l V,.31-.x.czsar TE}? $3.11,: 1 - v d. . 7 ‘ - ' thlz’l'pt‘ “mum. ,; 1&1:ch ‘ VS 33;. .r~ r.“— ' " Ell-33.1.25 w. "5" M «E . m H ' .- v am “DEW": 5‘ 3m“; .5 ‘u . "f :16ng “~51- h I L I "V“: 7?” ~- E I ' “ xiv-EH Et‘i'rifék ##E‘LLXWE' 9%.“ “LR? (A 1.1:“ gm} . wig: x“ w man 5?} + km; lazy?" 3‘13“; &%L§ “H.474- 53:321. x, 3333* : L‘EIEL 12‘ a Ev. E3. 11$..k44.:3v""1“:| L1Jirw‘s‘k;t~5vzi‘%§gx ,4 is" t! i x ”a W? hi 33'" . u?“ . . ‘ " m “£53 .wt;%x,fi. #333}?- . “$32? E W” 'v x ‘ ‘1‘. 45$“ .. “Lag “L - {Efiav 3m: '32:?- *3 P. ' 1 vxn—i§§ ‘va ‘ " ' ‘ 3135“) ”H :k at. £3” £2“ ». ”as, 3;}. vw'wsw ... 33‘! > ‘ E __ L“ W «4:16; ‘yn :3 \‘ n, E ,. «1‘ 63.13." . ' : K x :g‘lzffiL - ‘3"? V " ' 13:54.13 LIE: '2: g '- :13 1":1!“ L ”3"“ .‘ fivfi‘ T‘mgfiyfi. @392? “ism Iv‘V’t‘v-v a“ 33557 ““i‘n. ‘2; EM ’3‘ E13131 6341‘ EX“ ‘1 “£21.13 N“ ' xx» ' v 1:*v.";;31;t>rzu.c*~‘~‘ vt" w 312;, 3:45"? .. , , £13531}? :3. MIfliLf/fliflflz'fl/gfllllfiNIWWIIIWIW LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled Chivalry and the Medieval Noble Class presented by Amy Fenner Livingstone has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements fon Master's degree in History ;% 555% Major professor DateL—v a 3 ”yr 0-7639 MSUis an “Gr-"Mi"- ‘ ' ’2 "‘n. '_, Institution MSU LIBRARIES v RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. -..r 1 C H '$ 3 1533 ' «0 j... x \‘ CHIVALRY.AND THE MEDIEVAL NOBLE CLASS BY Amy Fenner Livingstone A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of History 1985 ABSTRACT CHIVALRY AND THE MEDIEVAL NOBLE CLASS BY Amy Fenner Livingstone This paper examines the impact of chivalry on the nobility of northern France, during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. It is the contenthmn of this paper that chivalry altered the perceptions, values, attitudes, culture, and activities of the nobles, transforming the eleventh century warrior class into the twelfth century chivalrous nobility. Chivalry changed the noble warrior class in two important ways. First, through chivalry, the nobles established a secular culture which was distinct and independent from the church. Second, chivalry allowed the warrior nobles to develop into a knightly class that would serve as soldiers of God and the protectors of medieval society. To determine if chivalry changed medieval society in these two ways, a wide range of eleventh and twelfth century sources is examined including chansons de geste, romances, lais, chronicles, history, biographies, liturgy, and theological writings. The model used in this study breaks the chivalric code into three components: itsrnilitary,rufiflrh and religious dimensions.The sources are examined in terms of each of these components to determine the origins, development, maturation, and impact of chivalry. It is evident from these sources that chivalry did civilize the nobility by spawning the creation of a noble culture and by providing the clergy with a method for bringing the noble warriors completely into the fold of the church. Chivalry was one of many forces that changed early medieval society into a diverse and sophisticated culture which would mature into the early Modern period. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER I xv The Nature, Origins, and Development The Sources CHAPTER II xxix Chansons de Geste CHAPTER III leiii Chronicles of the Crusades CHAPTERIV' lVi Historical and Biographical Sources History Biographies CHAPTER\I lxxvi Court literature Romances Lais The Art of Courtly Love CHAPTER VI Ciii Liturgy of Chivalry CHAPTER VII cvii Theology John of Salisbury St. Bernard of Clairvaux CONCLUSION cxxii Endnotes cxxiv Bibliography cxxxii INTRODUCTION After the fall of the Roman Empire, western Europe experienced a period of chaos and confusion from the fifth to the ninth centuries. The force which had once held the Roman world together had disintegrated, leaving a void in the lives of the people who had once been part of the Empire. The institutions and practices which before had meaning in the west, no longer provided direction, stability , or organization. There was a need for another force to step in and provide a focus for early medieval society. The Christian church answered that call. Although the church certainly did not completely fill the gap left by the Roman Empire, the members of the clergy were able to offer direction in many areas. Since the church was one of the few surviving institutions, it was logical that people would look to it and its clergy for guidance and protection. This expansion of the church's role within the society of western Europe was to have significant repercussions throughout the later part of the medieval period. The church's more intimate involvement with secular society after the fall of the Empire put the church on the track to becoming an even more powerful institution than it had been before, one that would come to deal with more practical dimensions of society, and one that also would come to have an increasingly powerful voice within medieval society. Perhaps the culmination of theiahurch'slmalitical hegemony occurred in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when popes such as Gregory VII and Innocent III asserted their will over the secular branch of medieval society. The influence of thecflunxfliintruded into virtually every aspect of early medieval society. As well as being a powerful political force, the church was also intricately involved in the economic, social and cultural life of the early Middle Ages. The church asserted its influence into even the most personal aspects of the society, seeking to regulate everything from diet to sexual intercourse. The church dominated the cultural life of the early medieval period as well. In the period after the fall of the Roman Empire, churchmen were virtually'the only'members of western society who were literate, allowing the church to exercise a monopoly over the creative expressions of the early Middle Ages. The themes, expressions, and attitudes reflected in literature, art, music, and philosophy were dictated by the perceptions and dogmas of the medieval church. Although the cultural expressions of the early medieval period were far from stagnant or unimaginative, the church$semclusive hold on culture had to be broken before medieval European society could develop into a nmre sophisticated and culturally diverse civilization. One major force that allowed medieval Europe»to evolve from a religiously dominated society to a culture with vibrant secular culture was chivalry. Chivalry inspired medieval society to develop a secular—noble culture, one which was distinct from the religious culture of the church. Chivalry played a crucial role in the maturation of medieval culture, and helped set this society on the path to the modern era. The introducthmu of chivalric ideas charged medieval culture. New modes of expression, such as the romance, were created. Traditional creative outlets experienced a new dynamism. The flavor of medieval cultural and intellectual life was forever changed. No longer were expressions of medieval society based strictly within the church. An outlet for the concerns and ideals of the secular nobility had finally