AN OVERVIEW OF PERSIAN CULTURE, EXPRESSED OPINIONS OF RECENT AMERICAN TOURISTS TO IRAN, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TOURISM EDUCATION IN IRAN Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY AHMAD BINAZIR 1976 R w «Wm mmr. WWW/W - W ‘ su- Udvaity -‘ This is to certify that the thesis‘entitled AN OVERVIEW OF PERSIAN 'CULTURE, EXPRESSED OPINIONS OF RECENT AMERICAN TOURISTS TO IRAN, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TOURISM EDUCATION IN IRAN presented by Ahmad Binazir has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Educational de rec in g Amenistration Major professor Date January 9, I976 0-7 639 I "*1 ABSTRACT AN OVERVIEW OF PERSIAN CULTURE, EXPRESSED OPINIONS OF RECENT AMERICAN TOURISTS TO IRAN, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TOURISM EDUCATION IN IRAN BY Ahmad Binazir The purpose of this study was to explore Iran's historic past and provide information on the cultural back- ground of the country supplemented by an overview of Iran's present status as a developing country, with special atten- tion to education and tourism. The study was continued by a survey of opinions of recent American tourists to Iran. A questionnaire was sent to a randomly selected sample of one thousand Americans who had obtained tourist visas to Iran from Iranian consulates in the United States. The purpose of the questionnaire was to assess Americans' Opinions about tourist services offered to them in Iran, with a view to detecting strengths and weaknesses of Iranian tourism. A total of 374 respondents returned the question- naires, which were tabulated and the data compiled. The result of the survey revealed American visitors to Iran were very interested in Persian history and culture. The survey also revealed a number of dissatisfactions as a Ahmad Binazir result of problems encountered in the country, some of which may be remedied through education. On the basis of the results of the survey thus obtained, priorities have been set for tourism education and a model worked out. It is hOped that this study will prove viable and useful to Iranians and others who may want to use it for the improvement of tourism in Iran. .11 91’ 14% 1.91,, (11911 1/» ”A <16 1 1411/11 “ff/3 1111/ .- :1; (11,911,139, ”ff/I V/W/Z (IJ” 9 14/993; «Ir/11111 fin; 13111.53. .11 ,a 1 0'16/1fi1/j111w W3? 0,1111, / / UI/Lf/UU ,d/Vflj/J; /_//J,L/L/J1. uy/AJJ/‘Wu/r/ui/J/ , 1/ ,l/ . .. f / ,. . . . J - . ' , ; ’ I I’ :, . ”42/ ’m‘é/Jfl 451/ I0/" 03%17/0 ”(j/ny/d/I WK) ”/1 (#va 11/211/1J1411/J/1 1/ 191/ 13/ 4/ 1,4 ./d’¢'(I/) . /:/a)/) Z/ifl/l//1/ VJflglé/(fr/I «2/;01/15" / b-«j/{J . ° ’ fl; , l/ s‘ r J 'L , " “1’4“ ~4qu Hfilfl/yI/I WWIJIJI‘WKI véé/x/JJQ‘i/I/ . / ; ‘ I. . I’ ‘ L ; ' . . I (1/311 fifi div/”1...; 9,31 51,, flay/’41 (ff/q/ J,/, 3/,” /’ .1 I' ; .° .//‘ ’ " .’ I ' 1/, 1/1/11 Va,‘fl1J///JII%IVJ~/J”MI 121} 7, . , / ITOZ/JIrQéLf‘_yC/): AN OVERVIEW OF PERSIAN CULTURE, EXPRESSED OPINIONS OF RECENT AMERICAN TOURISTS TO IRAN, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TOURISM EDUCATION IN IRAN BY Ahmad Binazir A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1976 Dedicated to Her Imperial Majesty Farah Pahlavi, Empress of Iran, without whose gracious support completion of my graduate studies would not have been possible . ii To Jaleh--who has always given me encouragement in my personal and educational endeavors. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Samuel Moore II, my committee chairman, not only for the advice and assistance he gave me on this dissertation, but also for igniting my interest in the research process. I would like to thank the other members of my committee, Dr. Robert Blomstrom, Dr. Richard Featherstone, and Dr. Lawrence Lezotte, for the corrections and suggestions they made. Grateful appreciation is extended to Miss Jane Glenn, who helped me in typing and mailing out question- naires. I am indebted to my wife and children, who remained patient and understanding through the duration of this study. I am very much indebted to my dear friends Ahmad and Hayedeh Hodjati who provided moral support during the entire period of working on this dissertation and Jafar Jafari of the University of Wisconsin-Stout who supplied me with resource material. And, last but not least, I would like to extend my sincere gratitude to H.E. Dr. Karim Pasha Bahadori, Director of the Special Bureau of Her Imperial Majesty Shahbanou Farah Pahlavi. iv Chapter I. II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS PROFILE OF IRAN . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geography, Location and Climate . . People and Language . . . . . . . . . The Cultural Legacy . . . . . . . . . Religion and History . . . . . . . . . Modern Iran: Government, Reforms, Economy 0 O O O O O O O I O O 0 O 0 Education O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . SURVEY OF AMERICAN ATTITUDES . . . . . . Purpose and Scope . . . . . . . . . . Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comments About Services Received . . Recommendations on Educational Programs. Would You Recommend Others to Travel Iran and Why? . . . . . . . . . . Other Comments . . . . . . . . . . . IMPROVEMENT OF TOURISM THROUGH EDUCATION Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . DeveIOpment of Tourism-~A Necessity . Tourism Education . . . . . . . . . . What the Study Reveals . . . . . . . . Educational Needs . . . . . . . . . Improvement of Management Skills . . Speed and Efficiency . . . . . . . . Language and Communication . . . . . Technical Aspects . . . . . . . . . Social and Moral Education . . . . . Sanitation and Hygiene . . . . . . Hospitality Toward Foreign Visitors Noneducational Problems . . . . . . . Educational Model . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t0 Page 10 12 20 41 49 58 65 65 66 69 101 101 107 111 116 124 124 127 129 132 134 134 136 138 140 141 145 145 147 149 153 Chapter Page APPENDIX: DIRECTORY OF TOURISM TRAINING CENTERS . . 154 BIBLIOGRAPHY.................... 160 BIBLIOGRAPHY ON TOURISM AND RELATED SUBJECTS . . . . 164 vi CHAPTER I PROFILE OF IRAN Introduction The author's purpose in this chapter is to provide background information on Persia or Iran, a country which in the last decade has grown in importance to the Western world. Even the name Iran is older than many Western civilizations. Under the Sassanian dynasty (226-651 A.D.), the Iranian Empire was referred to as "Iranshahr," meaning "realm of the Aryans." The name Persia, in common usage until the 1920's, comes from the Greek name for the inhabi- tant of the region of Fars (Pars). Once again Iran is the "preferred name, the correct appellation for this very 20th century industrializing country, but Persia evokes its heart and soul, its art and antiquity. Iranians will never fault you for calling them Persians."1 The Westerner still has many misconceptions about Iran. The general tendency is to lump the entire Near and Middle East together under the pejorative term of "those Arabs." Nothing could be further from the truth. The lSally Read, "Iran," ASTA Travel News, May 1973. writer has spoken with some Americans who were not aware that Persian is still being spoken, thinking that it was what they consider a "dead language." This is not so unusual, as many peOple are not concerned about different places and cultures unless it is to their advantage to do so. With Iran's rapidly growing importance in the world, it is imperative that the traveler to Iran leave with an accurate impression of what he has seen, and the general knowledge of the country that will enable him to put his observations in their prOper cul- tural and historical framework. It is the job of all Iranians in general, and the Iranian Ministry of Informa- tion and Tourism in particular, Unpromote Iran to the visitor in such a way that he does not leave with the same impression of Iran as that of the nineteenth-century traveler, Robert Binning, who described Iran as . . . a vast, dreary desert intersected with huge chains of bare, sterile mountains-~the soil, in some places, bearing stunted shrubs, and in others, teem— ing with salt-petre--here and there--at long inter- vals, where water is to be found, green spots with fields and habitations--the towns and villages, few and far between, consisting mostly of heaps of dismal ruins.2 His final advice to anyone contemplating a journey to Iran was to "Go somewhere else, or stay at home. . . ."3 2Robert B. M. Binning, A Journey of Two Years Travel in Persia (London: Wm. H. Allen & Co., 1857), pp. 374-75. 3 Ibid., p. 375. To forestall any such impression by the modern—day traveler, the basic features of the land itself will be examined, and then the differing areas will be discussed individually, along with their topography, climate, vege- tation, agriculture, etc. Geography, Location and Climate Iran can conveniently be described as being com- prised of one-third mountains, one-third desert, and one- third forests and woodlands. It is not generally thought of as a large country, but if one considers that its 628,000 square miles take in an area as large as the United States east of the Mississippi River excluding New England, one can expect to find and indeed does find a wide divergence in tOpography, climate, language, and customs. To acquaint himself with Iran, the traveler must also examine the Iran of the past, its historical and cultural achievements,vflrkfl1have enabled Iranians to main- tain an identity for the last 2,500 years.4 This will be discussed later, but first the land and its widely divergent, often harsh, features must be discussed. The first thing that the newcomer to Iran notices is the fact that there always seem to be mountains on the 4The celebration of the 2500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire was held at Persepolis, Iran, in October, 1971. horizon. Iran has often been described as a vast bowl, with the ranges of mountains comprising the rim and the depression of the bowl being the Iranian plateau. This plateau itself is high, averaging 3,000 feet above sea level. Iran has always had a very great cultural and political influence on areas that are far from the present area called Iran. It is bounded on the north by the Caspian Sea, source of the famous Iranian caviar, and by a rugged mountainous frontier with the Soviet Union that extends for 1,500 miles. The most spectacular feature of the northern por- tion of the country is the Alborz Mountains, whose highest peak is Mt. Damavand. This volcanic cone is some 18,955 feet above sea level, is snowcapped year round, and is sometimes visible from the Caspian. It is higher than any peak to the west of it, whether in Europe or Asia. The Caspian coastal plain has a climate that is totally unexpected:h1the Middle East. A French traveler to Iran via Russia and the Caspian at the turn of the century stated that "This country, situated at the foot of the great chain of mountains which separated us from the tableland of Iran, is damp, hot, luxuriant, and unhealthy."5 This is explained by the fact that the Alborz range prevents 5Claude Anet, Through Persia in a Motor-Car, tr. M. Beresford Ryley (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1903), p. 89. (fi '1‘ (I) the moisture-laden clouds sweeping off the Caspian from reaching the interior. This gives the area the overall effect of ". . . a hothouse: steamy heat, with luxuriant vegetation of a subtropical kind. . . ."6 This enables the cultivation of such crOps as rice, sugarcane, tea, cotton, citrus fruits, and even silkworms. The more inaccessible regions of the Alborz foot- hills are still the home of the jangal, from which we get the English word "jungle." This region is still a region of thick forests and it is to be hOped that the region has been saved for future generations of Iranians and visitors because of the nationalization of the forests in 1963. The CaSpian Sea itself is the largest landlocked body of water in the world. Its salinity is approximately one-third that of oceans. Its surface is 70 feet below sea level and is shrinking approximately eight inches annually. With increased pollution and a smaller flow of water due to upstream demand on the Volga River, its only major feeder, it is slowly shrinking in size. The outlook for this long-isolated and neglected part of Iran is now very bright. The influx of modern resort and tourism facilities is the fulfillment of Reza Shah's dream of a "Caspian Riviera."7 6W. B. Fisher, ed., The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge: The University Press, 1968), I, p. 49. 7Peter Somerville-Large, Caviar Coast (London: Robert Hale, 1968), p. 108. The western Iranian border is with the countries of Iraq and Turkey. This is a border that was established by a British-led border commission in 1912-1914. The mountains of this region are the Zagros Mountains, a vast area 120 miles in width and 600 miles in length, which can be said to extend all the way to the Pakistani border. The peaks range up to a mile in height, and the low, narrow valleys which lie in parallel folds have been homes to nomads since before recorded history. These are the summer homes of the tribes that practice "vertical nomadism," such as the Luri, Bakhtiari, Quashqai, Khamseh and others. The area at the junction of the Iran-Iraq- Turkey borders is the homeland of the proud Kurds. Rainfall in these valleys, particularly in the Western regions, is sufficient for cultivation of wheat, barley, maize, some vegetables, fruits anui forage for sheep. One might assume that these mountains would present a serious barrier to communication; this has not been the case. "Traffic to and from has been constant, whether for war or trade, so that like the peOple of all civilized nations the Persians are of mixed origin."8 Tabriz, the capital of the northwestern province of Azerbaijan, 8Reuben Levy, An Introduction to Persian Litera- ture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), p. 3. straddles both the ancient East-West trade route and the newer North-South route with the Soviet Union. The southern border is composed of the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman. These strategic waterways are literally a lifeline for the world, for through them passes the endless procession of oil-laden tankers carrying their cargo to the energy-hungry nations of the world. The fact that the Soviet Union has historically had designs on the Persian Gulf as a potential warm-water port and the increased role of Persian Gulf oil has made this area of Iran perhaps the most strategic area of the world. The Persian Gulf area exacts some retribution for its generous oil deposits by having a climate that ". . . is just tolerable in the winter and absolutely intolerable in the summer."9 This coastal area has summer temperatures that reach 130 degrees and is the only area of the country that has a frost-free winter. The area near the head of the Persian Gulf, primarily the province of Khuzistan, is characterized by high humidity, whereas the area in the southeast of Iran is drier but has high winds in the summer. The coastal area is fairly flat and the more inland areas feature the tapering off of the Zagroz Mountains, which here roughly parallel the Gulf. 9E. Crawshay Williams, Across Persia (London: Edward Arnold, 1970), p. 3. Iran's border on the east is with Afghanistan in the northern area and Pakistan in the south. Both of these modern territories belong to what can be referred to as "Greater Iran," since they are definitely part of the Iranian cultural area. It consists mostly of low, feature- less hills with scattered pockets of habitation and some large cities such as Mashhad in the northeast. This region is typical of the rest of the Iranian plateau: high, relatively arid regions that stretch from horizon to horizon. The term "high and dry" is no longer a figure of speech when used to describe the central region of Iran. Another feature of this area is the desert regions, the Dasht-i—Kavir and the Dasht—i—Lut. These deserts are not like the comparatively green deserts of the American Southwest, or even the dry Sahara, but have the distinction of being the most arid region of the world, a region where no rain falls for years at a time. Historical evidence shows that the deserts were kinder to human existence in the past, although the supply of water was almost certainly very precarious.lo Human existence, in Iran as elsewhere in the Middle East, is heavily dependent on water. Iran has comparatively 10Donald E. Wilber, Iran, Past and Present (Prince- ton: Princeton University Press, 1955), p. 10. low rainfall in the interior and there are few rivers. Thus Iran never developed a great "hydraulic civiliza- tion."11 A recent study12 has shown that with proper irri- gation, up to 30 percent of Iran's land area could be brought under cultivation, a worthwhile goal in a country that must import foodstuffs because of poor harvests. The role of water availability in Iranian culture and history cannot be overemphasized. The sacredness and potency of water in a land like Persia is not readily appreciated in the rain-soaked West. There is no Persian but at some time has wished for more water than he had, none but is familiar with tales of suffering and death for the lack of it, and every landscape is a demonstration of its miraculous creative power. From this brief overview of the main features of the land, it can be seen that "In Iran it is as if all the main features of climate were exaggerated: great heat, enormous unreliability of rainfall, bitter cold, alternat- ing calms and sustained windiness, regions with extremely wide seasonal fluctuations, and the unusual aberrant of the Caspian coastland. . . ."14 Given this stark contrast 11K. A. Wittfogel, "The Hydraulic Civilizations," in Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth, ed. W. L. Thomas (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1956). 12The Hudson Institute, New York, Release #3115, 1975. 13Alexander U. POpe, An Introduction to Persian Art (London: Peter Davies, 1930), P. 64. 14Cambridge History of Iran, I, p. viii. 10 found both in the geography and in the climate of the coun- try, it is not surprising that Iranian civilization main- tained its integrity throughout history, even when faced with such immense problems as the invasion of the Arabs in the seventh century and the invasion of the Mongols in the thirteenth. Lesser civilizations perished, to be for- gotten by all save historians, but Iran assimilated the newcomers as simply another group of invaders that have visited Iran since the times of the first Indo-Aryan inva— sions or migrations in the second millenium B.C. PeOple and Language The various groups of peOple introduced into Iran by these waves of humanity in search of better quarters for themselves and their beasts, or in search of material wealth, and the fact that Iran was a "bridge between East and West" because of its location on different trade routes have emphasized the differences between the various population groups. These must be examined in light of their social input into present-day Iran. It has been stated that "Iran is a society of minori— 15 These minorities can be distinguished by either ties." linguistic or ethnic criteria. In terms of language, the vast majority of Iranians are of Indo-European background, with the same language ancestry as EurOpe and the United 15Ervand Abrahamian, "The 'Tudeh' and the 'Firquah-i Dimukrat,'" IJMES 1 (October 1970): 292. 11 States. Some of the similarities in simple words can be traced to the time before the Indo-Aryans split into two groups, one drifting south toward the Indus River valley and the other moving onto the Iranian Plateau. These are words such as "baradar" (brother), "madar" (mother), "lab" (lip), "dandan" (tooth-gggtal) and many others. Many people unfamiliar with Persian believe it to be like Arabic because it is written in Arabic script, but anyone who has ever studied the two can verify the fact that the only similarity in the two languages is in the script (except that Persian has additional letters), and in vocabu- lary items that come from Arabic. The percentage of actual ethnic speakers of Arabic is quite small, approximately 7 percent. The bulk of the pOpulation (45 percent) speak a dialect that is Farsi, the official form of Persian. The remainder of the pOpulation speak a variety of dialetcs. Those speaking Turkic lan- guages (26 percent) are the Azaris, the Kurds, Quashqai, and Shahsavan tribes. The Baluchis (2 percent), the Armeni- ans and Assyrians (1 percent), the Mazandaranis and Gilakis (8 percent), Bakhtiaris and Lurs (6 percent) speak a dialect that is not Farsi but is Persian.l6 With such a divergent population, it can easily be seen that only a firm hand by the central government could unify the country to meet a common threat, or strive toward l6Ibid., p. 293. 12 a common goal, such as modernization. When the central authority was weak, the tribes did pretty much as they pleased and had their own hierarchy with its own sphere of influence. Not only did it make Iran unable to Oppose the bold intervention of the West in the nineteenth century, this ". . . preponderance of nomadic tribes in Iran colored the whole political and economic system of the country."17 The Cultural Legacy The traveller also needs to have an appreciation for the vast cultural legacy that Iran has bequeathed to the world. These are art, which encompasses architecture, ceramics, metalwork, textiles, and the like; music; and literature. Only the Islamic period will be discussed. Any visitor to Iran, especially to cities such as Shiraz and Isfahan, cannot help but be aware of the beauty of Persian architecture. Iran's contributions to world architecture--the pointed arch, the vault, and the dome-- all have a basis in pre-Islamic Iran but became perfected with their use in the mosque, the focal point of the Islamic community. Some authorities claim that the mosque, like the ziggurat of the MeSOpotamian plain, symbolized a moun- tain, holy places to mountain-born peOples. The mountain provided access to God and the ". . . symbolic character of l7Nikki R. Keddie, "Is There a Middle East?" IJMES 4 (July 1972): 260. 13 the mountain and its crucial role in the maintenance of fertility and life continue throughout the entire history 18 The beauty of a mosque, with of Persian architecture." its blue-tiled dome and lofty minarets reaching to Heaven, represented an achievement in architecture the West had not been able to accomplish. "The Western world soon gave up the effort to combine the pointed arch, the vault, and the dome. In Persia the three are blended with a complete and 19 Another apsect of Persian architecture effortless art." is the "monumental" style, evident in the Achaemenian (fourth century B.C.) capital at Persepolis and the recently constructed Shahyad Monument in the modern capital of Tehran. Iranian ceramics acquired their classical style in the mid-twelfth century and used a variety of techniques. Originally a luxury item, pottery became more widespread, perhaps, as A. U. Pope suggests, because of the importance of water in Iran and vessels in which to carry it.20 The first contact a foreigner has with Iran has most often been the sight of a Persian carpet, for "it is by her 21 carpets that the art of Persia has been most widely known." Considered a luxury item in the West, the carpet had humble 18A. U. Pope, Persian Architecture (New York: George Braziller, 1965), p. 13. 19Pope, An Introduction to Persian Art, p. 30. 201bid., p. 115. ZlIbid., p. 118. 14 beginnings many centuries ago as necessary floor covering of tribesmen on the plateau. It was not until the rise of the Safavid dynasty in the sixteenth century that the potential of the carpet as an art form was realized. The most famous carpets that exist today belong to this period. Without the stimulus of the powerful court, the art of carpet weaving deteriorated rapidly after the Afghan inva- sions (ca. 1722). It had not disappeared, but simply reverted to its previous state-—that of village handicraft. Revived to an extent under the more stable rule of the Qajar kings, it is now an important economic element in Iran. Department stores in the larger world metropolises carry many excellent examples of the Oriental carpet, many of which are woven in Iran in much the same way they were during the Safavid times. Considered expensive, they might be even more so if true value were placed on the incredible amount of time that is put into an ordinary-sized carpet. The Persian "Art of the Book" is the medium that has left us many exquisitely detailed examples. This is the calligraphy and miniature painting so closely associated with literature. Epic literature in general ". . . shared with the Shah-nameh the honor of supplying Persia's minia- ture painters with rich material for the exercise of their craft, the conjunction of glittering verse with brilliant art gave birth to some of the world's most splendid 15 2 . . . 2 The same phenomenon can be noted in the 1llum1- books." nated manuscripts of Europe's Middle Ages. It became an almost necessary part of the text. From its beginnings after the thirteenth-century conquests of the Mongols to its decline by the mid-sixteenth century, this art form reached a peak that has never since been attained, much less surpassed. The subjects of the Persian miniaturist were chiefly concerned with the court and its drama and ceremony. He "strove to present the world as it could be visualized ideally and poetically, eliminating all ugliness and harsh- 23 It has to be viewed in detail to be appreciated. ness." Calligraphy was the sole Persian art form that did not decline after the reign of the first Safavid kings, prob- ably because the copying of books was widespread. It is to be hoped that the revival of this style of painting will develop its own techniques rather than emulate the past. The prime mover of all of these arts has been the Persian love of beauty in all its forms, whether natural or contrived. This instinctive joy, despite eloquent pessimism, is revealed in a thousand years of superior poetry, in 22A. J. Arberry, "Persian Literature," in The Legacy of Persia, ed. A. J. Arberry (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953), p. 213. 23Marie L. Swietochowski, "Persian Miniatures," Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art 33 (New York: MetrOpolitan Musuem of Art, Spring 1975), p. 27. 16 pottery which challenges that of China and Greece, in metal-work and in an unequaled mastery of carpet weaving, not to mention miniature painting and the other arts of the book, as well as supreme designs for carved stucco, calligraphy, and faience tile. Persian literature, both poetry and prose, stems from the avid desire to transmit and receive knowledge, evidenced in the words of the Daylamite prince Kai kavus, who counseled his son: ". . . permit no neglect in your acquisition of accomplishments, nor in the training of 25 I I I I " Th1s 1s true 1n Iran because Pers1ans your children. do have a great love of poetry. There are possibly few Persians who cannot quote verses from the Shahnameh, quatrains from Khayyam, the lyrics of Rumi, Sa'di, Hafez and others, or any of the countless other writers. This literature ". . . reflects the general attitude towards life and its problems and reveals something of the stage of civilization attained by the thinking and writing members of that people."26 With the Arab victories the patronage that was so necessary for Sasanian minstrel poets and writers collapsed, and with it the pre-Islamic literature. Many prose works which are quoted by Islamic authors have been lost in the 24POpe, Persian Architecture, p. 13. 25Kai Ka'us Ibn Iskandar, A Mirror for Princes: Qabus-Nama, tr. Reuben Levy (London: Cresset Press, 1951). 26Reuben Levy, An Introduction to Persian Litera- ture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), p. 2. 