LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled Tao Impact of Formal Education upon Saudi Male Students' Accitude toward Women's Participation in the Labor Force in Saudi Arabia presented by Abdulmohsen S. Al-Otaiby has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. d . Teacher Education egree 1n . Social/Philosophical Foundations of Education Kennethwtirflg$s ‘ Date 31 July 1987 [VSU Ls an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0.12771 475‘ 3373 MSU LIBRARIES “ RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. ml 3—O'fl-3D’d u A q p raw s-tx D 099 we a a "$9!" fir? JANOLEZ'W F ox Institution x 01% APR???» " 71/ , rm IMYOa 99: :I‘AéIO-wszl '~ 68" ..——~ - ‘- 1;: {id/541% STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARD WOMEN'S :” BY Abdulmohsen s. Al-Otaiby A DISSERTATION , 3t“*' Submitted to : -_ Michigan state University fiDUx in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of "a. term ‘: ' DOCTOR or PHILOSOPHY ‘gr‘ Department of Teacher Education ustunzfie Comparative and Social/Philosophical -‘-‘ Foundations of Education Summer 19 87 THE IMPACT OF FORMAL EDUCATION UPON SAUDI MALE PARTICIPATION IN THE LABOR FORCE IN SAUDI ARABIA ABSTRACT THE IMPACT OF FORMAL EDUCATION UPON SAUDI MALE STUDENTS' ATTITUDES TOWARD WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN THE LABOR FORCE IN SAUDI ARABIA BY Abdulmohsen Saad Al-Otaiby This research was carried out to investigate the impact of a set of independent variables (level of education, exposure to mass media, exposure to Western culture, area of academic study, place of residence, level of father's education, and level of mother's education) upon Saudi male students' attitudes toward the participation of women in the labor force in Saudi Arabia. A questionnaire was distributed to 240 high school students equally distributed among the 3 levels and to 240 college students equally divided among the 4 levels in the Colleges of Education, Engineering, Business Administration and Arts. A total of 480 usable responses were collected. The statistical analysis of the data utilized frequency and percentage distribution, ANOVA and a Tukey post-hoe test. The variable that was found to have the greatest and most positive impact upon the students' attitudes was exposure to mass media. The level of education was found Abdulmohsen Saad Al-Otaiby to have a linear relationship with the attitude, the higher the level of education the more positive the attitude toward women's participation. The third variable to have a strong relationship with attitudes was exposure to Western culture. The other variables all had a slight positive relationship to the attitude toward women's participation. With regards to the area of academic major, students in the College of Engineering demonstrated the most positive attitude followed by Education, Art, and Business Administration respectively. Place of residence had only a slight effect. students living in small villages held the most positive attitude, followed by students in medium—size towns. The least positive attitude was held by those in large cities. Although the parents' level of education suggests only a very slight positive effect, it demonstrated a very interesting trend. The mother's level of education was positively related to attitude while the father's level of education was negatively related to attitude. The higher the mother's level of education, the more positive the student's attitude toward women's work. The higher the father's level of education, the less positive the student's attitude toward women's participation in the work force. ~ (‘8‘: \N" 51“” H. ."1: ‘5 mt. dilemr’n. or. L‘ufl';f_._u‘é ”the: the insights, “Vice afi- oeueente mar-x .~.;.s..‘;.la.~,-e. s; greater; thanks go ii ‘9 Dr. Kennefh Herr Cnn spa uVW .; the Doctoral Sundance J '- . ‘ 3.. ail-ittee and mu acute“: .LL E1: pat1ance, edvtce, .étflg' OIBIUteqoment and -umme“n - f my otuazea to: both the i i I I “are and Vr D. clflg?'£~ Tani» .S'a'x». fi‘i"’er11!"_.'. .: -¢h.d have ix , _ ‘.‘ Ie lids ”21* Via; :, H: :1 I l 1 ."-ar. mu- ne'aoaicatez'uu work teeny 9am mu won-:2 mi for their prayers, encouragement and support. .. appreciation rinba flutters ‘Illlittee: Dr. 5;;en Boogie. 3:. Dan bohnhoret, and Oz ‘igipflhflln Snoddy. Their' gu.aan.u, aqueetlone and edVice " peeved invaluable. C. the many‘ colleagues and triers in Saudi Arable en the earlier draft: a: the manuscript and .eeeistance in revising, collecting. and scoring I.“ Me, I extend my sincere taunts. ales. a ‘ sanctum- to all we. arm. m {is in the College a: Mutation- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation benefited from the insights, advice and comments of many individuals. My greatest thanks go to Dr. Kenneth Neff, Chairperson of the Doctoral Guidance Committee and my advisor, for his patience, advice, encouragement and comments during my studies for both the Masters and Ph.D. degrees :c Michigan State University. He made this work much ricrzr than it would have otherwise been. I gratefully extend the acknowledge and my appreciation to the members of the Doctoral Committee: Dr. Allan Beagle, Dr. Ben Bohnhorst, and Dr. James Snoddy. Their guidance, suggestions and advice proved invaluable. To the many colleagues and friends in Saudi Arabia and in the United States who provided suggest-ons and comments on the earlier drafts of the manuscript and helpful assistance in revising, collecting, and scoring the study data, I extend my sincere thanks. Also, a special note of thanks to all those at King Saud University in the College of Education. I am indebted to my wife, Hassah Al—Fayyz for her support, patience, encouragement and love, rand to my beloved four children, Saad, Maram, Abulaziz, and Fawaz, for their cheerful smiles which were so important in ii finishing this work. I am grateful to my brothers and sister, especially my brother Abduaziz, who was always ready to help if needed and who contributed much to this work during the data collection. Special appreciation to Abdulrazak Habib for his computerized assistance in data analysis. To Cathy Siebert for her patience and beautiful typing of the dissertation and to Carey Draeger for her editing. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES 0.0.0I.OIIOIOOOOICIIOOOOIIIOIO CCCCC 0 Vi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION COO-0...... OIOOOOIIOOOOOOOOOII 1 Statement of the Problem ............... 1 Purpose of the Study ......... ..... ..... 3 Importance of the Study ................ 3 Research Questions OIOIOCCOQOIIIQOOOOOOO 6 Hypotheses IIIOOOOIOOOO. COCO-OOIOOOIOOO 7 Limitations and Delimitations .......... 8 Definitions of Terms ................... 9 Organization of the Study .............. 9 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE OIUCOOOOOOCIOOIIIIOO 11 Formal Education in Saudi Arabia ....... 12 Women's Education in Saudi Arabia ...... l4 Theories of National Development ....... 18 Education and National Development ..... 24 Education and Attitude Change .......... 27 Saudi Male Attitudes toward Women's Participation in the Labor Force .... 29 Summary 0.0...OI.OOOOOOIOCICOIOOOOOUO... 40 III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IOOIIIIOOIOOOOIIOQOOIOOI 42 Population and Sample .................. 42 Instrument Construction ................ 45 Development of the Instrument ....... 45 validity OIOCOIOOIOOCOOOOOOOOIOOIO... 52 Reliability OI.IOOOOOIIOOOICOOIIIUOOO 52 Translation and Pre-Test of the Research Instrument ................. 53 Data Collection Procedure .............. 54 Data Analysis Procedure ................ 56 Summary OUIl00'...OOOOOOOOICOOOOIIOCOCOO 58 iv CHAPTER Page IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA ............ ............... 6O Characteristics of the Respondents ..... 60 Descriptive Analysis ................... 72 The Results of the Hypotheses .......... 81 Attitude and Level of Education ..... 81 Attitude and Exposure to Western Culture .................. 85 Attitude and Major Area of Study .... 88 Attitude and Place of Residence ..... 88 Attitude and Mother's Education ..... 90 Attitude and Father's Education ..... 92 Attitude and Mass Media ............. 95 Summary 97 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .... 99 Findings ............................... 101 Conclusions ............................ 105 Recommendation for Program Implementation ...................... 107 Recommendation for Further Research .... 109 APPENDICES ....................................... 110 Appendix A: The English and Arabic Version of the Questionnaire ............. 110 Appendix B: Letters from the Dean of the College of Education in Saudi Arabia to other Agencies in the Country Asking Them to Help in the Study ........................ 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY Cc0I...IoIo.0lconic-Coloolocoocnoonooo 135 LIST OF TABLES Sampling Stratification .................. List of Questionnaire Items and Resources C0...III...OIICCIGIIOOOQOCIIIIOO Frequency and Percentage of the Age of the Research Sample ................... Frequency and Percentage of the Level of Education of the Research Sample ...... Frequency and Percentage of the Area of Residence of the Research Sample ......... Frequency and Percentage of Experience Outside Saudi of the Research Sample ..... Frequency and Percentage of the Length of Stay of the Research Sample in Foreign countries I O O O ......... I I I O 0 I O O C 0 0 Frequency and Percentage of Experience in Foreign Countries of the Research sample 0......0.0...IIOIICIIICOCIIOCOCOIII Frequency and Percentage of Father's Level of Education of the Research sample 0.0.000...I.-DOIOOIOIOOIOICOIOIUOII Frequency and Percentage of Mother's Level of Education of the Research sample I....00-0....OOOIOOOIOOIIOIOIIOOOII Frequency and Percentage of Exposure to Mass Media/TV of the Research Sample IO...O...IICOIIOICUOIOIIUOOOIOOI... vi Page 44 46 61 61 63 63 65 65 66 68 7O Page Frequency and Percentage of Exposure to Mass Media/Radio of the Research Sample OOOIOOOOOIOOOIOCIOIIOOI0.00.0.0.... 70 Frequency and Percentage of Exposure to Mass Media/Newspaper of the Research Sample ............ ..... .... ..... 71 Means and Standard Deviation of the Attitude Items According to High School and College Student Respondents for Family Considerations ...... ..... ......... 73 Means and Standard Deviation of the Attitude Items According to High School and College Student Respondents for Conditions Allowing Women to Work ........ 75 Means and Standard Deviation of the Attitude Items According to High School and College Student Respondents for Co-working ................. ..... ......... 77 Means and Standard Deviation of the Attitude Items According to High School and College Student Respondents for Equality ................................. 78 Means and Standard Deviation of the Attitude Items According to High School and College Student Respondents for Societal Attitudes ............ ..... ...... 80 The Actual Levels of Significance (P Value) of the ANOVA for Level of Education, Non- Linear Trend in Level of Education, Experience Abroad, Mass Media, Mother's Education, Father's Education, Major Area, and Place of Residence (Sample size I 480) ...................... 83 Mean of students' Perception Toward Women's Participation in the Work Force According to the Level of Education ...... 86 Mean of students' Perception Toward Women's Participation in the Work Force According to Exposure to Western Culture .................................. 87 vii Page Mean of students' Perception Toward Women's Participation in the Work Force According to Major Area .................. 89 Mean of students' Perception Toward Women's Participation in the Work Force According to Place of Residence .......... 91 Mean of students' Perception Toward Women's Participation in the Work Force According to Mother's Education .......... 93 Mean of students' Perception Toward Women's Participation in the Work Force According to Father's Education .......... 94 Mean of students' Perception Toward Women's Participation in the Work Force According to Mass Media .................. 96 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Statement of Problem Saudi women have developed as much as their society, family and tradition have allowed. These forces set restrictions upon women's participation in society which are seen as normal by men and women alike. Moreover, they are seen as good for the society. Recently, Saudi Arabia has experienced an unprecedented economic growth due to the petroleum industry. This has caused many changes in the economic life of the country, but with a shortage of participation of women in the economy. There are many obstacles to women's participation. First, education for girls has only been available in public schools since 1960. There are currently a few women's colleges within the universities which provide training for women in limited areas (Ra a ani, 1985, p. 259). Second, obtaining a degree does not necessarily guarantee a woman the right to work. Because of the 'segregation of sexes, women may not work where they will come into contact with men. Women are not allowed to drive. As a result, they are dependent upon a male 1 2 relative for transportation. Women must have a male guardian's permission to work. They are still held responsible for child rearing and housekeeping because day care centers are rare (Al-Abd Al-Hay, 1983). Because of the above obstacles, few Saudi women consider taking advantage of opportunities currently available to them. The price that the Saudi society pays for not developing the female half of its human resources is the need to import foreign workers. If Saudi Arabian women are to take active roles in the national economy, there must be some structural changes that would allow women to work. Obviously, these changes cannot be too great or too fast lest they may seem to contradict the Qggag or come into sharp conflict with Saudi tradition. If these changes are to be effective, Saudi men and women need to change their attitudes and beliefs towards working women. This may be a long project relying heavily on the Saudi Educational System to help effect the change of attitude. Through education the need for such changes can be seen. As David Abernathy put it: The school is one of the few institutions available for changing such popular traditional attitudes, and it deals explicitly with young people, who are presumably more flexible in outlook than their elders and from whose ranks future national leadership will emerge (Abernathy, 1966:9). 3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to examine Saudi male students' attitudes toward women's participation in the labor market, and to see if these attitudes depend upon the level of education of the men as well as upon several other variables. Education has long been believed to be a major factor in the changing traditional attitudes towards society. In this study the researcher hopes to find what effect, if any, education has on the attitude of Saudi males towards Saudi women who are joining the work force in increasing numbers (Al-Mama, 1981, p. 132; Hallawani, 1982, p. 116; Al-Oteiby, 1982, p. 124). IEPQIEQEEE_21_§D§_§EBQ¥ The issue of women's greater participation in the work force is being increasingly debated within Saudi Arabia. This receives increased attention in the nation's media. Allowing women's increased participation will not only benefit the women involved and their families, but will benefit the nation as a whole (Hallwani, 1982, p. 116). The lack of women in Saudi Arabia's work force makes it necessary to bring in foreign workers to do jobs that could be carried out by Saudi women. This drains the economy because the foreign workers send the money home to their families rather than leaving it in Saudi Arabia (Assad, 1983, p. 68-70). 4 The inclusion of women in the work force is also being sought by the Saudi government. In the current five year development plan they call for replacing some 600,000 foreign workers with Saudis by 1990 (Al-Riyadh Newspaper, October 3, 1985). Also, recently King Fahad has announced the opening of an all women's factory--a first for Saudi Arabia (gaygggpy_gggagipg, 1985, p. 6 and 24). Although, traditionally, women have not been allowed to work, it is obvious that increasingly women will be entering the labor force with the major hindrance being their family's attitude. In spite of the importance of this issue, it is a fairly recent development in Saudi Arabia and, therefore, little research has been done on Saudis' attitudes towards women's work. An ERIC search revealed that at least two such studies exist. Among the studies carried out thus far are: Rehemi (1983) and Almana (1973). Rehemi's (1983) study investigated the attitudes of Saudi men and women towards specific types of jobs carried out by women. His study covered people with varying levels of education and work experience. The study's results showed that most Saudi men and women preferred women working in traditional jobs such as teaching, child care, and nursing: they preferred part-time over full-time employment; and segregation in the work place was also important. Therefore, Saudi men 5 and women would approve of women working outside the home provided that traditional values were adhered to as much as possible. Almana (1973) studied only Saudi students at a University in the United States. She found that there was a strong correlation between the amount of time spent in the United States and the attitude of Saudi students toward working women, even though religious beliefs and values remained unchanged. While both of these studies have measured Saudi men's attitudes toward working women, neither one studied how the role of education within Saudi Arabia is affecting this attitude. Rehemi's study used a wide sampling of Saudi men and women, but analyzed their attitude toward working women only and not how that varied with education. Almana's (1973) study focused upon university students in the United States and basically showed the effects of living in western culture rather than level of education. This study would point out what effects, if any, the formal Saudi Arabian educational system has upon the attitude towards women's participating in the work force through measuring the attitudes of male students at different levels of the Saudi educational system (high school and college students). We hope to see if students at higher educational levels have more positive or 6 negative attitudes towards women's participation than those at lower levels. The two previously mentioned studies recorded attitudes held and gave possible influences. In this study we will focus on one major influencing factor of attitude. Based on these findings, recommendations will be offered to Saudi Arabian's manpower department for ways in which a positive attitude toward women's participation in the work force may be created and maintained. Besgapch Questions This study is concerned with the following questions: .1- Is there a linear trend in the attitudes of Saudi male students towards women's participation in the work force according to their level of education? 2. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male student's towards women's participation in the work force according to their exposure to Western culture? 3. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students towards women's participation in the work force according to their major area of study? 4. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to the size of their place of residence? 5. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their father's level of education? 6. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their mother's level of education? 7 7. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force based on media exposure? Null Hypotheses Hol There is no linear trend in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their level of education. H02 There is no difference in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their exposure to western culture. H03 There is no difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their major area of study. H04 There is no difference in the attitudes of Saudi male students towards women's participation in the work force according to the size of their place of residence. Hos There is no difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their mother's level of education H06 There is no difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their father's level of education. H07 There is no difference in the attitude of Saudi male students towards women's participation in the work force according to their media exposure. 8 Limitations and Delimitations The most limitations of this study were caused by the choice of target population of the study--Saudi male students. 1. The study limited itself to males who are currently students. The attitudes of men who graduated from high school or college or those of men who never attended either were beyond the scope of this research project. Also eliminated from this study were elementary and middle school students. 2. All of the high schools studied are located in Riyadh. Although there may be some change of attitude in different parts of the country, Riyadh, the capital city, is centrally located and therefore draws many students from around the country. This also is true for the King Saud University (see Chapter 2) as it is the largest University in Saudi Arabia and has the majority of all university students in the country. 3. Only public schools were included in the study. The public schools in Saudi Arabia have the same curriculum, therefore the results of students in public schools in Riyadh can be more easily generalized to the rest of the country. This generalization, however, may not hold true for students of private or religious schools. Also left out of this study is any non-formal education which may have been received by those sampled. 9 Definition of Terms Attitude: Refers to a learned disposition, or stand, that upholds responses in a favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to objects, issues, persons, groups or institutions (Ajzen, 1975:6 cited in Ghaban, 1986z7). Formal Education: Refers to: A) High school: refers to the general public secondary school for males between the ages of 15-18 generally. There are three levels: First, Second and Third year which correspond to 10th, 11th, and 12th grades respectively in an American public high school. B) College students: refers to male students at the undergraduate level. The students are divided into four levels; lst, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th levels. These levels correspond to freshmen, sophomore, junior and senior levels respectively of American Universities. Women's participation in the Labor Force: Refers to women working outside of the home for a wage. Their job must take into account the traditional separation of men and women. ni t o o tud This study has been organized into five chapters. Chapter I, the Introduction, includes a statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the importance of the 10 study and its limitations, research questions, hypotheses and its limitations, and a definition of terms. A review of the literature pertaining to the key concepts involved in this study is found in Chapter II. An explanation of the research methodology employed makes up Chapter III. Chapter IV contains an analysis of the data. A summary, conclusions, and recommendations are presented in Chap- ter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE This chapter will present a review of literature pertaining to the attitude toward women's participation in Saudi Arabia along with a brief overview of the Saudi educational system emphasizing women's education. Related literature on the theory of national development, the role of education in development, and the role of education in changing attitudes is also reviewed. The review covers research which has studied the attitudes of Saudi Arabian men toward women's issues including work and the impact of education and other variables upon their attitudes. This chapter is divided into the following six areas: First, a general description of the Saudi Arabian educational system is given; second, is a brief history and description of women's education; third, a review of the historical development of the theories of national development is given; fourth, the relationship between education and national development is discussed; fifth, the effect of education on attitudes is presented: and _fina11y, a description of men's attitudes toward women in Saudi Arabia and a review of the studies investigating the influences upon these attitudes. 11 12 Eormal Education in Saudi Arabia In 1926 with the establishment of the Directorate of Education the beginning of a modern system of education in Saudi Arabia was put into place. Although the Directorate tried to modernize the educational system, it did not "relegate the traditional system to an inferior position . . . there is on the contrary, a studied effort to cast the new system in an Islamic mould" (Tibawi, 1972:180). The new system incorporated much of the old. Education policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia states that the aim of education is the correct understanding of Islam and the inculcation and dissemination of the Islamic creed; imbuing of the students with Islamic values, doctrines and ideals: the imparting of various types of knowledge and skills; the social, economic and cultural development of society, and the preparation of the individual to be a useful participant in the building of society (Al-Hariri, 1987:53). In 1953 the Directorate of Education, which had grown from a very few students in 1926 to almost 40,000 by 1952 (Al-Marsouqi, 1980:20), was superseded by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education oversees the education of boys at the primary and secondary levels. Education is available free of charge at all levels, but is not compulsory at any level (Schmida and Keenum, 1983:87). General education is divided into four steps; Kindergarten, elementary school-~grades 1-6, 3 years of intermediate school and finally three years of high 13 school. Promotion between levels is based on end of the year exams. The exams at the intermediate and secondary levels are written and marked by external examiners. The curriculum has a large religion and Arabic language content and emphasizes memorization (Ghaban, 1986:11-12). The methods used; are based largely on transmitting what is laid down in the textbooks and repeats what they have acquired in these textbooks. There is little encouragement for original thought, intellectual discourse or creativity (Faheem, 1982:81). Higher education in Saudi Arabia is a recent development within the Saudi Educational System. This history of higher education in Saudi Arabia is a study of educational progress almost unparalleled in history. University education as known today began in 1957 with a single institution and an enrollment of twenty-one students and a staff of nine. By 1982 higher education had grown to include seven universities with 63,563 students and a teaching staff of 6,906. Saudi Arabian public expenditure for higher education per student is one of the highest in the world (Saleh, 1986217). King Saud University, formally Riyadh University, opened in 1957. Located in the capital city of the country, it is considered to be the first and the largest modern university in Saudi Arabia (Ministry of Higher Education, 1980). Since the establishment of King Saud University in 1957 the following universities have been founded: the Islamic University (1961); the University of Petroleum and Minerals (now known as the King Fahad University) (1975); King Abdulaziz University (1967); Imam Mohammed 14 Bin Saud University (1974); King Faisal University (1975); and Um Al-Qura University (1981) (Ministry of Higher Education, 1983-84:26-28). Since 1975 the universities have been under the direction of the Ministry of Higher Education. The Ministry provides not only a free education but also free housing and monthly stipends. The majority of the graduate students receive degrees in religious subjects or the humanities. All students regardless of their major are required to complete a minimum number of courses in Islamic studies. Wo e 's u at on "The search for knowledge is the duty of every Muslim, male and female" (Al-Juhary, 1977:74). In spite of this religious basis for women's education offered by the prophet Mohammed (prayers and peace be on him), women's education has met with much traditional opposition in Saudi Arabia and is only a very recent addition to the Saudi educational system. Before 1960 all of the girls' schools were run in private homes and were called Kuttab. This Kuttab did not teach the student everything in the usual school curriculum, but only the Islamic holy book, the Qu'ran, reading, some written principles, and how to solve simple math problems (Hallawani, 1982:35). The beginning of Public education for girls was in 1959 with the creation of the General Presidency for 15 Girls. The Presidency was to set up a segregated system of all girl schools parallel to the boys' schools under the Ministry of Education. The first public schools for girls were opened in 1960 amid much controversy. The government wished to reduce the 99% illiteracy rate among women but the idea of girls' schools faced stiff opposition from the ulama (Islamic scholars) and other conservative elements. Girls' education only got underway because the government decided that it would be 'compatible with the country's religious position and Arab tradition' and because the girls' schools are run by a religious functionary (Al-Hariri, 1987-54). Traditional opposition was not the only obstacle to face girls' education. The country, according to tradition, had to set up a completely segregated system. At the age of nine, girls are required to wear the veil in public and withdraw to female schools. They travel to school in specially chaperoned buses and are instructed entirely by female teachers in schools run by female administrators; the only exception is some religious instruction given by blind male teachers (Al-Hariri, 1987:55). In order to meet these needs in 1960, the government allocated funds for fifteen elementary schools and one class to train teachers. Qualified female teachers had to be brought in from other Arab countries. The Presidency for Girls education set the following goals for female education in Saudi Arabia: a. to give girls a clear understanding of their responsibilities toward their children, their own home, and to society. b. to satisfy the needs felt in Saudi Arabia for a body of women who would be capable of maintaining a balance between the changing patterns of today and the traditions of yesterday. 16 c. to ensure a flow of highly trained women for service in education and elsewhere. d. to provide all girls with an avenue to higher education (Abdel Wassie, 1970:36). As illustrated above some of the initial reasons used to found girls' schools were not to produce workers but rather to implant the right concepts in our daughters as wives, as homemakers, as mothers of sons, and as pioneers of coming generations that will be correctly guided in all aspects of life. A well known poet has said: A mother is a school; if you prepare her well, you will have a well-founded people (Al-Baadi, 1982:93). The first intermediate school for girls was established in 1963 and in 1965 the General Presidency for Girls' Education built a model girls' institute in Riyadh as a secondary school for women (Hallawani, 1982:43). Since its inception girls' education has grown dramatically. Girls accounted for only 9 percent of all primary enrollments, 1 percent of secondary and zero percent of higher education in 1960. But by 1980, the female population had climbed to 39 percent in primary, 39 percent in secondary and 29 percent in higher education (Coombs, 1985:226). By 1985 "female enrollment at the elementary level approached parity with that of males, . . . accounting for 42 percent of the total enrollment at the elementary _level" (Ministry of Planning, Saudi Arabia, l985:6). As more women completed secondary school there arose a need for higher education. The first schools 1? established were to prepare women for teaching and nursing, two fields traditionally acceptable for women. The first university to accept girls was Riyadh University (now called King Saud University) but they were accepted as external students only. As external students they were not allowed to attend class, but were allowed to take the exams, though in a separate place. All studying was done at home, lecture notes had to be obtained from a male (usually a relative) who was attending class. Even though they could take courses they could not receive a degree from any college. In 1967 the Education College in Makkah and King Abdulaziz University accepted women as regular students but only in evening classes. Women enrolled exclusively in colleges or university departments for women or as external students at the University of Riyadh. At that university and at King Abdul Aziz University they viewed closed-circuit telecasts of university lectures by male professors and ask questions of the teacher by a remote hook-up (Nyrop, 1977:110). The General Presidency for Girls' Education established the first all female college, the Educational College in Riyadh, in 1970. Since then other women's Educational colleges have opened in Jeddah (1974) in Makkah and Damman (1975) and in Abha (1982). Other women's colleges include the Art College for Girls (1978) and the Higher Institute for Social Service (1975) (Hallawani, 1982:60). 18 Today there are a total of eleven women's colleges. Women may also attend five of the seven Universities currently in the country. Women may now pursue degrees in Religious studies, Arts and Humanities, Education, Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Medicine and Agriculture. Currently under consideration is the construction of a women's university in Riyadh (Faheem, 1982:4). "Probably no area of higher education has grown faster in recent years than education for females. In 1961 there were four females; enrolled in 1982 there were 19,860" (Saleh, 1986:22). "A generation ago, state schools for girls were unthinkable; now they are a vigorous reality" (Tibawi, 1971:182). o s 0 io a ev The relationship between Formal education and National Development has long been considered important, however the role that formal education plays or should play in development is far from being agreed upon. Whether education is a necessary precondition to development, a result of development or even a hindrance to development are all postulates that have been debated in numerous tones. One of the main difficulties in determining the precise role is the large number of external variables which also play an important part in the development process. 19 The discussion of how the development process works is not new. The Greeks were the first to study change. They expressed the idea with the word physics-~growth by unfolding. They believed that every state had a period of growth, prime and decay, and that this cycle would constantly repeat. The Romans also accepted this belief. During the early Christian era and through the Middle Ages the idea of physics was still accepted, but in a modified version. They believed that all of mankind would go through a single non-repeating cycle and that this cycle would end with the coming of Christ and the destruction of the world (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:7-8). During this period of time thought on development was not restricted to the Western world. While Europe was in the midst of its Dark Ages, the Islamic world was at its peak, in its Golden Age. The Tunisian philosopher/ sociologist Abdulrahman Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406 A.D.) drawing upon Aristotelian philosophy saw development as a dialectical and cyclical process. He is possibly the earliest sociologist to use conflict to explain change (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:10). He believed that a state, like a religion can only be created by strife. Social solidarity is then founded as a result of need. The extent and strength of the empire depends on the strength of the original solidarity. As the state develops, the solidarity decreases and the power of the sovereign increases. 