been created. Previously the nobles did not have unique cultural expressions. Nor, it could be argued, did the power brokers desire such activities or have the capacity to appreciate a uniquely noble culture. Along with creating a secular culture, chivalry also played a vital part in completely Christianizing the medieval knight. As a warrior, the knight frequently committed acts against the teachings and the institution of the church, although he was a Christian. The ideals of chivalry permitted the knights to be both warriors and Christians, thereby solving the conflict between the knight's occupation and his religion. Chivalry, therefore, civilized medieval society in two ways: it established a separate noble culture and it brought the medieval knight fully into the pale of the Christian church. The nature of chivalry is complex and multifaceted.'There are, however. three important premises that are basic to understanding how chivalry changed medieval society. First, the impact of chivalry was limited in certain ways. Second, the concepts inherent in chivalry were internalized by the medieval nobility; And third, chivalry changed the nature and function of the warrior class. These concepts are vital to understanding the role that chivalry played in the Middle Ages. The impact of chivalry was limited in two ways. First, chivalry was an exclusive product of the upper class. The common peasant or merchant had little interest in the lofty ideals of chivalry. More practical matters such as keeping himself and his family alive occupied his time. Chivalry was articulated by the noble class and reflected its values and interests. Secondly, chivalry was predominantly a cultural and social phenomenon. The introduction of chivalric ideals and practices revolutionized the cultural expressions of the medieval period. In a social context chivalry had an extremely important impact on the social role and character of the medieval nobility. Although chivalry was limited in these ways, its concepts governed the leadership class, and in doing so revitalized medieval society. If chivalry was the force which set up a distinct noble culture, chivalric ideals must have been truly internalized by the medieval nobility.]1:has been suggested that chivalry was not really a part of the nobles' attitudes or values, but merely a set of abstract ideas to which the nobles gave vague lip service, a veneer over a barbarous society. On the contrary, the ideals of chivalry were indeed internalized by the medieval nobility: they became the value system which guided the attitudes and behavior of the noble class. Chivalry was in fact a way of life for the knightly class. Manuals were produced to educate the knights and ladies on the finer points of chivalry. Tournaments were held where the concepts of chivalric behavior could be practiced in a controlled setting. At these meetings the knights conducted themselves intflmamost chivalrous manner,tx>impress the ladies and to have tales of their fame circulated. The tournament provided a world in which the nobles could immerse themselves in the ideals and activities of chivalry. Additionally, the art and literature of the later medieval period reflect the hold that chivalry had on the psyche of the medieval world. In the romances of the later twelfth century, for example, the heroes and ladies display many chivalric characteristics. The ideals represented in the romances were further internalized by the nobility in the form of the pageant. The pageant participants took (N) the personalities (H? the characters in the romances. They used elaborate props and costumes to create the image of Arthur's court. Finally, the art of the later medieval period also illustrates the internalization of the ideas of chivalry. Many of the great cathedrals of the Gothic period contain scenes from chivalrous stories and romances. Arthur and Roland are immortalized in the stone and glass of these monuments. Chivalry was not a veneer. It had a firm hold on the minds of the Middle Ages“ Chivalry was indeed part of the cultural expressions of the artists, poets, and nobles of the medieval period. The third premise basic to the understanding of chivalry is that the development of chivalry within the warrior class changed its character. In the early medieval period of invasions, the warriors were needed to protect medieval society. As the external threat began to recede, however, the aggressive tendencies of the warriors were turned on each other and on other elements of society, causing internal strife and disruption across the countryside. The marauding nature of the early medieval warrior resulted in what is labeled "the paradox of the knight". The occupational activities of the warrior were far from the Christian path, causing a conflict between his faith and his occupation. He professed to be a Christian, but because of his role in society he often committed acts that ran counter to the teachings of the church. The introduction of chivalry relieved this situation.11:channeled the aggressiveness of the knights against infidels and other enemies of the Christian church. The warrior class was in a sense fully Christianized by the introduction of chivalry. The skills of the knights were legitimized in a Christian context. It was now possible for the knights to be both Christians and warriors. The warrior class matured from marauders to knights in the service of Christendom. The behavior of the noble warrior class was changed, and that in turn changed the character of the nobles and their role within medieval society. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate that chivalry was a major force that broke the church‘s monopoly on cultural expression and that a distinctly secular culture was established. The social and cultural fabric was changed by chivalry. The values which guided decisions and behavior were increasingly materialistic and pragmatic, reflecting the needs of the emerging noble class. The relationship between the church and chivalry will also be addressed in this paper. It is my belief that the ideology of chivalry allowed the medieval warrior knight to become a Christian in practice and theory. If chivalry civilized the nobility, how did it change this segment of medieval society between the eleventh and twelfth centuries? The nobles of eleventh century France were an unruly and rather uncouth bunch. Sidney Painter describes them as: "1 By and large "".fierce, undisciplined, warrior Chieftains. this century was still a period of force, and even the cultural expressions were tempered by this warrior ethic. These knights wreaked havoc on medieval society in their violent rampages. As savage warriors, the eleventh century nobleJS outbursts often violated the laws, members, and holdings of the church. The "paradox of the knight" plagued the society of the eleventh century. However, in the early twelfth century the separate elements of chivalry were merged and began to change the knightly class. No longer did the knight disrupt society; instead he became the peace keeper. It was his duty to defend medieval society from tyrants and infidels alike, rescue damsels in distress, and protect the weak.