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['3' {IIIIIE ILII III% IIW‘II‘IILIII’III III I I" II. -‘ 3 . . 9'II;J I r H 5365:”? I‘IIII'I'I‘I‘ I. I“. l — 1 ;III "lII' .3.I . III I I. ‘ .III‘I‘I‘III-‘IIT.’ III” a. a. 3’ I - I1 *2 “III. 1'6»? I I WI IIII‘yIII .3134! (0‘ nugnmmmnmnmmmImam . 93 10812 9366 iT WHESIS I This is to certify that the dissertation entitled INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF FOUR CANADIAN PUBLICATIONS presented by Mary Karen O'Kain has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Educational Administration / *' 1/1/14 .4 ////l. 2211/ Major professor Date October I981} MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU LIBRARIES ._;—-. RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. ’ .-, _ 18 r kg:“'A'x’":“AA ECO £186 300 A370 INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF FOUR CANADIAN PUBLICATIONS By Mary Karen O'Kain A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration l984 Copyright by MARY KAREN O'KAIN 1984 ABSTRACT INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF FOUR CANADIAN PLBLICATIONS By Mary Karen O'Kain The research was conducted to provide community college admin- istrators with a comparative content analysis Of international educa- tion news coverage in four Canadian publications: the GlQh§_nnd.Ma11. .Igngntg_5un. Contrast. and hfiu:huufls. Descriptions and comparisons Of the coverage of international education examine the attention score. orientation. and direction of such articles over a ten-year period. A content-analysis instrument of 19 items was designed and applied to 372 articles that appeared in the four publications from January 1974 to December 1983. Intercoder and intracoder reliability tests were conducted. However. all of the data used in this research were derived from the coding done by the writer. The researcher found that although community college involve- ment in international education has increased over the past ten years. this increase is not reflected in the publications surveyed. In only three articles were specific community colleges mentioned. even though coverage was most frequently rel ated to community education and technical assistance. Of the two daily newspapers the Manual], Mary Karen O'Kain tended to be more analytical and objective. providing more background information and a variety of opinions. than was the.IQ£QnIQ_§un. Articles in the Igngn19_§un were generally less favorably disposed to international education. frequently presenting it as a threat to national security. In most cases. international education articles did not have high attention scores. This finding. combined with the value scores. may convey a latent message that the subject is not considered to be very important in the opinion of editors. NO significant relationship was found between major national or international news events and the quantity or quality of international education articles. From the perspective of educational administrators interested in promoting international education. the findings of this study indicate a disappointing lack of print coverage. It is suggested that coverage could increase and take a more favorable direction if these administrators were to develop systematic strategies for providing international education articles to the press. To Gardiner Concannon O'Kain and Joshua Kenji Funo. fellow sojourners in my first international education experience. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank Howell Pritchard. Vice-President. Academic. and Douglas Light. President of George Brown College. for supporting my application for a sabbatical. and the Board of Governors of George Brown College for granting my sabbatical leave. Without it I would not have completed my studies as quickly or as pleasurably as I did. Thanks to Dr. Howard Hickey. advisor and chairman of my committee. who provided merjust the right mix of guidance and autonomy. He will be counted as one Of my exceptional teachers and a good friend. Thank you to Dr. George Ferree for rekindling my love of philosophy. [ha Pat Barnes-McConnell has served as a role model in her successful blending of an academic career and management of interna- tional development projects. My thanks to her for setting standards of excellence. A very special thanks to Dr. Max Raines. who. sensing my readiness for a transition. gave me the encouragement and the shove that I needed. To Doris Scarlett. who. because of her competence. was the person I asked for help. thank you for agreeing so graciously and for looking after things so thoroughly. My stay at Michigan State University was enriched by many people. To Lucy Johnson. Sandra Summit. Alida Droppert. and Rupert Bale. thank you for the intellectual and the frivolous excursions we took together. My thanks to Amelia Opubor for her hospitality and encourage- ment during my last week of school. To my mother. Doris O'Kain. thank you for teaching me to always reach for the stars. Finally. to my children. GardinerirKain and Joshua Funo. my love and my thanks for your support and your delight at having a mother in school. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. IV. FIGURES THE PROBLEM Background of the Problem Purpose . . . . Generalizability Limitations Questions and Hypotheses Definitions Assumptions Summary SELECTED REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE International Education Why Bother? Problems . . . . Some Strategies Media Structure. Content Analysis Summary METHODOLOGY . . . The Sample . . . Data Collection Research Methods Summary FINDINGS . . . . . Hypothesis 1 . . Hypothesis 2 . . Hypothesis 3 . . Function. cone-co cot—.0000 00-05000. 0 o C o o o o ence Page vii —l ‘O‘lO‘O‘b-a I3 15 IS l6 I9 24 27 32 37 39 39 43 46 53 54 57 6O 62 Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Hypothesis 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Hypothesis 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Hypothesis 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Hypothesis 8 . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . 68 Hypothesis 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Hypothesis lO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7O Hypothesis ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Hypothesis 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Hypothesis 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Hypothesis 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Hypothesis 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Hypothesis 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Hypothesis 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9O Sumary....................... 92 V. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY. CONCLUSIONS. IMPLICATIONS. AND SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Overview of the Study . 95 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Suggestions for Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Smmmy . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 'W6 APPENDICES O O O O O O O O I I O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 108 A. REMABILITIY ESTIMATE O O I O O O O I I O O I I C O O O O 109 B. CODING MANUAL FOR CONTENT ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION 0 O C O O O O O O C O O O C O O O O O I O O 1 1 1 C. RECORDING FORM FOR INTERCODER AND INTRACODER RELIEILIW O O O O O I O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O 116 D. mDIm FORM 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I C O O O O O 1 19 REFERENCES 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 123 vi 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. LIST OF TABLES Distribution of Articles Relating to International Education by Year of Publication . . . . . . . . . . Cumulative Column Centimeters by Year for lelege Moooooooooeooooooooooooo Readability Levels of Units of Content . . . . . . . . Attention Score Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Story Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Story Types . . Levels of Education Covered . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crosstabulation: Year by Type of International Education 0 O O O O O I O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 0 Percentage of Types Of Sources Quoted. by Publication Average Number of Sources Quoted. by Publication . . . Direction of Unit by Taxonomic Level . . . . . . . . . Mean Direction of Units for Globe_and_Ma11 . . . . . . Mean Direction of Units for Ign9n1Q_Sun . . . . . . . Mean Direction of Units for Contrast . . . . . . . . . Mean Direction of Units for Magleanls . . . . . . . . Mean Direction Of Unit by Publication . . . . . . . . Mean Attention Scores for Taxonomic Levels . . . . . . Mean Attention Scores for Taxonomic Levels..fi12he Moooooooooooooooooooooo vii Page 55 58 6O 62 64 64 66 67 68 7O 71 72 73 73 73 74 80 BO 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Mean Attention Scores for Taxonomic Levels..Magleaan Mean Attention Scores for Taxonomic Levels. Ihngntg .Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . Mean Attention Scores for Taxonomic Levels. Contrast . Crosstabulation of Publication by Taxonomic Level . . Crosstabulation of Publication by Personal Orientation Crosstabulation of Publication by Reward . . . . . . . Crosstabulation of Publication by Column Centimeters . viii Page 81 81 81 86 88 91 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Attention Scores for All Articles in the Sample . . . . . 63 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM WW To an educator. reading professional journals. it soon becomes obvious that one of the popular themes in articles and editorials is international education. Within academic circles there appears to be a growing awareness of the need to acknowledge and respond to increas- ing global interdependence. This is demonstrated in concern for the teaching and learning of languages (Simon. 1980). the benefits of educational exchanges (Neff. 1981). internationalization of curriculum from kindergarten through graduate school (Burn. 1982; Fersh. 1981; Koch. 1978). and the involvement of community colleges in technical assistance projects with developing countries (Eskow. 1978; Fersh. 1981). The authors of these articles agree that international education is desirable. both from the standpoint of self-interest and on the basis of more altruistic concerns. However. agreement among authors is not enough to ensure that there is widespread support for such educational activities. If international education is to acquire support from the public and financial assistance from funding agencies. more will be required than educators talking among themselves. These issues are of special concern to the Ontario Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology (OCAATs) since community colleges have only recently walked on to the stage of international education and development. They do not enjoy the power of precedence and tradition that universities. long-time actors in international programs. do (Martorana & Shannon. 1979). Today. we see a changing trend as recipients of development assistance. faced with the problems pointed out by Ballantine (1977). of unemployment and underemployment of university graduates and the problem of shortages of technically skilled workers. turn to OCAATs and other community colleges to provide short-cycle training (Harrington. 1978). Several authors have agreed that attention must be directed to the development of interest groups that will lobby for the support of international education (Adams. 1979; Alger. 1978; Spaulding & Colucci. 1982). Martorana and Shannon (1979) proposed that we must not only identify supportive individuals but also those negative forces that are interfering. or may in the future interfere. with the development and expansion of these programs. We must find ways to neutralize these negative forces. Similarly. Adams (1979) cautioned that the conserva- tive climate in many communities demands that we be sensitive to political issues and that information on international education needs to be monitored through "media. conferences. and other appropriate means" (p. 8). To obtain the public support that could make a difference to the development. expansion. or maintenance of international education programs requires an assessment of the amount and the "direction" of information available to our publics about this area of education. Alger (1978) asserted that although people are involved in and depend- ent on international transactions on a daily basis. they rarely take note of the fact. He blamed this general lack Of informed participa- tion on two factors: 1. the socialization process that teaches or fails to teach us about our world 2. Ta sense of alienation from the centers where foreign policies are determined Alger believed there is a widespread disinterest in learning about international affairs because they are perceived as distant and obscure. Compounding the problem is the fact that foreign news available to readers of newspapers. or viewers of television. is often limited. Simon (1980) cited a UNESCO survey which found that in the United States the majority of newspapers print fewer than three columns of international news weekly. Frequently. as Pember'(1974) indicated. this news provides an unbalanced or distorted view of international affairs since it tends to be oriented toward catastrophes. Hoffstetter (1978) supported this when he reminded us of the adage. "Bad news drives out good." One way of identifying supportive or restraining influences that may shape the future of international education is through an evaluation of related articles found in print media. If educational administrators are committed to the need for international education. an awareness of the coverage being given it in newspapers and magazines would be useful. One could draw inferences on the amount of community support for or resistance to such programs through identifying the: 1. relative attention given such articles 2. positive. negative. or neutral direction of the articles 3. orientation of articles to national. personal. or interna- tional views 4. gaps in coverage that may create biased images Burmese This research was done to provide community college adminis- trators with both horizontal and vertical comparative content analysis (Glassner & Corzine. 1982) of international education news coverage in two daily newspapers in Toronto. the G19be_and_Ma11 and Inngntg_5un; one weekly minority paper..CQnI£a§1: and one Canadian weekly news magazine. Magleanua The Association of Canadian Community Colleges' publication. W. was used as a "thermometer" of profes- sional interest and activity in international education at the cqmmu- nity college level in order to provide a basis of comparison with the mass print media. The researcher describes and compares the coverage of interna- tional development education in these four publications over a ten-year period. examining the following characteristics of articles: 1. the attention scale 2. the orientation 3. direction 4. emerging trends In this age of increasing global interdependence. community colleges are forced to re-examine their mission statements and to redefine their communities. As both federal and provincial government funding decline. and as administrators face the concomitant problems of retrenchment. they must search for new sources of income and support for their colleges. With the above type of information available to them. administrators could develop strategies to encourage print media coverage appropriate to their respective institutions and communities. The discernment of trends either to support or to oppose international education. or to give it increasing coverage (positive. neutral. or negativeO. can be of importance to educational adminis- trators as they plan their long-term goals. work with the public. form alliances or networks with other educators and community leaders. and plan their international education activities. Having specific infor- mation regarding the presence or absence of cyclical patterns of interest and coverage of international education could be useful for the timing of such activities and related press coverage. Janowitz (1976) supported the use of content analysis for such decision making. He argued that traditional survey research. because it reflects the existing and static structure of opinion. narrows the range of alternatives available to decision makers. while content analysis. because it can be used to monitor and analyze attempts to cope with shifting social and political trends over a period of time. provides the decision maker with information on the demands and strategies of various social groups in such a way that the scope of perceived alternatives expands. Generalizability The information gathered in this research should be of use to the five community colleges in the Metropolitan Toronto area. As well. because many components of international education are found in primary and secondary schools. and in postsecondary institutions other than community colleges. it is expected that this information would be of value to educators and administrators in those fields. The International Development Education Committee of Ontario may find this information useful at the provincial level in planning activities related to internationalizing the curriculum and to increasing community awareness of their efforts. Finally. the findings of this research could be useful in other provinces or in the United States. to educators wishing to examine press coverage and its effects in their own communities. Limitations The first limitation of this research is the size of the sample to which the study was confined because of time and cost constraints. Collection of more data will be necessary to substantiate or discredit this research. A second limitation is that public Opinion can only be inferred. not proven. through a content analysis. Because there is little in the literature to suggest that similar content analyses have been conducted in this particular area. there is the third limitation of intercoder reliability in settings other than this study. This will need to be tested in additional situations to estab- lish the generalizable value and reliability Of the coding scheme used. Some gaps that appear to be the result of bias may be a consequence of lack of information or an erratic flow of information about certain topics. not intentional biases. Finally. this method does not reveal what information was available to educators but rejected by them. either because it is not considered newsworthy or because the newshole is filled for that particular issue. W The researcher generated hypotheses based. to some extent. on popular beliefs and personal impressions and experiences related to the four publications. This research attempted to answer the following questions: i 1. How do the four publications compare in their coverage of international education? 2. Which aspects Of international education receive the most coverage? 3. How prominently are these articles placed in the four publications? 4. What value does each publication place on international education? 5. Is there any relationship between major news events and the quantity or quality of international education coverage? Answers to these questions were sought through testing the following hypotheses: l. .Cgllege_Canada will have given more space to articles on international education in the previous five years than in the first five years covered by this study. 2. The readability levels of articles appearing in the four publications will be highest for mm and the W and lowest for the Inngn19_5un and antnast. 3. The average attention score will be higher for the Glgbe .ind_Mnil than for the Igngntg_fiun. 4. In respect to the other publications. the occurrence of wire service stories will be highest in the IQLQntQ_Sun. S. For levels of education discussed. units of content about international education at the elementary level will be least frequent for all publications. 6. For levels of education discussed. units of content about international education at the community level will be most frequent for all publications. 7. Units of content describing technical assistance will be more prevalent than those describing other types of education. 8. The Glghe_and_uail will quote a greater number of inter- national experts than will the In:gntg_&un or Contrast. 