A STUDY DESIGNED TO DErERM'INETHE EFFECTS oEf : ¥  , i E
. -TWO TREATMENTSON‘THE-JNTERPERSONALNEEDrV-W” ‘ \
BEHAVIORS OF INCLUSION, CONTROL, AND AFFECTION]

__ AS MEASURED BY THE. FIRO’-B j ’

V Dissertation for the Degree'of-PhLng' ~ -
'MICH'IGANfSTATE UNIVERSITY _ .4 g
EGERALD'P. STURM ” ’
.1977 " ’

 

   
    

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thesis entitled

A STUDY DESIGNED TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTS OF
TWO TREATMENTS ON THE INTERPERSONAL NEED
BEHAVIORS 0F INCLUSION, CONTROL, AND
AFFECTION AS MEASURED BY THE FIRO-B

presented by

GERALD P . STURM

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

degree in Secondary Ed. 8 Curriculum

$5M MEQNM

Major professor

PH.D.

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Date

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ABSTRACT

A STUDY DESIGNED TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTS OF
TWO TREATMENTS ON THE INTERPERSONAL NEED
BEHAVIORS OF INCLUSION, CONTROL, AND
AFFECTION AS MEASURED BY THE FIRO-B

BY

Gerald P. Sturm

The purpose of this study was to determine if
treatment A and/or treatment B would significantly reduce
the number of incongruencies in the interpersonal need
areas of inclusion, control, and affection as measured
by the FIRO-B. The following variables were investigated:
the interpersonal need areas of inclusion, control, and
affection; and whether or not treatment A or treatment B
was effective in (l) reducing the total number of incon-
gruencies shown by teachers in the interpersonal need
areas of inclusion, control, and affection, and (2)
reducing the number of incongruencies shown by teachers in
each of the interpersonal need areas of inclusion, control,
and affection as measured by the FIRO-B.

The participants in the study were all of the
educators enrolled in the two sections of Education 601 at
Wright State University during the fall quarter, 1975.

There were fifty (50) enrolled in the section which met on

 

Gerald P. Sturm

Tuesdays and received treatment A. There were forty—seven
(47) enrolled in the section which met on Thursdays and
received treatment B. Therefore, there were ninety-seven
(97) subjects who participated in the study.

The FIRO theory provided the basis for this
study. The FIRO theory suggests that interpersonal needs
can be subsumed into the three areas of inclusion, control,
and affection; and further that when individuals come
together in groups these interpersonal needs represent
the concerns of the individual group members with inclu-
sion being the first concern, control the second concern,
and affection the third and final concern.

The FIRO-B, the instrument used in this study,
measures the interpersonal need areas of inclusion, control,
and affection. The FIRO-B was administered to all partici-
pants during their first class session and again at their
last class session, thus the source of pre and post test
data. To maintain consistency the FIRO-B was administered
to all participants by the researcher. It is also noted
here that the researcher was not involved in administering
either treatment A or treatment B.

The data were analyzed using a statistical tech-
nique known as chi square (X2). All of the null hypo-
theses were accepted; therefore, it was concluded that:

(l) instruction did not make a significant difference in

reducing the total number of incongruencies in the

 

 

Gerald P. Sturm

interpersonal need areas of inclusion, control, and
affection; (2) treatment A and/or treatment B did not make
a significant difference in reducing incongruencies in the
interpersonal need areas of inclusion, control, and affec-
tion; (3) treatment A and/or treatment B did not make a
significant difference in reducing the number of incon-
gruencies in the interpersonal need area of inclusion;

(4) treatment A and/or treatment B did not make a signi—
ficant difference in reducing the number of incongruencies
in the interpersonal need area of control; and (5) treat-
ment A and/or treatment B did not make a significant
difference in reducing the number of incongruencies in

the interpersonal need area of affection.

 

A STUDY DESIGNED TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTS OF
TWO TREATMENTS ON THE INTERPERSONAL NEED
BEHAVIORS OF INCLUSION, CONTROL, AND

AFFECTION AS MEASURED BY THE FIRO-B

BY

,v“
Gerald Pf Sturm

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education
and Curriculum

1977

 

 

 

DEDICATION

To
Joann - my most valuable companion
Deb, Dan, and Doug — my hope and joy

Vickie - my mother

and
In Memory Of

Si — my father

ii

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is only appropriate to mention the following
people, who certainly proved to me that people need
people:

To Dale Alam, my committee chairperson, for
continued help and support, and who has given me more
than I cangut into words. I will cherish that unselfish
giving forever.

To George Myers, Richard Gardner, and John Suehr,
committee members who provided guidance, support, and
encouragement which has given me new confidence and
purpose in life. I will make every effort to be this to
others as I continue my work.

To Troy Stearns, my original committee chairperson,
for sharing his wisdom and knowledge with me, while at
the same time giving me complete trust and expert advice.

To Charles Blackman who provided me with very
unique and helpful kind of support, before and during my
program.

To James Dillehay for the extensive help given
to me throughout the preparation of my dissertation. A
person without whom I would have never finished.

To Pat Gilbert for human and technical support.

To Barb Borders for her special effort in helping

with the finished product.

 

To special friends, Art Tolley, Betty Cady, Ann
Yezzi, Norm Sterchele, Judy and Jerry Wallace, Dennis
Badaczewski, Eileen Fernandez, Joe Young, Tom Matczynski,
Carl Benner, and Irene and Whitey May for the kind of
support each one gave to me.

To Gerald Poor, Maynard Hoeh, Richard Asiala,

Lilburn Hoehn, and Paul Cochran for expressing belief (

 

and encouragement at various points in my professional
life.

To my mother and father who gave unconditional
support which made this whole effort possible.

To Deb, Dan, and Doug for giving me a purpose for
continuing to grow and be.

And to Joann who beyond belief and all possible
expectations stood by me, encouraged me, helped me, and
most of all put up with me, a special thanks of your own.

Thanks to all of you.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . .

Background of the Problem to be
Investigated . . . . . . . .
Statement of the Problem . . . . .
Questions for Study . . . . . . .
Definitions of Terms . . . . . .
Significance of the Study . . . . .
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . . .
Organization of the Study . . . . .

THEORY AND RESEARCH . . . . . . .

The FIRO Theory . . . . . . .
Interpersonal Need . . . . . .
Inclusion, Control, and Affection .
Inclusion Behavior . . . . . .
Control Behavior . . . . . . .
Affection Behavior . . .
Types of Interpersonal Behavior . .

Inclusion Types . . . . . .

Control Types . . . . . .
Affection Types . . . . . .

Summary of FIRO Theory . . . . .
Research Related to FIRO Theory . . .

Group Composition . . . .
Individual Behavior Change . .
Summary of Research Related to FIRO

Theory . . . . .

STUDY DESIGN AND INSTRUMENTATION . . .

Questions for Study . . . . .
Description of the Population . . . .

V

Page

viii

43

44
45

Chapter

Description of Treatments

Treatment A
Treatment B
Instrumentation
Validity
Reliability
Purpose of Instrument
Data Collection
Data Analysis

IV.

Summary of Findings

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS,
AND REFLECTIONS

Summary
Conclusions

Recommendations
Reflections

APPENDICES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

0

ANALYSIS OF DATA

0

vi

RECOMMENDATIONS,

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Number of Incongruencies Identified
by the Administration of the FIRO—B . . . 55

2. Analysis of Treatment Effects Related
to Total Number of Incongruencies . . . . 56

3. Analysis of Treatment Effects Related
to the Number of Incongruencies in the
Interpersonal Need Area of Inclusion . . . 57

 

4. Analysis of Treatment Effects Related
to the Number of Incongruencies in the
Interpersonal Need Area of Control . . . 58

5. Analysis of Treatment Effects Related
to the Number of Incongruencies in the
Interpersonal Need Area of Affection . . . 58

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix

A. Course Syllabus Used for Treatment A

B. Course Syllabus Used for Treatment B

C. Waiver Form for Research Involving

Human Subjects . . . . . . .

D. Instrumentation . . . . .
FIRO— B Directions . . . .
FIRO- B Instrument . . . .
FIRO-B Tally Sheet .

E. Statistical Analysis for Tables 2,

4 and 5 . . . . . .

viii

Page
69

74

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Problem
to Be Investigated

 

 

Groups are incalculably in the life of every
human being. And skills in group functioning are
vital to all of us. Belonging to groups is the
most important aspect of your life. The quality
of your life depends upon the effectiveness of the
groups to which you belong, and this effectiveness
is largely determined by your personal group
skills and knowledge of group processes.

Why are groups important? As humans we are
social animals and have an inherent social nature.
It is not our nature to live alone. We are born
into a group called the family and would not
survive the first few minutes, the first few
years of our lives without membership in this group.
Our personal survival as well as survival of our
species has always been linked to the interrela—
tionships formed among human beings. Our personal
identity is derived from the way in which we are
perceived and treated by other members of our
groups. Almost all of our time is spent inter-
acting in groups; we are educated in groups, we
work in groups, we worship in groups, we play in
groups. Our whole life is spent in a variety
of group memberships. Even our species identity
as a human is developed in our interactions with
others within groups. What makes us human is the
way in which we interact with other persons, and
we learn how to interact within the groups in
which we are socialized and educated. At all
stages of our lives we need to belong to groups.

 

1

Teachers in our society find themselves members of

a variety of groups, some of which may be their own

 

1David W. Johnson and Frank P. Johnson, Joining
Together (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.,
1975), p. l.

choosing (i.e., joining a professional association or
community service club) and some which may be conditions
of employment (i.e., a faculty member in a specific school
building or a specified and required committee assignment).
The field of school administration has incorporated
a broader range of approaches to leadership, i.e.,
participatory management. Thus, the teachers may find
themselves members of a group which is a component part

of the operational procedure used in the organization

 

where employed. The teacher may be called upon to func-
tion in a group which is charged with responsibility for
solving problems, making decisions, generating new ideas,
and/or evaluating outcomes.

Max Weber (1947) theorized that the expansion of

bureaucracy has encroached on the more traditional

forms of governance. As modern institutions
increase in size and complexity individuals who
are part of the organization tend to take on

more specialized roles and functions. Weber

argued that membership in these organizations

becomes restricted to those who have specialized
training for their positions.

In recent years teachers have formally joined
together to form an influential power base. Teachers'
groups have increased their effectiveness so that the
teacher now influences school organization and educational

legislation to a much greater degree than ever before.

Teachers, through this joining together, are increasingly

 

2Herbert J. Walberg, "Professional Role Discontin-
uities in Educational Careers," Review of Educational
Research, Vol. 40, No. 3, (AERA, June, 1970), p. 410.

 

involved in making decisions related to the organization
and operation of schools. "Because the American teacher
has stopped being passive and has started reaching for a
share in directing the process of education, their energies
and ideas will have much more influence than they would

3 Teachers, then may find themselves

have ten years ago."
a part of a group which must pay attention to continually
improving its effectiveness.

Teachers might also be in a school that is using
the team teaching concept in one form or another. Schools
might be implementing IGE (Individually Guided Education),
using interdisciplinary teaming, or might have a school
within a school which finds teachers and students as
members of the same group.

The keys to the success of team teaching are

cooperation, pre-planning, flexibility in sche-

duling, variety of materials, and individualiza-
tion. Pooling the professional and personal
strengths of each of the team members offers
richer opportunities to the pupils and stimulates
professional growth of the teachers. Essential
for smooth and effective operation is a team
leader knowledgeable in curricular development
with special skill in group dynamics.4

In terms of facilitating learning, teachers seldom

find themselves placed in a situation which does not

 

 

3Harold Howe, Picking Up The Options (Washington
D.C.: Department of Elementary School Principals, N.E.A.,
1968), p. 206.

4Jean Marie King and VonHerbert I. Haden, "Team
Teaching," Innovations in Education: Pros & Cons
(Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones Publishing Co., 1971),
PP. 157—159.

