5—. ~r~ ‘0‘- my ABSTRACT RESPONDENT NEEDS AND YOUNG ADULT ADJUSTMENT: THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INSTRUMENT TO TEST RESPONDENT NEEDS by Donald Albert Wright An individual responds to his primary groups and a group responds to the individuals who belong through a complex network of needs. The focus of this study is on these re- spondent needs of young adults. Respondent needs are organized in a construct using ten categories: economy, polity, values, rootedness, related- ness, awareness, ecology, release, integration, and security. The relationships of the needs of the individual to the needs of his primary groups (family, work, peer, religious, social, etc.) are described. The main theme of the construct is the necessity for the group to fulfill the needs of the indivi— dual and the requirement that the individual meets the needs of the group. His needs and the needs of the group are recipro- cal —- each satisfying and to some extent denying or limiting the other. In order to test out the usefulness of this needs construct in working with young adults, the Y.M.C.A. of Metropolitan Detroit initiated a project and developed a program for young adults. The program was designed for young adults who had poor adjustment, that is, for those who had one or more of the following conditions: Donald Albert Wright a) were not completing their education; b) were not success- fully employed; c) were not in any congenial group; d) were not successfully married; e) had not developed a stable set of values; f) had low self-esteem or; 9) had self—defeating behavior. The program consisted of 16 weekly meetings, each including an evening meal together, discussion, personal dis- closures and group planned recreation. Two or more staff persons oriented to young adult needs interacted at each meeting with eight to 15 young adults. Two such transaction- al learning programs were run as a pilot for a prOposed nation— al Y.M.C.A. study. Several of the participants described the group meetings as low pressure group counseling. The staff was mostly supportive and permissive, pushing the group to make most of the decisions of what they did as a group. An instrument to inventory respondent needs was develop- ed using the reapondent needs construct as a conceptual base. It was used here for the first time so that no norms were available. Reliability and validity studies were not made. Twenty—eight goung adults were in the programs. All of those who were available for contact, 14 of the original 28, were studied four or five years after their involvement, using individual case studies, and described in Donald Albert Wright respondent needs terms. Portrait sheets of their personal and social adjustment as detected by the California Test of Personality were developed. Scores on the California Test were used to compare adjustment with respondent needs as shown by their needs inventory scores. There appeared to be a moderate-to-strong correlation between adjustment scores and respondent needs scores. This was taken to mean that the construct of respondent needs has value for perceiving poorly adjusted young adults in needs terms. This would support the hypothesis that "There will be a positive correlation between respondent needs and adjustment." Eleven of the fourteen young adults stated that the group experience was helpful to their personal and social adjustment. Three stated that the group experience was not helpful, or even, that it was in some ways, hurtful. Twelve of the participants stated that they would choose to partici- pate again if they were in the same situation. Ten of the group thought that the group leaders were thinking of their needs. Most of the participants' evaluations of the group support the hypothesis that "Young adults with poor adjust- ment who participated in a time-limited needs-oriented trans- actional learning group will, in retrospect, view the experi- ence in positive terms for their personal and social adjust- ment." RESPONDENT NEEDS AND YOUNG ADULT ADJUSTMENT: THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INSTRUMENT TO TEST RESPONDENT NEEDS BY Donald Albert Wright A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of Higher Education and Administration College of Education 1975 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Y.M.C.A. program was developed with the joint leadership of John Copeland, David Brittenham and the author, who also were co—leaders of the first group experience. I wish to thank Ruth Henderson for her aid in organizing and typing my unpublished book, "Counseling Families Today", and the first draft of most of the material in Chapter Two of this thesis. To the two secretaries, Pamela Shaw and Barbara O'Bryan, who suffered with my poor spelling and many revisions, I wish to give special thanks. For much of the final typing, I wish to thank Dolores Steltenkamp. I owe a special thanks to my wife, Elmere Wright, for helping with the leadership of the second group and enduring my times of frustration that this project has created. The patience and encouragement of Russell Kleis have made this thesis possible, and I wish to thank him for his friendship as well as for his chairmanship of my committee. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. THE PROBLEM AND RELATED STUDY Introduction Organizational Setting The Project Project Task Analysis Objectives, Hypotheses and Definitions The Program Use of Study and Limitations Overview II. SELECTED LITERATURE Related Project Introduction The Related Project Young Adult Adjustment Young Adult Needs Stance Structure-Organizing Human Needs CONSTRUCT OF UNIVERSAL HUMAN NEEDS Survival (Receiving) Needs Individual Survival Needs Group Survival Needs iii 10 12 13 14 15 17 18 22 29 29 31 Respondent (Exchange) Needs Economy Polity Values Rootedness Relatedness Awareness Ecology Release Integration Security Transcendency (Giving) Needs Introduction Vision Love of Right and Truth Purposiveness Experimental Faith Sensitive to the Needs of Others Forgiveness Magnanimity Courage Love Summary OUTLINE OF UNIVERSAL HUMAN NEEDS iv 33 34 36 38 42 46 53 58 63 67 7O 73 73 76 77 78 80 82 82 82 83 84 89 9O III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY IV. v. Tasks of the Project Research Rationale and Design Tasks of This Study Hypotheses The Population The Program The Staff and Staff Training Procedure Source of Data Treatment of the Data Inferences Limitations DATA AND ANALYSES Introduction Adjustment and Respondent Needs Analysis of Scores on Adjustment Correlations of Adjustment and Respondent Needs Participants' Evaluation of Transac— tional Learning Experience Leaders Evaluation of Transactional Learning Experience Summary of Findings SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Summary Conclusions Implications Further Studies Concluding Statement 92 94 97 99 99 100 102 104 106 107 109 111 114 176 181 186 193 193 195 195 198 199 199 LIST OF REFERENCES APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPENDIX D vi 201 205 210 215 216 Table 4.1 LIST OF TABLES Personal Information— Sex, Age, Years School, Group Attendance— on the Subjects of this Study 113 Raw Scores on California Test of Personality & Needs Inventory for 14 Participants 177 t for Pre and Post Differences in Adjustment on California Test of Personality 179 t for Pre and Follow-up Differences in Adjustment on California Test of Personality 180 Comparison of 10 Needs Categories using scores from Part A against Part B of Needs Inventory: Scatter Diagram and Correlation for 140 Comparisons of 14 Participants 183 Comparison of Total Need Scores (A) and (B) for 14 Young Adult Participants: Scatter Diagram and Correlation for Need Scores (A) and Need Scores (B) 184 Comparison of Adjustment and Needs in 19 Combinations for 14 Young Adults: Scatter Diagram and Correlation for Adjustment Scores (Y) and Combined Need Scores (X) 185 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1 Adjustment of A 116 4.2 Adjustment of B 119 4.3 Adjustment of D 123 4.4 Adjustment of G 128 4.5 Adjustment of I 132 4.6 Adjustment of L 136 4.7 Adjustment of M 140 4.8 Adjustment of N 144 4.9 Adjustment of R 148 4.10 Adjustment of S 153 4.11 Adjustment of T 158 4.12 Adjustment of U 163 4.13 Adjustment of W 168 4.14 Adjustment of X 172 viii 'CHAPTER I -THE PROBLEM AND RELATED STUDY Introduction Young adults in our American society are on the move: college, armed forces, job opportunities, wandering or lost. This means they are uprooted from their families and commu- nities, often to a large degree. They are expected to acquire a job or vocation and get an education for it, to find a suitable mate and a congenial group to be with, and to organize their life goals and values. They are often attempting these tasks away from home base, without the aid of the traditional institutions of their childhood. They are often on-the—go, not settled in either a location or a pattern of social relationships. News reports of crime, alcoholism, drug abuse and delinquency tell an alarming story of persons who are out of adjustment with the general culture. Costs of operating prisons and mental health services are continually going higher. Serious personal breakdowns are becoming more numberous. As an example of what is happening to many young adults, Choron reports the following: 2 According to official statistics, 21,281 people in the United States committed suicide in 1966; 21,325 in 1967 and 21,378 in 1968. ...the actual number is perhaps...27,000 to 30,000 per year. (16.5 for males per 100,000 and 5.1 for females), or (whites 18, non-white 9.6 per 100,000)... This is about 80 persons a day.... Suicide is ranked tenth or eleventh (cause of death compared to all causes) for the total population, third for the 15-24 age group, and fourth in the 25-44 group.1 In a compiled report of the Detroit Suicide Prevention Center, a total of 1,241 known attempted suicides occured in 1971. Of this number, 50.0% were in the age range of 18 through 31 years. These statistics generally confirm those given by Choron that white, young adults comprise the largest number involved. About 10% of suicides attempted were com- pleted, with a ratio of 2.4 for males to 1.0 for females. These statistics on suicide, together with similar evi— dence on crime, alchoholism delinquency and drug abuse, are indicative of the very serious problem of the lack of indi- vidual adjustment in our society. In the long run, development by our society of better methods of meeting the needs of young adults may make these adjustments during their late teens and early twenties much more satisfactory to them and to the society. One may take the position that the problem is primarily a social one. lJacques Choron, Suicide (New York: Charles Scribner's, 1972), pp.3u, 154. Eric Fromm, for example, states that: Mental health cannot be defined in terms of the adjustment of the individual to his society, but, on the contrary, that it must be defined in terms1 of the adjustment of soc1ety to the needs of man. The very real issue to which this study addresses itself is an understanding of the needs of man, especially those of young adults. Although it may be argued that the society is the cause, it is clearly the individual who, in the short run, must make the adjustment. If each young person can be helped to understand himself and his relationship to society in general and a circle of significant others, if he can have a protective group where he can experiment to improve and adjust, then some of the serious personal breakdowns may be prevented. Some type of aid or assist- ance may be most beneficial to the young adult who is attempting unsuccessfully to find a mate, get settled in a vocation, complete his formal education, select friends and relate to people and, in general, become a more responsible, autonomous adult. This is the overt issue to which this study has been addressed. Organizational Setting The national Council of the Young Men's Christian Asso- ciations, attempting to understand the thinking and problems of young adults, ordered a study focusing on the attitudes of young men and women. lEric Fromm, The Sane Society (New York: Rinehart & Company, Inc., 1955), p. 72 4 In 1963 the Program Services Department and Department of Research and Planning of Y.M.C.A. published a 75-page booklet entitled, "Young Men and Young Women - New Insights on Becoming Adults". Dr. Allen S. Ellsworth was responsible for the study, a brief review of which is given in chapter two. Although responses from the 421 young adults interviewed showed about one-third express real "zest for life", half were "just accepting" or "drifting" in life, and the rest had feelings of hostility or fearfulness. One in four re- vealed a total vagueness about any goals in life. One-third were unable to express satisfaction with their life choices to date. These latter groups included people who, for multi- ple reasons, were not making the adjustments to life in our complex society that give them, their parents or the society satisfaction. The Y.M.C.A. assumed a share of the society's responsi- bility toward young adults in making the study and urging its many associations to take action. These (in part) are the conclusions and recommendations that were derived from the Ellsworth study and reported to the Y.M.C.A. Movements: Designate 1964 the "Year of Young Men and Young Women in the Y.M.C.A." to launch a three—year concentrated appraisal and development of program for work with young men and young women in the 18 to 29 year age segment of the p0pulation, including students and those in the armed forces.... Urge the development of a series of "short-term program ventures" that deal with the unresolved issues 5 of life being faced by young men and young women and that forcefully reflect the core objectives of the Association. Such "program ventures" should include these areas: - Guidance for vocational discovery and advancement - Guidance for efforts in education planning - Projects of self-discovery: search for values, understanding male and female roles, etc. - Human relations training and leadership development - Citizenship education: politics, public affairs, international experiences, etc. - Guidance in assessing choices relating to military service responsibility - Experiences to further their understanding and con- victions about the Christian Faith Urge the development of a program pattern for single young men and young women that provides opportunity for them to: - engage in social interaction through stimulating activities in accordance with good program standards - Open up opportunities for personal growth through unique and varied programs - seek out meaningful and worthwhile projects in which they can be of maximum value to the community, state, nation and world - develop opportunities for increasing their leader- ship abilities through seminars and active parti- cipation. PrOpose that careful documentation be made of all successes and failures in connection with the imple- mentation of the adopted recommendations for review by the responsible committee and report to the Movement.1 The Project The National Council of Y.M.C.A.'s in essence approved the main points of the study recommendations which set in motion attempts to actualize the ideas with program. One of the program projects set forth to be tested by John C. O'Melia, 1.Allen S. Ellsworth Young Men and Young Women - New Insights on Becoming Adults, National Council of Young Men's Christian Associations, New York, 1963), p. 68 6 then Secretary for Adult Program, was called, "Mental, Moral and Emotional Fitness and Young Adult Needs". The full pro— ject, if funded was to run three years and involve twelve local Y.M.C.A.s across the United States, involving some 1,800 young adults. While visiting the Metropolitan Detroit Y.M.C.A. in the Spring of 1964, O'Melia asked if the Counseling Service and Adult Section might be willing to undertake a pilot study to test out the validity of the project. The pilot study was to be done ahead of any others to test out procedures and evaluative materials. The Detroit Association was asked chiefly because it was one of the very few Associations in the United States which had a counseling service1 separate from the branch Operations. A decision was made that the adult section and the counseling department of the Metropolitan Detroit Y.M.C.A. would proceed with the pilot project, keeping careful records and reporting to the Program Services of the National Council of Young Men's Christian Associations. The project was given sharper focus than had been proposed by O'Melia. It was undertaken to find ways to help young adults who already dis- played self-defeating behavior and/or poor adjustment. It focused upon basic personal and social adjustment and rela- tionship respondent needs. The compound term, "Mental, Moral and Emotional Fitness", was replaced by the single term, 1The author, Donald A. Wright, was Director of the Metropolitan Detroit Y.M.C.A. Counseling Service at that time. 7 "Adjustment", so that the project title read "Respondent Needs and Young Adult Adjustment". Project Task Analysis It was recognized that before parents, counselors, teachers or agencies could help poorly adjusted young adults with unmet needs, clear and concise knowledge of those needs would be vital. Self—defeating behavior might be described in such terms as delinquency, emotional illness or even crime, but these terms related to responses. What was requir- ed was a means for discovering underlying needs that were not being adequately met. To be useful any system for classifying needs would have to a) assure sufficient scope to cover the areas where ad— justment is necessary, b) have enough concrete particulars so that unmet needs of poorly-adjusted young adults could be identified, described and understood, and c) be arranged into logical and reasonably discreet categories of needs which might be constructively used with any person. Thus, the major tasks of the project were to: 1. Develop a system of categories for classifying needs that could be useful in orderly observation of lack of ad— justment. 2. Develop a comprehensive inventory of needs of young adults using this construct. 3. Use this needs construct as a basis for training staff who were planning young adult programs. 4. Select a standardized test which would evaluate personal and social adjustment. 5. Develop, with staff, a set of experiences which should 8 assist young adults in recognizing and fulfilling their own needs. Involve poorly-adjusted young adults in a program de— signed to provide those or similar experiences. Keep records of tests, inventories and other data so that the experiences could be evaluated. Analyze and interpret those data. Draw conclusions and develop recommendations based upon them. Objectives, Hypotheses and Definitions The overall objective of the study was to answer a series of questions relating to the usefulness of the needs construct as ON a conceptual tool in working with young adults: Can a comprehensible construct of human needs be develOped? Can this construct be used as a conceptual base for training staff working with young adults? Can a program for young adults be develOped based on this needs construct? Is there a positive correlation between unmet needs and poor adjustment, and can this be investigated using the construct? Will young adults who are having a difficult time be- coming autonomous adults get pragmatic help from a pro- gram based on the needs construct? Will the findings of this study be of any used to the parent project or to agencies or individuals working with young adults? The following three general hypotheses were used to give a focus for the study: 1. Young adults with poor adjustment who participated in a time-limited, needs—oriented transactional learning group will, in retrospect, view the experience in posi- tive terms for their personal and social adjustment. There will be significant improvement in adjustment in these young adults as a result of participation in this program. 3. 9 There will be a positive correlation between meeting respondent needs and adjustment on the part of program participants. The following definitions are brief explanations of ex— pressions used in the hypothesesand will be expanded later in the text: 1. Young adult with poor adjustment — a young man or woman, age 19 to 29 inclusive, not successfully married, or not successfully employed, or not belonging to a congenial group, or not having life value systems established, or having self—defeating behavior. Respondent needs — reciprocal needs of/and between the individual and his primary groups as described in the needs construct. Transactional learning - personal and social adjustment that takes place in individuals as they participate in group or interpersonal interaction. Time—limited, needs—oriented - sixteen weekly meetings of three or four hours duration with activities and staff oriented to young adult needs. Adjustment — personal and social adjustment as defined in a standardized test of personality. The Program The 28 young adults who participated in the program were asked because they were a) not successfully married, or b) not successfully employed, or c) not in any congenial group, or d) not completing their education or e) in personal coun— seling or f) referred for lack of employment or social ad- justment. The program for the young adults was called, "Really Living". It was a transactional learning experience where the young adults met together weekly with leaders oriented to their needs. There was an evening meal together, group discussions of personal concerns, group planning of activities 10 and recreation. The staff leaders encouraged group communi- cations, discussions and decisions but kept members, as far as possible, from hurting each other. There were 16 weekly meetings of the group and a week end camp-out for each of the two programs, the first with fifteen young adults in 1966, and the other with thirteen in 1967. Use of Study and Limitations Insight about the relationship between young adult needs and poor adjustment, it was assumed, would be useful to the agencies of the community in aiding the young adult who dis- plays self—defeating behavior. For a socialization agency like the Y.M.C.A., this kind of information could be very beneficial in working with young adults with or without ad- justment problems. If an effective way of working with poor- ly adjusted young adults could be developed, other organiza— tions might well benefit and use it. A review of the literature on human needs revealed that although much of it was oriented to individual needs, a num- ber of writers have been concerned with group needs and with the relationship between individual and group needs. A new construct was developed to organize those events and situa— tions involving the interaction between the individual and the groups of which he is a part. The needs construct as derived from the literature is detailed in chapter two. It was used as a basis for a) designing the program, b) training staff, c) describing the individuals in the pro- gram, and d) the development of the needs inventory which is 11 used as an evaluative instrument. This research has been a retrospective study of the pro— ject in which those tasks were undertaken. The development, from a review of the literature, of a needs construct is re- ported. The effect of the chosen transactional learning ex- periences on poorly adjusted young people is evaluated. This thesis reports on the usefulness of this needs construct as a conceptual tool in working with pooly adjusted young adults. The project and study have extended over a period of ten years beginning with the publication of the national Y.M.C.A. report in 1963. The Detroit project was begun in 1964 but the first actual involvement with young adults was in 1966. The needs construct was given outline form before the 1966 group sessions. Form A of the needs inventory was developed after the 1966 group sessions and used with the 1967 group. During the period from 1967 to 1970, a book, "Counseling Families Today" was written by this author using material from the review of literature on needs. Form B of the needs inventory was developed before the follow-up study in 1971. A rough draft of the study was completed in 1972. The person doing the research was the principal staff member for the project and program. It has been difficult to be a counselor, father-substitute and coordinator and then be the investigator. The task of being objective and honest while having been so subjectively involved was a challenge and it certainly constitutes a limitation of the study. There were several findings from the study for which no 12 questions were asked nor data kept: 1) the favorable long—term emotional effect of the experience on the majority of the participants, 2) the large amount of staff time and energy used and 3) the inability of the participants to func- tion as a group when no adult leaders were present. Three questions in regard to these findings are posed and cursory answers given at the end of chapter four. Tentative con— clusions are given in chapter five along with other conclu« sions based on evidence presented in the data. Overview The introduction, organization setting, project, project task analysis, objectives, hypotheses,definitions, program, use of study and limitations have been presented in this chap- ter. In chapter two the related project, young adult adjust- ment inventory and the conceptual base and needs construct from the review of appropriate literature are presented. The design of the study is presented in chapter three: tasks of the project, design tasks of this study, research model, hypotheses, population, program, staff and staff training, procedure, source of data and California Test of Personality. The data and an a alysis of the results are presented in chapter four. The participants are described in terms of needs and adjustment. A summary of the study, conclusions and recommendations are given in chapter five. CHAPTER II SELECTED LITERATURE Related Project Introduction This study is related to a project to test out a pro- posal of the National Council of Young Men's Christian Associations. Parameters of the project, broadly outlining objectives for a young adult program, are given below. Young adult adjustment is defined by using criteria presented by the authors of the test of personality that was selected for evaluation of personal and social adjustment. Selected quotations are taken directly from the test manual. The remainder of this chapter is given to describing a human needs construct. Nearly all the material presented is taken from the literature with the selection and organization of quotations being the work of this investigator. The section on stance gives the general concept and direction, and the section on structure brings from the literature a number of concepts and categories that are or- ganized into the needs construct. Three levels of needs for both individuals and groups are presented in considerable de- tail in the construct using selected quotes from the litera- ture. An outline is included at the end of the chapter as 13 14 a reference for viewing the construct in compact form. The Related Project The project proposed by John C. O'Melia, Jr., incorporat- ed many of the objectives recommended by the Ellsworth study and gave these broad parameters for guidance and develOpment of specific program: The over—all objective is to produce mentally healthy young men and women who have good understanding of people, and the ability to develop whole and complex personalities. In short, the goal is self-actualization. It is a pilot demonstration in preventative mental health, utilizing the best of behavioral sciences. In understanding this project, it is useful to think of the whole life cycle as being the achievement of a series of deve10pmental life tasks. For the young adult, this means such tasks as — getting started in an occupation, developing vocational skill, determining identity, finding a congenial mate, starting a family, organizing an ideolo- gy and a scale of values, etc. This project is not con- cerned with delinquency prevention, but is concerned with helping a significant group of young adults who are neither troublesome nor distinguished in their activity to obtain a more satisfactory mental health status.... One of the innovative features of the project is a care- ful linking of testing, counseling and group work. Every participant will initially engage in a testing program which leads into considerable individual counseling. One or two tests of diagnostic value will be employed. An intake interview, utilizing the results, will be conducted in which the young person's needs are explored with him. The project is not attempting to study personality, but rather to help the participant "discover himself". It is the nature of young adult life to be highly mobile. Therefore, the project is uniquely phased to help over- come this problem of participant turnover. Local Y.M.C.A. units will be built around two major program periods a year. Both of these periods will be sixteen week-long workshops, meeting once a week. Each workshop is self-contained and offers a complete program eXperience.l 1 John C. O'Melia, Jr., Mental, Moral and Emotional Fitness and Young Adult Needs (N.Y., National Council of Y.M.C.A.”S), 291 Broadway, two-page proposal. 