9. 0n the average. more sources will be quoted in the Glgbe .and_Ma11 than in the IQLQntQ_Sun or Contrast. 10. On the average. more sources will be quoted in antnast than in the IomnnLSnn. 11. A more favorable direction will be found in units of content that are written at the national level than for those at the personal or international level. 12. The average attention score will be higher for articles at the national level on McKeown's taxonomic scale than for articles at the personal or international levels. 13. The orientation of mutual: articles will be higher on McKeown's taxonomic scale than will the W the Inmate Sunnis. or Maclearfis. 14. The occurrence of delayed reward units of content will be higher in mm: and the W111. than in the Wu or .Cnntcast. 15. The occurrence of immediate reward units of content will be highest in the.IQ£9nIQ_§un. 16. Frequency and direction of units of content are related to international crises. l7. Qantas: will commit a greater number of column centimeters to international education in an average unit of content than will the W. lamp. or MasJeaan. Winn: Below are listed the definitions of the more commonly used terms in this study. WWW-4 . nongovernmental organization designed as a clearinghouse and resource center for Canadian community colleges. Its International Bureau works with member colleges on the development. implementation. and mainte- nance of international education projects. mam-M scoring system devised by Budd (1964) and used most recently by Kern et a1. (1983) to determine the differences of treatment given to a particular unit of content. It has been found to be more discriminating than simple col umn inch or item count. The score ranges from a low of zero to a high Of five. (See Appendix B.) WWI-fine foreign aid agency of the Canadian federal government. WWW-4 nonQOV' ernmental voluntary agency. funded primarily by CIDA. which provides developmental assistance to Third World countries. The branch serving French-speaking populations is referred to by the acronym SUCO. Wows-4n unobtrusive "systematic technique for analyzing the overt communication behavior of selected communicators" (Budd. Thorp. 8. Donohew. 1967. p. 2). It permits the analyst to ”give a detailed account of the communication and make limited predictions about the source and perhaps about the receiver" (Budd et a1.. 1967. p. 3). anose articles dealing with public affairs. economic or social problems. science. education. health. etc. They are generally read to inform and prepare the individual for events 11 or conditions that will occur later: events that may be perceived as either positive or negative. Overlap may occur with immediate reward news in one unit of content. .Dinegtignr-Expression of attitudes found in the unit of content. In broad terms. these are usually favorable/unfavorable. positive/negative. approval/disapproval. Wumose articles dealing with issues such as crime. corruption. accidents. disasters. sports. recreation. social events. and human interest stories. These articles are read to enter- tain or release tension. Overlap may occur with delayed reward news in one unit of content. Internationa1_edngatign--Based on the definition of the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges. this term is used to encompass: 1. those curricula that incorporate a global component 2. foreign language programs 7 3. courses designed to study different cultural and/or ethnic groups both within and outside the community or country 4. study abroad and international exchange programs 5. community seminars or workshops on international. cross- cultural. or foreign policy issues 6. technical assistance Maw-Maw“ (1975) proposed that in any communications related to international education the communicator will 12 support or criticize such education on the basis of one of the follow- ing nine developmentally and hierarchically ordered levels: A. The National Orientation Category 1. to avoid national injury 2. to increase national worth 3. to promote the national image B. The Personal Orientation Category 4. to develop self-appreciation 5. to increase personal enjoyment 6. to gain self-fulfillment C. The International-Interhuman Orientation Category 7. to prevent international conflict 8. to secure international order 9. to attain international justice .Newshgle—-That percentage of a publication allotted to the coverage of the news and excluding advertising space or nonadvertising features (i.e.. crossword puzzles. comics. advice columns). Major newspapers generally have a standardized newshole of between 25 and 40%. WWW-4w of the 22 public. nontransfer. non-degree-granting colleges coming under the authority of the Council of Regents of the Ontario Ministry of Col- leges and Universities. These are in many ways similar to the comnur- nity colleges in the United States and are often referred to as community colleges. .Beadability--The reading level required to understand a given text as determined by the Fry (1968) readability formula. (See Appen- dix A.) 13 .Inend--The increase or decrease of the frequency of given content over a period of time (Budd et a1.. 1967). WuAny article. exceeding 1.25 centimeters in length. in which international education. as defined above. is the primary topic. Winn: Underlying this research are the following assumptions: 1. International education is a good and appropriate activity at all levels of education. 2. Public support is necessary if international education activities are to be sustained. 3. Content analysis is a research method that can provide educational administrators with information useful in drawing inferences about message content. message intent. and the effect on the audience (Berelson. 1952). 4. "The mass media not only reflect existing attitudes and reality but also serve to mobilize attitudes and action" LJanowitz. 1976. p. 12). Sumac: This research is meant to provide OCAATs administrators with information about selected Canadian publications' coverage of interna- tional education. 1his information may be useful in developing strate- gies that will promote the kind Of coverage of their activities that these colleges would like to enjoy. 14 In the second chapter the researcher presents a review of selected literature related to international education and to content analysis methods. This is followed by a description of the research methods in the third chapter and a report of the findings and explana- tions of these findings in the fourth chapter. The final chapter offers conclusions. implications of this research. and suggestions for additional research. CHAPTER II SELECTED REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The review of the literature for this study focuses first on definitions. rationales. problems. current trends. and proposals in the field of international education. Attention turns next to an overview of research methods and representative studies in content analysis. most specifically of print media. Advantages and limitations Of content analysis are discussed. The review concludes with a rationale for the hypotheses that were generated in this study. Intemationaliducanm There is little disagreement or variation found in the defini- tions Of international education that have been provided by leaders in the field. Koch (1979) said it can be any one or combination of deliberately designed learning activities. such as study abroad. foreign language or area studies. faculty and/or student exchange programs. technical assistance. inter-disciplinary emphasis on international studies. etc.. the goal of which is the development of attitudes. knowledge. and behavior on matters international and global. (p. 30) In surveying United States Government agencies to identify their international education programs. Wiprud's (1980) working definition of such programs included the criteria of fostering of understanding and cooperation between countries either as a direct goal of the education or training or as a byproduct of an educational/ IS 16 training program. She identified eight major categories of such programs. In these categories there is more emphasis placed on the American learning from citizens of other countries than is explicitly stated in other definitions or elaborations. The definitions proposed by the American Association of Community and Junior Colleges and by Griffin and Spence (1970) expanded therscope even further with their respective inclusions of community workshops or seminars on foreign policy issues and general information for the public on world affairs. One Of the earlier writers in international education. Ballinger (1965). provided a more abstract definition of what he termed intercultural education as that part of our education which helps us to understand and work productively at the problem of how we... . can and should relate to other peoples on the face of the earth in a rationally and humanely defensible way. Such education includes not only intel- lectual knowledge but also appropriate attitudes. motivations. ethical resources. and behavior. habits. and skills. (p. 19) All of these definitions provide us with the moral and altruistic reasons for promoting international education. They do not expose the more pragmatic and profitable sides of international education. which. today. may be more forceful stimuli for the funding and support needed by OCAATS and other educational institutions. Even beyond definitions. little is mentioned in terms of financial benefits to colleges. W Adams (1982) offered the argument that since. in the United States. community colleges provide the only postsecondary education 17 that many individuals obtain. we should ensure that their curriculum has a global perspective. Furthermore. community colleges provide continuing education programs for those beyond what is considered "normal" college age. This population could benefit from an internationalized curriculum. These arguments seem especially forceful in an area such as Toronto. where students do not transfer from the OCAATs to university and where they are part of a highly culturally pluralistic society. National self-interest is a strong reason for providing international education. Neff (1981) noted the belief that the better we understand others the better we will be able to defend ourselves. Griffin (1975). on the other hand. cautioned that there are limitations to the assump- tion that ignorance causes conflict and therefore knowledge will cause peace. He did not deny that there are problems with holding parochial views and succumbing to the forces of nationalism. but he was skeptical that only learning about another culture is sufficient. Neff concurred on this point. arguing for personal contact with people from other cultures--both within one's own community and in other communities or countries. His rationale for this type of international education was that through personal experiences with people from other cultures we may begin to create a world in which peace is possible. This was reinforced in the following paraphrase of a statement from the 1979 President's Commission on Foreign Language and Area Studies (cited in Bluhm & Hansen. 1982). Students need a better understanding of global interdependence. a sharper awareness of and 18 sensitivity to other people. their attitudes. and customs. It is difficult to imagine acquiring that understanding or developing those sensitivities without some direct experiences of another culture. The Swedish educator. Torsten Husen. was quoted in Burn and Opper (1982) regarding the need for expanding international education. He said people (students) need both "sensitivity training in interna- tional thinking" and the skills and competencies to be able to function in an international setting. As early as 1963. Butts was urging that America must."strengthen its team in international education if we are to compete in the world's race for education with the wisdom. the speed. and the skill required of a modern and free nation" q» 25). Three arguments for internationalizing the curriculum were stated by Koch (1978). His first was the "B1 ue Marble" or global- village argument. ‘This was the interdependency argument of several other authors. It was also supported by Naisbitt (1982) in his discussion of the disappearance of the information "float" as a result of present telecommunications capabilities. Because we have the potential to communicate with anyone in the world at the speed of light. we now live in alcommunity that encompasses the entire world. From an information standpoint. we can say that national boundaries have ceased to exist. Koch's second rationale was the ethical imperative. The ethical basis on which international transactions occur must be reassessed. These transactions are not. nor can they ever be. neutral. They are always political. Thus. it is important that priorities and 19 practices be examined and reordered. KOch believed this reassessment must occur at the individual level. not just at a national level. If this is to happen he believed the logical starting point is with an internationalized curriculum. The final argument Koch presented was a pragmatic one. Because the likelihood of mobility is high for most people entering the work world. they need to be prepared for living and working in other cultures. Fersh (1982) argued that even if people do not move from a limited geographic area their culture changes and they need the skills that international education can provide. to cope with their changing cultures. Finally. in his pragmatic argument. Kohn insisted that we begin to prepare people for roles in international leadership and followership. Emblems Given all these reasons for expanding international education. it would seem that it should be happening on a grand scale all over the continent. Yet. there are gaps between what is believed to be impor- tant to do and the actual practices found in schools. colleges. and universities. Even in Sweden. where international education has been stated to be a national priority (Burn. 1982) and where the percentage of the gross national product committed to international development assistance is remarkably higher than for most developed countries. there is still a serious discrepancy between what is considered desir- able and what exists in international education. 20 In the United States many authors have seen this gap being caused. in part. by what Wygal (1979) called the "domestic backlash issue." Schultz (1979) said that because of the conservative orienta- tion of many communities. a proposal for international education may be like "waving a red flag in the faces of citizens." Simon (1980) set this in a historical perspective. Children of immigrant parents were sent to school fOr "AmericanizationJ' To be accepted as Americans these children often did not admit to knowing another language or culture because they perceived this as something shameful and less than American. A similar situation may be found in Canada with its dramatic increase in immigration during the past 15 years. Ewen though the Canadian and provincial governments have promulgated a."mosaic" rather than a "melting pot" philosophy. it has not led to the appreciation of cultural diversity that this philosophy was meant to instill. .A second factor that may predispose Canadians. and their school systems. to an even more pronounced nationalism is the threat perceived from their powerful southern neighbor. the United States. The third issue that may encourage parochialism in Canadian communities and schools is that of reaction to the Quebec separatist movement. There are heated. complex political debates that periodically rage over the issues Of separatism. bilingualism. and language education as they affect the province of Ontario and. to an extent. New Brunswick. Manitoba. and British Columbia. 21 As a result of such parochialism. such ethnocentric views. international education has been hampered by Western models of develop- ment. Griffin (1975) described a lopsided system in which benefits are seen to flow in only one direction: from the developed to the develop- ing world. Certainly such an attitude is a powerful force to prevent learning from cultures of the developing world. or in fact from devel- oped nations such as Japan. and from the socialist countries of the "Second Worl d." It would be unreasonable. however. to lay all the blame for inadequate international education at the feet of our communities. Educators and educational administrators must share some of this blame. Miller (1971) said that because international education has come to mean so many things it has ceased to have any real meaning. Griffin (1975) concurred. He observed that educators have failed to produce a coherent conceptualization. set of purposes. and strategies for inter- national education. Without these he said it is impossible to communi- cate effectively with colleagues. community leaders. politicians. or others who might have influence in promoting international education. Are these. perhaps. sometof the reasons for the decline Simon (1980) found in funding for language and area studies over the years of 1970 and 1980? He noted that funds are readily available for fighter planes. submarines. and nuclear weapons but not for measures that ”contribute to real security": the facilities to communicate in other languages and to understand other cultures. 22 This lack of awareness of international issues at the post- secondary level. which was disclosed in the Educational Testing Service's survey reported by Barrows et a1. (1981). is less difficult to understand in light of the results of a survey conducted by the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education Cmmmission on International Education (Bluhm & Hansen. 1982). In their survey of 1.000 institutions that provide teacher training. they found that over 60% of the administrators responding rated international/intercultural education as having little or no importance. They also found that only 8% of today's teachers had the opportunity to study international concepts or other cultures. In looking at specific problems of the OCAATs and community colleges and their involvement in international education. we find a web of issues related to those community and educational situations discussed previously. These colleges have been slower in entering international education at the development-assistance level for three reasons cited by Harrington (1978). First. they are younger than the universities; second. they were not asked to participate; and third. recipients of assistance were not accustomed to viewing that assistance as coming from community colleges. Until very recently. in developing countries. the major emphasis has been on the acquisition of degrees. Because of the youth of community colleges. Bowen (1975) noted that they were busy attending to other issues and problems: establish- ment of many new colleges in the period between 1946 and 1970; rapid expansion of existing and new colleges; a concomitant proliferation of 23 new programs to meet the changing needs of the worlds of business and industry; a shift in the needs of students as a new population began to take advantage of the community colleges; and finally. beginning in the mid-19705. a weakening of the financial position of colleges. Because of their name "community colleges" and their mission to serve ”the community." colleges have been criticized for going beyond traditional community boundaries. It is not uncommon to hear arguments such as ”We are here to train people for jobs. If they want a liberal education let them go to a university"; or. in the situation of accept- ing international students. "They are taking places away from our studentsJ' And. when it is an international development program the questions are often asked. "Who is paying for this?" and "How much is this going to cost the college (taxpayer)?" Schultz (1975. cited in Adams. 