 

involve a group of students. For the most part teachers
find themselves developing and implementing instructional
processes which will effect a group of students. Many
times the effectiveness of an instructional strategy
or a teacher behavior is related to the knowledge and
understanding of group processes. Understanding group
processes and group dynamics as they relate to instruction
leads then, in the opinion of the researcher, to implica-
tions in curriculum development. The area of curriculum
development creates many opportunities and situations
that demand decision making on the part of classroom
teachers. Changes in the last few years have moved
today's teacher into more complex group circumstances
which require more understanding and expertise. Curricu-
lum development processes more than occasionally involve
groups of teachers who are asked to make decisions rela—
tive to needs, goals and objectives, and resource materials.

The teacher, while an individual with uniqueness,
is also a part of something bigger than self. If this is
true, then to expand by a process of growth, the ability
to function within a group and to understand group develop-
ment becomes a necessity.

To be an effective group member, you need a

conceptualization, or idea, of group effective-

ness and an understanding of how your behavior

can contribute to this effectiveness. Any

effective group has three core activities:

(1) accomplishing its goals, (2) maintaining

itself internally, and (3) developing and
changing in ways that improve its effectiveness.

One theory of group development, the FIRO theory,
suggests that three dimensions: inclusion, control, and
affection, in this order, usually predominate in the
development of a group. Inclusion problems, such as the
decision to be in or out of the group, usually occur
first and are followed by control issues and finally
by affection problems. This order is not rigid, but it
seems that the nature of group life is such that people
tend first to determine whether they want to be in a group,
then to find out what place of influence they have, and
finally decide how personally close they will become.
Further within each of the three phases individuals seem
to concentrate first on their relations with leadership
within the group and then on their relations to each other.6

Given that group effectiveness is predicated on
the FIRO theory, that group members have the interpersonal
needs of inclusion, control, and affection, the question
with which this study deals is the effectiveness of each
of two approaches used in helping teachers become more
effective group members through the reduction of incon-

gruencies7 in the interpersonal needs areas of inclusion,

 

5David W. Johnson and Frank P. Johnson, Joining
Together (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.,
1975), p. 3.

6William C. Schutz, The Interpersonal Underworld
(Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1966),
pp. 169—171.

7Defined in Chapter I of this study, p. 10.

 

control, and affection. This study intends to lend
insight into the effectiveness of two different treatments
as they affect the interpersonal need structure of indi—

vidual participants.

Statement of the Problem

 

How do we encourage people to become more congruent?
Does formalized instruction bring about a reduction of

incongruencies in the interpersonal need areas of inclu—

 

sion, control, and affection? The independent variable

in this study is Treatment A and Treatment B, and the
dependent variable is interpersonal need (inclusion, con-
trol, and affection ) structure of individual participants.
Using the FIRO theory, that people have the interpersonal
needs of inclusion, control, and affection, and that

people with incongruencies in these areas can be helped

to become more self-congruent and therefore more compatible
with others and more effective group members, the problem
focuses upon the approach used to assist people in the

process of reducing incongruencies.

Questions for Study

 

1. Does instruction in the area of interpersonal
communication reduce the number of incongruencies shown by

teachers as measured by the FIRO-B regardless of method?

2. Were the number of incongruencies shown by
teachers, as measured by the FIRO-B, significantly affected
by Treatment A or Treatment B?

3. Were the number of incongruencies shown by
teachers in the area of inclusion, as measuredlnrtheFTRO-B,
significantly affected by Treatment A or Treatment B?

4. Were the number of incongruencies shown by
teachers in the area of control, as measured by the FIRO—B,
significantly affected by Treatment A or Treatment B?

5. Were the number of incongruencies shown by
teachers in the area of affection, as measured by the
FIRO-B, significantly affected by Treatment A or Treat-

ment B?

Definitions of Terms

 

Interpersonal: The term "interpersonal" refers to
relations which occur between people as opposed to rela-
tions in which at least one participant is inanimate.

It is assumed that, owing to the psychological presence

of other people, interpersonal situations lead to behavior
in an individual that differs from the behavior of the
individual when he is not in the presence of other
persons.8

FIRQ: Fundamental Interpersonal Relations

Orientation. It signifies the basic idea that every

 

8William C. Schutz, The Interpersonal Underworld
(Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1966),
p. 14.

 

 

 

 

person orients himself in characteristic ways toward other
people, and the basic belief that knowledge of these
orientations allows for considerable understanding of
individual behavior and the interaction of people. The
word is pronounced to rhyme with "Cairo."9
FIRO-B: Stands for Fundamental Interpersonal
Relations Orientation--Behavior. Is the key measuring

instrument designed to measure an individual's orienta-

tion to the interpersonal needs of inclusion, control,
10

 

and affection.
Inclusion: The interpersonal need for inclusion
is defined behaviorally as the need to establish and
maintain a satisfactory relation with people with respect
to interaction and association. "Satisfactory relation"
includes (1) a psychologically comfortable relation with
people somewhere on a dimension ranging from originating
or initiating interaction with all people to not initiat—
ing interaction with anyone, and (2) a psychologically
comfortable relation with people with respect to elicit-
ing behavior from them somewhere on a dimension ranging
from always initiating interaction with the self to never

initiating interaction with the self.11

 

91bid., p. ix.

lOIbid., p. 57.

llIbid., p. 18.

 

 

Control: The interpersonal need for control is
defined behaviorally as the need to establish and maintain
a satisfactory relation with people with respect to con—
trol and power. "Satisfactory relation" includes (1) a
psychologically comfortable relation with people some-
where on a dimension ranging from controlling all the
behavior of other people to not controlling any behavior
of others, and (2) psychologically comfortable relation
with people with respect to eliciting behavior from them
somewhere on a dimension ranging from always being con-
trolled by them to never being controlled by them.12

Affection: The interpersonal need for affection
is defined behaviorally as the need to establish and
maintain a satisfactory relation with others with respect
to love and affection. Affection always refers to a
two-person (dyadic) relation. "Satisfactory relation"
includes (1) a psychologically comfortable relation with
others somewhere on a dimension ranging from initiating
close, personal relations with everyone to originating
close, personal relation with no one, and (2) a psycho-
logically comfortable relation with people with respect
to eliciting behavior from them on a dimension ranging

from always originating close, personal relations

 

12Loc. cit.

 

10

toward the self to never originating close, personal
relations with the self.13

e — Expressed: The behavior expressed to others
in the interpersonal needsareasof inclusion, control,
and affection. May also be synonymous with behavior
"given" to others.14

w — Wanted: The behavior wanted from others in
the interpersonal needs areas of inclusion, control, and
affection. May also be synonymous with "desired" or
"taken" behavior from others.15

Incongruence: A difference of more than two
(2) between "e" (expressed) and "w" (wanted) on the
nine (9) point scale of the FIRO—B.

Congruence: The term congruence, when used in
this study, represents a balance in any of the inter—
personal need areas of inclusion, control, and affec-
tion. This balance is shown mathematically by the dif-

ference in the "e" (expressed) and "w" (wanted) score

on the FIRO—B being less than two (2).

Significance of the Study

 

This study has significance for (1) those

involved in teacher education both at preservice and

 

l3Ibid., p. 20.

14J. William Pfeiffer and Richard Heslin, Instru-
mentations in Human Relations Training (Iowa City:
University Associates, 1973), p. 139.

15

 

Loc. cit.

 

 

ll

inservice levels, (2) those involved in curriculum
development, (3) those involved in designing instructional
alternatives for students, (4) those persons in adminis-
trative roles who are concerned about the quality of life
experienced by people within their organization, and

(5) those concerned about improving human relations

skills no matter who is involved.

Particularly, this study has significance for
those responsible for educating prospective teachers.

The assumption is made in this study that it is impor-
tant for teachers to develop understanding in group
theory, dynamics, and techniques, and further that
teachers are able to put those understandings into
practice.

The study specifically focuses on the approach
used in attempting to help teachers become more congruent
in the interpersonal needs areas of inclusion, control,
and affection which are the basis for the group theory
this study uses. The study is significant in that the
effect of two instructional strategies, attempting to
reduce incongruencies in the interpersonal need areas of
inclusion, control, and affection, will be determined.
The results of this study will lend insight into the
question, "What type of treatments should be utilized

by those who are concerned about designing instructional

 

 

12

strategies which deal with the interpersonal needs of
inclusion, control, and affection?"

This study is also significant in that it makes
application of the FIRO theory and therefore contributes
awareness about the theory to those in the helping pro-

fessions.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate

 

whether or not each of two different treatments used in
a communications course will reduce incongruencies in
the interpersonal needs areas of inclusion, control, and
affection. While the FIRO theory identifies and pre-
sents areas of interpersonal needs, the search continues
for ways to help people (1) develop self-awareness in
relationship to those needs, (2) look at the effect the
needs of others have upon them, (3) look at the effect
of their needs upon others, and (4) relate their needs
to their behaviors.

This study looks at two treatments to determine
if one is more effective than the other or whether either
is effective in helping teachers develop an improved
balance (congruence) between (1) the amount of inclusion
they desire from others and the amount of inclusion they
give to others, (2) the amount they desire to control

others and the amount they wish to be controlled by

 

13

others, and (3) the amount of affection they desire from

others and the amount of affection they give to others.
If better ways can be found to assist people in

becoming more aware of their interpersonal needs and

if treatments that result in a person's need structure

being changed can be identified, then this study would

be useful to anyone in the helping professions who

chooses to apply the FIRO theory.

 

Limitations of the Study

 

As is the case in most studies, decisions con—
cerning the scope and limitations have to be made based
on the variables which can be controlled. The variables
which affect persons' interpersonal needs structure are
numerous and complex; in fact, it may be impossible to
identify all of them. This study was done within the
confines set forth by the following limitations:

1. The FIRO theory is the complete basis for
describing interpersonal needs.

2. The FIRO—B is the only instrument used to
determine whether or not interpersonal needs were changed.

3. That a balance (congruence) between "e"
(expressed) and "w" (wanted) represents a more healthy
person in relation to interpersonal needs.

4. That an incongruence, that is, an imbalance
between "e" (expressed) and "w" (wanted), creates dis-

order and anxiety which are undesirable.

 

l4

5. The population used in the study was confined
to teachers who were enrolled in two sections of Educa—
tion 601 at Wright State University.

6. The total time was a period of eleven weeks
representing one quarter (term) during which pretest data
was collected, treatments A and B were applied, and
posttest data was collected.

7. That two different treatments were designed
to be utilized, one with the section of Education 601
which met Tuesday evenings and one with the section of

Education 601 which met Thursday evenings.

Organization of the Study

 

Chapter I Introduction

Chapter II Theory and Research

Chapter III Study Design and Instrumentation
Chapter IV Analysis of Data

Chapter V Summary, Conclusions, Recommenda-

tions, and Reflections

CHAPTER II

THEORY AND RESEARCH

The purpose of this study is to determine if
either of two treatments is effective in helping
teachers develop an improved balance in the interper—
sonal need areas of inclusion, control, and affection.
While the FIRO theory itself has been developed and
supported through research, the results relative to
instructional strategies designed to apply the theory
are incomplete. The treatments utilized in this
study were designed, in part, to apply the FIRO theory.

The theory presented in this chapter is limited
to the FIRO theory, and the research presented is
limited to research which involves the FIRO theory and
the FIRO-B instrument because of the uniqueness of the
FIRO theory and the parameters of this study.

This chapter is (l) a presentation of the FIRO
theory, and (2) a review of the research related to
the FIRO theory. As the reader will be able to see,
there is a noticeable lack of research related to
instructional strategies designed to apply the FIRO

theory.

15

16

The FIRO Theory

"FIRO" stands for "Fundamental Interpersonal
Relations Orientation." It was chosen because it
indicated the basic concept that every person orients
himself or herself in characteristic ways toward other
people, and the basic belief that knowledge of these
orientations allows for considerable understanding of
individual behavior and the interaction of people.

