. The leadership style of the school is the
motivation element which makes this function interact
accordingly. The school leadership may create the
climate in which the members can express their feelings,
ideas and adopt innovations. Thus, a school principal
may offer the feeling for his subordinates that he
"symbolizes a parental feeling to many children and
staff, and thus has the power to affect the school"

(Newell, 1978, p. 185).

117

School leadership with its power affects school
organizational climate, which is considered as a
creation of the school principal, and as an internal
arrangement of the school setting. It depends on the
principal's thoughts and his leadership philosophy. In
general, effective school leadership would consider:
(a) the interaction among school groups to form and
maintain their social system and (b) clear the way
toward achieving the school's goals and objectives
(Owens, 1981, p. 182).

Leadership style, thus, can be defined in terms of
its organizational context as "the initiation of a
structure or procedure for accomplishing an
organization's goals and objectives or 'for changing an
organization's goals and objectives" (Griffiths, 1964,

p. 122) .

Communication

 

The communication system is a crucial part of the
school organizational climate. Teachers, administrators,
and students can learn to communicate effectively with
each other, and solve school problems when they learn to
communicate openly in appropriate ways and at
appropriate times in their relationships with each other
(Newell, p. 192). Communication in this manner may be
defined as a “. . . process by which a person learns the

values and norms and required behavior which permit him

118
to participate as a member of the organization" (Roloff
and Berger, 1982, p. 256). Furthermore, communication
is a continuous process which "will change and evolve as
the individual remains longer with the organization"
(Roloff and Berger, p. 256).

It is apparent from this definition that the
communication process is the main channel by which
school members are kept well-informed about the school's
rules and regulations as a human setting. In addition,
it may help school members to adjust and get acquainted

with the school climate.

School Morale

 

Organizational climate is a product of the
members' interactions and relationships in the setting.
It is the feelings of the school's teachers and
administrators toward their productivity which is
dedicated to increasing students' achievement and
satisfaction (Kelley, 1970, p. 6). This feeling is
associated with the school morale. It is defined by
Griffiths (1964) as:

A feeling of participants in an organization

stemming from a combination of (a) perceived

productivity or progress toward the achievement
of the tasks of the organization and (b) per-
ceived job satisfaction of individual needs
through the interaction of the participant in
his role with the work group and the total
organization. (p. 165).

School morale is thus a result of a combination of

elements which indicate that the organization members

119
are adopting school goals well and congruently working
with a strong absence of major conflicts as well as

personal adjustment and motivation.

Group Relationships

Group relationships of the school are considered
very important for the educational process. Group
relationships are the depiction of the dynamic
organizational climate of the school leadership,
communication and school general morale. Through group
relationships, the individual will have the opportunity
to express his interests and experience his talents and
creativity. In addition, group relationships are
inevitable. The school administration has to deal
formally or informally with different types of group
relationships, such as students, teachers, or parents.
"Groups are inevitable because they satisfy basic human
needs. Each person needs to relate to others. Groups
can help to meet a person's needs to care about others
and to be valued, to feel safe, to feel significant, and
to belong" (Newell, 1978, p. 80).

In this sense, group relations could be defined as
"a plurality of individuals who are in contact with one
another, who take one another into account, and who are
aware of some significant commonality" (Newell, 1978,

p. 81) .

120

Facilities and Services of the School

 

The foregoing four elements of organizational
climate of schools would not interact effectively
without the proper facilities and services. Many
decisions by school staff and administration would not
be easily implemented if the necessary tools, space, and
materials were not available or accessible. In
addition, schools are established to accomplish certain
goals and objectives which makes it important for
schools to utilize every available source to bring about
the needed facilities and services that would have an
effect on accomplishing those goals and objectives
(Jedamus et al., 1981, p. 394). Finally, school
facilities and services also have psychological aspects.
The most effective schools offer places for students to
withdraw in privacy and opportunities to use solitude
constructivelyu Also, school faculty will utilize this
perspective by helping students academically, socially
and psychologically by the uncomplicated access to those
facilities and places at "which students and faculty may
interact informally” (Stern, 1970, EM 171). Some
examples of school facilities and services are: space,

building, classroom, furniture, and academic counseling.

Research Method

 

The study employed a cross-sectional survey method

to study the problem.

121

Population and Samples

 

The population for this study consisted of all
students, teachers, and administrators of the four
well-established comprehensive schools. These four
schools are located in three educational districts,
namely, the Central Education District, with Riyadh City
as the main center; the Western Educational District,
with Jeddah and Mecca as the main centers; and the
Eastern Educational District, with Dammam City as the
main center (see Figure 4.1).

The population of these schools were all males
(there are no comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia for females). The student population consisted
of those who were enrolled in these four comprehensive
secondary schools in the fall term of the 1985-86
academic year. The teacher and administrator population
consisted of those who were employed by the above
mentioned three educational districts to work in these
four secondary schools.

The total number of students, teachers, and
administrators, at the time of data collection, was
4380. Among them were 4110 students, 230 teachers, and
40 administrators (Tables 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3). The data
were collected from 648 respondents out of a total
sample of 775. Thus the rate of return was 83.6

percent, which is considered adequate for this study,

122

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Table 4.l--Students Surveyed from the Four Comprehensive Secondary

 

 

 

Schools*

School Age Range Nunber Nunber
Name Location Population (years) Sampled Responded
Al-Yermook Riyadh 1725 14-23 240 207
comprehensive City
Dammam Daunam 836 14-23 80 65
comprehensive City
Hira canprehen- Mecca 642 14-23 115 100
sive school City
Badr canprehen—
sive school Jeddah 907 14-23 165 145

Total 4110 600 517

 

Table 4.2--Teachers Surveyed fran the Four Canprehensive
Secondary Schools*

 

 

 

School Nunber Number

Name Location Population Sampled Responded

Al-Yermook Riyadh 84 42 36

canprehensive City

Damnam Damnam 47 35 26

comprehensive City

Hira canprehen- Mecca 52 30 24

sive school City

Badr canprehen-

sive school Jeddah 47 28 20
Total 230 135 106

 

*Fran: Statistical Reports of the Four Schools, 1985-1986.

124

Table 4.3--Administrators Surveyed from the Four
Comprehensive Secondary Schools*

 

 

School Number Number
Name Location Population Sampled Responded
Al—Yermook Riyadh 14 14 3
comprehensive City

Dammam Dammam 8 8 7
comprehensive City

Hira comprehen— Mecca 10 10 8

sive school City

Badr comprehen-
sive school Jeddah 8 8 7

 

Total 40 40 25

 

*From: Statistical Reports of the Four Schools,
1985-1986.

which included 517 students, 106 teachers and 25

administrators.

Sampling Method

 

The sample of this study was drawn from the
population described above. To draw the sample, the
random sampling technique was used.

From the students' group, the intention was to
randomly select at least ten percent of the total
student population. Hence, depending on each school's
population, the selected sample ranged from 65 to 207
students, or from between 7.78 and 16.98 percent.
However, the final sample size was 517 students, or
12.58 percent (see Table 4.1). From the teachers'

group, the intention was to randomly select at least 40%

125
of the total population. However, the selected sample
ranged from 20 to 36 teachers, or 42.55 to 55.32 percent
(see Table 4.2). Thus, the final sample size consisted
of 106 teachers. For administrators, because they were
present in limited numbers in each school, the intention
was to survey all of them, or at least survey most of
them. The researcher, however, was able to survey about

40 or 63% of the total administrators (see Table 4.3).

Data Collection Instrument

 

The data for this study were collected through the
help of a questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted
of thirty statements related to five selected elements
of organizational climate of schools. These elements
were: (1) leadership style; (2) communications between
members; (3) school morale; (4) group relationships; and
(5) facilities and services.

The questionnaire consisted of three parts. The
first part was related to demographic characteristics of
the respondents. The second part was formulated to
collect perceptions related to the current conditions of
the organizational climate of schools. The last part
was formulated to collect perceptions related to the
desire for change in conditions of organizational
climate of schools (see Appendix A).

The current conditions responding scale consisted

of six options, whereas the desired conditions

126
responding scales contained four options. The six
options for measuring the current conditions were: "very
strongly agree," "strongly agree," "agree," "disagree,"
”strongly disagree," and very strongly disagree." The
four options for measuring the desired conditions of
organizational climate were: "a lot," "some," "little,"

and "nothing."

Instrument Development

The instrument for this study was developed. To
do so, the researcher obtained and reviewed numerous
surveys, questionnaires, or instruments related to the
area of school organizational climate (Appendix D).

The questionnaire developed was refined and
reviewed by the researcher, and then was given to his
research committee chairman, who was generous enough to
spend his valuable time to review it thoroughly. The
final version, after it was translated into the Arabic
language, was given to a committee of three professors
in the College of Education at King Saud University,
Saudi Arabia. They reviewed the questionnaire item by
item and suggested necessary changes. The researcher
considered their remarks and made the necessary changes,

alterations or additions.

Instrument Translation

 

The instrument was translated from English to

Arabic by the researcher. This translated copy

127
before it was finalized went through the following
stages:

1. Copies of the first translated draft were
given to five Saudi Arabian students at Michigan State
University to see if there were any language
difficulties in understanding the translation.

2.. The translated questionnaire, then, was
reviewed by a professor, experienced in the field of
translation, at the College of Education at King Saud
University. His suggestions were very helpful,
especially in the areas of grammar and wording.

3. The final step was to translate the question-
naire back into English. The researcher translated the
final Arabic draft back into English to discover if
there were any contradictions between the Arabic and
English versions of the instrument. Only a few minor

changes were needed at this point.

Pilot Study of the Instrument

 

The researcher was granted permission from the
Ministry of Education (Appendix C) to test this
questionnaire on students, teachers, and administrators.
The reasons for this pilot test were: (1) to examine the
clarity of the instrument; (2) to determine the
distribution process of this instrument with the
consultation of the school principals; and (3) to
determine the length of time needed to complete the

questionnaire.

128
The instrument was given to 30 students and 7
teachers and administrative staff members of the
comprehensive secondary schools in the city of Riyadh,
Saudi Arabia. The results of this pilot study suggested
few changes, and these changes were incorporated
immediately. About 30 to 45 minutes were needed to

complete the questionnaire.

Data Collection Process

 

.The researcher received help from officials at
King Saud University (the sponsor agency of this
research) in collecting the data for this study. King
Saud University sent an official letter to the Ministry
of Education requesting to provide the researcher
necessary help to collect the data from the four
comprehensive schools. In the winter of 1986, the
researcher was able to visit these schools and collect
the needed data from the three groups of students,
teachers, and administrators.

All students completed the questionnaire inside
their schools. The questionnaire was distributed during
the regular school hours, which were between 8:00 a.m.
and 2:00 p.m. The questionnaire was administered by the
researcher with the help of school administrative staff.
Approximately 35 to 45 minutes were required by the

students to complete the questionnaires.

129

For teachers, the questionnaires were handed to
the principals and vice-principals, who then distributed
the questionnaires either to the chairman of each
department or directly to the teachers. Some of the
teachers completed the questionnaire immediately, while
others returned them the next day. A few questionnaires
were never returned by the teachers.

The researcher gave the questionnaires to the
administrators in their offices. Some administrators
completed their questionnaire immediately, and others
completed and returned them the next day; while a few
questionnaires were never returned by-the
administrators.