<3hivalry also inspired the knight to become interested in culture, which is evident in the development of a noble chivalric culture in the mid—twelfth century. While there is no doubt that the eleventh century warriors produced their own form of culture, it was one based upon the warrior ethic. The chivalric culture of the following century was more diverse and sophisticated. It took into account many elements besides the military. The knight of the twelfth century was a noble, a courtly lover, socially concerned, and religious. The code of ethics thattavolved from chivalry governed more than just the battlefield, but also court life, love, and the relationship between the knight and the church. Chivalry sparked the knightfls interest in cultural expressions. New forms of literature developed to satisfy the knight's and lady's craving for tales of chivalry. The chivalric code also brought the warrior noble into the fold of the church. The paradox of the knight was solved. Instead of using their muscle against other members of medieval society, knights became the defenders of Christendom and the partners of the church. Chivalry caused the eleventh century warrior to mature into the twelfth century noble, thereby changing the nature of the nobility. Before tackling the proofs of this argument, it is necessary to present a historiographical view of how modern scholars have studied chivalry. Scholars have devised several ways to approach chivalrgn Basically the scholarly approach to chivalry can be broken into roughly two groups: social and ideological. The social treatment can be divided further into sociological and historical approaches. An example of the sociological category is Georges Duby"s Chivalrous Society, which is a thorough examination of the society that produced and participated in the ideals of chivalry. Inflnr probes topics snufli as lineage, social classification, judicial institutions, the origins of knighthood, and the economy of both manors and peasants. While Duby may deal with certain "ideas" prevalent in this society, this work is not by and large a discussion of the ideology of chivalry. The historical approach deals with chivalry in another way. This methodology traces the impact that chivalry had on society throughout the Middle Ages and even beyond. Works such as Richard Barber's The Knight and Chivalry and Charles T. Wood's The Age of Chivalry are examples of the historical treatment of chivalry. The other major method of approach taken by scholars is the ideological. This type of scholarship deals with the ideology of chivalry, what elements made up this ideology, their origins, and how they affected medieval society. French Chivalry: Chivalric Ideas and Practices in Medieval France by Sidney Painter, and Chivalry by Maurice Keen are examples of this sort of approach to the study of chivalry. It is in this category that this paper fits, since it too deals with the ideals that made up chivalry, how they civilized the medieval nobility, andifluaimpact that they had on the church. In both of the works cited as representative of the ideological approach to chivalry, the authors break chivalry down into what they believe are its essential parts, and then use the various elements as a model for discussing the origins, development, and impact of chivalry. Painter and Keen employ slightly different models in their treatments.Peinter breaks chivalry into three parts: feudal, courtly lxnmh and the religious“ Painter's View of the feudal origins of chivalry is acceptable, but it does not take into account the development of a noble culture that was inherent in chivalry and aided by the attitudes oftflmefeudal noble c1ass.His treatmentcnfthe other two elements of chivalry is also problematic. In his book, Painter asserts that the chivalric ideals of courtly love and religion were imposed on the knights by their ladies and by the church.2 I disagree with this approach for two reasons. First, it is difficult to imagine either the ladies or the clergy forcing their views on the knights who were fierce and unruly warriors. Second, and more importantly, Painter's description of the elements of courtly love and religion implies that these ideas were "imposed" on the knights from an outside force, and that these elements did not grow naturally out of medieval society. I disagree. The courtly and religious ideals of chivalry were not imposed; rather they were the response to the needs and interests of an important segment of medieval society. Another flaw with Painter's treatment of the courtly and religious elements of chivalry is his assertion that the Church's and the courtly noblewoman's views of the knight were contradictory. This is certainly true in some respects. The ladies were interested in encouraging knights to indulge in love affairs, while the church was concerned with improving their moral fiber. However, the characteristics that both the clergy and the ladies expected were essentially the same. Both parties believed a knight must be strong, skilled in battle, courteous, generous, honorable, noble, and the defender of the weak and helpless. Painter's consideration of the courtly and religious is in my opinion off the mark to this extent.]kiaddition Painter believes that the three areas of chivalry were mutually exclusive. I find this assertion unacceptable because the elements of chivalry grew out of medieval society as a whole, not out of neat compartments within the society. For this reason the boundaries between the various aspects of chivalry are gray and tend to overlap. Because of these flaws in Painter's perception of chivalry, I have 10 rejected his model for purposes of this thesis. In his book Chivalry, Maurice Keen presents yet another model. Like Painter, Keen breaks chivalry into three parts: martial, aristocratic, and Christian. This model, in my opinion, best fits chivalry and shall be the one employed in this consideration of chivalry, although the terminology will be slightly altered. Instead of martial, aristocratic, and Christian, my model will consist of military, noble, and religious dimensions. While the terms are different from Keenis, the ideas and elements contained in them are basically the same. My reason for selecting this model is simple. I believe that these three terms best represent the strands that combined to make up the fabric of chivalry. Painter uses "feudal" as part of his model. While I certainly agree that feudalism was crucial to the development of chivalry, I prefer to use the terms military and noble instead. Feudalism contributed to chivalry in these two ways.Tflmamilitary attributes of chivalry came directly out of the feudal realm. Likewise, the noble elements were also derived from feudal society. These two aspects of feudalism affected the development of chivalry in different ways, and for this reason I believe they need to be considered separately. In regard to the place of courtly love, I do not think that it should be treated as an independent aspect of chivalry. The concepts of courtly love grew out of all the dimensions of chivalry, making it a manifestation of chivalry rather than an autonomous element. Keen's model, which I have adopted, seems most representative of the origins, nature, and development. Another aspect of Keen's ll model with which.I concur is his assumption that chivalry grew naturally out of medieval society. The concepts which made up chivalry had been a part of the medieval world for generations. These "old" elements inherent in the medieval world were combined into a "new" expression, chivalry. 