The word in pronounced to rhyme with "Cairo."l

 

The FIRO theory is an axiomatic theory. The
theory is based upon four specific postulates which
were developed through the testing and researching of
various theorems. The four postulates are the proposi—
tions expressing what are taken to be the most funda-
mental ideas embodied in the theory. The four postulates
contained in the FIRO theory are:

Postulate l - The Postulate of Interpersonal
Needs.

(a) Every individual has three interpersonal
needs: inclusion, control, and affection.

(b) Inclusion, control, and affection consti-
tute a sufficient set of interpersonal
behavior for the prediction and explanation
of interpersonal phenomena.

Postulate 2 - The Postulate of Relational
Continuity.
An individual's expressed interpersonal
behavior will be similar to the behavior
he experienced in his earliest interpersonal
relations in the following way: Principle

 

1William C. Schutz, The Interpersonal Underworld
(Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1966), p. ix.

 

17

of Constancy. When he perceives his
adult position in an interpersonal situa—
tion to be similar to his own position in
his parent—child relation, his adult
behavior positively covaries with his
childhood behavior toward his parents (or
significant others).

Principle of Identification. When he per-
ceives his adult position in an inter—
personal situation to be similar to his
parents' position in his parent-child
relation, his adult behavior positively
covaries with the behavior of his parents
(or significant others).

Postulate 3 - The Postulate of Compatibility.
If the compatibility of one group, h, is
greater than that of another group, m,
then the goal achievement of h will exceed
that of m.

 

Postulate 4 — The Postulate of Group Development.
The formation and development of two or
more people into an interpersonal relation
(that is, a group) always proceeds in the
same sequence, as follows: Principle of
Group Integration. For the time period
starting with the group's termination, the
predominant area of interpersonal behavior
begins with inclusion, is followed by
control, and finally by affection. This
cycle may recur.

Principle of Group Resolution. The last
three intervals prior to a group's anti-
cipated termination follow the opposite
sequence in that the predominant area of
interpersonal behavior is first affection,
then control, and finally inclusion.

In summary the FIRO theory states that there
are three interpersonal need areas, inclusion, control,
and affection, sufficient for the prediction of inter—
personal behavior. Orientations which an individual

acquires toward behavior in these areas are relatively

 

2Ibid., pp. 196-199.

 

l8

invariant over time. All interpersonal relationships
follow the same general developmental sequence. It
begins with inclusion behavior, is followed by control
behavior, and finally, affection behavior. This cycle

may recur. When the relation approaches termination

 

it reverses direction, and investment from the relation
is withdrawn in the order of affection, control, and
inclusion. From these postulates it is theoretically
possible to predict the course of a relation if we know
the interpersonal orientations of the individual members

of the relation and the interpersonal description of

 

the circumstances under which they will interact.3

While this study has as its basis the FIRO theory,
it more specifically uses the propositions expressed in
Postulate One and Postulate Four. Therefore, those two

components of the FIRO theory will be further described.

Interpersonal Need

 

The term "interpersonal" refers to relations
that occur between people as opposed to relations in
which at least one participant is inanimate. It is
assumed that, owing to the psychological presence of
other people, interpersonal situations lead to behavior
in an individual that differs from the behavior of the

individual when he is not in the presence of other persons.

 

3Ibid., p. 200.

19

An optimally useful definition of "interpersonal" is one
such that all situations classified as interpersonal
have important properties in common--properties that are
in general different from those of noninterpersonal
situations. An interpersonal situation is one involving
two or more persons in which these individuals take
account of each other for some purpose or decision.
Further, it is often useful to consider situations as
interpersonal in which behavior is determined by expecta-
tions of the behavior of others, even if the others are
not physically present.4

The other term in the phrase under discussion is
"need." A "need" is defined in terms of a situation or
condition of an individual the nonrealization of which
leads to undesirable consequences. An interpersonal
need is one that may be satisfied only through the
attainment of a satisfactory relation with other people.
The satisfaction of a need is a necessary condition for
the avoidance of undesirable consequences of illness and
death. A discrepancy between the satisfaction of an
interpersonal need and the present state of an organism

engenders a feeling in the organism called anxiety.5

 

4Ibid., pp. 14—15.

51bid., p. 15.

 

 

 

20

Inclusion, Control,
and Affection

 

Inclusion behavior is a behavior aimed at satis-
fying the interpersonal need for inclusion. It means a
comfortableness with (1) being interested in other people
somewhere from originating or initiating all interaction
to doing no originating or initiating of interaction
with anyone, and (2) having others interested in self

somewhere between always wanting others to focus on

 

self to never wanting others to focus on self. In
relationship to self image the need for inclusion is
the need to feel significant and worthwhile.

Control behavior is a behavior aimed at satis-
fying the interpersonal need for control. it means a
comfortableness with (1) being able to respect others
somewhere from controlling all the behavior of other
people to not controlling any behavior of others, and
(2) having others respect self somewhere from wanting
others to always control self to wanting others to never
control self. In relationship to self-image, the need
for control is the need to feel competent and responsible
as a person.

Affection behavior is a behavior aimed at satis-
fying the interpersonal need for affection. It means a
comfortableness with (1) being able to love others
somewhere from initiating close, personal relations with

everyone to originating close, personal relations with

 

21

no one, and (2) eliciting behavior from others somewhere
from always wanting others to initiate close, personal
relationships with self to never wanting others to
initiate close, personal relationships toward self. In
relationship to self-image, the need for affection is the

need to feel the self is lovable.

Inclusion Behavior

 

To generalize, inclusion behavior refers to
association between people. There are many terms which
can mean the same as positive or negative inclusion

behavior. Some terms which may mean positive inclusion

 

behavior are: "mingle,' "communicate,' "comrade,"

"member,' "togetherness,' "join," "belong," "associate,"

"companion," and "extrovert." Some terms which may mean
negative inclusion behavior are: "exclusion," "outsider,"
"outcast," "detached," "withdrawn," "isolate," "aban—
doned," or "ignored."6
The need to be included manifests itself as
wanting to be attended to, to attract atten—
tion and interest. The classroom hellion who
throws erasers is often objecting mostly to
the lack of attention paid him. Even if he
is given negative affection he is partially
satisfied, because at least someone is pay—
ing attention to him.
Many times people, when in groups, talk a lot

to gain a prominence. They may not be interested in

 

61bid., pp. 18—21.

71bid., p. 21.

22

power or dominance, but merely wanting an inclusion
identity. The person who is the laugh of the party
is another example of a prominence seeker.

Joining a fraternal or service organization is
primarily an inclusion behavior because it represents
belonging and togetherness while it by no means neces-
sarily indicates a liking for other members or a defi-
nite desire for power.

Identity is an essential part of inclusion. The
person is primarily concerned that he is recognized and
paid attention to separate and apart from others, he
needs a particular identity. If a person is not seen as
an individual with a particular identity, others are
interested enough in him to find out his particular and
individual characteristics. This does not necessarily
mean that others have affection for him or that they
respect him. Others may be exploring his particular and
individual characteristics to find points of vulnerability.

At the outset of interpersonal relations a

common issue is that of commitment, the decision

to become involved in a given relation or
activity. Usually, in the initial testing of

a relation, individuals try to identify them-

selves to one another to find out which facet

of themselves others will be interested in.

Frequently a member is silent for awhile

because he is not sure that people are inter-

in him. These behaviors, too, are pr1mar11y

in the inclusion area. This, then is the

flavor of inclusion. It has to do with inter—

acting with peOple, with attention, acknow-

ledgment, being known, prominence, recognition,

prestige, status, and fame; with identity,
individuality, understanding, interest,

 

 

 

 

23

commitment, and participation. It is unlike
affection in that it does not involve strong
emotional attachments to individual persons.
It is unlike control in that the preoccupation
is with prominence, not dominance.8

Control Behavior
Control behavior basically makes reference to
the decision—making process which occurs between people.

Some terms which indicate that control exists, and there-

fore are known as primarily positive control are:

"influence," "dominance,' "ruler,' "authority,' "superior

officer," "power," and "leader." Some terms which

indicate lack of control, and therefore are labeled

primary negative control are: "follower," "submissive,"
"henpecked," "milquetoast," "anarchy," "rebellion," and
"resistance."

The need for control manifests itself as the
desire for power, authority, and control over
others and therefore over one's future. At
the other end is the need to be controlled,

to have responsibility taken away. Manifesta-
tions of the power drive are very clear. A
more subtle form is exemplified by the current
magazine advertising campaign featuring the
influential. This is a person who controls
others through the power he has to influence
their behavior.

A direct way of gaining control over others is
to acquire wealth or come to power in a political role.

Many times these types of control involve coercion and

 

81bid., p. 22.

9Loc. cit.

 

 

 

24

bargaining versus a more subtle approach like persuasion.
In groups the desire to gain leader role status or to
have ideas influence direction and operation of the
group are manifestations of control behavior. If there
is an argument in the group the inclusion seeker can be
distinguished from the control seeker: the inclusion
seeker, person seeking prominence, wants to be a parti-
cipant in the argument while the control seeker, person
seeking dominance, wants to win the argument. Both of
these roles are different from affectional wishes of
the group members.

There are many forms of control behavior, such as,
walking to the blackboard and taking the chalk may be a
form of competitive success, using intellectual superior-
ity over others may represent a motivation to control
others, or rebelling against the existing structure may
represent a no-one—is-going-to-control—me stance which is
a "I will control" behavior.

Control is also manifested in behavior toward

others controlling the self. Expressions of

independence and rebellion exemplify lack of

willingness to be controlled, while compliance,

submission, and taking orders indicate various

degrees of accepting the control of others.

There is no necessary relation between an indi-

vidual's behavior toward controlling others

and his behavior toward being controlled. The

domineering sergeant may accept orders from the

lieutenant with pleasure and gratefulness, while

the neighborhood bully may also rebel against

his parents; two persons who control others

differ in the degree to which they allow others

to control them. Thus the flavor on control is
transmitted by behavior involving influence,

 

 

 

25

leadership, power, coercion, authority, accom—
plishment, intellectual superiority, high
achievement, and independence, as well as depend—
ency (for decision making), rebellion, resistance,
and submission. It differs from inclusion beha-
vior in that it does not require prominence.

The concept of the "power behind the throne"

is an excellent example of a role that would

fill a high control need and a low need for
inclusion. The "joker" exemplifies the oppo—
site. Control behavior differs from affection
behavior in that it has to do with power rela-
tions rather than emotional closeness. The
frequent difficulties between those who want to
get down to business and those who want to know
one another illustrate a situation in which
control behavior is more important for some and
affection behavior for others.

Affection Behavior

 

Affection behavior generally refers to close
personal feelings between two people. Affection can
only occur between two people at any one time, whereas
inclusion and control relations may occur either in
dyads or between one person and a group of persons.
Some terms which mean affection and are primarily
positive are: "like," "personal," "positive feelings,"
"emotionally close," "friendship," and "love." Some
terms which mean lack of affection and are primarily
negative are "dislike," "cool," "emotionally distant,"
and "hate."

The need for affection is fulfilled through
behavior which leads to becoming emotionally close. In

addition to being emotionally close, an affectional

 

26

relationship includes the element of confiding innermost
wishes, anxieties, and feelings. The strong affectional
relationship is usually accompanied by a high degree
sharing of these emotions.

Affection behavior in groups can be character-

 

ized by overtures of friendship and differentiation
between members. Affection behavior may be avoided by
being equally friendly to all group members, thus an
example of inclusion behavior rather than affection
behavior.