15 Young Adult Adjustment Mental, moral and emotional fitness, or mental health, or as this study states, "adjustment", are concepts diffi- cult to define. There must be some standard in order to assess certain behavior as "healthy" or that person "adjust- ed”. Jahoda suggests that: ... the evaluation of actions as sick or normal or ex- traordinary in a positive sense often depends largely on accepted social conventions. In order to evaluate adjustment for the project, a published personality inventory was selected with norms re- lating to the general adult pOpulation. The California Test 2 was chosen because it was designed to identi- of Personality fy and reveal the status of certain highly important factors in personal and social adjustment and appeared to be valid for the purposes of the project. A description of the twelve adjustment categories is given in Appendix D. Information about the reliability, validity and limitations of the test is given by the authors in the published manual and abridged in Appendix D. (Note: In the quotation above and the numerous quota— tions that follow, the writer is departing from the style suggested by Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers (Chicago: The university of Chicago Press, 1973), by using block paragraphs for introductions ending with a colon.) 1Marie Jahoda, Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health (New York: Basic Book Inc., Pub. 1958), p.12 2Louis P. Thorpe, Willis W. Clark, Ernest W. Tiegs California Test of Personality (Monterey, California: California Test Bureau, 1953 Revision). 16 The general goal of the Detroit Y.M.C.A. project was similar to the national project but focused on helping poorly adjusted young adults obtain a more satisfactory status - mental, moral and emotional fitness or personal and social adjustment. Guidance procedures in the manual with the California Test of Personality describe the maladjusted or unfit person as having problems in one or more of these following six cate- gories: l. UNDESIRABLE HABIT PATTERNS: SITUATIONS REQUIRING PRACTICE. These are usually minor but sometimes never- theless important patterns of behavior that put the in- dividual at a disadvantage and detract from his ability to enjoy normal relations with others. They can usually be corrected by personality exercises and practice. 2. ERRONEOUS BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES. These vary all the way from very minor and relatively unimportant problems to those which lie deeply embedded in the past and which resist uprooting, thus involving the individual in many types of difficulties and resulting in many types of adjustment problems. 3. UNFAVORABLE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS. Frequently an individual has reasonable goals and possesses the intelli- gence, skills, working habits and other resources to reach them; but factors in his school, home or community envi- ronment operate to frustrate or defeat him. 4. UNDESIRABLE FORMS OF ATTEMPTED ADJUSTMENT. The indi- vidual may be unaware of the presence of the first three types of problems, but he is usually fully aware that he has difficulties (even though he does not understand them) when he uses undesirable forms of attempted adjust- ment. This type of problem also frequently involves erroneous beliefs and attitudes which make the solution more difficult. 5. PHYSICAL AND NERVOUS DIFFICULTIES. These difficulties themselves are fairly objective and easily recognized. However, their effects are much more subtle and difficult to deal with. They involve the determination of the in- dividual's own attitude, the attitude of the parents, and 17 frequently require medical attention and treatment as well as the use of mental hygiene procedures. 6. MENTAL DISORDERS. An individual may manifest egotism, conceit and suspicion, especially in extreme form, and may not yield to the ordinary methods of dealing with personality problems. It was felt that the level of fitness or adjustment of each participant could be determined by the use of this pub— lished test. This information could be used by the partici— pants to understand themselves, by the group leaders and for comparison with their needs. The test gives six categories of personal adjustment and six categories of social adjust- ment. Profiles and percentile comparison with the general population could be used as an objective base for understand- ing, by participants, of their adjustment or fitness. According to the manual: The California Test of Personality is a teaching-learning or develOpmental instrument primarily. Its purpose is to provide the data for aiding individuals to maintain or de- velop a normal balance between personal and social adjust- ment. Young Adult Needs Young adult needs were not described in the Ellsworth study nor in the National Y.M.C.A. proposal, and no adequate description of these needs was found in the literature. The challenge then was to review the literature on needs and prepare a conceptual base to evaluate young adult needs. A review of selected literature was made on human needs and lLouis P. Thorpe, Willis W. Clark, Ernest W. Tiegs (California Tegt of Personality, California Test Bureau, Monterey, Calif., 1953 Revision) 2Ibid. p. 2 . o o.-. . Iiiilni.. u! I 18 quotations from some ninety authors and research papers ac- - .. -...on-t—l—ffl' cumulated. A major task was that of selecting from this we” large amount of information those ideas that could be built into an integrated and useful conceptual form. Stance Gordon W. Allport states the nature of the problem of study— ing human needs: During this era (KcDougall and Freud) innumerable in- stincts were discovered, postulated, invented. In 1924 r“ Bernard reported that more than 14,000 different in- ' stincts had been proposed and that no agreement was yet _ in sight. Sensing disaster in this direction, psycholo- , gists started fishing in fresher waters. The doctrine of f drives (a limited form of instinct) continued to hold : the behaviorist fort and still to some extent does so, ' but most psychologists nowadays seem to agree with Hebb ' (1949) that to equate motivational structure with simple drives or biological needs is a wholly inadequate pro- cedure. It is clear that we have not yet solved the problem of the units of man's nature, though the problem was posed twenty-three centuries ago. It is equally clear that psychology lags far behind chemistry, which has its periodic table of elements; behind physics with its veri- fiable if elusive quanta; and even far behind biology with its cell. Psychology does not yet know what its cell may be. It is partly for this reason that skeptics ques- tion psychology's right to be called a science. Its in- vestigators have not yit reached agreement on what units of analysis to employ. Goltlieb and Howell suggest that: ...EOr prevention of physical disorders, success has come only after the knowledge of the etiology or of the im- portant variables. For mental and emotional disorders 1Gordon W. Allport, Assessment of Human Motives, (New York: Gardner Lindsey, Ed. Rinehart & Co., Inc., 1958), p.240 19 we may not have the knowledge as yet to really develop preventive programs. Speaking to the statement that "Little kids are the same everywhere," Frank says: By the time children are three years old, no traveler, no student of the varieties of man could possibly say, "kids are the same everywhere". The little Eskimo, the little Chinese, the little East African living under their own cultural conditions are profoundly dissimilar.2 Viewing behavior as such has not been a reliable "cell" either according to Kardiner: No matter in what form and with what qualifications we use the concept of basic personality as a weapon of historical interpretations, we do away permanently with a uniform and constant "human nature" which can be count— ed upon to behave in a uniform manner under all condi- tions. Kurt Lewin makes some positive suggestions:~ ...it is hopeless to link the different problems in- volved in social psychology in a proper manner by using classificatory concepts of the type of the Linnean system in botany. Instead, social psychology will have to use a framework of "constructs". These constructs do not ex- press "phenotypical" similarities, but so-called "dynamic" properties—-properties defined as "types of reactions" or "types of influences". In other words thesg constructs represent certain types of interdependence. Combs and Snygg reinforce this idea: Each of us is constantly searching his field for details and meanings which will better enable him to satisfy needs. lJacques S. Goltlieb & Roger W. Howell Four Basic Aspects of Preventive Psychiatgy, Ralph H. Ojemann, Ed. (State Univer— sity of Iowa) 2Lawrence K. Frank, Human Nature and Enduring Peace, (Boston: Gardner Murphy, Ed., Houghton Mifflin Co. 1945), p.14 3Abram Kardiner, The Psychological Frontiers of Sociegy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1945), p. 415 ”Kurt Lewin, Field Theory in Social Studies.(New York, Harper, 1951), p. 145 20 Whatever the behavior of the individual, it is always di- rected at the satisfaction of need.1 (Italics mine.) The postulates of the Humanists reinforce the use of needs as a basic unit of understanding humans. Reese states: 1. The chief concern of the human enterprise is the effort to discover, invent and enhance ways of behavior and quali- ties of living that will meet human needs with the maxi- mum of satisfaction. 2. The needs of man are those of a biological being, a personal being and a social being. 3. A third postulate of Humanism is that the criterion of values in the human enterprise is their tested worth in the meeting of human needs. The important thing is to find out objectively what really meets human needs and to foster such things. 4. The goal of the human enterprise is a world community of free persons voluntarily and intelligently c00perating for the common weal to the greatest extent made pogsible by the nature of the world, of men and of society. Combs and Snygg express the value of a broad and accurate concept of human needs: It is important for anyone required to cope with the be- havior of others to have the simplest, most accurate understanding of human needs of which he is capable. Numerous and overlapping concepts of human needs are con— fusing and difficult to work with. We must have a broad and accurate concept of human need for the simple reason that we will behave according to what we believe to be true. Theories vary also as to the amount of data they attempt to include. Some theories refer to fairly minute as- pects of a major problem; others attempt to include great masses of data covering a broad field of understand- ing. 1Arthur w. Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Behavior (New York: Harper and Brothers, Pub., 1959), pp. 28, 56. 2Curtis W. Reese, The Meaning of Humanism (Boston, The Beacon Press, 1945) p. 78. 21 Generally speaking, the more inclusive the frame of refer- ence, the more useful the theory becomes. Carroll expresses the idea of the struggle between the needs of the individual and requirements of the society which must be resolved into an acceptable synthesis: Human behavior is dynamic. Every person is urged on throughout his life by desires which must be satisfied. He is never completely at rest. His life is a constant struggle for food, warmth, achievement, affection, sex satisfactions, recognition and economic and emotional security. He achieves complacency only with death. The person who understands and accepts this basic point of view is in a position to face life with equanimity. He is not appalled by the continual struggle between him- self and society for he knows that this struggle is a part of his heritage. The needs of the individual and the requirements of the society in which the individual func- tions are never identical, but the flexible person is able to resolve the two into an acceptable synthesis. Honigman suggests that a functional approach has value in human research: The functional approach in culture and personality has for its object to relate facts of modal personality either to each other, to facts of technology, to social structure or to some other class of data. Where the genetic approach relates events of childhood with data of adult personality, the functional approach often in- vesti ates the relationship of facts at one point in time. Lewin takes a strong stand about the importance of the group in understanding humans: lCombs and Snygg, pp. 50, 9. 2Herbert A. Carroll, Mental Health the Dynamics of Adjustment (N.J., Prentic Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1956), p. 137. 