3 Another issue surrounding chivalry is the debate about "the paradox of the knight". The term refers to the conflict that existed within the knight, between his warrior activities and his supposed Christian values. The knight professed to be Christians, but his occupation and his war-like nature often led him to violate other members of society and even the church itself. This paradox caused problems for medieval society and something needed to be done to resolve this problem. Scholars do not disagree on the question of this "paradox", but they do differ over what force provided the solution. Most scholars believe that the paradox was solved when the warrior knights were finally Christianized and brought into the fold of the church. But what force allowed the warriors to become true Christians? Georges Duby argues that the Truce of God provided the solution. He states: " The peace was widened and deepened in a special way. It offered the class of knights, henceforth well established in the new society, a kind of asceticism appropriate to the function of their grgg.u.This time the laws of the truce werea part of attempts by the feudal church to christianize the warrior's ethicfl'4 Other scholars believe that itvnusthe Crusades which solved the "paradox of the knight". Charles T. Wood suggests this in his book, The Age of Chivalry. He states: " If the knight of 12 earlier times had been purely the warrior, with religious convictions bearing little relation to the profession he followed, under the impact of the Crusades these two sides of his personality began to merge....Suddenly transformed into soldiers of Christ, most nobles increasingly assumed that the bearing of arms was to be viewed as a religious experience." 5 While both of these scholars have different views of the primary force for the solution to this problem, each realizes that other forces also contributed to the final solution. Duby states that the Crusade carried the concepts of the Peace of God to its full fruition. Likewise, Wood acknowledges the contribution that the Peaceggf 929 made to the formation of the crusading Christian knight. Both of these scholars present two logical candidates for the solution to the "paradox of the knight". However, it is my contention that chivalry was the ideology that allowed for this paradox to be remedied. While I do not dispute the important role that the Peace of ESQ and the Crusade played in the final solution, I believe that the ideals articulated in chivalry provided perhaps a more complete solution, in a sense combining the ideals of peace and cooperation of the Peace of G_od with the militancy of the Crusades. In relation to other scholarship on this subject, this paper belongs to the ideological approach to chivalry. The material presented deals with the ideas of chivalry, what they entailed, and how they affected medieval society. By examining a wider range of sources usually employed in a study of chivalry, this paper will demonstrate the penetration of chivalry into 13 secular and clerical perceptions, and how this process resulted in a change in the medieval noble class. Instead of considering only romances, chansons de geste, lais, or chivalric manuals which were produced by and for the chivalric court, the sources under discussion also include chronicles, histories, biographies, liturgy, and theology, outlets of expression which were outside the chivalric court. This more diverse group of sources allows for a more complete consideration of chivalry and its impact on both the secular and sacred elements of medieval society. 14 CHAPTER I THE NATURE, ORIGINS, AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHIVALRY A precise definition of "chivalry" is difficult; It has a wide range of implications. One way to approach chivalry is to define it an; a set of ideals which governed the behavior patterns and activities of the medieval nobility. Chivalry, considered in these terms, is an ideology. It imposed certain ethical practices on the medieval noble class. The ideals of chivalry grew out of noble society, and were strongly tempered by certain elements of the warrior ethic, feudalism, and religious ideas on knighthood. Consequently, chivalry can be divided into three parts: military, noble, and religious. Each of these strands of chivalry dictated certain ideal characteristics. The military dimension insisted on strength, physical prowess and attractiveness, moderation, and loyalty. The noble requirements consisted of personal and familial honor, generosity, concern with material status symbols, and courtesy. Aspects of chivalry derived from the sacred realm included being a devout Christian, protecting the weak and helpless, and being a soldier of Christ. These virtues made up the ideology of chivalry. However, this is only one aspect of the entire spectrum of chivalry. While the term "chivalry" can refer simply to an ethos, it can also be applied to a culture. The concepts combined in chivalry sparked a tremendous cultural response in the nobility. New forms of expression, such as the romance, were created to 15 satisfy the noble's interest in chivalry. Cultural manifestations, such as the literature, art and philosophy, reflected chivalric concepts, characters, and behavior. Therefore, "chivalry" may then refer to the culture which was spawned by this code of ethicsu For the purposes of this study, chivalry will be defined as a set of values and behavior patterns that guided the nobility, which ultimately created its own unique culture. It is important to realize that both the ideology and culture of chivalry represent only one layer of medieval perception. Because chivalry combined various elements of medieval society, these elements already existed outside the realm of chivalry. For example, a feudal culture existed independently from the realm of chivalry, as did an urban culture. Similarly concepts of lineage, honor, and social responsibility, ebcu,were perceived in other ways outside the chivalrous world. The novelty of chivalry was not based upon any innovation in its separate parts, but, rather in its distinct and unique combination of a variety of elements from many medieval institutions. The behavior and concepts mentioned above represent chivalry in its most developed state. Out of what set of circumstances did chivalry emerge andlunvdid chivalry develop? The origins of some of the ideals inherent in chivalry can be traced back to Germanic tribal society of the third, fourth , and fifth centuries AJLW and the phenomenon of the war band. These bands were formed whenever the tribes needed to defend themselves or to 16 conduct raids on other people. The band consisted of a leader and his followers. The men swore oaths of loyalty to each other and vowed to protect the