20 Ultimately the state faces extinction, even though a reform of fundamental laws and institutions may extend this fate. Society is doomed to an empty and unending cycle of rise and fall (Al-Juwayer, 1983:53). The first major departure from the cyclical belief came in 1688 when Bernard LeBovier deFontenelle began what would become the modern view of development: "That civilization made progress in the past, is now making progress, and will continue to make progress into the unlimited future" (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:9). According to Fontenelle: A good cultivated mind contains, so to speak, all minds of preceding centuries; it is but a single identical mind which has been developing and improving itself all the time . . . men will never degenerate, and there will be no end to the growth and development of human wisdom (cited in Nisbet, 1969:104). During the enlightenment this linear theory was accepted and expanded. The main beliefs to arise were the supremacy of pure knowledge and science over theological knowledge and that development is natural, cumulative, logical and unlimited. Descartes established the supremacy of rational knowledge. Leibniz stated that development is continuous and gradual. Kant also believed in the unlimited progress of mankind and though the process may slow down it cannot stop. Rousseau put forth the idea of the noble savage uncorrupted by civilization. For Rousseau progress consisted in the ability of man to remain uncorrupted by civilization and yet remain a part of it and carry out the responsibilities of a citizen. It is precisely 21 in the Resolution of this apparent contradiction that Rousseau placed so much emphasis on education (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:10). At the turn of the 19th century the optimism of the Enlightenment gave way to more systematic and complex theories of change and development. These theories can be best described under the general rubric of evolutionary or organic theories. As such evolutionary theories were based upon six assumptions about change. For the 19th century writers change was seen as natural, directional, imminent, continuous, necessary and proceeding through uniform causes (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:11). Representative theorists from this group include: Wilhelm Frederick Hegel who introduced the idea of dialectics. He thought that development occurred through a series of stages or levels of organization increasing from lower to higher. Auguste Comte systemized evolutionary theory. He saw progress as the result of the scientific achievements of man. Herbert Spencer was given the label of a Social Darwinist for applying the theory of the survival of the fittest to society. Emile Durkheim also supported the evolutionary idea that society develops from simple to more complex (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:11-13). Karl Marx also believed that society progressed through given stages but in a specific order; Feudalism, commercial capitalism, monopolistic industrial capitalism, socialism and finally communism (Adams and Bjork, 1969:7). There are many contemporary theories of development. One of the most important and universally accepted is the Modernization Theory. The Modernization Theory was meant 22 to show the path to modernization. It viewed "underdevelopment, in good part, as a state of mind. Some mental and psychic orientations therefore, can act as key barriers to national development" (Ghaban, 1986:36). The process of modernization can be characterized as revolutionary (a dramatic shift from tradition to modern), complex (multiple causes), systematic global (affecting all societies), phased (advance through stages), homogenizing (convergency), irreversible and progressive (Huntington cited in Fagerlind and Sana, 1983:15). Modernization is seen as a process through which members of a lesser developed society acquire the characteristics of a more developed society. It is expected that structural changes influence values related to one's career aspirations, mate selection, work, new ways of doing things, and orientation to the future. These changes have been conceived as 'empathy' (Lerner, 1985), 'need achievement' (McClelland, 1961) and 'individual modernity' (Inkeles et al., 1966, Inkeles and Smith, 1974) (Attir, Holznir and Suda, 1981:42). In their book, Fagerlind and Saha (1983:17) offer four criticisms of the Modernization theory. First that there may not be a causal linkage between the variables as set up by Inkeles and Smith (1974). Secondly the assumption that modern attitudes are incompatible with traditional ones. Thirdly, the idea that modern ideas necessarily lead to socio-economic development. Finally that its endpoint is ideologically biased and ethnocentric. To become modernized also implies to become Westernized. 23 Other contemporary theories include the Human Capital theory, Dependency theory and Liberation theory. The Human Capital theory was formulated by economists and sees the improvement of the human workforce as a capital investment. Therefore the best way to develop a society is through investing in its people and in particular their education. It has been criticized because the extent that education or other forms of human investment can improve occupations or income is very difficult to measure. The Dependency theory focuses upon the relationship between developed and lesser developed states. It focuses on the dependency of the poor countries upon the rich. Among the many criticisms of this theory are that it emphasizes factors external to the society and it fails to provide a way for a country to develop without creating dependency on another country (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:21-23). The liberation schools of thought are built upon the conviction that nothing good or profitable can be secured for the poor members of an underdeveloped society without a drastic and radical change in the structure of that society, as well as a broad radical change of the current socioeconomic, political and cultural world order. The liberation theorists basically take a humanistic approach to questions of development. The underlying assumption is that members of the underdeveloped societies are oppressed by the power holders of their own societies, who control the relevant economic resources such as land, industry and wealth (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:24). 24 uca on d Natio al evelo men The diversity of opinion demonstrated in the above theories becomes even more diverse when discussing the role of education in the development process. Education is seen as both "the Key that unlocks the door to modernization" (Harbison and Myers, 1964:181) and no more just or equal than the economy and society itself--. . . because schooling was organized to develop and maintain, in the imperial countries, an inherently inequitable and unjust organization of production and political power (Carnoy, 1977:3). Before the creation of modern secular education under the industrial capitalist system, formal schooling was mainly concerned with the teaching of morality, religiousity and the external truth; as well as the search of knowledge for knowledge's sake. Most schools were attached to religious institutions and did not engage in occupational selection or distribution. Vocational training took place within the family or at the place of work. It was not until the creation of the market that it became necessary to sell one's labor and thus seek educational qualifications in order to gain access to the job market (Faheem, 1982:20-21). It is in this new role that education is seen as playing a vital role in the modernizaiton of a society. Education may foster modernization through the creation of a population more willing to accept technical innovations and make use of them: by diffusing among the population the skills, organizational, administrative, and technical, which are necessary for the institution of changes and for the inevitable accommodation to these same changes; and by instilling in 25 students, through the classroom and school situation, aspirations beyond their present means to achieve while, at the same time, equipping them with the means to achieve them (Bassey, 1972:123-124). According to the World Bank, "Education has long been recognized as a central element in development" (1980:12). Their approach to development underlines the importance of education in three ways. First as a basic human need. Through education people acquire knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills. This provides them with a potential to learn, to adjust to changes in culture and society and to participate in society. Secondly, education is seen as a means of meeting other basic needs. By learning about nutrition, safe drinking water, health services and shelter these conditions improve which improves the conditions for education. Thirdly, education is an activity which sustains and accelerates overall development. The ability of individuals to identify with their changing culture and find constructive roles in society depends, to a large extent, on what education can provide by way of self-understanding, better knowledge of the choices available to society, and a critical view of a culture (World Bank, 1980:13-14). Not everyone believes that education plays so direct a role in the development process. Philip Foster (1967:296) argues that; the principles role of formal education in early stages of economic development does not lie in the creation of human skills as narrowly defined. It may lie rather in the expectations that it generates, the new consumption needs to which it leads, and the emergence of a general dissatisfaction with the restrictions of 26 traditional society. If such dissatisfaction provides personal incentives and, at the same time, institutionalized means exist to meet new aspirations, then the schools will have contributed indirectly to economic growth. Some theorists go over further to say that education plays a very small role or even a negative role in the development process. Martin Carnoy (1977:4-9) believes that schools simply reinforce the existing structures by helping the individual better fit into that structure. Schools, in a capitalist system, reward students who have qualities required by that system. Mass education does not necessarily more evenly distribute wealth or job opportunities because children of wealthy parents have access to higher levels of schooling while poor children receive much less education. Schools therefore produce better trained workers and maintain the social-political structures. Illich argues that the net effect of schooling on society is negative. Children are demeaned by schooling, adults are cast into roles by the amount of schooling they have rather than their willingness or potential capability to perform tasks (since this capability is not allowed to develop), and the society becomes oriented toward formalized expertise: the more schooling one has, the more his or her opinion is worth, often regardless of the person's good sense, humanness, or other factors which may be considerably more important than the skills learned in school. As a result, Illich claims, the technology of today's industrial societies has little to do with people's needs, but serves the needs of experts; technology and knowledge are mystified by experts through technical jargon. - This keeps the mass of people from understanding relationships in the society and separates them from technology and its control (Carnoy, 1977:11). 27 School's negative effect may not be limited to simply placing children into socio-economic roles largely based on their parents' socio-economic status, but It also imparts values, ideas, attitudes, and aspirations that may or may not be in the nation's best 'developmental' interests. Education absorbs the greatest share of LDC recurrent government expenditures, occupies the time and activities of the greatest number of adults and children (almost thirty percent of Third World populations), and carries the greatest psychological burden of development aspirations (Todaro, 1981:290). In spite of the possible negative effects of education that Carnoy, Illich and Todaro point out, the majority of the theorists believe that education plays at least an indirect role if not a direct role in the development process. Many believe that it plays both roles simultaneously. Education may directly generate modernity orientations by teaching new knowledge and skills and by providing the child a formal social setting which contrasts sharply with the family. Education may contribute indirectly to individual modernity by imparting those skills and attitudes which further exposes an individual to the modernizing influences of mass media, urban exposure, change agent contact, and employment in formal organizations (Kumar and Waisanen, 11-12). Education and Attitude Change Of the many variables that may effect attitudes, education has long been considered a primary agent. There is more empirical evidence showing the importance of education in effecting attitude change in particular 28 with the acquisition of modern values, otherwise known as individual modernity. In virtually every study available, it has been shown that exposure to schooling or level of school attainment is directly related to modernity-linked orientations (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:97). Individual modernity is considered by many to be an important factor in the modernization process. A person with modern attitudes is more likely to accept change and promote change in society. Education is generally considered one of the most important influences in moving individuals in developing countries from traditionalism toward modernity. In fact, Inkeles indicates that the amount of formal schooling a man has had emerged as the single most powerful variable in determining his modernity score. This modernity test is not a test of what is learned in school but, rather, 'a test of attitudes and values touching on basic aspects of a man's orientation to nature, to time, to fate, to politics, to women and to God' (Meleis, El-Sanabary and Beeson, 1979:115). During the 1950s and 19603 many sociologists believed that education and in particular formal education, was the principle modernizing agent. In the 1960s and 19705 there were many research projects which supported that thesis. Among the many researchers who have documented a strong relationship between education and modern attitudes: Daniel Lerner (1958) who found a strong correlation between literacy and modern attitudes and in particular psychic empathy based on his research in the Middle East. Kahl (1968) whose research in Brazil and 29 Mexico showed a strong correlation between formal education and individual modernity. Inkeles and Smith (1974) also found a strong relationship between formal education and individual modernity based on their research in Argentina, Chile, Bangladesh, India, Israel and Nigeria. In their study they also looked at other independent variables and education was still found to be the most powerful change agent toward modernity. Armer and Youte (1971) carried out their study in Nigeria and found that the longer students were in formal Western education the higher their modernity (Ghaban, 1986:27-30). The above are only a few of the many studies which link formal education to individual modernity. Although the precise role of education is difficult to determine due to the many variables outside of formal education which have an impact as well, education has often been found to be the single most important agent in acquiring modern attitudes. t t d ow Wo e '5 W In the previous sections of this chapter the educational system, in particular that of women, the theories of development and the importance of education in the development process have been reviewed. In this section, the attitudes that Saudi men hold toward working 30 women and the role of education in changing these attitudes will be discussed. Among the strongest factor influencing Saudi men's attitudes toward women is the Islamic religion, or at least their interpretation of the religion. "Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that does not have any other religious practices except for the Islamic Religion (Alman, 1973:4). The traditionally low status of women that is usually associated with Islam is not a necessary result of Islam. The selection and interpretation of Islamic Doctrine can be used to support arguments preventing and promoting change (Almana, 1981:43). There are various ayaht ("phrases") in the Qur'an which indicate an equality between men and women in regard to work. Whoever works righteousness, man or woman, and has Faith, Verily, to him will We give a new life, a life That is good and pure, and We will bestow on such their reward According to the best of their actions (Qur'an, 16:97). And their Lord hath accepted of them, and answered them: 'Never will I suffer to be lost the work of any of you, Be he male or female: Ye are members, one of another (Qur'an, 3:195). The status of women, therefore, is not due to the Islam Religion per se, but rather to extra-Islamic traditions which have co-existed in the Arabian countries for centuries (Saleh, 1972:193). The Qur'an, the Sunnah and historical fact all seem to support the argument giving women equal rights to participate in public activities--so- cial, economic or political. They suggest that 31 women can interact with men in places of work, education, or fighting, and that both women and men should always observe Islamic rules regarding dress, morals, and modesty. In other words, the review of the sources seems to suggest that women need not be secluded or confined to the pursuit of domestic duties but they have the intelligence and moral character to behave responsibly in society (Al-Abd Al-Hay, 1983:100). In spite of the fact that work is not prohibited to women by the fundamental writings and doctrines of Islam, there are conditions which must be met by Islamic women if they are to work outside of the home. She should first fulfill her duties to her husband and her children. She must wear Islamic dress which in Saudi Arabia is considered to be wearing of the veil. She may not come into contact with unknown men. Finally she should work in jobs suitable to her nature and follow Islamic ethics (Elkhoja, 1979:44-45). Although the above restrictions do not prohibit a woman from working they make her participation more difficult. In Islamic tradition man is the guardian of woman therefore the way he perceives the before mentioned conditions plays an important role in his allowing his wife or daughter to seek employment. Saudi women with an education face a real dilemma: Vigorously pursuing higher education, careers, and financial independence, the New Saudi working woman lives in two separate worlds--that of professionalism, as an active, contributing member of society, and that of the protected, cloistered female, bound by tradition, veiled in public, forbidden to drive a car or travel unless