3John J. Honigman, Culture and Personality (N.Y., Harper and Brothers, 1954), p. 62 22 The unifying theme is unmistakable: the group to which an individual belongs is the ground for his perceptions, his feelings and his actions. Most psychologists are so preoccupied with the salient features of the individual's mental life that they are prone to forget it is the ground of the social group that gives to the individual his figured character.l Ackerman conceives personality as an: ...expression of a biopsychosocial continuum in which behavior is influenced in a parallel way by innerphysio- logical experience and by the processes of social participation.2 (Emphasis mine) If we are looking for a universal perspective to view humans, we will not see it if we look at individual behavior, culture, customs, instincts, motivations, beliefs, drives, social institutions, organizations or activities. We may, however, see a common denominator in the needs of man. But the needs of the individual and the needs or requirements of the social groups in which that individual functions should be considered together. This will be the stance taken in this study. Structure - Organizing Human Needs Assuming that human needs is a satisfactory unit for assessing humans, how can we build a structure that will be useful? Several writers believe that c0ping with difficult personal and relationship problems may be made more success- ful if counselors or investigators perceive group and indi- vidual dynamics in one construct. 1Kurt Lewin, Resolving Social Conflicts (N.Y. Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1948), p. 6 2Nathan W. Ackerman, Psychodynamics of Family Life (Basic Books, In., 1960) p. 279 23 Ackerman states that: There are indications that we are on the brink of a new revolution in the integration of the behavioral sciences and this revolution is an essential step in coping with hitherto unsolved problems. Only when we can correctly merge the dynamics of individual and group behavior does it begin to be possible to deal effectively with the men— tal health problems of family and marital relationships. Likewise Linton says: It is now becoming apparent that the integration between the individual, society and culture is so close and their interaction so continuous that the investigator who tries to work with any one of them withoug reference to the other two soon comes to a dead end. Ruth Benedict makes a strong stand for the inter-relationship of the individual and his culture: No individual can arrive even at the threshold of his potentialities without a culture in which he participates. Conversely, no civilization has in it any element which in the 1ast analysis is not the contribution of an indi- vidual. Whiting indicates some elements common to the development of all people: Child training the world over is in certain important re- spects identical. It is identical in that it is found always to be concerned with certain universal problems of behavior. Parents everywhere have similar problems to solve in bringing up their children. In all societies the helpless infant, getting his food by nursing at his mother's breast and having digested it, freely evacuating the waste product, exploring his genitals, biting and lAckerman, p. 151 2Ralph Linton, Cultural Background of Personality (N.Y. Appleton-Century—Crofts, Inc., 1935), p. 5 3Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (N.Y. Houghton Miffline, 1934), p. 253 24 kicking at will, must be changed info a responsible adult obeying the rules of his society.... Eric Fromm speaks of sanity and mental health in terms of human needs and suggests several important categories for use in a construct of human needs: Those needs which he shares with the animal-~hunger, thirst, need for sleep and sexual satisfaction--are important, being rooted in the inner chemistry of the body, and they can become all powerful when they remain unsatisfied. But even their complete satisfaction is not a sufficient condition for sanity and mental health. These depend on the satisfaction of those needs and passions which are specifically human and which stem from the conditions of the human situation: the need for relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, the need for a sense of identity and the need for a frame of orienta- tion and devotion. The great passions of man, his lust for power, vanity, his search for truth, his passion for love and brotherliness, his destructiveness as well as his creativeness, every powerful desire which motivates man's actions, is rooted in this specific human source.... Man's solution to his physiological needs is, psycho- logically speaking, utterly simple; the difficulty here is a purely sociological and economic one. Man's solu- tionto his human needs is exceedingly complex, it de— pends on many factors and last, not least, on the way his society is organized and how this organization deter- mines the human relations within it. Maslow suggests the ambivalent nature of need satisfaction vs. control between the individual and his culture: Our deepest needs are not...dangerous or evil....the culture (is) an instrument gf need-gratification as well as frustration and control. Malinowski views needs in terms of survival of the individual and the group: 1John w. M. Whiting and Irvin L. Child, Child Training and Personality (N.Y. Rinehart & Co., Inc., 1955), p. 67 2Eric Fromm, p. 67 3A. H. Maslow, New Knowledge in Human Values,(N.Y. Harper, 1959) p. 128. 25 By need then, I understand the system of conditions in the human organism, in the cultural setting, and in re- lation of both to the natural environment, which are sufficienf and necessary for the survival of group and organism. Skard suggests the conflict between a person's need grati- fication and his environment and gives some Characteristics of needs: The conflict between needs and environment releases strong emotions. Anger, rage, aggression, craving for revenge, is felt against the person who prevents one from satisfying one's needs. - Any need which is not satisfied stores its energy. - The stronger the need, the less particular one will be as to "satisfiers". - When a need is satisfied, the person is satisfied. - Social factors often have a stimulating effect on need-energy. - If strong needs remain entirely unsatisfied, other needs tend to be neglected too. - Needs may oppose each other or interfere with each other: the desire to satisfy one need prevents the satisfaction of another. Kurt Lewin used a system of constructs that speak simultane- ously to the tension systems within the individual and the pressure emanating from the surrounding field: the amount of free movement for an individual; group pressures; obsta- cles to individual action owing to group restraints; chang- ing of the individual's position with reference to the group; 1Bronislaw Malinowski, A Scientific Theory of Culture (Chapel Hill University of North Carolina, 1944), p. 75 2Ase G. Skard, Character and Personality (Vol. VIII, #1 September, 1939), PD. 37 and 30. 26 the "we feeling" or lack of it; the sense of the past, pre- sent and future; the perceived level of attainment possible or desired. He used these concepts: "life space, field forces, barriers, locomotion, group atmosphere, time per- spective, aspiration level."1 Marie Jahoda uses six categories in discussing positive mental health: "self(ness), growth and deve10pment, integra- tion, autonomy, perception of reality, environmental mastery."2 Simone Weil outlines the needs of the human soul: Man requires not rice or potatoes, but food; not wood or coal, but heating. The first of the soul's needs, the one which touches most nearly its eternal destiny is order; that is to say, a texture of social relationships such that no one is com- pelled to violate imperative obligations in order to carry out the other ones.... Liberty, taking the word in its concrete sense, consists in the ability to choose. Obedience: it is of two kinds: obedience to established rules and obedience to human beings looked upon as leaders. Responsibility, to feel one is useful and even indispens- able (is) a vital need of the human soul. Equality is a vital need of the human soul. It consists in a recognition, at once public, general, effective and genuinely expressed in institutions and customs, that the same amount of respect and consideration is due every human being.... ‘ Hierachism: a certain devotion toward superiors... not as individuals but as symbols.... The effect of true hierachism is to bring each one to fit himself morally into the place he occupies. 1 . ... Lew1n, p. Vlll 2Jahoda, p. 97 27 (Also listed-topics only): Honor, Freedom of Opinion, Risk, Truth, Punishment, Security, Freedom from Terror, PrIvate property, Rootedness.1 Maslow states: Among the objectively describable and measurable charac- teristics of the healthy human specimen are: l. Clearer, more efficient perception of reality More openness to experience Increased integration, wholeness and unity of person Increased spontaneity, expressiveness; full func- tioning; aliveness A real self; a firm identity; autonomy; uniqueness Increased objectivity; detachment, transcendence of self . Recovery of creativeness . Ability to fuse concreteness and abstractness . Democratic character structure 10. Ability to love \OCDN GUT 2W“) 0 O In these healthy people we find duty and pleasure to be the same thing, as are also work and play, self-interest and altruism, individualism and selflessness. We know they are that way but not how they get that way. We know already that the main prerequisite of healthy growth is gratification of the basic needs, especially in early life. ...he has to learn that other human beings seek for gratifications too, even his mother and father, i.e., they are not only means to his ends. This means control, delay, limits, renunciation, frustration toler- ance and discipline. Only to the self-disciplined and responsible person can we say, "Do as you will", and it will probably be all right.2 Homans says of human behavior: The open secret of human exchange is to give the other man behavior that is more valuable to him than costly to you and get from him behavior that is more valuable to you than it is costly to him. 1Simone Weil, The Need for Roots (N.Y. Trans. Arthur Wills G.P. Putnam's Sons), p. 9 42Maslow, pp. 127, 132 3George Casper Homans, Social Behavior; Its Elementary Forms (N.Y. Brace and World, Inc., 1961), p. 62 28 Bell and Vogel set forth a concept of reciprocal needs re- lationships between the family and society using these cate- gories: "Goods, Identity, Polity and Integration".1 Fromm writes: It can be said that the concept of mental health fol- lows from the very conditions of human existence, and it is the same for man in all ages and all cultures. Mental health is characterized by the ability to love and to create, by the emergence from incestuous ties to clan and soil, by a sense of identity based on one's experience of self as the subject and agent of one's powers, by the grasp of reality inside and outside of ourselyes, that is, by the development of objectivity and reason. It can be seen that there are many ways to classify hu- man needs. Clearly one level of need can be that of surviv— al, both for the individual and for the human group. And equally clear is the human attempt to transcend mere surviv- al. This reaching up, the transcending urge, seems also to be a level of human need. Not so apparent is the area of needs between these two levels where much of the commerce of human life takes place. We shall call this level of need respondent, for it suggests a response between the needs of the individual and the requirements or needs of his primary groups. These three levels of needs might also be though of as receiving needs(SurvivalL exchange needs (respondent) and giving needs (transcendent). Further, both the individual and the group can be considered to have needs at all three levels. 1Norman W. Bell and Ezra F. Bell, The Family (The Free Press of Glencose, 1960) p. 10 2Fromm, p. 69 29 CONSTRUCT OF UNIVERSAL HUMAN NEEDS Survival (Receiving) Needs Individual Survival Needs Many authors, a few of whom will be quoted here, speak of survival needs. Eric Fromm states that: ...the individual and society are primarily concerned with the task of survival, and that only when survival is se- cured can they proceeg to the satisfaction of other im- perative human needs. Muelder talks of the human want scale: Certain wants are so common to all men that they are call- ed basic needs: the demand for food, clothing, shelter, security, companionship and sex relations. Wants appar- ently expand as they are satisfied. As a consequence, the demand for a "want scale" or "hierachy of preferences" arises. In contemporary society, the "want scale" Seems to be quite unstable, though there are minimal satisfac- tions without which men cannot live at all. Honigman speaks of culture in terms of human survival and ad- justment: The patterns which constitute a culture serve the ends of human survival and adjustment. By survival is meant the adaptation of the organism in a particular environment. Culture assists the human organism to overcome the vari- ety of lethal threats (hunger, exposure, danger from enemies) by which it may be confronted and to which it is by nature subject. Although communities sometimes sacri- fice an individual in order to promote the welfare of the group, such a pattern does not deny the assumption that biological survival is one of the ends served by culture. Adjustment refers to the satisfaction of human needs or tensions that are not directly tied up with survival. The failure to satisfy such demands does not directly threaten the existence of the organism although persist- ent non—gratification may seriously complicate survival. lFromm, p. 80 2Walter G. Muelder, Foundations of a Responsible Society (Nashville, Tennessee, Abingdon Press,’I959)ip. 63 30 Many psychologists and pediatricians recognize that infant mortality rates remain high in the best run orphan homes, presumably at least partly because busy staffs cannot help each infant satisfy survival-linked demands for mothers. The impact of loss of mothering in monkeys and sheep is re- ported in VeterinarygDispatch: Dr. Harlow worked with groups of monkeys raised in total isolation from birth until two months, six months, one year or two years, as well as in different conditions of isolation, with or without artificial "cloth mothers", as well as peer monkeys. He found that behavior abnormali- ties of various degrees and kinds were produced in these animals, and that sexual incompetence was an almost in- variable result. Two—year isolation...produces complete destruction of the monkey as a social being. Working with sheep and goats, Dr. Moore found that when the mother and the newborn are separated during the cru- cial first few hours after birth and the attitude of the mother toward her offspring is thus altered, a demonstra- ble state of anxiety is produced in the infant animal. Even though the mother may later permit nursing adequate for continued growth, he said the mortality rate among such "anxious" offspring in their first year of life is markedly high, in some cases 50% higher than expected. Other effects reported in these young included difficulty in focusing attention, poor play relationships with peers, poor flock integration and lowered resistance to stress situations.2 Although it is now well established that the young of humans and other animals require some fondling or mothering for survival, Erickson suggests that older children must have continuing mothering for mental health: A drastic loss of accustomed mother love without proper substitution at (weaning) time can lead to acute infan- tile depression or to a mild but chronic state of mourn- ing which may give a depressive undertone to the whole lHonigman, pp. 27, 237 2Harry F. Harlow and A. Ulric Moore, "Mother—Infant Relations May affect Herd Animal Survival", Veterinary Dispatch Vol. 4, no. 8 (December-January, 1962-63) p. 2 A-- ..0‘“ g ‘ u ,.