The original plan of the researcher was to collect
the data from the respondents through interviews as well
as questionnaires. But the expression of lack of
interest by the respondents in interview format

suggested the use of administered questionnaires only.

Statistical Analysis Procedures
Means and standard deviations for each measure of
the questionnaire on current and desired conditions
were calculated. The data were analyzed by
multivariate analysis of variance to find out
significant differences, if any, in the perceptions of
the three groups of students, faculty, and

administrators on thirty measures of current conditions

130
and thirty measures of desired conditions. The level of
significance was set at .05. Finally, means were used
to find out the levels of acceptance of current
conditions, and the degree of desire for change in
conditions of organizational climate as perceived by
students, teachers and administrators.

The respondents were asked to express their degree
of agreement or disagreement regarding organizational
climate of comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia. Numerical weights were assigned to each of the
6-response categories in a way that the higher the score
the higher the degree of perception, or acceptance, of
current conditions of organizational climate. Thus, the
weights were:

Very strongly agree

Strongly agree

Agree

Very strongly disagree

Strongly disagree
Disagree

II II II II II I!
l-‘NNIbU'lO‘

For the 4-response categories related ix) the
degree of desire for change in the conditions of
organizational climate, weights were assigned as
follows:

Little
3 Nothing

A lot
Some

II II
.5
HM

131
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
Students
The students sample was drawn from four
comprehensive secondary schools located in four major
cities in Saudi Arabia (see map, Chapter IV, p. 122).

School location. Table 4.4 gives the frequencies

 

and percentages of student distribution according to
their schools' location. The sample size consisted of
517 students, including 207 (40.04%) in Al-Yermook
comprehensive secondary school in Riyadh city, 65
(12.57%) in Dammam comprehensive secondary school in
Dammam city, 100 (19.34%) in Hira comprehensive
secondary school in Mecca city, and 145 (28.05%) in Badr
comprehensive secondary school in Jeddah city. With
regard to the students' nationality, it should be

pointed out that all were Saudi nationals.

Table 4.4--Distribution of Students by School Location

 

 

 

 

School Location Frequency (n=517) Percentage
Riyadh city 207 40.0
Dammam city 65 12.67
Mecca city 100 19.3
Jeddah city 145 28.1
Total 517 100.0
Years in School. Table 4.5 provides students'

 

distribution according to how many years they were
studying in their schools. 'The majority of students,

that is 418 (80.85%) had spent between one and three

132
years in schools. Only 22 (4.25%) had spent less than
one year ix: their schools. Seventy-eight (15.08%)
students had spent four years or more in the school. To
graduate from this type of school, the student needs
about three academic years.

Table 4.5--Distribution of Students by Years of Being
in School

 

 

 

Years in School Frequency (n=517) Percentage

Less than 1 22 4.3

1-3 418 80.6

4-6 78 15.1
Total 517 100.0

 

Age. Table 4.6 shows the distribution of student
by age. The majority of students, i.e., 331 (64.0%)
were between 18 and 20 years of age. One student was 15
years of age or less; 82 (15.7%) were between 15 and 17
years of age. The remaining 108 students (20.9%) were

twenty years of age or older.

Table 4.6--Distribution of Students by Age Group

 

 

 

Age in Years Frequency (n=517) Percentage

15 or younger l 0.2

15-17 82 15.9

18-20 331 64.0

20 and older 108 20.9
Total 517 101*

 

*The difference in percentage total is due to
rounding off.

133

Academic Department. The distribution of student

 

respondents by their academic departments is presented
in Table 4.7. Social studies was the dominant field
among student respondents--319 (61.7%) students were

from different fields in the social studies department.

Table 4.7--Distribution of Students by Department

 

 

 

Department Frequency (n=517) Percentage
Religious studies 11 2.1
Social studies 319 61.7
Language studies 11 2.1
Science and mathematic studies: 42 8.1
Physics and mathematics 56 10.8
Chemistry and biology 1 0.2
Physics and chemistry 60 11.6
Commercial studies 16 3.1
General studies 0 0.0
Not mentioned 1 0.2
Total 517 99.9*

 

*The difference 11) percentage total is due to
rounding off.
The science and mathematics department was the next in
terms of student enrollment. This department had 117
(22.6%) students; among them, 56 (10.8%) from the
physics and mathematics area only, 1 (0.2%) from the
chemistry and biology area, and 60 (11.6%) from the
physics and chemistry area. Commercial studies was the
third highest ranking area, with 16 (3.1%) students.
Religious and language studies ranked fourth in terms of
student respondents' enrollment. There was no student

respondent from the general studies department.

134
Teachers
The teachers sample was drawn from the four
comprehensive schools. Following is a brief description
of the teacher respondents' demographic characteristics:

School Location. Table 4.8 presents the data.

 

The total sample was 106 teachers; among them, 36
(34.0%) were from Al-Yermook comprehensive secondary
school of Riyadh city, 26 (24.5%) from Dammam
comprehensive secondary school of Dammam city, 24
(22.6%) from Hira comprehensive secondary school of
Mecca city, and 20 (18.9%) from Badr comprehensive

secondary school of Jeddah city.

Table 4.8-~Distribution of Teachers by School Location

 

 

 

School Location Frequency (n=106) Percentage
Riyadh city 36 ‘ 34.0
Dammam city 26 24.5
Mecca city 24 22.6.
Jeddah city 20 18.9
Total 106 100.0

 

Teachers' Nationalities. Education authorities in

 

Saudi Arabia usually hire teachers from the Arabic
countries. Table 4.9 represents the distribution of
teachers according in) their nationality. In this
research sample, the Saudi teachers (48, or 45.3%)
comprised the largest group. The Egyptians (29, or
27.4%) were the second largest group, followed by

Jordanians, Palestinians, Syrians, and Sudanese,

135
respectively. It can be seen that non-Saudi teachers
(58, or 54.7%) outnumbered Saudi teachers (48, or

45e3%) m

Table 4.9--Distribution of Teachers by Nationality

 

 

 

Nationality Frequency (n=106) Percentage
Saudi 48 45.3
Egyptian 29 27.4
Jordanian 9 8.5
Palestinian 8 7.5
Syrian 8 7.5
Sudanese 4 3.8
Other 0 0.0
Total 106 100.0

 

Years in School. In Table 4.10, the distribution

 

of teachers based on number of years they have taught in
their schools is.presented. From 106 teachers, 12
(11.3%) had taught less than one year, 23 (21.7%) had
(11.3%) had taught less than one year, 23 (21.7%) had
taught between one and three years, 33 (31.1%) had
taught between four and six years, 19 (17.9%) had taught
between seven and nine years, and 19 (17.9%) had taught
for 10 years or more.

Age. The distribution of the teachers in terms of
their age is presented in Table 4.11. Teachers' age
ranged from 20 to more than 51 years. It can be seen in
the table above that 2 (1.9%) teachers were between
20-25, 16 (15.1%) were between 26-30, 36 (34.0%) were

between 31-35, 21 (19.8%) were between 36-40, 26 (24.5%)

136

Table 4.10--Distribution of Teachers by Years of
Teaching in School

 

 

 

Years in School Frequency (n=106) Percentage

Less than 1 12 11.3

1-3 23 21.7

4-6 33 31.1

7-9 19 17.9

10 or more 19 17.9
Total 106 99.9*

 

*The difference ix: percentage total is due to
rounding off.

Table 4.ll--Distribution of Teachers by Age Group

 

 

 

Age in Years Frequency (n=106) Percentage
20-25 2 1.9
26-30 16 15.1
31-35 36 34.0
36-40 21 19.8
41-45 26 24.5
46-50 2 1.9
51 and older 3 2.8
Total 106 100

 

were between 41-45, 2 (1.9%) were between 46-50, and 3
(2.8%) teachers were 51 years of age or older.

Teachers' Majors, Minors, and Subjects Taught.

 

The data regarding majors and minors of teacher
respondents, and the subjects they were teaching at the
time of data collection are provided in Tables 4.12,
4.13, and 4.14. Tables 4.12 and 4.13 provide major and
minor fields of study of teachers, and Table 4.14
indicates the subjects actually taught by the

respondents in their schools.

137

Table 4.12-~Distribution of Teachers by Major Fields of

Study

 

Major Area Frequency (n=106)

Percentage

 

Accounting

Administration

Animal science

Arabic language 1
Arts

Business administration

Carpentry

Chemistry

Chemistry and animal science
Economics

Education and psychology

English language

French language

General education

General science

General science and education
Geography 1
Geology

History

Islamic law

Islamic law and Islamic education
Laboratory worker

Mathematics 1
Mathematics and physics

Mechanical engineering

Physical education

Physics 1
Psychology

Social services

Social studies

Sociology

Not mentioned

NNI—‘OI—‘ONOl—‘O‘OU‘IWWl—‘OIbNI-‘l-‘Nl-‘l-‘wuhobONNl-‘Ul

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000 0.50 0H

 

138

Table 4.13-~Distribution of Teachers by Minor Fields of
Study

 

Minor Area Frequency (n=106) Percentage

 

Accounting 2 1.9
Animal science 3 2.8
Animal science and geology l 0.9
Arabic language 4 3.8
Biology 0 0.0
Business administration 3 2.8
Chemistry 6 5.7
Chemistry and animal science 2 1.9
Computer science 1 0.9
Curriculum and instructional

methods 3 2.8
Economics 1 0.9
Education 11 10.4
Education and psychology 0 0.0
English language 0 0.0
Geography 0 0.0
Geology 1 0.9
History 2 1.9
Islamic education 3 2.8
Islamic law 4 3.8
Laboratory 0 0.0
Mathematics 8 7.5
Philosophy and social studies 2 1.9
Physics 4 3.8
Physics and chemistry 1 0.9
Psychology 1 0.9
Sociology 1 0.9
Student guidance 0 0.0
Not mentioned 42 39.6

 

139

Table 4.14--Distribution of Teachers by Subject Taught

 

Subject Taught Frequency (n=106) Percentage

 

Accounting 2 1.88
Accounting and administration 1 0.94
Administration and economics 2 1.88
Animal science 3 2.83
Animal science and geology 3 2.83
Arabic language 10 9.43
Business 3 2.83
Chemistry 8 7.54
Chemistry and animal science 1 0.94
Chemistry, animal science and

geology 1 0.94
Chemistry and geology 1 0.94
Computer science 0 0.0
Economics, statistics

and accounting 1 0.94
English language 2 1.88
General science 1 0.94
Geography 8 7.54
Geography and history 1 0.94
Geology 1 0.94
History 4 3.77
Islamic education 2 1.88
Islamic law 12 11.32
Mathematics 14 13.20
Mathematics and physics 1 0.94
Physical education 1 0.94
Physical geography 1 0.94
Physics 10 9.43
Psychology 1 0.94
Sociology and psychology 4 3.77
Typing English and Arabic 1 0.94
Not mentioned 6 5.66

 

140
Administrators
The administrators sample was also drawn from the
above comprehensive secondary schools. The following is
the description of their demographic characteristics:

School Location. The total number of the

 

administrators sampled was 25. Out of these 25, 3
(12.0%) were from Al-Yermook comprehensive secondary
school of Riyadh city; 7 (28.0%) from Dammam
comprehensive secondary school of Dammam city; 8 (32.0%)
from Hira comprehensive secondary school of Mecca city;
and 7 (28.0%) from Badr comprehensive secondary school
of Jeddah city» Table 4.15 indicates the distribution
of administrator respondents according to their school

location.