accompanied by a man. She is entrusted with the surgeon's scalpel or the obstetrician's forceps, but not with her own morality. She is 32 entrusted with educating hundreds of members of the upcoming generation, but not with the freedom to come and go as she pleases. Yet, in the prevailing climate of Islamization, many of these same women vigorously defend the restrictions imposed on them in the name of Islam, and scoff at the 'so-called freedoms' enjoyed by Western women (Ramazani, 1985:259). As a result of the traditional factors limiting women's participation in the work force the percentage of women employed in 1985 was extremely low, only 5.1 percent of the labor force was made up of Saudi women (Fourth Development Plan, 1985:89). The opening of the job market to women and the need for more jobs for Saudi women has caused a proliferation of newspaper and magazine articles dedicated to this topic. It is currently one of the most hotly debated topics on Saudi society (Ramazani, 1985:261). This need is underlined by the fact that Saudi Arabia currently relies on over two million foreign workers (Al-Gamadié 1985:22). The government is actively promoting .training of Saudi women to fill these jobs and reduce the number of foreign workers (Ramazani, 1985:260). Although the government is promoting many professions for women, the majority, 65.6 percent (Assaf, 1986:167) of the women working in Saudi Arabia are in the field of education. "A modern nation needs participating citizens, men 'and women" (Fagerlind and Saha, 1983:48). In order to ensure that this participation occurs the attitudes which have confined women's participation to health care and 33 education need to be influenced. How these attitudes are influenced has been the subject of a few studies carried out in Saudi Arabia and other Islamic countries. Mohammed Kadri Elkhoja (1979) studied the effect of living in the United States on the attitudes of two hundred and sixty male and female Libyan students in the United States. He found that there was a positive attitude toward the division of labor between the sexes in the family and that the significant factors influencing this attitude were gender and marital status. Although education was not found to be a major factor, the preference for absolute equality between the sexes increased as the level of education increased. In a later study also carried out in Libya, Biri (1981) surveyed two hundred males from Tripoli. He checked for many variables--age, educational level, family structure, rural or urban background, socio-economic characteristics, ownership of durable goods, religiosity, type of residence and mother's working outside of the home. He found that age and education were the two most important factors in men's acceptance of changing women's roles. The more education that the men had the more positive their attitude was toward role sharing, sharing in decision-making with women and allowing higher participation of women in labor and politics. Although being young was an important 34 indicator, education was seen as the most determining factor. It is believed that the future of women is changing to the modern as a result of men's changing values and attitudes, and also as a result of mass education of women, which will lead women to think of their own roles in a society that is involved in a mass cultural, economic and political revolution--a society that needs the efforts of each and every citizen, male and female, to change and modernize (Biri, 1981:123). Almana (1973) is the earliest attempt to measure the attitudes of Saudi males toward working women. She surveyed fifty-three Saudi students at Arizona State University. She employed a Likert scale to see if there was any relationship between exposure to Western culture and the attitude of men and women's work and religion: She found a strong correlation between the students who had been in the United States for three years or more and a more positive attitude toward women working. The academic level also appeared to have some impact on the attitude toward working women. The most positive attitude was found among juniors and seniors. Religious beliefs appeared to have less impact on attitudes toward working women than exposure to Western culture. Exposure to Western culture also had little impact on religious beliefs and values. Hallawani (1982) administered a questionnaire to one hundred and fifty Saudi men living in Saudi Arabia and outside of Saudi Arabia. She also questioned working Saudi women as to their attitudes toward working and 35 perceived problems with women's jobs. Although she asked about the educational level of the respondents, she only tested the effect of living outside of Saudi Arabia on their responses. Men in general were found to have favorable attitudes toward working women, and this attitude was even more favorable among Saudi men living outside of the country. Some of the questions she asked and the responses are as follows; Should married women be allowed to work in Saudia Arabia? Fifty-seven percent of the men in Saudi Arabia answered yes as compared to sixty-eight percent of the men living outside of Saudi Arabia. Can a woman be a good homemaker and an employee at the same time? Fifty-seven percent of the men in Saudi Arabia agreed with the statement while only fifty-two percent of those living outside of Saudi Arabia agreed. Seventy-one percent of the men in Saudi Arabia believed that women should work half-days while only seventy percent of those outside of Saudi Arabia agreed. Does working prevent women from taking care of children properly? Eighty-two percent of the men in Saudi Arabia believe this statement is true compared to sixty-seven percent of those living outside of Saudi Arabia. If you did not have any children would you let your wife work outside of the home? Seventy-one percent of the men in Saudi Arabia answered yes while those outside Saudi Arabia said yes eighty-two percent of the time. The findings indicated 36 that Saudi men in general tend to have a favorable attitude toward women working and that those men living outside of the country had a slightly more positive attitude. In 1983, Al Shammas studied the attitudes of Saudi male students living in the United States toward selected women's issues. Three hundred and twenty-five Saudi university students were surveyed in California, Arizona, Texas, and Colorado. She checked for four variables. The effect of length of stay in the United States, level of education, marital status and region of origin in Saudi Arabia upon men's attitudes toward women. Of sixty-one items, only seven showed a significant relationship to length of stay in the United States. Students who had been in the United States six months or less had the lowest positive attitude toward women. Students who had been in the United States from one to two years had the highest positive attitude while those who had been in the United States four years or more had a lower positive attitude towards women. The second variable, education, had a significant effect on only two of the sixty-one items. In general the higher the level of education the more positive the attitude toward women. Only college level students were included. The attitude toward women increased with educational. level reaching its peak with Masters level students and then dropping again at the Ph.D. level. 37 There was no significant relationship found between marital status and attitude toward women. Of the sixty-one items only four showed a significant correlation. Based on these few items it appears that divorced males have the most positive attitude toward women while single males have the least positive attitude. Of the sixty-one items only eleven showed a relationship to region of origin in Saudi Arabia. Men from the Southern Region had the lowest positive attitude toward women while men from the Eastern and Northern Regions had the highest positive attitude toward women. Rehemi (1983) conducted a survey of Saudi men and women's attitudes toward the participation of women in Saudi Arabian development. He distributed a questionnaire to six hundred and eighty-three participants belonging to the following groups: females in the University in the United States and in Saudi Arabia, Females employed in the government and private sectors and unemployed females. Males studying in American and Saudi Universities, males employed in the government, private sectors, and as University professors. The subjects were randomly selected from large urban areas, small towns and rural areas. A scaled questionnaire that measured attitudes was completed by the six hundred and eighty-three respondents. A chi-square test was used to evaluate the 38 data using 0.05 level of significance. Based on the level of significance the following findings were reached: Women were generally receptive to the idea of working outside of the home. Both men and women preferred that women work part-time over full time. Both men and women believe that teaching, child care and nursing are the most acceptable jobs for women. Women preferred to work in segregation, men however did not indicate that as being as important. Both men and women accept women working outside of the home provided that traditional values be maintained. Rehemi found that the men's attitudes toward women working outside of the home had no significant relationship with any of the three variables--education level (elementary through doctoral level), occupation, and having lived outside Saudi Arabia. There was also no significant relationship between men's attitude toward women working with men and the men's occupation or having lived outside of Saudi Arabia. The most recent study of modern attitudes of Saudi students and the most complete study on the effects of education and study abroad upon those attitudes was carried out by Mahroos Ghaban (1986). In his study he investigated the impact upon individual modernity of the following independent variables; level of education (secondary, undergraduate and graduate), length of stay 39 in the United States, mass media exposure, urban experience, father's education and age. Based on nine hundred returned questionnaires (two hundred secondary students and four hundred college students in Saudi Arabia, and three hundred college students in the United States) a factor analysis was used to construct a dependent variable scale and to make a profile of the modernity of Saudi students. The impact of the different independent variables upon the dependent variable was determined through regression analysis. Education was found to have the largest and most positive impact upon the individual modernity of Saudi students both in Saudi Arabia and the United States. The second variable found to have a major impact upon individual modernity was the length of stay in the United States. The longer a student was exposed to Western culture the more modern his attitude becomes. Mass media exposure had little impact upon the modernity of students in either Saudi Arabia or in the United States. Neither urban experience, age, nor father's level of education were found to have a direct impact upon the modernity of students in either country. In regard to attitude toward women the strongest relationship was seen with length of stay in the United States. 'Saudi students in the United States have shown a .significant shift from their traditional values and attitudes as they relate to independence from family, women's positions, and work for women; such a shift has not been observed among 40 Saudi students who have not had foreign study experience (Ghaban, 1986:111). The longer a student was' in the United States the more positive his attitude toward women becomes. In spite of the importance of length of stay upon attitudes toward women, the most important factor in promoting modernity and the independent variable most positively associated with individual modernity is the amount of formal education. Summary This chapter has presented related literature on many topics pertaining to attitudes toward women's participation and showed the importance of women's participation in the development of Saudi Arabia. It started with a short description of the Saudi Arabian educational system which was followed by a more detailed discussion of the women's educational system. Next the history of development theories and the most important contemporary theories were presented. After discussing the development theories the role that education plays in national development was analyzed. The relationship between education and attitude change was then presented. Finally, traditional attitudes toward women's participation in the labor force were discussed and research showing the effect of diverse variables upon these attitudes was presented. In the following chapter, 41 Chapter III, the procedure and methodology used in this study will be presented. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter's purpose is to describe the procedure used to plan, conduct the study and give the methods used in analyzing the data collected. This chapter is made up of the following components: 1) The population and sample; 2) the instrument construction; 3) the questionnaire validity; 4) the questionnaire reliability; 5) translation of pre-test of the research instrument; 6) data collection procedure; and 7) statistical methods used in analyzing the data. EQEBLAEIQD_QDQ_§AE21§ The population of the present study was male high school and college students in the City of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The target populations were composed of students in general secondary boys' schools and male students in colleges of Saudi Arabia. A sample of college students was selected from King Saud University. King Saud University was chosen because it is the oldest and largest university in Saudi Arabia (see Chapter II). It (is also centrally located and draws students from the 42 43 entire country. As for high schools, there are 27 high schools around the City of Riyadh. A sample of high school students was randomly selected from eight high schools (Ministry of Education, 1985:39, 40). A total of 480 questionnaire forms were distributed among male high school and college students. The stratifying variables for the sample were high school level and college major areas and level of study (see Table 3.1). These variables were used as stratifying variables since the researcher was attempting to discover if the attitudes toward women's participation in the work force vary according to the variations in these variables. Eight schools have been selected at random from a list of 27 schools in Riyadh. A total of ten students were selected at random in each of the three high school levels. Thirty students were selected from each school which yielded a final sub-sample size total of 240. As for the male college students, 60 students were selected from each of the four major areas: education, engineering, business administration, and arts. This yielded a final sub-sample size total of 240. These colleges were selected because they contain the majority of the students. Students from all majors take courses in these four major colleges. Fifteen students in each level were selected at random from each major area in each of the four college levels. The researcher obtained 44 it. QHWQWQE EEEEEMDELEEEEMW ml . . :u, ._ sh. . . . . : EE EE E _L_.__B_L _:_E E 2 EE. / (\‘u \ I . _\ I. . 4.\. Aces Aces Aces Aces _ . muu< . mmmcamsm wsmsedcwwcm cowwmmeMI / . 8§\ # \ mucmpsum awossoo use: Ase~v mucmpsum was: A_V owmnnoo coHumowwwumsum wcwadamm _.m wfibme flu mm E E E /_\ .:- Acne ucopsum Hoozum Ema: some Ame msoonum swam AQGNV .eucepsum can: rivr'lllt‘li 45 480 students for the whole sample. Although there is no minimum sample size that will guarantee correct results Borg and Gall (83:257) suggest at least 100 per group. This project with 240 per subgroup then should provide a good sampling. WW 0 s e The development of the instrument involved a comprehensive review of the literature dealing with the issue of women's participation in the work force. However, the researcher failed to locate a single appropriate instrument which can fully cover the purposes of this study. Hence, the researcher, guided by the insight gathered through the review, as well as the study research questions, developed his own instrument. Items related to the study dependent variable, the attitudes toward women's participation in the work force, were borrowed directly or in modified form, from questionnaire materials employed by Kahl (1969), Hallawani (1982), Al-Abd Al-Hay (1983), Almana (1972), Rehimi (1983), Elkhoja (1979), Biri (1981), Al-Baadi (1982), Inkeles and Smith (1974) and others. (See Table 3.2 for a listing of these items and a listing of where similar items can be found.) All of. the study attitudinal items are of the Likert format which is aimed at finding a "favorable" or TABLE 3.2 on esu S 10. ' 11. 12. Question A married woman should not work even if she wants to work. A working woman is able to raise children better than a non-working woman. If a woman works she cannot properly take care of her children. A Saudi woman can be both a good homemaker and a good employee at the same time. Women belong at home. For women, marriage and children should be more important than a career. A married woman should only be a housewife. A married woman who works cannot spend enough time with her husband. A woman who has children should work outside of the house only if her children are over six years old. If a wife does not yet have children she should be permitted to work. Married women should be allowed to work. If a man can provide for his wife she should not work outside of the house. R§§QBI£§ Khal, 1968, p. 33; Inkeles and Smith, 1974, p. 340 Almana, 1972, p. 48 Rehemi, 1983, p. 148; Hallawan, 1982, p. 183; Almana, 1973, p. 45 Hallawani, 1982, p. 182; Almana, 1973, p. 45 Biri, 1981, p. 143; Almana, 1972, p. 48 31:1, 1931, p. 143; Al-Baadi, 1982, p. 282 Elkhoju, 1979, p. 289 Almana, 1973, p. 45; Biri, 1981, p. 143 Elkhoja, 1979, p. 289 Hallawani, 1982, p. 183 Rehemi, 1983, p. 148 Hallawani, 1982, p. 182 Researcher 47 Table 3.2, Cont'd. ______Quesfion Ressurss_l. 13. If more Saudi women were allowed Hallawani, 1982, 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. to work, they could replace many foreign workers. A woman should work outside of the house only if she is not married. Only divorced women should be allowed to work outside of the home. Society needs women to perform jobs that they are capable of doing. Women should hold a profes- sional position rather than a manual job. A married woman should only be allowed to work outside of the home if it is a traditionally accepted position, such as teaching or nursing. Women should be allowed to work part-time only. If men and women are allowed to work together there will be a risk of increased sexual contact. Women should be allowed to work outside of the house only in segregated work places. Women should be allowed to work in sexually segregated factories. Your wife should be allowed to work in the same place where you work. A working woman is less respectable than a woman who stays home. p. 181 Elkhoja, 1979, p. 289 Elkhoja, 1979, p. 289 Hallawani, p. 181 1982, Almana, 1973, p. 45 Elkhoja, 1979, p. 289 Rehemi, 1983, p. 158; Biri, 1981, p. 148 Inkeles and Smith, 1974, p. 340 Elkhoja, 1979 p. 289 Researcher Rehemi, 1983, p. 147 Hallawani, p. 170; 1972, p. 45 1982, Almana, 48 Table 3.2, Cont'd. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Question It is more acceptable for women to work today than in the past. Women from an original Arab tribe should not be allowed to work. If a woman is looking for a job, it is better to find a job close to her family, even if it means not taking a better job farther away. Women should become more active in the business and professional world. It is not acceptable for a woman to have a higher position than her husband. Women's services should be completely administered by women. - Women are as capable as men in carrying out some types of work. A woman should have the right to choose what type of work she does. Men and women should have equal opportunities for jobs. Women are equally as capable as men of effectively participating in the business world. Women and men should receive equal pay for equal work. Women are not as capable as men of making important decisions. Resgurce Researcher Researcher Kahl, 1968, p. 47; Sack, 1974, p. 98 Almana, 1973, p. 48; Biri, 1981, p. 144 Biri, 1981, p. 143 Researcher Biri, 1981, p. 144 Elkhoja, 1979, p. 239 Biri, 1981, p. 144; Elkhoja, 1979, p. 292 Elkhoja, 1979, p. 272 Biri, 1981, p. 144; Inkeles and Smith, 1974, p. 340 Biri, 1981, p. 144 49 "unfavorable" attitude toward the participation of women in the work force. Agreement with questionnaire item numbers (as they appear in Table 3.2) 2, 4, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, l7, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35 and disagreement with the questionnaire item numbers 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 15, 20, 24, 26, 29 and 36 indicated a favorable attitude on the part of the respondents toward women's participation in the work force.* All of the dependent variable items were of the Likert format, with four response categories: (1) ”strongly disagree", (2) "disagree", (3) "agree”, and (4) "strongly agree". The mean response of between 1 and 2 was interpreted as "disagreement" with the statement; the mean response of between 2 and 3 was interpreted as "neutral" with the statement; and the mean response of between 3 and 4 was interpreted as ”agreement" with the statement. The educational level was measured by single items asking the respondents to identify their level of education. Possible responses included first, second and third years in high school as 10th, 11th and 12th grade *ngtg: It should be noted that several items have been repeated using different words. This was done purposefully to serve the following reason: Some of the items are very crucial for the findings of the study. Thus, the researcher would like to 'make sure, by repeating these items, that the responses are consistent. For example, item 1, item 7, and item 11. 50 in the United States. For the college students, the possible respondents included first-, second-, third- and fourth-year students which are equivalent to freshman, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. Major areas of study was measured by a single item asking respondents to identify their college. Possible answers included 1) Education; 2) Engineering; 3) Business Administration; and, 4) Art. The exposure to Western culture was measured as a dichotomy variable: yes or no. Length of training, studying, or living in the west was measured by a single item asking how long the respondent spent outside of Saudi Arabia. Possible responses included: 1) less than one year, 2) between 1 and 2 years, 3) between 3 and 4 years, 4) between 5 and 6 years, and 5) 7 years or more. The father's level of education was measured by a single item asking respondents to identify their father's level of education. Possible responses included: 1) doesn't read or write, 2) can read or write; some elementary education, 3) elementary education; 4) middle school or some of it, 5) high school or some of it; 6) university or some of it; and 7) graduate studies. The same procedure is employed for the mother's level of education. Mass media exposure was measured by three items. Individuals. were asked how often they: I) watched television, 2) listened to the radio, and 3) read the 51 newspaper and/or magazines. The given response choices were: 1) everyday, 2) a few times a week, 3) rarely, and 4) never. Place of residence was measured by a single item asking the individual to identify the size of the place where he lived most of his life. Places were classified as: 1) a large city (holds more than 100,000 people), 2) a medium-sized city (holds between 20,000 to 100,000 people), and 3) a village (holds less than 20,000 people). Although the criteria used for classification are arbitrary, it seems to differentiate places in Saudi Arabia quite well. Marital status was measured by a single item asking respondents to identify their marital status: either single or married. The study questionnaire consists of two sections. The first section contains demographic data relevant to the independent variables of the study. The second section consists of 36 items exploring the respondents attitudes relevant to the dependent variable. A cover letter was attached to the questionnaire explaining the purpose, nature of the study, as well as the importance of respondents' contributions (see Appendix A). Specific directions for each section were given at the beginning of each section. The instrument was translated into the Arabic language and was presented. 52 Since the researcher administered the questionnaire in person, the problems of mailing the questionnaire and follow-up procedures did not arise. 999W Validity is the extent to which a questionnaire measures that which it is intended to measure and therefore is an important consideration in all research. Attitudes can't be directly measured. "They must be inferred from people's beliefs and behaviors. This measurement process is extremely prone to error" (Mueller, 1986:57). To ensure that the questionnaire was valid several steps were taken. The researcher met frequently with his advisor, members of his committee, a research consultant, and some graduate students from Saudi Arabia at Michigan State University. Based on their comments, the questionnaire was revised. In addition, the Arabic version of the questionnaire was edited by a professor at the Arabic-Language Department to ensure the translation was correct. 89119211131 Reliability of a questionnaire indicates the degree of consistency of the responses over repeated administration of the questionnaire to the same set of respondents. Good comprehension of questionnaire items 53 increases the reliability of the questionnaire. For this purpose, six doctoral students were asked to review the questionnaire. Based on their comments, the questionnaire was revised and later administered to six selected students to check the clarity of the items. The comments from these students indicated that the questionnaire was readable and clear. The Cronbach-x reliability coefficient for this questionnaire was computed to be 0.86. According to Mueller (1986:58) a well constructed attitude scale may have a reliability coefficient of 0.8 to 0.9. The 0.86 reliability coefficient for the present questionnaire was well within the range of a well constructed scale. 1,; 1 ., 1 . 1- ;; .» ,1 ;;:;1 , ,; ,Hu-, The native language of the respondents is Arabic. Hence, the questionnaire was translated into Arabic. The initial translation was made by the researcher. A group of six Saudi doctoral students at Michigan State University were given two versions of the questionnaire for comparison and commentary. A week later, this group gathered in the researcher's home and discussed the questionnaire and translation. In light of this discussion, which proved to be very helpful, several items and words were modified and revised. On example is Item 18. "A proper position" was replaced with the phrase "A traditionally accepted position, such as 54 nursing or teaching?" thus making the statement clearer and less biased. Having established these changes, six undergraduate Saudi students at Lansing Community College were given the revised Arabic Form and asked to respond as well as identify confusing and difficult items. Their responses indicated that the questionnaire was clear. Some of them, however, made observations of minor importance which were taken into consideration when the final draft was constructed. However, the researcher came to believe that the pre-testing of the instrument had the following main limitation: The pre-test should be administered to subjects from the sampling frame in order to gain much more insight, but since the study subjects were not available in the United States, the above procedure was repeated using members of the study subjects in Saudi Arabia. WW9 The research proposal was approved on May 19, 1986. A copy of the proposal accompanied by a letter from the researcher's advisor, Dr. Kenneth L. Neff, was sent to the Saudi Arabia Education Mission in Washington, DC. After approving the research project, the Educational Mission sent a copy of the proposal to King Saud University in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and also requested 55 their assistance in helping to carry out the research. King Saud University approved the proposal. On September 10, 1986 the researcher arrived in Saudi Arabia. King Saud University provided research facilities and much assistance. First a copy of the Questionnaire (see Appendix A for Questionnaire in Arabic and English) was given to six professors in the College of Education and other fields at King Saud University. The professors, both Arabic and English speaking, made suggestions and indicated that the readability was good. This procedure was carried out to enhance the readability and improve the reliability of the measurement. The Dean of the College of Education at King Saud University then wrote five letters. Letters were sent to each of the four seledted colleges and a letter was sent to the Educational District of Riyadh (copies of the letters appear in Appendix B). The letters were a request for their help and in cooperation during the research. Next the researcher met with the superintendent of Educational District of Riyadh. Eight high schools in Riyadh were randomly selected. A letter was drafted by the Superintendent and sent to the principals of the selected high schools requesting their cooperation with the distribution of the questionnaires. Then the researcher .visited each of the selected high schools and presented each principal with the letter from the 56 superintendent. In each high school thirty students were randomly chosen. Ten students were chosen from each of the three grade levels (Sophomore, Junior, Senior). Permission was received by each of the teachers with students selected for the research project. Finally each student was given a questionnaire to complete. The procedure for collecting data at the University level was very similar. A letter was sent to the Dean of each college involved in the study requesting their aid in the procedure. Within the College of Education a letter was also sent to each Department Head. Courses were selected at each grade level then fifteen students were randomly selected from each class. Four hundred and eighty usable questionnaires were received making a one hundred percent response rate. In January of 1987 the researcher returned to Michigan State University. A letter of gratitude was sent by the researcher to the high school principals for their valuable cooperation in this procedure. Wis Data analysis was carried out through the Michigan State University Computer Center using the statistical package for Social Science (SPSS). Statistical analysis of data utilized frequency and percentage distributions, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Tukey test. Analysis of variance helped the 57 researcher to determine the significance of the differences among group means. With level of education, ANOVA and non-linear trend analysis were used. This method helped the user to see if there was any non-linear effect of Level of Education on attitude. For the other variables, ANOVA was used to determine whether statistically significant differences exist between sub-group means according to exposure to Western Culture and Mass Media, Mother's and Father's Education, Major Area of Study, and Place of Residence. Tukey post-hoc tests were used to detect which pair or pairs of group means were significantly different. A significance level (Alpha) of 0.05 was established for statistical tests in this study. The final procedure in the analysis of the data involved the grouping for independent variables. Level of Education, Exposure to Western Culture, Place of Residence, and Major Area of Study were measured as they were in the original questionnaire. Mass media exposure was measured by the sum of the responses to three items. Individuals were asked how often they: 1) watched television; 2) listened to the radio; and, 3) read the newspaper and/or magazines. The possible responses were: 1) everyday: 2) a few times a week; 3) rarely; and, 4) never. A total of 4 or less was considered as representing "high" exposure, a total of 5, 6, or 7 was considered as "moderate" exposure, and a 58 total of 8 or more was considered as "low" exposure to mass media. To obtain a reasonable sample size for each group regarding father's education, the following responses were combined to form catagories which were finally used in the analysis of data: none (1), Elementary School (2, 3), Middle School and High School (4, 5), College or above (6, 7). For the same reasons applied to father's education, mother's education was combined to form catagories which were finally used in the analysis of data: none (1), Elementary School (2, 3), Middle School (4, 5, 6, 7). Three independent variables were not considered in the analysis of data--the age, marital status, and length of stay in foreign countries. The age was omitted because age and level of education was highly related. The level of education was used in place of the age. Marital status and length of stay in foreign countries were excluded because most of the respondents were single and most of them stayed in foreign countries for less than one year. umm Chapter III provides a description of the target population of the study and the sampling procedure used. Also described are the construction of the instrument, the questionnaire validity and reliability, the 59 translating and pre-testing procedure, the process of data collecting and the analysis of the data collected. The following chapter, Chapter IV, presents the analysis of the data. CHAPTER IV ANALXSIS OF DATA The objective of this chapter is to present the results of the analysis of the data. This chapter is comprised of three sections. First, the characteristics of the respondents are described. Second, the descriptive analysis is given. The results of the inferential analysis are discussed in the third section. W The total group of 480 respondents was comprised of 240 high school students and 240 college students. The students were asked questions about their personal variables (age, level of education, marital status, whether or not a woman in their immediate family was working, area of residence, experience abroad, parents' level of education and exposure to mass media) as these variables may have an impact upon their attitude toward women‘s participation in the labor force. Table 4.1 shows the ages of the participants. Of the high school students 26.7% were 15-16 years old. The majority (54.6%) were 17-18 years old, while 15.4% were 60 Table 4.1 Frequency and Percentage of the 61 Ages of the Research Sample AGE HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage 15-16 64 26.7% --- ---- 17-18 131 54.6% 2 0.8% 19-20 37 15.4% 45 18.8% 21-22 8 3.3% 114 47.5% 23-24 --- ---- 64 26.7% 25-26 --- ---- 12 5.0% 27-28 --- ---- 2 0.8% 29-30 --- ---- 1 0.4% TOTAL 240 100.0% 240 100.0% Table 4.2 Frequency and Percentage of the Levels of Education of the Research Sample LEVELS OF EDUCATION HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage First year 80 33.3% --- ---- Second year 80 33.3% --- ---- Third year 80 33.3% --- ---- Level one --- ---- 60 25.0% Level two --- ---- 60 25.0% Level three --- ---- 60 25.0% Level four --- ---- 60 25.0% TOTAL 240 100.0% 240 100.0% 62 19-20 years old and only 3.3% were 21-22. No high school students were 23 years old or older. The College students' ages varied more than those of the high school students. The youngest college students were 17-18 years old (0.8%), 18.8% were 19-20 years old, the largest age group (47.5%) were 21-22 years old, 26.7% were 23-24 years old, 5.0% were 25-26 years old, 0.8% were 27-28 years old and only 0.4% were 29-30 years old. Table 4.2 indicates the students' level of education. Equal numbers of students were taken from each grade level. At the high school level 33.3% of the respondents were from each first, second and third year. At the College level 25% were chosen from level 1, level 2, level 3 and level 4. Table 4.3 shows the area of residence of the respondents. A large majority (85.8%) of the high school students had lived most of their life in a large city, 8.8% in a medium-sized city and only 5.4% in a village. The college students were more evenly distributed with 40.8% having lived in a large city, 29.2% having lived in a medium city and 30.0% having lived in a village. Table 4.4 illustrates students' experience outside of Saudi Arabia. The majority of both groups of students had not had any experience abroad. Of the high school students 75.8% had not been outside of Saudia Arabia compared to 77.5% of