-.—a ‘- 3. a. .m. 9. H. ... .. .. 7.. ... ... u. no ... ~—. .. .. q. r” .u an nu Ac .- .c .v. o. ,:. . d. 7...! it. 31 remainder of life.1 Carroll talks of survival needs and associate psychological hazards: Some of man's physical needs such as air, water, urina- tion and defication are satisfied at or near the automa- tic level. Consequently, they have relatively little significance for students of mental hygiene. The satis— factions of hunger and sex needs, however, involve much learning and a great many psychological hazards. For the purpose of this study, only an abbreviated treat- ment of individual survival needs is given. We shall let Montagu appraise and sum up individual survival needs: The inner requirednesses of the organism are its basic needs: the need for oxygen, for liquid, for food, for bowel and bladder elimination, for rest, for sleep, for activity, for the avoidance of pain and the flight from dangerous stimuli. The basic needs are those which must be satisfied within relatively short periods of time, if the organism is to survive. Now what we have learned within recent years is that those basic needs may be physically satisfied to the maximum but that is not enough. Children are even less capable than adults of living by bread alone. We have learned that the most important of all their needs is the need for love. We have learned that if children are not adequately loved during any peri— od of their first half dozen years, they are likely to suffer more or less severely, depending upon the severi- ty of the privation of love which they have undergone, the duration, the age, and the constitution of the child.3 Group Survival Needs Group survival is seen by Linton to be synonymous with human survival. He comes to several conclusions in his study of the cultural background of human personality: 1Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society_(W. w. Norton and Company, Inc., 1950)} p. 75 2Carroll, p. 41 3M. F. Montagu, Anthropology and Human Nature, (Boston: Porter Sargent Publishers, 1957), p. 128 . His Rd- ‘,.‘ 32 ...the physical needs of the individual and the meeting of these needs is one of the main functions of any social system. Such systems must serve to coordinate the action of the society's members in such a way that they are assured of food, shelter, and an opportunity to breed. If the system fails to do this, the society cannot sur- vive for long, still less perpetuate itself. It is the individual's interaction with others in his culture which is responsible for the formation of most of his behavior patterns, even his deep-seated emotion— al responses. Unpleasant as the realization may be to egotists, very few individuals can be considered as more than incidents in the life histories of the societies to which they be- long. Our species long ago reached the point where or- ganized groups rather than their individual members be- came the functional units in its struggle for survival. Whatever the genesis of human societies may have been, all of them have certain features in common: 1. Perhaps the most important of these is that the society rather than the individual has become the significant unit in our species struggle for sur- vival. People cannot survive the hazards of infancy or satisfy their adult needs without the aid and cooperation of other individuals. 2. A second characteristic of societies is that they normally persist far beyond the life span of any one individual. 3. Third, societies are functional, operative units. In spite of the fact that they are made up of in- dividuals, they work as wholes. 4. In every society the activities necessary to the sur- vival of the whole are divided and apportioned to the various members. The need for cohesiveness by the group is assured by a psychological need in the individual according to Honigman: This desire not to be cut off from relations with other members gives rise 50 the social solidarity of cohe siveness of groups. Tax suggests that two related survival needs of the human group are those of cultural transmission and communication: lLinton, pp. 132, 12, 15 2Honigman, p. 197 -- -I l" H7 r o ‘E 33 Since one of the key properties of a human system of communication is "cultural transmission", a property absent in the communication systems of primates and other animals, this factor becomes highly significant chronologically. Whiting talks of the responsibility of the group in teach- ing habits of receiving or indulgence but also the need to pressure the child to change to adult patterns: Each of these five systems of behavior tends to be characterized by an initial period when certain habits motivated by each of these five drives are learned, and by a later period--that of socialization——during which these initial habits are replaced, generally under pressure from parents, by habits appropriate to older children and adults. Furthermore, societies differ from one another in the degree to which children are indulged during the initial period and in the severity of the discipline imposed during the social- ization period. We may conclude that group survival needs consist of at least: reproduction, cohesion, communication, group organ- ization and cultural transmission. Other needs might be considered the adjustment of the group to: a) new members, b) the newborn, c) persons who become dependent, d) persons who die or move away, e) various members who act as leaders and f) those who become ill or revolt against the group. Respondent (Exchange) Needs The preceding discussion of survival needs of this con struct of universal human needs has purposely been kept brief because it is not being used in this study. It is in- cluded to give the reader an overall view of the construct. 1801 Tax, Evolution After Darwin-~The Evolution of Man (University of Chicago Press, 1960), p. 321 2Whiting, p. 46 (w—w ' v u- [u 'v-‘ a ’ i m (Tu 9-‘ HQ... ~~..1 34 This section on respondent needs will be presented in more detail using selected writing from the literature. The stance taken, as indicated earlier, is to show the reciprocal relationship between the needs of the individual and the re- quirements or needs of the primary groups of that individual. The following ten categories were chosen from the literature presented earlier under the heading of structure: economy, polity, values, rootedness, relatedness, awareness, ecology, release, integration and security. Economy Linton states: Another tendency which seems to be almost universal among human beings is the acquisitive one. Men, being able to look ahead, try to provide for the future. Although all societies recoqnize the existence of individual property, all of them also place certain limits on its acquisition. Homans writes: Exchange...is the basis...of much human behavior. Men will put out much activity to get a valuable reward, but if the reward is not forthcoming, the activity will fall off. ' The more to a man's disadvantage the rule of distribution justice fails of realization, the more likely he is to display the emotional behavior we call anger. They (the group) kept the value of what he got "in line" with what he gave. The value of what a member of a group receives from other members should be pr0portional to his investments. Given the capital, every society tries institutional in— novations. If they turn out to pay off--and a great deal of capital may be spent before they do--they persist. But there must be a pay-off; it is never automatic and lLinton, p. 142 35 it may not continue.1 Mearns suggests that "getting something" will produce work in an individual and have a profound effect on his behavior: Give us something to work for and discipline will take care of itself. When the work seizes heart and mind, we need no artificial lessons in discipline.2 White writes of the changing patterns in a community when a luxury becomes a necessity: It is the group that determines when a luxury becomes a necessity. This takes place when there comes together a sort of critical mass. In the early stages, when only a few of the housewives in a block have, say an automatic dryer, the word-of-mouth praise of its indispensability is restricted. But then as time goes on and the adja- cent housewives follow suit, in a mounting ratio others are exposed to more and more talk about its benefits. Soon, the non-possession of the item becomes an almost unsocial act--an unspoken aspersion of the others' judg- ment or taste. At this point, only the most resolute individualists can hold out, for just as the group pun- ishes its members for bgying prematurely, so it punish- es them for not buying. Of the development of the Character and personality of chil- dren, Honigman says: The Child who lacks sufficient experience with restric- tion and becomes accustomed to sheer gratification never learns to be strong in the face of trials.“ Even though Fromm, in his book, The Sane Society , takes the position that our modern industrial societies are cruel, pun- ishing and dehumanizing, he does say: lHomans, pp. 75, 2 2Hughes Mearns, The Creative Adult (New York: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1940), p.272 3William H. White, Jr. The Organization Man (Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1956), p. 347 “Honigman, p. 239 ire—4‘ 36 ...all social life, even in its most primitive form, re- quires a certain amount of social cooperation and even discipline, and that certainly in the more complex form of industrial production, a person has to fulfill certain necessary and specialized functions... The employer has bought the services of the worker and however humane his treatment may be, he still commands him, not on a basis of mutuality, but on the basis of having bought his work- ing time.1 It would appear that the individual will be required to meet the needs of the group for production or payment for goods, services, comforts and other things that he wants. Polity R. M. MacIver says: Wherever man lives on the earth, at whatever level of existence, there is social order and always permeating it is government of some sort. Government is an aspect of society. Muelder sees government as legitimate power: Political order is more a matter of integration than of domination. Force alone is never enough to hold a group together. In all constituted government, behind any show or organization of force lies authority. Authority always includes the idea of legitimate power and authori- ty is responsive to the underlying social structure. The force which government exercises and in the state the monopoly of Violence is granted,the government is but an instrument of authority, vindicating ghe demands of an order that force alone never creates. Frank feels that: It is probably more important in terms of long-range demo- cratic fulfillment that the prestige and power needs of 1947). p. 61 lFromm, p. 94 2R. M. MacIver, The Web of Government (The Macmillan Co., 3Mue1der, p. 63 37 men be equally distributed and equally satisfied than that material goods should be spread evinly throughout the community or throughout the world. The needs and rights of others appear to be difficult for the individual to allow according to Niebuhr: While it is possible for intelligence to increase the range of benevolent impulse and thus prompt a human being to consider the needs and rights of others than those to whom he is bound by organic and physical relationship, there are definite limits in the capacity of ordinary mortals which make it impossible for them to grant to others what they claim for themselves. Power and authority are expressed in terms of Child develop- ment by Cantor: No reasonable person maintains that children should always be free to act impulsively. Children must learn to do even what they find difficult. It cannot be reiterated too often, it is the way authority is exercised which is the key to child growth. It is the arbitrary use of authority on the part of parents and teachers that creates the traditional authoritarian...atmosphere. Authority is arbitrary (or illegitimate) to the degree that the per- son over whom it is exercised does not freely consent to or agree with what is demanded. The latter's feelings, interests and attitudes are minimized or disregarded, and the feelings and wishes of the one wielding the authority set the pattern for the demanded behavior. Homans expresses a number of ideas on leadership, esteem, authority, obedience, rewards, punishment and status: (While) the few have been acquiring...the ability to in- fluence the many, they have been acquiring it by the very process of rewarding the many.... ...the larger the number of other members a single mem- ber is regularly able to influence, the higher is his authority in the group.... lFrank, p. 34 2Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society, (N.Y., Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932), p. 3 3Nathaniel Cantor, The Teacher Learninngrocess, (N.Y., The Dryden Press, 1953), p. 21 38 ...esteem and authority are apt to be associated both be- cause a man of high esteem will attempt to influence many people and because many of his attempts will be success- ful. ...an appointed leader will be most powerful if he does not