Table 4.15--Distribution of Administrators by School

 

 

 

Location
School Location Frequency (n=25) Percentage
Riyadh city 3 12.0
Dammam city 7 28.0
Mecca city 8 32.0
Jeddah city 7 28.0
Total 25 100.0

 

Nationality; In Table 4.16, the nationalities of

 

the administrator respondents are shown. Among these
administrators, 13 (52.0%) were Saudi nationals and 12

(48.0%) were Egyptian nationals.

141

Table 4.16--Distribution of Administrators by

 

 

 

Nationality

Nationality Frequency (n=25) Percentage
Saudi 13 52.0
Egyptian 12 48.0
Iraqi 0 0.0
Jordanian 0 0.0
Palestinian 0 0.0
Sudanese 0 0.0
Syrian 0 0.0
Other 0 0.0

Total 25 100.0

 

Years in School. Table 4.17 indicates the number

 

of years the administrators have worked in their
schools. One respondent (4.0%) had spent less than one
year in the school, while others were distributed as
follows: 7 (28.0%) had spent between 1-3 years; 9
(36.0%) had spent between 4-6 years; 4 (16.0%) had spent
between 7-9 years; and 4 (16.0%) had spent 10 or more
years working in their schools.

Table 4.17--Distribution of Administrators by Years
Working in School

 

 

 

Years in School Frequency (n=25) Percentage

Less than 1 1 4.0

1-3 7 28.0

4-6 9 36.0

7-9 4 16.0

10 or more 4 16.0
Total 25 100

 

Age. Respondents' age ranged from 20 to 50

years. Table 4.18 shows administrator respondents'

142
distribution according to their age. Most of the
respondents (17, or 68.0%) were between 31 and 40 years
of age; 3 (12.0%) were between 20 and 30; 4 (16.0%) were
between 41 and 45; and only one was between 46 and 50

years of age.

Table 4.18--Distribution of Administrators by Age Group

 

 

Age in Years Frequency (n=25) Percentage
20-25 1 4.0
26-30 2 8.0
31-35 8 32.0
36-40 9 36.0
41-45 4 16.0
46-50 1 4.0
51 and older 0 0.0

 

Total 25 100

 

Administrative Position. Table 4.19 indicates the

 

position of each administrator in his school. The
majority (8, or 32%) were laboratory workers. Of the
remaining 25, :2 were principals (8.0%), 5 vice-
principals (20.0%), 2 librarians (8%), 2 social workers
(8.0%), 3 student advisors (12.0%), 2 typists (8.0%),
and one (4.0%) did not specify his position.

Academic Majors and Minors. Tables 4.20 and 4.21

 

were designed to give a general description of the
administrators' academic minors and majors. These two
lists of minor and major fields of study were identified

by the administrators themselves.

143

Table 4.19--Distribution of Administrators by Position

 

 

 

Position Frequency (n=25) Percentage
Principal 2 8.0
Vice-principal 5 20.0
Librarian 2 8.0
Laboratory worker 8 32.0
Social worker 2 8.0
Student advisor 3 12.0
Typist 2 8.0
Not mentioned 1 4.0
Total 25 100

 

Table 4.20--Distribution of Administrators by Minor
Fields of Study

 

Minor Area Frequency (n=25) Percentage

 

Accounting

Animal science

Animal science and geology

Arabic language

Biology

Business administration

Chemistry

Chemistry and animal science

Computer science

Curriculum and instructional
methods

Economics

Education

Education and psychology 1 4.0

English language

Geography

Geology

History

Islamic education

Islamic law

Laboratory 1 4.0

Philosophy and social studies

Physics 1 4.0

Psychology

Physics and chemistry

Sociology 2 8

Student guidance 1 4

Not mentioned 15 60

i-‘H
use.

HP
#45
O O

a as
COO

 

144

Table 4.21--Distribution of Administrators by Major
Fields of Study

 

Major Area Frequency (n=25) Percentage

 

Accounting 0
Administration

Animal science

Arabic language

Arts

Business administration
Carpentry

Chemistry

Chemistry and animal science
Economics

Education and psychology
English language

French language

General education

General science

General science and education
Geography

Geology

History

Islamic law

Islamic law and Islamic education
Laboratory worker
Mathematics

Mathematics and physics
Mechanical engineering
Physical education

Physics

Psychology

Social services

Social studies

Sociology

Not mentioned

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145
Summary

The primary objective of this study was to examine
the perceptions «of students, teachers, and
administrators with regard to organizational climate of
comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia in terms
of its current conditions and desired conditions.

Two hypotheses were generated to answer the
general research question of this study. The study
considered only five elements of organizational climate,
namely, leadership, communications, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services.

The study employed survey research method. The
population for this study consisted of all students,
teachers, and administrators of the four well-
established comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia. Out of the total 775 subjects, 648 responded.

The data were collected through a structured
questionnaire with 30 items. The questionnaire was
developed and validated before it was used for the
collection of data.

The statistical techniques used to analyze the
data included: means, standard deviations, multivariate
analysis of variance, frequencies and percentages.

To provide the readers with information about
demographic characteristics of respondents, a detailed

section has been included in this chapter.

CHAPTER V

DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

This chapter contains information about the
analysis of the data, provides the findings of the
study, and furnishes a brief discussion of the results
of the study.

As mentioned earlier, the primary objective of
this study was to examine the perceptions of students,
teachers, and administrators with regard to
organizational climate of comprehensive schools in Saudi
Arabia in respect of its current and desired conditions.
The study has considered only five elements of
organizational climate, namely, leadership,
communication, school morale, group relationships and
facilities and services. Besides, the study has also
attempted to find out the perceived levels of acceptance
of current conditions; and the degree of desire for
change among students, teachers and administrators with
regard to the selected elements of organizational
climate of comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia.

The data for this study were collected from 648

out of 775 respondents of the four comprehensive

146

147
secondary' schools in Saudi Amabia. A structured
questionnaire was used to collect the data.

To analyze the data the statistical techniques
used were: MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance),
discriminant function analysis, means, frequencies and
percentages. The data were analyzed at the Michigan
State University Computer Center using SPSS (The
Statistical Package for Social Sciences by Nie, et al.).

For clarity and quick grasp of the results of the
study, the findings are presented under the following
captions:

1. Findings Related to Hypotheses Testing

2. Findings Related to Research Questions

3. Discussion of Findings

4. Summary

Findings Related to Hypotheses Testing

 

To answer the general question of this study two
hypotheses were generated, and MANOVA was used to test

these hypotheses. The results are as follows:

Hypothesis Number One

 

There are no significant differences among
students, teachers and administrators with
regard in: their perceptions of current
conditions (of organizational climate of
comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia.

The data presented in Table 5.1 indicate that the

F value of 4.951 is significant at the .000 level of

148

Table 5.l--Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Group Effects on Thirty
Measures of Current Conditions

 

 

Item Univariate Multivariate
No. F p F p
Leadership and 1 56.430 .000
Administrative 2 64.177 .000
Style 3 31.615 .000
4 35.413 .000
5 17.501 .000
6 3.158 .043*
7 4.266 .014*
Communication 8 12.433 .000
9 8.047 .000
10 30.605 .000
11 8.076 .000
School Morale 12 43.591 .000
13 27.172 .000
14 30.688 .000
15 9.454 .000
16 26.616 .000
17 47.912 .000
18 21.810 .000
19 47.872 .000
20 44.368 .000
Group Relations 21 41.041 .000
22 34.963 .000
23 5.870 .003*
24 6.494 .002*
25 31.217 .000
26 52.141 .000
Services and 27 27.800 .000
Facilities 28 26.812 .000
29 2.086 .125*
30 13.556 .000 4.951 .000

 

Note: All probability values were rounded to the nearest .001 unless
otherwise noted.

*Insignificant at p greater than .0017 level for univariate F's

149
significance. It means that there are significant
differences among students, teachers and administrators
with regard to their perceptions of current conditions
of organizational climate of comprehensive schools.
Therefore, the null hypothesis number one is rejected,

and the research hypothesis is confirmed.

Hypothesis Number Two

 

There are 1“) significant differences among
students, teachers and administrators with
regard to their perceptions of desire for
change in conditions of organizational climate
of comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi

Arabia.

The data presented in. Table 5.2 show the results
of the test of hypothesis number two. The F value of
0.630 at the .988 significance level indicates that
there is no evidence for the confirmation or support of
the above hypothesis. Therefore, the study's findings
do not suggest that there are significant differences
among students, teachers, and administrators with regard
to the levels of desire for change in conditions of

organizational climate of comprehensive secondary

schools.

Findings Related to Research Questions

 

To answer the research question number one of this
study means were used. The rating means were grouped as

follows:

150

Table 5.2--Mu1tivariate Analysis of variance for Group Effects
on Thirty Measures of Desired Conditions

 

 

Item Univariate ' Multivariate
No. F p F p
Leadership and 1 1.730 .178
Administrative 2 3.350 .036
Style 3 2.538 .080
4 .228 .796
5 4.489 .012
6 .447 .640
7 1.837 .160
Communication 8 3.598 .028
9 1.059 .347
10 2.287 .102
11 3.350 .036
School Morale 12 .826 .438
13 .308 .735
14 .368 .692
15 1.636 .196
16 .895 .409
17 .801 .450
18 .839 .432
19 1.817 .163
20 1.544 .214
Group Relations 21 .165 .848
22 2.113 .122
23 .812 .444
24 .130 .878
25 1.658 .191
26 1.076 .342
Services and 27 .662 .516
Facilities 28 .235 .790
29 .134 .875
30 .352 .703 .630 .988

 

Note: All probability values were rounded to the nearest .001 unless
otherwise noted.

151

Highest Level Means ratings of 5 or above

Medium Level Means ratings between 4 and 5

Lowest Level - Means ratings below 4
Based on the above categorization, the findings
are presented as follows:

Question Number One

 

What is the perceived level of acceptance of
students, teachers and administrators with
regard to current conditions of organizational
climate of comprehensive schools in terms of
leadership, communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services?

Table 5.3 presents the results. The highest
levels of acceptance (with means ranging from 5.004 to
5.235) with regard to current conditions were expressed
by administrators in connection with "leadership",
"school morale", "group relationships"; and by teachers
in respect of "school morale" only.

The medium levels of acceptance (means ranging
between 4 and 5) with regard to current conditions were
expressed by administrators in respect of "communica-
tion" and "facilities and services"; and by teachers in
connecticu: with "leadership", "communication", and
"group relationships"; and by students for "leadership"
and "communication".

The lowest levels of acceptance (means ratings
below 4) with regard to current conditions were

expressed by teachers in relation to "facilities and

services"; and by students in connection with "school

152

Table 5.3--Rank order of the Ratings for Five Elements of
Organizational Climate: Mean Scores for Acceptance of
Current Conditions as Perceived by the Respondents

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

services".

Question Number Two

 

What is
change

among

teachers

A<:c:e‘pt:a n<:e
Element Students Teachers Adninistrators
(n=517) (n=106) (n=25)
Rank Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank Mean SD

Leadership 1 4.014 1.482 2 4.885 1.199 2 5.217 0.776
Communication 2 4.056 1.449 4 4.724 1.246 4 4.913 0.994
School Morale 3 3.924 1.528 1 5.004 1.164 1 5.236 0.728
Group

Relationships 4 3.867 1.503 3 4.789 1.192 3 5.040 0.806
(Facilities 5.