17 ravages of the centuries, a lamentable occurrence. After the initial shock, the Persians industriously set out to enrich Arab letters. "What the Persians brought into Arabian poetry was not a grandiose style, but a lively and graceful fancy, elegance of diction, depth and tenderness "27 A few Zoroastrians, of feeling, and a rich store of ideas. aware that their faith was rapidly losing ground by the consistent conversions to Islam, still wrote in Middle Persian in defense of their "Good Religion." It was not until the tenth century A.D. that the rise of New Persian literature occurred. This was under the stable reign of the Samanids. Under their enlightened patronage lived Rudaki, the father of Persian poetry. "Poetry is the great art of Persia, and it is in poetry that we must seek the most intimate and refined expressions of Persian thought and sentiment."28 Persians took stock Arabic poetry and made it more adapted to expressing the Persian national feeling. The forms that evolved were the masnavi or rhyming couplet used for narrative tales; the ghazal, as short (7-15 lines) lyric poems; the roba'i or quatrain, used in short epigrams with philosophical or amorous content and immortalized in the West by Fitzgerald's translation of 27Reynold A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 2. 28Ehsan YarShater, "Persian Literature," Cambridge History of Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), II, p. 673. 18 Omar Khayyam's quatrains; and the gasida, used for the pane- gyrics so necessary for the poet's support under the patronage system. The supreme example of narrative poetry is, of course, the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi (early eleventh century), which is considered the national epic of Persia, incorporating many pre-Islamic tales of the founding of Iran and the age-old conflict between Iran and Turan, the foe to the north. In Iranian mythology Evil always came from the north. With the changed political fortunes of Iran after the Mongol invasion, the lyric poetry sought to convey the poet's advice "to enjoy the moment and forget what the perfidious world may hold in store, . . ."29 The greatest writers of lyrics, Sa'di (d.1292), Rumi (d. 1273), and the great Hafez (d.1390) admire the lover and his beloved, the escapism of the wine-loving drunkard, and think of the tavern as the place to gain knowledge, not the mosque. Unlike some of the other kinds of poetry, the ghazal was not dependent on court patronage. The Shahnameh is the greatest example of the masnavi used in the epic, while the Masnvai of RumI is a vast collection of mystical thought, which became more prevalent with the maturing of Persian verse. Persians also developed a considerable amount of prose, which also had antecedents in pre-Islamic times. 291bid., p. 676. 19 These range from the straightforward travelogue of Naser Khosrow (b.1003), the Safarnameh, to the andarz (wisdom) literature exemplified by the Qabusnameh of Kai-Kavfis and the Siyasat-namehcflfthe great Saljuk vazir Nizam-ol-Molk. Other prose writers in this tradition include T351, Sa'di, Jami, and others. Historians, such as Bayhaqi and Bal'ami and biographers such as Mohammad 'AwfI and Dawlat-shah all contributed greatly to the amount of prose that is still widely read in Persia today. Much of Persian heritage has been handed down and preserved in her literature, for "what her poets recite in stirring rhyme her historians proclaim in stately prose, . . . . The courtly manners, the royal bounty and the mercy of old are kept alive in the pages of the moral- ists and writers on etiquette, . . ."30 Persian literature declined rapidly after the Mongol invasions in the thirteenth century, with the cen- ter moving to the Mongol courts of India. The revival began in the nineteenth century and has gained momentum up to the present day. Authors such as Hedayat, Chubak, Al-e-Ahmad, 'Alavi, Jamalzadeh, and Dashti and poets such as Nima Yushidj, Naderpour and Farrokhzad all belong to the modern period, which . . . has seen the development of fiction in the West- ern sense, has brought about a healthy, balanced and cultivated style of prose, and has given rise to a 30Arberry, "Persian Literature," p. 223. 20 lively poetry, which at its best is imaginative, original and refined, and can hgld its own in compari- son with the classical poetry.3 Religion and History In understanding Iran, the traveler must also know something of Iranian religion and history. It is diffi- cult to mention one without mentioning the other, as they have been interrelated for millenia on the plateau. Emphasis will be placed mainly on the various periods of Iranian history with their religious signifi- cance. Important men will also be briefly mentioned, for although events make up history, it is men who shape these events. The earliest dwellers of any note on the Iranian plateau were the Aryans, who came to Iran, probably from Central Asia, in two waves. The first was absorbed by the native population, but the second gave the land both its name and its vitality. "Iran . . . held this important position between East and West. In return for what it received it never ceased to give; its role was to receive, "32 These Aryans are to recreate, and then to transmit. portrayed in the Zoroastrian Avesta as agriculturalists whose chief source of wealth was in cattle and pastures, and whose religion was geared toward the pastoral life. 31YarShater, p. 682. 32R. Ghirshman, Iran (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1961)! p. 50. 21 "It would seem that cult, marriage taboos, purification ceremonies and the like were the outstanding characteris- 33 With the arrival tics of the religion of the Aryans." of Zoroaster and his reform of the existing religion circa 588 B.C., a different religion appears. The thing that stands out the most in Zoroaster's teachings is the ethical dualism of Good and Evil, or the forces of Darkness and Light. He emphasized the integral part Man played in shap- ing his own future after death. His gods were Ahura Mazda, the "Wise Lord," and Ahriman, the arbiter of Evil. His reforms faltered upon his death, but various syncretiza- tions of Zoroastrianism existed as Iranian state religions up until the Arab invasion in the seventh century A.D. There are still practicing Zoroastrian communities in Iran and in India (the Parsees). The founding of the Achaemenian Dynasty came at the hands of Cyrus II "the Great," who defeated the Medes in 500 B.C. and founded the first World Empire. His name is well-known and well-loved by Iranians. He is also greatly revered for his treatment of subject peoples, par- ticularly the Jews in Babylonia. Few kings have left behind so noble a reputation as that which attaches to the memory of Cyrus. Generous and benevolent, he had no thought of forcing conquered countries into a single mold, but had the wisdom to 33Richard N. Frye, The Heritage of Persia (New York: World Publishinc Co., 1963), p. 23. 22 leave unchanged the institutions of each kingdom he attached to his crown.34 A famous successor of Cyrus II was Darius, who was beset by internal and external difficulties during his reign. His defeat by the Greeks in 478 B.C. was the first for the Persians. His accession to the throne was stormy, for he had to unseat the usurper, Gaumata the Magian. He boasted of his triumph high on the rocks at Behistun: "The kingdom which had been taken away from our family, that I put in its place. I reestablished it on its foun- dation. . . ."35 Another famous ruler was Xerxes, who ended the line with his defeat by Alexander of Macedon in 333 B.C. Although this was the period in which the basic tenets of orthodox Zoroastrianism were conceived, there is very little concrete evidence. The Achaemenian political legacy has colored Iranian history ever since. This was the new "concept of 'One World," the fusion of peOples and cultures. . . ."36 The next dynasty, founded by the Greek general Seleucus, was the Seleucid dynasty. This sudden change was brought about by the conquest of most of the known world by Alexander, which is regarded as the most important event in 34Ghirshman, p. 133. 35Roland Kent, Old Persian (New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1950), p. 120. 36 Frye, p. 120. 23 Near Eastern history.37 This dynasty existed in a rather loose fashion for about 100 years, and was responsible for a great exchange of ideas and knowledge from East to West. This was the age of "Hellenization." In 238 B.C. Arsaces founded the Arsacid or Parthian dynasty. Its zenith came under Mithridates in 171 B.C. and for a time Greek and Latin authors spoke of the world being divided between the Greeks and the Parthians. Theirs was a feudal society, with the vast distinctions between social orders that became even more pronounced under the Sasanians. The Sasanian dynasty was founded in 222 A.D. by Ardashir, whose rise is clouded by more legend than that of Cyrus.38 Sasanian kings favored urbanization and con- solidation of imperial power. Shapur I expanded the Empire and even captured the Roman Emperor Valerian in 259 and held him for ransom, a fact he immortalized in stone. The king's power was absolute and emanated from above. "In no country, probably, has the doctrine of the Divine Right of kings been more generally and more strongly held than it was in Persia in Sasanian times."39 Sasanian society was a strengthened continuation of Arsacid society, 37Ibid., p. 124. 38See translations of Karnamag-e-Ardashir-e-Papakan. 39E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia (Cam— bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), I, p. 129. 24 and "was a structure that aroused the admiration of Arab historians, who regarded it as a model of political science."40 Religion played an integral part in the Empire, and the man most responsible for the establishment of orthodox Zoroastrianism was the Sasanian priest Kartir. He crushed the activities of Jews, Buddhists, Hindus, Christians, but especially Manichaeans. Manichaeism was attacked because it "abhorred the contention that the good 41 They refused to believe and evil powers were brothers." that Ahriman, the source of Evil, was the twin of Ohrmazd (Ahura Mazda), the source of Good. Zoroastrianism placed great value of production, whether of family and home or of agriculture and domestic animals. Manichaeism, on the other hand, preached the shunning of the material world and the emphasis on the fact that the world and the flesh were a prison for the Soul. A later develOpment connected with religion was the Mazdakite revolt in the fifth century, which stemmed from growing pOpular dissatisfaction in the Empire. According to the Islamic author al-Shahrastani (twelfth century A.D.), To put down contradiction, hate and war, which are evil things, clearly emanating from Darkness, Mazdak attacked their principle, which he found in the love 40Ghirshman, p. 347. 1George Widengren, Mani and Manichaeism (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), P. 45. 25 of women and of possessions; in order to dispose of this obstacle, he preached community of wives and goods, which all men should share equally, as they do water, fire, and the wind.42 This social and economic movement is remarkable in that it has no parallel in any other era of Iranian history. He and his followers were killed by Khosrow Anushirvan, the Crown Prince, who also was aware of the inequities in the Empire and imposed reforms in the military, taxation, the power of the nobles, and tried to better the lot of his subjects. His reforms came too late. The Arabs, under the banner of a new monotheistic faith with roots in Zoroastrian- ism, Judaism, and Christianity, were soon to embark on their wave of conquests. Khosrow's reforms were too few and too late. The Arabs defeated the Persians in the battles of Qadasiyya (636) and Nihavand (641). This collapse of the vast Empire which had held its own against both Rome and the Byzantines for centuries was understandable, if one researches the matter. "In a last analysis it can be seen that the chief cause of the downfall of the Sasanians was the material and spiritual bankrupcy of the ruling 42Clement Huart, Ancient Persia and Iranian Civili- zation (New York: Alfred A. KnOpf, 1927), p. 184. 26 4 . class, . . ." 3 Other causes were the marked d1fference among classes and the lack of c00peration among them, the tendency of the religion toward fatalism and belief in des- tiny, the corruption and power of the religious leaders, and the weakness of the government (eight rulers in four years) prior to the battles.44 Islam became the status quo for many Persians, with some differences in beliefs. All Muslims believe in three Articles of Faith. These are: (l) belief in the oneness of God; (2) belief in Prophets, with the most important being Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed; and (3) belief in a final Day of Judgement where Man would be judged in the balances of God. The Shiites, who will be discussed later, believe in an additional two: (4) belief in the Justice of God and (5) belief in the authority of the Imams. All Muslims have certain religious duties that are obligatory. These are: (1) daily prayer five times daily, (2) fasting during the Holy Month, (3) pilgrimage to Mecca if financially and physically able, and (4) giving of alms to sustain the poor. Two more are incumbent on the Shiites: (5) fighting in a Holy War if announced by the Imam or his representative on earth and (6) urging 43'Abol-Hosayn Zarrinkub, "The Arab Conquest of Iran and Its Aftermath," in Cambridge History of Iran, ed. Richard N. Frye (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), IV, p. 17. 44Ibid., p. 17. 27 others to do good deeds and discouraging them from bad deeds. These beliefs and duties are the core of Islam, which has survived down to the present day. Shiism, which is the official form of Islam prac- ticed in Iran, is the result of a struggle over religious and political power. After the death of the Prophet Mohammed in 632 A.D. there were disputes over succession, since he reportedly had not named a successor. A group of Muslims believed that it belonged to 'Ali, the son-in-law of the PrOphet. This group called themselves the "Shiat- 'Ali" or "Partisans of 'Ali." They consider the first three Caliphs, Abu Bakr, 'Omar, and Osman to be usurpers. The Shiites agitated for 'Ali's nomination, which finally occurred in 656 A.D. His rival was the Ummayad governor of Syria, Moaviyya. In 661 'Ali was assassinated by a fanatical member of the fundamentalist Kharijite sect, who felt that any Muslim could aspire to the Caliphate.45 Moaviyya promptly went on the offensive against 'Ali's two sons, Hasan and Husayn. Hasan gave up his claim while Husayn was cruelly murdered with his followers on . . . the blood-stained field of Kerbela [Iraq], where the grandson of the Apostle of God fell at length, [which] . . . has been at any time since then sufficient to evoke, even in the most lukewarm and heedless, the deepest emotion, the most frantic grief, and an exaltation of spirit before which pain, danger, and death shrink to unconsidered trifles. The date was 680 A.D. 45Browne, p. 220. 46Ibid., p. 227. 28 This tragedy, the contemporary subject of "passion plays" in Iran today, strengthened opposition to the Omayyads. This culminated in the 'Abbasid revolt led by the Persian general Abu Muslim. This discontent was brought about by the contemptuous treatment of the non—Arab Muslims by the Omayyads, who had made the Caliphate hereditary and turned away from the early simplicity of the first Caliphs. Abu Muslim began his revolt in Northeastern Iran circa 750 A.D. and within a year the 'Abbasids had replaced the Omayyads. This 'Abbasid rise marked the end of the influence of the Arabian peninsula on Islam, which was not the unified Empire that it had once been. Even though marked by bloody assassinations of the powerful Barmecid family and even Abu Muslim, whose demise gave rise to a number of "false prophets," this period was known as the Golden Age of Islam, with its zenith the rule of Caliph Harun al—Rashid (786-809 A.D.). This was an age of lib— eral thought, chiefly that of the Motazilites, a philo- SOphical school that ". . . opposed the orthodox doctrine of predestination, which represented the Deity as punishing man for sins which he had pre-ordained to commit. They equally Opposed the dogma which made the Qu'ran coeternal 47 and coexistent with God." They were persecuted by the Caliph Motavakkel (r.847-861 A.D.), who launched the period 47Sir Percy Sykes, A History of Persia (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1969), II, p. 10. 29 of orthodox reaction. This was the time of the strictly orthodox Asharites, who were violently anti-Motazilite. Also rising at this time was the Shu'ubiyya move- ment, active among the Persians and other non-Arabs, which began by believing that all Muslims were equal and finished by stating that Arabs were inferior to other Muslims.48 Unity in the Islamic world was short-lived. The ninth century onwards saw the rise of local dynasties that paid lip service and little else to the Caliph. They ruled in his name and he, in turn, was propped up by them. An early group, the Tahirids (820-872 A.D.), were not as important as the group that followed them, the Saffarids. The Saffarids, founded in 867 A.D. by Ya'qub Lais as-Saffer "the Coppersmith," were important because "by establishing a vast but transient military empire in the Islamic east, . . . , they made the first great breach in the territorial integrity of the 'Abbasid Caliphate."49 Their rise is considered to be the reassertion of Persian nationalism, which was slowly recovering from Nihavand. The Saffarids were defeated in Khorasan by the Samanids, who ruled 874-999 A.D. Their government was better adapted to effective rule than the military- oriented Saffarids, and were the first to use wholly 48Browne, p. 265. 49C. E. Bosworth, "The Tahirids and Saffarids," in Cambridge History of Iran, ed. Richard N. Frye (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), IV, p. 17. 30 Persianized bureaucracy, models of which they were aware of from Sasanian times. This was the Iranian Renaissance in the East. During this period major advances were made in cultural activities, but the Samanids had sown the seeds of their own eventual defeat. The large use of Turkish slaves by the Samanids in the army was a direct cause of their downfall. Once these slaves had been freed and given important posts, they acquired much power. Originally a Turkish ghulam, Sebuktegin went eastward to Ghazna in the service of the army commander Alp-tegin. He became the Samanid governor of the Ghazna area but in 999 A.D. his son Mahmud of Ghazna advanced to Transoxiana and defeated the Samanids, their previous masters. In the early tenth century it was the Shiite Buyids of the S. Caspian that rose to prominence in western Iran. Theirs was a form of military dictatorship that governed in the Caliph's name but "their authority nevertheless, was as absolute as any Sultan's in Baghdad, and the Caliphs were their abject puppets, . . ."50 They were also over- thrown by the Ghaznavids. The area controlled by the Ghaznavids was reduced to E. Afghanistan and points east and south with the rise of the Saljuks around 1050 A.D. 50Stanley Lane-Pool, The Mohammadan Dynasties (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1965; repr. 1893), p. 140. 31 First appearing as raiders, they carried their fighting zeal into Islam upon their conversion. Islam by this time was divided into many independent dynasties, with the 'Abbasid Caliph ruling little more than the area around Baghdad. Their fervor revived and rescued the state. For the first time in centuries the area from Afghanistan to Asia Minor was united. Their zenith came in the reign of Malik Shah (d. 1092), whose Grand Vizier, Nizam ol-Molk, has given us a remarkably human insight into the affairs of the Saljuks and earlier states. Their demise came after a greedy Saljuk governor seized Mongol merchants and their goods at Utrar. At this the Mongols began their advance and inexor— ably conquered Iran. Baghdad and the 'Abbasid Caliphate fell in 1258 A.D. and marked a great turning-point for the entire MuSlim world. The consequence of this invasion, besides the "normal" death and destruction, was principally the great economic and cultural decline of Iran and neigh- boring lands.51 After 1256, power in Iran was in the hands of Hulagu Khan and his successors, the Il-Khans of Persia, who ruled until 1344. Soon converted to Islam, it would seem that the conquerors became the conquered in the long run, because as in the past, Persian culture was impressed upon the newcomers from the East. 511. P. Petrushevsky, "The Socio-Economic Condition of Iran Under the Il-Khans," in Cambridge Historygof Iran, ed. J. A. Boyle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), V, p. 485. 32 In 1380 Tamerlane (Timur-i-Lang) began a campaign and overran an area from Dehli to Damascus. His capital of Samarqand was without equal but his empire split into local states with his death in 1447. The Safavid dynasty claimed to be descended from the Seventh Imam of the Twelver Shiites, Musa al-Kazem, through a thirteenth-century Sufi saint, Shaykh SafI of Ardabil. These Imams were descendants of the Prophet. The first Imam was 'Ali and after him his two sons. It was in these Imams that interpretational authority was vested in Shiism. In 765 A.D. the Sixth Imam died and there was a controversy over who was to succeed him. One group claimed that his eldest son Ismail had shown himself unfit due to his indulging in wine, and that his father had taken it from him and bestowed it on his younger brother Musa al-Kazem. Those believing in Ismail came to be called Ismailites or Seveners because their line ended with Ismail. The others continued their line of Imams until 875 A.D., when it was believed that the Twelfth Imam, the Imam-i-Zaman or Imam of the Age, had gone into hiding and would return one day to save Man. This is the position of the official form of Islam practiced in Iran today, Esna 'ashariyya or Twelver Shiism. It has been the official religion of Iran since the rise of Ismail the Safavid in 1502 and his coronation at Tabriz. 33 Sufism was a phenomenon in Islam that was very loosely organized at first. Of late it has been popular- ized in a faddish way in the West by young peOple who do not realize the true meaning of what it is to be a Sufi. Sufi was a term ". . . applied to those ascetic and pious devotees who . . . made the simplicity of their apparel a silent protest against the growing luxury of the worldly."52 They emphasized asceticism, quietism and an intimate and personal love of God. The great Sunnite philOSOpher and theologian al-Gazalli (d.1lll A.D.) reconciled it with orthodox Islam and made it into a philosophical school. He and others like him "taught that attachment to the material things of this world prevents man from ascending to that highest level of moral and spiritual perfection 53 This became the outlook of which is the goal of life." many Persians down to the present time. The founder of the dynasty was Ismail, who had himself crowned and immediately proclaimed Twelver Shiism to be the official state religion. Even though this led to constant wars with the neighboring states such as the Ottomans in the west and the Uzbeks in the east, "to the Safavid dynasty belongs the credit of making Persia a nation once again, self-contained, centripetal, powerful 52Browne, p. 265. 53Donald N. Wilber, Iran, Past and Present (Prince- ton: Princeton University Press, 1955), p. 93. 34 'and respected, within borders practically identical . . . with those of the Sasanian Empire."54 Ismail's power was absolute because he was regarded as the living link to the Hidden Imam and was therefore invincible and infallible. The zenith of Safavid splendor was under Ismail's son Tahmasp (ruled 1524-76). He was the Persian thorn in the side of the Ottomans, which kept them preoccupied with Persia and out of Europe. After a series of rulers who met violent deaths at the hands of power-seekers, Shah Abbas the Great came to power. His 42-year rule began with external threats from the Ottomans and Uzbeks and inter- nal ones from revolting princes, and ended with Persia reaching the highest degree of power, prosperity, and splendor ever attained. He, "by his strength and wisdom, gave to Persia a period of peace and outward prosperity which for nearly a hundred years protected his successors from the results of their incompetence."55 The defeat of the Safavid dynasty came about after the depredations of the Afghans, who invaded Iran in a "religious" (Sunnite vs. Shiite) war. The Battle of Golnabad has been compared to the Battle of Qadasiyya (636) and the fall of Baghdad (1258) because all three led to the fall of a once-great dynasty that was on the wane. Afghan intrusion into Iran was temporary and ceased when Nadir 0011, later Nadir Shah, defeated them in 1730. 54Browne, IV, p. 4. 55Ibid., III. 35 He was crowned six years later and had as his aim the elimination of the Shiite-Sunnite rift and the establish- ment of a true Islamic state. His crowning achievement was his invasion of India and the capture of such treasures as the Peacock Throne, although he was unable to recover Persian provinces from Russia and the Ottomans. He was killed in 1747 by his own Persian officers, who learned of his plot to kill them and struck first. After several years of struggle, Karim Khan Zand controlled most of Persia, checked only by the Qajar tribe of the Caspian and the Afghans. Upon his death the cas- trated Aqa Mohammad Khan Qajar, his prisoner since child- hood, escaped to the Caspian area and returned 15 years later (1796) and established the Qajar dynasty, which lasted up until the early twentieth century. Notwithstanding the cruelty of Aqa Mohammad, the beginnings of Qajar rule ". . . were auspicious: security and vigor replaced vulnerability and caprice; a strong central government was again established . . . a situation reminiscent of that obtained under the Safavids was being 56 Under his successor, Fath 'Ali deliberately restored." Shah (r. 1797-1834), Persia became involved with the rivalry of European states in the Middle East. This rivalry, which was initiated by Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1799, 56Peter Avery, Modern Iran (London: Ernest Benn Ltd., 1965): p. 25. 36 "characterized the external background of Iranian foreign policy during most of the nineteenth and . . . continued "57 The importance of Persia on into the twentieth century. lay in British interests in the shortest route to India and Russian interests in a warm-water port. The Perso- Russian fighting ended with the Treaty of Golestan (1813) and the Treaty of Turkomanchai (1828), both of which ceded Georgian territory to Russia. The granting of special privileges, or capitulations, to Russians in Persia was guaranteed by the latter treaty and was sought after by other EurOpean states and was the first of many erosions of Persia's control of her internal affairs. According to a historian of the Qajar period, Persian policy was to play one power off against the other, bring in third powers, and offset its weaknesses by "positive-negative diplomacy."58 Fath 'Ali Shah's successor was Mohammad Shah, who came to power with European intervention against his rivals. An important event of his reign was the rise of the Babi sect, founded by Mirza 'Ali Mohammad. He preached that he was the Bab (Gate) and taught "universal peace, improvement of the position of women, removal of class distinctions, 57R. K. Ramazani, The Foreign Policy of Iran: 1500- 1941 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1966)] p. 360 58Hafez F. Farmayan, The Foreign Policy of Iran, A Historical Analysis (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Middle East Center, 1971), p. 16. 37 and a life led according to the spirit rather than the 59 letter of religion." His successor's brother, Mirza Hosayn, declared himself to be Baha'ollah (Splendor of God) and established Bahaism in 1863. He combined Iranian mystical elements with liberal European thought in his teachings. Nasir od-Din's accession in 1847 was also guaran- teed by the European powers. A dispute with Britain over the city of Herat led to the independence of Afghanistan in 1857 and capitulations for Englishmen in Persia. In 1890 the Shah precipitated a national crisis when he gave an English company a monopoly on tobacco production and sale. The clerical leaders decreed, in Opposition to the Shah, that no Persian was to use tobacco. This growing awareness of their power influenced the move toward the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-06. Events were hastened by the free-spending, pleasure- seeking Mozaffar ad-Din Shah (1896-1907). In July 1906 many of Tehran's merchants seeking Houses of Justice sought bag; (sanctuary) in the British Legation, while the Shiite leaders fled to Iraq, crippling the city. The Shah promised reform and proclaimed the Constitution in August. This was only a ruse, for in 1908 the Shah used troops to dissolve Parliament and reassert his authority. He was defeated and 59w11ber,p. 79. 