wholly rely on authority officially assigned him but goes on to earn unofficial authority by the methods typically used by informal leaders. (A man) tests his authority afresh every time he makes a suggestion, and the results of the test may confirm his authority or undermine it. One reason why men obey an order is that they perceive the results of obedience to be rewarding. A leader then is a man who can punish as well as reward, and punishment, as we know, arouses a very different kind of behavior from that aroused by reward: punishment is a reason for avoid- ing and fearing the punisher. Speaking roughly, we may say that a person of low status, which means low authority, makes neither many friends nor many enemies: he makes little difference, while a person of high status makes many of both: he makes a big difference for good or ill. ... those leaders who spent a particularly large amount of their time accepting communications from individual followers, relative to the time spent directing the group—-those leaders were liked much more than the aver- age--indeed they got much respect and much liking too.1 As an individual gets guidance and decisions from leaders, he must expect to fulfill the groups' needs for compliance, loyalty and fidelity. Values The respondent needs in the area of values are expressed by Lewin: The group a person belongs to serves not only as a source of help and protection, it also implies certain regula- tions and taboos. In other words, it narrows the indi- vidual's "space of free movement". This is very impor - tant for the question of adaptation of the individual to 1Romans, Chapter 14 39 the group. The basic problem can be stated thus: Can the individual satisfy his own personal needs to a sufficient degree without interfering unduly with the life and pur- pose of the group? People are different from the lower animals because they are much more culturable according to Ruth Benedict: The vast proportion of all individuals who are born into any society always and whatever the idiosyncrasies of its institutions assume, as we have seen, the behavior dic- tated by that society. This fact is always interpreted by the carriers of that culture as being due to the fact that their particular institutions reflect an ultimate and universal sanity. The actual reason is quite dif- ferent. Most people are shaped to the form of their culture because of the enormous malleability of their original endowment. They are plastic to the moulding force of the society into which they are born. The distinction between any closed group and outside people becomes in terms of religion, that between the true believers and the heathen. Between these two cate- gories for thousands of years there were no common meeting points. No ideas or institutions that held in the one were valid in the other.2 Erikson feels that good and evil enter the child's life rather early. For it is here that "good" and "evil" enter the babe's world...For where breast feeding lasts into the biting state (and, all in all, this has been the rule on earth) it is now necessary to learn how to continue sucking with- out biting so that the mother may not withdraw the nipple in pain or anger. Our clinical work indicates that this point in the individual's early history is the origin of an evil dividedness....The touchiness as well as the universality of this subject makes it seem the more im- portant that the early unity should have been a deep and satisfactory one and that a baby should be subjected to the unavoidable evil gently and reassuringly.3 For those who have only a dichotomized (good or evil) value system, Kelly suggests a 1aw--the excluded middle: lLewin, p. 176 2Benedict, p. 254 3Erikson, p. 74 40 Law of the excluded middle: What this law proposes is that for any proposition there is only one alternative. I call an object a spade. There is only one alternative to calling it a spade—-to call it not a spade! I can't say, "to heck with it", or "who cares", or "who brought that up", or "that object cannot be sensibly called either a spade or not a spade"; I have to stick with one or the other. Once the object is accused of being a spade, it has to plead innocent or guilty or I have to plead its innocence or guilt in its behalf.. ..if a woman is accused of being a witch, she has to be either a witch or not a witch-—it is up to her. The speaker disclaims all responsibility for the dilemma he has imposed upon her. Linton restates how values and culture are transmited: The culture patterns upon which any society depends for its survival must be established as patterns of habitual response on the part of its members. This is rendered possible by man's extraordinary ability to absorb teaching. Teaching is used advisedly since some- thing more than mere learning from accidental and unor- ganized experience is involved. All human beings re- ceive deliberate and purposeful instruction from their elders. Complex patterns of behavior are transferred from generation to generation in this way.2 According to Wheelis: Conscience becomes, therefore, the repository and guardi- an of these mores. It is the carrier of tradition and foe of change.3 The values built in by the culture can blind a person to the difference between wants and needs according to Low who has developed a system of retraining the values a person holds: lKelly, p. 37 2Linton, p. 24 3Allen Wheelis, The Quest for Identity, (W. W. Norton & CO., 1958), p° 98 41 ... a person's reasoning is powerfully influenced by the values cultivated in his group. And our contempor- ary group has placed a preposterous valuation on roman- tic-intellectual wants to the detriment of realistic needs. ... the familiar philosophy of nervous patients can be condensed in two sentences: I feel tired; hence, I am tired and I think my muscles are exhausted; hence, they are. On the basis of this philoSOphy, patients are convinced that what they feel is real and what they think is right. In point of inner responses men are alike. They differ only in their readiness to convert their inner responses into open reactions. The realist is inclined to control his feelings and thought responses; the romantic and intellectual tend to express them. It is all a matter of your philosophy and if your philosophy is realistic, you will exercise control; if it is romantic, your feel- ings may be expressed the moment they are aroused; if it is intellectual, your thought will tend to be voiced the very instant they are born. ... the Recovery system of self-discipline ... insists that temper is the outcome of an inner arrogance which sets itself up as judge as to who is right and who is wrong. This arrogance is due to the sense of one's own importance and cannot be overcome unless the sense of humor is cultivated to the point where humility, plain- ness and averageness take the place of arrogance, excep- tionality and self-importance. Rader points to the need for a broad system of values: We must find salvation, not by scorning human nature but by giving it a new expression, a higher level of realization. The real center of value is the personality-in-society, and this social personality, as a dynamic focus of in- terests, is the whole man. ... any theory of right is too narrow if it seeks the good of a particular race, class, sex, or nation exclusively. lLow, pp. 192, 73, 75, 106 2Melvin Rader, Ethics and Society, (N.Y., Henry Holt & Company, 1950), pp. 370, 367 42 Homans states some laws of respondent needs in the area of values: ... if two or more men are similar in the values they hold--if this fact is given——then we are in a position to predict that they will probably reward each other and come to like each other. The correlation between friendship and values is clear: value=hom0phily. A man's own background determines what he will find rewarding; the background of others determines which of them he will seek to get it from. (A non—conformist) is...more apt to give in if no other members of his own group share his values: the lot of the isolate is often hard. If all the signs show you to be a member of a group but you do not behave like one, the other members will be even more against you than a non-member that behaves like you. The price an individual must pay for the custons, mores, rules, standards, and values his cultural group brings to him is that of conforming and accepting these. Rootedness Goldschmidt affirms: Mankind everywhere is fundamentally the same. Physi- ological differences are not responsible for the mani- fest differences in human behavior in various cultures. The individual could be explained by his cultural en- vironment and not the other way about. At birth all individuals are culturally interchangeable.2 Man has meaning because he is rooted in a culture accord— ing to Erikson: As an animal, man is nothing. It is meaningless to speak of a human child as if it were an animal in the process of domestication; or of his instincts as set patterns encroached upon or molded by the autocratic 1Homans, Chapters 11, 6. 2W. Goldschmidt, Man's Way,(Wor1d Publishing Co., 1959), p. 50. 43 environment. Man's "inborn instincts" are drive frag- ments to be assembled, given meaning, and organized during a prolonged childhood by methods Of child train— ing and schooling which vary from culture to culture and are determined by tradition.1 Ruth Benedict reinforces the same idea: From the moment of his birth, the customs into which he is born shape his experience and behavior. By the time he can talk, he is the little creature of his culture, and by the time he is grown and able tO take part in its activities, its habits are his habits, its beliefs his beliefs, its impossibilities his impossibilities.2 Culture is inherited from the distant past and is continu— ally changing according to Honigman: The basic postulate is that culture, or at least parts of culture, are derived from innate tendencies that man has inherited out of the distant past. There is no belief that each generation reconstructs its culture afresh but rather that we grow up among cultural forms through which basic human instincts can be channeled. Culture is dynamic, it always is changing in some degree. Hence, the patterns out Of which culture is largely com- prised are also being modified all the time.3 Wheelis speaks of cultural change and its effect on iden- tity: During most of human history, Change in the Character of a people has proceeded so slowly as to be impercep- tible during its occurrence. What is new is not the fact that social character is changing; this has always been in process. What is new is its occurrence at a more rapid rate than ever before and, thereby, our awareness of the change as it is taking place. Putting one's shoulder to the wheel presupposes a patch of solid ground to stand on. Many persons these days find no firm footing; and if everything is Open to ques— tion, no question can be answered. lErikson, p. 90 2Benedict, p. 3 3Honigman, pp. 64, 94 44 Nowadays, the lack of identity is more often secondary only to the collapse of institutional absolutes—-of goals, values and ideals. So far as individual psycho— dynamics is concerned, it is a primary disorder. In this condition--adrift and without compass, lacking even a sense of destination, more and more people seek through psychoanalysis an answer to the question, "Who am I?"1 Rootedness and its Opposite are explained by Weil: ...we owe our respect to a collectivity, Of whatever kind--country, family or any other--not for itself, but because it is "food" for a certain number of human souls. The degree of respect owing to human collectivi— ties is a very high one for several reasons: 1. Each is unique 2. Because of its continuity 3. Because a collectivity has its roots in the past. To be rooted is perhaps the most important and least recognized need of the human soul. A human being has roots by virtue of his real, active and natural parti— cipation in the life Of a community, which preserves in living shape certain particular treasures of the past and certain particular expectations for the future. The past once destroyed never returns. The destruction of the past is perhaps the greatest of all crimes. Uprootedness is by far the most dangerous malady to which human societies are exposed, for it is a self—propagating one. For people who are really uprooted, there remains only two possible sorts Of behavior: either to fall into a spiritual lethargy resembling death, like the majority of the slaves in the days of the Roman Empire, or to hurl themselves into some form of activity necessarily designed to uproot, often by the most violent methods, those who are not yet uprooted or only partly $0.2 The question of "Why are you here?" was asked of recently released prisoners from Stateville who were guests at St. Leonard's.3 One thing that came out most clearly was a lack lWheelis, pp. 83, 19, 172. 2Wei1, pp. 7, 43, 51, 42. 