1979) observed that faculty in community colleges frequently have a limited amount of experience or education in international affairs. They often do not have access to curricular materials that are credible or useful. and they are constrained by either a real or an imagined lack of flexibility in the curriculunu (State and provincial regulations may place rigid constraints on what is considered acceptable curriculum content for particular programs.) Finally. Tucker (1982) asked if we may be at the mercy of political situations. She pointed out that "global education" in the United States was most visible during the energy crisis of 1973- 1974 and posed the question: If the importance of oil as a 24 political-economic issue declines. will the importance of international education decline as well? Another question might also be asked: Will the community colleges. as the most recent entrants in‘interna- tional education. also be the first fatalities if there is a shift in political and economic situations? If we assume that international education in all its manifesta- tions is a good thing and that it is an appropriate activity for community colleges. what can be done to shrink the gap between the real and the ideal provision of such education? We: Brevard Community College in Cocoa. Florida. has been one of the more successful community colleges in the field of international education. Maxwell King. Brevard's President. in a speech in 1980 (published in 1981) urged that we need to sell the public on the value of international education. In the instance of Brevard. he described using a steady flow of information to the local press to give people advanced notice of the arrival of international students in the community and of the establishment of exchange programs for their own students. Included in their selling of the public were the creation of an International Students! Club and Foreign Students' Speakers Bureau; a communications program that creates a community forum for students and other community members; and gathering of support from local civic organizations. In addition to the internal-development strategies proposed by Griffin (1970). Schultz (1979). and Eskow (1980). such as strong 25 commitment on the part of the chief executive officers and boards of governors. improvement of the curriculum. and exposure of faculty to other cultures. there are repeated calls for establishment of external links to gain community support. Some of this can be effected through establishment of consortia as proposed by Schultz (1975. cited in Adams. 1979). Eskow (1978). and Spaulding and Colucci (1982). But it will be important. as well. to establish links with the community through use of mass media. Spaulding and Colucci (1982) claimed there is an urgent need for groups supportive of international education to lobby for these interests. Griffin (1975) called for administrative leaders who publicize throughout their institutions. and to the public in general. the importance of international education. Harari (cited in Adams & Earwood. 1982) said that educational administrators must work more vigorously at improving the image and credibility of foreign language and international studies in the eyes of the public. And Wygal (1979) urged that educators work carefully to develop good public-relations strategies. Yet. when one turns to the literature there is a surprising dearth of information on educational institutions. their use of. and benefits derived from mass media. An Educational Pol icy Commission Report (1958) recommended that an essential role of the administrator is as a communicator to the community; his/her voice should be "heard clearly and with effect in the community.” Chaffee's (1976) findings of a survey he conducted in 1964 were that newspapers may be the best 26 agent of feedback for a community on issues related to schools. He qualified this. however. by saying that it may be that the truth probably lies somewhere between that statement and one that says that newspapers are only the best of a bad lot. He found that at that time newspapers were providing more information than any other source. One wonders if in the intervening 20 years that might have changed. In 1968. Chaffee and Ward did a literature review. ”Channels of Communication in School-Community Rel ations." in which they observed that there had been little synthesis of the research to that time. Their conclusion was that although newspapers are willing to publish education news they rarely seek it out but rather tend to wait for schools to provide the news. 'They claimed that evidence indicated that schools were not "particularly aggressive" in providing newspapers with such news. In a more recent publication. "Media as a Development Education Resource" (1982). many concerns and opinions were expressed on the need to establish links with mass media sources in order to promote the development aspect of international education. These are interesting opinions. based on the work Of experts both in the fields of education and journalism. They are not. to the knowledge of this writer. based on scientific research but rather on the experiences of the speakers. Some of the general concerns expressed in this meeting were: 1. the problems the media experience in covering a long-term development story opposed to a crisis story such as war. famine. revolution. epidemic; 27 2. the need for private voluntary organizations to "sell" their stories to the media; 3. the challenge of how to effectively communicate processes to the public. General Paul Feyereisen reiterated the problem of emphasis on negative or crisis issues and observed that ”formal" media tend to lag behind informal networks. In addition. he said that although material on international education is available it is not well distributed or targeted. He proposed three strategies: the increased distribution of written material; provision Of exemplary. generic material to the media; and increased use of informal networks. In the same meeting. Ann Crittenden of the New_1gnk_I1m§s spoke of the importance of "human-scale" stories to which readers can relate. These would be stories of the ”immediate reward” classifica- tion. Reinforcing this viewpoint was a statement made by Adrian Peraccio of Mensday. that events are easier to sell than is the process of development. The concluding recommendations from this meeting were that agencies should (1) transfer factual information. (2) foster an understanding of interdependence. and (3) promote positive values toward international development. WWW Several authors have discusssed the agenda-setting function of the media. Cook et a1. (1983) stated the influence of the media is 28 such that members of the public will change their priorities and that policy makers. having gained their understanding of public opinion through newspapers and television. will then act to make policy changes. Gleazer (1978) claimed that."a careful reading of the morning newspaper may be more significant for the community college planner than periodic perusal of his professional journals" (p. 9). Could it be. as well. that a careful Qantnlhullnn to the morning newspaper could be more significant for community college planners than periodic con- tributions to their professional journals? Must educators become more active in seeing that their news reaches the public and the policy makers? What are some of the effects of mass media--and most specifi- cally newspapers-on their publics? First. it is helpful to look at the functions and structures of mass communication in Western society. Chang (1981) said there are four functions: 3 l. surveillance or reporting of the political and social environ- ment 2. correlation of the parts of society responding to the environ- ment 3. transmission of . . . heritage 4. entertainment and cultural enrichment. (p. 589) Paletz and Entman (1981) identified three main kinds of media: the specialized press. which includes professional publications; the prestige print media. including daily newspapers such as the‘uen_xgnk limes and Washingtenjost. and magazines like Atlantjlenntth or .Satnndax_8exiex; and the popular press. which includes the television 29 networks ABC. CBS. and NBC. most newspapers. and magazines such as lime and.Ne1§muumn These media. according to Paletz and Entman (1981). serve four types of audiences. The elite audience is generally considered to be less than 1% of the population. These are the individuals who either make public policy or directly influence it. On the heels of the elite are what the authors described as "attentivesJT They comprise between 10 and 15% of the audience. They are well-informed business. profes- sional. and academic people who may be actively engaged in campaigning for issues or in working with interest groups. These two groups are not significantly affected by the popular press since political opinion is seen to flow downward. The largest group is the "mass" audience. accounting for 60%. These individuals only have a limited interest in politics. and their opinions and preferences may fluctuate. They can be expected. at least sporadically. to vote. They are heavily influenced by the popular press. The bottom 25% are the "apoliticals." who rarely read and who rarely vote. This would seem to bear out the hypothesis posed by Tichenor et a1. (1970). that as infusion of mass media information into a social system increases. segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments. so that the gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease. (p. 159) Rogers (1976) also noted this gap between the socially and economically advantaged and disadvantaged audiences. 30 Of particular concern to this study were Oldendick and Bardes' (1982) findings that there are especially marked differences between the mass and the elites in their respective understanding of foreign policy. They found elites to be more supportive than the mass of active involvement in international affairs. 'They also were more aware of the significance of interdependence and were more predisposed toward detente and human-rights positions. The effects of the media cited by Paletz and Entman (1981) might also be seen in another light as functions of (l) stabilization of prevailing Opinions. (2) setting of priorities. (3) elevation of events and issues. (4) occasionally changing opinions. and (5) limit- ing Options. Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) claimed that the need to understand one's world and the rapid rate of change have created conditions of dependency in people. which cause them to turn to the media for the resolution of ambiguity. They saw this asva ubiquitous condition in Western societies. They claimed this results in media's power. as primary information sources. to influence values clarifica- tion and to set agendas. McCombs and Shaw (1972).also saw the media as the primary sources of national and provincial political information. Conse- quently. readers shape their opinions according to the amount of information and position of that information in relation to the rest of the news. 31 Possibly the most powerful effect of mass media is seen in the shaping of new opinion. Klapper (1972) found. in the United States. England. and Canada. that on those issues where neither the individual nor fellow group members and friends have a pre-existing opinion to defend it is easy for the media to influence the establishment of new opinions. Once established. it is easy to reinforce those opinions and. Klapper claimed. difficult to change them. In Paletz and LaFiura's study. "The Press and Authority: Portrayals of a Coach and a Mayor" (1977). they found that the university basketball coach was perceived to have more power and authority than was the major of the city. ‘The authors concluded that this was related to the disproportionate amount of coverage and position of articles regarding the coach. They described the effect of the press on its public. saying. Most of the information and impressions upon which the members Of contemporary society base their feelings of satisfaction and secu- rity or dissatisfaction and insecurity are structured and deliv- ered by the media of mass communication. (p. 1) Yet. Richardson (1978) warned that we know almost nothing of how it is that the media effect such influence over the opinions and values of people. Given that so little is known about this powerful influence of the media and given that there is. especially in the field of interna- tional education and its relationships with the media. a paucity of research to offer educational administrators any guidance or support in their decision making vis-a-vis the mass media. it seems useful to pursue this area in the hope of clarifying some of these relationships. 32 W Just as we need a field glass to perceive an Object in the far distance. so we need devices. at times surprisingly simple devices. to perceive a flow of experience which endures over an extended period of time. (Merton. 1968. p. 566) ‘ Krippendorf (1980) enumerated several advantages of content analysis. It is an unobtrusive technique that accepts unstructured material. Because it is context sensitive. it is able to process symbolic forms. It can also. if desired. cope with large volumes of data. He said that the task of content analysis is to make inferences and that these can be antecedent or subsequent in nature. The ante- cedent inference deals with why something was said. while the subse- quent inference is concerned with the effect of the content. The focus of this research is on subsequent inferences. In W. Berelson (1952) said that we must begin with three assumptions: 1. that inferences about the relationships between the intent of the message and its content or between the content and the effect of the message can validly be made. 2. ‘that study of the manifest content of a message is meaningful. and 3. that the quantitative description of such content is useful and meaningful. Berelson believed that the description of content trends. in terms of relative frequencies of occurrence. is useful because it can provide data that can be correlated with changes Observed either in the 33 communicator or the audience. From a historical perspective. the description of communication trends can provide a basis for the better understanding of current communication. Janowitz (1976) supported trend reports "based on the notion that the mass media not only reflect existing attitudes and reality but also serve to mobilize attitudes and action" (p. 12). The above tend to focus on the quantitative aspects of content analysis. Lest the reader think that this is all that happens with this method of research. it is not limited solely to counting. Quali- tative techniques may be used. as*we11. to uncover the latent charac- teristics of the messages. Holsti (1969) said that a tautological relationship exists between the qualitative and quantitative methods. with each lending support and new insights to the other. Pool (1959) also referred to this tautological relationship and cautioned that we should not assume that qualitative methods are insightful or intuitive whilerquantitative methods are only mechanical. 7 While counting seemed to be the favorite pastime of content analysts in the 19305 and 19405. that is no longer true. Latent content and therefore qualitative methods have become of more concern in the past three decades. One of the interesting latent messages of a news item is its relative importance in position and amount of space in the newshole. Budd (1964) devised a formula for arriving at an attention score to determine the differences of treatment either of different issues or of the same issue over time. Rather than just a simple counting of column 34 inches. Budd's formula takes into account headline width. position on the page. and page on which the item is found. It is suited for use in comparison of publications of similar type and size and can be adjusted proportionally for different-sized publications. Thus. it is more elucidating than a simple column-inch count. Several researchers have used the attention score or a similar measure in recent content-analysis studies (Hofstetter. 1978; Kern et al.. 1983; Perry. 1981; Stamm. 1980). There appears to be concurrence that position. headline. size. and the presence of accompanying pic- tures ensure greater attention from readers. In a report of earlier (1939-1950) studies of readership. Swanson (1955) included three other factors that influence readership. These are the proximity of the story to the reader--1ocal items accounting for 88.4% of total readership; the subject matter (govern- ment. human interest. eth; and the length of the story. Not surpris- ingly. it was found that cartoons. photographs. and photOcutlines comprised 18.4% of all the items and 51% of the total readership. Griffin (1949) attributed careless structure and irrelevance to loss of interest in an item and said that the reader had an intuitive awareness of the value of a news story. More recently. Pember (1974) observed that the news which comes in earliest has the greatest chance for survival in the newspaper because each story reduces the available remaining space and as press time approaches. the most recent arrivals are Often dramatically reduced to accommodate for the reduced space available. He also discussed the fact that items that are "process" or 3S "trend" oriented tend to be eliminated in favor of ”story-oriented" items. Crichter et a1. (1977) also found that the "dramatic" or extreme events were more likely to be published. This contributes to one of the limitations of content analysis Scanlon (1977) pointed out; this method of research tells us nothing about what news may have been available but rejected. Another problem raised by Pember (1974) is the paucity of comment on local and regional problems in the daily press because of the heavy reliance on syndication services. which provide articles by nationally known figures at a cost lower than the salary of a local reporter. If. as was mentioned earlier. newspapers are willing to print education stories but do not actively seek them out. could this lack of local news be corrected if colleges and schools provided copy to their local newspapers? Batscha (1975) referred to the powerful "gatekeeper" influence of the newsperson as a "gatherer. screener. and composer of the dayus events as transmitted through the mass media" (p. x) and the importance of this gatekeeper function to the political system. In their study. "The Newspaper: Mol der or Mirror Of Community Val ues?" Brandner and Sistrunk (1966) warned that we may be overlooking this "gatekeeper" function of editors and that they could be an "important factor in creating high values for education" (p. 504). Educational administrators might take notice of this when they wish to inform the community on international education or other matters. 