the college students who had not. 63 Table 4.3 Frequency and Percentage of the Area of Residence of the Research Sample AREA OF RESIDENCE HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Large City 206 85.8% 98 40.8% Medium City 20 8.8% 70 29.2% Village 13 5.4% 72 30.0% TOTAL 240 100.0% 240 100.0% Table 4.4 Frequency and Percentage of Experience Outside Saudi of the Research Sample EXPERIENCE OUTSIDE SAUDI HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Had 58 24.2% 54 22.5% Had None 182 75.8% 186 77.5% TOTAL 240 100.0% 240 100.0% 64 Table 4.5 indicates the amount of time spent outside of Saudi Arabia by the students who have spent some time in a foreign country. Of the 24.2% of high school students who had, the largest group (70.7%) spent less than one year out of the country, 10.3% spent 1-2 years, 3.4% spent 3-4 years, 3.4% spent 5-6 years and 12.1% spent 7 years or more. Of the 22.5% of college students with some experience abroad the majority (53.7%) spent less than 1 year, 24.1% spent 1-2 years, 5.6% spent 3-4 years, 2.7% spent 5-6 years and 13% spent 7 years or more. Table 4.6 shows which country the 24.2% of high school students and 22.8% of college students visited. The majority (56.9%) of the high school students had traveled to other Arabian countries, 29.3% had been to Europe and 13.8% to the United States. The majority (48.1%) of the college students had also traveled to other Arabian countries while equal numbers (25.9%) had visited Europe and the United States. Table 4.7 indicates the level of education attained by the student's father. Of the high school students' fathers, 20.4% could not read or write, 25.4% could read or write but had no formal education, 16.2% had some elementary education, 13.3% had some intermediate education or held an intermediate school certificate, 10.0% had some secondary education or held a secondary education certificate, 10.4% had some college education 65 Table 4.5 Frequency and Percentage of the Length of Stay in Foreign Countries of the Research Sample LENGTH OF STAY HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Less than 1 year 41 70.7% 29 53.7% 1-2 years 6 10.3% 13 24.1% 3-4 years 2 3.4% 3 5.6% 5-6 years 2 3.4% 2 3.7% 7 or more years 7 12.1% 7 13.0% TOTAL 58 100.0% 54 100.0% Table 4.6 Frequency and Percentage of Experience in Foreign Countries of the Research Sample EXPERIENCE IN COUNTRIES HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Arabian 33 56.9% 26 48.2% Europe 17 29.3% 14 25.9% U.S.A. 8 13.8% 14 25.9% TOTAL 58 100.0% 54 100.0% 66 Table 4.7 Frequency and Percentage of Father's Level of Education of the Research Sample FATHER'S LEVEL OF EDUCATION HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Can't read or write 49 20.4% 80 33.3% Read or write 61 25.4% 65 27.1% Elementary Education 39 16.2% 29 12.1% Some Intermediate Education/Certificate 32 13.3% 25 10.4% Some Secondary Education/Certificate 24 10.0% 22 9.2% Some College Educa- tion/College Degree 25 10.4% 19 7.9% Some Graduate Educa- tion/Graduate Degree 10 4.2% --- ---- TOTAL 240 100.0% 240 100.0% 67 or held a degree, and 4.2% had done some graduate work or held a graduate degree. Of the college students' fathers, 33.3% could not read or write, 27.1% could read or write, 12.1% had at least some elementary education, 10.4% had some intermediate education or held a certificate, 9.2% had some secondary education or held a high school diploma, 7.9% had some college education or held a degree, none, however, had done any graduate work. Table 4.8 shows the level of education of the students' mothers. The majority of the mothers of both groups: high school (53.7%) and college (68.3%) were illiterate. This, along with the overall lower educational levels of the mothers can be partially explained by the fact that formal education for women in Saudi Arabia did not begin until 1960. Of the remaining mothers of high school students: 23.3% could read or write, 15.4% had some elementary education, 5.0% had some intermediate education or held a certificate and .4% had some college education or held a degree, however, none had done graduate work. The mothers of the college students were a little less educated: 16.7% could read or write, 9.2% had some elementary education, 5.0% had some intermediate education or held a certificate, 0.8% had some secondary education or held a certificate and none had done any college level studies. 68 Table 4.8 Frequency and Percentage of Mother's Level of Education of the Research Sample MOTHER'S LEVEL OF EDUCATION HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Can't read or write 129 53.7% 164 68.3% Read or write 56 23.3% 40 16.7% Elementary Education 37 15.4% 22 9.2% Some Intermediate Education/Certificate 12 5.0% 12 5.0% Some Secondary Education/Certificate 5 2.1% 2 .8% Some College Educa- tion/College Degree 1 .4% --- ---- Some Graduate Educa- tion/Graduate Degree --- ---- --- ---- TOTAL 240 100.0% 240 100.0% 69 Exposure to television is demonstrated in Table 4.9. The majority of both groups of students were exposed daily to television. Of the high school students, 63.3% watched television daily, 13.3% watched several times per week, 14.5% rarely watched and 8.8% never watched. Of the college students, 54.2% watched television daily, 32.1% several times per week, 12.5% rarely watched and 1.2% never watched. The frequency with which the students listened to the radio is shown in Table 4.10. Of the high school students 13.3% listened daily, 31.7% listened several times per week, the largest group (46.2%) rarely listened and 8.8% never did. All of the college students at least occasionally listened to the radio. Of the college students, 34.6% listened daily, 42.1% listened several times per week and 23.3% listened rarely. The widest gap in media use is in reading the newspaper. Twice the percentage (64.2%) of college students read the paper daily as compared with the high school students (34.2%). Of the remaining high school students 44.2% read the newspaper several times per week, 18.8% read one rarely and 2.9% never read the paper. Of the remaining college students 28.8% read a newspaper several times per week, 6.3% read one rarely and only 0.8% claim to never read any newspaper. These results are shown in Table 4.11. 70 Table 4.9 Frequency and Percentage of Exposure to Mass Media/TV of the Research Sample EXPOSURE TO MASS MEDIA/TV HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Everyday 152 63.3% 130 54.2% Several Times a Week 32 13.3% 77 32.1% Rarely 35 14.6% 30 12.5% Never 21 8.8% 3 1.2% TOTAL 240 100.0% 240 100.0% Table 4.10 Frequency and Percentage of Exposure to Media/Radio of the Research Sample EXPOSURE TO MASS MEDIA/RADIO HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Everyday 32 13.3% 83 34.6% Several Times a Week 76 31.7% 101 42.1% Rarely 111 46.2% 56 . 23.3% Never 21 8.8% --- ---- TOTAL 240 100.0% 240 100.0% 71 Table 4.11 Frequency and Percentage of Exposure to Media/Newspaper of the Research Sample EXPOSURE TO MASS MEDIA/NEWSPAPER HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Everyday 80 34.2% 154 64.2% Several Times a Week 106 44.2% 69 28.8% Rarely 45 18.8% 15 6.3% Never 7 2.9% 2 0.8% TOTAL 240 100.0% 240 100.0% 72 vs 3 The attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force was measured by using means of the responses by high school and college students for each item with five areas classified by the researcher for the purpose of facilitating the descriptive analysis only. These areas were family consideration, conditions allowing women to work, co-working, equality, and social attitude. The means of perceptions were interpreted as agree, neutral, or disagree with the statement according to interpretation given in Chapter 3, page 49. The results were reported according to whether the high school and college students were neutral, agreed, disagreed, or differed in their attitudes toward women's participation in the work force. a s' n The results as shown in Table 4.12 demonstrated that the high school and college were neutral in their attitude toward women's participation in the work force with the following statements, (means between 2-3). Married women should work, if a woman works she can take care of her children, a woman can be a good homemaker and a good employee at the same time, women should not belong at home, married women should be housewives and a married woman who works can spend enough time with her husband. 73 am. ¢~.~ om. mo.~ .oconman no: new mafia nusoso o>on Haws nose: vcwxuos < mm. vm.~ mm. m~.~ .euwammsoa c on uo: casonm coaos omwuuoa a mo. om.H mm. on.H .couoHfico use meowuuma can» usmuhomsfi duos ma ummuco mm. on.~ mm. oo.~ .msos um ozoamb so: oflsosm cmaoz on. mm.~ om. on.~ .umxmamson can umxuoa coco c on can smsoa Hosea 4 am. m¢.~ om. on.~ .COHGHHnO no: MOM when can smao3 asexuoa 4 cm. mH.~ nu. nw.a .umuuon couoawno mmmwmu cmaoa ocwxuoa a we. Hm.~ om. o¢.~ .xuos van 030: um zaum Mo: Canaan :mfioz coauuma c om IN! om .m. mfiouH ocsuwuud momsaoo Hoonom seem mcowunueuamsoo Sawsmm Hoonom no“: on ocwouooud msmuH ousuwuud on» no :ofiu6fi>mo cuntsmum use memo: uou mucmosommmm ucmosum mvoaaoo can NH.¢ OHQQB 74 Also the results indicate that the high school and college students disagree with the following statement (mean between 1-2): For women marriage and children should be more important than a career. In regard to the students different in their attitude the following statement were shown. A working woman is able to raise children better than a non-working woman (mean 1.83 for the high school and 2.15 for college). 0 w W o W The results as shown in Table 4.13 indicate that the high school and college students were neutral in their attitude toward women's participation in the work force with the following statements (mean between 2-3): Women should work if their children are over six years old: a wife should work if she doesn't have children: a married woman should work: Saudi women could replace many foreign workers. A single woman should work and women should work in a professional position. Also the results reveal that the high school and college students agreed with the following statements (means between 3-4): Divorced women should work: society needs capable women to work: and the women should work in traditional jobs. The high school (mean - 1.93) and college students (mean = 2.37) differed in their attitudes in the following statements: A wife should work even if her husband can support her. 75 .mawuuuuom xuo3 mason smaoz mm. Nm.m om. ho.N om. Ha.n an. n~.m .mcofluflmom voummoos aaaocowuwcmuu 9H xuoa casonm c6303 cmfiuuos 4 mm. hm.~ om. on.~ .mcoauwmom ascoammmuoum caon oasosm c0803 no. mm.n as. HH.n .xuoa on smsoa manmmmo moms: auoaoom mo. ma.m mu. n~.n .xuo3 oasonm :w503 ooouo>wa no. hm.~ mm. ha.~ .xuoa casonm sosos sandwm < hm. mm.~ om. v>.~ .mumxuoz cmawuou dosages casoo smaos Htscm vm. un.~ mm. mm.a .um: pneumam coo oceans: no: u« cm>m xuoz casonm oufl3 4 an. om.~ Hm. o~.~ .xuoa oasoam smaoa cowuuwz on. mm.~ mm. m¢.~ .xuoa casonm concawco usonuws saws d ms. Hm.~ no. m~.~ .xuo3 oasonw coucawnu “mode saws cmaoz d om 1M1 om .m: mBOUH mosuwuum ommaaoo sacrum noes xuoz o» smaoz vcwaoaa¢ m:0auwosoo you mucoocommmm ucocsum ommaaou use Hoocom saw: on usaouooud msouH so:Uwuu¢ on» no scaumH>mo onmocmum one name: nH.v manna 76 sezflerkins The results as shown in Table 4.14 indicate that the high school and college students agreed in their attitude toward women's participation in work force in the following statement (means between 3-4): The women could work outside the house in segregated work force. They disagreed with the following statement (means between 1-2): Men and women working together will not increase the risk of sexual contact. The results indicate that they differed in their attitudes in the following statements: Women should work in sexually segregated factories with a high school mean of 1.89 and a college mean of 2.12. Emlitx The results as given in Table 4.15 indicate that the high school and college students were neutral in their attitude with the following statements (means between 2-3): Women are as capable as men; A woman should be able to choose what type of work she does: Women are as capable as men in the business world: and Equal pay for equal jobs. The results indicate they differed in the following statements: Men and women should have equal . opportunities for jobs (high school mean = 1.80 and college mean = 2.11), and Women are as capable as men in 77 mm. ~H.~ om. mm.a .moman wash 0:» ca Rhos can canons: one mu“: me. on.« mo.H mm.~ .mowuouosu pmucmmummm adacsxom cw xuos casonm £0303 vs. mm.n no. ov.n .mosaa xuo3 cousmoummm s c« xuos oasonu smsoz nu. me.a mm. on.a .uonummou xuoa coo c0303 use am: am NP: am 1m: mamuH mnauwuufl momafioo Hooaom no“: asaxuoznoo you mucoosommmm usmcsum ouoaaoo can Hoonom no“: on mswouoood maouH convauud an» no scauma>mo ousossum use memos va.¢ OHQOB 78 Hm. ma.~ om. mm.H .mCOfimHOOU mswxma :« cos we muncmoo mm was cmsos as. mm.~ mm. mm.~ .acm assoc m>«momu casonm :03 can c0503 mm. mn.~ mm. ha.~ .mmmswmsn ca :03 mm OHQMQMO mm was dose: mm. HH.~ so. om.a .mbon you mmwuwcsuuoamo Henge 0>sn oasonm smaoa one :0: mm. mo.m mm. mn.~ .mmoc mam xuoa no 09>» pens mmoozo oasoo smaoa d mm. mv.~ mm. vn.~ .sma mm mansmmo me who smaoz om 1m: om .MI mamuH mosuwuud momaaoo Hoonom sows auwamsvw you mucmosommom unmosum mmmaaoo use mH.¢ OHQMB Hoocom no“: on msavuoood mamuH ocsuduua on» no sowumfi>oo unsuumum can name: 79 making important decisions in jobs (013) (high school mean - 1.85 and college mean - 2.15). $291M The results as shown in Table 4.16 indicate that the high school and college students were neutral in their‘ attitude toward women's work in the following statements (means between 2-3): Women should become more active in the business and professional world and it is acceptable for a woman to have a higher position than her husband. The results indicate that they agreed with the following statements (means between 3-4): A working woman is more respectable than a woman who stays at home: It is acceptable for women to work today: and, Women services should be administered by women. The high school and college students differed in their attitude in the following statements: Women from an Arab tribe should work (high school mean - 2.88 and college mean - 3.15). The high school and college students disagreed with the following statement (means between 1-2): A working woman should choose a better job even if it is not close to her family. 8O or. nm.n mm. ma.n .:0303 >n venoumwcflsom on casonm m00w>hmm m.:maoz mm. hm.~ mm. mm.~ .ccsnms: we: snap cowufimom magmas 6 «>65 :60 coaoz d we. mm.~ mu. n~.~ .mmmcwmsn ca om>ao>Cw duos mfioomn pasonm :0503 am. mm.a on. Hw.a .>H«smm no: Scum new ma ya ma cm>m mach umuuon mmoono casonm cmaoz up. mH.n mm. mm.~ .xuo: Canaan smaoa Hogans mm. ha.n no. mo.n .hocou xuos ou cmsoa you manoummoom we OH om. mo.n «m. vo.n .ssaoz mewxuoancoc a soap manmuommmmu whoa ma soao3 mcflxuoa 4 am .MI om IR: mamuH mosufluu< mmmaaoo Hoosom as“: m0099wuu< Hmumwoom you musoosommom useusum momHHoO one Hoocom coax ou mswouooo¢ msmuH mosuauud on» no coaumw>oo ouuocmum use memo: wH.v OHQMB 81 The ngultg of thg Hypotheses The attitudes of male high school and college students toward women's participation in the work force in Saudi Arabia were analyzed according to individual item. The major objective of this study was to examine if there was a positive linear relationship between the attitudes and the level of education. The minor objective was to find if there were differences in the attitudes with respect to the exposure to western culture, exposure to mass media, mother's and father's education, major area of study, and place of residence. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to detect the differences among group means for each attitude item. Tukey's test was used to find out which pair or pairs of group means were significantly different among the means. It should be noted that the pair-wise analysis sometimes indicates a statistically significant difference between two scores that are both within the same overall categories, i.e., both scores may be within the "average" category. These differences are of less importance than those which involve the pair scores in different categories. Maggi Hol There is no linear trends in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their level of education. 82 The results of ANOVA and trend analysis are shown in Table 4.17. The first column displays the p values (actual level of significance) for testing the equality of means among students of different levels of education. The second column displays the p values for testing the presence of non-linear trends of the responses according to the level of education. The results indicate that the attitudes toward women's participation in the work force were linearly related to level of education in the following items: 1) Married women should work: 2) Working women raise children better: 3) Women shouldn't belong at home: 4) Work is more important than marriage and children for women: 5) Married women should not be housewives: and 6) Working women will have enough time for their husbands. (7) Wife without kids should work, (8) Married women should work, (9) Wife should work even if her husband can support her, (10) Single women should work, and (11) Women should work part time. (12) Women could work in segregated factories and (13) Wife and husband can work in the same place. (14) Tribal women should work, (15) Women should involve in a business. (16) A women should choose the type of work she does: (17) Men and women should have equal opportunities for jobs: and, (18) Women are as capable as men in making decisions. 83 mo. ml: V10 um 33.—3:98.. a—oo. «co_m_uou mc_xoe c_ :05 mo odnoeoo an ace case: ~op. woeo. one. o~—. «so. moo. moo. >od .osve e>_oooa n.3onm cos use case: uooo. Noe. one. oom. mmocmmon c_ cos we «Landau no use case: aopo. om~. nun. «Poo.v oboq to. mo_u_c:ucooeo .0360 o>eg n.3ozm cases use so: apoo. oo.. .90. wooo. «not one goo: we ooxu use omoozu o.:ogm coco: ¢ apoo. «coo. m~o. om~. cos we o.boaou me «to case: «oNo. ~mp. no“. mnn. case: xb noeoue_c.eue on o.:ocm ”mo_>coo m.coeo: pee. com. moo. man. anemone: amuse coca eco_u_moe Leno.. o>og coo can.) —mo. omo. ~oo. c—oo.v om0c_msn c_ oo>.o>c_ on u_:ogm case: ao—o. pno. an. pm~. >._se* to; sore use we u_ o. ce>e seem eouuan snooze n.302m case: a—oo. expo. moo. «ooo. goo: 0.:ocm cases .on_e_ «poo.v ono. one. Moe. xenOu gees on case: Loo monogamous m_ a. a—oo. new. Nmo. omo. cuss: oc_xcos-coc a saga c.5euuoemea egos m_ case: mc_xtos < yopo. smo. obs. .