3St. Leonard's House, The Keys of St. Leonard's (2100 W. Warren Blvd., Chicago, 12, 111., 1961) 45 of permanent tie among them. The majority had not married, had no religion, worked infrequently, had left their family; they had lost their rootedness. White believes that: What the transients want most urgently is a sense of community.... To Ackerman a new father's identity is rooted in his own fathers masculinity: It is clearly the young father's emotional identity with his own father in the tears of his childhood that profoundly patterns his image of his masculine self as he moves into adult life. A weakness in his emotional preparation for masculine functioning in any of the several significant spheres--sexual relations, marriage, parenthood. career--will, of course, be echoed in all other spheres. Wood feels that: A rich, continuing fellowship in family and neighbor- hood is a basic human need. Moving is not a mere geographical change of location. It means a cultural pulling up by the roots. Even adults bleed from it.3 Lewin suggests that: To counteract fear and make the individual strong to face whatever the future holds, there is nothing so im- portant as a clear and fully accepted belonging to a group whose fate has a positive meaning. Wheelis speaks again about change and identity: Modern man cannot recapture an identity out of the past; for his old identity was not lost but outgrown. Identity is not, therefore, to be found; it is to be created and achieved.5 lWhite, p. 421 2Ackerman, p. 178 3Leland Foster Wood, What the American Family Faces, (Chicago, Eugene Hugh Publishing, Inc., 1943) 4Lewin, p. 199 5Wheelis, p. 205 46 Harry Stack Sullivan emphasizes the need for a valid self— identity: If there is a valid and real attitude toward the self, that attitude will manifest as valid and real toward others....As you judge yourself, so shall you judge others. Quoting Lewin again: An important factor for the strength of the forces to- ward and away from the group is the degree to which the fulfillment of the individual's own needs is fur- thered or hampered by his membership in the group. Some groups, like the Chamber of Commerce or the labor union, exist for the express purpose of furthering the interests of their members. On the other hand, member- ship in any group limits freedom of action for the indi- vidual member to some degree. Being married and having a pleasant and efficient wife may be a great help for the husband in achieving his ambitions, but marriage can be a great handicap, too. By and large, one can say that the more the reaching of the individual's goal is furthered or hindered by the group, the more likely it is that the balance of forces toward or away from the group will be positive or negative. The individual needs an active, growing identity—- that feeling of belonging, approval, recognition and sup- port. For his primary groups to give this, they need in return his participation, adherence and allegiance. Relatedness Sullivan states: It is seen that a personality can never be isolated from the complex of interpersonal relations in which the person lives and has his being. lHarry Stack Sullivan, "Conceptions of Modern Psy- chiatgy", Reprint from Psychiatry: Journal of the Biology and Pathology of Interpersonal Relations, V. 3, #1, Feb. 1940 2Lewin, p. 191 3Sullivan, p. 5 47 Muelder speaks of roles in interacting wholes: In relation to one another, people and nations play a bewildering number of roles, and yet they are caught up in the universal fact that they are an interacting whole.1 Roles and counter-roles are expressed by Moreno: Every individual—-just as he has at all times a set of friends and a set of enemies—-has a range Of roles in which he sees himself and faces a range of counter- roles in which he sees others around him. They are in various stages Of development. The tangible aspects of what is known as "ego" are the roles in which he Operates; the pattern of role—relations around an indi— vidual as their focus is called his "cultural atom". Every role in which an individual operates has a cer— tain duration, a certain lifetime. Each has a begin- ning, a ripening and a fading out. A role, after it has served for a period in a certain function, may vanish from the manifest life of an individual, but it continues as a dynamic factor in his inner life.2 Linton talks of the developmental aspects of a role: The boy who can learn to act like a man and to be a successful man when the time comes does so because everybody in his society agrees on how men should be- have and rewards or punishes him in terms of how closely he adheres to or how far he departs from this standard. Such standards Of behavior are called "culture patterns" by the anthropologist. Without them it would be impos— sible for any society either to function or to survive. Some disruptive aspects of role relationships are explained by Carroll: The child who has found it difficult if not impossible to establish a satisfactory relationship with his parents experiences great difficulty later in establishing and maintaining mutually satisfying relationships with other people....Generally the child could turn to neither parent for affection and security because the parent was eithefl too distant and rejecting or too close and threatening. lMuelder, p. 40 2J.L. Moreno, Mental Catharsis and the Psychodrama, (N.Y., Beacon House, Inc., 1940), pp. 243, 7 3Linton, p. 19 "Carroll, p. 244 48 Ackerman sees the therapist as a model for healthy role development: The therapist, through his own being, must provide the proof to his patient that mental health is no mirage, that it can be achieved. The patient uses his therapist as a model, a test for his faith in psychotherapy. Does mental health really exist? Do peOple really love? Is it possible, after all, to reconcile one person's strivings for satisfaction with the needs of others, or is it inivitable that in asserting oneself one hurts another? Quoting Moreno again: The human social structure develops from an undifferent- iated form at the birth level to more and more different- iated configurations corresponding to the level of the participants. The course may differ from culture to culture. Human social structures formed by actual people have a characteristic type of organization which differs significantly from structures which are formed by "chance” or by imaginary individuals. Each person has a range of "roles". Ackerman states several conditions in the family that con- tribute to the affects of the children: The manner in which parents characteristically show their love for one another and for their children is of utmost significance in determining the emotional cli- mate of the family. Conflict evokes hostile tension which when unabated threatens family disorganization. When the parents love one another, the child loves both parents; when the parents hate one another, the child is compelled to side with one against the other. This induces fear since he must then be prepared to lose the love of the parent he rejects in favor of the other one. The emotional climate of the family is a steadily evolv— ing one. It is not one of unending sameness. The shift i3 the quality of family interaction is often subtle. 1Ackerman, p. 300. 2Jacob L. Moreno, Sociometry and the Cultural Order (New York, Beacon House, Inc., 1953), p. 301. 3 Ackerman, p. 20. 49 Honigman speaks of affect hunger: Failure to encourage the capacity to give or receive affection sometimes promotes a personality syndrome known as affect hunger. Then the individual is beset with a desire to receive tenderness but lacks the tech- niques to solicit or reciprocate such feeling and also the ability to sustain the attention. Oates repeats much the same: The man who has not been fed, who has not received love and acceptance, will be chronically hungry. He cannot give of himself to people in need because he does not have enough of himself to spare. His lamp of life has never been filled to overflowing. Love and anger are reactions to being befriended or frus— trated according to Murphy: Among the universal impulses which characterize human nature in infancy are the tendencies to love when be— friended and to grow angry when frustrated....What he will love and in what way he will express his love will then be determined very largely by the encouragement or the frustration which meets the process of loving... he may develog deep friendships or he may basically trust only himself. Homans relates esteem to group activities: ...the greater the total reward in expressed social approval a man receives from other members of his groups, the higher is the esteem in which they hold him.4 The complex nature of emotions, attractions and repulsions is suggested by Moreno: A person needs a number of other persons to accomplish his ends and a number of other persons need him to help them accomplish their ends. The problem would have a simple solution then if all the persons concerned mutually reciprocated. But they do not unanimously "click". A mass of emotions, attractions and repulsions 1Honigman, p. 254 2Wayne E. Oates, Pastoral Counseling, (Boardman Press, 1959), p. 44 3Murphy, p. 16 4Homans, Chapter 8 50 result, going into every possible direction and from every possible direction, sometimes meeting each other, often crossing and running apart from each other. But the question is how to ascertain the true position of an individual in the criss-cross of psychological cur— rents whifh mold but also transgress the groups in which he lives. Low quotes one of his patients and goes on to show how this man corrupts the marriage relationship: "If I say something, I may mean something else. What precisely I mean is my sole concern. I am the boss and I do not have to account for my actions." (From) his statement you will understand why I call it rude and savage. Married life calls for sharing and Bill denies Bernice her due marital share. Marriage is the will to share eXperiences, to enjoy and suffer together, to plan jointly and to act in concert. All of it is called companionship, which is a Will, the will to be and remain companions. Implying jointness and together— ness and sharing, companionship rules out individualism which implies self—centeredness, inconsiderateness and single-handed action. Nobody can be a companion and an individualist at the same time or in the same situation or relationship. Ackerman takes a somewhat different position on power in the marriage relationship: When a woman demands equality with men, does she mean equality or superiority? When she demands as much respect as men, does she want the same kind of respect a man gets or a unique respect for herself as a woman? Each of the sexes has its special place and merits respect in its own right. Looking to the future, there is no intrinsic necessity whatever for the battle of the sexes. The basic principle of life has been shown to be cooperation rather than competition. Fromm talks of the power of mutual love, friendship and 1J. L. Moreno, Who Shall Survive, (Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing Com., 1934), p. 143 2Low, p. 184 3Ackerman, p. 173 51 human solidarity as opposed to the power of buying: ...the normal COOperation of husband and wife in their family life is to a large extent not any more deter- mined by the power Of the husband to command his wife as it existed in Older forms Of patriarchal society, but on the principle of COOperation and mutuality. The same holds true for the relationship of friends.... In the relationship of the employer to the employee, this is not the case. The employer has bought the services of the worker. Niebuhr exposes the inevitability of force in human social systems: The limitations of the human mind and imagination, the inability of human beings to transcend their own in- terests sufficiently to envisage the interests of their fellowmen as clearly as they do their own makes force an inevitable part of the process of social cohesion.2 The individual roles are countered by reciprocal roles according to Moreno: In the course of the lives of all of us-—indeed from the moment of birth on—-we are surrounded or we sur- round ourselves with helpers (and Opponents) of all sorts--parents, siblings and friends as well as rivals, competitors, enemies. Unknown to them (since they are driven by the same kind of motives as we are) they operate as auxiliary egos, extensions of our egos—— increasing (or decreasing) our power and welfare.3 Linton says that: Most of the individual's early experience derives from the behavior of other persons. Erikson writes about friendly otherness: The mouth and the nipple seem to be the mere centers of the general aura Of warmth and mutuality which are lFromm, p. 94. 2Niebuhr, P. 6. 3J. L. Moreno, Psychodramatic Treatment of Psychosis,- (New York, Beacon House, 1945), p. 11. “Linton, p. 47. 52 enjoyed and responded to with relaxation not only by the focal organs, but by both total organisms. The mutuality of relaxation thus developed is of prime importance for the first experience of friendly other- ness....There are (other) methods of maintaining re- ciprocity by giving the baby what he can get through good artificial nipples and of making up for what is missed orally through the satiation of other than oral receptors: his pleasure in being held, warmed, smiled at, talked to, rocked, etc. We cannot afford to re— lax our remedial inventiveness. However, it seems (here as elsewhere) that if we expend a fraction of our curative energy on prevenfive action, we may abet the cure and make it simpler. The peer group has an important use in the development of reciprocal roles according to Havighurst: The peer group (second grade here) was giving children practice in learning a social personality-—learning how to express themselves in socially acceptable ways with their peers. They were learning a set of skills for casual social relations--how to enjoy life with people whom one does not know intimately, how to start some- thing interesting and how tozgo along with the group on something they are doing. Bell and Vogel stress the importance of the family in its manifold activities and reciprocal roles to rear the child: No less important than the physical care of Offspring and probably more difficult is their social rearing. The young human animal must acquire an immense amount of traditional knowledge and skill and must learn to subject his inborn impulses to the many disciplines prescribed by his culture before he can assume his place as an adult member of his society. The burden of edu- cation and socialization everywhere falls primarily upon the nuclear family, and the task is, in general, more equally distributed than is that of physical care. l Erikson, p. 71 2Robert J. Havighurst, Human Development and Educa- tion, (New York, Longmans, Greer and Com., 1953), p. 51. 