38 fled to Russia. The fledgling Parliament had the monu- mental task of bringing order out of chaos, which it was able to do with advisers such as the American Morgan Shuster, who was Treasurer-General of Persia in 1911. After World War I, in which Iran was neutral, treaty proposals put her under British domination. Popu- lar feeling and American intervention prevented this from happening, while the Russian threat was eliminated for a time by the Soviet cancellation of all former agreements on the condition that Iran suppress all anti-Soviet inter- ventionist movements on Iranian soil. Five days before (February 21, 1921), the Qajar dynasty was felled by Reza Khan, an Army colonel. He held real authority as Minister of War and then as Prime Minister, at which time the last Qajar shah left the country. He was chosen Shah in 1925 and established the Pahlavi dynasty, whose first task was the pacification and unification of the country. For this ne needed a large military force, economic stability, freedom from roughshod foreign intervention, and better communication with the outlying regions. "He was convinced that Persia's national integrity, as well as the welfare of her people, demanded rapid modernization."60 Reza Shah's modernization relied heavily on Western models but stopped short of complete emulation of the West. Iranian 60H.I.M. Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, Mission for My Country (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), p. 48. 39 nationalism was once again revived, although in a much more secular fashion than that of previous resurrections, because Reza Shah was intent on stripping the religious leaders of their formidable authority. Centralized control was the key to the implementation of Reza Shah's aims over the objections of such groups as the clerics and the tribes. Iran was neutral at the outbreak of World War II but Great Britain and the Soviets used the strong German presence in Iran as a pretext to divide the country between them in an invasion in 1941. The Shah's government was not able to COpe with the situation and Reza Shah abdicated and went to South Africa, where he died in 1944. Events were then put into motion with the accession of Reza Shah's son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, that led to the Iranian declaration of war on the Germans in 1943. The 30,000 men of the U.S. Persian Gulf Command moved more than 500 million tons of war material from the Persian Gulf ports to the Russians, a long life-line that underscored the importance of transportation and communi- cation, a reality not lost on the young monarch. Iranians were relieved to realize that the 1943 Tehran meeting of the "Big Four" left Iran free to her own pursuits when war was eventually over and promised Allied aid. All trOOps were to leave by March 2, 1946, but the Soviets were "slow" to leave, hOping thereby to gain a foothold in Iranian Azerbaijan. "There is ample evidence that as the Red Army 40 settled down in Iran after the invasion of 1941 it was 61 The communist Tudeh Party planning for a long stay." went largely unchecked intimaimmediate post-war era but went underground after they were blamed for an assassina- tion attempt on the Shah in 1949. Iran became the first beneficiary of the Point Four Program. The next year Dr. Mohammad Mossadeq was named Prime Minister after the Majles approved the nation- alization of the then British-dominated Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Three months later A.I.O.C. tankers stOpped load— ing Iranian crude at Abadan and thus blockaded Iran's newly nationalized oil industry. The country was in turmoil as the various groups sought to gain the upper hand, especially the Tudeh Party, which sought the abolition of the monarchy. In 1953 Dr. Mossadeq refused to turn his post over to General Zahedi and the Shah left for Baghdad. This brought about violent demonstrations and in the southern part of Tehran a pro-Shah movement gained momentum. They won the day and the Shah returned several days later to undo the damage that had been done by the previous government. In October 1954 the government of Prime Minister Zahedi rati- fied an agreement that started Iranian oil flowing once more. With oil revenues in hand, the determined Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi could embark on his plan to implement 61Joseph M. Upton, The History of Modern Iran--An Interpretation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), p. 95. 41 basic reforms, and in 1963 he announced that he intended to carry out his "White Revolution." The years before Mossadeq and the White Revolution were mainly a period of internal stabilization. Modern Iran: Government, Reforms, Economy The era of Modern Iran can be defined as that period in which Iran was internally strengthened and took charge of its own affairs. As has been amply shown, this period did not reach Iran until the Pahlavi period and the determination of Reza Shah and his son. Iran was trans- formed from the weak, ineffective rule of the Qajars to a constitutional monarchy, in which the executive, legisla- tive, and the judiciary all have their functions. The executive branch consists of the Cabinet and other high- ranking officials acting in the Shah's name; the judicial branch, secularized in 1936 to diminish the power of the Shari'ah (religious law) courts, consists of civil courts up to a Supreme Court; the legislative branch consists of the Majles (National Consultative Assembly) with 268 pOpu- larly elected members and the Senate with one-half its members appointed by the Shah and the other 30 popularly elected. Elections are held every four years under uni- versal suffrage for all adults. The Shah holds awesome power since he may dismiss the Prime Minister and his Cabinet, dissolve Parliament, and call new elections. On 42 March 2, 1975, the Shah suspended the two-party system and created the Rastakhiz (National Resurgence) Party, whose platform is total support for the Shah in his moderniza- tion drive. "All those Iranians who believe in the Con- stitution, the Monarchy and the Shah-People Revolution are eligible to join the party."62 The Ministries are those of Foreign Affairs, Interior, Justice, War, Finance, Roads, Post, Telegraph and Telephone, Agriculture, Education, and more recently added: Cooperatives and Rural Affairs, Science and Higher Education, and others. These perform normal functions and those of the Ministries of Science and Education and Infor- mation and Tourism will be dealt with in greater detail. Two events in the 1960's that focused world atten- tion on Iran were the Coronation of H.I.M. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in 1967 and the celebration of the 2500th anni- versary of the founding of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great. "The power which has enabled Persia to preserve a unique and productive culture for 2500 years has been a spiritual force. . . : as in the past, it will modify and adapt foreign contributions to its own advantage and perhaps "63 to universal advantage as well. The Shah had vowed in 62H.I.M. Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in The New York Times, June 21, 1975. 63Upton, p. 134. 43 1941 not to be crowned until his goals were becoming a reality. Some of the political developments include the growing detente with the Soviet Union, with resulting mutually beneficial trade agreements, one of which exchanged Iranian natural gas, previously wasted, for a steel mill near Isfahan. With the decreased threat from the Soviets, Iran has involved her foreign policy with the Persian Gulf and its oil. After the British pulled out of the Protectorates this meant an increased military presence for Iran in the area. The Opening of the Kharg Island pumping station was coupled with the Opening of a large naval base at Bandar Abbas, one of the Persian Gulf ports. The implementation of the White Revolution took place in 1963. Prior to its inception the national economy was chiefly agrarian. Industry was small; health care was nonexistent in rural areas. The real power was held by absentee owners of vast estates. These self-centered groups halted any effective program toward badly needed social reform. The central point of these reforms was land reform, which was designed to break up these vast holdings and sell them to the peasants. This transferred the allegiance of the farmers from the landlord to the Shah and the central government. Many groups of farmers formed cooperatives to 44 cut overhead and increase production. With this increased purchasing power and government protection in the form of price controls, etc., the agricultural sector of the economy grew dramatically. Its final aims are: (1) increasing farm production, (2) raising living standards of farmers, and (3) stabilizing and protecting farm prices. The second point was nationalization of the coun- try's forest resources, denuded and over-exploited for centuries. Grazing was curbed, kerosene gradually replaced wood as the principal fuel, and afforestation and reaf- forestation have been carried out. The next two reforms were the sale of shares in government-owned factories and the sharing by the workers in profits from their labors. These both were an incen- tive to increased efficiency and production. Electoral reform gave suffrage to women and equal opportunity to all. Peasants and laborers, hitherto largely ignored in the electoral process, were granted Opportunities to express themselves meaningfully. The last original point of these reforms was the formation of a National Literacy Corps to combat wide- spread illiteracy. In 1956 illiteracy in the country was approximately 85 percent! "It is foreseen that by the end of the Fifth DevelOpment Plan (1973/4-1977/8), every vil- lage in Iran with a population of more than 300 will have a 45 "64 The National Committee member of the Literacy Corps. for the Eradication of Illiteracy is doing a similar job in urban areas. Four months later three more rural-oriented points were added: formation of a rural Health Corps and an Extension Corps and the setting up of Houses of Equity to dispense justice at the village level. The Health Corps was long overdue in a country that had only 200 hospital beds in 1920! In 1972 there were almost 40,000. Since 1974 immunizations and preventive medicine have been pro- vided to all citizens at no charge. The Extension Corps provides services not commonly carried out by agricultural extension workers, such as rural develOpment. Chosen from those skilled in agriculture, engineering and construc- tion, they give advice on everything from beekeeping to construction projects. They numbered almost 5,000 in 1972. The creation of Houses of Equity was to enforce equal dispensation of justice. Prior to that time, "the gover- nors, feudal landowners, and other influential persons directly influenced the proceedings, and justice was not 65 This provided exercised for ordinary peOple." justice at the village level, overcame the shortage of judges and lightened the case-load of higher courts. 64The Royal Road to Progress (Tehran: Ministry of Information and Tourism, 1974), p. 91. 65 Ibid., p. 115. 46 Thus it can be easily seen that the White Revolu- tion's fundamental purpose was to transfer the feudal, oppressive social structure of Iran into one based upon justice and human rights. Iran's economy, as previously stated, was feudal up until the present century. In 1925, a former head of the American Economic Mission to Iran stated: "Pessi- mistic observers have more than once written cynical epi- taphs for the tomb of this ancient nation; but Persia has 66 Economic develOpment in Persia refused to be buried." in the nineteenth century was stifled by the Anglo-Russian rivalry, which pervaded every aspect of Persian life. With the accession of Reza Shah to the throne, the economic outlook improved. Rapid expansion in all sectors was halted only by political crises, such as the Allied occupation, the Oil Crisis of 1951 and its resulting "trauma," and others. An authority on the Iranian economy says that "The economic and social progress made by Iran stands plain to see and given political stability, there is every reason to hOpe that it can continue, and acceler- ate, during the next few years."67 His prediction has certainly come true. The reason for Iran's fantastic 66A. C. Millspaugh, The American Task in Persia (New York: The Century Co., 1925), p. 308. 67Charles Issawi, "Iran's Economic Upsurge," Middle East Journal 21 (Autumn 1967): 459. 47 growth in recent years can be summed up in one word: oil. Iran is the fourth largest producer and the second largest exporter of oil in the world, and has made it a policy to maximize the investment of oil revenues. "Before oil and gas revenues enter into a serious decline Iran will have achieved a fully developed and highly diversified economy that can operate on nuclear and other new sources of 68 In 1972, before the Yom Kippur War and its energy." embargo and price hikes Iran's oil revenues were less than three billion dollars. In 1974 revenue approached 20 billion dollars with only a few percentage points increase in production. Iran's GNP grew by a staggering 34 percent in real terms. This growth, unlike that of many Middle Eastern oil exporters, is more significant because "Iran has a much greater capacity for absorbing its increased oil income. . . ."69 Oil is not the only weapon in Iran's economic arsenal. By 1977 she hOpes to become a major producer of copper, and other minerals surely await the geologist in the mountain regions of the Zagros. The manufacturing sector accounts for much new growth while the agricultural sector, thanks to the reforms of the White Revolution and increased productivity, only accounts for some 18 percent k 68International Economic Survey: IRAN (New York: Chemical Bank International Division, 1975). p. 3. 691bid., p. 1. 48 of the GNP. "It is also imperative that a substantial portion [of oil revenues] be used for the intensification of agriculture, a process that could provide both food and work for the Middle East's growing millions."70 Economic develOpment is being hastened with the continuation of Reza Shah's policy of improving communi- cation and transportation. The Fifth Plan envisages thou- sands of more miles of paved roads and continued expansion and improvement of railways. Air service within Iran is being expanded by Iran Air, the national airline, which in May of 1975 inaugurated direct service via London between Tehran and New York. Arya National Shipping Lines, which presently carries only a small portion of Iranian cargo, is expanding its fleet and port facilities. The unit of currency is the rial, one of the more stable world currencies. Current exchange rates are l U.S. dollar = 69 rials. Banking in Iran is mainly pro- vided by Bank Melli, the largest commercial bank, and Bank Markazi, the Central Bank, which issues currency. Iran is a member of the RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development) along with Turkey and Pakistan, which promotes joint-ventures industrial and economic projects such as pipeline and railroad construction and improved communication links. 70Charles Issawi, "Growth and Structural Change in the Middle East," Middle East Journal 25 (Spring 1971): 324. 49 It can be seen that Iran's economic planning has been tremendously successful: In a very short time span, Iran has moved from a semi- feudal state to become a rich, rapidly develOping country with a very bright future. There are few historical precedents for its sustained, fast rate of growth, and few countries can be found in a better position to achieve goals as ambitious as those the Iranians have set for themselves.71 Education Education in Iran was important in earliest times, when emphasis was placed on knowledge which made the stu- dent a better member of the State, community and home. In Sasanid times education consisted of following the example of parents, with emphasis on the teachings of the rigid social system and Zoroastrianism. Even in medieval Iran the primary institutes of education were the family and the community. The father was the undisputed symbol of authority. This ". . . edu- cation in medieval Iran promoted regional loyalties and preserved the Persian cultural heritage in the face of counter-efforts by the Arabs. . . ."72 Islam also changed the content of education from Zoroastrian to emphasis on the Holy Qo'ran. "Education for those who had the aptitude seems to have been the guiding principle of Islamic 71Rundt's Market Report: IRAN (New York: S. J. Rundt & Associates, Int'l Business Consultants, 1975), p. 65. 72Reza Arasteh, Education and Social Awakening in Iran (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1962), p. l. 50 73 The emphasis placed on religious and secular society." thought in Islamic Persia can be seen intfluedevelopment of liberal thought in "The Golden Age" (ca. mid-ninth .century), the compilations oftflueIkhwan os-Safa (Brother of Purity) in the tenth century, the development of a philoSOphy with its roots in Greek philosophy, the founding of great universities and Nezamiyya prior to the Mongol invasion. The two principal educational institutions were the maktab and the madrasa. The maktab, used for elementary education by upper- and middle-class boys (girls were excluded), existed largely unchanged until the constitu- tional period. Religion and moral training were taught by the akhund, a cleric who had no governmental or profes- sional control. Many of the maktabs were connected to mosques and curriculum consisted of memorization of the Qggag, reading and writing, and arithmetic. Private con- tributions from parents of students and from religious endowments (yggf) funded them. The madrasas, at Qom and Isfahan, were the only institutions of higher education in the country until mid- nineteenth century, with secondary education privately arranged for by those who could afford it--the upper- and middle-class families. "These circumstances--educationa1 73Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran: 1921-1941 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), p. 85. 51 discriminations against the poor, the less able, and girls--were responsible for an extremely high rate of illiteracy."74 These madrasas, chiefly intended to be seminaries, taught theology, Arabic grammar, rhetoric, jurisprudence, arithmetic, astronomy and some logic. The forthcoming clash between the religious estab- lishment and the government of the Reza Shah era can easily be seen. "Implicit in Reza Shah's educational reforms was his determination to undermine the influence of the reli- gious classes."75 The major landmark of educational reform in the nineteenth century was the Opening of the Dar ol-Funum (Academy of Science) in Tehran by Taqi Khan Amir Kabir. It was designed for civil servants and the diplomatic corps and its curriculum consisted of modern science (including military sciences) and foreign languages. Later in the century two similar schools and two military col- leges were Opened. These early beginnings were small but important because ". . . one of the main platforms of the secret societies in pre-revolutionary Iran, . . . , was educational reform; education was seen as the way to ensnare the Western 'secret."'76 The initial establishment of the Ministry of Edu- cation took place in 1855. The Educational Council of 74Ibid., p. 87. 75Avery, Modern Iran, p. 284. 76Ibid., pp. 117-118. 52 1897 formally adopted the French model for state schools. In 1910 the Second Majles enacted a law that set up the Ministry for Education, Vaqf and Fine Arts and also enacted the Fundamental Law of Education that established such innovations as compulsory elementary education, col— lection of educational statistics, professional training of teachers, adult education, publication of textbooks and the necessity of sending a number of students abroad. Progress in the develOpment of higher education lagged until the government realized its reSponsibility. "The government's need for a bureaucratic administration directly brought about a system of higher education geared to the production of trained government personnel who 77 lacked, however, research or professional aims." The first of these was the Dar ol-Funun. Others that followed were the School of Political Science (Tehran) in 1901, the College of Agriculture (Karaj) in 1902, The School of Fine Arts in 1911, the Boys Normal School (name later changed to Teachers Training College) in 1918, and a School of Law in 1921. The first and last of these were combined into the College of Law and Political Science in 1928 and all of them were later incorporated into the University of Tehran in 1934. The period of Reza Shah's reign (1925-1941) was notable for his expansion of all phases of education. He 77Arasteh, p. 20. 53 ordered his Ministry and High Council of Education to examine European curricula and establish a curriculum for a teacher training college for men and women. "Indeed the entire period from 1921 to 1941 must be considered a time of experimentation and gradual expansion of school curricu- 78 His most lum, rather than of immediate achievement." urgent need was for skilled teachers and he enacted the Teacher Training Act in March 1934 that had a goal of 25 teacher colleges by 1939 (35 existed in 1941). In 1939 the Ministry of Education also began publishing an improved series of textbooks, although the old reliance upon memori— zation continued. The University of Tehran's cornerstone was laid by Reza Shah on February 5, 1935, and consisted of five faculties: Arts, Science, Medicine, Law and Engineering. It now (1975) consists of 17 faculties, 35 affiliated institutes, 20,000 students and an 84-million-dollar budget for 1975-76. Other higher educational institutes are: Azarbadegan University (Tabriz), Isfahan University, Gondi Shapur University (Ahwaz), Ferdowsi University (Mashhad), Arya-Mehr Technical University (Tehran), National Univer- sity (Tehran), Pahlavi University (Shiraz) and others, both public and private. All of these are under the control of the Ministry of Sciences and Higher Education, which was 78Banani, p. 93. 54 established in 1968. Their combined student body in 1973-74 numbered approximately 123,000 with 5,025 faculty members. On the surface, this looks like a large increase, but is only a small fraction of what potential college attendance could be. Professor Mehran, in June 1975, stated that "about 9 percent of the total pOpulation of Iran is potentially capable of going to a university, but because of the scarcity of colleges and universities the number of graduates in prOportion to the total pOpulation is one of the lowest in the world.".79 Iran is trying to dramatically increase the quality, as has been seen, and the quantity of higher education. Planned new universi- ties and their Opening dates are: Southeast University (Sistan and Baluchistan) in 1976, Kerman University in 1975, Gilan University in the near future, Reza Shah the Great University (Mazandaran) in 1975, Bu Ali University (Hamadan) in 1976 and the Iranian Free University in 1976. Emphasis on education has increased ever since the Third DevelOpment Plan (1962/3-1967/8), which contained the first comprehensive statement of Iran's educational goals and the means to achieve them. Twenty years later (1982) it is hOped that illiteracy will be eradicated from the 6 to 44 age group. Prime Minister Hoveyda, in a speech on 79Ettela'at, 9472 (Tehran, June 9, 1975), p. 2. 55 September 19, 1975, at the ASPEN Conference in Shiraz, stated that The number of universities and centers of higher edu- cation in this country has now reached 184, with a student pOpulation of 149,000. When the school bells ring on the 23rd of this month . . . over 7 million Iranians of all ages will enroll at some institution of learning. . . .80 In spite of his pride, the Prime Minister is also aware that Iran's biggest educational headache, stimulated by vast revenue and economic expansion, is the shortage of skilled labor, professional and managerial personnel. Thousands of Iranian students attend schools outside of Iran, ostensibly to return to Iran and use their skills to better themselves and their country. The failure of some of them to return is a problem to which the government has been addressing itself, by offering attractive wages, benefits and working conditions because its only alterna- tive is to hire skilled employees and professionals from those nations that have a surplus. Thanks to the dramatic increase in oil revenue, the situation is changing enormously. Iran's oil revenue in 1971 was only $2 billion. In 1974 it reached $20 bil- lion. Iran's Fifth Five-Year DevelOpment Plan budget (1973-1978) was raised from $36 billion to $69 billion. 80Iran Information and Tourism Center, News Letter (New York: Press Section, September 22, 1975): P. l. 56 Subsequent sharp increases in oil prices and govern- ment revenues during 1973 and 1974 radically altered the Plan's financial projections and called for a wholesale revision of the targets. The revised plan thus doubles the SCOpe of the original 1973 version, and is seven times bigger than the Fourth Plan (1969- 1973).81 Although the oil industry was the mainstay of Iran's four previous economic plans, its significance as the main source of development funds has become particularly note- worthy in the Fifth Plan. "Iran intends to spend 68 billion dollars on development in the next three years and government planners say that there will be need for at least 2.5 million new 82 Skilled labor, mostly in the technical areas, is jobs." being imported from countries such as Pakistan, India, the Phillipines anui Afghanistan, as well as from the West. Iranian students who have graduated from foreign universi- ties and colleges and who remain outside of Iran are becom- ing more and more inclined to return home because of job opportunities and prospects. There is an urgent need in many areas of develOp- ment in Iran to educate and teach new skills through crash programs; tourism is one such area. It is hoped that enough Iranian people will be prepared to handle tourism so that the need for foreign skill will be minimized. The 81Iran's Fifth DevelOpment Plan (A Short Review), Iran Economic News Supplement (Washington, D.C., March 1975). 82 Quoted in The New York Times, June 12, 1975, p. L30. 57 return of the educated Iranian students is a good sign. During the recent four months more graduated students have returned to Iran than in any single previous year. Authori- ties at the Ministry of Science and Higher Education have eXpressed hOpe that eventually the problem of "brain drain" will come to an end for Iran. Because of the urgency of the situation to estab- lish programs of education and training for tourism in Iran, a survey of Opinions of recent American tourists to Iran has been carried out to detect the basic needs and priorities in tourism education. As is discussed under the tOpic of tourism industry, the expansion of tourism in Iran calls for specific educational programs. Based on the expressed opinions of Americans who have visited Iran recently (Chapter II), an education model has been worked out and is presented in Chapter III. It should be pointed out, however, that Americans' Opinions may not be repre- sentative of the total pOpulation of tourists who have recently visited Iran. Similar studies may lead to more realistic evaluations of the strengths and shortcomings of tourism in Iran as viewed by foreigners. It is the writer's hope that, through the apprOpriate government agencies, the model will find its way to being useful and workable in Iran. 58 Tourism Industry Although travellers have visited Iran for many reasons over the centuries because of her policy of never practicing isolationism, it was "only after 1963 that the Iranian Government began to pay more attention to tourism as a potential industry."83 The Iran National Tourist Organization (INTO) was established in 1963 to promote tourism in Iran; this agency was absorbed by the expanded Ministry of Information and Tourism in April of 1974. A traveller to Iran earlier in the century said that "This is a great moment when you see, however dis- tant, the goal of your wanderings. The thing which has been living in your imagination suddenly becomes a part 84 Tourists have a definite goal of the tangible world." in mind. They go to Iran to view monuments, cities, natu- ral features and a host of other attractions, but there has to be an effort on the part of the government to induce them to make the journey. This is what the tourism industry is all about. Getting to Iran is much easier now than it was for Millspaugh in 1925; In: said, "At the present time Tehran may be reached in three weeks from New York. . . the roads 83Iran Almanac (Echo of Iran, 1975), p. 317. 