Services 5 3.184 1.634 5 3.936 1.485 5 4.403 1.145
morale", "group relationships" and "facilities and

the perceived level of desire for

students, and

administrators in the organizational climate of

comprehensive secondary schools
communication,

leadership,

in terms of
school morale,

group

relationships, and facilities and services?

Mean ratings were also used to answer the research

question number two.
differently.
"Desired Conditions",
respect of

grouped as follows:

But the rating means were grouped

as opposed to a 6-point scale

"Current Conditions",

Due to the use of a 4-point scale for

in

the mean ratings were

 

153
Highest Level = Mean ratings of 3 or above

Medium Level = Mean ratings between 2 and 3

Lowest Level 2 Mean ratings below 2

According to the above categorization of mean

ratings, the findings were:

The medium levels of desire for change (means

ranging between 2.375 to 2.603, as shown in Table 5.4)

were expressed by students, teachers and administrators

with regard to all five elements of organizational

climate, namely, leadership, communication, school

morale, relationships, and facilities and

group

services. The results did not indicate perceptions of

any respondents falling into either highest level or
lowest level category.
Table 5.4—Rank order of the Eatings for Five Elements of

Organizational Climate: Mean Scores for Desire for Change
as Perceived by the Respondents

 

 

 

 

 

 

Desire for Change
Elenent Students Teachers Adninistrators
(n=517) (n=106) (n=25)
Rank Mean SD Rank Mean 3) Rank Mean SD

Leadership 2 2.588 1.001 5 2.375 1.103 2 2.565 1.158
Conmunication 1 2.604 0.932 4 2.382 1.099 3 2.500 0.978
School Morale 4 2.533 0.989 3 2.427 1.174 4 2.480 1.119
Group

Relationships 3 2.561 0.957 2 2.450 1.060 5 2.460 1.144
Facilities &

Services 5 2.506 1.052 1 2.460 1.088 1 2.640 1.049

 

 

 

 

 

154

Discussion of Findings

 

The findings related to hypothesis number one
indicate significant differences between perceptions of
students, teachers and administrators with regard to
current conditions of organizational climate of compre-
hensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia (Table 5.1).

Further multivariate analysis was done to find out
significant differences between perceptions of students,
teachers and administrators with regard to current
conditions in terms of the elements of organizational
climate, namely, leadership, communication, school
morale, group relationships, and facilities and
services. Table 5.5 shows the results. According to
the F values presented in this table, all the five
elements are separately significant in making
differences in the perceptions of the respondents.

Discriminant function analysis was also done to
find out the order of variables or items in contributing
to the performance of differences in perceptions of
students, teachers and administrators with regard to
current conditions of organizational climate as a
whole. According to the results presented in Table 5.6,
item number 2: "This school's administration is
consistently supportive of students and teachers" was
the variable that contributed most, while item number
24: "This school's activity program is well suited to

the interests of individual faculty and individual

155

Table 5.5--Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Group Effects on Each
Set of Measures of Leadership, Communication, School Morale,
Group Relations, and Services and Facilities in Current

 

 

 

 

 

 

Conditions
Item Univariate Multivariate
No. F p F p
Leadership and 1 56.430 .000
Administrative 2 64.177 .000
Style 3 31.615 .000
4 35.413 .000
5 17.501 .000
6 3.158 .043*
7 4.266 .014* 12.657 .000
Communication 8 12.433 .000
9 8.047 .000
10 30.605 .000
11 8.076 .000 8.240 .000
School Morale 12 43.591 .000
13 27.172 .000
14 30.688 .000
15 9.454 .000
16 26.616 .000
17 47.912 .000
18 21.811 .000
19 47.872 .000
20 44.367 .000 9.284 .000
Group Relations 21 41.041 .000
22 34.962 .000
23 5.870 .003*
24 6.494 .002*
25 31.217 .000
26 52.141 .000 12.663 .000
Services and 27 27.800 .000
Facilities 28 26.812 .000
29 2.086 .125*
30 13.556 .000 11.623 .000

 

Note: All probability values were rounded to the nearest .001 unless
otherwise noted.

*Insignificant at p's greater than .007 and .013 for univariate F's

156

Table 5.6-Discriminant Function Analysis of Thirty Measures of Current
Conditions in Contributing to Performance Differences of
Students, Teachers, and Administrators

 

 

Item No. Function
2 .630
1 .588

26 .568

17 .546

19 .445

20 .525

12 .520

21 .500
4 .469

22 .466

25 .440
3 .439

10 .436

14 .433

27 .413

16 .406

28 .400

18 .363
5 .330
9 .223

11 .219
7 .118

13 .397

30 .278

23 .172
6 .118
8 .268

29 .091

15 .236

24 .194

 

157
students" was the variable that made the least
contribution.

Additional analyses were used to identify the
groups having significant differences between them wdth
regard to current conditions. Two planned comparisons
were made. The first comparison between perceptions of
students and administrators showed a significant
difference (F value of 2.610 was significant at the .000
significance level) when all 30 variables were included
in the analysis (Table 5.7). The second comparison
between perceptions of teachers and administrators
failed to yield significant results (F value of 1.091
was not significant to meet the significance criterion
of 0.05) when all 30 variables were included in the
analysis (Table 5.8).

Analyses were also made to compare perceptions of
students anus administrators; and teachers and
administrators on current conditions with regard to five
elements of organizational climate separately. The
results presented in Table 5.9 indicated the existence
of significant differences between student and
administrator groups for leadership (F value of 7.095 at
the 0.000 significance level), communication (F value =
4.442, p less then 0.002), school morale (F = 5.267, p
less than 0.000), group relationships (F = 7.374, p less
than 0.000), and facilities and services (F == 8.188, p

less than 0.000).

158

Table 5.7--Planned Comparison Test between Students and Administrators
on Thirty Measures of Current Conditions

 

 

Item Univariate Multivariate
No. F p F p
Leadership and 1 35.286 .000
Administrative 2 35.743 .000
Style 3 21.837 .000
4 17.507 .000
5 7.557 .006*
6 4.872 .028*
7 7.784 .005*
Communication 8 11.721 .001
9 4.558 .033*
10 12.063 .001
11 6.691 .010*
School Morale 12 20.003 .000
13 25.071 .000
14 19.866 .000
15 8.153 .004*
16 14.769 .000
17 19.891 .000
18 16.404 .000
19 24.520 .000
20 17.939 .000
Group Relations 21 27.344 .000
22 16.778 .000
23 7.809 .005*
24 5.853 .016*
25 13.286 .000
26 26.882 .000
Services and 27 17.602 .000
Facilities 28 20.819 .000
29 3.605 .050*
30 13.801 .000 2.610 .000

 

Note: All probability values were rounded to the nearest .001 unless
otherwise noted.

*Insignificant at p's greater than .0017 level for univariate F's

159

Table 5.8--Planned Comparison Test between Teachers and Administrators
on Thirty Measures of Current Conditions

 

 

Item Univariate Multivariate
No. F p F p
Leadership and 1 3.310 .071
Administrative 2 1.674 .198
Style 3 2.154 .145
4 .396 .530
5 .003 .953
6 2.030 .157
7 4.409 .038
Communication 8 2.233 .138
9 .135 .714
10 .046 .830
11 .985 .323
School Morale 12 .118 .731
13 5.151 .025
14 2.98 .132
15 1.634 .203
16 .523 .471
17 .000 .999
18 1.724 .191
19 .355 .553
20 .004 .949
Group Relations 21 3.246 .074
22 .148 .701
23 2.596 .110
24 1.394 .240
25 .002 .968
26 .612 .436
Services and 27 1.321 .253
Facilities 28 3.746 .055
29 1.274 .261
30 2.488 .117 1.091 .363

 

Note: All probability values were rounded to the nearest .001 unless
otherwise noted.

160

Table 5.9--P1anned Comparison Test between Students and Administrators
on Each Set of MEasures of Leadership, Communication, School
Morale, Group Relations, and Services and Facilities in
Current Conditions

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item Univariate Multivariate
No. F p F p
Leadership and 1 35.286 .000
Administrative 2 35.743 .000
Style 3 21.837 .000
4 17.507 .000
5 7.557 .006
6 4.872 .028*
7 7.784 .005 7.095 .000
Communication 8 11.721 .001
9 4.558 .033*
10 12.063 .001
11 6.691 .010 4.442 .002
School Morale 12 20.003 .000
13 25.071 .000
14 19.866 .000
15 8.153 .004
16 14.769 .000
17 19.891 .000
18 16.404 .000
19 24.520 .000
20 17.939 .000 5.267 .000
Group Relations 21 27.344 .000
22 16.778 .000
23 7.809 .005
24 5.853 .016*
25 13.286 .000
26 26.882 .000 7.374 .000
Services and 27 17.602 .000
Facilities 28 20.819 .000
29 3.605 .058*
30 13.801 .000 8.188 .000

 

Note: All probability values were rounded to the nearest .001 unless
otherwise noted.

*Insignificant at p's greater than .007, .013, .008, and
.013 for univariate F's

161

As regards the comparison between teacher and
administrator groups on current conditions in terms of
five elements of organizational climate, the findings
presented in Table 5.10 indicate no significant
differences exist for leadership, communication, school
morale, group relationships, or facilities and services.

Discriminant function analysis was also done to
find out the order of variables in contributing to the
performance differences in perceptions of students and
administrators with regard to current conditions of
organizational climate as a whole as well as for each
element, namely, leadership, communication, school
morale, group relationships, and facilities and
services. Table 5.11 shows the results for current
conditions of organizational climate as a whole, while
Table 5.12 contains the order of all variables in terms
of elements of organizational climate, viz., leadership,
communication, school morale, group relationships, and
facilities and services.

According to Table 5.11, item number two: "This
school's administration is consistently supportive of
students and teachers" had the highest contribution
toward the performance difference, while item number 29:
"This school has programs for helping its faculty
develop professionally and improve their teaching
abilities" had the lowest contribution. According to

the Table 5.12, item number 2: "This school's

162

Table 5.10--Planned Comparison Test between Teachers and Administrators
on Each Set of Measures of Leadership, Communication, School
Morale, Group Relations, and Services and Facilities in
Current Conditions

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item Univariate Multivariate
No. F p F p

Leadership and 1 3.310 .071
Administrative 2 1.674 .198
Style 3 2.154 .145
4 .396 .530
5 .003 .953
6 2.030 .157

7 4.409 .038 1.451 .191
Communication 8 2.233 .138
9 .135 .714
10 .046 .830

11 .985 .323 1.221 .305
School Morale 12 .118 .731
13 5.151 .025
14 2.298 .132
15 1.634 .203
16 .523 .471
17 .000 .999
18 1.724 .191
19 .355 .553

20 .004 .949 1.057 .400
Group Relations 21 3.246 .074
22 .148 .701
23 2.596 .110
24 1.394 .240
25 .002 .966

26 .612 .436 .987 .437
Services and 27 1.321 .253
Facilities 28 3.746 .055
29 1.274 .261

30 2.488 .117 1.073 .373

 

Note: All probability values were rounded to the nearest .001 unless
otherwise noted.