36 Fowler and Smith (1982). comparing the readability of items in Newsweek and lime. hypothesized that immediate reward items would be significantly more readable than delayed reward items. This was veri- fied with a t = 5.80. p < .001. Their ancillary hypotheses-~that immediate reward items would have significantly fewer syllables per 100 words and significantly shorter sentences--were supported as well. It does not require much of an intuitive leap to imagine that those arti- cles that are more readable are read more than articles of greater reading difficulty. Gormley (1976) looked at the effects of newspaper-television cross-ownership on news content and found homogeneity in coverage. Wackman (1975) found homogeneity in presidential campaign endorsements among newspapers owned by the same chain. Although there was not necessarily consistency from one campaign to the next. there was a significant degree of consistency among commonly owned papers for each campaign studied. These are content-analysis findings that can be Of significance to those who wish to shape public policy. Probably the most popular content analyst in the United States today is John Naisbitt. of the Naisbitt Group in Washington. DJ; Although his book Megatnends has been a best seller on the We: book list. the significant benefits of Naisbitt's work are for those businesses that contract for his content-analysis serv- ices. It seems likely that if businesses and industries can benefit from the information provided by content analysts. then so can 37 educators. who supply those same businesses and industries with their workers. managers. and leaders. The American Medical Association has fed information to the press for many years. Who has not read of Barney Clark or of the surgeons who perform transplants? But how many newspaper readers know the name of an international student who. as a consequence of her educational experiences in North America. went back to a developing country to teach all the children in a village. or to inoculate a community against cholera. or to become the Minister of Communications of her country? Unless the public acknowledges the value of such efforts in international education. educational institutions will not establish the support base to continue these activities. Samar: This review has covered sometof the current issues in international education. with special attention given to the community college perspective. Next. content analysis. as a tool for viewing the effect of print media. was discussed. .Some of the situations in which it has been employed were described. ‘The studies were selected because they bore resemblance to the issues found in international education. This research is an attempt to uncover the relationships that exist among educators. the press. and the public in the area of international education. so that educators may make more informed 38 decisions about the audiences they wish to reach and the places where they are likely to receive the best coverage. McKeown (1975) suggested that rationales for international education are both developmentally and hierarchically ordered and that if one wishes to communicate effectively it is necessary to do so at the same taxonomic level as one's audience. It is important to discern whether or not news coverage regarding international education is within the latitude of the publicfls acceptance or missing the mark by offering rationales the general public may not yet be ready to accept. If trends or cycles become evident. this may be useful in timing or focus of articles provided to newspapers. This would permit educators to be "enactive rather than reactive." Janowitz (1976) argued the point succinctly: At any given moment. the contents of mass media are indicators of two very different and even opposing social phenomena. They reflect the social organization and value system of society. Simultaneously. they are purposeful elements of social change. agents for modifying the goals and values of social groups and society. (p. 18) The declining enrollment figures for the traditional age group of college students. the problems of retrenchment (Mingle. 1982). and the concerns for international education are only a few of the chal- lenges OCAAT educators and administrators face over the coming decade. Many approaches are needed to deal with these problems. It is worth determining the value of content analysis as one of these approaches to problem solving and decision making. CHAPTER III MEFHODOLOGY In this chapter the details of the research methods are presented. First. there is a description of the sample that was studied. This is followed by a discussion of some of the problems encountered in data collection. The research methods are then presented and summarized. Inflample Four publications serving Metropolitan Toronto were selected for this research. two daily newspapers in Toronto. them and the In:9ntg_§un; one weekly minority paper. Contrast; and one Canadian weekly journal. EHEZUuufls. The population of the city served by these publications was 2.998.947 in 1981 and estimated to be 3.100.134 for 1983 (W 1983). The Globe_and_Ma11 is one of over 40 papers published in Canada by the Thompson Newspaper Group. It is an amalgamation of two papers: the Globe. established in 1844. and the Mall. established in 1872. It is considered to be a "quality" or "prestige" newspaper. with a daily circulation of 330.364--net paid September 1981 (Editon_and_Eub115nen. 1983). Although published in Toronto. it has a national circulation and may be considered to be a Canadian equivalent of the Na1_19£k 39 40 11155» It appeals to and is read by the upper socioeconomic groups: the opinion shapers of Canada. Views expressed in editorials and feature articles tend to be more conservative than liberal. although the paper is classified as politically independent. News articles are generally considered to be objective. A newer paper to Toronto is the IncontQ_Sun. which was established in 1971. It is owned by the Sun Publishing Company. which publishes three Canadian newspapers. It is a tabloid with a circula- tion of 252.394--net paid September 1982 (Editon_andaEublisben. 1983). Although its political position is a conservative one. the format of the paper and tenor of articles tend to be flamboyant. The front page of this paper does not carry articles. only headlines and photographs meant to provide immediate reward: bikini-clad women. dead bodies being carted away by the police. damage resulting from serious storms. bkuflkuufls is now a Canadian weekly news magazine published by Maclean-Hunter. Ltd. For the period covered by this research. it was first a monthly news magazine (January 1974 to October 1975). then a biweekly magazine until September 1978. when it began weekly publica- tion. Its stated aim is to "reflect on what Canadians are thinking . . . [and] to capture what people are doi ng" (Hacienda. Oct. 6. 1975). It has a policy of publishing several lengthy articles that try to analyze and explore what its editors have identified as important trends for Canadians. As a monthly magazine its articles tended to be longer and ”process" rather than "event" oriented. Since shifting to a biweekly. then weekly publication it has become more like New}; or 41 lime in content and substance. Its audited. paid circulation figures for March 1983 were 642.319 (HAS. 1984). .Qontnast is a minority weekly newspaper that serves the black. Caribbean. and African communities of Toronto. The paper was estab- lished in February 1969. and as of May 1984 had a circulation of 25.000. It is published by A. W. Hamilton. Although it is primarily a Toronto newspaper. it is also circulated in Buffalo. New York. and has subscribers in the Caribbean and in Africa. As of June 1984 its circu- lation was expected to double to 50.000. Its news deals with items that are of special interest to black Canadians and to immigrants and visitors from the Caribbean and from Africa. Its contents differ from the other publications because of this focus and because of the high percentage of reports on cultural events and the special sections covering Caribbean and African news. These four publications were chosen because they were believed to be representative of publications directed to different types of readers. ‘The Globe_and_Ma11 would be most generally read by what Paletz and Entman (1981) identified as the "eliteP and ”attentive“ audiences. They are believed to be less influenced by the popular press than other people are. The Incontg_snn is a newspaper that would appeal to Paletz and Entman's "mass audience." those people who are less well informed about political issues and are more likely to fluctuate in their opinions. 42 While Qantas; tends to be a specialized paper. appealing to a minority community. its style is more that of the popular rather than the prestige press. Although no formal readership surveys have been done. it appears likely that the readership of this paper is more diffuse and would reach all three groups described by Paletz and Entman. largely because it meets needs and provides information to the black community that is not generally available in either the prestige or popular publications. Macleanls. with its format and content changes. has shifted slightly from a prestige publication to a more popular publication and has appeal for all three of these audiences. A fifth publication..C_Qlle,g_e_C_anad_a. was used as a "thermometer" of professional interest and activity in international education at the community college level to provide a basis of comparison with the mass print media and its coverage of international education. It is a speci al-interest publication of the Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC). The first issue of W. aside from special confer- ence issues. was published in October 1976. The number of issues published in an academic year has reached as high as ten in 1977-78 and as low as four in 1981-82 and 1982-83. Circulation has fallen from 17.000 in 1976 to 13.000 in 1983 because of decreased funding for the publication. W is now published six times a year between September and May. It has changed from a glossy magazine format to a newspaper format since funding was cut. At the present time it is the 43 only publication directed specifically to the interests of Canadian community college administrators and educators. W The researcher discarded the plan to do a stratified random cluster sampling of all four publications. This technique proved unsatisfactory since the number of international education articles found was insufficient to allow one to reach any generalizable conclusions. Faced with this problem. the researcher changed the approach. first scanning every issue of mm; from January 1974 through December 1983. Items were read if the headline. photographs. or illustrations indicated that the article might relate to interna- tional development education. All such articles were then coded onto a survey form. Following this. a search was made using the Qanadian_flens .lndex. a reference publication that identifies and categorizes articles appearing in selected Canadian daily newspapers. From these references the researcher was able to collect dates and titles for international education articles published in the W from November 1977 to December 1982. The 1983 Wen-Linda; was not available at the time this research was being conducted. ‘Titles were sought under the following categories: colleges and universities. culture. education and schools. foreign aid. immigrants. immigration. minorities. prejudice and racism. and underdeveloped areas. To obtain items from January 1974 through October 1977 and from January through December 1983. a search was done of the Metropolitan 44 Toronto Reference Library's vertical files using the same categories as used in the.Canad1an_Neus_1ndex. In addition. a search was done of vertical files for several developing countries. This latter search did not disclose any additional international education articles since these files were devoted to articles that were primarily of a political nature. The In:gnto_§un is not included in the Canadian_flew§_1ndex. nor were there many articles from the IQLQntQ_Sun found in the vertical files of the Metropolitan Toronto Reference Library. The researcher sought and received permission to use the reporters"1ibrary at the .Igzgntg_5un and to search their vertical files for international education articles that had appeared in that paper. The comparable categories in the 5.1.1an vertical files were: foreign students. colleges and universities. foreign aid. and underdeveloped areas. This search uncovered additional Glgbe_and_Ma11 articles that had not been found in the Reference Library's vertical files. Titles and dates for these. as well as for the Sunls articles. were recorded. Because of the limited access to these files. the content- analysis coding was done in the Metropolitan Toronto Reference Library's Microfilm Newspaper department. With the exception of Izuuuguflfls articles. all content analyses were done using the microfilm holdings at the Reference Library. As well as analyzing the articles found through thegCanadian .Nens_1ndex and the two vertical files. the researcher also scanned the entire issue of each paper for which an article was found. to determine 45 whether any other international education articles were carried in the issue. If reference was made in an article to another article. either in the same publication or in one of the other surveyed publications. these articles were located and coded for analysis. .antnast posed a special problem since none of the library or newspaper clipping services catalogue Contrast articles in their vertical files. nor does Contrast) As a small weekly newspaper. with a small staff and cramped quarters. it appears that their main preoccupa- tion is getting their paper out on the streets. not recording their history or categorizing their articles. They were. however. most hospitable and invited the researcher to comei”dig out" what she wanted. Although the paper has been published since 1969. there is not a complete set of back issues available. What has been saved is stored on metal bookshelves or in cardboard boxes in the basement. They are in little apparent order. The researcher found only one issue for 1974 and no international education article in that issue. For 1975. four issues were found and scanned. For 1976. 19 issues were found and scanned. For the years 1977 through 1981. there were more complete holdings. and a random sample of ten issues per year was drawn from this population and articles found in each of these. Only one issue was found for 1982. For 1983 there was a more complete holding. and again a random sample of ten issues was drawn with six issues found to have international education articles. 46 .Bfisan£§h_flathnd§ A content-analysis coding instrument was designed and tested for intercoder and intracoder reliability using an adaptation of the test-retest measure of reliability described by Holsti (1969. p. 140). Three coders classified ten units of content randomly selected from the four publications. An item-by-item chart indicated how each coder classified each category (Appendix C). The three coders were the writer. a teacher of English as a Second Language in a community college in Toronto. and a doctoral student in Adult Education at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. 'The last two coders were used only to establish the reliability of the coding instrument. They did not contribute to the coding for the study. This was done entirely by the writer. The index of reliability in relation to other coders (inter- coder reliability) and in relation to self one month later (intracoder reliability) was determined using Schutz%s(1952) table of confidence limits (Appendix C). Given the ambiguity of the units coded. the achieved intercoder agreement level of .80 was considered acceptable. Intracoder agreement levels were higher. with the intracoder agreement level of the writer reaching .90. The general reading level of each publication was determined using the Fry Readability Test (Fry. 1968) (Appendix A). This was believed to be important information for drawing conclusions on the likelihood of the various publications. or items within them. being read. Fowler and Gilbert's (1982) findings that immediate reward items 47 would be more readable than delayed reward items and Schramufls (1949) finding that the typical reader selects only about one-quarter of the news in the paper to read. support the argument that readability levels are important factors in determining whether or not an article will be read and by whom. Because the size of these publications varied from day to day or week to week; format changes were introduced; or additional. nonadvertising sections were added. it was not possible to make accurate newshole measurements for any of these publications over the period covered by this study. Recent research by Kern. Levering. and Levering (1983) and Paletz and Entman (1981) placed little or no emphasis on the size of the newshole. stating that other indicators such as placement of the article. size of headlines. and sources cited within an article are better predictors of readership. For each Glnha_and_Ma11 and Incontg_§un sample. the major headlines for that day and for the weekend day closest to the date of the sample were recorded. In the case of Macleanls. the topic of the cover story was recorded for each issue containing an article on inter- national education. For Contrast. the major headline was recorded for each issue in which an international education article appeared. These were analyzed by the researcher to determine the existence of any relationship between types or frequency of international education articles and leading news stories for the day or week in which the articles occurred. 48 Using the coding manual and coding form. the headline of the story was recorded and then units of content were coded according to the categories of classification listed below. (See also Appendices B and D.) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. IO. 11. 12. date of publication number of international education articles found in the issue attention score story origin type of story level and type of international education source of information number of sources cited direction of the article taxonomic level reward value length in centimeters After completing the coding. the researcher reread the articles and recorded quotations or paraphrased sections Of articles so that details could be recalled for narrative illustrations of article contents. Dates of publication were recorded so that it would be possible to determine if there were any changing or emerging trends in the types of international education articles published. if shifts in the values placed on international education were occurring over the ten years. if articles from different publications could be contrasted over each year of the study. or if their emphasis was similar; Dates Of publication were also useful in being able to check the four publications to see if they carried articles about the same topic during a given segment of time. The number of international articles in any given issue was tabulated to determine differences in coverage by the different 49 publications. The researcher wished to deal with questions such as. Do any of the publications indicate a policy of doing analytical articles to support news items or feature articles? and Is interna- tional education considered an important enough issue that an editorial might be published in the same issue. in reaction to a news item or feature on this subject? The attention score designed by Budd (1964) was selected as a more sensitive indicator of the likelihood that an article would be read than the traditional measurement of space occupied in the newshole. Use of the attention score was supported by Paletz and Entman (1981) and corroborated by Braestrup in his review of Ihe mm by Kern. Levering. and Levering (1983). He commended the authors for having used a "new approach" in content analysis. which he believed is "far less prone to subjectivity” than the more popular technique of categorizing and counting thousands of sentences. Instead. these authors counted sources of information and distinguished attention scores for stories. Braestrup (1984) saw this as a "common- sense approach to analyzing who dominates the news about a given issue and why" (p. 28). Schramn1(l949) reinforced this with his observation that articles with a strong physical presentations-position. large headline. and pictures--were more likely to be read because the attention they commanded was interpreted by the reader as a personal endorsement from the editor. 