A difference between affection behavior, inclu-
sion behavior, and control behavior is illus-
trated by the different feelings a man has in
being turned down by a fraternity, failed in a
course by a professor, and rejected by his girl.
The fraternity excludes him and tells him, in
effect, that they as a group don't have suffi-
cient interest in him. The professor fails him
and says, in effect, that he finds him incom—
petent in his field. His girl rejects him, and
tells him, in effect, that she doesn't find him
lovable. Thus, the flavor of affection is
embodied in situations of love, emotional
closeness, personal confidences, and intimacy.
Negative affection is characterized by hate,
hostility, and emotional rejection.l

 

Types of Interpersonal Behavior12

In each of the interpersonal need areas, inclu-
sion, control, and affection there are three types of

interpersonal behavior: (1) deficient--indicating that

 

llIbid., p. 24.

lzIbid., pp. 25-31.

27

the individual is not trying directly to satisfy the
need, (2) excessive-—indicating that the individual is
constantly trying to satisfy the need, and (3) ideal——

indicating satisfaction of the need.
Inclusion Types

The Undersocia1--This interpersonal behavior is
seen as introverted and withdrawn. The undersocial
person avoids associating with others and most frequently
rejects invitations to join others. This person con—
sciously keeps a distance between self and others and
doesn't want involvement with others because of a fear
of losing privacy. In most cases the undersocial person
unconsciously wants attention and recognition from others,
but harbors a fear that others will ignore and have no
interest in him. There is a strong drive toward self—
sufficiency as a method for existence without others.
This person then directs much energy toward self—
preservation and therefore creates a world of his own
in which his existence is more secure. This withdrawal
is usually accompanied with anxiety and hostility, and
often results in feelings of superiority or the feeling
that others don't understand me.

A direct way of expressing withdrawal is non-
association with others and lack of involvement and

commitment. A subtle expression of withdrawal might be

 

28

a behavior pattern of always being late or not keeping
engagements. The reference that is being made to
self-image is that of worthlessness. Many times the
undersocial person has a low motivation to live. The
degree the individual is committed to living probably
is reflected in his level of enthusiasm, perserverance,

and involvement.

The Oversocial—- This interpersonal behavior is
expressed in the form of extroversion. This person seeks
people incessantly and wants others to seek him out.
Like the undersocial person, he is also afraid others
will ignore him. The interpersonal dynamics are the
same as those of the withdrawn person, but the overt
behavior is the opposite. The oversocial is the type
that can't be alone; most of the activities in which he
participates are designed to be done together. The
interpersonal behavior" then, is designed to focus
attention on self, to make others notice self, to be
prominent, and to be listened to. The direct avenue to
achievement is intensive, exhibitionistic behavior. A
more subtle approach is to acquire status through name

dropping or to ask startling questions.

The Socia1--The social person is comfortable
being with people and also comfortable being alone.

This person can be a high, low, or moderate participator

  

29

in a group without anxiety. He is capable of making a
strong commitment to certain groups or persons as well as
being comfortable with withholding commitment in situa-
tions where it is felt to be appropriate.

In reference to self-image, there is a feeling

 

of worth and significance as a person. There is a capa-
bility of being genuinely interested in others and a feel-
ing that others are interested in self. There is an
identity and an individuality. Usually the social person
has integrated aspects of a large number of individuals

into a configuration which can be identified as self.
Control Types

The Abdicrat-- The interpersonal behavior of
the abdicrat person tends toward submission and the
avoidance of power and responsibility. Most usually
this person moves into subordinate positions which are
removed from decision—making. He consciously wants
others to relieve him of obligations. Many times he will
not take control of a situation in which he is needed,
such as an accident on the playground. This kind of
person is usually a follower. Unconsciously, he has the
feeling that he is incapable of responsible adult behavior
and that others know it. He is most comfortable respond—

ing to situations with avoidance. Behind this feeling is

30

anxiety, hostility, and lack of trust toward those who
might be of help. These feelings are usually expressed

in the form of pasSive resistance.

The Autocrat-—The interpersonal behavior of the

 

autocrat tends to be dominating. Usually the autocrat
desires a power hierarchy with self at thettop. He is
the seeker of power and the competer. There is a fear
that if others are not dominated they will dominate him.

This need to control others usually is displaced into

 

other areas such as intellectual superiority, athletic
superiority, or by gaining political power.

The basic feelings of the autocrat are that others
think he can't make decisions, therefore he makes them
for others as often as possible to prove his capability.
There is also a strong feeling that others don't trust

him.

The Democrat—-The interpersonal behavior of the
democrat is a comfortableness with both giving orders or
not giving orders, and a comfortableness with both taking
orders or not taking orders. There is a feeling of
being a capable and responsible person which results in
assuming responsibility with confidence. He is not
worried about being incapable or incompetent. There is
a feeling that others are respectful and will be realistic

in trusting him and his decision-making.

A“.

31

Affection Types

The Underpersona1--The interpersonal behavior of

 

the underpersonal person tends toward avoiding close
personal relationships with others. Most relationships
are kept on a superficial, distant level. He con-
sciously wishes to maintain an emotional distance, and
frequently expresses a desire to not get involved. His
fear is that no one loves him. In groups he is afraid
of not being liked and has difficulty liking people
because of distrusting their feelings toward him.

The direct method of maintaining emotional dis—
tance is to reject and avoid people, sometimes even
being antagonistic. The subtle approach is to be super-
ficially friendly to everyone. Keeping everyone at the
same distance removes responsibility for giving any one
person warmth and affection. In reference to self-
image there is a feeling that the self is unlovable.
Others won't like the self because the self doesn't
deserve it. If others are allowed to get too close,

they will discover the unlovable traits of the self.

The Overpersonal-—The interpersonal behavior of
the overpersonal person is to become extremely close to
others. There is also a need to have others treat the
self in a close, personal way. The main goal of personal

relationships is being liked. Being liked is very

 

32

important and helps reduce the fear of being rejected
and unloved. The direct method used by the overpersonal
person is to be extremely personal, intimate, and con-
fiding. The subtle approach is to be manipulative and
react to any attempts by others to establish relation-

ships with others, in other words, to become possessive.

The Personal-- The interpersonal behavior of the
personal type is to be comfortable in close relationships
and also being comfortable in emotionally distant
relationships. It is important to be liked, but not
being liked can be accepted. Being disliked does not
result in feeling unlovable. There is a feeling that the
self is lovable and a capability for giving genuine

affection.

Summary of FIRO Theory

The FIRO theory is that there are three inter-
personal need areas, inclusion, control, and affection,
which are sufficient for predicting interpersonal beha-
vior. Each of these interpersonal need areas has two
dimensions: (1) "expressed"--the inclusion, control,
and affection given to others, and (2) "wanted"--the
inclusion, control, and affection taken from others.
The first part of this chapter has presented the postu-
lates upon which the theory is based, the definition of

interpersonal needs, the descriptions of inclusion

 

 

33

behavior, control behavior, and affection behavior, and
types of behavior related to each interpersonal area of

inclusion, control, and affection.

Research Related to the FIRO Theory

 

The following part of this chapter contains a
review of the research related to the FIRO theory. The
research related to strategies using the FIRO-B as a
measure for inclusion, control, and affection is also
included.

In surveying the research related to the FIRO

 

theory it was found that a number of studies utilizing
the theory have been conducted. In most cases the theory
was used through administering the FIRO-B to evaluate
change. In some instances the FIRO-B was used to deter-
mine the interpersonal orientation of trainers and group
participants, and then various hypotheses were tested in
relationship to group composition. Composition here
refers to interpersonal structures brought to a group

by individual members. For the purpose of reporting the
related research two sub—headings were created: (1)
group composition, which includes group climate, trainer
style, and participant orientation; and (2) individual
behavior change, which utilizes the FIRO theory to assess
change in the interpersonal need areas of inclusion, con—

trol and affection.

 

34

Group Composition

The FIRO theory was the basis for doing a study
which looked at the effects of matching trainers with
orientations the same as the orientations of group parti-

cipants. The results indicated that this type of homo-

 

geneous matching was more effective in providing a
laboratory learning climate than other matching. This
study was done in 1965.13

In 1966 a complex model of laboratory training was

used to test a theory of learning based on Kelman's

 

three processes of influence-~compliance, identifica- 3
tion, and internalization. Differences in group climate
determined by the members' relative orientation to
authority (control), data (feedback), and people (affec—
tion and intimacy) were hypothesized to interact with
different kinds of training styles, measured on the same
three dimensions to produce different kinds of learnings.
Four different criteria of learning were measured: (1)
changes on the FIRO-B questionnaire, measuring attitudes
toward control and affection behavior; (2) the amount of
personal awareness achieved by the group; (3) the
trainer's evaluation of the group's success; and (4)

a test of the diagnostic ability of group members. The
data were collected from thirty on T-Groups conducted in

differing situations over a period of three years.

 

l3J.R. Powers, "Trainer Orientation and Group Com—
position in Laboratory Training, Unpublished Doctoral Dis-
sertation, Case Institute of Technology, 1965.

35

The results support the conclusion that dif-
ferences in climate and style lead to quite different
training outcomes. Kleman's trichotomy of influence
mechanisms formed the basis from which predictions were
derived. The "compliant" learning pattern, found among
groups with authority—oriented trainer style and group
climate, showed the highest diagnostic ability scores
The "internalizing" learning pattern, found among groups

with a data-oriented climate and a people—oriented trainer

 

style, showed the greatest favorable change on FIRO-B
and the highest interpersonal awareness. In addition
to identifying the importance of these variables and
supporting the theoretical linkages between them, this
study demonstrated that a "laboratory" is not a unitary
phenomenon; differences within a laboratory are important
enough to create measurably different kinds of experi—
ences and outcomes.14

In 1961 William C. Schutz composed groups homo—
geneously with respect to members' expressed behavior and
the behavior they wanted from others in interpersonal
need areas of inclusion, control, and affection. He
predicted that such compositions would lead to a high
degree of recognition of within—group behavior styles.

He found that homogeneous groups could identify

 

l4P.B. Smith, "T—Group Climate, Trainer Style,
and Some Tests of Learning," Unpublished Manuscript,
School of Social Studies, University of Sussex, England,
1966.

 

 

36

characteristics of their own group significantly better
than chance. Another finding was that there were marked
behavioral differences between groups. Each seemed to
settle on particular topic and each went into the topic
to a greater depth than usual in groups of this type.
Schutz concluded the possibility thus emerges of compos-
ing groups with certain characteristics for a given
purpose. For example, a training group to be intro-
duced to a variety of group phenomena might better be
made heterogeneous on the FIRO—B scales while the ther-
apy or other type of grouping in which it is desirable
to explore a single area in some detail could be composed
homogeneously.15

H.B. Pollack also studied group composition using
the FIRO-B and focused on the interpersonal behavior
dimension of control. He composed four homogeneous
groups around control: (1) high expressed, high wanted;
(2) high expressed, low wanted; (3) low expressed, high
wanted; and (4) low expressed, low wanted. Twelve hetero-
geneous groups were formed by combining subjects who scored
high, moderate or low on expressed and wanted control.

The subjects of heterogeneous groups showed more
positive change than subjects of homogeneous groups on

the reduction of differences between expressed and wanted

 

15William C. Schutz, "On Group Compositionf'Journal
of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1961, p. 62.

 

 

 

 

 

 

37

behavior. While the confrontation variable was not
examined, the author speculated that heterogeneity did
lead to more confrontation among members. Participants
involved in heterogeneous interpersonal groupings
demonstrated greater learning or change than those in
homogeneous interpersonal groupings.l6

Using the FIRO-B, J.R. Powers (1965) found that
groups which were homogeneous with respect to a high

desire to give and to a high desire to receive showed I

a higher level of learning than groups with a low
desire to give or receive.17

In 1971 C.W. Vraa found that the strengths of
members' interpersonal needs, as measured by the FIRO—B,
was a major factor in group membership. When the need
to be included by others was low to moderate the group
process was enhanced and when the inclusion need became
high, the group process was inhibited. Vraa in 1974,
again using the FIRO—B, confirmed a hypothesis that
emotional climate differed as result of the level of the

need to be included.18

 

l6H.B. Pollack, "Change in Homogeneous and Hetero-
geneous Sensitivity Training Groups," Journal of Consult-
ing and Clinical PsycholOgy, 1971, pp. 60-66.