leader, even at the expense of their own lives. The function of the war band within the society was strictly militaristic, at least for short periods of time. Members enjoyed an elite status. Participation reflected the individuals place within the society: only thosevflu>were free men could participate. Following the chaos of the fall of Rome, Germanic kingdoms dotted the landscape of western Europe, kingdoms such as those of the Lombards, Franks, and Visigoths. Like the earlier tribal leaders, the rulers of these rather tenuous kingdoms relied heavily'on their band of sworn followers to assert their royal will, and to provide advice and protection. The war band circle played an important role in the early Germanic kingdoms as advisors and strongmen. This "inner circle" continued on into the Merovingian and Carolingian eras. The influencetof the circle escalated during the reign of the Merovingian "do nothing" kings. Pepin's membership, as mayor of the palace, in this group caused the Carolingian dynasty to come into power. With the advent of the Carolingian Empire, the role the circle of advisors played became even more crucial. The success of the Empire strongly depended on the ability of the king's men to help run his empire. Charlemagne himself relied heavily on his circle of advisors and supporters. The function of the war band had been expanded through the centuries, but the bonds that defined both the war band and the retinue of kings were essentially the same. 17 Strength, Skill, and loyalty were still at a premium. The rise of feudalism further cemented the concepts of the war band into medieval attitudes. The feudal lord also came to depend upon his vassals to provide him with advice and to carry out his word. The concepts which had created the Germanic war band far back in the mists of this period survived through the generations to become an inherent part of the make up of medieval society; Chivalry adopted these values, insuring their survival far into the future. While some of the concepts had their beginnings in the Germanic past,ichivalry'was firmly grounded in feudal society. Feudalism was the institution that defined the society of the Middle Ages, and was particularly important for the noble warrior class. Feudalism began its development during the period of invasions, when virtually all of Western Europe was thrown into terror and turmoil. People began to search for protectors and entered into relationships to insure their survival. The advent of feudalism had serious repercussions for the warrior class. Previouslyy the warrior class asserted.its domination over the rest of society by their ownership of land, their control of dependents, and their muscle.1 The articulation of feudalism gave the warrior nobles even more power. Feudalism was a response to the waning power and influence of the central monarchies. The kings could no longer provide protection, social services, or justice. In their place local pockets of power emerged to respond to these needs. Feudalism allowed the warrior nobles to become rulers of their own little principalities, drastically 18 increasing the nobles' power, and creating a feudal elite. Like Chivalry; "feudalism" is a multifaceted termwiFeudalism can refer to the pragmatic responses of the local lords to the power vacuum left by the recession of the monarchs, but this term can also embody a set of ideals that were produced by the concepts which governed the feudal world. For example, an ideal vassal would possess the virtues of honor, loyalty, bravery, military skill, and adherence to oaths. The feudal lord should also be honorable and loyal, but also just, generous, and responsible for his dependents. These ideals were an integral part of the society that produced chivalry, and many of them became the values, virtues, and attitudes of chivalry.2 Physical strength and success in battle made a good vassal in the feudal world, and both became crucial for the chivalrous knight. Honor and loyalty were important.]kia feudal society these two concepts were the cement which bonded the society together. Adherence to the oaths, knight to noble, vassal to lord, was another important military and feudal concept. A chivalrous knight always kept his word, it was a regulation of the chivalric code. It became a point of honor. The personal honor of the knight reflected his "noble" status within medieval society. The noble attributes of chivalry are in a sense class oriented. They were the characteristics which distinguished a person from the rest of the unchivalrous world. The idea of honor became more fully developed and began to include a variety of expressions. Familial honor became increasingly important. The family name was held sacred and to be defended to the death. As 19 chivalry evolved within the ranks of the nobility these two traits, loyalty and honor, became necessary requirements for the chivalrous knight. The feudal ideal of generosity or largesse also influenced the perceptions of chivalryu Generosity was a“) important characteristic for the feudal lord. To be considered a good lord, the feudal lord hadtx>be generous to his retainers and guests. The chivalric theme of largesse was borrowed from the feudal realm and applied to the chivalric knight, lady,lord. The ideals which governed the feudal realm were adopted into chivalry. Likewise the characteristics of the ideal feudal leader, king or lord, became part of the chivalrous realm as well. The ideal feudal lord was strong, wise, and just. His role in society was to preserve order and protect those in his charge. The feudal leader was entrusted to care for the weak, orphaned, widowed, and the poor. This was part of the lordis feudal duty. These feudal ideals were included in chivalry and more fully articulated. The simple chivalrous knight, along with the kings and nobles, was expected.toiconduct himself in the same manner. The concepts which were the very essence of the feudal world were incorporated in chivalry where they reached their most developed expression and application. The church, too, contributed mightily to the evolution of chivalry. As a large landowner, its properties were often the object of the nobles' rampages. Their concern caused the clergy to develop ways to channel the energies of the knights and nobles into activities which would serve and protect the church and 20 society. The Truce f God and attempts to solveethe "paradox of the Knight" are examples of the church's campaign for stability and peace. The knights were to become the soldiers of God. The ideals proposed by the church were adopted by chivalry, thereby giving chivalry its religious values. The social and moral obligations of the chivalrous knight and lord were introduced by both the feudal and religious dimensions of chivalry. For example, the chivalric duty of helping widows and orphans has obvious roots in the feudal obligations of lords. Similarly, the chivalrous concept of protecting Christians and the church were duties introduced into chivalry by medieval churchmen.The religious dimension of chivalry asked the knights to defend Christianity and its followers from all threats, insuring internal stability