50 The next item coded. story origin. was done for two reasons. First. Swanson (1955) found that those articles that were of local. domestic. or seat of federal government origin accounted for 88.4% of total readership; this was over a period of 12 years (1939-1950) covering 130 studies and 50.000 interviews. If this current research were able to disclose frequency counts in this area. it was believed some practical suggestions could evolve for OCAATs to design press releases that could attract attention. The type of story was considered to be of pragmatic interest. It was the researcher's intention to determine frequencies of types of stories--news. features. editorials. or letters to the editor--to determine if a preponderance of one type existed over any other. This would permit OCAATs' administrators to make some observations about what type Of story is most likely to receive coverage and then to submit that type to the appropriate publications. In addition. the type of story may have some effect on readership. Feature stories often provide more immediate reward and thus might gain higher readership than those editorials or news stories that demonstrate the need to prepare for unpleasantness or. at best. for something that. at the moment. does not appear to Offer any immediate advantages in one's life. The levels and types of international education were recorded to determine if there is an equal distribution of articles over all spheres of international education. This could be important 51 information for OCAATs' administrators who hope to get community sup- port for their international education projects. In the category of foreign language. those articles that discussed French-language programs were not inCluded in this survey because Canada has an official bilingual policy. Thus. French is not a foreign language. Neither were heritage-language articles included in this survey since these are designed to maintain the mother language among immigrant populations rather than to teach a new language to other individuals. If the information in an article is that which has been quoted from an authoritative source. readers tend to give more weight to what has been said than they would if the reporter does not make any direct reference to a spokesperson or expert. Similarly. the greater the number of sources cited in an article. the more likely it is that readers will be convinced or will believe that they have been given an expansive coverage of the issue. For these reasons both primary sources and number of sources quoted were included in the coding of these articles. The decision to use McKeown's taxonomic scale as a coding measure was made after reading his article and believing that it was important to test out his assumptions that all articles dealing with international education could be categorized according to this taxonomy. Because several researchers have indicated that immediate reward items were more likely to be read than delayed reward items. all 52 articles were coded for these characteristics so that some inferences might be drawn about the likelihood of articles being read. Finally. the length of all the articles was measured in centi- meters. Included in the measurements were the space occupied by the headlines. photographs. tables. or any sketches or cartoons accompany- ing the article. The length of an article can be an important indi- cator. along with the attention score. of how much emphasis is being placed on the issue being examined. It may allow one to draw some tentative conclusions about the depth of coverage allowed to the areas being analyzed. This information could also be helpful to press agents or public-relations officers working for the colleges who need to make decisions about providing articles to these publications and determin- ing appropriate length for the respective publications. The following data were transferred to mark-sense computer score sheets: 1. date of publication 2. name of publication 3. number of articles on international education found in this issue 4. attention score 5. story origin 6. type of story 7. level of education discussed in story 8. type of international education discussed in story 9. source of information (primary source only) 10. number of sources cited 11. direction of article 12. taxonomic level 13. type of reward 14. length Of article The data were subjected to SPSS frequency. Crosstab. and Breakdown analyses on the Michigan State University computer. It was 53 not necessary to weight any factors since the statistics generated were descriptive in nature and no one item had any more importance to the study than any other for counting purposes. Summary This research was confined to an examination of articles on international education in four Canadian publications. The items for analysis were drawn from a ten-year period to provide a range that would allow for determination of the existence or absence of trends or themes. The researcher hopes the findings of this study. which are described in the next chapter. will provide educational administrators with information useful to them in decision making related to placement of articles on international education in these and similar publi- cations. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS In this chapter the writer restates the hypotheses. discusses the findings. describes particulars of several units of content to illustrate and provide examples for some of the statistics. and offers explanations of the findings. .Qellege_§anadahs coverage Of interna- tional education. although not subjected to the detailed analysis. is described in order to indicate some measure of the interest and activ- ity in international education at the Canadian community colleges. Units of content for the four analyzed publications are not evenly distributed over the ten years of the study. The first five years account for only 37.3% of all articles. with the remaining 62.7% found in the last five years (Table 1). This appears to be less a function of increasing coverage and more a problem of incomplete records. particularly for.CQnt£a&I; and a difference in focus Of thuiuuufls. which. in the early years of this study. was a monthly magazine more in the style of W rather than lime or Nelsxeek as it has been since becoming a weekly publication. Because so few articles were drawn from Macleanls. it is important that statistics related to its coverage of international education be viewed with caution. Sh 55 mum :: mm mm m: _m .N _m m. o. w_ _mu0h A. N m _ m m o o o o o . m.cmu_umz mm o _ o. o. n m m N. a o ummcucOU m__ w __ .N a o. m an m s m cam oucocoe a“. mN m. om .N mN m am a N o. __mz ecm oao_o .muOF mmm_ Nmm_ .wm_ omm_ mmm_ w~m_ -m_ oum_ mum. :~m_ .co_umu__n:a mo Lmo> >3 co_umu:no _mco_umcLOuc_ Cu mc_um_oL mo_o_ucm mo co_u:n_cum_ouu._ o_nmh 56 A condition for examining an issue was that it have an article on international education. Rarely was more than one article found. In those situations where more than one article did occur. they were usually related to one another. For example. in.CQnt£ast there were two articles on September 16. 1976. discussing a government grant to aid research on ethnic groups. One was a general announcement of the grant; the second dealt specifically with a Black History Project to be funded by the grant. In the February 25. 1977. issue of the.filehe_end_Ma11. two articles discussed rising fees and work restrictions to be placed on foreign students. One article described the proposal. and the other looked at the implications for a college that normally sends students to work placements as part of their learning experience. On August 3. 1979. two articles reported the proceedings of an international devel- opment conference. A war game that was to be introduced into grade school curricula in Ontario was reported from the standpoint of the children in one article and that of the Minister of Education in another (Glehe .and_Ma11. November 8. 1980). Two articles on July 30. 1983. also in the W. looked at Canadian aid to Eritrea. One article was critical of what was described as inappropriate aid; the other was composed of a series of interviews with CUSO volunteers who were to depart for Eritrea. This latter article attempted to uncover what those volunteers' expectations were for themselves and their programs in Eritrea. 57 In the Ignente_§un the appearance of more than one international education unit of content per issue usually was a combination of an article and an editorial. In most instances the articles were critical of technical-assistance programs in the developing countries. The concomitant editorials generally supported these criticisms. .flxnnthesis_1 will have given more space to articles on international education in the previous five years than in the first five years covered by this study. This hypothesis was supported by the evidence. However. .Cellege_Canada was not published for the full ten years of the study. nor has it appeared regularly over its period of publication. Since the arrangement was made in 1983 that one issue per year would be devoted to International Bureau news. this has almost quadrupled coverage. as measured by column centimeters. over the previous year's coverage (Table 2). The researcher read all 54 issues of Cellege_£anada and found 121 articles dealing with international development education. From October 1976 to June 1979. most of these articles fell under the heading of "Project Office Reports." The first article reported the opening. in January 1976. of the International Office of the Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC). This Office was established to facilitate and stimulate international work at colleges that are members of the ACCC. News from this office expanded as 58 activity increased. and in June 1979 the title "Project Office Reports" was changed to the "International Office Newsletter." At the present time this is a four-page insert in Cellege_Canada with two pages in English and two pages in French. In general. articles are carried in both languages with no articles presented only in one language. Table 2.--Cumulative column centimeters by year for Cellege_§anada. Cumulative Number of Number of Year Length in cm. Articles Issues 1976 135.5 7 5 1977 569.2 19 9 1978 696.5 12 9 1979 610.5 22 9 1980 583.9 12 8 1981 344.8 9 6 1982 338.0 7 4 1983 l.339.0 26 5 TOtals 4.617.4 114 55 The greatest percentage of articles found were in the categories of study abroad or international exchange. and technical assistance (60.5% of all articles). In the former category there were articles describing: 1. teachers' exchange experiences 2. how to apply for exchange postings for one's self or students 59 3. programs for international students. teachers. and administrators at Canadian community colleges 4. fee increases for foreign students (one article in April 1977. In contrast. popular press and prestige press articles in this category frequently dealt with increasing fees and the implications for foreign students and the institutions serving them.) Articles in the category of technical assistance included descriptions of technical assistance programs involving Canadian colleges working with counterpart institutions in one or more of the developing countries. Nine articles were printed that did not fall neatly into any of the designated topic areas. They included a description of the organi- zation of CIDA. a statement of the functions of the International Bureau. and articles covering the appointment of new personnel to the bureau's offices. The increases shown in coverage with the establishment of the four-page bilingual "International Bureau Newsletter" and the policy to devote one issue a year exclusively to international education and the activities of the International Bureau of the ACCC are indications that these activities are taking on increasing importance for the OCAATs and other Canadian community colleges. This is substantiated by the increase in the size of the International Bureau's staff and by the increased international education activities in which Canadian community colleges are taking part. 60 One cannot conclude that the increasing number of articles in the analyzed publications is a reflection of increased community college activities in the field of international education as described for Cellege_canada. Only three units of content make any direct reference to the role of comnunfity colleges in international education. This may indicate that OCAATs' educational administrators have not been active in providing stories to these publications that could promote both the image of the colleges and the philosophy of international education among the general public. Wham The readability levels of articles appearing in the four publications will be highest for Madeanls and the filebundjefl and lowest for the Ignente_§un and Centnast. Using the Fry readability test (Appendix A). the readability levels determined for units Of content found in the four publications are shown in Table 3. Table 3.--Readability levels of units of content. Average Number Average Number of Sentences of Syllables Reading Per 100 Words Per 100 Words Level W 3 .90 173 Col lege legen1e_§un 4.85 168 College .antneet 4.00 190 College .Macleanls 2.75 176 College 61 Although international education articles in all publications do fall within the college range. the greater number of sentences and fewer syllables per 100 words found in the Ienente_§un would indicate that their articles are slightly easier to read than are articles in the W. W. and Mafleanls. One cannot conclude. however. that In£9n19_§nn articles are more likely to be read than other articles since there is only a slight difference in readability scores. This finding is surprising in light of the fact that general opinion about the Incente_5un is that it is directed at a readership that can only handle the simplest writing. The questions might be raised: Is this readability score comparable to the readability scores of other articles in the Incente .Sun? and If it is dissimilar could this be an indication that these articles are less (or more) likely to be read? The reading levels of Mafiaanls and the Meiji: units of content may. in combination with the higher frequency of longer articles (Hypothesis 17). support the contention that these publica- tions are more likely to print articles that provide more background and interpretation of events than tend to be found in comparable articles in the IeLente_Sun. This interpretation is consistent with Tichenor's (1970) hypothesis quoted in Chapter II. that there is a knowledge gap between upper- and lower-status segments that tends to increase as those with higher socioeconomic status acquire more information from the prestige press than do those with lower status from the popular press. 62 Oldendick and Bardes's (1982) findings of the differences in under- standing Of foreign policy between "mass“ and "elite" audiences might be carried to understanding of international education if. in fact. that understanding is a function of depth of analysis. which is implied by higher readability scores and greater length of articles. W The average attention score will be higher for the Glebe_end_Majl than for the Ie:ente_§un. This hypothesis was not supported by the findings. ‘The mean score for the mm is 2.9138. while that for the (new is 2.7684. No statistically significant difference was found between these means (Table 4). Table 4.--Attention score averages. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N Entire population 2.8418 1.3435 1.8050 372 .Globe_and_Ma11 2.7684* 1.3346 1.7813 177 .IQLQntQ_§nn 2.9130* 1.2324 1.5187 115 Centres; 2.7460 1.4252 2.0312 63 .Macleanls 3.3706 1.7363 3.0147 17 *2 = 0.754! p < 0250 The attention scores for all articles fell along a curve with the peak of the curve an attention score of three (Figure 1). If Budd's (1964) claim. that the attention score is one of the latent messages of a news item. is correct. this may mean that international 63 education is not considered very important by the publications that were surveyed. In turn. one would expect that audiences do not place much importance on international education.’ 140 120 IOO Frequency 60 4O 20 O 1 2 3 4 5 Attention Score Figure l.--Attention scores for all articles in the sample. Mathew In respect to the other publications. the occurrence of wire service stories will be highest in the Ienente_Sun. This hypothesis was not supported by the statistical analysis; the predominant source of stories for all the publications was the local press. (See Table 5.) Related to the above was the finding that the predominant type Of story for the.Glnha_and_Mall..IQLQntQ_Snn. and .Contnast was the news story (Table 6). 64 Table 5.--Story origins. Local Press Wire Services Syndicated Column mum 146 29 ' 2 82.5% 16.4% 1.1% Iomntmp 82 28 5 71.3% 24.3% 4.3% Contrast 50 ll 2 79.4% 17.5% 3.2% MaCJsaOLs 17 o 0 100.0% Totals 295 68 9 79.3% 18.3% 2.4% Chi-square = 11.6. df = 6. not statistically significant. Table 6.--Distribution of story types. News Editorial Feature Letter to Editor W 133 11 31 2 W 51 16 43 5 .antnast 49 3 9 2 Macleanis 4 2 9 2 Tetals 237 32 92 11 The In:ente_§un leans more heavily than do the other publications to feature stories to cover international education. It carries fewer stories that are classified as news. ‘This raises the question of what is being selected for publication. Does the 65 .Ienente_fiun focus more heavily on "events?" Could its coverage of international education be increased by providing "eventsn-oriented articles and feature stories that might be perceived as having more appeal to the paper's readers? These findings and the attendant questions suggest that further research in this area could be fruitfuL. Educators need to know more about what types of articles to submit tOIenhance the likelihood of such articles being published. If one wishes to increase the chances that articles on international education will be read. one of the things that needs to be done is to provide stories of local origin that are likely to be of immediate interest to the readers. mmnasiu For levels of education discussed. units of content about inter- national education at the elementary level will be least frequent for all publications. Hypotheses 5 and 6 will be discussed together. mm For levels of education discussed. units of content about inter- national education at the community level will be most frequent for all publications. Both Hypotheses 5 and 6 were supported by the findings. with only 4.3% of all units of content related to elementary education while 70.7% were related to community education (Table 7). The interpreta- tions of these findings are incorporated with the subsequent findings and interpretations for Hypothesis 7 since they are closely related. 66 Table 7.--Levels of education covered. Elementary Secondary Postsecondary _ Community W 13 17 45 102 mm 0 2 5 108 Canines: 3 7 11 41 Macleanis 0 2 3 12 TOtals 16 28 64 263 Chi-square - 50.62. df = 9. p < .001. .H¥99Ih§§15_1 Units of content describing technical assistance will be more prevalent than those describing other types of international education. The coverage of technical assistance in preference to other types of international education was statistically significant. A crosstabulation of dateaof publication by type of international education showed a chi-square of 60JT7 with 45 degrees of freedom (p < .05). The cells that contribute most heavily to this score are those in technical education with a high incidence of items and those in global components and foreign language with the fewest (Table 8). As was mentioned previously. the coverage for levels of education is very unequally distributed (Table 7). For all publications the greatest percentage of coverage is given to community education. This is. in turn. related to the high percentage of articles that deal with technical assistance programs. The imbalance is particularly noticeable in the general lack of coverage of 67 international education at the elementary and secondary levels and. for the In:ente_§un. at the postsecondary levels. This appears to support Chaffee and Ward's (1968) observation that although newspapers may be willing to publish education news they tend to wait for it to be provided rather than to seek it out themselves. It would be useful to know whether or not Toronto educators. like their American counter- parts. fail to take the initiative in providing stories to the news- papers. Table 8.--Crosstabu1ation: Year by type of international education. 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Global component 0 O l O 1 0 6 0 l 1 Foreign language 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 3 0 0 Multicultural/ multiethnic 0 0 4 6 2 3 ‘6 3 2 3 Study abroad/ international 2 1 4 14 3 8 9 17 8 12 Community seminar 0 l 1 5 2 1 2 2 1 4 Technical assistance 16 8 9 44 13 38 20 37 21 24 Totals 18 1O 19 71 21 51 43 62 33 44 It was also found that the incidence of technical assistance units of content has remained relatively consistent over the ten-year period. ranging from a low of eight articles in 1975 to a high of 38 68 articles in 1979 (Table 8). Articles related to study abroad or international exchange appeared consistently over the past five years. Many of these articles describe increases in foreign student fees and appear when the Ministries of Colleges and Universities. or Education. announce such increases. Concern with rising fees. although laudable. does not give the newspaper audiences a very balanced idea of what foreign students contribute to Canada. aside from money. No articles were found that considered the long-term educational. trade. or political benefits that might be lost if the foreign student enrollment were to decline dramatically. W The Glehe_and_Ma11 will quote a greater number of international experts than will the IenentQ_Sun or Qentnast. This hypothesis was not supported by the evidence. Contrast had the highest percentage (14.3%) of international sources. with the .G]ebe_an.d_Ma_il using these sources in only 11.9% of its articles and the Incente_5un in only 10.4% (Table 9). Table 9.