 

l7Cary L. Cooper, Theories of Group Processes
(New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975), p. 191.

lerid.

 

38

The Managerial Behavior Questionnaire (MBQ)
developed in 1965 by F.I. Steele to measure four inter—
personal values dimensions utilized the FIRO theory in
determining one of the values dimensions, that of con—
trol.19

There are a number of studies which look at the
compatible—incompatible dimension of group composition

and have used the FIRO-B as instrumentation. Some of

them are as follows:

 

W. Shalinsky's 1969 study predicted that groups
made up of compatible members would perform better and
perceive each other as more attractive and cooperative
than groups made up of incompatible members. The FIRO-B
was used to establish compatibility, specifically the
affection score. The hypotheses were supported. Com-
patibility around affection led to a higher level of
cooperation and production among members.

In 1973 W.J. Underwood and L.J. Krafft tested
compatibility in a context that emphasized rational, non-
personal processes. They concluded that interpersonal
compatibility does not have effect in the work context
that it does in the interpersonal learning context. In

the same year, 1973, W.B. Reddy found that groups which

 

19C.L. Cooper, and I.L. Mangham, T-Groups: A
Survey of Research (New York: John T. Wiley & Sons, Ltd.,
1971), P. 177.

 

39

were compatible worked together more effectively than
those groups which were incompatible. Reddy's study
contradicts the findings of Underwood and Krafft; however,
the Reddy study was conducted in a conference setting
versus the "real work" setting of the Underwood and
Krafft study. Therefore, it is possible that the major
conference focus was on interpersonal relation and not

on "real work."

In 1972 Reddy using the FIRO-B found the greatest

 

gains toward self—actualization were made by group members
whose affectional compatibility style, whether high or low,
opposed the groups' norms.

P.B. Smith and M.J. Linton in 1974 used FIRO-B
instrumentation to form ten groups, both compatible and

found changes in self-actualization in all groups.20

Individual Behavior Change

Using the FIRO—B before and after laboratory
training in human relations to measure expressed and
desired inclusion, control, and affection, participants
were changed during the experience. Administration of
the instrument six months after the experience showed that
participants continued to change. Persons entering the

laboratory training who were overly dominant became less

 

20Cary L. Cooper, Theories of Group Processes
(New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975), p. 191.

 

40

dominant and those who were overly submissive became

. 21
more assert1ve.

In another study changes in attitudes toward

 

social behavior were assessed for members of human
relations training groups and for control groups which
discussed social psychology in management. Scores on the
FIRO-B were compared before and after training. The
results showed that the experimental subjects change

significantly more than the control subjects in the

 

direction of a better match between expected and wanted
scores both in the areas of control and affection.
Additional data showed that the FIRO—B scores will pre-
dict how subjects will be rated by other members on
these two behavior dimensions.22

In 1968 L. Cureton used the FIRO—B to determine
and compare behavior change between students in a T-group
and students in a conventional human relations course.
The study concluded that participants in T—groups showed
significant change while those in the conventional course

did not.23

 

21William C. Schutz, and V.S. Allen, "The Effects
of a T-Group Laboratory on Interpersonal Behavior," Jour-
nal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 2, No. 3, 1966,
pp. 265—286.

22P.B. Smith, "Attitude Changes Associated With
Training in Human Relations," British Journal of Social
Clinical Psychology, No. 3, 1964, pp. 104-112.

23C.L. Cooper and I .L. Mangham, T-Groups: A Survey of
Research (New York: John T. Wiley & Sons, Ltd. , 1971) , p. 27.

 

 

41

In 1961 R. Meigniez used a French translation of
the FIRO-B with three French T—groups. There were no sig-
nificant changes and it was concluded that it might be
attributed to cultural differences in attitudes toward
control and affection.24

In 1967 H. Baumgartel and J.W. Goldstein used
the FIRO-B along with the Allport-Vernon Study of Values
to test the prediction that participants would become
more like the highly valued members of their group in
their attitudes over the course of the group. The highly
valued group members had high expressed control scores
on the pretests. On the posttests there was no signi-
ficant change in the expressed control scores. However,
two other FIRO scores did show significant changes;
participants increased their wanted control scores and
decreased in their wanted affection scores.25

In 1969 C.L. Cooper used the FIRO—B instrument
in measuring the social influence of the T-Group trainer
on T-group members. He found that when the trainer was
seen to be attractive, the participant became more like

the trainer in his attitudes.26

 

24Ibid.

25Ibid., p. 28.

26Ibid., p. 122.

 

 

 

 

42

Summary of Research
Related to FIRO Theory

 

The research related to the FIRO theory contri-
butes to the understanding of the theory and supports
its application to groups. However, evidence related to
instructional strategies is noticeably lacking. Cureton
(1968) did compare the effect of two strategies, and
Meignez and French (1961) looked for significant changes
as the result of a single strategy.

Only the two studies mentioned above relate to
instructional strategies; therefore, there is a need to
determine if Treatment A and/or Treatment B bring about
changes in the interpersonal need areas of inclusion,

control, and affection.

 

CHAPTER III

STUDY DESIGN AND INSTRUMENTATION

 

This chapter contains a description of the study
by presenting questions for study, a description of the
population studied, a description of the treatments used
with the population, a description of the FIRO—B instru—

ment, and the procedures used in data collection and W

 

analysis.

As can be found in Chapter II of this study,
the FIRO theory has been used as a basis for many studies,
and the FIRO—B has frequently been utilized to determine
individual interpersonal need change. The FIRO-B has
also been used in many studies to determine group com-
position and to look at the effect that groups and trainers
have on the interpersonal need balance (congruency) of
group members. Only Cureton's studyl looked at the
type of treatment and how it affected participants.
None of the studies compared treatments which (1) were
designed to meet the same general goals, (2) incorporated
different instructional modes, and (3) used different

instructional materials to facilitate interpersonal growth

 

lL. Cureton, quoted in C.L. Cooper, and I.L.
Mangham, T-Groups: A Survey of Research (New York: John
T. Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 1971), p. 27.

43

 

44

and learning. This study does compare the effects of
two different treatments and also looks at the effect of
each of the treatments on the interpersonal needs of
inclusion, control, and affection. Also, the two treat—
ments are both applied in graduate college course offer-
ings, therefore making the results of this study more
applicable to conventional approaches used in education

today.

Questions for Study

 

Using the FIRO-B instrument to identify incon-
gruencies previous to treatment and again following
treatment, the effects that each of the two treatments had
on reducing incongruencies will be investigated. To
conduct the investigation the following questions were
put forth to establish a basic direction for the study.

1. Does instruction in the area of interpersonal
communication reduce the number of incongruencies, as
shown by teachers, as measured by the FIRO-B regardless of
method?

2. Were the number of incongruencies shown by
teachers in the area of inclusion, as measured by the
FIRO-B, significantly affected by Treatment A or Treat-
ment B?

3. Were the number of incongruencies shown by

teachers in the area of inclusion, as measured by the

 

45

FIRO—B, significantly affected by Treatment A or Treat—
ment B?

4. Were the number of incongruencies shown by
teachers in the area of control, as measured by the
FIRO—B, significantly affected by Treatment A or Treat-
ment B?

5. Were the number of incongruencies shown by
teachers in the area of affection, as measured by the
FIRO-B, significantly affected by Treatment A or Treat-

ment B?

Description of the Population

 

The population utilized in this study represents
all of the students who were enrolled in Education 601
during the Fall term of 1975-76 school year at Wright
State University in Dayton, Ohio. Education 601 is a
graduate course required of all students pursuing a
Master's degree in Education. Education 601 is titled
Communication in Education.

Through random self-selection students were
assigned to one of the two sections of Education 601
without knowing the specific treatment to be used in
their section. Most students selected the section based
on time and convenience versus being assigned. One of
the sections met on Tuesday from 7:00 to 9:30 p.m. and

had fifty students enrolled, and the other section met

46

on Thursday from 7:00 to 9:30 p.m. and had forty-seven

students enrolled.

 

The population for this study came from a regular
enrollment process and was not established through any
special procedure. No subset grouping was created
because all of the students in both sections of the
course were used in the study.

The population was approximately sixty percent

female and forty percent male. Most were married and

 

working full time in addition to being part time graduate
students. Only five percent were full time graduate
students. All possessed undergraduate degrees and were
entering various concentrations (elementary education,
curriculum and supervision, educational administration,

etc.) in pursuit of an advanced degree in education.

Description of Treatments

 

In designing research the researcher has the option
of testing the effect of treatment against a control
group or testing the difference in the effect of two
treatments. In that Education 601 emphasizes cognitive
as well as affective domains, it was deemed necessary to
use two treatments rather than treatment and control
group. It is worthy to mention here that the researcher
was not involved in administering either Treatment A or

Treatment B.

47

The emphasis then in this particular description
will be on the uniqueness of Treatment A and Treatment B.
However, in addition to the differences which prevailed,
there were some basic commonalities which existed. Those

2

commonalities were: (1) the basic assumptions upon

 

which Education 601 operates: (a) communication is a
type of human behavior that can be studied, analyzed,

and changed; (b) communication is purposive and therefore
necessary in problem-solving, controlling behavior, and
understanding people; (c) communication is listener

oriented, and so the theory and techniques of message

 

sending and receiving are central features of its study;
(d) the study of communication involves verbal, non-
verbal and symbolic factors in message transmission and
reception; (e) the process of changing is not terminal——
it is continuous and ongoing; (f) what is communicated is
affected by the experiential background (e.g., needs,
values, attitudes, beliefs) of the sender and the
receiver—-meanings are in people not words; (g) the pro-
cess of purposeful change and personal growth depends
upon an awareness of behavior and its effects——feedback
is essential; and (h) effective communication is essen-
tial for mental health and personal adjustment; (2) the
general goals for all students enrolled in Education 601:

(a) understand, appreciate, and apply the various

 

2Course syllabus, Education 601, Wright State
University, Dayton, Ohio, 1975, pp. 1-2.

48

processes of human communication; (b) acquaint students
with the effect of their own communication input and how
this either facilitates or interferes with the self-
expression of others; (0) promote greater interaction and
intellectual contact and stimulation among peers and
college faculty; (d) impress upon students the responsi—
bility and the power that he/she has for managing their
personal and professional growth; (3) present and model
the self-directive process of using others for feedback,
stating objectives and obtaining further feedback speci—
fic to those objectives; and (f) emphasize the importance
of the affective component of learning and communication
and the necessity for attention to this if cognitive
learning and communication is to progreSs satisfactorily;
and (3) all students experienced seven to eight hours of
large group instruction which were didactic input ses—
sions. Following are descriptions of Treatment A and B

which emphasize differences.

Treatment A

Treatment A was utilized with the section of
Education 601 which met on Tuesday evenings from 7:00
to 9:30 p.m. during the 1975 Fall term at Wright State
University in Dayton, Ohio. The characteristics unique
to Treatment A were: (1) an informal approach; subjects

elected to participate in a personal growth group or a

 

49

discussion group, (2) there was no defined level of
performance, (3) there were no predetermined outcomes,
(4) expectations were unlimited, and (5) subjects
received their pretest FIRO—B scores. Course syllabus

used for Treatment A is Appendix A.

Treatment B

Treatment B was utilized with the section of
Education 601 which met on Thursday evenings from 7:00
to 9:30 p.m. during the 1975 Fall term at Wright State
University in Dayton, Ohio. The characteristics unique
to Treatment B were: (1) a structured approach; skill
areas were identified and structured experiences were
conducted with the subjects receiving immediate feed-
back relative to their performance level, (2) a formal
assessment cycle was used, pretest—performance—posttest,
(3) there were predetermined outcomes, (4) there were
limited expectations, and (5) subjects did not receive
their pretest FIRO—B scores. Course syllabus used for

Treatment B is Appendix B.
Instrumentation

Validity
Content validity is determined by showing how
well the content of the test item samples the class of

situations or the subject matter about which conclusions

 

 

50

are to be drawn. If the theory underlying the use of
Guttman scales is accepted, then content validity is a
property of all legitimate cumulative scales, and there-
fore, of all FIRO-B scales.