84Freya Stark, Valleys of the Assassins (London: John Murray, 1934). 59 85 Most tourists now arrive are constantly being improved." in Iran by plane at Tehran's constantly improving Mehrabad Airport. Its main terminal is being reconstructed, and a new international arrival terminal opened several months ago. A totally new, billion-dollar airport is also being planned 25 miles from Tehran. Since May travellers from America have been able to fly directly from New York to Tehran on Iran Air with only a short stop in London. Rail service via Istanbul, available since 1971, and sea travel via the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, and, of course, private automobile and bus are alternate means of trans- port for the Iran-bound traveller. Things to see in Iran are very numerous. Although much of her historic past has vanished, many monuments remain. The best known of these are Persepolis, the sacred capital of the Achaemenians, and the inscriptions of Darius as Bisotun. As Iran expands her development, more of her past is being uncovered. The principal cities, as far as tourism is concerned, are Tehran, Shiraz, and Isfahan. Tehran, a bustling city of almost four million (200,000 in 1920!), currently has 82 hotels and is expand- ing its transportation facilities for both residents and tourists. A modern, 41-mile subway system is expected to be Operational by March 1978 and will be jammed the day it 85Millspaugh, American Task, p. 24. 60 opens. Rail service to other points in Iran and else- where is being expanded, and Tehran is being made into an important destination for international tourism. Tourist attractions include the Shahyad Monument, Sephahsalar and Shah Mosques, the large Bazaar, Crown Jewels (in Bank Markazi), Golestan Palace and the recently Opened Negarestan Museum. Shiraz, the capital of the Zand dynasty in the latter eighteenth century, is the most attractive of all of Iran's cities. The mausoleums of the poets Havez and Sa'di draw tourists from around the world, for good litera- ture is truly timeless and international. Isfahan, capital of the Safavid dynasty and referred to in its day as "Isfahan, half the world," is a goal of many tourists. "A plan is underway by the Ministry of Arts and Cultures to establish a 480,000 square meter park in the heart of Isfahan which would contain most of the city's mainhistoricalattractions."86 These attractions include the Naqshe-Jahan Square, the mosques--Masjed-e-Shah, Masjed-e-Shaykh Lotfollah and Masjed-e-Jame, the Ali Qapu Palace of Shah Abbas the Great, the old and colorful Bazaar, the seminary of Chahar Bagh, the Chehel Sotum Palace, and many other beautiful historic buildings. Hotel accommodations are expanding: The Shah Abbas Hotel, a 86Ministry of Information and Tourism, Iran Travel News, IV, 2, p. 5. 61 seventeenth century structure, is worth a visit in itself; the Hotel Dariush, 4-star with 105 rooms, Opened in March of this year and brings the total number of hotels in Isfahan to 23. By the end of the Fifth DevelOpment Plan, the Ministry will add 1,000 new rooms in Isfahan. Also, in March, the new Tehran-Isfahan rail link was inaugurated by the Prime Minister. If one chooses to fly, this remark- - able city is only 50 minutes (255 miles) away. Gholam Reza Kianpour, the head of the Ministry of Information and Tourism, said recently "that tourism meant not only pro- viding adequate hotels but also good transportation, roads, railroads, and other services if tourism is to work as a force for promoting good will among nations."87 For the tourist who enjoys the beach, the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf are conveniently located. There now exists a master plan for the entire area, which envisages additional hotels, hostels, villas, highways, and beach facilities. In Gilan province alone, the Ministry is spending 7.5 million dollars to build hotels, apart- ments and camping areas that will accommodate an addi- tional 3,000 people. Two new highways will shorten the Tehran-Chalus mountain route by 25 miles. Almost a thousand miles of local and feeder roads to take the tour- ist into the hinterland are also planned. The largest hotels 87Iran Travel News, IV, 3, p. 1. 62 are the Grand Hotel and Casnio at Ramsar and the Hyatt Regency near Chalus (opened June 1975). The Persian Gulf area of Bandar Abbas already has seven hotels ranging from the 3-star Gameroon to several 1-star ones, with others of all ranges in the planning stage. There is perhaps no more critical area for Iran's tourism industry than the shortage of hotels and skilled personnel to run them. Both deficiencies are being cor- rected as fast as possible. There are 119 hotels (3,410 rooms), 6 traditional tea-houses, 12 camp areas, 6 tourist centers and 6 tourist complexes now under construction. This will increase capacity from 1972's 27,850 beds to 1978's projected 90,180. For the tourist who has tired of all of the other diversions mentioned, the mountains and lakes beckon. The Zagros and Alborz mountains offer strenuous mountain- climbing and skiing. Ski resorts that are near Tehran are located at Shemshak, Shahrestanak, Dizin (now expand- ing) and nearby Abe Ali. January to March is the best time for this popular sport. To meet the previously discussed shortage of per- sonnel in the tourism service industry the Ministry of Information and Tourism has opened the College of Tourism Services and Information, which has the task of training hotel managers and travel guides. The first year's enroll- ment was 65 and will rise to 200 in two years' time. 63 Capital outlay is very heavy and is increasing. The Fourth Development Plan expenditures on tourism totalled 52 million dollars while the Fifth Plan's expen- ditures will total 200 million. "Specific programs will aim at increasing the number of foreign tourists from 415,000 in 1972/3 to 925,000 by 1977/8."88 Kianpour further emphasized Iran's commitment to the tourism industry when he stated in his No-Rux address that while "now in the midst of our Fifth Development Plan multi-billion rial program to expand tourism facilities, we will continue to enhance our capacity to receive a great many more tourists in the remaining years of the plan and the future."89 The shortage of accommodation facilities at present in Iran is such that most hotels are booked up for the entire season. The government has issued announcements that tourists should not take chances on traveling to Iran without advance hotel reservations. Although new hotels are under construction, the shortage is expected to linger on. Another problem that Iran is facing is the shortage of skilled personnel in tourist establishments. Hotel capacity in six years' span will become four times greater, 88Ibid. 89Iranian Economic Mission, Iran Economic News (Supplement), I, 3, p. 7. 64 which will place a heavy burden on the newly established College of Tourism Services and Information and other edu- cational institutions of Iran to educate and train new personnel for the new accommodation facilities. It is obvious that the number of tourists traveling to Iran is far greater than the country can absorb. Short-range planning to meet the needs of the ever-increasing tourists is mandatory. In the area of tourism education there is a great deal to be done. The demand for tourist accommoda- tions appears to be much greater than the supply, which might force prices to go up if there is little or no control. The study of American Opinions in the following chapter reveals a variety of problems and inadequacies in Iranian tourism, although it suggests many strong points as well. The idea is to prOpose an education model, on the basis of the findings, to overcome problems and to improve the quality of tourist services in Iran. CHAPTER II SURVEY OF AMERICAN ATTITUDES In the previous chapter an attempt was made to provide factual information about Iran to the reader who may not be aware of Iran's great past and glorious culture. For a more elaborate study of Iran, the reader is referred to the bibliography, which appears at the end of this dis— sertation. Having reviewed the first chapter, the reader should be better prepared to study the survey. Purpose and Scope This is a study of American attitudes toward Iran in general and the tourist services in Iran in particular. The writer's purpose in the study was to assess the needs for education in the area of tourism. The study is also intended to reveal some basic facts about general char- acteristics of American visitors to Iran, their interests, expectations, and the problems they have faced while in Iran. The study has been designed to reveal the follow- ing facts about American travelers to Iran: 1. Personal data including age, sex, education and income level. 65 66 2. Types<1faccommodation, facilities, and tourist services they have used and how they rate them. 3. Major reasons why Americans travel to Iran and what parts of the country they are mostly interested in visiting. 4. Problems and inconveniences they have encoun- tered during their stay in Iran as far as people, facilities, and services are concerned. 5. What suggestions and recommendations they would make for the improvement of tourist services in Iran that might be accommodated through further education of Iranians. The study will provide bases for designing a model for the tourism education and training of personnel in service industry of Iran. Methodology A sample of American travelers to Iran was selected on a random basis. The selection was made from many thousand Americans who had obtained tourist visas to Iran from Consulates of Iran throughout the United States, i.e., New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Houston. One thousand names and addresses were randomly selected. The selection, however, was made from among those application forms processed during the recent months (March through July 1975). The reason for this selection was the researcher's aim to collect the opinions of those who had 67 recently returned from Iran so that they could give a truer picture of Iran as they saw it. During the past year or so Iran has undergone so many changes. Tourism, in particular, has been affected by heavy traffic of foreigners to Iran for business or for pleasure. This is due to Iran's emergence as an oil-rich country. Because of the new developments in Iran, the number of visitors has been increasing very rapidly to an extent that tourist accommodations have become very scarce in the major cities of Iran and hotels, motels, and restaurants are operating in full swing. The reason for selection of such a sample is two- fold: first, the visitors who have been to Iran recently can give a more accurate picture of the existing situa- tion of tourist facilities in Iran. And, second, those who have just returned from Iran may be able to remember more clearly what they have experienced there. A questionnaire, which appears on the following page, along with a letter and a shiny Iranian coin, together with a self-addressed stamped envelope were mailed to the prospective respondents. The rate of response was 37.4 percent. Out of one thousand peOple to whom the questionnaires were mailed, 374 responded to it. Nineteen questionnaires were returned because of insuffi- cient addresse or "addressee unknown" or "moved, left no address." 68 Letter accompanying questionnaire: Date Dear Sir/Madam: We are trying to improve our understanding of American attitudes toward the hospitality and service industry in Iran. This is aimed at establishing relevant educational programs for service personnel in Iran to improve the skill and knowledge needed in serving you, should you wish to visit Iran again. We would greatly appreciate your time and trouble in completing the enclosed questionnaire and returning it to us in the enclosed stamped envelOpe. We have offered you a brand new shiny Iranian coin as our appreciation for your kind cooperation. Any comments that you would care to make will cer- tainly prove valuable and we sincerely hOpe that your next trip to Iran will be more enjoyable. Very sincerely yours, Ahmad Binazir P.S. If you are not the person who actually visited Iran, and you know the person who did, would you kindly pass the questionnaire on to him/her? 69 It is worth mentioning that in selection of the sample there was a deliberate tendency toward selecting those who were going to Iran for a vacation or for pleasure, and business peOple were excluded except where the purpose of the trip was unknown. This is the reason why the num— ber of business concerns is so low. Historical aspects and a wealth of architectural remains and archaeology seem to be the main interest of American visitors and the major reason for their trips to Iran. Questionnaire 1. Age: 2. Sex: 3. Annual Income: 4. Educational Level: 5. Have you traveled to Iran? ____Yes No 6. If "No," had you planned to travel to Iran? Yes No 7. If you had planned to travel to Iran but changed your plans, which of the following is the reason for the change? Lack of hotel accommodations Other. Please explain. Lack of security in the area Personal reasons 8. What is the main reason that you felt Iran would be an interesting destination? Historical aspects Other. Please explain. Interesting people Shopping New developments 9. Time of the year you traveled to Iran: 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 70 Length of stay in Iran: Places visited in the country: Approximate amount of money you spent in Iran: How do you rate your trip experience to Iran? Very good Would you explain your reason(s) for your Satisfactory response: Just fair Bad Very bad How did you find service in hotels, restaurants, coffee shops, public transportation, stores, museums, etc.? Please circle numbers on the right. 1 Very good Hotels 1 2 3 4 5 2 Satisfactory Restaurants 1 2 3 4 5 3 Fair Coffee shops 1 2 3 4 5 4 Bad Public transportation 1 2 3 4 5 5 Very bad Stores 1 2 3 4 5 Museums 1 2 3 4 5 How would you rate service as a factor in the overall satisfac- tion from your visit? Very significant Significant Insignificant Did you find service in Iran worse than other countries you have visited? Yes No If your answer to the above is "Yes," what are the major problems? Check as many items as appropriate. Language barrier/communication Poor management Lack of manners Poor personal appear- Untrained personnel ance and hygiene Personnel not hospitable Personnel being too slow toward foreigners Personnel not being honest 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 71 What do you think should be emphasized in the education programs for the service industry in Iran? Etiquette and manners Your suggestion: Technical aspects of the job Ethics and morality Personal neatness/appearance Need for speed How did you like the food in restaurants? Excellent If only Fair/Bad, what did you dislike Good about it? Fair Bad How did you find accommodation facilities such as beds, bath- rooms, showers, heat, etc.? Satisfactory Unsatisfactory What class hotel did you stay at? Deluxe Three Star One Star Four Star Two Star Tourist Inn Did you use the service of a travel agent in Iran? Yes No If the answer is "Yes," how would you rate the agent's services? Excellent If only Fair/Bad, please explain. Good Fair Bad Did you use a professional guide in Iran? Yes No If the answer is "Yes," how did you like the services rendered to you? Satisfactory If unsatisfactory, what did you gen- Unsatisfactory erally dislike about your guide? 26. 27. 28. 29. 72 5 at did you like most about Iran? Climate Other. Please explain. People Shopping Sights 5 at did you like least about Iran? Inflation Other. Please explain. Cheating Traffic People Do you think you would ever want to go back? Yes Please explain. No COMMENTS: a. Any comments about the services you received by hotels, travel agents, taxis, guides, stores? Please indicate any changes you would suggest that would improve things for you. 0" Any recommendations for education and training programs of service personnel? c. Would you recommend friends and relatives to visit Iran and why? d. We would appreciate any other comments you would care to share with us. The back of this sheet could also be used. 73 Tabulations of Results Number of Mailing 1000 Return 374 Response Rate 37.4% Question 1: Age No. % 20 or less 16 4.2 21-30 46 12.3 31-40 44 11.7 41-50 83 22.1 Over 50 164 43.8 No answer 21 5.6 The survey revealed that nearly three-quarters of the respondents were over the age of 40 and only 16.5 per- cent young people under the age of 30 have traveled to Iran. Even more significant is the fact that almost half of the respondents were over 50 years old. Therefore, there should be an awareness that as far as American tourists are concerned, Iran is mostly catering to the older people. This is reinforced by the fact that most of the American travelers who have contacted the writer at the Iran Infor- mation and Tourism Center in New York City to obtain tourist information over the past two years were elderly people. Question 2: Sex No. i Male 201 53.7 Female 171 45.7 This question is indicative of the fact that the number of female tourists who traveled to Iran from the United States is almost equal to the number of male tourists. Although this sample may not be representative of the total 74 population, it still suggests that there is a high percen- tage of female travelers to Iran from the United States. Considering a number of complaints expressed by respondents about the way women were treated in Iran, it seems obvious that the problem should be tackled through tourism educa- tion, which will be discussed later. Question 3: Annual income fig; i $10,000 or less 39 10.4 $11,000-20,000 97 25.9 $21,000-30,000 48 12.8 Over $30,000 106 28.3 No answer 84 22.4 Generally speaking, American travelers to Iran are financially above average and, as Question 12 reveals, the amount of money they have spent in Iran is on the average about $850. However, in their comments, they demonstrated themselves to be knowledgeable about the amount of money they spend. It should not be taken for granted that American tourists are rich and, therefore, should be taken advantage of or charged a high price! Question 4: Educational level N9; i Below high school 9 2.4 High school diploma 39 10.4 Undergraduate 48 12.8 Graduate 180 50.8 Postgraduate 92 24.5 No answer 6 1.6 It is very interesting that over 81 percent of the respondents were college graduates or undergraduates. This is significant from the cultural and social point of view. 75 American travelers to Iran possess a high level of educa— tion and are therefore beneficial to Iran in terms of their cultural contributions to the country. Question 5: Have you traveled to Iran? Yes NO No. g 347 82.7 27 7.2 Responses to this question indicate that 347 out of 374 peOple who obtained visas to Iran actually made the trip. Only 27 people who had planned such a trip could not make it, for reasons that are explained in the follow- ing questions. bknnzof them, however, expressed a desire to make the trip at a later date. Question 6: If "No," had you planned to travel to Iran? Yes No No. § 27 100 0 0 Question 7: If you hadgplanned to travel to Iran but changed ygur plans, which of the following is the reason for this change? Lack of hotel accommodations Lack of security in the area Personal reasons Other No. g 15 55.5 0.0 2 7.4 10 44.0 The shortage of hotel accommodations is so acute that 55.5 percent of those who did not travel to Iran had 76 had to cancel their trips because of the lack of hotel accommodations. Qgestion 8: What is the main reason that you felt Iran would be an interesting destination? 191. 2 Historical aspects 243 65.9 Interesting peOple 132 35.3 Shopping 42 11.2 New develOpments 39 10.4 Business 15 4.0 Other reasons explained: "Persian friends who had visited U.S." "Art and culture" "Had heard so many stories about Persia and its history" "To visit friends and relatives" "Buying rugs" "Different way of living" "Employment" "Diversification and growth" "Political study" "Attractive and interesting country" "Current events, oil interest" "Progress and pOpularity" "Invited to teach there" "To see what I had read about in geography books" "A different way of life" A major reason for Americans to visit Iran, as revealed by this study, is the historical and cultural back- ground of the country. It is not surprising that with the level of education eXpressed by Americans in this survey there was a strong tendency toward visiting archaeological and historical remains of ancient Persia, as well as meeting Iranian people and recognizing their culture. The answers to this question helped the investigator, who is interested in programs of education for tourism, to focus on history 77 and culture, present new cultural programs and tours, and promote new historical sights. Question 9: Time of the year you traveled to Iran. No. _ Spring 168 45.0 Summer 204 54.5 Fall 18 4.8 Winter 6 1.6 The reason for the inconsistency of figures for spring and summer as compared to fall and winter was explained under Methodology (p. 66). From here on, all questions were answered by the peOple who actually made their trip to Iran and tabulations are based on the total number of such tourists. Question 10: Length of stay in Iran. No. § Less than a week 78 20.8 One week 87 23.2 Over one week to two weeks 108 28'8 Over two weeks 99 26.4 The study revealed that the average length of stay of Americans in Iran is just under two weeks. Compared to the average length of stay of all nationalities who traveled to Iran during 1974, which is less than six days, Americans on the average have stayed in Iran twice as long as the average for all other tourists. This is an important factor in considering what Americans have suggested for the improvement of tourist services in Iran and what ought to 78 be done in terms of the educational programs for tourism on the basis of this study. Question 11: Places visited in the country. _No_- 5. Tehran 348 93.0 Isfahan 213 57.0 Shiraz 198 53.0 Persepolis 78 20.8 Caspian 27 7.2 Abadan 12 3.2 Mashad 12 3.2 Other places 78 20.8 Among other places mentioned by respondents are the following, listed in order of importance: Tabriz, Kerman, Ghom (Qum), Hamadan, Kermanshah, Kashan, Nain, Bushehr, Kharg Island, Ahwaz, Ghazvin, Haft Tapeh, Khurramshahr, Arak, Bandar Abbas. Three major cities--Tehran, Isfahan, and Shiraz-- were the main destinations visited by American tourists. Other areas have attracted few such visitors. The reason could very well lie in the fact that in promotional pro- grams not enough emphasis has been placed on other areas. Thus it would be safe to say that the problems cited by respondents refer to the three cities rather than the whole country. Question 12: Approximate amount of money you spent in Iran. No. g Below $200 58 12.8 $201-500 81 24.3 $501-1000 69 18.4 Over $1000 99 26.4 No answer 83 23.0 79 Question 13: How do you rate your trip experience to Iran? 1195. 5 Very good 210 56.1 Satisfactory 72 19.2 Just fair 53 14.1 Bad 21 5.6 Very bad 7 1.8 Reasons given for this response: a. Favorable remarks "The Intercontinental Hotel was very accommodating although we had no reservations. Historically and cur- rently your country is very interesting." "Interesting sightseeing." "Beautiful country." "Thought Isfahan one of the most beautiful cities ever visited-—found the peOple very friendly throughout." "Warm people, fascinating country." "I was with great people, most English, and we had a marvelous time." "A very educational experience, I enjoyed myself thoroughly." "Interesting, friendly people." "Very interesting country." "Food was excellent, everyone was very nice." "Hospitality excellent." "People very friendly and educated, general effort to improve standard of living." "The whole experience fascinating." "My husband and I have been well prepared in art, his- tory, culture of Iran and traveled on our own; we did enjoy every day." "It was really educational." 80 "Very different to what I anticipated. Most peOple were very helpful and very cheerful; both younger and older generations." "Enjoyed it all." "Isfahan and especially the Shah Abbas Hotel I consider the Pearl of Iran. It represents Persia to me. Shop- ping, people and photography are superb." "We liked everything about Iran." "Business prospects good." "I was the guest of very hospitable friends and through contacts I experienced many exciting native things. A very flavorful and colorful country." "Isfahan was delightful, beautiful hotel, Shah Abbas." "I felt the historical mosques were beautiful and your modes for development were excellent and in some instances far ahead of ours." "Enjoyed the people we were staying with and the sightseeing trips that we took." "PeOple helpful, conditions good." "Seeing this ancient country with great archaeological sites, architecture and countryside, at this particular moment in history." "It was a different world to me, and very interesting." "Thoroughly enjoyed visit and peOple." "I was entertained royally by friends." "Delighted with the country." "Everyone was very nice, experience exciting, food was excellent." "Although living in Tehran was somewhat difficult, I found the people I met to be the most helpful and friendliest." "The atmosphere is unique and the peOple hospitable beyond words." 81 "I had a marvelous visit with my relatives and their friends." "Hospitable treatment by students and professional contacts." "The past, present and future have great appeal." "It was the first time that I had ever been out of the U.S., and Iran was something new and interesting for me." b. Unfavorable remarks "Unsatisfactory hotel accommodation (Commodore).” "Lack of service." "No hotel room, I slept in sauna room for two nights." "Lack of hotels, poor service--1iving in Tehran was difficult." "Tehran airport took 5 cans of juice from me, never gave them back to me." "At Tehran airport, a man took my personal bottle of gin and put it in his pocket." "Service in hotel and taxis were bad." "The place was dirty, the people were all out to take advantage." "Hotel accommodation totally unavailable, no night recreation." "Tehran was a horror, dirty, terrible food, peOple with hands out." "It is impossible for foreigners to use public trans- portation." "Cheating taxis in Tehran." "Hotel accommodation very difficult in Tehran and Shiraz; help of local friends necessary." "Heavy traffic, crowded hotels make Tehran uncomfortable." 82 "Terrible accommodations--only fair food, poor airline service, discourteous hotel clerks." "Appointments were cancelled with little regard to inconvenience to me. General attitude of arrogance on part of peOple who were there to help or be of service." "Found telephone service poor and many streets very dirty." "Poor hotel accommodations, difficult to get around." "Denial of prepaid accommodations and shunted into filthy, unmade rooms. Trying to secure cooperation of management to clean up bath and change beds was met with surly resistance." Over 75 percent of the visitors to Iran in this survey rated their trip experience as "very good" or "satisfactory." On the other hand, only 7.4 percent had "bad" or "very bad" experiences. This proves the fact that three out of four tourists have been pleased with their trip experience. It also reveals, however, that a number of the respondents were dissatisfied with their visit to Iran. Their comments, which reflect reasons for the above ratings, are helpful in setting up educational programs for tourism because they reveal the strengths and weaknesses of tourism in Iran. 83 Question 14: How did you find service in hotels, restau- rants, coffee shops, public transportation, stores, and museums? V. Good Good Fair Bad V. Bad Qaggggy_ No. % 1km % No. % Ikx % No. % Hotels 150 40.1 93 24.8 61 16.3 24 6.4 15 4.0 Restaurants 96 25.6 138 36.8 51 13.6 16 4.2 6 1.6 Coffee ShOps 57 15.2 90 24.0 59 15.7 21 5.6 0 0.0 Public Transport. 