--Percentage of types of sources quoted. by publication. Insti- Interest National International None or tution Group Expert Expert Reporter msbLanLMaLl 41.2 13.0 25.4 11.9 8.5 .Ienente_§nn 4.3 13.0 54.8 10.4 17.4 9901:3511 20.6 17.5 12.7 14.3 34.9 69 This may mean that the stories being published are not providing the breadth of international perspective that might be hoped for. Particularly surprising is the finding that the Glehe_ene_Meil quoted international experts in only 11.9% Of its units of content. Generally. prestige publications are found to have a higher proportion of citations for international experts. as was the case in Kern et al.'s (1983) study of coverage of four Kennedy crises. This study did not encompass analysis of other international articles. Some interesting differences may exist between coverage of international education and coverage of other foreign policy. One is faced with the question of how much credibility readers of the prestige press will place on a foreign policy article if it does not quote international experts as well as national experts or those representing institutions or interest groups. W On the average more sources will be quoted in the Glebe_end_ue11 than in the W or Contrast. This hypothesis was supported by the results of the Crosstab analysis. While only 39% of the Glebe_and_flejjls articles cited one source. 53.4% of the W and 73.0% of mutual: articles cited single sources. Not surprisingly. Macleanls. which tended to have longer articles when it covered international education. quoted five or more sources in 52.9% of the cases. However. given the small number of cases. this must be viewed with caution. (See Table 10.) 70 Table 10.--Average number of sources quoted. by publication. Sum Mean Std. Dev. Variance N Entire population 827 2.223 1.435 2.060 372 Glnhs_anfi_Mall 456 2.576* 1.506 2.268 177 IQEQDIILSHH 220 1.913* 1.218 1.483 115 .Qentneet 93 1.476 .913 .834 63 .Masleanls 58 3.412 1.805 3.257 17 *A statistically significant difference was found between the mean scores for the Glebe_end_ua11 and the IeLente_&wn; z = 4. p < .001. One may infer from this finding that the Glehe_end_flail is more likely to provide greater background and analysis of international education issues than the Ignente_$un or Qentnast. This is supported by the earlier findings on readability levels and the higher frequency of longer articles found in the Glebe_and_ue11 and by subsequent references to the higher frequency of neutral articles found in the mum. 1119.911133an On the average more sources will be quoted in.QQntLast than in the W. The statistics did not support this hypothesis (Table 10). Only 53.9% of the W units of content quoted one source. while 73.0% of Cnntnasfls units of content relied on single sources. This may be explained by the fact that.CQntLast is a very small newspaper with limited staff and money. It may not be possible for its reporters to contact and interview as many individuals as would be 71 possible with more resources. Also contributing to this may be the fact that many of panama: articles were. in substance. descriptions of forthcoming community events related to international education in which a spokesperson either contacted. or was contacted by. a reporter for information. Will A more favorable direction will be found in units of content that are written at the national level than for those at the personal or international level. This hypothesis was not supported by the findings. A signifi- cant difference was found in the direction of all articles for differ- ent taxonomic levels. with a tendency toward more unfavorable coverage of international education when the units of analysis dealt with issues at a national level. and a more favorable direction for those units at the personal or international leveL. Between overall means for national and personal levels. 2 = 6.376. p < .001; between overall means for national and international/interhuman levels. 2 = 9.55. p < .001 (Favorable = 1. Neutral = 2. Unfavorable = 3). (See Table 11.) Table 11.--Direction of unit by taxonomic level. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N Entire population 1.965 .832 .692 372 National 2.379 .725 .526 174 Personal 1.571 .791 .625 49 International 1.601 .726 .527 149 72 Analysis Of the breakdown of direction of article by taxonomic level for each publication showed the following: 1. .Glebe_and_Ma11—-There was no significant difference between the direction of articles at the national and personal levels but a significant difference between the directions at the national and international levels (Table 12L Table 12.--Mean direction of units for Glebe_and_Ma11. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N National 2.1447* .6871 .4721 76 Personal 2.0000 .8485 .7200 26 International 1.6622* .7267 .5281 75 *z = 4.15. p < .0001. 2. ;Ienente_5un--There was a significant difference between direction at the national and personal levels. the national and international levels. but not between the personal and international levels (Table 13). 3. .Qentnast--There was no significant difference found between direction Of articles at the national and international levels. A significant difference was found between national and personal levels (Table 14). 73 Table 13.--Mean direction of units for Incente_5un. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N National 2.8082* .4612 ‘ .2127 73 Personal 1.4000 .5477 .3000 5 International 1.7027* .7769 .6036 37 *z = 7.9. p < .0001. Table l4.--Mean direction of units for Centnast. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N National 1.6316* .7609 .5789 19 Personal 1.0000* 0 0 18 International 1.2692 .5335 .2846 26 *2 = 305) p < .0009. 4. MacleanlsuA significant difference was found between direction of articles and national and international levels. (There were no articles found on the personal level.) (See Table 15.) Table 15.--Mean direction of units for Maeleaan. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N National 2.5000 .5477 .3000 6 International 1.6364 .8090 .6545 11 Z 3 2049 p < 0020 74 A significant difference was discovered in the direction of articles and the publication in which they appeared. with Centres: more favorably disposed and the Ie:ente_§un most unfavorably disposed. The W and Maeleanls achieved a greater balance. However. given the size Of Maeleanls sample. its distribution may not be as reliably interpreted as the distributions for the other publications. which have a greater number of cases. Mean scores were significantly different. with the greatest difference found between the Ienente_5un and Qantas; and no significant differences found between the (amend Mail and Macleanls (Table 16). Table 16.--Mean direction of unit by publication. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N Entire population 1.9651 .8316 .6915 372 .Glnhs_ann_Ma11 1.9266 .7614 .5798 177 .IDLQnIQ_$un 2.3913* .8024 .6438 115 .Cnntnaai 1.3016* .5857 .3431 63 .Macleanls 1.9412 .8269 .6838 17 *2 g 1003' p < 0000]. From these statistics one can infer that the Iezente_5un is less favorably disposed toward international education activities. especially from a nationalist standpoint. Such activities are often presented as threatening national unity or costing the country money. Of the 73 articles appearing in the.Ie£QnIQ_§un that had a national 75 orientation. 84.9% of those were directed at avoiding national injury. This could account for the unfavorable direction of these articles. Illustrations are useful in examining the differences in direction for some of these publications for they provide examples of the direction and. in some instances. the strongly pro-nationalist stance assumed by the.Innnntn_§nan reporters. A February 6. 1974. article in the Ingente_§un. titled "CIDA-- armchair revolutionary." spoke of industrialized countries being "blackmailed" into providing aid and suggested that oil-exporting countries should be contributing to development projects. On March 30. 1977. a Canadian Press wire service article. "Foreign aid may boost separati sm." cited rumors that employees of private aid agencies were undermining Canadian unity. Roughly a year later. the Ienente_§nn carried a feature article reviewing a book on international education and foreign aid. The March 26. 1978. article was headlined. "This will make you angry." and detailed how Canada had been providing aid to Communist dictatorships. This article was highly critical of giving assistance to developing countries. stating that most sub-Saharan African nations were Communist and should not be supported with technical assistance programs because this then left them with money that could be spent on arms and revolution. This theme is rather consistent throughout the W coverage of aid or assistance to African nations and generally is presented in such a way that the reader's conclusion will be that support to these countries poses a threat to Canada's safety. 76 The idea of global interdependence is not usually supported or given credence in the Iezente_§un. On June 2. 1978. an editorial appeared entitled. "Forked tongue." in which Prime Minister Trudeau was criticized for giving aid to Africa. It argued that Africans should solve their own problems and not rely upon the "generosity" of others. Many such articles were also direct or indirect attacks on Prime Minister Trudeau and the Liberal federal government. [ha Morton Shulman. a medical doctor. television interviewer. and columnist for the Ienente_§nn. has been especially critical of Canadian technical assistance projects--both those administered by CIDA and those funded by CIDA but administered by nongovernmental agencies. In January 1977. Dr. Shulman wrote a column for the W titled "CIDA Shenanigans in Haiti" (January 11. 1977). Several articles ensued in this paper dealing with the issue that had been raised by Shulman. ’ Shul man's "expose’" was written after a one-week vacation in Haiti. The article accused CIDA officials and the CIDA overseas place— ments of misusing funds. "studying" the Haitians rather than helping them to develop. riding around in helicopters and "pleasure boats." hiring family members to work on the project--in short. doing nothing of real value for the Haitians. Interestingly. many of Shulman's statements were refuted in a W1 article that was carried a few weeks later and finally partly refuted by the feature articles described later in this chapter. 77 Other articles argue against assistance programs. saying that if people in developing countries acquire the skills of workers in Canada. they will be competing with Canadian industries. In October 1979 and December 1979. articles critical of assistance programs gave as the reason for opposing such aid the fact that 80% of the recipient countries were dictatorships;("Scrambled Aid.” October 14. 1979) and in the second article that 75% of the Third World was comprised of dictatorships. ‘The theme that most aid helps Third World dictatorships recurred on June 18. 1981. in an article BAid fallacy." and in an editorial "Out of Control." on February 12. 1982. The focus of these statements was not that aid should be withheld to secure international justice but that giving such aid was potentially dangerous to Canada. In December 1980. Dr. Shulman raised the issue of how aid was being wasted in Antigua and said that if Canada were to quit giving aid "we'd be a billion dollars aheadeach and every year!" ("How aid is wasted in Antigua." Incente_fiun. December 9. 1980). The striking feature of so many of the W articles is that the issue of amount of money spent. wasted. or proposed for aid is a predominant theme in articles dealing with international educa- tion. It is rare. in this ten-year period. to find lenente_5un articles that indicate an international education project has been successful and that money was well spent. Almost always the reader is told that the money would be better spent at home or that development 78 money is fostering the development of dictatorships that will ulti- mately pose a threat to Canada. The only exception found was a feature series that was done in 1977 by a reporter sent to the Caribbean to do a follow-up on Shulman's criticisms of CIDA projects in Haiti. And this could hardly be seen as totally favorable. although it is somewhat more balanced in perspective and claims that Shulman gets a rating of ”65% for accuracy and fairness in his Haiti report? (Innente_§un. April 4. 1977). A later article in the series accuses Shulman of not spending enough time to check out his facts and so his accuracy rating for an article on technical assistance in Montserrat is only 20% (IeLente_Snn. April 5. 1977). This IQ:ente_Sun reporter is not as harsh in his judgments as many others are. In one article. "Many commit aid b1 unders" (Inmate Sun. April 6. 1977). some of the statements that are more sympathetic are that the Canadians in the field are responsive to the needs of their clients and do want to help and that when a nation "gives a little aid. it takes a lot of criticism" (IQLQDIQ_§un. April 6. 1977). In contrast with these articles. which are generally critical of technical assistance programs and would solve the problem by cutting all aid except for disaster relief. are the articles in the Glehe_end Mall. Although they are often critical of aid programs. they do offer suggestions for ways to improve the administration of such programs so that assistance activities may be more effective. 'They also are more likely to point out that the costs in a development project are not 79 borne exclusively by Canada but are shared by the developing country (”Realism replaces idealism among CUSO volunteers." August 28. 1979). The W is also more likely to present altruistic arguments for continuing technical assistance. as it did in an article "Humanitarian values should prevail over self-interesth (October 15. 1979) and in a later article that expressed concern that cuts to Canada's foreign aid budget would have some detrimental effects on technical assistance projects in developing countries ("Canada's foreign aid cuts spell Third World hardship." January 21. 1983). There is also an attempt shown on the part of the fi]ebe_an_d .Mail to educate its readers about the nature of aid programs being risks. in the sense that if there were no risk. developing countries would be able to get straight bank loans to do what needs to be done. This is an argument in support of continuing technical assistance programs that has not been found in any of the Incente_§unts articles. Generally. one may conclude that articles in the mm are more objective and better researched than those in the W. This may be an important consideration in selecting which publications might be most appropriately approached to carry international education articles and how such articles should be written. W The average attention score will be higher for articles at the national level on McKeown's taxonomic scale. than for articles at the personal or international levels. This hypothesis was not supported by the evidence (Table 17). The breakdown for each publication's attention scores by taxonomic level showed no significant differences for the Glebe_and_Meil or 11mm; (Tables 18 and 19). There was a significant difference for mean attention scores according to taxonomic level in the.I9£Qn19_5un. with national level units of content having higher mean scores than personal level units. No significant difference in means appeared between personal and international levels (Table 20). .Qentnest had a higher mean attention score for national level articles than for per- sonal or international level articles (Table 21). Table 17.--Mean attention scores for taxonomic levels. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N Entire population 2.8418 1.3435 1.8050 372 National 2.9368 1.3043 1.7012 174 Personal 2.7347 1.2546 1.5740 49 International 2.7635 1.4207 2.0185 148 z = .90. not statistically significant. Table l8.--Mean attention scores for taxonomic levels. W. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N Entire population 2.7684 1.3346 1.7813 177 National 2.5526 1.2154 1.4772 76 Personal 3.1538 1.3767 1.8954 26 International 2.8514 1.4208 2.0187 75 z = 1.94. not statistically significant. 81 Table 19.--Mean attention scores for taxonomic levels..MaslfianL§- Mean Std. Dev. Variance N Entire population 3.3706 1.7363 ‘ 3.0147 17 National 3.6667 1.7512 3.0667 6 International 3.3636 1.8040 3.2545 11 z = .30. not statistically significant. Table 20.--Mean attention scores for taxonomic levels..Ih£9nI9_$un. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N Entire population 2.9130 1.2324 1.5187 115 National 3.0822 1.2556 1.5765 73 Personal 1.6000 1.1402 1.3000 5 International 2.7568 1.0905 1.1892 37 Z = 205' p < .0175. Table 21.--Mean attention scores for taxonomic levels..£901£i§t. Mean Std. Dev. Variance N Entire population 2.7460 1.4252 2.0312 63 National 3.6842*8 1.2496 1.5614 19 Personal 2.4444* .7838 .6144 18 International 2.26928 1.5889 2.5246 26 *z = 3.54. p < .0009. 92 = 30200 p < .0024. 82 The higher attention score for W units of content dealing with national level issues may be related to the unfavorable direction of these articles: the criticism of aid and the call for more conservative. isolationist policies in relation to aid and technical assistance. There is. however. no statistical evidence to support this. It is only the writer's speculation that because this paper seems to sell itself by providing stories that allow people to commiserate on how awful the government is and what a sorry state of affairs the world has reached. greater attention may be given to those articles that provide grist for the misery mill. Hypothesile The orientation of Comma articles will be higher on McKeown's taxonomic scale than will the W the W15. or Maslaanls. This hypothesis was not supported by the evidence. Macleanls had the highest percentage of articles with an international or inter- human orientation; 64.7% of its articles were categorized at this level. (The small number of cases should caution the reader to view these statistics tentatively.) This was followed by the C]_obe_en.d_flefl with 41.3. Emma with 41.3%. and the W with 32.8%. The Iononto_§_un had the highest percentage of articles with a national orientation. 62.9%. while Qantas: had the lowest percentage of articles with a national orientation. 30.2%. The distribution of articles across McKeown's taxonomic levels was more even for Contnast than for any of the other publications. Articles with a personal orientation enjoyed the highest percentage in Contmst at 28.6% with only 14.7% of the W articles accounted for at the personal orientation level. In a chi-square test. from which Mafleanls was excluded. a significant relationship was found between taxonomic levels and the remaining three publications (Table 22). The greatest differences were found in: 1. the high frequency of articles with a national orientation in theIomntLSun 2. the infrequency of articles with a personal orientation in the mm 3. the low frequency of articles with a national orientation inContrast 4. the high frequency of articles with a personal orientation inContrast Table 22.--Crosstabulation of publication by taxonomic level. National Personal International Row Total .GJCDLanILMail 76 26 75 177 .IQLQntn_$un 73 5 37 115 Contrast 19 18 26 63 Column total 168 49 138 355 Chi-square = 30.3. df = 4. p < .01. For the 174 articles classified as having a national orientation on McKeown's taxonomic scale. 71.8% focused on the need to 84 avoid national injury. 16.1% dealt with increasing national worth. and only 12.1% were concerned with promoting the national image. Examples of coverage are presented to illustrate these three perspectives. On January 13. 1977. the Glooe_end_Ma11 printed an article. "East Indians found butt of student predudice. report says talk Of 'Paki-busting' is horrifying." The report encourages the presentation of factual information in classrooms to remove the ignorance that exists among the students. thus avoiding both the injury to the country of having an international reputation for being bigoted and the internal strife that such bigotry could promote. A later article. "Racism panel urged for schools in York" (October 4. 1977). continues this theme. In a September 10. 