If all the items are measuring the same dimen—
sion, and if they are of descending popularity, then
they must represent a sample of items from that dimension.
Any other item in that dimension fits between or beyond
scale items according to the percentage accepting the
item, and an individual's response to the new item is
at least ninety percent predictable from his scale score.
This implied that any sample of items in this dimension
would rank respondents in essentially the same way;
therefore, the sampling of the universe of items yields

a satisfactory content validity.3

Reliability

The scales of the FIRO—B are all Guttman scales
and reproducibility is the appropriate measure of internal
consistency. According to Guttman, reproducibility is a
more stringent criterion than the usual internal consis-
tency measures since it requires not only that all items
measure the same dimension (i.e., that they be uni-

dimensional) but also that the items occur in a certain

 

3William C. Schutz, The FIRO Scales Manual (Palo
Alto, Calif.: Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., 1967),
p. 6.

 

 

51

order. The usual criterion for reproducibility is that
ninety percent of all responses are predictable from
knowledge of scale scores. The FIRO-B scales were deve-
loped on about one thousand subjects and the reproduci-

bility computed at ninety-four percent.4

Purpose of Instrument

 

The primary purposes of the FIRO-B are: (1) to
measure how an individual acts or behaves in interpersonal
situations, and (2) to provide an instrument that will
facilitate the prediction of interaction between people.

The FIRO—B produces six scores: three on behavior
expressed towards others and three on behavior wanted
from others in the areas of inclusion, control, and
affection. It measures the expression of orientations
by the degree to which one joins and includes others,
controls and leads others, and is friendly and personal
with others. It also measures the desire for such beha-
vior from others by an indication of the extent to which
one wants others to include him and invite him to join
them, influence and lead him, and express friendly and
affectionate feelings toward him. The following illus-

tration summarizes the six FIRO—B scores:

 

41bid., p. 5.

 

Expressed
"e" (toward
others)

Wanted
"w" (from
others)

The procedures used to collect data

I
Inclusion

52

C
Control

A
Affection

 

I join other

people, and
I include
others.

I take charge;
I influence
people.

I get close
to people.

 

 

I want peo-

 

I want people

 

I want peo—

 

 

ple to to lead me. ple to get
include me. close and
personal
with me.
Data Collection
for this

study are as follows:

1. Permission was obtained from Wright State

University Research Committee to use human subjects for

research.

2. The subjects (students) enrolled in Education

601 were requested to participate in the study and a

waiver form was provided (see Appendix C) for those who
agreed to participate.

released collected data for use in this study.

The waiver form, when signed,

to participate in this study was made totally by the

subjects.

3. The FIRO-B (see Appendix D) was administered
to all subjects in two sections of Education 601 at their

first class session.

data.

There was anonymous collection of

The choice

53

4. All subjects who participated were assured
anonymity through collection procedure and identification
process. The subjects did not identify themselves on the
instrument; however, the last four digits of the social
security number were used with those subjects in Treat-
ment A so that scores could be returned to them.

5. The FIRO-B was administered at the last
class session of both sections of Education 601.

6. The researcher administered the FIRO—B at
all times to insure consistency in directions and pro-

cedures.

Data Analysis

Tally sheets (see Appendix D) were utilized to
identify the number of incongruencies for each section of
Education 601. The total number of incongruencies were
found for each section of Education 601. Also the number
of incongruencies in each of the three interpersonal need
areas (inclusion, control, and affection) were found for
each section of Education 601.

The resultant frequencies were subjected to a
statistical test known as chi square (X2).5 All hypotheses

were tested for significance at the .05 level.

 

5Robert R. Johnson, Elementary Statistics (North
Scituate, Massachusetts: Duxbury Press, 1976), pp. 422-424.

 

 

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA

The purpose of this study was to determine whether
there were changes in the number of incongruencies in the
interpersonal need areas of inclusion, control, and affec—
tion of the educators enrolled in the two sections of (I
Education 601 during the Fall quarter of 1975 at Wright
State University. The following variables were investi-
gated: the interpersonal need areas of inclusion, con-
trol, and affection, and whether or not Treatment A or
Treatment B was effective in (l) reducing the total number
incongruencies shown by teachers in the interpersonal
need areas of inclusion, control, and affection, and
(2) reducing the number of incongruencies shown by
teachers in each of the interpersonal need areas of
inclusion, control, and affection as measured by the
FIRO-B during the time the treatments were utilized with
the subjects participating in this study.

The dependent variables mentioned were analyzed
using chi square (X2).

The reader will recall that the operational

definition of incongruence is a difference of more than

54

55

TABLE l.--Number of Incongruencies Identified By The Administration
of The FIRO-B.

 

Data Showing the Total Number of Incongruencies in the
Interpersonal Need Areas of Inclusion, Control, and Affection

 

Number of No. of Incongruencies
Group

 

Subjects Pre Post
,Treatment1\(Tuesday Section) 50 63 55
Treatment B(Thursday Section) 47 59 6O

 

Data Showing the Number of Incongruencies
in the Interpersonal Need Area of Inclusion

 

Number of No. of Incongruencies

 

Group Subjects Pre Post :
Treatment A (Tuesday Section) 50 27 23 ‘
Treatment B (Thursday Section) 47 26 24

 

Data Showing the Number of Incongruencies
in the Interpersonal Need Area of Control

 

Number of No. of Incongruencies
Group

 

Subjects Pre Post
Treatment A (Tuesday Section) 50 20 19
Treatment B (Thursday Section) 47 20 25

 

Date Showing the Number of Incongruencies
in the Interpersonal Need Area of Affection

 

Number of No. of Incongruencies

 

Group Subjects Pre Post
Treatment A (Tuesday Section) 50 16 13
Treatment B (Thursday Section) 47 13 ll

 

two (2) between the "e" (expressed) score and the "w
(wanted) score on the nine (9) point scale of the FIRO—B.
Table 1 shows, while not significant, that there was a

reduction in the total number of incongruencies, and that

56

there were reductions of incongruencies in five of six

subgroupings at the end of the applied treatments.

TABLE 2.-—Ana1ysis of Treatment Effects Related to
Total Number of Incongruencies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
Treatment A 63 55 118
Treatment B 59 60 119
122 115 237
x2 = .34

 

The null hypothesis stated that there was no
difference in the reduction of the total number of incon-
gruencies shown by teachers, regardless of treatment, as
measured by the FIRO—B. The X2 value computed for this
analysis was .34 and since this value was less than the
required value of 3.84, the null hypothesis was accepted.
Therefore, it can be concluded that instruction did not
make a difference in the number of reductions in incon-
gruencies.

Further the null hypotheses stated that there
was no difference in the number of incongruencies shown by
teachers as measured by the FIRO—B as the result of
Treatment A or Treatment B did not make a difference in
the number of reductions in incongruencies.

Calculations for Table 2 are found in Appendix

E on page 91.

 

57

TABLE 3.—-Analysis of Treatment Effects Related to the
Number of Incongruencies in the Interpersonal
Need Area of Inclusion.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
Treatment A 27 23 50
Treatment B 26 24 50
53 47 100
x2 = .04

 

The null hypothesis stated that there was no
difference in the reduction of the number of incongru-
encies shown by teachers, as measured by the FIRO—B, in
the interpersonal need area of inclusion as a result of
Treatment A or Treatment B. The X2 value computed for
this analysis was .04, and since this value was less than
the required value of 3.84, the null hypothesis was
accepted. Therefore, it can be concluded that Treatment A
and that Treatment B did not make a significant differ-
ence in reducing the number of incongruencies in the
interpersonal need area of inclusion.

Calculations for Table 3 are found in Appendix E
on page 91.

The null hypothesis stated that there was no
difference in the reduction of the number of incongru-
encies shown by teachers, as measured by the FIRO-B in

the interpersonal need area of control as a result of

58

TABLE 4.——Analysis of Treatment Effects Related to the
Number of Incongruencies in the Interpersonal
Need Area of Control.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
Treatment A 20 19 39
Treatment B 20 25 45
40 44 84

X2=fi

 

Treatment A or Treatment B. The X2 value computed for
this analysis was .40, and since this value was less than
the required value of 3.84, the null hypothesis was
accepted. Therefore, it can be concluded that Treatment
A and that Treatment B did not make a significant dif—
ference in reducing the number of incongruencies in the
interpersonal need area of control.

Calculations for Table 4 are found in Appendix E
on page 92.
TABLE 5.-—Analysis of Treatment Effects Related to the

Number of Incongruencies in the Interpersonal
Need Area of Affection.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
Treatment A 16 13 29
Treatment B 13 ll 24
29 24 53
.2

 

59

The null hypothesis stated that there was no
difference in the reduction of the number of incongruen-
cies shown by teachers, as measured by the FIRO—B, in
the interpersonal need area of affection as a result of
Treatment A or Treatment B. The X2 value computed for
this analysis was .12, and since this value was less
than the required value of 3.84, the null hypothesis
was accepted. Therefore, it can be concluded that
Treatment A and that Treatment B did not make a signi-
ficant difference in reducing the number of incongruen-
cies in the interpersonal need area for affection.

Calculations for Table 5 are found in Appendix E

on page 92.

Summary of Findings

 

In this chapter the data collected in this study
were presented and analyzed. The data were treated in
accordance with the data collection and analysis pro-
cedures previously determined. As the reader can see,
while the number of incongruencies changed from begin-
ning to end of the treatment period, none of the changes
were found to be significant.

All of the null hypotheses stated in this study
were accepted; therefore, the data analysis presented in

this chapter resulted in the following conclusions:

60

1. That instruction did not reduce the total
number of incongruencies in the interpersonal need areas
of inclusion, control, and affection shown by teachers
as measured by the FIRO-B.

2. That neither Treatment A nor Treatment B was
effective and that neither treatment was more effective
than the other in reducing the total number of incon—
gruencies in the interpersonal need areas of inclusion,
control, and affection as measured by the FIRO-B.

3. That neither TreatmentZXnor Treatment B was
effective nor was one treatment more effective than the
other in reducing the number of incongruencies in the
interpersonal need area of inclusion as measured by the
FIRO-B.

4. That neither Treatment A nor Treatment B
was effective nor was one treatment more effective than
the other in reducing the number of incongruencies in
the interpersonal need area of control as measured by the
FIRO-B.

5. That neither Treatment A nor Treatment B was
effective nor was one treatment more effective than the
other in reducing the number of incongruencies in the
interpersonal need area of affection as measured by the

FIRO-B.

 

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS

RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS

Summary

The purpose of this study was to determine if
treatment A and/or treatment B would significantly
reduce the number of incongruencies in the interpersonal
need areas of inclusion, control, and affection as
measured by the FIRO-B. The following variables were
investigated: the interpersonal need areas of inclu-
sion, control, and affection; and whether or not treat-
ment A or treatment B was effective in (l) reducing the
total number of incongruencies shown by teachers in
the interpersonal need areas of inclusion, control, and
affection, and (2) reducing the number of incongruencies
shown by teachers in each of the interpersonal need
areas of inclusion, control, and affection as measured
by the FIRO-B.

The participants in the study were all of the
educators enrolled in the two sections of Education 601
at Wright State University during the fall quarter, 1975.
There were fifty (50) enrolled in the section which met
on Tuesdays and received treatment A. There were

61

 

62

forty—seven (47) enrolled in the section which met on
Thursdays and received treatment B. Therefore, there
were ninety seven (97) subjects who participated in the
study.

The FIRO theory provided the basis for this
study. The FIRO theory suggests that interpersonal
needs can be subsumed into the three areas of inclusion,
control, and affection; and further that when individuals
come together in groups these interpersonal needs ,
represent the concerns of the individual group members
with inclusion being the first concern, control the
second concern, and affection the third and final concern.