as well as fighting against the infidel. The chivalrous knight became the right hand of the church, its defender. With the three primary elements of chivalry in place, it is necessary to formulate a chronology for the development of chivalry. In the eleventh century, the elements of chivalry were already present. The military virtues of bravery, loyalty, prowess were the legacy of the Germanic war bands and were further developed in the feudal context. The noble traits of honor, the importance of lineage, and concern with material symbols of status were part of the feudal noble's attitudes. Finally, in the religious realm, the idea of the knights fighting a holy war for God and Christendom was evident in eleventh century thought (see the Song of Roland). The social obligations 21 of the knight's had also been articulated in the Peace gf Egg movement, and were a part of eleventh century perceptions. The separate ingredients were present; all that was needed was the glue to bond them together into chivalry. The force that blended the secular and sacred sides of the medieval knight was the First Crusade in 1995. As Charles T. Wood states: "If the knight of earlier times had been purely the warrior, with religious convictions bearing bearing little relation to the profession he followed, under the impact of the Crusades these two sides of his personality began tomerge."3 Duby also believes the Crusades were an important turning point in the development of chivalry. The warrior/noble elements of the knight were merged with the religious/social to create the chivalrous knight. The First Crusade was really the first practical implementation of chivalry. It allowed the knights to use their military skill against the infidel and in defense of Christendom. While the western knights had repelled the Muslims previously, the ideas surrounding these ventures were not the same. The ideological atmosphere of the First Crusade was unique, and ultimately provided the spark that ignited the blaze of chivalry.4 The beginning of the twelfth century was the dawn of chivalry. Charles T. Wood states that after the First Crusade: "In a word, the age of chivalry had arrived."5Althoughthe necessary elements had be joined, they needed to mature. This process occurred between 1100 and 1150. During this period chivalry continued to evolve, until its culmination in the mid- twelfth century. It was in this time frame that all the ideals of 22 chivalry infiltrated the perceptions of the nobility and even the clergy. As the years passed, chivalry became increasingly popular with the nobles, its attitudes gradually evolving and changing. The clergy too reacted to chivalry, accepting some of its ideals and rejecting many. By 1150 both the secular and religious sides of chivalry had matured. These elements inspired the creation of a distinct noble culture and system of ethics. This is evident in the development of a chivalric court culture and the advent of courtly love. In addition to these secular achievements, by the mid-twelfth century the church realized that chivalry was not a fad, and had begun accepting certain elements of chivalry. In fact, the clergy used chivalry to aid in the Christianization of the medieval nobility, and they were making significant progress. The date 1150 represents the maturation of chivalry, but its presence in medieval society was far from finished. The attitudes, ideals, practices, culture and material expressions of chivalry would become increasingly elaborate» The age of chivalry had just begun.6 THE SOURCES With this general description of the nature, origin, and development of chivalry as background, primary sources will be examined to determine the impact of chivalry on the civilization of the medieval world. The sources to be used all date from roughly the end of the eleventh century to the end of the twelfth. They are from France, specifically the north of France. The reason for choosing the north of France as the area of study 23 is due to the profound cultural explosion that occurred here in the twelfth century. It was in the north of France that chivalry underwent its development. The existing cultural expressions and attitudes of this part of France influenced the articulation of chivalry, making it necessary to examine materials from this area to understand how and why chivalry evolved. The time frame of this study spans the the late eleventh to the twelfth century. This period was selected because the beginnings,the formulation, and the maturation of chivalry occurred in these centuries. The sources will be examined to determine what elements or manifestations of chivalry were present, and what impact they had on the author's perceptions. Some (HE the sources under consideration were written to educate or reform the nobility. These sources will be viewed to see how the ideals of chivalry' were employed to change or regulate the behavior of the nobility. By employing the sources in this manner, it is possible to determine in what ways chivalry affected the attitudes and behavior of medieval people. The primary sources under consideration can be broken down into roughly two groups: literature and theology. Under the heading of literature there are a variety of types. The first, secular literature, includes the chansons de geste, romances, and lais. These works were produced for the secular audience and reflect the values and activities of the secular nobility. Specifically two chansons de geste will 1x3 taken into consideration The Song of Roland and Raoul d3 Cambrai. The romances to be discussed are those of Chretien de Troyes: Erec 24 and Enide, Cliges, Yvain, Lancelot, and Perceva1:the story pf the Grail. The Lais of Marie de France and The Art o_f Courtly Love by Andreas Capellanus round out the sources from the secular realm. While these sources all represent secular literature, they were written roughly over a period of a century. The chansons date from the eleventh century, and the romances are from the twelfth. For this reason, these sources will not be treated together, but as they occur chronologicallqu The sources will be examined in the following chronological order: chansons de geste, chronicles, history and biographies, and finally court literature. In combination these sources reflect the maturation of chivalry through the eleventh to the twelfth century. The chronicles will be considered after the chansons de geste, because they represent the merging of the elements present in the eleventh century epics. The Gesta Francorum and the History:gf_the Expedition to Jerusalem 1095-1127 by Fulcher of Chartres deal with the First Crusade. These chronicles illustrate the development of chivalry and chivalry in action. In addition, these two chronicles provide a contrast between the secular and sacred attitudes toward chivalry and the medieval nobility, since the Gesta was written by a layman and Fulcher of<3hartres was a priest. Further, the chronicles were a record made at the time of the event. The chronicles of the First Crusade are useful because they can provide insight into whether or not chivalric concepts were employed to describe contemporary society. History and biographies