1981. article. "Idea of hiring foreign students assailed." it was stated that we could injure Canada by increasing the unemployment rate of citizens through the practice of hiring foreign students (Glooe_and_Ma11). I In an article in the Paul Hellyer column (Iononto_§un. July 27. 1977). the author suggested that Canada is losing money because of the lack of financial control over CIDA activities and suggested that an associatelninister be appointed to exercise such control as was needed to prevent waste of Canadian money. CUSO/SUOO comes under repeated criticism from the Io:onto_§un. An editorial on July 29. 1977. accuses the organization of being ideologically corrupt and spreading that corruption throughout Canada by sponsoring community seminars by South-Saharan "terroristsJ' 85 Several other articles either imply or state that Prime Minister Trudeau's foreign aid policies are destroying the country. An article. "Our cash aiding Commie nations" (May 18. 1979). is characteristic of the tenor of many articles in the IoLontLSun. Their argument is that by giving aid and training people in developing countries. Canadians will end up with these people producing goods that will compete with Canadian industry. Units of content in.ConI£ast tend to take a more global approach. One article classified at the national level and promoting national image does not refer to Canada but to Nigeria. The Nigerian Acting High Commissioner to Canada was quoted as praising the press coverage given to Festac. an African festival held in Nigeria in 1977 ("Nigerians praise Festac coverage." March 24. 1977). Another unit details the visit of Guyanese leaders to Canada. a visit that was meant to increase the national worth of Guyana. "Guyanese leaders visit: Summary" (November 3. 1977). Similarly. the Macleanls units classified as having a national orientation often refer to other nations. as in an article decrying the perpetuation of Soviet and United States history textbooks' distortions about one another ("And did Lenin invent the wheel?" March 3. 1980). One article. "Inspecting Visa Schools.” points out the need for better controls on visa schools if Canada is to promote itself in developing countries. These schools are private high schools that are designed specifically to teach international students English and to graduate than with an Ontario Grade 13 diploma so that they will be 86 more likely to gain admission to a Canadian university. They have been the subject of several investigations because of mismanagement. false advertising claims. and graduation of students ill-prepared to deal with the challenges of Canadian university wOrk. Only 49 articles occurred that were classified as having a personal orientation. Of these. 6.1% were directed at developing sel f- appreciation. 24.5% at increasing personal enjoyment. and 69.4% at gaining self-fulfillment. None of these articles occurred in .Maoleanls. Most were found in the.Globe_end_Mb11. (See Table 23.) Table 23.--Crosstabulation of publication by personal orientation. Self- Personal Self- Row Appreciation Enjoyment Fulfillment TOtal .Glooo_and_Ma11 1 4 21 26 lorontoaun o 1 4 5 Contrast 2 7 ’9 18 Column total 3 12 34 49 Chi-square = 5.24. df = 4. not statistically significant. The substance of these articles included accounts of the sense of personal fulfillment achieved through working on technical assist- ance projects. visits to other cultures that hel ped one to do one's job better. the attempts of different cultural groups to maintain their cultures while adapting to life in a new culture. and the development 87 of programs to help people function better in cross-cultural situa- tions. At the level of international orientation. 85.8% of all items were classified ”to attain international justice." In an article "Canadians bring hope to village of despair." the.Iononto_§on (August 2. 1974) says that ”CIDA is offering hope where despair was once the rule." Articles in the W tended to be at least neutral if they did not show clear favor for closing the gap between the rich and poor countries. They described the effects of the energy crisis on people in the underdeveloped world ("A sobering picture." January 31. 1974); the work being done to assist people to raise their standards of living ("Cuba aid through CIDA is $9 million." February 27. 1974); and a cooperative development project among Tanzania. Zambia. and China.("A liberation railway picks up steam.” July 12. 1974). Later articles in the Iononto_£un at the international level appear to be supportive of technical assistance as a way of attaining international justice but are often critical of the programs that exist. saying they do not get to the right people or are not meaningful to the recipients. One article on July 7. 1982. is exceptional for the .Iononto_5un in that it reports. in a favorable way. the need to provide programs that will attack the illiteracy problems of women in develop- ing countries. The article is a report of a speech by the director of CIDA. It is unusual because the reporter does not add any opinions or judgments to the substance of the items mentioned by the speaker. 88 W The occurrence of delayed reward units of content will be higher in Macleanls and the W than in the W or against. Hypotheses l4 and l5 are discussed together. W The occurrence of immediate reward units of content will be highest in the W. Statistical evidence did not support either of these hypothe- ses. For the combined data it was found that 56% of the articles were classified as delayed reward. with 32% a combination. and only ll.6% providing solely immediate reward (Table 24). Table 24.--Crosstabulation of publication by reward. Immedi ate Del ayed Row Reward Reward Combination Total Mail 27 1 13 37 177 W 7 42 66 1 l5 commas: 8 45 8 62 Macleanls l 8 8 17 Column total 43 208 l l9 37l Chi-square = 57.947. df = 6. p < .005. Contributing to most of the above chi-square differences were the W delayed reward cell and the W combination reward cell. One may interpret these as a reflection of the fact that so many of the articles deal with international education that is 89 remote from the lives of the readers. Issues of foreign aid budgets do not concern the individual in her or his day-to~day existence. This may be especially true for readers of the popular press. Several questions arise. because of these findings. about how much people think about international education issues. Given the average attention score and the combined reward qualities found for these units of content. it seems likely that the "mass" audience is probably very poorly informed. If more immediate reward articles were provided. possibly at the personal level. it might be possible to raise people's interest and thus begin to increase their understanding of and appreciation for international education. Alger's (1978) belief that there is disinterest in learning about international affairs appears to be as likely to occur among readers of Toronto publications. given these findings. . The researcher also ran a Spearman correlation coefficient to determine if there was any relationship between the attention score and reward for either the overall totals or individual publications. No strong correlations were found (overall: .l360;.£19be_ann_flail: .0280; W: .373l; mums: -.047l; W: -.3052). mm Frequency and direction of units of content are related to inter- national crises. With the data available. it is not possible to identify a trend toward a greater coverage of one area of international education over any other. The coverage of technical assistance remains quite 90 consistent over the ten-year period as does study abroad/international exchange over the past five years. Incidence of these latter articles does appear to be related to provincial budget proposals when articles refer to foreign students' flee increases. or in some cases to interna- tional incidents such as that in l979 when Iranian students were trying to leave the United States because of the hostage-taking of Americans in Iran. There do not appear to be any long-term trends or dramatic increases in coverage related to major news events as determined by examining the major headline for the day and weekend paper for each article analyzed. As an issue of importance. international education appears to hold relatively low status for the.519h9_and_Mail. the.IQ£QnIQ_$un.‘and Macleanls. There is a tremendous gap between what is being done and what is being reported. One can question whether or net this is a purposeful omission or the result of educators not taking a more systematic approach to providing such information to the press. More research. in the form of surveys of educators. and additional content- analysis studies could be helpful in answering these questions and raising additional related ones. HypothesLLJl mantras]; will commit a greater number of column centimeters to international education in an average unit of content than will the W1. lemma: or Macleanls. 91 The evidence did not support this hypothesis. Frequency counts for length of articles show that most articles were in the 5.0 to 49.9 centimeter range. with the frequency falling as length increases (Table 25). Only the W and mm carried articles (one each) that exceeded 300 centimeters. And only 1439191015 had a higher per- centage of articles in the 50 to 99.9 centimeter and the 100 to l49.9 centimeter ranges than it did in the 5.0 to 49.9 centimeter range. Table 25.--Crosstabulation of publication by column centimeters. 5-49 50-99 100-149 150-399 Row Total W 104 48 l0 l5 l7? Wm 87 20 8 o 115 W 55 7 O O 62 Hasleanls 3 7 4 3 17 Column total 249 82 22 18 37l Chi-square = 48. df = 9. p < .OOl. The shorter length of articles in Qantas; may be related to the higher number of articles that are announcements of community cultural events. workshops. and seminars. The longer length of Globe mum articles may suggest. along with the findings for Hypotheses 2 and 9. that their coverage of international education provides more background and analytical content than do the units of content found in the W or 920112.851. 92 .Sumau The researcher found that the number and length of articles on international education appearing in lelage_canada have increased over the past five years. This increase was not found to be reflected in the analyzed publications. where very few articles discussed community college involvement in international education activities. On the infrequent occasions when more than one unit of analysis appeared in an issue of any of the publications. those units were usually related. Readability levels were found to be only slightly higher for mm; and the W1 than for the Wu or W Attention scores for units of analysis fell along a curve with the peak of the curve an attention score of three. Most stories originated with the local press. and the predomi- nant type of story for the Globe_and_Ma11..Ignnntg_§un. and Contnaat was the news story. Macleanls carried a higher percentage of feature stories. Coverage for levels of education and types of international education was found to be unequally distributed. with the greatest percentage of coverage given to community education and technical assistance. There was no evidence to support the hypothesis that the ‘Glgbe_and_Ma11 would quote a greater number of international experts than would the Igngntg_$un or.Qont£n§t. In fact..an1£nst had the highest percentage of international experts cited per article. 93 The hypothesis that more sources would be quoted in the W than in the 19mm or mains; was supported by the findings. It was found that fewer sources were quoted in .CQDILAEI than had been anticipated. This finding may be related to the fact that .Qqntnast has more limited resources. A significant difference was found between the direction of articles at different taxonomic levels. with those units of content at the national level being classified as more unfavorable in direction. The hypothesis that the average attention score for the 51mm would be higher than that for the Mun was not supported by the findings. The hypothesis that the orientation of mm articles on McKeown's taxonomic scale would be higher than that for the other three publications was not supported by the statistics. However. Qantas; was found to have a significantly high level of articles at the personal level in contrast with the W or the W. Looking at immediate. delayed. or combined reward characteris- tics. the Iqun. W: and Qantas}. had a significant number of combined reward articles. No evidence was found to support the hypothesis that frequency and direction of units of analysis are related to international crises. Most articles at the national level focused on the need to avoid national injury. It was found that articles in mum: tend to show a more global approach to international education even in articles 94 written at the national level. The same trait was found in the .Magleanis articles coded at the national level. The hypothesis that.£9n1£iat would publish longer articles on international education than the other publications was not supported by the evidence. Instead. the ,GjLQbLanLMafl and mm: averaged longer articles. The coverage of international education over the past ten years. for the publications surveyed. has been generally insignificant. There is a dramatic discrepancy in coverage of different levels and types of international education. as well as an obvious emphasis in the .Igngntg_5un on the costs of technical assistance and foreign student programs. From an international educator's perspective. these are disappointing findings. The next chapter provides a summary of this study. conclusions. and implications for educators. Suggestions for additional research are offered. CHAPTER V OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY. CONCLUSIONS. IMPLICATIONS. AND SUGGESTIONS FOR RESEARCH WW Perusal of professional journals indicates that educators are concerned about international education at all levels and in the many forms it may take: global components in the curriculum. foreign- language study. multicultural and multiethnic programs. international exchange and study abroad. and technical assistance. Both self- interest and more altruistic concerns are given as justifiable reasons for engaging in international education. As newcomers in the field of international education. the OCAATs have much to gain from acquiring strategies that could help them to promote international education among their respective client audi- ences. Several of the authors cited in this study encouraged educators to find interest groups that will lobby for them in support of interna- tional education. They also suggested that it is helpful to identify those negative forces that may be interfering with the development or maintenance of international education programs. This research was conducted to give community college admin- istrators an assessment of the coverage of international education over a ten-year period. in four Canadian publications that serve a 95 96 cross-section of Toronto audiences. 'This can be important information to these administrators as they plan their colleges"futures. work with their publics. and make decisions about international education activi- ties. The research method used was a content analysis of the four publications. Over 370 units of content were analyzed in elements that were considered to be important to the drawing of inferences about the readers! awareness of international education. the importance they might place on it. and the favor or disfavor with which they might view it. Content analysis was selected in preference to a survey of readers because it is unobtrusive and has the potential for uncovering shifting trends that may not be found in a static. one-time survey. There are. of course. limitations to this method. One can only infer what public opinion is likely to be. One cannot know what information may have been available for publication and rejected. There have not been similar studies done in this particular domain that could substantiate or discredit the findings of this study. The researcher also found that one publication did not have complete records for the past ten years. and this may mean that some data are missing that could have altered the statistical findings. Finally. hhu:haufls. for the entire ten-year period. only published 17 articles on international education. This does not allow for any reliable conclusions to be drawn on the basis of statistical evidence. One may only make some speculative. or perhaps intuitive. statements about the findings for this publication. 97 As with any ex post facto design. one must be cautious about making any causal inferences. Certainly the findings in this study indicate a need for additional research in order for any of the inferences presented to be accepted with any certainty. Conclusions The questions the researcher wished to answer in the study are repeated below. and conclusions drawn from the findings are presented after each question. l. How do the four publications compare in their coverage of international education? Based on the findings of this study. tentative conclusions may be drawn about the characteristics of each of the four publications' coverage of international education. Knowledge of these characteris- tics may be of help in designing articles that are likely to be accepted for publication. .antnas . the weekly minority newspaper. notwithstanding its incomplete records. prints proportionately more international education articles than do the other three publications. Primarily. these articles give attention to those activities or issues that will be of most interest to the black communities in the Toronto area. This paper has a higher frequency of articles with a personal orientation and tends to print articles that are favorably disposed to interna- tional education. In general. the units of content found did not exceed 50 column centimeters in length. Technical assistance and 98 multicultural or multiethnic international education were the two most frequently discussed types. Because there were so few international education articles carried in Macleanh over the ten-year period. it is difficult to reach strong conclusions about characteristics of its coverage of this topic. However. the fact that so few articles have appeared may be an indica- tion that the editors of this publication are not as interested in international education as are those of the other publications that were surveyed. Education. in general. is dealt with as a feature and does not appear in every issue of the magazine. The articles that did appear were concerned most often with technical assistance and interna- tional exchange or study abroad. There was a tendency for these articles to be longer than those in Contrast and the Igngntg_$un. which would indicate a more analytical approach to the topic being discussed. This is supported by the higher number of sources quoted. which also indicates an attempt to get at more opinions and more detailed explana- tions rather than a simple accounting of facts. unexplained and detached from other things happening: politically. socially. or eco- nomically. Of the two daily newspapers surveyed. the W is more objective and more analytical in its coverage of international education. Its articles. on the average. are longer than those in the .Igngntg_§un. which is indicative of the presentation of more background information. The attempt is made to present a variety of opinions. The filobe_and_Ma11 does show an imbalance of coverage of international 99 education. which can be noted in their high percentages of articles that deal with technical assistance or study abroad. Those articles in the latter category dealt with rising fees for foreign students at universities or colleges in Canada in almost all instances. The direction of articles in the Glnh2_and_flall tended to be more neutral than the direction of articles in the IQLQnIQ_§un. Articles in the Igzgntg_§un were more critical of international development and tended to be at the national level on McKeown's scale. with many arguments opposing international education because it was seen as a threat to national security. 'The lower number of sources cited and the shorter average length of units of content appear to be related to the lack of development of background information and analysis of international education issues. None of the four surveyed publications reflected the increase in international education activity that was indicated by the increas- ing coverage of community college activity as reported in College Canada. 