The FIRO-B, the instrument used in this study,
measures the interpersonal need areas of inclusion, con—
trol, and affection. The FIRO-B was administered to all
participants during their first class session and again
at their last class session, thus the source of pre and
post test data. To maintain consistency the FIRO-B was
administered to all participants by the researcher. It
is also noted here that the researcher was not involved
in administering either treatment A or treatment B.

The data were analyzed using a statistical
technique known as chi square (X2). All of the null
hypotheses were accepted; therefore, it was concluded
that: (l) instruction did not make a significant dif-

ference in reducing the total number of incongruencies in

63

the interpersonal need areas of inclusion, control,

and affection; (2) treatment A and/or treatment B did
not make a significant difference in reducing incon—
gruencies in the interpersonal need areas of inclusion,
control, and affection; (3) treatment A and/or treat-
ment B did not make a significant difference in reducing
the number of incongruencies in the interpersonal need
area of inclusion; (4) treatment A and/or treatment B
did not make a significant difference in reducing the
number of incongruencies in the interpersonal need area
of control; and (5) treatment A and/or treatment B did
not make a significant difference in reducing the number
of incongruencies in the interpersonal need area of

affection.

Conclusions

Using the FIRO theory as a basis, the purpose
of this study was to determine if either or both of two
treatments would affect the interpersonal need structure
of the participants. The findings of this study show
that significant changes did not result in the inter—
personal need areas of inclusion, control, and affection
as a result of the two treatments.

There are a number of speculations which can be
made and questions which can be raised related to this

study, some of which follow:

 

64

Why didn't instruction make a difference? It may
be that instruction in a formalized traditional time
frame just cannot have a significant effect on inter-
personal need behavior because such a time frame is
too short. Changes in human behavior and attitude do not
occur in short periods of time. A person is a product
of all the experiences and influences, both direct and
indirect, of their lifetime. Any number of studies
related to human behavior Show that individual behavior
change is an ongoing, long term process. Therefore,
it is highly possible that the relatively short time
period during which instruction was applied for this
study is a major factor contributing to the insignificant
results. If instruction in and of itself did not signi-
ficantly reduce the number of incongruencies this means
that it would be impossible to determine the effectiveness
of treatments.

Why wasn't there a significant number of reduc—
tions in incongruencies as a result of treatment A or
treatment B? While the reader can see by referring to
Table 2 in Chapter IV of this study, there was no signi—
ficant reduction in the number of incongruencies, the
reader can also see by referring to Table l in Chapter
IV that there were fewer incongruencies at the end of
the treatment period than there were at the beginning

of the treatment period. Therefore, incongruencies were

 

 

65

reduced during the treatment period. It is possible that
given more time to apply treatment, there would have been
significant changes in incongruencies shown by subjects
of the study.

Of the two treatments, A and B, neither proved
significantly more effective than the other, however there
were more reductions in incongruencies as the result of
treatment A than there were as a result of treatment B.
This might be attributed to the fact that subjects in
treatment A were informed of their pretest scores on
the FIRO—B. And, further that in setting their personal
growth objectives for the course, the information they
received relative to their interpersonal needs of inclu-
sion, control, and affection was taken into consideration
when setting these objectives. Also, those subjects
involved in treatment A had fewer specifically identified
outcomes than did those subjects involved in treatment
B, so it is possible that the FIRO theory having less
competition, in terms of outcomes, made more of an impact
on the subjects in treatment A.

Why wasn't there a significant number of reduc-
tions in incongruencies in any one of the interpersonal
need areas of inclusion, control, and affection as the
result of treatment A or treatment B? The reader can
confirm the "no significance" finding of this component

of the study by referring to Tables 3, 4, and 5 in

 

66

Chapter IV. The reader can also see, by referring to
Table 1 in Chapter IV that as a result of treatment A
subjects had fewer incongruencies in all three inter—
personal need areas, and as a result of treatment B
subjects had fewer incongruencies in two of the three
interpersonal need areas. As in the case of overall
incongruencies the number was reduced during the treat-
ment period, therefore, it is possible that given more
time, the number of reductions in incongruencies might
have been significant.

It Can be concluded that the general pattern
developed by the subjects of the study was toward reduc—
ing incongruencies shown in the interpersonal need areas

identified in the FIRO theory.

Recommendations

As a result of conducting this study the
researcher makes the following recommendations:

1. That those persons concerned about helping
others develop a more balanced (congruent) interpersonal
need behavior, who are utilizing the traditional time
block given to University courses, give consideration
to the constraints which such a situation has.

2. That further research involving the appli-

cation of the FIRO theory in conventional educational

 

 

67

settings should make a greater distinction between
instructional strategies developed for that purpose;

3. That further research related to the appli—
cation of FIRO theory is needed if the theory into
practice concept is to be achieved;

4. That further research to check out rival
hypotheses, such as, were the subjects alike or dif-
ferent? (sex, age, background, etc.), would lend insight
to application of the FIRO theory; and

5. That further research related to application
of the FIRO theory should involve a more rigorous

research design.

Reflections

Upon completing this study the researcher would
like to state that much insight has been gained into
the FIRO theory, and while learning about the theory
much was also learned about self. The researcher has
become more aware of the effect of his behavior on others
and more aware of his own interpersonal need behavior,
which has resulted in some personal behavior change.

The researcher can also see that doing research
is a valuable learning process. The feeling of worth,
capability, and significance has been enhanced for the

researcher.

APPENDICES

68

'1; ~_

 

 

APPENDIX A

COURSE SYLLABUS USED FOR TREATMENT A

69

APPENDIX A

COMMUNICATION

Education 601
Instructors: Joe Young
Mary Ann Jones

Overview
This course is designed to acquaint graduate students with the
effect of their own inputs in communication — interpersonal
transactions with the objective of developing self—directed
behavior and the ability to facilitate self—expression in others.
Small groups will be used as learning laboratories for this purpose.

Course Objectives

As a result of this course, students will:

1. Develop meaningful personal contacts/relationships with
fellow students.

2. Formulate observable objectives for personal growth and
improvement of personal communication.

3. Develop a more balanced interpersonal need structure in the
areas of inclusion, control, and affection based on the FIRO
theory. ‘

4. Recognize and use a variety of feedback sources for assessing
movement toward these objectives.

5. Keep a running log to indicate sequential progress toward
achieving these objectives.

6. Describe personal communication behavior patterns and their
probable effect upon associates.

7. Demonstrate skill in facilitating the self expression of
others.

8. Describe the basic dynamics of the communicative process in
terms of concepts for the "Concept List.“

Suggested Texts or References
1. Powell, John, 1969, Why Am I Afraid to Tell You Who I Am,
Chicago: Argus Communication.
2. Mortensen, C. David (ed), 1973, Basic Readings in Communication
Theory, New York: Harper and Row.

 

Course Outline
Sept. 23 Introduction to course. Class cards.
FIRO-B administration, short lecturette
Readings, 1 handout

70

 

 

71

Sept. 30 FIRO-B results, summary
Discussion of types of groups
Active listening in groups
3 Minute Test
Group selection - sign ups - housekeeping
Contract behaviors
Brief meeting of small groups for room numbers and
meeting group leaders.
Oct. 7 Meet with small groups — 1.5 hours
1/2 hour - discussion of Logs
1/2 hour - overview — use of Logs
Oct. 14 Small group meeting - 1 1/2 hour
Large group - lecturette
Topic: to be announced
Oct. 21 Lecturette: Interpersonal Communication (first half)
Reading 1 due
Small group meeting — 1 1/2 hours

 

Nov. 4 Midterm Exam as a large group.
Lecturette: Interpersonal Communication (second half)
Nov. 11 Return Midterm Exam
Limited 2-way discussion
Film
Nov. 18 Small group meeting - 1 1/2 hours.
Lecturette: To be announced
*Nov. 25 No formal class meeting. However, Reading II due before
Wednesday at 4:00 p.m.
Dec. 2 Reading II assignment returned.

Small group meeting (2 hours)
Tasks to be performed:
a) Evaluation of contract behaviors.
b) Evaluation of group member participation.

1) individual 2) group 3) leader
Dec. 9 Final Examination

Wrap—up
1) Student Feedback — Instructor evaluation
2) Evaluation of Group Leader

 

Point System Evaluation , no. of points
Small group Logs 5
Midterm Exam 50
Final Exam
Reading I 20
Reading II
Contracted Behaviors 20
Group Participation 25

Total 120

Grade Determination
A = 110 - 120
B = 90 - 109
C = 70 - 89
F = Below 70

 

 

72

Readings Evaluation
Each of the 2 reading assignments are worth 10 points each.
5 points - for accurate interpretation of author's meaning.
5 points - for relating each of the questions to your group
experience and/or to your own personal or professional
experience.

Log Evaluation
You must turn in a log every time your group has meeting in order
to score the 5 points. Legitimate absences must be explained
(if possible in advance) to the instructor(s).

These logs will consist of forms (to be later discussed) and may
show that you are working toward the contracted behaviors. They
may show implementation of communication skills within the small
group process. Or, they may summarize personal, as well as,
group member, communication.

Group Participation

This will include, in part:
1. Your evaluation of yourself.
2. Your group leader's evaluation of your participation within
the small group setting.
3. Your group members' evaluation of your participation within
the small group setting.

Exams
Examinations will be of the short answer (identification) and
multiple choice variety.

The midterm and final exams will be worth approximately 25 points
each.

Contracted Behaviors
Each individual will contract 3 communication behaviors on which
he/she will work/improve in this course. By September 30th, these
should be typed out and given to the instructor for approval.
Once approval is granted, a copy should also be given to your
group leader.

 

Remember that your log should reflect your progress toward
achieving these goals.

Small Group Selection Criteria
1. N9 curriculum groups.
2. No close friends especially within Personal Growth groups.
3. It is recommended that counseling majors elect Personal Growth
Groups.
4. Task oriented groups decide on their own tasks.
5. Group membership should be limited to 5 or 6 members.

 

 

73

Suggested Group Activity
Since the majority of meeting time will be spent in small groups,
the bulk of information for which you are responsible will,
of necessity, be through your outside reading. Not all of the
concepts, about which you will read, will be covered through the
one-way lecturettes. Thus, it might be profitable to discuss
some of the concepts within your small groups.

It should be noted, however, that the small groups to which

you are assigned are not to be devoted to this activity. It may
only serve as, perhaps, a "jumping off" point into other group
activity.

Concept List
By Midterm know:

 

Trust Methods of Communication
Sharing Problem ownership
Listening Roadblacks to Communication
Feedback Firo—B
Communication Process Feedforward
Communication Modes Meta communication

By Final know:
Active Listening Values Conflicts
Focusing Conflict Resolution
Clarifying Descriptive Feedback
Accepting Judgemental Feedback -

Reading Time Table
Sept. 30 Part I - Mortensen

Oct. 7 Part II

Oct. 14 Part III

Oct. 21 Part IV

Oct. 28 Part V

Nov. 4 Part VI

Nov. 11 All of Powell

Nov. 18 You will also be responsible for information distri-
buted in handout form and for information gathered
through the lecturettes.

Readings

1. Describe briefly and give examples of "Every perception is

necessarily a private and incomplete one."

2. Describe briefly and give examples of the three fears or
threats present - a sensitive topic must be discussed with a
powerful person in an emotionally charged atmosphere.

Define and give examples of "meta-communication."

4. Describe briefly and give examples of "The medium is the
message."

5. Define and give example of "Feedforward."

U)
o

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

COURSE SYLLABUS USED FOR TREATMENT B

74

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

COURSE OUTLINE
Ed. 601 - Fall 1975
Fernandez - Hoehn

Sept. 25

1. Overview of Course

Pre—Tests

a. Firo—B

Release forms

Input on small groups

Meet with facilitators (rotate through each facilitator)

Assignment

a. Communication Probes, "Problems in Active Listening“
(pg. 527—31)

b. Human Relations Development, pgs. 22-26, 70-77, 79-86,
95—102, 113-117.