represent the next category of secular literature. In contrast to the chronicles these sources 25 record the past. Therefore, they illustrate how deeply chivalry had penetrated the perceptions of the clergy and nobility in the first half of the twelfth century. The ideals of chivalry were so ingrained they were used to evaluate events and societies of the past. The historical source to be examined is the Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis written c.1114-1l35. This source deals with the history of Normandy. Although it is an ecclesiastical history, Orderic provides a through discussion of the Norman nobility as well. Four biographies will be under consideration: Autobiography gf Guibert g3 Nogent; and 23 Profectione Ludovici ELIE Orientem by Odo of Deuil written in 1148. The epic cycle of Guilliame dflOrange will also be examined; although it is not a formal biographical work, it presents the life of a single nobleman. The story of Guillaume d'Orange was written throughout the twelfth century. Through biographies it is possible to discern what characteristics were most desirable in a chivalrous personality. The biography is also equally useful in determining what characteristics and behavior were not part of the chivalrous individual. While the two biographies by Suger and Odo of Deuil and the epic cycle of William of Orange are concerned with strictly secular personalities, The Autobiography of Guibert d3 Nogent is about a member of the clergy, written between 1064- 1125. However, Guibert was raised as a member of the nobility and was exposed to the ideals of chivalry. This piece of literature is useful for two reasons. First, it allows one to see how deeply chivalry penetrated the noble personality. In other words, when 26 Guibert became a cleric, did he lose his noble chivalric values and attitudes. Second, this autobiography presents a churchman%; reaction to chivalry and the chivalrous society of the nobility. Following the history and biographies, the court literature of the mid—twelfth century will be considered. Court literature includes the romances of Chretien de Troyes, the lais of Marie de France, and Andreas Capellanus' treatise on courtly love. These sources were produced by the courts of northern France around 1160, and reflect the maturation of chivalry, the development of a noble culture and code of ethics. The second major group of sources consists of theological works. While strictly theological sources represent perhaps a more doctrinal View of chivalry, liturgical sources reflect the popular View and the interaction of the church with chivalry. An important part of knighthood and chivalry was the ceremony of dubbing and the receiving of arms. These ceremonies were conducted within the church , and a ceremonial literature developed.‘The benedictio or prayers surrounding these ceremonies reflect the attitudes of the church toward the activities, behavior, and virtues of the knights. A selection of these benedictio will be examined to illustrate the church's perception of chivalry and knighthood. The theological treatises under consideration are those of some of the major theologians of the period under discussion. The first theologian to be examined is John of Salisbury, an Englishman. He is included here with French sources because he was educated in France and was the bishop of Chartres.1flmesame 27 forces which formed the great minds of the continent also shaped the intellect of John of Salisbury. His work The Policraticus will ins considered as well. as some of his personal correspondence. The theologian Bernand of Clairvaux, his personality and work, specifically his I2 Praise gf the New Knighthood, will be examined. Although both of these men were members of the clergy, they were intimately involved in the secular realm as well and reflect the attitudes of the day. Their work also illustrates how the ideals of chivalry had penetrated the clergy and their attitudes reflect the churchfis reaction to chivalry. These sources were selected to provide a wide spectrum of opinion and view points. A careful exploration of the characters, activities, and ideas present in the literature will illustrate the civilizing impact that chivalry had on the culture and occupation of the medieval nobility. 28 CHAPTER II CHANSONS DE GESTE An examination of the chansons de geste will begin the discussion of secular literature, since they are the earliest form of secular expression.to be considered.1flmetwo pieces of this type of literature that will be considered are The mg 331m and Raoul d_e Cambrai. The plots, characters, events, and ideals in these poems reflect the infancy of chivalric attitudes. They also illustrate the preoccupation with things secular, with the feudal concerns of the medieval nobility. Both of these chansons were products of the eleventh century. They reflect the nascent values of chivalry, values which would become fully developed in the literature of the twelfth century. The Song of Roland is one of the most famous pieces of medieval literature. The events and characters in the story occurred in the eighth century, but were not written down in final form until the eleventh century. The actual ambush at Roncevaux probably occurred, but was certainly expanded and elaborated over the centuries. Charlemagne and his followers were returning to France after fighting the Saracens in Spain. Roland, Charlemagne's nephew, was put in charge of the rear guard. Guenes, an uncle of Roland, was jealous of him and arranged with a Muslim prince to ambush Roland in the passage at Roncevaux. Roland and his followers put up a courageous fight, but were eventually slaughtered. Charlemagne and his troops heard the blast from Olifant, the horn which was sounded to indicate danger 29 or trouble, but arrived at the scene only to find all the good knights dead. The rest of the story deals with the grief of Charlemagne and his court over the death of Roland and the peers, and the realization of betrayal and the judgment of Guénes. The story of Roland is steeped in feudal and chivalric imagery. As a war story, the poem provides a rich source of information about the military practices of the eleventh century, and demonstrates an emerging code of secular values and concerns. Throughout the epic Roland, Charlemagne, their knights, and even the Saracens are praised for their skill and endurance in battle. For example, ennui the aged Charlemagne is praised for his strength by the Muslim king Marsile: "H.Two hundred years and more I know he's seen;/In lands so many he's brought to beggary-/ When will he weary of fighting in the field?"1 Roland and Oliver are also praised for their ability in battle: "Roland is fierce and Oliver is wise/And both for valour may bear away the "2 The other peers are similarly praised: "Now Margaris prize.... is a right valiant peer,/ Buxom and strong, nimble and fleet and fierce...."3 Loyalty to their lord Charlemagne and compatriots was important. Roland encourages his men on in battle: "...Here must we stand to serve on the King's side./Men for their lords great hardship must abide,/Fierce heat and cold endure in every clime,/Lose for his sake, if need be, skin and hide...."4 Again Roland illustrates his loyalty to his lord: "".When the King have us the French to serve this need/These twenty thousand he chose to do the deed;/And well he knew not one would flinch or flee. / Men must endure much hardship for their liege,/And bear 30 for him great cold and burning heat,/Suffer sharp wounds and let their bodies bleed...."5 Archbishop Turpin too displays loyalty to Charlemagne: "Barons, my lords, Charles picked us for this purpose;/We must be ready to die in our King's service...."6 The traits of prowess and loyalty were vital in the medieval knight and chivalry adopted these traits. In addition to the physical prowess of the knights, other attributes were considered important in the §Bflfl of Rglggg. Wisdom was required of the knights, wisdom in battle , but also wisdom in counseling their lord. At the outset of the poem, Charlemagne asks his men to advise him on the offer he has .