163

Table 5.11-Discriminant Function Analysis of Thirty Measures of Current
Conditions in Contributing to Performance [afferences
between Students and Administrators

 

 

Item No. Function
2 .658
1 .653
21 .575
26 .570
13 .551
19 .445
3 .514
28 .502
12 ' .592
17 .491
14 .490
20 .466
27 .461
4 .460
22 .451
18 .446
16 .423
30 .409
25 .401
10 .382
8 .377
15 .314
23 .307
7 .307
5 .302
11 .285
24 .266
6 .243
9 .235

29 .209

 

164

Table 5.12-Discriminant Function Analysis Applied to Each Set of Five
Measures of Leadership, Communication, School Morale, Group
Relations, and Services and Facilities in Current Conditions
for Students or Administrators.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item No. Function
Leadership and 2 .844
Admdnistrative 1 .838
Style 3 .659
4 .590
7 .394
5 .388
6 .311
Communication 10 .822
8 .810
11 .612
9 .505
School Morale 13 .722
19 .714
12 .645
17 .643
14 .643
20 .611
18 .584
16 .554
15 .412
Group Relations 21 .782
26 .776
22 .613
25 .545
23 .418
24 .362
Services and 28 .795
Facilities 27 .731
30 .647

29 .331

 

165
administration is consistently supportive of students
and teachers" had the most contribution; and item number
6: "Everybody gets a chance to take part in this
school's activities" had the least contribution in the
Leadership group. In the Communication group, item
number 10: "The rights and duties of all members at this
school are very clear for everyone" was the most
contributing variable; while item number 9: "Students in
this school are continuously well-informed of how well
they are progressing academically" was the least
contributing variable. In the School Morale group, item
13: "Critical thinking and independent action are valued
in this school" was the most contributory factor, while
item number 15: "There is a rich offering of academic
courses and other learning activities in this school"
was the least contributory factor. As regards the Group
Relations category, item number 21: "Individual help for
students is readily available in this school when they
need it" contributed most, while item number 24: "This
school's activity program is well suited to the
interests of individual faculty and individual students"
contributed least. With regard to the last element,
Facilities and Services, Table 5.11 indicates that item
number 28: "This school's library, science laboratories,
and collection of other aids to learning are well
supported by this school's members" was the variable

that contributed the most difference, while item number

166
29: "This school has programs for helping its faculty
develop professionally and improve their teaching
abilities" was the variable that made the least
contribution toward the performance difference in the

perceptions of students and administrators.

Hypothesis Number Two

 

The findings related to hypothesis number two
indicate that there are no significant differences in
the perceptions of students, teachers and administrators
with regard to desire for change in conditions of
organizational climate as a whole of comprehensive
secondary schools in Saudi Arabia. In Table 5.2 the P
value of .630 at the .988 significance level is not
significant. Also, the study found no significant
differences in the perceptions of students, teachers and
administrators with regard to desire for change in
conditions of the five elements of organizational
climate, namely, leadership, communication, school
morale, group relationships, and facilities and services
(Table 5.13).

Further analysis of the data related to hypothesis
number two was not undertaken, because the use of MANOVA
did not indicate significant differences in the

perceptions of the three groups of respondents.

167

Table 5.13--Mu1tivariate Analysis of Variance for Group Effects on
Each Set of Measures of Leadership, Communication, School
Morale, Group Relations, and Services and Facilities in
Desired Conditions

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item Univariate Multivariate
No. F p F p
Leadership and 1 1.730 .178
Administrative 2 3.350 .036
Style 3 2.538 .080
4 .228 .796
5 4.489 .012
6 .447 .640
7 1.837 .160 0.976 0.474
Communication 8 3.598 .028
9 1.059 .347
10 2.287 .102
11 3.350 .036 1.490 0.156
School Morale 12 .826 .438
13 .308 .735
14 .368 .692
15 1.636 .196
16 .895 .489
17 .801 .450
18 .839 .432
19 1.817 .163
20 1.544 .214 0.404 0.987
Group Relations 21 .165 .848
22 2.113 .122
23 .812 .444
24 .130 .878
25 1.658 .191
26 1.076 .342 0.748 0.704
Services and 27 .662 .516
Facilities 28 .235 .790
29 .134 .875
30 .352 .703 0.242 0.983

 

Note: All probability values were rounded to the nearest .001 unless
otherwise noted.

168

Question Number One

 

The related results indicate that the
administrators expressed the highest level of agreement
with or acceptance of the current conditions with regard
to leadership, school morale and group relationships.
Teacher respondents, on the other hand, expressed the
highest level of acceptance of the current conditions
with respect tn) school morale only. Student
respondents, however, did not indicate highest levels of
acceptance of the current conditions with regard to any
of the five elements of organizational climate.

The medium levels of acceptance of the current
conditions were expressed by administrators with regard
to communication, and facilities and services; by
teachers with respect to leadership, communication and
group relationships; and by students in respect of
leadership and communication.

The lowest levels of acceptance were indicated by
teachers with regard to facilities and services; and by
students in respect of school morale, group
relationships and facilities and services.

The expression of lowest levels of acceptance of
the current conditions by teachers and students with
regard in) facilities and services, school morale and
group relationships draws the attention of the planners

and administrators for necessary and timely actions.

169

Question Number Two

 

The results related to the research question
number two indicate that only medium level of desire for
change was indicated by all respondents with regard to
all five elements of organizational climate, namely,
leadership, communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services. The
expression of change expressed by all respondents on the
medium level signals the need for improving the current
conditions with regard to all five elements of
organizational climate.

On the medium level, student respondents have
ranked facilities and services very low; teacher
respondents have ranked leadership very low; and
administrator respondents have ranked group
relationships very low. It, therefore, suggests that
these three elements of organizational climate:
facilities and services, leadership, and group
relationships require close attention of the educational

authorities in Saudi Arabia.

Mean Responses for Each Item

 

To provide further details, mean responses of
students, teachers and administrators for each item
related with current conditions and desired conditions
are presented with the help of bar graphs. Figures 5.1

through 5.30 contain related data (Appendix B). For

170
example, Figure 5.1 indicates that mean responses with
regard to current conditions for item no. 1 were 3.874
for students, 5.208 for teachers, and 5.600 for
administrators. A higher mean suggests a higher degree
of agreement with the item-statement, or higher level of
acceptance/change desired by the respondents.
Therefore, the highest level of agreement is expressed
with regard to item no. 1 by administrators (5.600),
followed by teachers (5.208), and students (3.874). A
sharp difference in means of students and administrators
or teachers is clearly indicated. But, the difference
in mean responses of teachers and administrators is very

small.

Summary
This chapter presents the findings of the study,

and provides a brief discussion of the results of the
study.

The study tested two hypotheses, and answered two
research questions. Hypothesis number one was
confirmed, while hypothesis number two was not
supported. In simple words, it means that the study
found significant differences between the perceptions of
students, teachers and administrators with regard to

current conditions of organizational climate of

 

comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia. The

study, however, did not indicate significant differences

171
between the perceptions of students, teachers and
administrators with regard to desire for change in
conditions of organizational climate of comprehensive
secondary schools.

With regard to current conditions of

 

organizational climate, administrators expressed the
highest level of acceptance in connection with
leadership, school morale, and group relationships, and
the medium level of acceptance in respect of
communication, and facilities and services. Teachers,
on the other hand, expressed the highest level of
acceptance of the current conditions with regard to
school morale only; the medium level of acceptance in
respect of leadership, communication, and group
relationships; while the lowest level of acceptance in
connection with facilities and services. Student
respondents did not express the highest level of
acceptance of the current conditions with reference to
any of the five elements of organizational climate.
However, they indicated the medium level of acceptance
of the current conditions with regard to leadership and
communication; and expressed the lowest level of
acceptance in connection with school morale, group

relationships, and facilities and services.

With regard to desired conditions, administrators,

 

teachers and students expressed only medium level of

desire for change in connection with all five elements

172
of (organizational climate, namely, leadership,
communication, school morale, group relationships, and
facilities and services.

The data for this study were collected from 648
respondents ‘which included students, teachers and
administrators of four comprehensive secondary schools
in Saudi Arabia.

To analyze the data the statistical techniques
used were: MANOVA, discriminant function analysis,

means, frequencies and percentages.

CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This concluding chapter contains a summary of the
study, presents the conclusions drawn on the basis of

the findings, and lists the recommendations for further

studies.

Summary of the Study

 

Comprehensive secondary schools are new
experiments in Saudi Arabia. To overcome the problems
of the traditional secondary school system, this new
experiment has been undertaken by the educational
authorities of Saudi Arabia. Since the introduction of
the first comprehensive school in 1974, no research
study has been conducted either to evaluate, or to study
different aspects of organizational climate of this new
venture. The findings of this study will, therefore,
help to gain understanding of the way this innovation is
being perceived and received by students, teachers and
administrators.

This study is based on four conceptualizations
advanced by leading researchers, namely, Halpin and

Croft, Likert, Steinhoff and Stern, and Fiedler.

173

174

This study was designed to examine the perceptions
of students, teachers and administrators with regard to
current conditions and their desire for change in
conditions of organizational climate of comprehensive
schools in Saudi Arabia as a whole, and also in terms of
the selected elements of organizational climate, namely,
leadership, communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services.

In addition to this primary objective, the study
also attempted to find out the perceived levels of
acceptance of the current conditions, and the degree of
desire for change by the respondents with regard to the
selected elements of organizational climate, namely,
leadership, communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services.

The data for this study were collected through a
structured questionnaire, which was developed and
validated before it was used to collect responses from
the respondents. The data were collected from 648
respondents; which included 517 students, 106 teachers
and 25 administrators of the four well-established
comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia. Copies
of the questionnaire were administered by the
researcher. During the process of data collection, the
researcher received needed cooperation and help from the
Ministry of Education as well as school staff and

students.

175

The data were analyzed at the Michigan State
University Computer Center using SPSS (The Statistical
Package for Social Sciences by Nie et. al.). To analyze
the data of the study several statistical techniques
were used. They were: MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of
Variance), discriminant function analysis, means,
frequencies and percentages.

The findings related to hypothesis no. 1 of this
study indicate that there are significant differences in
the perceptions of students, teachers and administrators
with regard to current conditions of organizational
climate of comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi
Arabia. Perceptions (of the respondents differed
significantly not only in terms of current conditions of
organizational climate as a whole, but also in relation
to five elements of organizational climate, viz.,
leadership, communication, school morale, group
relationships, and facilities and services. The
difference was more pronounced between student and
administrator groups, while no significant difference
was noticed between teacher and administrator groups
with regard to current conditions of organizational
climate as a whole, and also on the basis of the
selected elements of organizational climate.

The results related to hypothesis no. 2 revealed
an absence of a significant difference in the

perceptions of the respondents with regard to desire for

176
change in conditions of organizational climate as a
whole and also in terms of the selected elements of
organizational climate, namely, leadershiph
communication, school morale, group relationships, and
facilities and services.

As mentioned earlier, the study not only tested
two hypotheses, but also attempted to find out answers
to two research questions (see page 5).

The findings related to question no. 1, show that
with regard to current conditions the highest levels of
agreement or acceptance were expressed by administrators
in respect of leadership, school morale, and group
relationships. Teachers, on the other hand, expressed
the highest level of acceptance with regard to school
morale. The student group, however, did not express the
highest level of acceptance of any elements of
organizational climate.