2. Which aspects of international education receive the most coverage? For all four publications. the community level of education received most coverage. and this generally covered topics in the area of technical assistance. The next most frequent type of international education covered was international exchange or study abroad. In almost all cases these units of content were concerned with changes in tuition fees for foreign students and what these changes would mean. 100 both to the students and the colleges or universities where they were studying. It is interesting that only rarely was any attention given to elementary and secondary levels of education. This may be related to the scant coverage of global components in the curriculum and foreign language studies which may be considered more the domain of those levels of education. One may question whether this imbalance in coverage is a result of these items being considered more as "proc- esses" than as "events" and thus presumed to be of less interest to readers. 3. How prominently are these articles placed in the four publications? Generally. according to the attention scores assigned to articles. they are not given prominent placement in any of the four publications. The average attention score for all papers was slightly under three on a possible scale from zero (low attention) to five (high attention). Only 11.3% of all articles achieved an attention score of five. This may convey a latent message to readers that the issue of international education is not considered to be very important in the opinion of the editors (Budd. 1964). One may wish to reflect on whether or not this low attention score may be related to the "domestic backlash issue" raised by Wygal (1979); the conservative orientation that Schultz (l979) mentioned as a reason that proposals for international education may be like "waving a 101 red flag"; or the concern identified by Simon (l980) that immigrants are intent upon becoming enculturated in their new country and do not want reminders of the cultures they have left. The findings of this research do not attempt to prove that that is the case but do raise a question which may deserve more investigation. 4. What value does each publication place on international education? The publication that carried the highest percentage of articles favorable to international education was Contnast. ‘The Igzgn:g_5un had the highest percentage of articles classified as unfavorable. Articles in the 51mm; and MM tended to be distributed more evenly across the range of favorable. neutral. and unfavorable. 5. Is there any relationship between major news events and the quantity or quality of international education coverage? No significant relationship was found between major national or international news events and the quantity or quality of international education articles. The only instance in which articles were found to be tied to the more general national news were those in which provin- cial budget announcements were made that would have consequences for foreign students"tuition costs. At the international level. the taking of American hostages in Iran set off a reaction among Iranian students in the United States who. fearing retaliation. asked to transfer to colleges and universities in Canada. A very few articles reported these requests. 102 If one is to say there are any trends in publication of articles on international education. it would only be to say that ‘technical assistance consistently received more coverage than other 'forms of international education. However. this does not appear to be related to major news events recorded in the newspaper headlines for the day on which a unit of content was found. or for the weekend day nearest to the date the unit was found. IanJsatinns Based on the findings of this study. there are some implica- tions and suggestions that OCAATs' administrators and others may want to consider if they are interested in either establishing their col- leges or schools in the field of international education or expanding their activities in this area. Specific suggestions are given for increasing print media coverage. which may improve the chances of developing a better-informed public--one willing to support interna- tional education activities. Because different styles and approaches are used by the four publications. it is necessary to be sensitive to these differences and to modify stories to suit the styles of the respective publications. For example. in preparing a news story for the W it may be important to provide more details. quote more sources. and remain more objective than one would in preparing an item for the Igngntg_§nn. There appear to be certain risks attendant to supplying stories to the Igngntg_§un. These risks should be weighed carefully and should be considered for each instance in which a story is supplied to this 103 paper. ‘Asking oneself the following questions may help to reduce the risks. Will the paper accurately present the item submitted? Is the article on a taxonomic level that will be acceptable to the readers? Is the story one with which readers will be able to identify? Are there negative aspects to this story that might result in the college receiving negative coverage? Can the effectiveness of programs be proven and associated costs justified? The articles that. on the basis of these research findings. would seem to be more accepted by Contrast would be those with specific appeal for the black communities of the area. It is likely that items at all taxonomic levels would be acceptable and that those with a personal orientation might be especially well received. If the OCAATs are interested in improved press coverage of international education activities and other college activities. it is worth considering a collaborative effort among the colleges to collect and assess published articles and to design strategies to develop and maintain good relationships with the press. This could apply to radio and television as well as to newspapers. Schools and colleges need to take a more aggressive position in providing stories for the newspapers. King's (l98l) strategy of providing a constant flow of information to the press may help to shape community opinions about international education. Important links for community support might be established. College administrators may wish to take note of the discrepancy between college activities in international education and the coverage being given these activities 104 in the press. Thought should be given to the usefulness of an informed public ready to support and lobby for international education. If educators acknowledge that ”process" stories are less likely to be reported than "event" stories. they may wish to create or iden- tify events and ensure that these are reported to the newspapers. Such events might be visits from international educators. multicultural festivals at the colleges. departure of consultants to developing countries. or the introduction of a new global curriculum. These news items would have appeal as events but could also be written in such a way as to inform readers of the longer-range processes of international education. Letters to the editor could be a significant means for increas- ing the amount of information on international education that is printed in newspapers. These letters would have to be written in reaction to news. editorials. or feature articles. They could be useful in presenting more balanced coverage of international education issues or in promulgating the colleges' philosophy of international education. SuggestionmLBsssamb The design of this research could be improved and data collection accelerated with use of a computer data bank for location of units of analysis. Where data bases are not available. the coverage of ten years of certain publications may create difficulties in collection of material for the earlier years. It was the writer's experience that 105 the number of earlier years' units of analysis was often sparse or nonexistent. Given the incompleteness of these earlier holdings. it is questionable whether or not they contribute significantly enough to the findings to be considered worth the expenditUre of time and energy to find these articles. A five-year study might be as valuable. On the basis of the findings of this study. the following are suggested as additional areas of related research that could be useful to educational administrators concerned with international education: l. Comparative content analysis of Newsweek. 11mg. and “AL, .News_and_flgzld_flepgnt to examine their coverage of international education. 2. A cross-indexing and content analysis of press releases from international education agencies and the articles related to these press releases that appear in selected publications. This information could - be useful in determining what kinds of press releases are most likely to be used by the publications studied. A 3. A determination of the attention scores of international articles for different publications. Decisions would then need to focus on where to place articles. 4. A content analysis of other minority papers. especially those published in other languages. to assess the type of coverage of international education provided. 5. There is a need to research the audience as well as the media. It is suggested that the audiences be broken down into their component parts (interest groups. elite. mass. etc.) and surveys be 106 conducted to assess their respective attitudes toward international education. 6. A combination of content analysis and pre- and posttest surveys to identify any possibility of influence of a selected medium in shaping or changing public opinion. One medium. newspaper or television. could serve as the treatment and the other medium would serve as the control. Data collection would cover a one-year period. Sumarx This research was conducted to provide educational adminis- trators. particularly in the OCAATs. with information on the coverage of international education in four representative Canadian publica- tions. It is hoped that these findings will be of help to these administrators as they make decisions about informing the public of their international education activities. Given the evidence from research cited in the literature review. regarding the functions of the media in influencing people to form or change opinions. it may be that given the complexity of the issues it is an excessive challenge for colleges' administrators to promote positive values toward international education in general. However. since only three of the analyzed articles referred to community colleges. some restrained optimism for improving the colleges! images through designing and providing information to the press may not be inappropriate. With any endings there are concomitant beginnings. It is the researcher's intention to continue using content analysis. narrowing the 107 focus to deal more specifically with coverage of community college activities in international education and broadening the scope to include other publications and television. APPENDICES l08 APPENDIX A READABILITY ESTIMATE 109 110 READABILITY ESTIMATE The following procedures are used to estimate the reading grade level of any text: Select three lOO-word passages from each publica- tion. These should be randomly selected from articles included in the study. Determine the average number of sentences per 100 words and the average number of syllables per 100 words for the three passages. Plot the score on the Fry Graph for estimating readability to determine approximate grade level of the articles for each publication. Short words Long words II. I MA 91 13 n 0 U I: 0 u c 0 a u N 0 z in ’6 64%; n U H O 3 o o H n o D n u u r: o u c o In Mal O u g C a D G u u > .: Long sentences Source: Edward Fry. "A Readability Formula That Saves Times." lguznal 9I_Bsading 11 (1968): 513- 16. 575-78. APPENDIX B CODING MANUAL FOR CONTENT ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION 11] 112 This form was provided to each coder. CODING MANUAL FOR CONTENT ANALYSIS OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION Instructions for coding content analysis of articles on international education: At the top of the sheet record the headline for the analyzed article. In the spaces provided at the top of the Coding Form. record the date of publication. name of publication. and your initials. Record the major front-page headline for the date of publication and for the weekend issue which falls on the date closest to the date of the issue. In the case of the weekly magazine. mm. record the headline of the cover story for the issue being examined. After recording the headlines as indicated above. proceed to answer all questions on the coding form. In the event that more than one article on international educa- tion appears in an issue under study. complete a separate form for each article and staple all forms for the issue together before returning them to the researcher. .ltem_8: The attention score is determined by assigning points as follows: 1. 1 point to any article with a headline 2 columns or more in width. .2 points if the headline occupies more than half the number of columns of the page (horizontally). 113 2. 1 point to any story appearing above the fold or measured center. The first line of the body of the text must lie above this line to qualify. 3. 1 point to any article occupying '3/4's of a column or more (pictures are included as part of the over-all length of the story). 4. 1 point for any article appearing on page 1. the editorial page. or the first page of a special section. The minimum score which can be assigned is "0" while the maximum assignable score is '5." 11em_2: Indicate if the story originated with the local press. with a wire service such as Associated Press (AP). United Press International (UPI). or Reuters. Syndicated columns would be those which are pur- chased by the newspaper rather than being written by their own report- ers. There is always an indication at the foot of the article that it is provided by a syndicate. W: Indicate if this is a regular news item. an editorial. feature story (usually these would be found in special sections of the paper such as the family section; they are also often part of a special series). or a letter to the editor. 113m_113 Select the proper category according to the level of education being discussed in the article. Is it about programs in elementary schools. or a community public affairs program? If more than one level is discussed. select the category for the predominant level discussed. 114 ‘1:§m_12: Select the category that most appropriately describes the major focus of the articles International education encompasses a variety of concerns. This item should be answered with the category that is the predominant topic of the article. ljemLJZ; This item refers to the sources that have been quoted in the article. The category "institution" refers to a spokesperson for a particular school or college. while "interest group" might be a spokesperson for a group such as a Home and School Association. a human rights group. Greenpeace. etc. A national expert would be an individual not representing any particular organization or interest group but speaking as a recognized Canadian authority on the subject. An international expert would be similar to a national expert except that this person would work and reside outside Canada. If more than one source is cited. select the most-quoted source as your response to this item. I:em_14: Count the number of sources quoted in the article and select the appropriate response. If there are not quotes. then consider the writer of the article as the source and select answer (e). m: Here you are asked to make a judgment about the direction of the article. If it has the overall effect of supporting international education. then it is considered favorable. If it has the overall effect of criticizing international education. than it is considered negative. If there is a balance of arguments or sources cited giving 115 both positive and opposing views. then the article is considered neutral. .ltem_1§: Determine whether the article is geared to a national orientation: speaking of defense. national prestige. or economic and political benefit for the country; to a personal orientation: speaking of self-enrichment. fun of learning a new language or of traveling. possibility of better work opportunities with international education; or to an international/interhuman orientation: speaking of prevention of war. maintenance of peace. distributive justice. the interdependence of all people and countries. 1;§m_11: Refer to Item 16 directions for the narrowing and selection of the appropriate response to this item. .ltem_18: If the article is about a crisis. accident. disaster. famine. or has its focus as a human interest story. it should be classified as an immediate reward story. If it has its basis more in the conveying of information related to a process or is something which a reader would use to prepare for some later event. it should be classified as a delayed reward. In some instances you will find that there are elements of both immediate reward and delayed reward in the same article. In that case. classify the article as a combination. .Ltgm_12: Measure the column centimeters for the article. including the headline and any photographs. and record in the blank provided. APPENDIX C RECORDING FORM FOR INTERCODER AND INTRACODER RELIABILITY 116 117 RECORDING FORM FOR INTERCODER AND INTRACODER RELIABILITY The responses on completed code forms for the units of content tested for intercoder reliability were entered on the "Recording Form for Intercoder and Intracoder ReliabilityJ‘ (See Sample. pagellBJ For items 1.5 and 6 the word ”same" indicates that the same headlines had been accurately recorded. Upon completing these forms. the percentage of agreement was determined and Schutz's (1952) tables of Agreement Levels were con- sulted. The acceptable agreement levels are determined according to the total number of judgments made and the percentage of agreement found. For the 540 items. 87% agreement was required for an agreement level of.80. p‘<.Ol. The researcher also used this form to record same coder's responses. codings having been done one month apart. It was expected that the percentage of agreement within the same person's coding would be higher. and an agreement level of .90. p < .01. was established. For the 360 items coded. 95% agreement was reached. and the desired agreement level was established. 118 RECORDING FORM FOR INTERCODER AND INTRACODER RELIABILITY Coding 2 Item Number Coding l Coding 3 1 same same same 2 KOK HT RP 3 6 May 78 6 May 78 6 May 78 a a a 5 same same same 6 same same same 7 a a a d e d 9 a a a 10 b b b 11 d d d 12 ac ae ae 13 e e c 14 a a a 15 c c c 16 c c c 17 b b c 18 a b b 19 25 25 25 APPENDIX D CODING FORM 119 8. 120 CODING FORM Headline of article Coder's initials Date of publication_, Name of publication: a. W b. W C. .Contnast d. Macleaan Record the major headline on this date. In the case of.Maslaan1§. record the headline of the cover story. For the W and the W. record the main weekend headline on the date closest to the date of this issue. Indicate the number of articles on international education found in this issue: a. l b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 5 or more Attention score (see Coding Manual for formula): a. b. c. d. 9. ae. WhUJN-ic Story origin: a. local press b. wire service c. syndicated column 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Type of story: a. b. c. d. 121 news editorial feature letter to editor Level of education discussed in story: 1 a. b. C. d. elementary secondary postsecondary community Type of international education discussed in story: a. b. c. d. 6. ae. global component in curriculum foreign language multicultural or multiethnic study abroad/international exchange community seminars technical assistance Source of information (select only primary source): a. b. c. d. e. Number of sources cited: a. b. c. d. e. Direction of article: a. b. c. Taxonomic level: a. b. c. institution interest group national expert international expert none cited/reporter 01%de Ol‘ MOPS favorable neutral unfavorable national orientation personal orientation international/interhuman orientation 122 17. 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