9 2.4 39 10.4 71 18.9 83 22.1 148 40.0 Stores 105 28.5 107 28.6 73 19.5 3 0.8 0 0.0 Museums 134 35.8 93 24.8 24 6.4 6 1.6 3 0.8 A comparison was made between the category of the hotel where the respondent had stayed and his comments. It was found that a strong positive correlation existed between the class of the hotel and the kind of comment expressed; i.e., the lower the class of the hotel the less favorable the comment. Americans were generally pleased with the deluxe and four-star hotels. They generally expressed dissatisfaction with hotels of lower classification, although only about 15 percent of them stayed in such hotels. Question 15: How would you rate service as a factor in the overall satisfaction from your visit? No. g Very significant 129 34.4 Significant 177 47.3 Insignificant 57 15.2 The figures reveal that there is a strong demand for good service. Almost 82 percent of the respondents indi- cated that service played an important part in their trip. 84 Good service is probably taken for granted when one is ready to compensate for it, and therefore it need not be overemphasized. It should be noted, however, that only 15.2 percent of the Americans questioned in this study showed apparent indifference toward service, but they would probably prefer good service. Question 16: Did you find service in Iran worse than other countries you have visited? No. _§ Yes 135 36.0 No 226 60.4 The reason for asking this question was to find out how Iran compares to other countries of the world in terms of tourist services, from the standpoint of American visitors. It is generally believed that American tourists to Iran have already traveled to other parts of the world before they decide to make a trip to Iran. The data revealed that 36 percent of the respondents found service in Iran worse than in other countries they had visited. Question 17: If the answer to the above is "Yes," what are the major problems? No. § Language barrier/communication 72 53.3 Lack of manners 48 35.5 Untrained personnel 75 20.0 Personnel not hospitable 33 24.4 Poor management 92 70.3 Poor personal appearance & hygiene 51 13 . 6 Personnel being too slow 90 66.6 Personnel not being honest 59 43.7 85 The data presented here are based on positive answers to the preceding question. Only those who marked the preceding question "Yes" answered this question. Here, the presumption was that service in Iran was worse than in other countries the tourist had Visited; the problems were cited. Among major problems, "poor management" ranked number one and "personnel being too slow" came next. Most respondents checked more than one item in answer to this question. Question 18: What do you think should be emphasized in the educational programs for the service industry in Iran? 52-. 5 Etiquette and manners 78 20.8 Technical aspects 119 31.0 Ethics and morality 81 21.6 Personal neatness/appearance 75 20.0 Need for speed 111 29.4 Your suggestion: "Serving the tourist should come first, then helping the fellow—countrymen." "Your monetary assets of course, history needs more emphasis." "Guides indifferent, stalled to pass time." "Post hotel rates and taxi rates and make them stick to it." "More language training in English and French." "Communication and more readily available information for getting around." "More exposure to the western mode of dining, except, of course, the scene is a typical Persian setting." "Quick English course." 86 "In most cases found service more than adequate. I would hate to see Iran more modernized." "Primary importance language, modernization of facili- ties to maximize efficiency. A greater awareness needed of job responsibilities. Service personnel generally apathetic, disinterested." "Perhaps education of personnel on foreign customs so that demands and requests made by customers don't seem so strange and unusual." "A woman traveling alone is still unusual in Iran." "Do give the tour programs a local flavor, we do not want a typical U.S. service which many times is bad." "My experience was good, no real suggestion." "More flexibility for keeping museums Open." "Something must be done for facilities in Tehran Airport especially." "Train them to understand needs of foreign travelers." "How about giving a tourist leaving the country a short questionnaire to be sent to a neutral agency." "Please care for your beggars." "Attitude of all people in service business is very bad." "There is an obvious need for more and better education and less discrimination." "Interest in and consideration of guest's comfort and welfare." "Policy on gratuities must be clarified. Many employees say, 'The 15 percent goes to management.'" "As an American, I probably over-emphasize speed." "More general concern for overall welfare and problems of foreigners." "Vocational programs developed for teaching hotel, restaurant management, and drivers education." "Efficiency and sanitation." 87 "In U.S.A. people expect service to the point that they want to be treated like spoiled children, especially if they are Spending money." "Do what is asked promptly. Have desk clerks who can translate English to Farsi for personnel not speaking English. Give the people something to smile about." "Send hotel managers to Switzerland for training then set up a school or schools in Iran to properly train all levels of hotel staff." "Better classes in English language used for jobs should be given, also better hygiene with regard to food, bath- rooms and general cleanliness of rooms." "Language. I am a linguist and speak English, French, Italian, Spanish and Hebrew. I was disappointed and very frustrated by the fact that peOple with whom tour- ists come into contact do not speak any European lan- guages. I am not demanding that Iranians all learn English to cater to tourists. Rather they should learn at least one Western language--the average American tourist will not tolerate tourism personnel who do not speak English. I feel more strongly about this than any other with regard to improvement in tourist services." In this question all the respondents who had visited Iran expressed their opinions on what should be emphasized in educational programs for tourism. "Technical aspects" and "need for Speed" were the most important topics they mentioned. A number of suggestions were also made, all of which are considered in the following chapter. Question 19: How did you like the food in restaurants? No. i Excellent 115 30.7 Good 134 35.8 Fair 63 16 8 Bad 31 8 3 88 Negative comments about food: "Would like it cleaner." "Would suggest chefs prepare foods as requested; for example: I like my lamb chops well-done, very well- done, etc." "Unfamiliar with food." "Varied depending on place. Hotels like International had a good restaurant, and Shah Abbas was excellent. Other places on a scale down. . . ." "In large cities, the expensive restaurants are excel- lent. Outside these cities God help the foreigners; no refrigeration, no sanitation." "Too much emphasis on shish kebab, not enough variety." "Need to be educated about the difficult dishes other than kebabs that are available." "They are not too sanitary about food in places." "Getting sick from dirty food in Sheraton was not a good experience. The caviar is excellent, the hygiene in Tehran a joke!" "Food is bad, didn't like the food and the way it was handled." "Hotel coffee shops and diShes were dirty, slow service." "So bad I couldn't eat." "Variety limited, lack of variety." "Poorly prepared, mostly." "Food was good, only the service mostly indifferent. The Persian background is missing in many places to bring out the dishes in the proper atmosphere. I liked the very small places because people were themselves--Persian. Every hotel should have a Persian room and serve only original dishes." "Tasteless, poorly prepared and served." "Slow service, not much variety, most 'Western' res- taurants." 89 "Mold on a sandwich in Tehran. Generally not much variety." "Your native good food like fesenjan, shirin polo etc. should be more available and advertised." "Very limited menus. Amazing similarity from restau- rant to restaurantq Chickenkievsky, chicken shishlick, pepper steak found everywhere. Menus haven't changed in the seven years I've been traveling to Iran. Break- fast and lunch choices are limited." Food is a major element in tourism and plays an important part in one's satisfaction from a trip. The data obtained here showed that 66.5 percent of the American respondents found food in Iran to be "excellent" or "good." Apart from this questionnaire, the author has received many good comments from Americans about Persian dishes. The long-grain rice from the Caspian area and the caviar have Often been admired. However, a lot of dissatisfaction has also been expressed. Improvements should be made in the areas of food sanitation and preparation, culinary tech- niques, food handling, promptness of service, variety in menus, and presenting more national and local food to visitors. Question 20: How did you fing accommodation facilities such as beds, bathrooms, showers, heat, etc.? No. 3 Satisfactory 255 68.2 Unsatisfactory 98 26.2 As mentioned under Question 14, most of the respon- dents who stayed at three-star or lower category hotels were dissatisfied with their accommodation facilities. 90 Therefore, higher emphasis should be placed on improvement of facilities in lower class accommodations, as this study suggests. Question 21: What class hotel did you stay at? m1 _ Deluxe 224 60.0 Four-star 78 20.8 Three-star 28 7.4 Two-star 10 2.6 One-star 10 2.6 Tourist inn 9 2.4 Other 15 4 0 Question 22: Did you use the services of a travel agent in Iran? No. g Yes 144 38.5 No 213 57.0 Although over half of the American visitors to Iran had not used the services of a travel agent in the country, 38.5 percent had in fact used such services. Over 60 percent of those who had used the agents expressed satisfaction with the services they had received. Others were unsatis- fied; the major problems they cited were inadequacy of services, communication, unavailability of hotel rooms, dishonesty of agents, and overcharging. 91 Question 23: If the answer is "Yes," how would you rate the agent's services? No. i Excellent 33 22.9 Good 54 37.5 Fair 30 20.8 Bad 9 6.2 If only Fair/Bad, please explain: "Not honest--he tried to sell a half-day tour as a full-day. Agents charged for services, then you had to pay again as tips included for luggate etc. Then tips were asked for again." "They wanted you to take only what they suggested even above your own wishes." "He gave an estimated charge of twice the actual cost and if we had paid this, he would have kept the extra money, about $400." "I used American Express/Near East Tours in Tehran and Shiraz. In Tehran they refused to make neces- sary calls to bus depots and for railroad stations in order to inquire as to schedules and fares. I would have called myself but could not master Farsi in two weeks and had to rely on travel agents for all the little intricacies of my trip. I found that such reliance was annoying, disappointing and intol— erable. In Shiraz I could not find a person in any travel agency besides American Express who spoke English or French. How can you permit that?" "Hotel room not properly confirmed in Shiraz. We were forced to stay at Persepolis." Question 24: Did you use a professional guide? No. i Yes 169 45.1 No 148 39.5 Here again more than half of the respondents had used a professional guide in Iran and, as revealed in the 92 next question, 84 percent of the tourists who had had a guide felt satisfied with the services received. However, 16 percent were not satisfied and indicated their problems. It seems quite obvious that in the educational programs for tourism, tourist guides should receive special attention because of the fact that they are in direct contact with tourists. Question 25: If the answer is "Yes,' services rendered to you? how didgyou like the No. § Satisfactory 142 84 Unsatisfactory 27 16 If unsatisfactory, what did you generally_dislike about your guide: "Ill-informed, unable to answer questions, bored with job." - "Varied, some were very good, some were not." "Said not interested in tourism--have enough money from oil, and treated us that way." "I felt rushed in and out of places too quickly to see anything and while riding from place to place; no gen- eral information about the town was given to make tour more informative." "Tehran--lack of interest, knowledge very mixed and tended to confuse us." "Difficulty in understanding their English and they did not seem to be very well informed--just read museum signs and so forth." "Guides have to be further trained." 93 Question 26: What did you like most about Iran? No_- 5 Climate 93 24.8 People 186 49.7 Shopping 134 35.8 Sights 255 68.1 Other 102 27.2 Comments: "Persepolis surpasses most available sights, mosques magnificent." "I loved Iran--all of it and everyone." "People are very friendly and helpful to tourists." "Architecture, art, personal contacts, life in bazaars, etc." "All of my experiences were pleasant. Everyone (except one stewardess) was very friendly." "2500 years of culture!" "Your beautiful roses and mosques, your brasswork, car- pets are exquisite. Persepolis and Tent City are fas- cinating. Your pistachios are good too. Enjoyed watch— ing the rug weaving." "The peOple I met were very nice." "Persian type food was excellent." "Food, night life, diversity, countryside, activities, polo, horse racing, arts and crafts, urban planning in new sections, general cleanliness of major cities, and the supermarkets." "Richness of history and culture, wealth of archaeologi- cal places." "Activity and development and expansion of universities." "The beauty of the mountain areas out of the cities, the Opportunity to see something of the nomadic tribes, the beauty of the mosques." "Everything, especially the Shah Abbas Hotel." 94 "Your own food, not the bad imitation of the Western food (although your imitation was better than most). Do what you do well. Work on the meat in the chelokebab, not how good your pizzas are." "I was particularly impressed with social and cultural aspects involved in shOpping for carpets." "Food is very good." "Met a great deal of respect from many people." "The peOple are for the most part kind and gentle. Seldom does one meet a peOple so generous." "Ins very dynamic, rapid transformation from a rela- tively underdeveloped to a modern, progressive, highly developed country." "PeOple are great--friendly and helpful--much like U.S.A. Shopping in the bazaar was a great adventure." "PeOple's respect and admiration for the Shah and his family. Also, the attempt to cut down inflation." "The bazaars, mosques, housing, parks, etc. were all very interesting to me but the peOple's friendly accep— tance of me was the best." "Everything--it was great." "General progressive attitude. Attempt to establish a green belt in Tehran area." "Pasargad, Persepolis and Isfahan were magnificent." "Loved practically every aspect." Responses to this question were a reassurance of what was revealed in Question 8, in which the tourists were asked why they thought Iran would be an interesting desti- nation. Sights and people were again the two major con- cerns for American visitors. Shopping was also a subject of interest to them. They explained what they really liked about Iran. Their comments are very valuable because they _4. ‘LA_ 95 explicitly tell what the tourists have beheld, as well as their impressions and experiences. Question 27: What did you like least about Iran? No__-_ 5 Inflation 90 24.0 Cheating 78 20.8 Traffic 264 70.5 People 15 4.0 Other 78 20.8 Comments on dislikes: "Inflation will no doubt grow worse." "Not seeing what I had paid to see." "Traffic was a bit of a problem in Iran during my first few days, much heavier than I am accustomed to in the U.S." "We were told our hotel would be $28 per day for two. Instead, when ready to leave, they charged us $45 per day. Also taxi was to be 250 rials, instead he charged us 500 rials." "Driver education is desperately needed." "Difficulty getting around Tehran, lack of adequate information--terrib1e traffic." "Traffic, especially in Tehran." "Inflation astronomical between first and second visit to country '72-'75." "Lack of air conditioning in homes, stores, cars, buses, etc." "Air pollution is a very serious problem in Tehran." "PeOple made me feel most uncomfortable and afraid." "Congestion at airports and customs." "Constant precautions necessary against contaminated food and water." 96 "Difficulty with airline reservation and service." "You take your life in your hands driving in Tehran and to the Caspian Sea; the worst thing is lack of sanitation." "Dirt and pollution in Tehran, felt ill from fumes. Attitude of many merchants in bazaar, most Americans feel more comfortable with fixed prices." "Iranian idea of how to handle a car or bus creates terror in the heart of any westerner." "Difficulty in communication with drivers and having them go to the correct destination." "Traffic is horrible." "Open sewers and rudeness of the men. I was sick of being treated like a whore." "Cheating in dinner checks." "Drivers scare the person to death." "Traffic was dreadful." "Unsanitary conditions." "Lack of real facilities for tourists--all facilities being taken by businessmen." "A great many egocentric people, especially in lower government positions." "Air pollution is Oppressive in Tehran." "The rigid class system is of course distressing." "The ethics in the bazaars—-too much bargaining." "It was terrible, I have never seen anything so unorgan- ized in my life. I was nervous every time I got into a car or crossed the street. Folks there litter too much." "Traffic in Tehran has been getting progressively worse, automobile smog is as bad as worst cities of U.S.A. Accommodations in non-deluxe hotels are not too com- fortable and reservations are hard to get." 97 "It is very difficult for a tourist to develop confidence in store prices/quality." "More roads--especially thruways are needed." "Difficulty in getting hotel and airline accommodations. Need to clean up city." "Telephone service--difficulty in getting information." "Organization just bad if you are just a tourist." "The philoSOphy regarding transportation seemed to be survival of the fittest! Also accessibility of restroom facilities and the sanitation standards of those which did exist seemed to be radically different from that to which I am accustomed." "Crossing the street in Tehran was an experience, more red lights and pedestrian crossings, I think, are needed. I also found things very expensive. Telephone commu- nication is not good." "Inability of people who are placed in a position to meet tourists to speak either English or French, prob- ably the two most commonly used travel languages. I can't speak for the Europeans but I don't think Ameri— cans would tolerate such ridiculousness. The future of Iranian tourist industry lies in the ability of the Iranians to learn EurOpean languages to aid the tourists who do come." "The planification of the city of Tehran." "Traffic in Tehran terrible. Cabs and porters in air- port take advantage of strangers. Paid $5.00 airport to hotel and $10.00 hotel to airport for same distance." "Lack of drinking water safe for Westerners." "My inability to communicate with store owners and taxi drivers, even though I speak several languages. Also the feeling that I always had to check prices and count money because Americans are always told higher prices." "Air travel was a job because of uncertainty of a seat ticket; agents do not advise of the high demand and need for air reservations." "Taxi drivers, airport porters, etc. always trying to hustle the traveler." 98 The one factor most disliked by Americans was traf- fic. It is true: Traffic is a big issue in Tehran and some of the other major cities of Iran. The capital city has over half a million motor vehicles, and their number is increasing rapidly. The construction of the new subway system in Tehran might prove useful in eliminating the traf- fic problem. But, in the short run, the only solution would be to educate peOple to obey traffic laws and to be con- siderate in driving. This, of course, requires special 5; planning for the education of the general public, which is beyond the sc0pe of this document. "Cheating" and "inflation" are the other major tourist problems, both of which are considered in Chapter III. Question 28: Do you think you would ever want to go back? No. 3 Yes 255 68.1 No 54 14.4 Please explain. Positive answers: "I would even like to live in Tehran and learn more of the history and see your develOpment." "To visit more historical sites." "I had a very lovely time in Iran and would Very much like to go back. I did not have time (3 weeks) to see all I really wanted to see." "Many things I would still like to see." "Time being too short, I could not see all the places I wanted to visit." 99 "I always enjoy returning to a place where I have had a good vacation." "I would like to visit other parts of country not yet seen." "To shop." "I would like to see more of this country." "I would like to go to Hamedan, etc. I also love a carpet I bought in Isfahan. Like to look at it and feel it." "We did not spend enough time in any city to truly see it." "Isfahan--anytime!!" "Enjoyed my visit." "Definitely will be returning soon and often." "I shall return in October." "For business purposes." "Favorably impressed." "I would particularly like to go to Kerman and Bam to see some of the out-of-the-way places I missed." "I would like to see all the towns I have visited except Tehran." "I would like to see the rest of country." "I like the country and the Persians." "We enjoyed visit." "Rich historical sights." "It's a great country with much opportunity for business and sightseeing." "There is so much to see and so many chances to be part of this fantastic development." "Iran to me is like an adventure." "Have been invited to return and probably will." 100 "I would like to live and work in Iran for a time." "I'll be back one day to visit Shiraz, Persepolis, etc." "I miss the peOple a lot and I would really like to see them again." "Conditional "Yes," not for vacation." "Opportunities for the American businessman appear to be excellent." "I will want to see the historic places like Persepolis and Isfahan." "I'll be back in Iran early November '75." "If the Opportunity arose I would not hesitate to return to Iran." "Should like to see the progress Iran is making." "Enjoyed it very much." "I lived with a family for the summer, and I would like to visit them." "I hope to return. Iran is a great and fascinating free country." "Very impressed with what I saw and would like to see some of the other sights--and the growth, in the country.’ "I found it a warm, lovely country." "I really enjoyed my stay there. It was a very pleasur- able experience." "There are many historical sites in areas that I was unable to visit that I would like to visit." "More exploring but in your cooler season." "There were many places I didn't get to see and next time I'll be able to plan my trip better." "I don't see the Opportunity, but certainly wouldn't be adverse to the privilege should it arise." 101 Negative answers: "At present my feeling would not be to ever return." "Once is enough at the present." "Not until overcrowding is under control, which means not in near future." "I have seen that which was of interest to me." "Lack of hospitality on part of peOple." "Maybe in a few years after plenty of preparation and good hotel reservations." "Sightseeing objectives accomplished." It is good to know that over 68 percent of the respondents would want to go back to Iran. Perhaps the main objective of all the efforts to keep visitors satisfied with their trip experience is to get them to return to the same country. A group of people comprising 14.4 percent of the visitors in the sample said they would not want to go back to Iran. Therefore most of the attention in tourism plan- ning should be focused on this group so that problems can be detected and remedied. Comments Comments About Services Received Favorable: "I found hotels very satisfactory, clean and good service." 102 "Hotel service was very good, good food, very pleasant services. Taxis are good if you can get one in the first place." "We understand that people have had bad experience at the airport, but our treatment was good." "We were very well taken care of except a few times we needed a taxi. That situation was impossible." "Generally--the services were satisfactory. In Persepolis the Inter-Continental Hotel and its services were really excellent." "I was quite satisfied with the services I received." "I have traveled quite a bit and I found Iran as good or better than most countries I have visited. When I wasn't sure that my husband knew what flight I was on a very nice Iranian gentleman was willing to help me even though he was anxious to see his own family. Luckily my husband was there." "We were very conscious of being most selective in our activities so that our prOposed "risks" were outweighed by the proposed satisfaction derived from the activity. The two most limiting factors were all the real or imagined consequences of becoming involved in traffic and sanitation situations which did not meet our expec- tations." "The Inter-Continental was terrific. Next time I hOpe there would be more waiters in the various restaurants at the hotel." Unfavorable: "Tourists are not felt welcome at hotels, they prefer business peOple to tourists. Dishonesty of people was our worst problem. Tourists are being taken advantage of." "Your taxi drivers are too reckless." "On Iran Air we ran out of water in the washrooms. I traveled economy class, but noticed that the chief air hostess would let Iranians use the washrooms in first class but would not let me use it. I think it should have been the same for everyone." 103 "It would help to communicate with staff. Poor manage- ment in hotels leads to neglect--showers dripping, water leaking from ceiling. Poor management in restaurant leads to chaos. Lack of traffic control leads to con- gestion and traffic accidents. Questionable integrity of shOp keepers. Disorganization at airports." "You are aware of serious lack of good hotel rooms. We were fortunate to have_friends." "Although we had confirmed reservations it was not honored at Commodore." "Taxi system bad--had piling in with five strangers which is not easy to get used to." "Taxi situation very bad. Airport luggage system bad." "Taxis are useless. It is difficult to get one and they drive like maniacs." "Few taxis in Iran." "It will take many years to improve your hotels. The peOple know that everyone wants the Shah's oil money and the hotels can always pack in business people and cheat, etc." "Indifferent clerks in good stores of Tehran, poor responsiveness. Hotel situation bad in Tehran. Atti- tude bad at airport." "Iran Air is the worst air line I have ever flown on. It is an embarrassment for you to have such unattractive, stupid personnel and degrading for the passengers. If service doesn't improve I would advise my friends to stay in London and forget about Tehran." "Taxi situation in Tehran is impossible." "More taxis and stricter enforcement of traffic regu- lations." "My trip started poorly when I got to Tehran only to find out that my confirmed reservation was no good. I had to put up with a mattress on the floor of a meeting room." "The Commodore in Tehran is simply not a good hotel. The air-conditioning didn't work. The room service was terrible. The dining room was mediocre." 