The medium levels of acceptance of current
conditions were indicated by administrators with regard
to communication, and facilities and services. Teachers
indicated their medium level of acceptance of current
conditions with regard to leadership, communication, and
group relationships; while students expressed their
acceptance of current conditions on the medium level
scale in respect of school morale, group relationships,

and facilities and services.

177

The lowest levels of acceptance of current
organizational climate were indicated by teachers with
regard to facilities and services; and by students in
respect of school morale, group relationships, and
facilities and services.

As regards question no. 2, the findings reveal
that only medium level of desire for change was
indicated by all respondents in respect of all five
elements of organizational climate, namely, leadership,
communication, school morale, group relationships, and
facilities and services. The student group has
indicated a greater degree of desire for change in
respect of facilities and services; the teacher group
with regard to leadership; and the administrator group
has expressed a greater degree of desire for change in
respect of group relationships.

In the following sections, conclusions and
implications of the findings of this study are provided,

and recommendations for further studies are made.

Conclusions and Implications

 

Based on the results of this study, the following
conclusions are drawn, and related implications are
highlighted.

On the basis of the results related to hypothesis
number one (see page 4), it can be concluded that

students, teachers and administrators of comprehensive

178

secondary schools in Saudi Arabia are significantly
different with regard to their perceptions of current
organizational climate. This difference 1J1 their
perceptions can be explained in terms of differences in
their background. Students, teachers and administrators
differ in terms of their age, experience, level of
maturity, etc. irt is, therefore, obvious for students,
teachers and administrators to have different perceptual
orientations toward organizational climate (ME their
schools in terms of its current conditions.

Further analysis of the data related to hypothesis
number one has indicated that the perceptual differences
between students and administrators is more pronounced
than that between teachers and administrators. The gap
between students and administrators is big in terms of
age, experience, level of maturity, etc. As a result,
their perceptions are expected to have a significant
difference. Since the gap between teachers and
administrators in terms of their age, experience and
level of maturity is comparatively small, their
perceptual difference is also insignificant. Another
reason, for this small difference between teacher and
administrator groups, may be due to the difference in
their nationality. As it has been pointed out earlier
in.Chapter IV, the majority of the teachers of
comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia are

non-Saudi, while the majority of the administrators are

179
Saudi nationals. The non-Saudi teachers, being more
concerned with the security of their jobs, may not be
very critical of organizational climate of their
schools.

The corresponding conclusion related to the
results of hypothesis no. 2 is that students, teachers
and administrators are not significantly different with
regard to their perceptions of desire for change in
conditions of organizational climate. The only
explanation for this absence of difference, that comes-
to the mind of this researcher, is that, perhaps the
respondents have not yet given a lot of thinking to the
need for change in conditions of organizational climate.

On the basis of the findings related to question
no. 1 (see page 5) of this study, it can be concluded
that there are different levels of perceived acceptance
of current conditions of organizational climate by the
respondents.

The above conclusion has an important implication
for those involved in the task of bringing about change
in the school system of Saudi Arabia. Students,
teachers and administrators are important components of
any school. As a result, their cooperation and support
are vital in introduction and adoption of any
innovation. Comprehensive schooling system is a new
idea, and its success depends on how it is being

perceived and supported by all members of the school

180
system. A higher level of satisfaction or acceptance of
current conditions of organizational climate will be
more encouraging, and a lower level of satisfaction or
acceptance will be a cause of great concern with regard
to the successful adoption of comprehensive schools in
Saudi Arabia.

The student and teacher groups have indicated the
lowest level of acceptance of current conditions of
organizational climate with regard to facilities and
services, school morale, and group relationships. This
suggests that proper and timely steps should be taken by
the authorities to raise the perceived level of
acceptance of students and teachers with regard to these
three elements of organizational climate. Otherwise,
this lowest level of perceived satisfaction or
acceptance may develop into greater frustrations,
creating greater problems for a successful adoption of
comprehensive secondary schools in Saudi Arabia.

It should be noted that only the administrator
group indicated either highest or medium level of
satisfaction or acceptance of current conditions with
regard to all five elements of organizational climate.
This may be due to the fact that administrators, being
concerned with the security of their jobs, did not like
to indicate a low level of satisfaction or acceptance.
It may be pointed out that the comprehensive school

system has been introduced on the initiative of the

181
educational authorities, and not on the initiative or
involvement of school administrators in the
decision-making process.

As regards the conclusion that can be drawn on the
basis of the findings related to question no. 2, it can
be pointed outthat there are no different levels of
desire for change of organizational climate as perceived
by the respondents. Students, teachers and
administrators indicated only the medium level of desire
for change in respect of all five elements of
organizational climate, namely, leadership,
communication, school morale, group relationships, and
facilities and services. Although the finding related
to desire for change expressed on medium level by the
respondents does not point to any crisis, it does make a
point to be considered.

Finally, it can be concluded that the findings of
this study can not be generalized. The study included
only four comprehensive secondary schools, as a result,

its power to offer generalizable data is very limited.

Recommendations for Further Studies
The following recommendations are offered for
future research:

1. The study included only four comprehensive
secondary schools in Saudi Arabia. For
greater insights of the problem, future
studies should include greater number of
comprehensive schools in Saudi Arabia.

182

2. The findings of this study are based on
perceptual data; which are fluid, and create
complications for measurements. Future
studies should, therefore, be done also on
the basis of objective data.

3. This study examined organizational climate
in terms of only five elements. Therefore,
studies need to be done by including more
variables of organizational climate, or some
selected variables with greater number of
sub-variables.

4. This study did not use demographic
characteristics of the respondents as
independent variables. Studies, therefore,
need to be done to find out whether
perceptual differences differ with
differences in demographic background of the
respondents.

5. The unique features of a comprehensive
school are its diversified curriculum,
examination system, evaluation process and
methods, instructional strategies and
methods, individualized teaching-learning
processes, admission procedures, etc. These
aspects of organizational climate of
comprehensive schools need to be studied to
assess the strengths of comprehensive
schooling in Saudi Arabia.

6. To find out the effectiveness of
comprehensive schools, future studies should

be done to compare between traditional and
comprehensive schools in Saudi Arabia.

Summary

This chapter provides a brief summary of the
study, draws conclusions on the basis of the findings,
and lists a number of recommendations for future
studies.

The summary section contains information about the
background of the problem, theoretical foundations on

which this study is based, and the purpose of the study.

183
Also it tells about the data collection procedures,
instrument, population and samples drawn for the study,
data analysis procedures and statistical techniques
used. Finally, it provides a brief description of the
findings of the study.

The conclusions and implications section briefly
refers to the findings of the study, and draws
corresponding conclusions and highlights their
implications.

The recommendations for future studies section
lists a number of recommendations for further

investigations.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

Cover Letter and English and Arabic
Versions of the Questionnaire

184

Dear Administrator
Teacher
Student

This research is planned to be administered in the comprehensive
secondary schools. The objective is to identify the organizational
climate needs of this kind of our secondary schools. Your participation
is important to this scientific study for the Ph.D. degree in the United
States. It will enable the researcher to measure the current status and
predict the desired status of the organizational climate for these
schools.

Please answer these questionnaire items as truthfully and frankly
as you can, bearing in mind that it is not important to mention your
name or your school.

This questionnaire is short but it is composed of two major parts;
one part for measuring the current status of the organizational climate
of the comprehensive secondary schools, and the other part to identify
what must be available in the organizational climate of these schools.

Please help to answer this questionnaire. With my regards and

respect,

Ali A. Al-Hajji
College of Education
King Saud University

at Riyadh

Part I

185

Students' Questionnaire

 

Personal and Academic Information

Please answer all of the following questions by putting a check
(v0 in the appropriate square.

1. Nationality:

[1a.
[1 b-
2. Age:
[1 8.
[1b-
[1c.
[1d-

Saudi

Non-Saudi

Less than 15 years old
15-17 years old
18-20 years old

more than 20 years old

3. Number of years you have studied at this school:

[1 a.
[l b-
[1c.
[1d-
1] e.
[If-

less than one year
one year

two years

three years

four years

more than four years

4. Major (Department):

[1a.

[lb-

[le-

religious studies
social studies

language studies

186
[ ] d. science and mathematics studies:
[ ] 1. physics, mathematics
[ ] 2. chemistry, biology
[ ] 3. physics, chemistry
[ ] e. commercial studies

[ ] f. general studies

187
Teachers' Questionnaire

Personal and Professional Information

Please answer all of the following questions by putting a check
(V/) in the appropriate square.

1. Nationality:

I
I

l

l
]

l

a. Saudi

b. Egyptian

c. Iraqi

d. Jordanian
e. Palestinian
f. Sudanese

g. Syrian

b. Other - please indicate:

a. 20-25
b. 26-30
c. 31-35
d. 36-40
e. 41-45
f. 46-50

g. 50 or more

3. Number of years teaching at this school:

I
[
I
I
l

l
l
l
l
l

a. less than one year
b. 1-3 years
c. 4-6 years
d. 7-9 years

e. 10 or more years

188
4. Profession:
a. major - please indicate:
b. minor - please indicate:
5. Subject matter you are teaching in the time being:

Subject name:

189

Administrators' Questionnaire

 

Personal and Professional Information

Please answer all of the following questions by putting a check
(v’) in the appropriate square.

1. Current job:

[ ] a. principal

[ ] b. vice principal

[ ] c. librarian

[ ] d. lab specialist

[ ] e. social worker

[ ] f. student academic advisor
2. Nationality:

[ ] a. Saudi

[ ] b. Egyptian

[ ] c. Iraqi

[ ] d. Jordanian

[ ] e. Palestinian

[ ] f. Sudanese

[ ] g. Syrian

[ ] h. Other - please indicate:
3. Age:

I J a. 20-25

[ l b. 26-30

[ l c. 31-35

[ 1 d. 36-40

[ ] e. 41-45

[ ] f. 46-50

[ ] g. 50 or more

190

4. Academic Specialty:

a. major - please indicate:

b. minor - please indicate:
5. Years working at this school:

[ ] a. less than one year

[ l b. 1-3 years

[ ] c. 4-6 years

[ l d. 7-9 years

[ ] e. 10 or more years

191

Part II
Instructions

 

The following are some articles which are generally agreed upon by
leading researchers as representing the organizational climate of the
teaching fields. Please give your opinion about these articles. For
each article, there are six choices which represent the extent to which
you agree or disagree with it. Three of these choices represent the
level of your agreement with these articles. They are:

number (3) means that you very strongly agree

 

number (2) means that you strongiagree

 

number (1) means that you ggrgg only.
The other three choices represent the level of your disagreement with
these articles. They are:

number (3) means that you very strongly disggree

number (2) means that you strong disagree

 

number (1) means that you disagree only.

A circle should be placed around the number that you feel fits
your opinion. If you agree, what is the level of your agreement? If
you disagree, what is the level of your disagreement? Please make only
one choice among the six choices and circle it.