\ received from the Muslim king Marsile: " He was not a man hasty in reply,/But wont to speak only when well advised."7 Charlemagner men debate the point, offering their own opinions. It was necessary for the knight to give wise counsel, for he would be held accountable if his advice was faulty. Oliver was often praised in the poem for his wisdomu Roland, on the other hand, was more often praised for his bravery and physical prowess. This opposition provides for an important contrast. In a sense the personalities of Oliver and Roland can be seen as making up one knight: " Roland is fierce and Oliver is wise...."8 Both embody important characteristics, but neither is complete. Roland tends to be brash and intemperate. The whole tragedy at Roncevaux occurred because Roland was over confident and did not have the good sense to summon the other troops, as Oliver suggested. Along with his lack of foresight, the character of Roland also suffered from immoderation. At the outset of the 31 story, when Charlemagne asked for his knightfls counsel, Roland was impassioned in his outbursts. He is described as "high of heart and stubborn of your mood "9 by Oliver. Another example of Roland's explosiveness is his attempt to convince Charlemagne to attack Marsile. Roland goes on at length boasting about his military successes. Roland is not a mature knight. He is too often governed by his emotions rather than good sense. 10 The virtues of wisdom and moderation were important in the medieval knight. Roland‘s fate provides an example of what can happen to knights who are not moderate or temperate. Once again the appearance of these themes, loyalty, prowess, wisdom and moderation represent.a preoccupation that would develop even more fully with chivalry, and that would in turn change the cultural expressions and very nature of the medieval nobility. The Song of Roland articulates a code of battle. These rules were the basis for the chivalric idea of courtesy, eéh rules governing one on one combat, when to yield or give mercy. Since these warriors were knights, they were expected to obey these rules. If they did not, they acted dishonorably and it was a reflection on their personal honor. The rules which governed Roland and his contemporaries on the battle field were the beginnings of the code of courtesy which later governed the chivalrous knight. The Song 3: Roland reflects the some of values later incorporated into the chivalric code. These preoccupations represent the beginnings of chivalry and changes which were taking place in the society at that time. Another theme in the Song of Roland that prefigures chivalry 32 and represents the beginning of a new tradition in literary expression is that of secular love. The bonds of affection that existed between the knights, individuallqn and.the knights and their lords are often alluded to. The relationship that existed between Roland and Oliver illustrates the love and respect between knights. Similarly, the love between Charlemagne and Roland represents the emotional ties between lord and vassal, as well as between family members. When Charlemagne realized that the rear guard had been slaughtered he reacted with great emotion. The process of grieving is described in detail. It is really the (”H47 loving emotion genuinely expressed by the characters.This expressionzhsuhiquely secular, it represents the relationships that held medieval society together. In later chivalry it was necessary for the medieval knight or lord to have the love and respect of his men and peers, and it was necessary for the lord to love his men. The love expressed in The Song of Rgland is between men and comrades. In later literature the concept of love between men and women would find expression and evolve into the idea of courtly love. The emotion of love expressed in this poem is secular not spiritual. It paved the way for further expression and experimentation in the realm of love. The noble dimension of chivalry is apparent in the m of BBlEBQ as well as the military. There are essentially three topics in the poem which illustrate this: the preoccupation with status symbols and material wealth, the vital importance of personal honor and fame, and the importance of family connections and relationships. 33 The splendor of the armor and other accoutrements of the knight reflected the importance attached to material wealth. For example, the saddle of a particular knight may be described as bejeweled or as having a fancy pattern, usually flowers, worked on the leather. The most common reference, however, is to golden spurs, an important status symbol. It seems that only a select few could have golden spurs, Roland and Guénes were among them. Along with the armor, the horse of the knight was also a reflection of his status. If a knight mounted any other kind of horse besides a destrier, it was a mark against his honor. For example, when Count Guénes is arrested he is: "H.Now on a pack- horse they've hoisted him in shame."11 In addition to the accoutrements of war serving as status symbols, clothing also seems to have been a sign of noble stature. Guenes' clothing is described several times:"n.his great furred gown of marten he "12 and "u.He has on him a sable—fur-lined flings back.n. cloak/Covered with silk which Alexandria wove."l3 As well as being concerned with various expressions of wealth and status, the physical appearance of the knight is also part of what makes him noble» SomehOW'there were certain physical characteristics that were inherent in the nobility. For example, Charlemagne is described: "".White are his looks, and silver is his beard,/ His 14 The insistence that all body noble» his countenance severeJ' knights be noble and fair becomes an important theme in later chivalric literature. The Song of Roland contains a hint of this later concern with physical beauty. The attention paid to the material and physical symbols of knighthood illustrates an 34 interest in things bound in the earthly realm. These concerns demonstrate an interest in the secular world, which would become fully articulated in the expressions of chivalry. Honor is another trait that served to distinguish the knights as noble. The knights' word was completely and totally binding, and a