104 "The Hotel Inter-Continental is a disgrace. An expen- sive hotel--poor food--poor and bad-mannered waiters --and also unclean." "I have found all services acceptable except I have been cheated many times by taxi drivers since I do not speak Persian." "The only problem I encountered was when I paid my food bill to the waiters, at the hOtels where I stayed. If they thought I could not understand the money very well they would try to take more than the bill." "The hotel people were quite kind but sometimes unable to find out what I wanted due to language barrier. Taxi drivers were rude and tried to charge me more because I was a tourist and didn't know Farsi. The tours given by national tourist board are good, but sometimes try to show too much so that nothing is really enjoyed." "In past years, most Americans traveled on charters and group tours. Lately we are beginning to travel on our own and if you want us you should be prepared to handle us and the problems with which we come. You can't imagine how frustrating it is to try to ask directions in Shiras for example to find the bus to Takhte--Jamshid and behold 10 different things all in sign language, neither the police, the bus depot agents or travel agents speak anything but Farsi!" One of our guides wanted a tip after we had already paid him well. The travel agent tried to swindle us, as I have already mentioned. The hotel service was some- times unreasonably slow." "Hotels are very expensive--yet accommodations and ser- vices and food are poor--e.g. no cold sodas available-- only beer. Waiters must be poorly paid because their apparel is shoddy. Rooms are barely clean with few luxuries. I paid $30 a night for a room worth about $15. "Traffic is monumental. Outside of hotels, it is vir- tually impossible to find a taxi." "I was told to avoid salad--fresh greens not washed for us. And in summer no fish--lack of refrigeration." "Making hotel reservations was difficult; hotel cancelled a confirmed reservation upon arrival in Tehran." 105 "The Iranians I met in Tehran, with the exception of high school students, seemed wary of Americans and left me feeling alien and unwelcome." "Improve variety on menus. Review rating more often. Establish some kind of natural control." "Need more accommodation guides." "Better taxi service and published pricing." "Perhaps bilingual signs in public places. Service was generally good. Considering the time you have had to come into the 20th century, you have done a tremendous job. Don't westernize your service personnel. Let them keep most of their eastern habits except the tiny lack of honesty. Nothing would be worse than an entirely western world. Be an original ygu with slight modifica- tion not a bad imitation of us." "Travel agents seem impossible; no tickets, no arrange- ments, they did have airline schedules, but nothing could be arranged by phone." "Some further training of hotel personnel. Improve taxi service. You need more hotels at moderate prices." "Have more taxis at the airport. Now you can't take a taxi by yourself. You have to share it with others." "Fixed prices and honesty." "Please don't cater to the tourist so much that Iran becomes another Americanized tourist trap." "I would like to see more disciplined driving in Tehran." "I think the hotels could explain the unusual taxi situ- ation and give visitors an idea of how they can get around and what the cost should be." "More deluxe hotel accommodations." "Hotels should honor reservations!!" "English—speaking telephone assistance; availability of English—speaking drivers connected to the hotels." "Learn English--be more efficient, care about peOple. Stop peOple hollering for tips just because they touch something." 106 "Better tourist information is needed. It is very dif— ficult to get correct information about location and times for such obvious tourist attractions as museums." "Build more hotels. Set taxi rates and have bus ser- vice to hotels." "Have peOple sent to good hotel schools in other coun- tries so they can return to train their own. Get Germans, Swiss, Swedes to train in how to clean. Get Germans, Swiss, Swedes and Americans to train how to build and restore. Even with the new things they are still being done in a backward fashion." "Ask hotels to provide information about apprOpriate taxi cab fares. Revise menus to include broader range of choices and more diversity. For example, at the Park Hotel the following sandwiches are available on dry bread, chicken, ham, cheese, steak. Breakfast choices are also limited." "Tehran needs more luxury hotel space. Several thousand rooms should be under construction right now to accommo- date future demand." "Hotels and restaurants should feature more Iranian cuisine rather than God-awful "continental" which is false. The only bad meals were those at the best hotels or very expensive restaurants which were trying to be French." "Have taxi drivers slow down when transporting people from airport to hotel. This may sound foolish to you but they damn near scared us to death." "The hotel situation would improve if more hotels were available. As it is now they know that people will tolerate any service just to get rooms which are booked months ahead. Best solution for such problems is a little competition." "Bottled water for purchase is unavailable--a definite tourist handicap." "I do not know of any nation and its people that can modernize and become a "major country" within a given generation (33 yrs.). Personally, I believe that if a nation and its citizenry are to "develop" and "mature," these processes will take time, not 25 or 50 years but 100 or 200 years. Assuming that this develOpment means a better and more fulfilling life for everyone, I 107 believe it is impossible for a nation to do this in 50 years, although it may have unlimited financial wealth. There is more to develOpment than just what money can buy." "Stress hygiene not only of personnel, but establish- ments as well. Deluxe establishments are good, but most ordinary places are terribly lacking in hygiene. Also, public places, especially streets or side streets are filthy, sometimes garbage is left in the streets. Honesty should also be stressed." "First, I want to congratulate you on the questionnaire. It's very good. I was a market consultant, told indus- tries what should be emphasized in selling and also trained salesmen in psychological selling, morale, etc. That is why I was interested in this reply. I think you should sell what you have, and what others don't have. Sell 'Persia," romantic, historic 'Nights of Arabia' theme. Iran, a new oil country, is not inter- esting to tourists. This should be kept in mind at all times. Push native foods, Persian atmosphere (not Iranian) in hotels. The Shah Abbas Hotel is a great credit--but tourists expect this everywhere in Iran. Your Farsi language is very artistic, the writing that is. It's decorative and should be used on anything that the tourist sees." Recommendations on Educational Programs "The concierge should know his job depends on serving the tourists. I will assume he had made an honest mistake in cashing travelers check." "I needed more people to speak English for me. French seems to be your alternative, and my poor French was worthless." "Train your people to be more kind and helpful to tour- ists, to be honest and not to take advantage of them. Forbid any begging by children or adults." "In restaurants, especially those catering to westerners, the staff should be told not to argue or discipline another staff member in front of diners. This was very distracting--and it happened more than once." 108 "It will take a while to train tOp-notch service person- nel, as in countries like England they have had people in service jobs for generations. Iran is getting used to the huge influx of tourists and businessmen and women. The spirit is there, it will evolve." "Intensive foreign language courses particularly for restaurant personnel and taxi drivers. Greater mana— gerial discipline and knowledge of responsibility, i.e. interest and exactness in execution." "Work on the attitude of service peOple. They were uni- versally surly or nasty and no one ever said 'thank you' even for a generous tip." "There are organization problems." "Teach them speed and cleanliness." "Improve training of airport personnel, same for museums." "Learn that to be accommodating and polite to visitors is not demeaning." "Teach personnel in hotels pride in their work. They are slow and uneducated and rude for no reason. If Reza Fallah were not my host I am sure my reservation at Hilton would not have been honored. The dry cleaner would not have apologized for ruining my clothes and I would have a miserable time." "Perhaps picture training books on proper techniques." "More training in English language." "Contact the Hilton, Sheraton and International people to set up training schools." "Waiters should try to be more patient with non-Farsi speaking clients." "Give it to everyone, not just service personnel. Use audio-visual training aids." "I think a good education program would be wonderful and teach the peOple how the peOple of the world expect to be treated." 109 "Teach them that Americans expect that their dollars are paid for service, not for subservience. Although you have a seller's market, the Americans are not will- ing to put up with dirt and rudeness and dishonesty." "Airport problems should be solved." "To be more efficient and to listen. Improve mainten- ance and housekeeping." "It would help if they, at least, did not give you the idea they were doing you a favor even when you tip well." "Hand out questionnaires similar to this one to be filled out after guest leaves the establishment and to be sent to a neutral supervisory board rather than to the establishment." "Iran is the greatest and most worthwhile Near Eastern country to visit and I say this having lived there for four years. However, it can never develop tourist industry until: 1. Fixed prices are installed and adhered to in hotels and taxis, etc. 2. Hotel rooms unavilable in Tehran, more rooms are made available. A 3. Service in and out of the country by air is improved. None of the above can be taught at a training school." "Service personnel should be motivated so that they wish to please the guest--not always the case." "Tell them that the nicer, friendlier and more effi- cient they are they will earn more on tips." "Teach them to combine efficiency and courtesy." "Emphasis placed on American tastes and expectations (i.e., water with meals, prompt service, clean linen)." "If new hotels can get people as well trained as the employees of the Tehran Hilton or Intercontinental, all will be well." "Nothing but the obvious--treat us fair. I enclose one of the columns I did on my return. I did others but am not able to find copies about. This is just to prove that we were not babes in woods at Tehran. As newspaper editor and college professor, member of Pan Am's Clipper 110 Club, I travel VIP. And when my prepaid reservations at Parke were treated the way they were, we left within 24 hours and Pan Am got us to Rome--what a relief." "Emphasis on the importance of smiling and promptness-- a friendly manner." "Sudden wealth and huge business travel always have a tendency to deteriorate services, some stiff Swiss hotel training at this time would be good." "Although I had no difficulty in eating, it would be helpful for visitors to know what restaurants prepared their food for foreigners by using Roccal, etc." "Personal hygiene courses--deodorant, nails, hands, shoes, etc. Crash programs on table service, food preparation for waiters and hotel management." "Tell the peOple they have a great country and why!" "Learn some basic English. Smile. Be personally clean and neat. Perhaps the hours of work are too long." "Provide courses in other languages so that tourists not speaking Farsi will be able to communicate their needs and wants." "I feel that school English programs for regular stu- dents need improvement as youngsters seemed only able to say 'Hello,' 'Do you speak English,‘ 'How are you,’ but little else." "Perhaps a better understanding of the American strengths and weaknesses--so we won't be treated in some areas as creatures from another planet. "Only language. Teach them English or teach them French but teach them something so as not to place the burden on the tourist to learn Farsi. This will not discourage the younger, college-age tourist but will immediately turn off the older ones, the ones who would really bene- fit Iran, because they come with more money and are ready to spend more. The language barrier will only hurt Iran if something is not done soon." "Second language. Honesty--even in small matters. We left a box of pastries at desk--half gone on return." "Raise skill level and speed. Delays and cumbersome loading of Iran Air airplanes was frustrating." 111 "I am not accustomed to dining in enclosed restaurants with flies, cats and birds moving about the premises. Also, the easy accessibility of clean-looking and clean- smelling public restrooms which were maintained in good working order would, I believe, relieve a great deal of anxiety felt at least by tourists from the United States when traveling in Iran. Facilities are particularly lacking in shopping areas--thus we did not do much shopping." Would You Recommend Others to Travel to Iran and Why? Positive answers: "Yes. I enjoyed it." "Yes. I would recommend that they bring plenty of money. Your country is rich is history and graciousness, and I feel no anti-American feelings, and you are a new com- mercial center." "Probably, but perhaps only on a group tour." "Yes, because of the art and history of the country." "Yes, very interesting country, very historical." "Yes, but it seems that guided tours have too crowded schedules; I would recommend good preliminary prepara- tion and individual travel at proper pace to suit your taste and strength." "Yes, I feel anyone could learn a great many things about ancient and modern Iran from being there." "Yes, if they could by-pass Tehran." "To see your unique Hotel Shah Abbas. This is the sort of place a tourist expects to find in Persia." "Yes, but in cooler seasons. I would also suggest longer stay so one could see Shiraz, Persepolis and some other areas. What I saw in Tehran and Isfahan was fas- cinating." "Yes, it has a lot to offer." "Only if I thought they would be interested in the his- torical parts and the beautiful handicrafts." 112 "Yes, I already have. The tiles in the mosques in Isfahan are the most magnificent I've ever seen. The people are great and the shOpping is fun." "Yes--stay is most enjoyable and different from EurOpe or U.S.A. travel." "Yes, because it is interesting and very different from Europe or Oriental countries." "Absolutely, it's a fascinating country with something to offer everyone. Must be experienced to be believed." "Yes, it is a very old and interesting country." "Yes, but with local contacts." "Yes, its cultures are so different than the U.S. Its many historical sights." "Yes, because it is a fascinating and exciting country." "Yes, as a business community it is viable, historically and aesthetically pleasing for the tourist." "Yes, magnificent railroad trip from Ahwaz to Arak should be enjoyed." "I intend to personally be an ambassador for Iran. Next time I hope and plan to go to Persepolis, Isfahan, etc. I would not go in July next time. To relatives planning to go I suggest any time except July, due to heat." Beautiful developing country." "It is a wonderful experience to meet peOple of such a different aspect." "There is much of interest. PeOple are generally wel- coming and friendly." "Yes, to visit museums and historic areas." "A beautiful country with interesting history." "The experience and cultural differences are very inter- esting." "It is a remarkable experience. Very sympathetic to our culture. Loved Iran and want to go back New Year." "Definitely." 113 "It is an exciting country with much to see and do." "Yes, country is all beautiful especially Isfahan and Persepolis; people are generous." "Yes, broadened the experiences and life." "Yes it is interesting." "It is a different world." "One of the most important countries for ancient world and history." "Yes, it's a beautiful country." "A great deal to be seen and good buys in the stores." "Yes, because the architecture of ancient cities is beautiful." "Yes, only after ascertaining accommodation and facili- ties for them." "Hotel situation should be corrected, otherwise tour— ists will be diverted to other countries." "Yes, Iran is an area most of us know too little about-- all we read concerns oil and we don't get a true pic- ture of the fine peOple that make up your fascinating country. For this reason, I am learning to speak Farsi, and within the constraints of high air fares and limited accommodations, hOpe to make many visits to Iran." "Yes, because I believe Iran will rapidly become a world focal point." "It is a lovely experience. I enjoyed the peOple. The sights too. But I would recommend my friends to visit Tehran either in early fall or spring. "It's a beautiful place. There is much to do there yet as far as above is concerned, but growth there is rapid and I know that anyone visiting would be pleased." "I work for an airline and I have already encouraged many people to visit Iran. The experience is invaluable and unforgettable." "A rapidly changing and important country. They should see it before the past is completely lost." 565‘? If} 5 A. ‘00- '~. I , x-fi 5.; I 114 "Yes. It's relatively unknown. There are few tourists and the country is not spoiled by tourist commercialism as in Western EurOpe, South America and the Orient. There's a lot to see, weather is fine—-a little warm! Shopping is great, peOple nice. Iran is a land of contrasts, a land in change. East meets West. New meets Old. Iran is a melting pot of Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians and Hindus despite a Moslem majority. Iran is a country of the future." "Yes, because of the history, culture, people." "Yes. It provides insight into ancient Persian culture, and problems of underdeveloped/educated countries today." "Yes. Development of a middle class should make Iran a leading power in area in a few years. History is spec- tacular." "Yes-~pe0ple and countryside and mosques are lovely." "Yes, I would most definitely recommend visiting Iran particularly staying at the Shah Abbas Hotel and visit- ing the bazaar in Isfahan with all of its handicrafts. I would recommend that everyone shop for a carpet even if not initially planning to purchase one. My sister did some bargaining for us; otherwise, all purchases were made at stores with fair and fixed prices." "Yes. I think they would enjoy seeing the country which is by culture different from ours, yet warm, friendly and in many ways exciting. However, I think they should be told in advance what the costs would be. I also think some seaside resorts or the like would be nice for visitors, if this is possible. The mountains could also be utilized for people who are really vacation- ing and would like some restful relaxation as well as sightseeing." "Yes, but only in the near future because with the industrialization of Iran will come the destruction of 'Old Persia.‘ This is already apparent in Tehran, with traffic, expansion, and water problems." "Yes. I would recommend them to visit Iran. I feel Americans have a lot of misconceptions about Iran that could be corrected by visiting. Also it's a very inter- esting and beautiful country to see. Also maybe Ameri- cans can learn from the peOple of Iran about closeness, sharing and love." 115 "Yes, very much so. Not everybody though, because only a certain kind of person could really enjoy it. A person who needed all the comforts would not like it, but a person who can accept and understand life for what it is would have a lot to gain from Iran because it is so entirely different than here." "Those who are interested in archaeology and ancient history will find a wealth of interesting sites to visit." "An interesting country in a dynamic state of progress and rich in historic significance." "Yes. An important area of the world, going through a major period of change." "I would recommend a visit to Iran to friends who were especially interested in history, archaeology, etc. and those who would take pleasure seeing a modern country develOp." "Yes. It's a different culture, and there are a lot of good peOple there." "Yes. It's a different and interesting part of the world, until recently largely unknown to Americans. Its old heritage and new dynamic development create an interesting situation." "Except transportation and traffic we loved your country." "I think that Iran was very interesting. Everyone who has a chance should see it." Negative answers: "I would never tell a person not to go--they have to see it for themselves. However, I have warned peOple that they should not be shocked if, when they get there, they have no hotel room despite written confirmations, etc." "I would recommend to skip Tehran. I have travelled all over the world and spent much time in Mid-East. Never saw such an unpleasant place. Yet, I think it's educational to visit any part of the world." "Not unless with additional accommodation." "No. Prices are too high. People unfriendly." 116 "No recommendation." "I would like to visit Isfahan; unless facilities improve I can't go back." "Hotel situation should be corrected, otherwise tour- ists will be diverted to other countries." "Only the younger ones. You need to be able to take the heat and enjoy walking in order to see most things. Public buses leave much to be desired. There are no explanations of routes, numbers, etc. Taxi drivers can kill you with their driving and so a strong heart is needed. I felt safest when walking on the side- walks. Crossing streets and riding in cars, busses just made me very nervous. Traffic lights and lines are disregarded and appear invisible to most drivers." "No. Have not written a negative column on Iran because our stay was brief and very unfortunate and because have had many students in past from Iran. But to our friends we have had to say that it was a disappointment, and have so indicated to our travel editor and my travel agency." Other Comments Positive: "I would have liked to see some of the oil activity." "A Mr. Morteza Bakhshian of Persian EXpress was especially kind. He let me have his hotel room when the Hilton messed up my reservation. I cannot say enough about this man's kindness. I do not know where I would have slept if he had not given up his room." "My stay was short. It is difficult to make many com- ments, and I was very busy. But I really enjoyed my stay and loved your peOple." "I visited Iran eight years ago. You have made tremen— dous progress. Sewage might be a problem soon." "My initial reaction to Iran was not very good. The heat, altitude, and traffic were difficult to get used to. Very shortly I liked Tehran very much. I was unable to travel to Isfahan and Shiraz but hOpe to do so in the future. My greatest enjoyment there was in making some Iranian friends and visiting in their homes, 117 shOpping in the bazaar, etc. Their friendship and hospitality made my trip a success and I look forward to returning to Iran." "I appreciated the security methods for my safety as well as others when boarding the airplane." "Iran seemed very modern and on the brink of 'explo- sion' as far as developments go." "Unfortunately we had to abandon the idea of staying in Tehran due to lack of hotel accommodation. We actually tried to make reservations five weeks prior to arrival and after a series of calls and last-minute checking had to abandon the idea. " "I think the Iranian peOple are very warm and certainly of assistance as far as they can be especially in smaller cities." "I found the people on the whole very nice and friendly. However, at times some of the peOple who waited on us seemed rude. However, that wasn'toften. Perhaps they had been treated rudely by tourists. I enjoyed my visit very much and found it very interesting." "I loved Iran. Would even be interested in living and working here for awhile to fully understand it. Even the problems were tolerable except where deluxe service and efficiency were expected. But in modernization I hope Iran won't lose its traditional charms." "Iran has great cultural and historical tradition which is not adequately reflected in museums such as Archaeo— logical Museum in Tehran. This deserves something of quality of Musio de Anthropologica in Mexico City." "After my visit and return to U.S. I realized more than ever what a baby in age the U.S. is and how your country has endured and is emerging so well." "Iran is a magnificent country and if one has lots of money it is great fun. If one does not have influen- tial friends I would advise him not to go. Confirmed hotels and restaurants are ignored." "In restaurants where personnel do not speak English or other foreign languages, description of menu items would be helpful where name of food does not convey meaning." 118 "Iran has a peaceful, beautiful population with a rich heritage and history. I hOpe that they can maintain their own identity and not try to please the 'American attitude' too much. Maintain Persian culture, while using modern equipment and techniques." "I hope there will be some way for more people to visit Iran even though their resources may be limited." "I have been twice to Iran. I am looking forward to another visit to be able to see more of the country. I like the people, I would like to see and learn more about Iran." "Great progress has been made but be sure that this is continued, especially in training of hotel peOple." "I was impressed with the relatively high level of development in Tehran. I would like to have seen more of the country." "I hope the new developments in Iran will be arranged with good planning and foresight with a generous regard for culture and history. The building construction I witnessed appeared haphazard in many cases." Negative: "Perhaps our stay would have been less comfortable if we had not had friendly acquaintances. Inexpensive taxis are scarce and sightseers would definitely need a guide. Your countrymen are very hospitable--but com- munication is a problem for signs, currency and tourist information." "Although it isn't fair to judge Iran by American stan— dards, we did. This I feel is unfair to Iran. We can't expect their standards to be as ours are. It'll probably take many years to reach our standards. But perhaps that wouldn't be good for Iran. Middle East is just different from Western culture and maybe just that difference is what makes it more interesting. However the sanitary conditions could be improved. Of course, we were there in the heat and that took away from the pleasure. However, Iran was interesting. Although probably I'll never go again. The cultural aspects also could be improved and better information given to tourists." 119 "As far as the visitor is concerned, I believe your air pollution and transportation problems are the most serious ones Iran has. Traffic is really out of con- trol. I think you have a real need for a good mono- ”rail system. Seattle, Washington installed a mono-rail system for the World's Fair there and it proved to be very successful." "The arrival at the airport was chaotic, we waited hours for the luggage, no taxis to be had, had to finally share one with a few peOple. The conditions could definitely be improved at the airport:" "The hotel situation must be straightened out." "The automobile traffic speaks for itself, but is pri- mary to discomfort." "In going from Iran to Afghanistan, Air Iran loaded tents and ropes for some French mountain climbing, and failed to load my suitcases. I had only 44 pounds, and I feel this inconvenience on the part of the airline was inexcusable." "I hate to see only two classes of people like in Iran, some quite rich and some so poor. When Iran is so rich, wealth should be distributed more evenly." "Too many porters handling luggage at airport each expecting a tip." "The many sights we visited were in good condition but some sights were in poor repair. Work to preserve them and make more bilingual guidebooks available at some of the places outside of Tehran and Isfahan." "Traffic and transportation system are really a big problem. It makes it very unpleasant in Tehran. There's no system." "My wife objected to exclusion from religious shrines." "The airport personnel (customs and immigration) could be more hospitable. More varied menus in restaurants and hotels would be appreciated. Many Iranians appear to distrust peOple who are not members of their fami- lies, Iranians and foreigners alike. At a minimum, service people must at least act as though they were pleased that their customers were there." 