Two examples:

 

 

Item The Item Level of Level of
Number Agreement Disagreemenfi
1 This school's administration is 3 (g) 1 l 2 3

open to suggestions from
teachers and students

 

2 Faculty and students are kept 3 2 1 1X 2 3
well-informed about what is
going on in this school.

 

 

 

 

 

 

192

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item The Item Level of Level of
umber Agreement Disagreement
1 This school's administration is open to 3 2 1 1 2 3
suggestions from teachers and students.
2 This school's administration is consistently 3 2 1 1 2 3
supportive of students and teachers.
3 This school's administration is adequately 3 2 1 1 2 3
staffed to do its job well.
4 This school tries out new ideas to solve 3 2 1 1 2 3
its problems.
5 This school has rules and regulations 3 2 1 l 2 3
which are clear to everyone.
6 Everybody gets a chance to take part in 3 2 1 1 2 3
this school's activities.
7 This school‘s schedule gives students and 3 2 1 1 2 3
faculty the time they need to do their
jobs well.
8 Faculty and students are kept well-informed 3 2 1 1 2 3
about what is going on in this school.
9 Students in this school are continuously 3 2 1 1 2 3
well-informed of how well they are
progressing academically.
10 The rights and duties of all members at 3 2 1 1 2 3
this school are very clear for everyone.
11 This school has high expectations that 3 2 1 1 2 3
the students will learn well.
12 Administration and faculty work hard to 3 2 1 1 2 3
help students succeed in this school.
13 Critical thinking and independent action 3 2 1 1 2 3
are valued in this school.
14 Newcomers to this school are welcomed 3 2 1 1 2 3
and helped by school administration and
teachers, to become acquainted with the
school.
15 There is a rich offering of academic 3 2 1 1 2 3

 

 

courses and other learning activities
in this school.

 

 

 

 

193

 

 

Item The Item Level of Level of
number Agreement Disagreement
16 Morale is high among faculty, students, 3 2 1 1 2 3

and administrators in this school.

 

17 This school's system of evaluating 3 2 1 1 2 3
students is thorough and fair.

 

18 Beginning first-year students are helped 3 2 1 1 2 3
to get oriented and off to a good start
in this school.

 

19 Administrators, faculty, and students have 3 2 1 1 2 3
high levels of trust and confidence in
each other in this school.

 

20 The faculty and administration of this 3 2 1 1 2 3
school are well-qualified to do their jobs.

 

21 Individual help for students is readily ' 3 2 1 1 2 3
available in this school when they need it.

 

22 Open general discussions are a regular 3 2 1 1 2 3
feature of daily life in this school.

 

23 There is a wide variety of social 3 2 .1 1 2 3
organizations, sports activities, and '
informal group activities which are

regular parts of this school's programs.

 

24 This school's activity program is well 3 2 1 1 2 3
suited to the interests of individual
faculty and individual students.

 

25 The teachers in this school make special 3 2 1 1 2 3
efforts to be clear about what they are
teaching and what students should learn.

 

26 This school has a friendly atmosphere 3 2 1 1 2 3
among al1 who work here.

 

27 The counseling progrmu in this school 3 2 1 1 2 3
is effective in dealing with students'
needs and problems.

 

28 This school's library, science laboratories, 3 2 1 1 2 3
and collections of other aids to learning
are well-supported by this school's members.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

194

 

 

 

Item The Item Level of Level of
Number Agreement Disagreement
29 This school has programs for helping its 3 2 1 1 2 3
faculty develop professionally and improve
their teaching abilities.
30 This school's buildings, sports arenas, 3 2 1 1 2 3

 

laboratories, and other facilities are
well-suited to students' and faculty needs.

 

 

 

 

195

Part III

In this part of the questionnaire, we would like to know the
situation that should be available in the organizational climate of your
school. We will repeat the past articles, but in a different order, to
see the level of work to be done to change and improve the status of
your school organizational climate. There are four levels of choice:

1 - A lot: means that a lot of work must be done to improve and
change the school's status.

2 - Some: means that some work should be done to improve and
change the school's status.

3 - Little: means that little work should be done to improve and
change the school's status.

4 - Nothing: means that the school's status is very good and there
is no need for any improvement or change.

Please read the following articles and specify your opinion about
the level needed to improve and change the school status by putting a

check (9’) in the appropriate column, similar to the following two

 

 

 

 

examples:
How much should be done
to improve or change this?
Item The Item A lot Some Little Nothing
umber
1 This school's administration is
open to suggestions from \/
teachers and students.
2 Individual help for students
when they need it is readily V/f
available in this school.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

And now, please answer the following articles as explained in the

foregoing two examples.

1596

 

How much should be done
to improve or change this?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item The Item A lot Some Little Nothing
Number

1 ‘ Individual help for students is readily
available in this school when they need
it.

2 Students in this school are continuously
well-informed of how well they are
progressing academically.

3 There is a wide variety of social
organizations, sports activities, and
informal group activities which are
regular parts of this school's programs.

4 “The teachers in this school make special
efforts to be clear about what they are
teaching and what students should learn.

5 Everybody gets a chance to take part in
this school's activities.

6 Faculty and students are kept well-
informed about what is going on in this
school.

7 Morale is high among faculty, students,
and administrators in this school.

8 Administration and faculty work hard to
help students succeed in this school.

9 This school tries out new ideas to solve
its problems.

10 Administrators, faculty, and students
have high levels of trust and confidence
in each other in this school.

11 The rights and duties of all members at
this school are very clear for everyone.

12 The faculty and administration in this

 

 

school are well-qualified to do their
jobs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

197

 

How much should be done
to improve or change this?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item The Item A lot Some Little Nothing
Number

13 This school's administration is open to
suggestions from teachers and students.

14 This school's activity program is well-
suited to the interests of individual
faculty and individual students.

15 This school has a friendly atmosphere
among all who work here.

16 There is a rich offering of academic
courses and other learning activities
in this school.

17 This school-has programs for helping its.
faculty develop professionally and
improve their teaching abilities.

18 This school has rules and regulations
which are clear to everyone.

19 This school's schedule gives students and
faculty the time they need to do their
jobs well.

20 The counseling program in this school
is effective in dealing with students'
needs and problems.

21 This school's administration is adequately
staffed to do its job well.

22 This school's buildings, sports arenas,
laboratories, and other facilities are
well-suited to students' and faculty
needs.

23 This school's system of evaluating
students is thorough and fair.

24 This school's administration is

 

consistently supportive of students
and teachers.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

198

 

How much should be done
to improve or change this?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item The Item A lot Some Little Nothing

lumber

25 This school has high expectations that
the students will learn well.

26 Beginning first-year students are helped
to get oriented and off to a good start
in this school.

27 This school's library, science
laboratories, and collections of other
aids to learning are well-supported by
this school's members.

28 Newcomers to this school are welcomed
and helped by school administration and
teachers, to become acquainted with the
school.

29 Open general discussions are a regular
feature of daily life in this school.

30 Critical thinking and independent action

 

are valued in this school.

 

 

 

 

 

 

199

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APPEND I X B

Bar Graphs Indicating Mean Responses for Each Item.

209

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.208 5.600 ‘
3
: 5 :
C 308 7‘ B 20530 20330 Zo‘ao
2.§ 2
= :
I 8
5 3 5 24
:2 2 a”.
1
2
S T S T A
Group* Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.l--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 1, ”This school's administration is open to
suggestions from teachers and students.”

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.208 5.480 3
g: 3,307 § § 2.549 2.274 2.600
1' 2 § i!
1 \ ,
S T S ‘T 7 A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.2--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 2, "This school's administration is
consistently supportive of students and teachers."

*Group S - Students, Group T - Teachers, Group A - Administrators

210

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.019 5.600
3
O 5 O 2.586 2.379 2.680
3 3.969 8
8.. §
3 .
I3 “23
5 5 '
£2 I”- §
1 §
2 ‘\.
. \
S T A S T A
Group ' Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.3--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions

for Item No. 3, ”This school's administration is adequately
staffed to do its job well."

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.080
6.953 3
:s .3
9 3.882 c 2.553 2.691 2.480
a
3" § § ....
c 3 \\\ 5 2.5
. \ fl \
£2 \ §
, s s
k 2 '\
S T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.4--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions

for Item No. 4, ”This school tries out new ideas to solve
its problems.”

211

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.226 5.260
5
E 5 "397 a 2.623 2.233 2.520
8.6 g.
3 .
I d
33 32.3
:£ 2 z!
1
’L.
5 T s 1: A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.5--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 5, ”This school has rules and regulations which
are clear to everyone."

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6
‘-208 ‘-680 ’ 2.696 2.691 2.600

3 3 2
a . c
2" 3 975 ii
I — ’ O
i E
a 3 32¢
I Q
2 2 {i

' 2

S T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.6--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 6, "Everybody gets a chance to take part in
this school's activities.”

212

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.060 3
g 5 6.197 6.377 g
B
§6 "'1’ §. 2.578 2.377 2.600
s g
5 § § 2.5 P
5'. 2 k

‘ \ .

S T A S T A
Crow Group

Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.7-~Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 7, ”This school's schedule gives students and
faculty the time they need to do their jobs well.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6
6.236 6.680 3
3 5 3
F 3.615 g
a . ..
I 3 \ g 2.5
a \ s
=3 2 § :1!
' \ = § L
k _ _ _
S T S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.8--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 8, "Faculty and students are kept welltinformed
about what is going on in this school."

213

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.050
6.963 3
o 5 6.612 " 67 2.560
a ._ g 2.691 2.5
:56 \ § 7
2 \ :5
5 3 :§: 3 L5
:3 2 § :3.
I 2
~\ LL.
3 T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.9--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 9, ”Students in this school are continuously
well-informed of how well they are progressing academically.‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

5 5.096 5.060
3
U S .
E ‘°°‘3 \\ § 2.621 2.396 2.600
. ‘1 \ :-
3 \ a '7
c 3 \ c 2.5
I \ .
3 2 \ 2
. \
1
h g
s T A s r A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.10--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 10, "The rights and duties of all
members at this school are very clear for everyone.”

214

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6
o 5 6.155 '
2 2
2‘ J— .8; 2.615 2.368 2.680
.‘s’ .‘1
8 3 gILS
i 2 i

‘ , L.

S T A S T A
Group" Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.ll--Hean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 11, ”This school has high
expectations that the students will learn well.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.265 5.320
3

2 5 g
c c
2‘ 3.32 §- 2.598 2.653 2.520
g 3 -1
a '3 c 2.5
' I
1 2 i

l 2

S 'T .A. s ‘r .A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.12--Hean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 12. "Administration and faculty
work hard to help students succeed in this school.”

215

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.260
6.632 5
5’ .7... ~ . 5
§‘ __. § g' 2.532 2.653 2.660
a 3 \\\ u ..q
5 § 5, ...
:32 § :3
. § 1
S T S T A
Group‘ Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.13--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 13, "Critical thinking and
independent action are valued in this school."

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.600
5.028 3
2 5 "
c 3.905 'g'
g. \ 3 2.536 2.653 2.660
=3 , \ f ...
6
3 \ "
x 2 SSS §
1 \\\ 2
Q L
S T S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.16--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 16, "Newcomers to this school are
welcomed and helped by school administration and teachers,
to become acquainted with the school."

 

 

 

 

 

5.320

 

”$1
1. h

R
* 6

Current Conditions

 

Hssn Response

216

2.662 2.625 2.560

 

 

 

 

 

 

S T A
Group

Desired Conditions

Figure 5.15--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 15, "There is a rich offering of
academic courses and other learning activities in this

school.”

6.953

 

6.031

 

Mean Response
u. e-

 

 

 

 

 

5.120

 

87////////////

Group

Current Conditions

 

Mean Response

2.292 2.500 2.520
2.5

 

 

S T A

Group

Desired Conditions

Figure 5.16--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 16, ”Morale is high among faculty, students,
and administrators in this school."