~—o. coo.o use. one cm xcos coo newsman one ov_: e—oo.v swo. 9mm. «moo. momaouuew oeuemoaoem cm goo: o.:ocm case: see. moo. poo. F~o. ouaowxcoa oouomocoom s cm are: p.30cm case: cooo. «moo. bee. Koo. cesuooou goo: coo case: use ca: 3.3.. 8.. 2k. LBJ 8.2.5.2. to; 385 :98: :8. 3.. m3. m2. «8338 8588 >..oco_u_uecu c_ xtoa o.sou case: oo_ctos < new. ~00. ope. oow. co_u_moe .eco_mmo*oce o 6.6; o.:osm cm§:: «moo. ego. «we. coo. ago: on cases odooeau moon: >uo_uom oo~. 3.. 3n. $4. for 3365 :28: 03.63”. oo—. one. mso. cpoo.v xcox o.:o:m cases odoc_m < sopo. coo. ~00. own. mcoxaos somocoe eoo.ooe o.sou cases _o:om cooo. son. son. «Foo.v_ to: «codes» can oneness to: »_ co>o ago: o.:oza oo_3 < c—oo.v ckeo. sou. cmoo. ago: adsosm case: oo_taox «poo.v «~Go. nun. «~oo. gee: o.:oco mo_u usogu_s ov_s < own. ooh. mmo. who. use: o.:o:m mo_x condo :o_3 case: < mfl. cum. ~fi. .3. 238: .3: too oe_u cocoon e>og .._3 case: ocmxcos < w—oo. aooo. o~o. «Noo. mo>_3omaos on yo: p.303» case: oo_eee: mom. c—oo. mac. spoo. case: too coau._:o use oos_aaus coca uceueoos_ oaoe m_ comaou a~mo. «an. «mo. upoo. «so: on wooden so: n.3oca cuss: Loo. 2m. 30. «on. moose-use: use scouts: oooo on c3 :80: cmoo. Pam. nmo. com. coco._go oz» toe ease one case: ocmxeoa «poo.v mes. omo. opoo. couuob coco._:o ounce cues: oc_xco3 ao—o. com. -o. apoo.v gee: o.:ogm cuss: oe_ccex W m u A u A n A %H— gumuu< o_oo: was: oeocne aco_ueu:om.ucoeh co_ueo:ou euco_coexm tooe_s.cozv we .o>oo “one u e~_m e.osemo ouc0u_mee we use.e use .>o:um toque .co_ueo:oe a.eocue* .co_ueu:ue a.co:uos .o_ooe woos .oeoebu ouco_eoexu .co_uoo:oo mo .e>o. c_ acute euoc_..coc .co_aoo:oo wo .o>o. cow <>oz< one we “mos.e> do oocoo_e_comm we m.o>o. .o:»oe.ogh uu—.e edges 84 mo. “V40:- 33:339. 'II’- .Noo. moo. «oN. Koo. wso_m.oot os.on C. see me u_bodeu me use case: one. .NNo. .no. oso. >oc .eocu o>_uoos o.:o;m to: use seas: .we. GGN. omo. cowo. mmos.u:n s. see me o.bmeou me use sees: m-. oov. coo. coo. whom so. . ne_u.s:~soado .eooo o>os v.3ozm case: use so: was. moo. -~. o-. moon or» atom .0 easy use ewooso t.:osm sees: < ocm. pow. non. so—. see we e.beeoo we use case: oz. 2:. EN. So. :25: .3 $333553 on 3:05. «outflow 9:983 new. oo~. c—oo. «no. «stones: c.0su soc. uso_u.moe suso_s o>eg sou sees: nae. omo. ans. cowo. amos.n:b s. oo>_o>s. on o.:oza spec: «mo. unoo. nmk. own. >._Em~ so: see. so. I. a. .. so>o whom season «moose o.oosm sees: ooo. cop. o_¢. son. . atom u_:osm soeos .on.s— Ken. -o. n~w. q—o. xenon use: on case: so. o.nouoouue n. “— o—w. ccmo. mo—. ope. sosos os.xcox.soc e saga e_oe.uoemes «cos a. case: os_xsoz < .moo. ~o~. ose. o—m. euo.e sea» or» s_ xso: sou osobmss use 0..) mop. ~m~. ~mw. o—o. mu.souooe oesooosoom s. xso: o_:o:m sass: mmN. ~om. an“. mn~. ousooxsos oeuooosoow e so xso: v.503m sees: .opo. n~o. mmo. wnk. sosuooou xsos sou sees: use so: 2:. 2.. 8.. new: 8.2.:8 to: 3:9; 5.8: —~—. moo. ooo.p ope. mso_u_moe oeueoooe >..eso_u_oosu s_ ace: p.369 sosoz be.ssos < obs. com. ~os. con. so.u.moa .eso.mme.oso s u.os v.3osm case: -n. pee. o~¢. ooo. xsos ou soso: o.booou moses >ue.oom Bo. 3m. 3m. 80. for Scorn s98: pueblo oo~. nmo. non. —.n. xsoz o.:ozm sosoz e.os_n < «mp. o~o. moo. coo. osoxco: so.eso. ooe_oos moses sosos _o:om «so. nv~. oon. nmo. so: usooaam sou usobmss so: a. so>o xsoz p.305» e..z < o.«. ~——. ooo. no~. sees o_:o;m sees: to.ssox .no. «poo. «we. pom. xso: odoosm mo_x «serum: eo_z < .oo. -m. ape. ems. atom oozes» mo_u soo.o so.) soeo: < N—m. omo. mkn. poo. beeswax so: so. eE_u sosose o>eg .._3 sass: os_xsoz < mn~. «mm. moo. -c. uo>_3om:o; on «o: v.5osm soso: oo_ssnx .-o. como. pox. smn. sees: so. soso__so use eoe_ssos saga “seasons. esos a. sooseu nee. uom. -n. con. use; us oso.eb uos adsosm sass: «q—. -n. an». oak. «assesses: use «Lasso: moon on see sees: one. Kan. own. eon. sosu._;u ecu so. «too see sass: os_xso3 o~—. ewe. oon. o_o. tosses coco._zu om_os soso: os_aso: coco. com. oon. ~o~. xsoz o.:ocu sass: so.stax I A I a I a I A gu— 03u~uu< 1.8.63...“ 623 6.3.. 8:833 8:833 .. .o one.e u.sozuom e.so;uox Rowe n e~.e o.msemo eosev_mes Co ooe_a use .xosue so_os .so_ueu:be u.sosue. .so_ueu:oo m.ses.os .e_oos mums .oeocbe ouso_soexe .so_.eo:oo .o .o>u. s. osocu seos_..sos .so_ueu:oo Co .o>e. so. <>oz< 0:» Co Anes_e> do museu.w.so_m .o o.o>o. .osuuo och us—.¢ o.bo— 85 The means of attitudes according to levels of education are given in Table 4.18. The means indicated the linear trend was positive. amnesia; Ho2 There is no difference in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their exposure to Western culture. The ANOVA showed, as indicated in Table 4.17, that the attitudes toward women's participation in the work force were positively related to the exposure to Western culture in 8 attitude items. The group mean as shown in Table 4.19 indicated that those who were exposed to Western culture had more positive attitudes than those who were not exposed to Western culture in the following attitude items: 1) Career is more important to women than marriage and children (mean - 1.68 and 1.44 respectively): 2) married women should not be housewives (mean - 2.59 and 2.34 respectively): 3) A wife without children should work (mean a 2.71 and 2.52 respectively): 4) Married women should work (mean - 2.48 and 2.31 respectively): 5) Men and women can work together (mean = 1.56 and 1.33 respectively): 6) Tribal women should work (mean - 3.19 and 2.96): 7) Women are as capable as men (mean = 2.60 and 2.34 respectively): and 8) Women are as capable as men in making decisions (mean - 2.38 for those exposed and a mean of 2.23 for those not exposed). 86 oe.~ o—.~ no.9 op.~ oo.F «o.p m~.P mso_m_ooo os_xms s. sue me odbooou on use case: ~m.~ op.~ ~«.~ oo.p oo.— o~.p nn.P whom sow mo_a_s:»sooeo .osco o>os o.:o;m case: use so: os.~ oo.~ o~.~ um.~ om.~ on.~ o~.~ moon use sec: 40 ue>u use omoosu odsou sass: < mo.~ sm.~ om.~ m¢.~ o~.~ m~.~ o~.~ mm0s_msb s_ oo>.o>s_ on o.:osm sees: o~.n m..m o~.n oo.~ oo.~ —o.~ mo.~ xsos o.:osm sass: .on_sh mn.~ no.~ cow oo.— no.~ oo.p m~.F ouo.e use» use s_ use: sou osobmss use o»_: um.» sn.n on.n m~.n «o.n oo.~ «o.~ mo_souuoe oeuaoosoom >..o:xom s_ atom p.300 sass: oo.n oo.~ mo.~ nu.~ Po.~ po.~ om.~ os_u.usoe xso: adsou sass: ss.~ sn.~ oe.~ mo.~ on.~ op.~ no.~ usox p.3osm sosos «.ms_a < om.~ mn.~ ~e.~ -.~ oo.— no.— oo.— so; usoaasm sou osonmsz to: ~_ goo: u.:o;m o»_3 ¢ ~o.~ ~m.~ o¢.~ om.~ n~.~ o~.~ op.~ xsos o.:o:m sues: tomato: ~o.~ m~.~ os.~ n¢.~ om.~ om.~ o~.~ xso: nosozw soso._so seesaw: ow_3 < se.~ o~.~ op.~ op.~ op.~ oo.~ oo.P osenmsg so; sow us_u sososo o>os .._3 case: os_xsos < -.~ om.~ mm.~ om.~ nm.~ o~.~ op.~ aw_3oo:os a on was oosozm soso: oo_ssue < ~o.. nm.. mm.P mm.F «4., om.F on." sass: toe soso._zu use ooo_ssos sec» usousoos_ osoe m_ soosoo ~m.~ nm.~ o~.~ oo.~ oo.~ oo.~ Fo.— «so: so oso.ob uos o.so;o sees: on.~ n-.~ mp.~ no." no.. o~.— no." segues soso._su mommas sass: ms_xso3 < oo.~ mm.~ om.~ ~¢.~ os.~ o~.~ ¢~.~ xso: n.3ogm sass: oo_ssoz s o m e n ~ « msoa_ oo3u_uu< m.o>oo ooeddou m.o>oo doozum :o_= so_uoo:oo we .o>o_ on» ou os_osouuo oosow xsox ecu s_ so_uoo_u_usoo sass: usosou so_uooosoe .musooaum we asset no..¢ 0.9o» 87 n~.~ on.~ msoAMHooc osfixes s“ see me onsemeo me one soaoz en.~ oo.~ sea me easemeo me one smsos oo.m oH.n xuo3 oasosm smsoa Aeneas mm.a om.a umsuomou xuo3 seo smsoa use so: Hm.~ ov.~ xuos oasosm sesoz oofiuuex mm.~ Ho.~ xuoa oasosm smuonso usosuw3 eufi3 d vn.~ om.~ mm>flaomsos on uos oasosm seas; smashes ve.a oo.a smuUHfiso use euefiuues sesu usewuomsw whoa ma ueoueo oz new maeud Ovsuwuus Ummomxm uoz cmmomxm ousuaso sueummz on enamomxm ou oswouoooe mono“ xuoa osu sw sowuemfiofiuuem smack oue3ou sofiumoouem .musmpsum MO uses: "oa.v wanes 88 H o 3 H03 There is no difference in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their major area. The ANOVA result as shown in Table 4.17 indicated that the means of the attitude were significantly different according to the major area of study in 5 attitude items. The group means as shown in Table 4.20 indicated that students in the College of Engineering had more positive attitudes than those in the College of Education in the following items: 1) Career is more important than marriage and children (mean - 1.82 and 1.5 respectively): 2) A wife without children should work (mean - 2.85 and 2.48 respectively): 3) Women and men should receive equal pay (mean - 3.17 and 2.73 respectively). Students in the College of Education had more positive attitudes than those in the College of Engineering in that women should choose better jobs even if it' is far from their families (mean - 2.20 and 1.65 respectively). Students in the College of Art had more positive attitudes than those in the College of Education in that working women are more respectable than non-working women (mean - 3.02 and 2.90 respectively). Miss Ho4 There is no difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their place of residence. 89 I'll mousose*»_u om_3.smea useu_$_so_m Ill. no.~ so.~ ~..n n~.~ >ea .eaqo o>moues u.:osm so: use sees: mo; .2... -3; o~.~ is! as. .8: .5. m_ u_ e_ so>o moon seuuon snooze u.:osm sass: mp.m on.n ~o.n oo.~ sass: os_xsos.sos saga o.beuuoemes osos use sees: os_xso3 mo.~ nn.~ mo.~ oo.~ gees udsosa sesu._gu usosu_: oe_3 < nm.— sm.— ~o.— om.p sass: see sesu._su use ooe_sses saga «seasons, uses m_ sooseu moos_msm us< os_sees_osw so_ueu:uw aseu_ ousumuu< eos< some: nose some: s_o:u on os_usouue autos xso: s_ somuea_u_usea case: neuron somueoosea .ousousue we mseex uo~.e eLneh 90 The ANOVA results as shown in Table 4.17 indicate that the means of attitudes were significantly different according to students' place of residence in five attitude items. The results of Tukey's test as shown in Table 4.21 indicated that students living in small villages had more positive attitudes than those living in large cities in the following 2 items: 1) Men and women can work together (mean - 1.58 and 1.35 respectively): and, 2) Wife and husband can work together (mean - 2.26 and 1.91 respectively). Students living in small villages also had more positive attitudes than those living in medium cities in the following 2 items: 1) Married women should work (mean - 2.60 and 2.31 respectively): and, 2) Career is more important than marriage and children for women (mean - 1.66 and 1.40 respectively). Students living in medium cities had more positive attitudes than those living in large cities in that women are as capable as men in making decisions (mean a 2.16 and 1.93 respectively). Hypothesis 5 Hos There is no difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their mother's level of education. The ANOVA result as shown in Table 4.17 indicated that the means of the attitudes were significantly 91 'll' mesOHQMMHu mmflzlsflem useOHmasmflm I'll Cl’l oo.~ oa.~ no.H msowmfiomu oswxes sfi sea me maneaeo me one smsoz o~.~ os.~ .4m.s umsumoou xsoa :eo usenmss use «use uMMdm H¢.H mn.H umsueoou xuoz seu smsos use so: .mmqm 64.4 «4.4 amaoa you smueasao use omefiuuea sesu useuuomsw euos ma umoueo umu.~ -mmqm vm.~ xuos uHsosm sosos uowuuez woeHHw> Haesm asaumx xuwu cones - TOCOU.“ mflm HO GUUHQ a -I. moseuamou uo eoean uwmsu no memo on» on osfluuoooe mono“ xuo3 s“ sowuemfiowuuem soaoa usesou sewummuue .musmusum no used: “Hm.¢ manea 92 different according to mother's level of education in two attitude items. Tukey's test as shown in Table 4.22 indicated that students whose mothers had middle school education had more positive attitudes than those whose mothers had no formal education in that women should be involved in business (mean - 2.69 and 2.34 respectively). Those students whose mothers had middle school education had more positive attitudes than those whose mothers had elementary school education in that women are as capable as men in business (mean - 2.59 and 2.16 respectively). ot 8 H06 There is no difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their father's level of education. The ANOVA results as shown in Table 4.17 indicated that the means of the attitudes were significantly different according to the father's level of education in one attitude item. Tukey's test as shown in Table 4.23 indicated that students whose fathers had only elementary education had more positive attitudes than those whose fathers had college or above education in that women can have higher positions than their husbands (mean = 2.77 and 2.24 respectively). 93 o.v eases sq uwueo«us« so>om no uemumsfi mofisomoueo mossy ous« umsfissoo soon me: sofiueosuo m.sms»oz« moosoumuuwu wmfisuuaem useofiufisofim EI'IIII om.~ oa.n o~.~ mmmsfimsn so see me easemeo me one swsoz oo.~ me.~ vn.~ . mmosamsn s« uo>Ho>sfi on uasosm swsoz soosom odes“: suaszososs wsoz mambH wesueuu< soqueosum m.uo:uoz «scaueosum m.uo:uo= hams» O» msduuoooe mouOu xuos mzu sfi so«ue&«0auuem swsoz uuezou sofiuamouwm .muswusum no msewz “-.u manefi 94 ».e 0.90» s. uosomusnl so>om we ueoums_ «stooges .53 35 uosaeou seen no: 53338 @1053. nousosetmu 033L223 useurzsomm e~.~ ~m.~ R.~ end 33.. .32: so...» 2333.. Logo; 26.. :3 s93: o>oa< .oozum 5:. elem osoz use; «unto: uca 39:8 us- 38:. 8:323 to .93 9.85.: esamenesuu 9.352 :2.» 3 85.33.. 3.5; for 05 cm 83333.3“. cases 22.3 5399.8 .3533 yo «sou: "mi See.— 95 O s 7 H07 There is no difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their exposure to mass media. The ANOVA results as shown in Table 4.17 indicated that the means of the attitudes were significantly different according to respondent's exposure to mass media in 24 attitude items. The results of Tukey's test as shown in Table 4.24 indicated that the students who had high exposure to mass media had more positive attitudes toward women's participation in the work force compared to those who had low exposure to mass media in the following items: 1) Married women should work (mean - 2.66 and 2.30 respectively): 2) Working women raise children better (mean - 2.18 and 1.67 respectively): 3) Working women can care for the children (mean = 2.49 and 1.98 respectively): 4) Working women can be good workers and homemakers (mean - 2.87 and 2.35 respectively): 5) Women should not belong at home (mean a 2.24 and 1.88 respectively): 6) Married women should not be housewives (mean - 2.55 and 1.98 respectively): 7) A wife without children should work (mean - 2.73 and 2.16 respectively): 8) Married women should work (mean - 2.50 and 1.95 respectively): 9) A wife should work even if her husband can support her (mean a 2.34 and 2.00 respectively): 10) Saudi women could replace foreign workers (mean - 2.92 and 2.49 respectively): 11) A single woman should work 96 85396 sausages use 2.3.. 6335.3 3 39.88.. ~o 5a of 3.6: motooeueu 00....» 3:. 35880 seen was 0.5896 23... mmezu «09.80:? 3.5....3 23.28:... 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Sum gumuu< Sue: woe: ou ossmoexu cfiuos one... 3 0.5398 3. osmusouue «use». for 05 s. 8.53.333 sees: usesou 5389.8 .3533 we «too: 3.014 033 97 (mean - 2.59 and 1.91 respectively): 12) Society needs capable women to work (mean - 3.29 and 2.88 respectively): 13) Men and women can work together (mean - 1.51 and 1.16 respectively), 14) Women should work in segregated factories (mean - 3.32 and 2.74 respectively): 15) A wife and husband can work in the same place (mean - 2.20 and 1.88 respectively): 16) A working woman is more respectable than a non-working woman (mean - 3.18 and 2.60 respectively): 17) It is acceptable for women to work today (mean - 3.17 and 2.65 respectively): 18) Tribal women should work (mean - 3.19 and 2.63 respectively): 19) Women should choose better jobs even if it is far from her family (mean - 2.03 and 1.77 respectively): 20) Women's services should be administered by women (mean - 3.25 and 2.95 respectively): 21) Women are as capable as men (mean - 2.47 and 1.95 respectively): 22) A woman should choose the type of work she does (mean = 2.66 and 2.09 respectively): 23) Men and women should have equal opportunities for jobs (mean a 2.03 and 1.65 respectively): and, 24) Women are as capable as men in business (mean - 2.42 and 2.02 respectively). §BEE§I¥ The results of data analysis from the questionnaire were presented in this chapter. The chapter contains three parts. The characteristics of respondents were 98 presented in the first section. The results of the descriptive analysis were presented in the second section. Finally the results of the inferential analysis were presented. The summary of this research, including the discussion of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations are found in the following chapter, Chapter V. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose of this study was to examine Saudi male students' attitudes toward women's participation in the work force and to see if there is any significant relationship between these attitudes and the following independent variables: level of education, exposure to mass media, major of academic study, father's level of education, mother's level of education, place of residence, and exposure to western culture. The following seven research questions were formulated to guide this study: 1. Is there a linear trend in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their level of education? 2. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students according to their exposure to Western culture. 3. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their major area of study? 4. Is there a difference in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to the size of their place of residence? 5. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their mother's level of education? 99 100 6. Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their father's level of education? 