N

mmusw

 

October 2

. Comm. Behavior Inventory

Input on Levels of Listening

Input on Carkhuff's Global Scale

. Input on Carkhuff's Empathy & Respect Scales

Assignment

a. Communication Probes, "From Monologue to Dialogue"
(pgs. 90-95)

b. Human Relations Development, pgs. 119-126, 127-133

U‘IDWNH
. .

 

 

October 7
1. Lab Secction 5:00 - 6:50 (Empathy & Respect)
Room 263

Room 158
Room 128

owns
I I

October 9

1. Lab Sessions 5:00 — 6:50 (Empathy & Respect)

Room 263
Room 158
Room 128

'11th
l

75

2.
3.

October

1.

October

1.

October

1.

October

1.

76

Input on Carkhuff's Concreteness & Genuineness Scales
Assignments
a. Communication Probes, "Self—Disclosure" (pgs. 19-23)
"Human Interaction in the Small Group Setting (pgs.
142-47) '
"Group Climate" (pgs. 153-55)
“A Way of Thinking About Leadership and Groups" (pgs.
155-158)
"You Can Be A Better Leader" (pgs. 162—65)
"Group Problem Solving" (pgs. 165-71)
b. Human Relations Development, (pgs. 87-94)

 

 

Lab Sessions 5:00 — 6:50 (Group Observation and Feedback)

A - Room 263
B - Room 158
C - Room 128

Lab Sessions 5:00 - 6:50 (Group Observation & Feedback)

D - Room 263
E — Room 158
F — Room 128

Input on Non—Verbal

Assignment

a. Communication Probes, "An Overview of Transactional
Analysis" (pgs. 108-115)

 

Lab Sessions 5:00 — 6:50 (Non—Verbal)

A — Room 263
B - Room 158
C — Room 128

Lab Sessions 5:00 — 6:50 (Non—Verbal)

D — Room 263
E — Room 158
F Room 128

Input on Interaction Systems

 

 

77

November 4
1. Lab Sessions 5:00 - 6:50 (Interaction Systems)

A — Room 263
B - Room 158
C — Room 128

November 6
1. Lab Session 5:00 — 6:50 (Interaction Systems)

D - Room 263
E - Room 158
F - Room 128

2. Mid Term
3. Assignment
a. Communication Probes, "Communication Shock" (pgs.
64—69)
"Patterns of Swearing" (pgs. 84-87)
"The Language of Love: Communication Fights" (pgs.
103-107)

 

November 11
1. Lab Session 5:00 — 6:50 (Make-up Session)
November 13

1. Lab Session 5:00 - 6:50 (Make—up Session)
2. Input on Conflict Management

November 20
Various Communication Activities
December 4
Total class time is given over to small groups.
December 11
Final
Additional Reading Assignments:
Communication Probes

"The Role of Human Values in Communication" (Pgs. 6-8)
"Perception and Human Understanding" (pg. 24—26)

 

 

78

"The Fine Art of Conversation" (pgs. 116—120)

"Serial Communication of Information in Organization" (pgs.
125-133)

"The Public Communication Perspective" (pgs. 174—179)

Human Relations Development
pgs. 42—44
pgs. 62—65

 

 

APPENDIX C

WAIVER FORM FOR RESEARCH INVOLVING

HUMAN SUBJECTS

79

APPENDIX C

RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE AS A SUBJECT IN RESEARCH

(SHORT FORM)

Project Title:

 

Grant or Contract No.:

 

Principal Investigator: Department:

 

I consent to participate as a subject in this research investi-
gation.

The nature and general purpose of the experimental procedure
have been explained to be my . I understand
my identity will not be revealed in any publication or document
resulting from this research.

This authorization is given with the understanding that I may
terminate my service as a subject at any time.

Signed
(Subject)

Date

 

80

 

APPENDIX D

INSTRUMENTATION

81

 

 

APPENDIX D

FIRO-B

DIRECTIONS: This questionnaire is designed to explore the

typical ways you interact with people. There are, of

course, no right or wrong answers; each person has his

own ways of behaving. .
Sometimes people are tempted to answer questions like

these in terms of what they think a person should do.

This is ESE what is wanted here. We would like to know

how you actually behave.
Some items may seem similar to others. However, each

item is different so please answer each one without regard

to the others. There is no time limit, but do not debate

long over any item.

82

83

 

H+H, Th. Y

 

 

 

Last 4 Digits of Soc. Sec. #

 

 

 

FIRO—B

Section — Circle One; Tue., Th.

Please place number of the answer that best applies to you in the

box at the left of the statement.

1.

I try to be with people.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5)
6) never

I let other people decide what to do.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5)
6) never

I join social groups.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5)
6) never

I try to have close relationships with people.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5)
6) never

I tend to join social organizations when I have an
opportunity.

1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5)
6) never

I let other people strongly influence my actions.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5)
6) never

I try to be included in informal social activities.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5)
6) never

Please be as honest as you can.

rarely

rarely

rarely

rarely

rarely

rarely

rarely

I try to have close, personal relationships with people.

1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5)
6) never

I try to include other people in my plans.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5)
6) never

rarely

rarely

 

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

l6

l7.

l8.

19.

20.

84

I let other people control my actions.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally
6) never

I try to have people around me.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally
6) never

I try to get close and personal with people.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally
6) never

When people are doing things together, I tend to

 

5) rarely

5) rarely

5) rarely

join them.

1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely

6) never

I am easily led by people.

1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely

6) never

I try to avoid being alone.

1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely

6) never

I try to participate in group activities.

1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely

6) never

PLEASE BE AS HONEST AS YOU CAN

I try to be friendly to people.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I let other people decide what to do.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

My personal relations with people are cool distant.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I let other people take charge of things.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

 

 

 

 

85

21. I try to have close relationships with people.
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people
6) nobody

22. I let other people strongly influence my actions.
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody
23. I try to get close and personal with people.
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people
6) nobody
24. I let other people control my actions.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people
6) nobody

 

25. I act cool and distant with people.
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people
6) nobody

26. I am easily led by people.
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people
6) nobody

27. I try to have close, personal relationships with people
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people
6) nobody

28

I like people to invite me to things.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

29. I like people to act close and personal with me.
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people
6) nobody

30. I try to influence strongly other people's actions.
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people
6) nobody

PLEASE BE AS HONEST AS YOU CAN

 

 

31.

32.

33

34

35.

36.

37.

39.

86

I like people to invite me to join their activities.
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I like people to act close toward me.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I try to take charge of things when I am with people.
1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I like people to include me in their activies.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I like people to act cool and distant toward me.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I try to have other people do things the way I want them

done.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I like people to ask me to participate in their discus-

sions.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I like people to act friendly toward me.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

I like people to invite me to participate in their

activities.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

 

 
 

40.

41.

42

43.

44.

45

46.

47.

48.

49

50

51

o

87

I like people to act distant toward me.

1) most 2) many 3) some 4) a few 5) one or two
people people people people people

6) nobody

PLEASE REMEMBER TO BE AS HONEST AS YOU CAN

I try to be the dominant person when I am with people.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I like people to invite me to things.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I like people to act close toward me.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I try to have other people do things I want done.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I like people to invite me to join their activities.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I like people to act cool and distant toward me.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I try to influence strongly other people's actions.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I like people to include me in their activities.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I like people to act close and personal with me.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I try to take charge of things when I'm with people.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I like people to invite me to participate in their activities.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

 

 

52.

53.

54.

88

I like people to act distant toward me.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I try to have other people do things the way I want them
done.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

I take charge of things when I'm with people.
1) usually 2) often 3) sometimes 4) occasionally 5) rarely
6) never

 

 

 

89

FIRO-B Summation Chart

GROUP

Wants to Wants to Wants to Wants to Wants to Wants to
Include be Control be ' Receive

Give
Others Included Others Controlled Affection Affection

 

11.4.; .. ..

APPENDIX E

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS FOR TABLES 2, 3, 4 AND 5

90

APPENDIX E
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Calculations for x2 -- Table 2

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Observed Expected
Pre Post Pre Post
Treatment A 63 55 118 Treatment A 60. 74 57. 27 118
Treatment B 59 60 119 T reatment B 61. 26 57. 74 119
122 115 237 122 115 237

 

 

2 2.262+ 2.262+ 2282+ 2.262
60.74 57.26 61.26 57.74

x?- = .08+.09+.08+.O9

2
Table value: x (.05)df : l = 3.84

 

Calculations for x2 -- Table 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Observed Expected
Pre Post Pre Post
Treatment A 27 23 50 Treatment A 26. 5 23. 5 50
Treatment B 26 24 50 Treatment B 26. 5 23. 3 50
53 47 100 53 47 100
2 = .52 .52 .52 .52

—— +—+ —— +—
26. 5 23. 5 26. 5 23. 5

x : .01+.01+.01+.01
x : .04
2
Table value. x (.05)df = l : 3.84

 

91

92

Calculations for x2 -- Table 4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Observed Expected
Pre Post Pre Post
Treatment A l 20 I 19 39 Treatment A 18. 57 20. 43 39
Treatment B I 20 l 25 45 Treatment B 21.43 23. 57 45
40 44 84 4O 44 84

 

 

2 1.432 1.432 1.432 1.43‘2
x — +

18.57 20.43 21.43 23.57

 

2

X

H

.11+.10+.10+.09

x2 = .40

Table value: 342,05) df = 1 = 3.84

 

Calculations for x2 -- Table 5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Observed Expected
Pre Post Pre Post
Treatment A 16 l 13 29 Treatment A [15. 87 13.13 29
Treatment B 131 11 24 Treatment B [13. 13 10. 87 24
29 24 53 29 24 53
2 .132 .132 .132 .132
X : 15.87 + 13.13 + 13.13 + 10.87
x2 = .00 + .06 + .06 + .00
x2 = .12

2
Table value: x (.05) (if : 1 = 3.84

 

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

93

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cooper, C.L., and I.F. Mangham, T-Groups: A Survey of
Research, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.,
1971.

Cooper, Cary L., Theories of Group Processes, New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 1975.

Howe, Harold, Picking Up The Options, Elementary School
Principals, N.E.A., Washington, D.C., 1968.

 

Johnson, David W. and Frank P. Johnson, Joining Together,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975.

King, Jean Marie, and VonHerbert I. Haden, "Team Teaching,"
Innovations In Education: Pros and Cons,
Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones Publishing
Co., 1971.

Pfeiffer, William J., and Richard Heslin, Instrumentations
In Human Relations Training, Iowa City: University
Associates, 1973.

 

Pollack, H.B., "Change in Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
Sensitivity Training Groups," Journal of Consult-
ing and Clinical Psychology, 1971.

 

Powers, J.R., "Trainer Orientation and Group Composition
in Laboratory Training,"UnpublishedDoctoral
Dissertation, Case Institute of Technology, 1965.

Schutz, William C., The FIRO Scales Manual, Palo Alto,
California: Consulting Psychologists Press,
Inc., 1967.

. The Interpersonal Underworld, Palo Alto,
California: Science and Behavior Books, Inc.,
1966.

. "On Group Composition," Journal of Abnormal and
Social PsycholOgy, 1961.

Schutz, William C. and V.S. Allen, "The Effects of T-Group
Laboratory<n1Interpersonal.Behavior,"Journal of
AppliedBehavioralScience,Vol.2,No.3, 1966.

 

94

 

95

Smith, P.B., "Attitude Changes Associated With Training
In Human Relations," British Journal of Social
Clinical Psychology, No. 3, 1964.

 

"T—Group Climate, Trainer Style, and Some Tests
of Learning," Unpublished Manuscript, School of
Social Studies, University of Sussex, England,
1966.

Walberg, Herbert J., Professional Role Discontinuities
In Educational Careers, Review of Educational
Research, AERA, Vol. 40, No. 3, June, 1970.

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

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