217

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.160 5.160
3

e 5 3
3 3.762 §
§6 . 2.563 2.663 2.660
g .‘1

3 2.5
a 5
2 2 5

I 2

S T S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.17--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 17, ”This school's system of
evaluating students is thorough and fair.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.200
6.830 3
3 5 E
B
5‘ 3.970 §- 2.563 2.396 2.660
g 3 & L5 I-7
9 2:
" e
2 2 2
1 2
5 T A s 'r A
cr°“P Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.18--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 18, "Beginning first-year students are helped
to get oriented and off to a good start in this school."

218

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.080
6.915 ,
o 5 g
2 30‘68 I:
§~ .8.»
2 "'1’ 3 2.666 2.266 2.360
5 3 5 2d
:3 2 :2
1 §
2
_ b
S T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.19--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 19, ”Administrators, faculty, and
students have high levels of trust and confidence in each
other in this school."

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.293 5.200 3
5’ 6.019 \ § 2.636 2.653 2.600
§- 6 l._ \ g
3 \ .2 . .
3 - -
5 \ 5 \
2 2 § .2 §
1 k , §
k x
S T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.20--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 20, "The faculty and administration
of this school are well qualified to do their jobs."

219

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 3.080
6.670 3
o 5 g
i 3.513 §.
6
5 Q 5 2.660 2.672 2.360
3 \\N a 24
8 \ I '
2 \ a
2 SSS
l
2
§ 6
S T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure S.21--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 21, ”Individual help for students
is readily available in this school when they need it."

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6

' 3
3 5 3
C c
8,‘ g 2.619 2.663 2.320
I O
2 2
a 3 c LS
I Q
£ 2 :2

1 2

S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions - Desired Conditions

Figure S.22--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 22, ”Open general discussions are a
regular feature of daily life in this school."

220

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6
6.255 6.760 3
55 3.699 1 . §
§‘ —1 g .3; 2.520 2.606 2.360
. \ .
I l
3 §§§ , 2a ""
8 \ .
£2 § 9‘.
I
§ . ‘ L._
S" T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.23--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 23, ”There is a wide variety of social organi-
zations, sports activities, and informal group activities
which are regular parts of this school's programs.”

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

6 3
6.528 6.840

as =
26 6.079 \\ §. 2.507 2.662 2.560
5 \ 3, _
c 3 \ c .5
I \\\ n
§ 2 § 2‘.

1 ::0 2

\ \
S T S T A
Group ‘ Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.24-Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 24, "This school's activity program
is well suited to to the interests of individual faculty
and individual students.

221

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.151 5.160 ,
O 5 o
3 2,031 \ g 2.698 2.509 2.660
§‘ § 5 ”‘7
z 3 t§§ , IJ “<Q'
- \ - a
£2 \ 2 §
. s , s
k c
S T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.25--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 25, ”The teachers in this school
make special efforts to be clear about what they are
teaching and what students should learn.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 5.226 5.600 3
as \ =
. c
§6 3:: \ § 2.561 2.606 2.520
.2 3 \ 2 z 3 F—
: § 5 '
I‘- 2 \ a!
I s ,
k _
S T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.26-Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 26, ”This school has a friendly
atmosphere among all who work here.”

222

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

6
sxmo 3
:5 6.670 = 2.557 2.691 2.760
. B 62
§9 3.532 §
' .2
a 3 a 24 '_1
5 a
i 2 i
l
2
S T S T
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.27--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired Conditions
for Item No. 27, ”The counseling program in this school is
effective in dealing with students' needs and problems.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 sxmo
. 3
55 g 2.566 2.691 2.660
a r a
I O
2 2
e 3 c 2.3 F—
. I
i 2 i
‘ 2
S T A
Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.28--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 28, ”This school's library, science
laboratories, and collections of other aids to learning are
well-supported by this school's members.”

223

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6
3

5 ’ E
§~6 3.062 3.225 3.690 3,-
' . ' . . 77 .680
s \ .
2 2 § 2

1 \

S T A S T A
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.29--Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 29, ”This school has programs for
helping its faculty develop professionally and improve
their teaching abilities.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6
J
55 5 2.699 2.631 2.680
g, 3.377 3.920 a
C
3 3 2.700 3 z 3
E s ‘ 9.
Q 2 i
e
1 §
1 \
, _ K.
S T A S T
Group Group
Current Conditions Desired Conditions

Figure 5.30-~Mean Responses for Current Conditions and Desired
Conditions for Item No. 30, "This school's buildings,
sports arenas, laboratories, and other facilities are well-
suited to students' and faculty needs.” '

APPENDIX C

Correspondence

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APPEND I X D

List of Instruments and Questionnaires in
the Area of Organizational Climate and
School Environment

229

LIST OF INSTRUMENTS AND QUESTIONNAIRES IN
THE AREA OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND
SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT

Anderson, Gary J. LearningEnvironment Inventory.
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, 1973.

 

Arney, R. William, and Micek, Sidney S. "An Inventory of
Institutional Environmental Variables and
Measures.” Boulder, Colorado: National Center for
Higher Education Management Systems, 1974.

Barclay, R. James. The Barclay Learning Needs Assessment
Inventory. Lexington, Kentucky: Educational Skill
Development, Inc., 1979.

 

Bowen, Donald D., and Kilman, Ralph H. "Developing a
comparative measure of the learning climate in
professional schools." Pittsburgh: University of
Pittsburgh, Graduate School of Business, 1975.

Bowers, Orville E. "Elements of Institutional Climate
Pertaining to Faculty Morale in Colleges."
Kirksville, Missouri: Northeast Missouri State
University, 1968. ’

Brookover, Wilbur, and others. School Social Systems and
Students Achievement: Several Questionnaires to
Measure School Social Climate. New York: Praeger
Special Studies, A.J.F. Bergin Publishers, 1979.

 

 

 

Halpin, Andrew W., and Croft, Don B. The Organizational
Climate of Schools. United States Office of
Education, July, 1962.

 

 

Kilman, Ralph 8., and Saxton, Mary J. Kilman-Saxton
Culture—Gap Survey. Pittsburgh: Organizational
Design Consultants, 1983.

 

 

Likert, Jane Gibson, and Likert, Rensis. The Profile of
a School: a Resource for Improving School
Administration. Rensis Likert Associates, Inc.,
1978.

 

 

National Study of School Evaluation. "Student opinion
inventory." Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Virginia,
1981.

230

Research for Better Schools. Assessment of Student
Attitudes Toward Learning Environments.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Steele, Joe M.; House, Ernest R.; and Kerings, Thomas.
"Class activities questionnaire: an instrument for
assessing instructional climate." Mars Hill, North
Carolina: Mars Hill College, 1969.

Stern, George C. College Characteristic Index. Syracuse:
Syracuse University, 1972.

. Elementary and Secondary School Environ-
ment Index. Syracuse: Syracuse University, 1973.

 

 

. High School Characteristics Index. 1964.

Stern, George C., and Richman, Joel. Organizational
Climate Index. 1975.

 

Troyer, Maurice E. Inventory of Roles and Values of
Students, Faculty, and Administration in College
and University Policy and Decision Making.
Syracuse: Syracuse University, School of
Education, 1967.

Trub, Ross, and others. "Educational evaluation
instruments: 3 resource booklet of selected
data-gathering procedures for use in school
evaluation studies." Educational Evaluation
Center, the Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education, Canada, 1973.

Warshow, Joyce P., and Bepko, Raymond A. The Social
Learning Environment Rating Scale. New York, New
York: Curriculum Research and Development Center,
Yeshiva University, 1974.

Whitemore, Joanne Rand. Thinking About My School: The
Development of an Inventory to Measure Pupil
Perception of the Elementary School Environment.
Stanford: Stanford University, School of
Education, 1974.

Witkin, Belle Ruth, and Richardson, Joy B. Needs
Assessment for Secondary Schools: Surveys for
Students, Staff and Parent. Hayward, California:
Office of the Alameda County Superintendent of
Schools, 1983.

 

Wrightsman, Lawrence S., and Nelson, Ronald H. The
School Morale Scale. Lawrence, Kansas: University
of Kansas, Department of Psychology, 1968.

 

BIBL IOGRAPHY

Abdul Mu'ty, Yousif, et a1. Parents' Manual for Course
Credits Systgm. Ministry of Education, Curriculum
Department, Kuwait, Third Edition, 1981-82. In
Arabic.

 

 

Abo-Ali, S. and T. Saba. Evaluation of the Comprehensive
Secondary School, Al-Yarmook, in Riyadh City.
Mecca, King Abdulaziz University, 1976. In Arabic.

 

 

Al-Bassam, Abdulaziz. Comprehensive Secondary School.
The experimental proiect of Iraq, its theoretical
bases, and implementation methods. A model for
the renewal of secondary education in the Arab
states. Ministry of Education, Republic of Iraq,
No. 81, 1975. In Arabic.

 

Al-Dujayly, Hassan. The Comprehensive Secondary School
between Originality and Imitation. Dirasat,
Journal of the College of Education, King Saud
University, Saudi Arabia, Vol. 3, 1981. In Arabic.

 

Al-Malleess, Saeed Mohammed. A Comparative Study of the
Cgllegiate Success of Graduates of Comprehensive
Secondary Schools and Traditional Secondary
Schools in Selected Regions of Saudi Arabia.
Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Indiana
University, School of Education, 1980.

 

 

 

 

Allison, Derek J. Toward an Improved Understanding of
the Organizational Nature of Schools. Educational
Administration Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Fall,
1983). PP. 7-34.

 

 

Al-Otaiby, Abdulmohsen S. The Impact of Formal Education
upon Saudi Male Students' Attitudes toward Whmen's
Participation in the Labour Force in Saudi Arabia.
UnpubliShed Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State
University, 1987.

 

 

 

Al-Shawan, Abdulrahman M. Social Studies Goals at the
Intermediate-School Level in Saudi Arabia: Present
Status and Future Needs. Unpublished Ph.D. Disser-
tation, Department of Teacher Education, College
of Education, Michigan State University, 1985.

 

 

 

231

232

Al-Shihri, Abdalla Zafir. Studyinggthe Phenomenon of
Students' Interest in the Comprehensive Secondary
Schools in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Unpublished Master‘s degree dissertation,
submitted, in Arabic, to the Department of
Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education,
King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1983.

A1-Zaid, Abdulla Mohammed and Al-Sulaymani, Ali A.
Comprehensive School, Path and Achievement.
Alturath Press, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Recently
published in Arabic with no date.

Anderson, Lorin W. and Anderson, Jo Craig. Affective
Assessment Is Necessary and Possible. Educational
Leadership, April 1982.

 

 

Anderson, Barry and Tissier, Ronald M. Social Class,
School Bureaucratization and EducationaIi
Aspirations. Educational Administration Quarterly,
Vol. Ix, No. 2, Spring 1973.

 

 

Anglin, Leo w. Teacher Roles and Alternative School
Organizations. The Educational Forum, Vol. XLIII,
No. 4, May 1979.

 

Argyris, Chris. Organization and Iggpvation. Homewood,
Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, 274 pp. 1965.

Armstrong, David G., and Savage, Tom V. Secondary
Education: An Introduction. New York: MacMillan
Pubiishing Co., Inc., 1983.

 

 

Ball, Stephen J. Beachside Comprehensive: a Case-Study
of Secondary Schooling. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, England, 1961.

 

Bellaby, Paul. The Sociology of Comprehensive Schooling.
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