120 "Your own peOple reinforce the overall unethical nature of almost everything--it makes you wary." "The traffic is frightening to travel in to the average tourist. Reducing the speed and making traffic patterns more specified would make riding in the cities more acceptable. Procedure for hailing a cab needs to be more orderly." "The most difficult aspect of travel in Iran was in the cities, this is the attitude towards and lack of respect for women. Iran is a fascinating country. Tourism ought to be more publicized and the public there edu- cated to accept it." "Traffic is bad in Bangkok and Singapore. So that won't keep us away. But until we get a sense that we won't be cheated we won't think of returning. We don't expect big, fawning smiles, just professional fairness will do. On Pam Am to Rome--the two other peOple in first class with us reported the same disappointments and, upon return home, discussion with local electronics manufac- turers' representatives sent to Tehran indicate we are not alone." "Injury or illness while traveling absolutely ruins the trip. Traveling costs a great deal of money by anyone's standards. Thus, I cannot overstate the anxiety asso- ciated with the traffic and sanitation problems in Iran. Of course, there is an element of risk anywhere, even at home, but the probability appears to be obviously infinitely greater in Iran of acquiring injury and/or illness. Regarding the peOple of Iran, I found them to be very friendly and hospitable, eager to be of assis- tance and try to communicate. Some of the children would beg us to talk with them so that they could practice their English. I was very impressed because I have never before seen such enthusiasm." "Hotels should have enough safe drinking water for tourists, boiled and filtered. Better sanitary condi- tions in restaurants." "Our stay really wasn't long enough to draw any strong and substantial conclusions. Amusingly--one of my greatest frustrations was how to get through the traf- fic on the Tehran streets--as a pedestrian. Generally, cleanliness is important to the typical American. There were infrequent times that this seemed a need." 121 "It would be virtually impossible for an American to travel around in Tehran because of the taxis and because of the traffic situation which makes it unrealistic to rent a car. Also, the inflation makes a trip to Iran very, very expensive." "I felt that the rate of exchange was unfair as you cut off additional 'cents' when converting into rials and changed more rials to get back dollars. Also the bid- ding on prices seems to be going out of the bazaars. Americans are thought to be richer than others and so prices are higher if you speak English to a store keeper. There doesn't seem to be any regulation of prices either, but rather whoever is a better bidder gets the better bargain. I found using other languages other than English helped me in my buying. I've traveled exten- sively but felt I had to be more on my guard in Iran against being cheated either through overpricing or inferior material being switched for what I was shown by Iranian merchants. There was also the feeling that if I wouldn't give in to a merchant's demand for a certain price that I must be tight-fisted and therefore, Jewish. This I found most unpleasant. The logic was poor and the anti- semetic remark I found insulting both because I am Jew— ish and because that image of the Jew dates back so many centuries and shows a lack of intellectual progress in Iranian minds. I believe any tourist wants a bargain and any 'seasoned' traveler will know values and over- pricing and doesn't need to be Jewish to want the bar— gain or refuse to overpay. I also was quite upset over the economic imbalance in your country. After seeing the Crown Jewel Museum with its precious stones just sitting in cases gathering dust, I couldn't help wondering why some of them weren't taken and sold to provide funds for low income/welfare type housing so that people wouldn't be sleeping in public parks and on sidewalks and begging for handouts. Perhaps better job training programs would also help. I hope I haven't insulted anyone with my observations, but these were things that stood out during my visit." "We paid 4 different fares for the same taxi ser- vice from the airport to the hotel, the highest being 3 times the lowest! Not many taxi drivers understand English and therefore avoid foreign looking persons even if they have room. Generally we enjoyed our stay in your country, although the answers to this questionnaire may sound different. PeOple were always nice and tried to be helpful. Hygiene and organization in hotels and 122 restaurants seems to be the big problem, coupled with low esteem for tourists (as compared to business travelers) and even lower esteem for females (the waiter would bring a glass and a spoon for me but not for my wife, and this did not happen only once). Another weak point is taxi transportation; it is extremely difficult to get around in Tehran unless you join a group or hire a local guide. In both cases you are likely to spend 50% of your time looking at carpets. As a detail, there could be a less costly trans- portation between the Shiraz Airport and Persepolis. Also, since international planes tend to leave very early toward EurOpe, Iran Air might look into organiz- ing a 'hotel-pick-up-service.‘ Generally, this questionnaire is a very good idea and I'm sure it will help you to improve the situation. The problem seems to be a lack of training and super- vision rather than dishonesty. I never felt really cheated, and when our last taxi driver tried to 'take us to the cleaners' at the airport the English-speaking porters corrected the situation! Good luck, because Persia deserves more attention, also from Tourists!" "Second only to the language problem was the bank- ing problem. For a country which is supposedly so eager to have tourists there is little opportunity for the tourists to change foreign monies into Iranian rials. I can refer to several instances specifically. In Tehran there is no bank convenient to the bazaar to change money. I went to one bank and they sent me to another and another, right down the line. A similar experience occurred in Isfahan and to a lesser degree in Shiraz. I remember the two most helpful peOple I met in Iran. One was the guard at the Golestan Palace who was able to tell me (in English) where the other museums were and what their schedules were. The other was the man in the Tourist Office in Isfahan. Besides helping me with planning my days in Isfahan he helped me figure out how to get around Shiraz and an inexpensive bus trip to Takthe-Jamshid, Nagsh-e-Rostam and Pasargarde. Another complaint is the high cost of airfare on domestic flights. With all the petroleum that Iran has, why must a short flight from Shiraz to Tehran cost $50 plus. I thought that Iran Air had a lot of gall to charge so much, especially with bus fare so cheap and so good. I returned home on August 22nd and was planning to write you a letter anyway concerning what I believe are the hindrances to a comfortable stay in Iran. I was 123 thrilled to find this form waiting and was elated to know that you really do care and that the Iranians are really interested in improving their 'hospitality' towards tourists. It strengthened my belief in the future of Iran and deepened my admiration for the Iranians. I found the information which I received in advance of my trip from your office with regard to hotels and places of interest, to be very helpful but wish that you could be that good as to train schedules etc. For example your office told me that the train from Istanbul to Tehran left Istanbul every Tuesday, Thursday and Sunday. The Turks told me Monday, Wednesday and Friday. Well when I went to the station in Istanbul I found that it was only on Wednesdays. Come on . . . get it together and aim to give tourists and potential tour- ists the most accurate information possible." "I always had a profound respect for Persia and its peOple, their tolerant attitudes, Open-mindedness, and rich history. But, especially in light of today's economical strength, I found it ironical to see peOple begging for handouts, cripples fending for themselves, others lacking the barest necessities of life, having to sleep on the streets, especially in Tehran. Iran has made great strides in the recent past but the wealth of the country hasn't filtered down to the peOple in general. When the motivation and educational level increases, hygenic and ethical problems will decrease. Until then, one would be treating the symptoms and not the malady. Only then would Iranians have reason to be proud of being descendants of Cyrus and Shah Abbas." CHAPTER III IMPROVEMENT OF TOURISM THROUGH EDUCATION Introduction The following observations on tourism education are based on the preceding chapter, which is a survey of Ameri- can attitudes toward the service industry in Iran. It would help to review, briefly, the general characteristics of the American visitors to Iran in order to have a bet- ter recognition of such visitors and their attitudes toward Iran. Most Americans in this study have been found to be over the age of 40, married,1 with an average annual income of about $30,000. To be more exact, 66 percent were over the age of 40. Very few young people below the age of 30 have traveled to Iran (only 16.5 percent of the total respondents). Travelers of high-bracket income are quite common. Figures for annual income expressed by respondents in many instances are over $300,000. There- fore, based on this study, Americans traveling to Iran are highly selective and financially above average. This 1Marital status was mentioned in the visa forms from which the names and addresses of the respondents were taken. Almost 80 percent of visa applicants were married; only 20 percent were either single or divorced. 124 125 would probably mean that the standard of services offered to them should be much higher in order to keep them satis- fied. They are educated and most of them (85.5 percent) have received university or college education, and over 10 percent of the rest account for the holders of high school diplomas. American visitors' length of stay in Iran on the average is just under two weeks. Those who stayed less than a week account for only 20.8 percent,andtflmamaindes- tinations are Tehran, Isfahan, Shiraz and Persepolis. The Caspian area, even during the high season, has not attracted many Americans (only 7.2 percent). Forty-two percent of Americans in our sample who have visited Iran have spent over $500 and 26.4 percent of them have spent over $1000 during their stay in Iran. Only 12.8 percent spent below $200. Considering the fact that most Americans visiting Iran are of high-bracket income and spend well while traveling justifies the idea, from an economic point of View, to improve standards of service through education and to create better tourist facilities. Americans have generally expressed their satis- faction with their visit to Iran. Over 75 percent of the respondents have rated their trip experience to Iran as "very good" or "satisfactory." Only 7.4 percent have rated 126 such experience as "bad" or "very bad." It is very pleas— ing to note that the country has been highly praised by a good percentage of American visitors. But the unfavorable remarks are the ones that count. These remarks should be the basis of recommendations for improving educational programs in the service industry of Iran. As mentioned previously, Americans have stayed mostly in deluxe or four-star hotels in which the stan- dards of service are comparatively high and satisfactory. Apart from the first-class hotels there seems to be little or no satisfaction with lower-class accommodations. Res- taurants, coffee shOps, stores and museums have received high percentages of favorable ratings. Public transpor- tation, on the other hand, has got the highest rate of unfavorable ratings (62.1 percent). Americans do care about service, and service is rated by 81 percent as a significant factor in the overall satisfaction from their visits to Iran. Thirty-six per- cent have found service in Iran worse than other countries they have been to, and have made recommendations to improve service in Iran. Food offered in restaurants is favored by 66.5 per- cent, but there are problems that have to be rectified. Americans are concerned about sanitation, personal hygiene of employees, promptness of service and speed, courtesy and 127 politeness of service personnel, variety in menu, native and original dishes. Thirty-eight percent have used the services of travel agents and 45.1 percent have had a professional guide. But 27 percent have found the services "fair" or "bad." The problems are dishonesty of agents, inflexi- bility of tour programs, communication, inadequacy of ,g: 1 services, ill-informed and untrained guides. ' A]. “‘3'“ l—H—h, .y Sights, people and shOpping are the major aspects 3»— of interest to Americans who have visited Iran. However, most of them (70.5 percent) have disliked traffic. Infla- tion, cheating and people, respectively, are other major features of the country not liked by American visitors. Finally, a good percentage of people questioned in this study (68.1 percent) have expressed their willing- ness and hOpe to return to Iran. Only 14.4 percent said they would not want to go back. Development of Tourism--A Necessity It is generally believed that tourism is a good source of foreign exchange. It creates innumerable jobs because it is by nature a labor-intensive industry. It is a bridge to international understanding, and is, there— fore, politically important for nations. It was not long ago when Iranians considered non- Moslem foreigners "infidel" and therefore were not recep- tive to tourists. Thanks to the spread of education in 128 Iran and, to a certain extent, development of tourism and influx of foreigners to Iran, these attitudes are giving way to more hospitality toward foreigners on the part of the Iranian people. Oil-rich Iran of today may not be too concerned about the economic aspect of tourism. But considering the cultural and social advantages of tourism and the fact that oil resources may be depleted in 20 years or so, develop- ment of tourism should be part of the overall develOpment programs of the country. In tourism education, there is still much to be desired. Tourism is a necessity in today's world. It is a bridge to understanding among nations. It has been growing and it will continue to grow. Tourism education, therefore, should receive much more attention in Iran. Iran, being a supplier of energy and the life blood of the industrial world, has received much publicity during the past two years, attracting the attention of a great many business and pleasure travelers from all over the world, especially from countries of the West. The tourism market is booming in Iran and the country should be able to handle it properly. More accommodations and tourist facilities are needed. But above all, more plan- ning in tourism education is required and educational institutions must lead the way. It is well worth noting that there are also nega— tive charges cited against tourism. How do we cope with them? 129 Tourism is no more or less than a study of the move- ment of people. Cynically speaking, however, these people or tourists, not unlike hosts of hungry locusts sweep upon an unsuspecting local populace and compete for limited resources in housing, water, roads, and beaches. They tend to create a mountain of pollution in traffic, air, visual pollution--billboards and advertising signs--social pollution, and cultural pollution. Thus, the economic and social costs may be increased for residents when mass tourism is intro— duced to a given area.2 Legislators should be encouraged to pass stricter laws in zoning, and for controlling density of land use, architecture, signs and billboards, beaches, transporta- tion and traffic and other aspects that determine the qual- ity of an area for both visitors and those who live there. Tourism Education The basic idea behind the study of American atti— tudes is that there are some major differences in the con- cept of tourism education in any given country. These differences do not mean that we do not share and have in common many similar problems and functions in hotel schools as from one country to another. They can often mean, however, substantial differences in emphasis, reflected in length and content of courses. When counseling an emergent country in tourism education, one cannot bring from Europe or the United States to a new country's problems any rigid formula based on what has been tested and proved workable in those 2Chuck Lee, group leader, Task Group on "World- Wide Tourism," University of Hawaii, 1974. 130 countries. A primary task is to assess general social, cultural and economic factors in the area concerned, which affect the industry, together with an estimation of the degree of satisfaction of the clientele and their views and opinions if at all feasible. The sample of American tourists in this study may not be representative of the total population of foreign visitors to Iran. Nevertheless, the American assessment of tourist experiences in Iran can provide some insights into the needs for education in the tourism and service industry sector of the Iranian economy. In the following pages the writer suggests a general model for tourism edu- cation in Iran. Planning the individual programs to fit into this model is beyond the sc0pe of this dissertation. The model is basically an assessment of educational needs that may enable Iranians to establish priorities in planning for tourism education. First, one ought to elaborate on the general nature and points regarding the approach to tourism education in an emergent country. What seems to be of overriding impor- tance is that the needs of the western market to be exploited should be realistically assessed. More studies such as this should be made. Not every western traveler demands "instant America" or "instant EurOpe" in a foreign land such as Iran. They certainly demand advanced stan- dards of accommodations, furnishings, plumbing and decor. 131 With swift and easy travel the world shrinks. There is real danger that change and variety in atmosphere, food and service will also shrink. Education in hotel and other tourist services, while seeking to condition the country to provide the basic needs of Western society in comfort, hygiene and food, must also effectively preserve regional and national distinctions of customs and cuisine. There are those who have deplored that Persian music (which westerners seldom immediately appreciate) has to some extent become westernized at popular levels and hence more acceptable to western ears. There is equal fear that food, too, may be "westernized" out of its real attraction and that decor and furnishings similarly may be blurred into an uninteresting internationalism. Yet, Persian or exotic food can be a tourist asset, and a formula must be found to present it attractively to a western market. An emer- gent country must not merely be taught western hotel ways, it must be helped to develop its own culture and tradition for presentation to its new tourist markets. Any European or American educator or advisor in tourism education who is asked to assist in setting up educational programs must, therefore, first seek to pene- trate with sympathy the country's culture and tradition. The idea should not be to export French concepts of cuisine, Italian ideas of service, Swiss models of management, Scottish forms of hotel housekeeping or American drive in 132 marketing but rather to ensure that the national methods are developed in their own style and in their own idiom to reach comparable levels of excellence. In so doing, one helps to demonstrate in the education and training areas what our hotel and catering industry does in its total work: what we can contribute purposefully to inter- national contentment and understanding.3 Using the data presented in Chapter II, a general educational model has been developed. The purpose of the model is to further strengthen positive aspects of tourism as revealed by this study and to overcome the negative aspects. What the Study Reveals Most of the American travelers to Iran, according to statistics presented in the preceding chapter, have eXpressed satisfaction with their trip experience to Iran. Americans have generally enjoyed historical and archaeo- logical sights; they have indicated a great interest in Persian peOple and culture and in shopping, and these seem to be the main reasons for their trips to Iran. There are a number of problems that Americans have experiences. Uflmafollowing is a list of major problems and inadequacies, which appear on a rank-ordered scale from top to bottom. 3Summary of paper entitled "Hotel Training for Emer- gent Nations" by John Fuller, Univ. of Strathclyde, Glasgow, 1967. 133 --Shortage of hotel accommodations --Heavy and disorderly traffic in Tehran and some other major cities; lack of adequate taxis --Poor management in lower-class hotels, restau- rants and travel agencies -—Slow service and lack of promptness in tourist establishments --Language problem and lack of communication between the tourist and service personnel --Technical aspects of service --Inflation --Dishonesty and cheating --Poor personal appearance, hygiene and sanitation --Lack of etiquette and manners --Ill-informed guides --Untrained personnel --Lack of respect for women --Personnel's unawareness of foreign customs --Beggars and solicitors in the streets --No policy on gratuities (There is a 15 percent charge on checks as service fee, but additional tip has to be paid.) --Discrimination in favor of Iranians --Inadequate airport facilities -—Lack of efficiency in service personnel --Limited variety in food --Questionable food sanitation --Limited national and local dishes --Air pollution in Tehran 134 --Congestion at Tehran airport and customs --The ethics in the bazaars; too much bargaining --Telephone service --Drinking water Educational Needs In formulating programs of education for tourism, certain priorities should be observed. Some of the prob- lems such as the shortage of hotel accommodations and pub- lic transportation and tourist facilities cannot be remedied through education. These have been referred to as "non- educational problems" in this document. Major topics to be considered in the educational framework are the follow- ing: improvement of management skills, speed and efficiency, language and communication, technical aspects, social and moral education, sanitation and hygiene and hospitality toward foreign Visitors. Improvement of Management Skills Poor management has been cited as a major problem by over 70 percent of Americans who found service in Iran worse than other countries. The problem should be given close attention, with special focus and thrust being placed on programs of education and training for personnel in managerial and supervisory levels in the service industry. Hotel managers should be educated in intensive courses, seminars, and long-term programs or short-term 135 refresher courses offered as in-service education in order that they become familiarized with basic skills of manage— ment. Special programs should be designed as pre-service education for new hotel and restaurant managers and travel agents. Minimum standards of education should be set for service personnel in managerial capacities. Major tOpics to be considered in such programs are general management principles, leadership, personnel management, accounting, public relations, human relations and communication. Length of courses is affected by the capacity of the stu- dents to learn, and must be varied accordingly. Present also is the language factor. This means that training manuals that are excellent in one language may be useless in another because the trainee cannot comprehend them. Therefore a lot of materials in the form of manuals should be generated in easy Persian language, based on the par- ticular needs of managerial positions. Adapting length and content of programs is too complex a matter for con- sideration in this dissertation. One "golden rule" sug- gested by Professor John Fuller, Director of Scottish Hotel School, University of Strathclyde " . . . to have almost universal application is to begin training as near the top as possible. Look after the training needs of managers and supervisors first. They are vital elements in propagating or completing training lower down the ladder." 136 Speed and Efficiency Our age is the age of speed, and speed is a neces- sity in today's world. Time is valuable and should not be lost. Tourists' time is often short and limited, and they want to take maximum advantage of their time; hence they do not want to be kept waiting or be detained. Service should be provided to them as quickly as possible at the front desks, ticket counters, cashiers, restaurants, coffee shops, information offices, stores and all other places where they are helped by tourist personnel. Speed and efficiency are not necessarily acquired only through repetition. Slow workers have developed the habit of being slow by performing their jobs slowly. They should be stimulated to work faster and to be more effi— cient. This may be achieved through courses especially designed for that purpose, on the basis of "time and motion" studies performed in hotels, restaurants, kitchens and other tourist service establishments. Slowness and lack of efficiency are often a result of negligence on the part of supervisors to define the jobs properly and provide job descriptions and specifications so that employees know every detail of their job, what they are expected to do and how to perform their duties and responsibilities. Here is an example of a job description for a housekeeper (maid): 137 Makes up each guest room which has been occupied to a completely clean, neat, attractive, and fresh smell- ing room. Cleans rooms by conventional sweeping methods using vacuum cleaner, dusting cloths, clean- ing cloths and similar materials and equipment. Washes fixtures and tile areas of the bathroom with cloth or sponge and sanitizes as required. Changes linen com- pletely after each occupancy. Performs other clean- ing jobs at regular intervals such as washing windows, cleaning lamp shades, washing mirrors, polishing fur- niture, lobby cleaning and similar tasks associated with housekeeping. Stocks the bath and guest rooms with linen, towels, and guest supplies. This job description answers the questions "what," "why," "how" and "skill needed." Such criteria are needed for all job descriptions. The following is how the job specification for a housekeeper (maid) might look: Job title: Housekeeper or maid (former title preferred) Department: Rooms Sex: Usually female, but could be male. Physical aspects: Should be in good health and not exceed 150 pounds. Medium height (short persons have trouble reaching and tall persons have trouble bending.) Working Conditions: Five to eight hours per day, five or six days per week. Equipment, materials and tools used: Housekeeper's cart, small sweeper, cloths, pails, and other cleaning- sanitizing materials. Compensation: (Specify rate and any bonus or profit sharing plan.) Training required: Two weeks apprenticeship under experienced housekeeper. Vacation with pay: One week after one year of employ- ment, two weeks thereafter. Experience: None required. Personality requirements: Dependable, careful, meth- odical, pleasant, and neat appearing. Judgment: Must have high standards of cleanliness, be able to see dirt and take initiative to clean all parts 4Robert W. McIntosh, Recruiting and Training Employ— ers in the Service Industries, Extension Bulletin 484, Michigan State University, July 1966. 138 of rooms to acceptable sanitary and housekeeping stan- dards. Manual dexterity: Considerable manual skill needed in use of fingers, hands, arms, legs, knees, and back. Also, must have good feet as most of the work is done in a standing or stOOping position. Accuracy: Must have fine touch with bedspreads, pil— lows, and sheets so that they present an even and attractive appearance to the newly arrived guest. Strength: Stamina is required for sustained physical activity involved in changing linen, lifting blankets, sweeping, dusting, and cleaning bathrooms. Supervision: Works under rooms inspector, supervi- sory housekeeper, and executive housekeeper. Responsibility: Must be able to work alone. Is responsible for care of equipment and room furnishings, also of guest's belongings. Must be scrupulously hon— est and upright. Opportunity for advancement: To rooms inspector, supervisory housekeeper, and executive housekeeper. 