7. Is there a difference in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force based on media exposure? A survey questionnaire was constructed to collect the data used in this study. The questionnaire was divided into two sections. The first section consisted of twelve questions relating to the independent variables under consideration. The second section contained thirty-six items to determine the attitudes of the students toward women's participation in work force. The study employed a stratified sampling of 480 students. Of the 240 high school students there were equal number of them' in each of the three high school levels. Of the 240 college students, 60 were chosen from each of the four major academic areas: education, engineering, business administration, and arts. As the questionnaire forms were personally delivered by the researcher, there was a one hundred percent response rate. After the data were collected, a statistical analysis of the data utilized frequency and percentage distributions, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a Tukey post-hoc test was carried out to determine significant pair-wise differences among group means. A significance level (alpha) of 0.05 was used. 101 nd s Contained in this section are the findings for each of the research questions. Research Question 1: Is there a linear trend in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their level of education? The findings revealed that formal education has a strong and positive relationship with the attitude toward women's participation. There is a linear trend. The higher the educational level of the student the more positive the attitude he holds toward women. Of the thirty-six items included half of them (18) indicated a positive relationship between formal educational level and attitude toward women's participation. Although formal education is a strong indicator of positive attitude, it was not the most important factor as has been found in other recent research (Biri, 1981: Ghaban, 1986). The findings of the present study were closer to the findings of other investigations which indicate the importance of formal education but did not find it to be a major factor (Almana, 1973: Al Shammas, 1983). Research Question 2: Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their exposure to western culture? The findings demonstrated a positive relationship between exposure to western culture and attitude toward women's participation. This relationship was shown in 102 eight of the thirty-six attitudinal items. Those students exposed to western culture held a more positive attitude toward women's participation than those with no exposure to western culture. Although a positive relationship was found it was not as strong as has been indicated by almost all the other research in this area (Almana, 1973; Hallawani, 1982; Al Shammas, 1983; Ghaban, 1986). This may be due to the low percentage of this sample (24.2% of the high school students and 22.5% of the college students) that have had experience abroad. In his research Ghaban (1986) indicated that there was a shift of family value attitudes--including women's position and women's work--among Saudi students studying in the United States but that there was no such shift among the students in Saudi Arabia. The present findings appeared to contest that claim. Research Question 3: Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their major area of study? The findings indicated that the major area of study showed a significant difference in five of the attitude items. The group means indicated that the students in the college of Engineering had the most positive attitude toward women's participation. The second most positive attitude was held by the students in the College of Education followed by Art and Business. To the best of the researcher's knowledge there was no other study that 103 investigated attitudes toward women based on their area of academic study. Research Question 4: Is there a difference in the attitudes of Saudi male students towards women's participation in the work force according to the size of their place of residence? The findings suggest a relationship between place of residence and a positive attitude toward women's participation in only five of the thirty-six attitudinal items. For these items it appears that students living in small villages had a more positive attitude toward women than students living in either a medium or large city. Students living in large cities were found to hold the least positive attitude toward women's participation. These findings were in agreement with other studies which also indicated that place of residence had little or no impact on attitudes (Biri, 1981: Ghaban, 1986). Research Question 5: Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their mother's level of education? The findings suggest a slight positive relationship between the level of mother's education and the student's attitude toward women's participation. A significant relationship was found in only two attitude items. These items indicated that the more education a student's mother received the more positive his attitude toward women's participation would be. This was a variable 104 which has not been tested in any of the research of which the researcher is aware. Research Question 6: Is there a difference in the attitude of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to their father's level of education? The findings show only a very slight relationship between the father's level of education and the student's attitude toward women's participation. Of all of the variables tested the father's level of education had the least effect. It was only significant on one of the thirty-six items. Interestingly, the father's level of education had a negative impact. The higher the father's level of education the less positive the attitude held by the student toward women's participation. These findings were in accord with the only other study (Ghaban, 1986) to research the impact of father's education. Ghaban also found that the father's level of education had no impact or a slightly negative impact. Research Question 7: Is there a difference in the attitudes of Saudi male students toward women's participation in the work force according to the exposure to mass media? Exposure to mass media was found to have the most significant and positive effect upon the student's attitude toward women's participation. Exposure to mass media had a statistically significant effect on twenty-four of the thirty-six items. students' who had more exposure to mass media demonstrated a more positive attitude toward women's participation. In the only other 105 study (Ghaban, 1986) which considered mass media exposure, it was found to have little impact as compared with these findings which indicate that mass media exposure is the single most important variable. W The following conclusions were based on the findings of the study. 1. The variable found to have the greatest and most positive impact upon the student's attitude toward women's participation was exposure to mass media. Although the findings indicate that mass media had a positive effect on attitudes, the least positively affected attitude is that women can work together with men. The most positively affected attitude is that women should work in segregated areas. This may be a result of a recent government announcement of the opening of a women's factory in Saudi Arabia. Also strongly affected is the idea that women's services should be administered by women. 2. The level of education although not the most important variable is still very important. There is a linear relationship between the level of education and a positive attitude toward women's participation. The two attitudes most positively affected by education were women should work part time and tribal women should work. 106 3. Exposure to Western culture was the next most important variable. The attitudes most positively affected by exposure to western culture are tribal women should work and a wife without children should work. 4. Major area of academic interest had a slight influence on attitudes toward women. Students in the College of Engineering were found to have a more positive attitude than their colleagues in the Colleges of Education, Art, or Business. The attitude most positively affected by major area was that women and men should receive equal pay. 5. Place of residence was found to have an influence equal to that of major area of study. Living in a small village had a more positive influence than living in a medium-size town which in turn had a more positive influence than living in a large city. The attitude most positively affected was that married women should work. The least positively affected item is that men and women can work together. 6. Mother's level of education appears to have slight positive influence on student's attitude toward women's participation. The most positively affected attitudes are that women should be involved in business and that women are as capable as men in business. 7. Whereas the mother's level of education has a positive relationship with attitudes toward women, the father's level of education has a negative relationship. 107 The higher the level of the father's education the less positive the student's attitude toward women's participation. The only attitude affected positively by the father's level of education is that women can have a position higher than her husband's. WW With declining oil revenues Saudi Arabia needs to invest wisely in its human resources of which half are women. Women should become actively involved in the development of their country helping to replace foreign workers and at the same time enriching their country's human resources. Of course, the increased participation of women must be carefully planned and implemented within Islamic guidelines. Whether or not this increased participation will be acceptable to the population depends largely upon their attitudes toward specific proposed changes. Based upon the insights gained during this research the researcher would make the following recommendations to make women's participation more feasible and acceptable to the people of Saudi Arabia. 1. Given the strong impact of mass media upon attitudes the media should be fully utilized to promote women's involvement in the workforce. More programs on the importance of women's work in the national development of Saudi Arabia will be necessary. 108 2. Formal education being another very important influence upon attitude should also be fully taken advantage of in order to promote more positive attitudes toward women. The impact of women's work upon development should be emphasized in the curriculum. 3. Education should be compulsory for all Saudi citizens, men and women. For in the words of the prophet Mohammed, "Knowledge is the duty of every Muslim, male or female." Also given the positive relationship between the mother's education and her son's attitude toward women's participation this may be another important step in increasing acceptance of women's participation in the labor force. 4. The women's administration should be totally staffed and operated by women. 5. The proposed factory for women should be opened up as soon as possible and others created soon. The findings indicate that many Saudis would agree to women working in segregated factories. 6. Other segregated work places should be established in order to create more work opportunities for women. 7. Part-time jobs should be made available so that more women can be employed. The findings indicate that Saudis would agree to women working part-time. 109 Beeemmegdetiens to: Eugene; Researeh From the insights gained in this research the following recommendations for further study are suggested. 1. A replicated study using a different population and sample. A more comprehensive study of attitudes toward women's participation may be achieved through attitude scaling. 2. A comparative study between Saudi Arabia and another Gulf country may show the attitudes toward women in other countries with similar traditions and religious backgrounds. 3. Future research may want to investigate variables other than those studied here. There may be other socio-economic or political factors which influence the attitude toward women. Or perhaps more specific dimensions of the variables considered should be investigated. For example, curriculum,. teacher background, and form of mass media are but a few of the dimensions which may be related to attitude change. APPENDICES APPENDIX A ENGLISH AND ARABIC VERSIONS OF THE COVER LETTER AND STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE 110 KING SAUD UNIVERSITY Riyadh, Saudi Arabia College of Education September 20, 1986 Dear Student: The attached survey concerned with students' attitudes toward women's participation in the Saudi Arabian work force is part of my doctoral program in Social/Philosophy and Foundation of Education at Michigan State University. The study is primarily concerned with determining the effect that the level of education has upon students' attitudes toward working women. The results of this survey will be used to determine how the educational system can be used to increase acceptability of women's increased participation in our national development. Please take ten to fifteen minutes to frankly fill out the attached form. When you have finished, give the questionnaire to your instructor. My research cannot be completed without your valuable contribution. Your responses will be kept strictly confidential and used for statistical purposes only. You are not required to sign your name or in any way reveal your identity. I will be pleased to send you a summary of the survey results if you desire. Thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely yours, Abdulmohsen S. Al-Otaiby Se Please check r ( 111 QUESTIONNAIRE ) the appropriate answer for each question below which best describe you at the current time. 1. 2. v ge 15-16 17-18 19-20 21-22 23-24 25-26 27-28 29-30 31 or older Level of Education. What is your current level? A. C. High School 1. First 2. Second 3. Third College Level Which 1. First 2. Second 3. Third 4. Fourth College 1. Education 2. Engineering 3. Business Administration 4. Art Martial Status 1. 2. Single Married If married, does your wife work outside of the house? 1. 2. Yes No 112 Do any women in your immediate family work outside of the house? 1. 2. Yes No Have you lived most of your life in 1. 2. 3. a large city (over 100,000)? a medium sized city (between 20-000 - 100,000)? a village (population less than 20,000)? Have you trained, studied or lived outside of Saudi Arabia? 1. 2. Yes NO If yes, where? 1. 2. 3. 4. Arabian countries Europe America Other (specify) And for how long? Check 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Less than 1 year Between 1 and 2 years Between 3 and 4 years Between 5 and 6 years 7 years or more the level of your father's education. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Doesn't read or write. Can read or write: some elementary education. Elementary education. Middle school, or some of it. High school, or some of it. University, or some of it. Graduate studies. 113 9. Check the level of your mother's education. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Doesn't read or write. Can read or write: some elementary education Elementary education. Middle school, or some of it. High school, or some of it. University, or some of it. Graduate studies. How often do you do the following? 10. Watch television (check one) 1. 2. 3. 4. Everyday Several times a week Rarely Never 11. Listen to the radio (check one) 1. 2. 3. 4. Everyday Several times a week Rarely Never 12. Read the newspaper or magazines (check one) 1. 2. 3. 4. Se on Everyday Several times a week Rarely Never To what extent to you agree with the following statement? Indicate your reaction to each statement using the scale below. Place an "X" in the line below each item that best describes your feelings about the statement. 114 Strongly Agree Agree Disagree F‘h’h’h- Strongly Disagree A married woman should not work even if she wants to work. A Saudi woman can be both a good homemaker and a good employee at the same time. A married woman should only be a housewife. If a wife does not yet have children she should be permitted to work. If a man can provide for his wife, she shouldn't work outside the house. A woman should have the right to choose what type of work she does. A married woman should only be allowed to work outside of the home if it is a traditionally ---——-+- ——r—— 1P —-—Jr- db-— accepted position, such as teaching or nursing. Women should be allowed to work outside of the house only in segregated work places. A working woman is less respectable than a woman who stays home. fi—- 115 Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree #4wa ll 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. If a woman is looking for a job, it is better to find a job close to her family, even if it means not taking a better job farther away. Women' services should be completely adminis- tered by women. Men and women should have equal opportunities for jobs. Women are not as capable as men of making impor- tant decisions. Women and men should receive equal pay for equal work. A working woman is able to raise children better than a non-working woman. Women belong at home. A married woman who works cannot spend enough time with her husband. Women are as capable as men in carrying out some types of work. Married women should be allowed to work. If more Saudi women were allowed to work, they could replace many foreign workers. _-—-—_——- --—-—- F‘ I I r L,4 1L 3 4L L l I I I r I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I L I I I I I I I I I I I I #L I T’ I I I I I I I I j I I I I I I I I I T. 1. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I F I T I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r 1— "“ “I 116 Strongly Agree Agree Disagree F‘hfih’éb 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Strongly Disagree Society needs women to perform jobs that they are capable of doing. Women should be allowed to work part-time only. Women should be allowed to work in sexually segregated factories. It is more acceptable for women to work today than in the past. Women from an original Arab tribe should not be allowed to work. Women are equally as capable as men of effectively participating in the business world. If a woman works she cannot properly take care of her children. For women, marriage and children should be more important than a career. A woman who has children should work outside of the house only if her children are over six years old. A woman should work out- side of the house only if she is not married. Women should hold a pro- fessional position rather than a manual job. as _.__... F.— I. ——I_- ._-+.._ fi——-—-—-———-————————-—————-—-—-k—————~————-————w— 4__-_-_-_L._-___-_Jh___ —————————I————————1——-——————————T—— I-noue 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 117 Strongly Agree - Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree If men and women are allowed to work together there will be a risk of increased sexual contact. Your wife should be allowed to work in the same place where you work. Women should become more active in the business and professional world. It is not acceptable for a woman to have a higher position than her husband. Only divorced women should be allowed to work outside of the home. 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