5 Language and Communication People in the service industry with whom American and European tourists come into contact should be able to Speak English. The average American tourist will not tol- erate tourism personnel who do not speak English. Seventy- five out of 135 people who found service in Iran worse than other countries they had visited said they had language and communication problems in Iran with service personnel. Obviously, if there is to be more understanding between the visitors and the service personnel, they should be able to communicate with each other. Tourists cannot be expected to speak or understand the Persian language. The service peOple must be able to communicate with foreign tourists in foreign languages. By far, English has been the 51bid. 139 most widely spoken language used by foreign visitors to Iran, according to statistics,6 French and German being the second and third most pOpular languages in Iran. The following points are recommended in planning programs of education for service employees. 1. Intensive English courses should be offered in all levels of educational programs. Service employees should be able to communicate in English to the extent to understand what the tourist wants and to be able to answer questions decently and accurately. Trainees should con- tinue language courses as long as needed until they have obtained an acceptable knowledge of the language. The guest-contact employees must be given priority in language training programs. 2. New techniques of language training including audio-visual equipment should be applied to maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of such courses. 3. High standards of knowledge of languages should be set in the selection of students for admission to the College of Tourism Services and Information and any other pre-service education programs. Likewise, in the selection of new employees for tourist establishments, priority should be given to those who demonstrate ability to communicate at least in one foreign language. 6Released by the Ministry of Information and Tourism, 1974. 140 4. English courses should be offered as in-service training programs to guest-contact employees of tourist establishments whose knowledge of foreign languages proves to be below the minimum standard required for such employees. 5. Communication with foreign visitors is not only in terms of face-to-face and verbal conversation, but through signs, posters, announcements, menus, forms, bro- chures, instruction leaflets, etc. These should be printed at least in two languages: Persian and English. Persian script should not be omitted because of its attractiveness and beauty and the fact that it reflects Persian originality. Menu items, especially when representing local dishes, should entail a brief explanation in English about what types of ingredients are used and how the food is prepared; e.g., Chelokebab: charcoal—broiled, marinated lamb over long-grain Persian rice, served with egg yolk, pickles, etc. Technical Aspects The technical area of tourism education is where training comes into play. A large majority of jobs in the service industry deal directly or indirectly with people. Waiters, hostesses, receptionists, room clerks and tele- phone Operators deal directly with the public and their work is constantly being scrutinized by the guests. The guests form their image of the hotel through the personnel with whom they come into contact. A mistake or ineffi- ciency of an employee may result in losing a guest forever. 141 Technical skills are those that have to do with the performance of the repetitive aspects of a job; making reservations, accounting and typing are examples. Some of the advantages of training to the enter- prise, as suggested by Lundberg and Armatas, are increased learning rate, increased quality of performance, decreased breakage and spoilage, reduced number of accidents, reduced labor turnover, reduced absenteeism and increased produc- tion.7 Training methods and programs cannot be covered in this dissertation because of the length and complexity of the topic. Readers are referred to the bibliography at the end of this chapter. Social and Moral Education This is a very important element of programs of education, and should not only be administered in programs of the service industry but in the overall educational programs. This should be combined with an effort to upgrade the job prestige in the service industry with a view to attract more educated peOple to the industry. Tradi- tionally, positions with hotels and catering establishments have not enjoyed a high repute. 7Donald E. Lundberg and James P. Armatas, The Management of People in Hotels, Restaurants and Clubs (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company, Publishers, 1975). 142 In western countries such as the United States, college students, in order to support themselves, find part-time or full-time jobs in restaurants, hotels, stores, gas stations, etc. In Iran, on the other hand, because of the social structure, the situation is different. A col- lege student would be despised if he worked as a waiter in a restaurant. Those who do work as waiters have a lower socio-economic background, generally with little educa- tion. A major element of education, especially in training programs, should deal with social studies to inculcate an understanding of other nations' cultures and the neces- sity to consider respect for foreign visitors. As regards the overall moral education in the country, fortunately the new principle introduced in the Shah-People Revolution of Iran calls for an urgency in the social reform. The fourteenth principle of the Revolution introduced recently would be constantly enforced as a per- manent check against profiteering. "But I do not want it to be an enforced principle all the time. It must become part of pOpular morals ingrained in people's blood and spirit," said His Imperial Majesty the Shahanshah Aryamehr.8 To this end, schools and the mass media alike should strive to prove to people that cheating in business would, in the final analysis, harm 8Quoted in Kayhan International Weekly 8 (October 11, 1975). 143 everyone, even those who consider themselves cleverly engaged in dishonest practices. "In a society where cheating [in business] is the rule, all human relations will end up resting on duplicity," the monarch said.9 The fourteenth principle of the Revolution which was introduced as an anti-inflationary measure should evolve into an educational campaign against cheating, dis- honesty, duplicity and moral breakdown. There are signs to believe that such an educational campaign has already started. At an international symposium called "Iran: Past Present and Future" held September 15 to 19, 1975, at Persepolis in southern Iran, Vice—Chancellor Hormoz Farhat of Iran's Farabi University said that the country's middle class "is displaying a gradual moral breakdown which is quite alarming." "Respect for one's fellow-man, for decency, honesty and the law has been diminishing," he charged, adding: "The resultant spiritual bankruptcy is perhaps the most serious 10 It is to be threat to the fabric of Iranian society." hOped that such serious studies of the social problems of Iran will eventually lead to a national educational campaign aimed at moral reforms in Iran. 91bid. loEric Pace, "Iranian Aides and Scholars Stress Urgency for Social Reforms," New York Times, October 10, 1975, p. 4. 144 In educational programs for tourist and service personnel special instructions should be develOped cover- ing every aspect of human relations between the tourist and the service personnel, giving specific instructions as to how tourists should be treated and reasons for such beha- vior. The general attitude of service personnel toward tourists must improve. For this purpose a code of ethics comprising do's and don'ts should be developed to govern all phases of interactions between the tourist and the ser— vice personnel. The attitude should be one of a person who would be prepared and willing to extend services sincerely and wholeheartedly. Special attention should, therefore, be given in the recruitment and selection of employees in the service industry as well as trainees and students in this area. The right person in the right job is essen- tial for success in any business. In hotels, restaurants, motels, resorts, travel agencies and similar businesses this factor is particularly important. The guest forms his impression of the accommodation and its services almost wholly by the way the employees treat him. Thus the guest- contact employees are importantly responsible for the suc- cess of the enterprise, and should have received education and training to ensure their competency. 145 Sanitation and Hygiene Sanitation as described in Webster's New World Dictionary is "the science and practice of effective hygienic conditions: . . . , and hygiene is likewise des- cribed as a system of principles for the preservation of health." The maintenance of health and the control of disease in tourist establishments requires that all employees be aware of sanitation and hygiene principles. Basic principles of public health covering the fol- lowing areas should be included in training and education programs of tourism personnel: 1. The sanitation of the environment 2. The control of communicable infections 3. The education of the individual in personal hygiene 4. Food sanitation, food poisoning 5. Control of rats and other rodents 6. Atmospheric pollution 7. Waste disposal 8. Accident prevention, etc. Hospitality Toward Foreign Visitors Another area of study that should be emphasized in academic programs of tourism is hospitality in tourism. Tourism personnel should have a realistic knowledge of tourism's virtues and vices appropriately defined in order 146 to create a better understanding of the tourism phenomenon and its ramifications. This study should be combined with recognition of national tourist attractions of the country such as historical monuments, religious shrines and mosques, museums, natural scenery, resorts, facilities and other factors of interest to foreign tourists. Tourist-contact personnel should also be aware of their cultural heritage, traditions and uniqueness of their life style which make one nation different and interesting in the eyes of foreigners. Tourism is comparatively a new phenomenon in Iran, but it has developed rapidly during the past decade, becoming a large business undertaking with great potentiality for employment. In understanding the advantages of tourism, duties and responsibilities of service personnel toward visitors and guests are explored. Duty of care for the tranquility of guests, duty to provide for the safety of the guest, duty to be hospitable toward guests (some of the national characteristics of Persians such as hospitality and devoted- ness toward guests should be aroused in educational pro- grams), duty to provide adequate facilities such as ade- quate lighting, comfortable beds, bathrooms and first-aid facilities. These are some of the tOpics of concern in dealing with tourism as a hospitality industry. 147 Noneducational Problems There certainly are problems outside the realm of education related to facilities rather than personnel which have to be dealt with by the government. One of the major problems is lack of sufficient accommodations. There are not enough hotels now and while new ones are being built, room shortage will exist for some time. One pos- sibility, as suggested by one of the respondents, would be to start private pensions under supervision. An agency such as the Ministry of Information and Tourism could check on the availability of such lodgings. Scarcity of hotel accommodations in Iran is in part due to an increase in the number of foreign businessmen going to Iran in search of business opportunities. These are blocking too many of the luxury hotel rooms, which makes it even harder to obtain space. Once all requests for space are monitored by the agency, it will be easier to obtain a room when needed. "I requested eight reservations," wrote a respondent, "but only one answered, which made me very happy." The business of private pensions is relatively simple and does not have to include meals. It should, however, provide breakfast. Any apartment or building large enough to have at least five rooms to accommodate five to ten people, plus a breakfast room and kitchen and a western bathroom, is eligible. Guests must register on 148 regular forms. Any person or family can qualify but the agency should provide guidelines and a list of mandatory items such as sanitary standards, furniture, showers, linens, lights, radio, keys, etc., and help the establish- ments with advice. Advertising is not necessary but per- missible as long as the hotels have priority over the acceptance of guests. Another problem is the inadequacy of control over accommodation rates. Because of the increasing demand for space, regulated rates are being violated and a black mar- ket prevails. Business peOple are preferred to tourists because they are ready to pay more. Reserved accommoda- tions are denied and given to others against higher rates, which makes it frustrating for the reservation holder. The Government's anti-inflationary campaign has proved successful in stabilizing prices and even lowering them in most instances. But tourist establishments should be taken more seriously. Tourists should be able to obtain rate sheets from the tourist offices and all tourist establishments such as hotels, restaurants, motels, inns, etc. should be required to post prices and rates within the sight of their guests. In order to check on the adequacy of services in hotels and improve such services, the Ministry of Tourism can provide questionnaires similar to what has been used in this survey to evaluate the quality of goods, facilities 149 and services being offered. Hotel owners should be required to put such questionnaires at the disposal of their guests. The questionnaires can be folded into self- addressed stamped envelopes to be mailed directly to a controlling agency of the Ministry. On the basis of the answers and comments thus obtained, the Ministry can make contacts with the hotels to instruct them on what they should do to correct inadequacies or, in case of violation of certain laws and regulations, take them into courts. There seem to be a number of other problems accord- ing to the survey which are beyond the scope of this study; but they are listed here for consideration of Government authorities: - air pollution - traffic and transportation - inadequacy of airport facilities - exclusion of foreigners from religious shrines - prices not being fixed in market places - lack of respect for women Educational Model Educational efforts in the area of tourism in Iran can be summarized in a model or schema to embrace four levels of education and training: 1. The general public 2. Government officials and employees concerned with the develOpment of tourism 150 3. Executive and managerial levels at the tourist establishments 4. Service personnel The public in general should be educated about tourism. Iran, being a country with great tourism poten- tialities, needs to educate her people to become more recep- tive to foreign visitors. In other words, the peOple should become more tourist minded and more hospitable toward tour- ists. Iranian people, according to the survey of American Opinions in this volume, are generally hospitable and kind toward their guests, but when it comes to business they are not fair in their practices. Some of the tOpics men- tioned under "educational needs" in this document, such as "tourism education" and "social and moral education," should be considered for the total population of the coun- try. Mass media may be the best means through which to convey educational messages to the general public. Government officials and employees who are in positions to draw up projects for the development of tour— ism should be highly educated in their specialized fields of activities so that they can take into account all fac- tors and elements of tourism evolution in developing coun- tries. . . . Many develOping countries, without doing serious feasibility studies of their socio-economic potential and readiness, have responded favorably to the develop- ment of the tourism trade. They have given their attention and applied their economic means to the develOpment of tourism, usually at the expense of other 151 economic activities. Furthermore, after these coun- tries have developed their international tourism, and it has become an apparently prosperous economic activity, they have failed to do a cost-pinefit analy31s of the developed tourist trade. Government officials in charge of tourism development pro- jects should be highly qualified in terms of the technical and professional knowledge needed for such projects. Tech- nical expertise in this area may be imported from abroad. Training in foreign institutions may prove useful to per- sons who would be involved in tourism projects. A list of the institutions offering education in related disciplines appears in the Appendix of this dissertation. Managerial positions in tourist establishments should be filled with qualified, educated persons. Pre- service and in-service education should be provided for all managerial and supervisory levels. Managers' and super- visors' training needs should be met before those of other personnel; finally, the service employees should receive education and training in all aspects relevant to their jobs. All service personnel such as waiters, waitresses, receptionists, preparation people, housekeepers, chefs, bartenders, tourist guides and travel agency personnel fall under this category. Special attention should be given to tourist-contact personnel. Included in this llJafar Jafari, "The Socio-Economic Costs of Tour- ism to DevelOping Countries," Annals of Tourism Research, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Vol. 1, No. 7 (May 1974). 152 group are other peOple who come into close contact with tourists and provide services to tourists individually, such as taxi drivers, policemen, museum attendants and shopkeepers. TOURISM EDUCATION General Public Government Officials Manag. Level Service Employees Ministry of Infor- Hotel mgrs. mation and Tourism Tour opera- Iran Nat'l Airlines tors Customs Travel agents Quarantine Restaur . mgrs . Police Night-club Immigration mgrs. Educational Needs: Improvement of mgt. skills Speed and efficiency Language & communication Technical aspects Social and moral education Sanitation and hygiene Hospitality Noneducational problems SCHEMA Waiters Receptionists Chefs Bartenders Housekeepers Preparation people Taxi drivers Policemen Shopkeepers Museum attendants 153 Conclusion The writer hopes this dissertation will prove useful to students or scholars seeking information on Iran. He further hopes that the information and data gathered and put together in this volume will be of practical use to the Iranian Government agencies such as the Ministry of Infor- mation and Tourism and its newly established College of Tourism Services and Information, and will stimulate inter— est to carry out similar efforts. New economic develOpments in Iran have created a high demand for technical skills, and the number of schools catering to such demand is increasing. What most young Iranians should gain from college is know—how for obtaining jobs; educators should provide programs accordingly. More knowledge that can be applied should be made available to college students. What is taking root, basically, is the idea that education must be kept up to date on what kind of training is required by the most likely employers. As far as tourism is concerned, there is a severe demand in various areas of services, which should be filled in by skilled Iranian personnel. It is up to the educational institutions to provide education and learning opportuni- ties necessary for interested people to acquire the skill and ability for a develOping tourism industry. “MAE-'0; . *1 ‘. l APPENDIX DIRECTORY OF TOURISM TRAINING CENTERS APPENDIX DIRECTORY OF TOURISM TRAINING CENTERS Costa Mesa Orange Coast College (D) 2701 Fairview Road Costa Mesa, CA 92626 (714) 556-5880 Travel Agency Operation 2 years--AA degree Los Angeles Los Angeles Trade Tech- nical College (D) 400 West Washington Blvd. Los Angeles, CA 90015 (213) 746-0800 Travel Services 2 years--AA degree Travel Advisors Training Academy (D) 3968 Wilshire Blvd. Los Angeles, CA 90010 (213) 382—1236 Travel Counselors Course 2-1/2 months--$325 Travel Agency Ownership/ Management Course 1 month-—$250 154 Key: (C) Correspondence Course (D) Degree or Certificate Course (S) Special courses CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA (cont'd) NeWport Beach North American School of Travel (C) 4401 Birch Street NeWport Beach, CA (714) 546-92660 Master Travel Course 52 lessons--$440 92660 Pomona California State Poly- technic University (D) Pomona, CA 91711 (714) 598-4235 Hotel & Restaurant Mgt. 4 years—-BS degree San Diego San Diego State Univ. (D) School of Business Adm. 5402 College Avenue San Diego, CA 92115 (714) 286-5306 4 years-~BS degree San Francisco Int' 1 College of Travel (D) 166 Grant Avenue San Francisco, CA (415) 392-1536 Administrator of Travel 32 sessions--$475 94108 CONNECTICUT Bridgeport County Schools 3787 Main Street Brideport, CT 06606 (203) 374-6187 Travel Agents Course 28 lessons--$295 Hartford Univ. of Hartford (S) Div. of Continuing Ed. 200 Bloomfield Ave. West Hartford, CT 06117 (203) 523-4811 x 288 Passenger Travel Principles 20 sessions--$125 Travel Agency Principles 12 sessions--$75 Southington Briarwood School for Women (D) 2279 Mt. Vernon Road Southington, CT 06489 (203) 628-4751 Travel Consultant 4 semesters--$l,265 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Int'l Travel Training Courses (D) 2501 Calvert Street, Washington, DC 20008 (202) 483-2033 Int'l Travel Training 40 sessions--$l,000 FLORIDA Miami Florida Int'l University (D) School of Hotel, Food & Travel Services 11200 S.W. 8th Street Miami, FL 33144 (305) 223-2300 N.W. 155 FLORIDA (cont'd) Miami (cont'd) Miami-Dade Com. College (D) 300 N.E. 2nd Avenue Miami, FL 33132 (305) 577-6727 Hotel, Restaurant, tution Management 2 years--AS degree Insti- HAWAII Honolulu Airtrac Int'l Travel School (D) 2379 Kuhio Ave.--Suite 42 Honolulu, HI 96815 (808) 922—2755 Air/Travel Career Basic Program 12 weeks--$950 University of Hawaii (D) School of Travel Mgt. Honolulu, HI 96822 (808) 948-8946 Travel Industry Mgt. 4 years--BA degree Laie Church College of Hawaii (D) Laie, HI 96762 (808) 293-5990 Travel Industry Mgt. 4 years--BS degree (1 & 2 year cert. courses) ILLINOIS Cahokia Parks College of St. Louis University (D) Cahokia, IL 62206 (618) 397-7100 TTT Program 3 years--BS degree Hotel, Food & Travel Services 2 years--BS degree 156 INDIANA MISSOURI Notre Dame Columbia Univ. of Notre Dame (D) Columbia College (D) College of Business Adm. Columbia, MO 65201 Notre Dame, IN 46556 (314) 443-0616 (219) 283-6248 Travel Administration Travel Management Program 2 years--AA degree 4 years--BBA degree NEVADA MASSACHUSETTS Las Vegas Amherst University of Nevada (D) Univ. of Massachusetts (D) College of Hotel Admin. Dept. of Hotel, Restaurant, 4505 Maryland Parkway & Travel Administration Las Vegas, NV 89154 Amherst, MA 01002 (702) 739-3230 (413) 545-2535 Hotel Administration Hotel, Restaurant & Travel 4 years--BS degree Administration 4 years--BS degree NEW MEXICO Albuquerque Brookline Univ. of New Mexico (S) Travel SchoolcmfAmerica an Bureau of Business & 1406 Beacon Street Economic Research Brookline, MA 02146 Albuquerque, NM 87131 (617) 566-2100 (505) 277-2216 Travel Agent Course Hospitality Training 16 weeks (nights)--$400 Workshop 6 weeks (days) --$600 4 months--tuition varies MICHIGAN NEW JERSEY Big Rapids Paramus Ferris State College (D) Meridian Travel School (D) (planning stage) Merrill-Lynch Building Big Rapids, MI 49307 Paramus, NJ 07652 (616) 796-9971 (212) 947-2368 Travel/Hospitality Mgt. Travel Agent 4 years--BS degree Tour Guide Air Freight East Lansing Michigan State Univ. (S) School of Hotel, Restaur. & Institutional Mgt. ?:i;)L§2§:33i5MI 48823 Genessee Com. College (D) College Road--Box 718 Tourism/Transportation Batavia, NY 14020 Courses (716) 343-0055 Travel and Tourism 2 years--AAS degree Hotel Management NEW YORK Batavia 157 NEW YORK (cont'd) Garden City Adelphi University (D) School of Business Adm. Garden City, NY 11530 (516) 294-8700 x 7452 TTT Program 4 years--BBA degree Hicksville Larry Austin's School of Travel (D) 560 South Broadway Hicksville, NY 11801 (516) 822-2222 New York Amer. Society of Travel Agents (C) Agency Development & Training Dept. 360 Lexington Avenue New York, NY 10017 (212) 661-2424 Travel Corres. Course 14 lessons--$200 Eastern School for Travel Agency Management (D) 721 Broadway New York, NY 10003 (212) AL4-5029 Travel Agency Mgt. 20 lessons-—$225 New York University (S) School of Continuing Educ. 50 West 4th Street New York, NY 10003 (212) 598-2101 Varying travel courses and tuitions Pace University (S) School of Continuing Educ. Pace Plaza New York, NY 10038 (212) 285-3355 14 lessons--$l75 NEW YORK (cont'd) New York (cont'd) Pohs Institute 150 Nassau Street New York, NY 10038 Sobelsohn School (D) 1540 Broadway New York, NY 10036 (212) 575-1500 Travel Agents Training Course 14 lessons--$195 Travel Agents and Hotel Representative Sales Training Course 15 1essons--$325 C00per Union (S) Cooper Square New York, NY (212) 254-6300 Geography of Tourism Niagara Falls Niagara University (D) Institute of Transporta- tion, Travel & Tourism Niagara Falls, NY 14109 (716) 285-1212 TTT Program 4 years--BS degree OHIO Stow The Learning Center, Inc. (D) 3727 Barrow Road Stow, OH 44224 (216) 688-7366 Travel Training 12 1essons--$l95 158 Manitoba Winnipeg OREGON Eugene University of Oregon (D) College of Business Adm. Eugene, OR 97403 (503) 686-3300 Transp. Courses 2 and 4 year degree programs PENNSYLVANIA Philadelphia Int'l School of Travel, Inc. (D) 1015 Chestnut Street Philadelphia, PA 19107 (215) WA2-3876 Travel Agents Training 17 lessons--$225 Learning Programs, Inc. (D) 21 South let Street Philadelphia, PA 19103 (215) LO7-2348 Travel Agents Training Program 16 lessons--$l95 UTAH Logan Utah State University (D) Institute for the Study of Outdoor Rec. and Tourism Logan, UT 84322 (801) 752-4100 x 7854 Outdoor Recreation 4 years--BS degree Univ. of Manitoba (S) Dept. of Geography Winnipeg, Man. R3T 2N2 (204) 474-8452 Geography of Tourism Ontario Peterborough Sir Sandford Fleming College (D) Brealy Drive Peterborough, Ont. K9J 7B1 (705) 743-5620 Tourism & Transportation 3 years Rexdale Humber College (D) P.O. Box 1900 Rexdale, Ont. M9W 5L7 (416) 677-6810 Travel and Tourism 3 years Thunder Bay Confederation College (D) P.O. Box 398 Thunder Bay S., Ont. P7C 4W1 (807) 577-5751 Diploma in-- Travel/Tourism Admin. 116 lessons--$250 Toronto CANADA Ryerson Polytechnical British Columbia Institute (D) Vancouver Hotel & Tourism Mgt. Prog. Canadian Travel College (C) 100 West Pender St.-- Suite 302 Vancouver, BC V6B 1R8 (604) 688-3952 Travel Agent Courses 20 1essons--$200 50 Gould Street Toronto, Ont. M5B 1E8 (416) 595-5202 Travel Agency Operations 18 lessons--$45 Hotel & Tourism Mgt. 4 years--AAB degree 159 CANADA (cont'd) Waterloo Wilfrid Laurier University (S) 75 University Avenue West Waterloo, Ont. N2L 3C5 (519) 884-1970 Seminar programs: Tourism Management Travel Agency Management Windsor St. Clair College of Applied Arts and Technology (D) 2000 Talbot Road Windsor, Ont. N9H 1A6 (519) 966-1656 x 249 Tourism 3 years BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Abrahamian, Ervand. "The 'Tudah' and the 'Firqah-i- Dimukrat.“' International Journal of Middle East Studies 1 (October 1970). Anet, Claude. Through Persia in a Motor-Car. Translated by M. Beresford Ryley. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1903. Arasteh, Reza. Education and Social Awakening in Iran. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1962. Arberry, A. J. "Persian Literature." 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