53 The father must participate as fully as the mother because, owing to the division of labor by sex, he alone is capable of training the sons in the activities and disciplines of adult males. Older siblings too play an important role imparting knowledge and disci- pline through daily interaction in work and play. Per- haps more than any other single factor, collective res- sponsibility for education and socialization welds the various relationships of the family firmly together. Agencies, or relationships outside of the family may, to be sure, share in the fulfillment of any of these functions, but they never supplant the family.... No society, in short, has succeeded in finding an adequate substitute for the nuclear family to which it might transfer these functions. It is highly doubtful whether any society ever will succeed in such an attempt, utopian ‘ proposals for the abolition of the family to the con- trary not withstanding. M V Awareness Carroll states: A cardinal principle of mental hygiene is that reality must be faced squarely. In facing reality, one must learn to accept not only the conditions of his external world even though these are very difficult, but also to accept himself as he is. To struggle against realities is to court a mental breakdown. The well-adjusted per- son has learned So capitalize on his assets and to accept his limitations. Jahoda speaks of a basic difference between a mentally healthy person and one lacking in mental health: To perceive with relative freedom from need—distortion does not mean, of course, that needs and motives are eliminated, nor that they have no function in perception. The requirement is of a different nature: the mentally healthy person will test reality for its degree of cor- respondence to his wishes or fears. One lacking in mental health will assume such correspondence without testing. 1Bell and Vogel, p. 43 2Carroll, p. 14 54 Correctness as a criterion seems to carry the implica- tion that reality is static and limited and that there is only one way of looking at it. Yet, seeing new hitherto unnoticed things in the world around us which, while they remain new, may appear incorrect to others, is certainly not mentally unhealthy...l The lack of awareness of interpersonal networks is sug- gested by Moreno: The study of networks discloses that every individual is almost fully unaware of his position within the com— munity. It may be that no intelligence is supreme enough to be aware all the time of all the psychologi— cal currents by which he is affected.2 Bois writes of the mental constructs that man develops to perceive his world: Matter, time and space are merely mental constructs that man creates to deal with a world of processes that slip out of the pincers of his brain. I am not only a Chemistry-binder and a space—binder; I am a time—binder. What I used to call my "thoughts", richer than words, I now call "first-order experiences", unspeakable, belonging to an order of existence that is different from the order of existence Of words, "mental cate- gories", "ideas", "mental constructs", "concepts" and such. Let us note well that "awareness" refers to first—order experiences and that we can differentiate it from "thinking" or second-order experience. (Some) conclusions: 1. We have no common world. Each person has his own to which he responds in his own way. 2. The similarity of our worlds depends upon the simi- larity of our experience, culture, language and philosophy of life. lJahoda, p. 50. 2Moreno, p. 339- _ X-— 55 3. People can get along together to the extent that their worlds overlap. 4. A common outlook on life is more powerful than a common sensory experience to bring about a merging of our worlds. 5. A philosophy that is adequate to integrate my world may not be adequate to integrate yours. Unless I become sensitive to your views and values, and you to mine, we shall remain apart, each within the steel ring of our own semantic world.l Combs and Snygg speak of awareness in terms of a person's perceptual field: People do not behave according to the facts as others see them. They behave according to the facts as they see them. ...Communication is essentially the process of acquiring greater understanding of another's perceptual field.... Any theory of behavior may be devastatingly criticized by the simple expedient of examining it at a level different from the level at which it was devised. The perceptual field is the universe Of naive ex— periences in which each individual lives, the every- day situation of the self and its surroundings which each person takes to be reality. To each Of us the per— ceptual field of another person contains much error and illusion; it seems an interpretation of reality rather than reality itself; but to each individual, his pheno- menal field 1e reality; it is the only reality he can know. This perceptual field is far richer and more meaningful than that of the Objective, physical world. We do not live in a world of Objects without meaning. On the contrary, we invest the things about us with all sorts Of meanings; these meanings are for each of us the reality to which we respond.2 Havighurst talks of reality and mental growth: Mental growth seems to occur in four broad movements, each directed at a specific goal. The goals are: 1Samuel J. Bois, Explorations in Awareness, (New York, Harper and Brothers Publishing, 1957), pp. 113, 96, 82, 135. 2Combs and Snygg, pp. l4, 17, 31, 21. 56 To separate objective reality from fantasy To explore reality and discover its orderliness TO put reality to use To find a more basic reality beneath the surface of things.1 tUUNH According to Perry: Learning in the liberal sense then is a wide awareness Of the laws and nature Of the known world, and of the procedures of knowledge; it provides the map and compass with which the latest man can chart his own course with- in those seas and continents that have been discovered, region upon region, by all the voyagers that have gone before. Linton affirms: The fact that most human behavior is taught in the form of organized configurations rather than simply developed by the individual on the basis of experience is of the utmost importance to personality studies.3 Allport reports that: The hope for an accurate assessment of motives and traits is thus badly bedeviled by the person's variability and by the perceiver's bias. Kelly sees some flaws in "scientific" thinking and suggests ways that a counselor may improve his approach: Now as every scientist and every Clinician knows and is fond of repeating, treatment depends upon diagnosis. First, you find out what is wrong--really wrong—-then you treat it. This is the way we see the matter: Magical thinking has it that the Object is beholden to the word—~when the word is spoken, the Object must produce itself. SO- called objective thinking, under which it has been possi— ble to make great scientific progress, says that the word lHavighurst, pp. 78, 5. 2Ra1ph Barton Perry, The Humanity of Man, (New York, George Braziller, Inc., 1956), p. 31. 3Linton, p. 25. “Allport, p. 243. 7 is beholden to the object—kECk the bottle to validate the word. If, however, we build our sciences on a recog- nition Of the psychological nature Of thought, we take a third position—-the word is beholden to the person who utters it or, more properly speaking, to the con- struction system, that complex Of personal construsts of which it is a part. Instead of assuming on the one hand that the therapist is obliged to bring the client's thinking into line or, on the other, that the client will mysteriously bring his own thinking into line once he has been given the proper setting, we can take the stand that client and therapist are conjoining in an exploratory venture. The therapist assumes neither the position of judge nor that of the sympathetic bystander. He is sincere about this; he is willing to learn along with his client. He is the client's fellow researcher who seeks first to understand, then to examine and finally to assist the client in subjecting alternatives to experimental test and revision. The choice of language in counseling seems important to Sullivan: Because the psychiatrist is always dealing with living, partly adequate, partly unfortunate, but always simple humans, the terms of his scientific language might well be refined from the common speech by chief virtue of which he and his patients have acquired some skill at communicating.2 From "Creativity and Its Cultivation" a quote by Antoine de Saint—Exupery: I heard them talking to one another in murmurs and whispers. They talked about illness, money, shabby domestic cares. Their talk painted the walls Of the dismal prison in which these men had locked themselves up. And suddenly I had a vision of the face of destiny. Old bureaucrat, my comrade, it is not you who are to blame. No one ever helped you to escape. You, like a lKelly, pp. 44, 42, 51. 2Sullivan, p. vi 58 termite, built your peace by blocking up with cement every Chink and cranny through which the light might pierce. You rolled yourself up into a ball in your gen— teel security, in routine, in the stifling convention of provincial life, raising a modest rampart against the winds and the tides and the stars. You have chosen not to be perturbed by great problems, having trouble enough to forget your own fate as man. You are not the dweller upon an errant planet and do not ask yourself questions to which there are no answers. You are a petty bourgeois of Toulouse. Nobody grasped you by the shoulder while there was still time. Now the clay of which you were shaped has dried and hardened, and naught in you will ever awaken the sleeping musician, the poet, the aitronomer that possibly inhabited you in the begin— ning. Ecology Bois replaces the standard definition of man as a rational animal with: Man can be described as a thinking, feeling, self-uoving, electrochemical organism in continuous interaction with a space-time environment.2 Combs and Snygg speak of man's basic needs: (By) man's basic need, we mean that great driving, striving force in each of us by which we are continually seeking to make ourselves ever more adequate to cope with life.3 Stability, change and personality are related according to Kardiner: One cannot evaluate stability or change in a society without reference to the growth pattern followed by it and basic personality it produces, because changes are predicated by the needs created in the basic personality. lHarold H. Anderson, editor, Creativity and Its Culti- vation, (New York, Harper and Bros. Publishing, 1959), p. 256. 2Bois, p. 45. 3Combs and Snygg, p. 46. 59 Hence all extraneous sources of change (discoveries, destruction, necessity for new types of subsistence techniquest, etc.) must be evaluated from the point of view of the basic personality structure.l Wheelis likewise links Character and change: Clearly character cannot remain fixed while the condi- tions Of life Change. And clearly the conditions of life have always been changing. Any culture tends to produce in individuals that social Character which is fitted for survival in that culture and as a culture evolves, an evolution in the prevailing character of the individuals who adapt to it is to be expected.2 Coutu uses the concept of "tinsit": To name a tinsit (tendency—in—situation) one must name the situation Of which it is a function; one thus avoids the fallacy of conceptually separating the tendency from the situation in which it occurs and of which it is a function.3 Invention and learning are necessary, says Linton: Man has no instincts, at least in the sense in which we use that term when we talk about insect behavior. He has to learn or invent practically everything that he does. All Children are born with the ability to feel fear, anger and pleasure, but the stimuli which will evoke these emotions in later life depend almost entirely upon accidents Of early experience. These adaptations to his environment, embodied in pat— terns of behavior, have been developed by earlier members of his society as a result of their experiences and are passed on to him by way Of his learning processes. They save him from the necessity of going through many fre— quently painfiul experiences in order to make successful adjustments. lKardiner, p. 429. 2Wheelis, p. 71. 3Coutu, p. 18. “Linton, pp. 13, 141, 38. - (I .‘L ‘- A.‘ 1:: 6O Honigman talks of "our world" and "our self" and disci- pline: The positive world and self—view, born of gratification, may be summed up in the formula: "This is a predictable, friendly world that I can manage." Persistent non— gratification, tension or exposure to unpleasant ex- periences may encourage a negative world and self-view, one summed up in the phrase: "This is a dangerous and unpredictable world that I cannot control." Discipline, it would seem, reduces the individual's freedom Of action. Survival invariably depends on stand- ardized behavior and involves curtailment of a theore- tical total freedom. On the other hand, without such standardization freedom is meaningless. The fact that an individual has been reared in a particular way of life does not rule out the possibility that he continues to possess a power of choice within a definable range of alternatives. Perry defines freedom: (Freedom) is here defined as man's exercise of enlightened choice.2 Lewin describes portions of one's life space in terms of degrees of freedom: One has to distinguish within a life space not only regions in which the person is entirely free to act and others which are entirely prohibited, but regions of an intermediate type: A certain activity may not be alto— gether prohibited, yet the person may feel somewhat restricted and hindered within this region. The dif— ferent social groups a child belongs to, the atmosphere in the classes of its different teachers, the different social activities in which he is involved are Often regions of different degrees of freedom.3 One's freedom of choice may include his own social roles according to Ackerman: lHonigman, pp. 228, 222. 2Perry, p. 6. 3Lewin, p. 9. .‘m... 1“ gm “fl 61 The person seeks out selectively a social environment that is congenial to the expression of specific indivi- dual needs. To some limited extent, the individual has the power to change or shape his environment or to set up priorities for interaction with some elements of the surrounding situation while rejecting contact with others. He may choose those forms of interaction that are favorable to the desired direction of self-expres- sion. In a sense he can choose his own social roles. Predictability, order, boundaries and reality are learned by individuals as part of their developmental tasks, accord- ing to Havighurst: Children in middle childhood are: 1. Trying to establish boundaries to their world, 2. Working at finding or making some order in their world, at organizing its facts and incidents into a pattern that makes sense to them; 3. Trying to find out the extent to which the larger V world around them is predictable; 4. Trying to understand adults' processes of reasoning and proof. Jahoda writes: The central aspect (of reality) concerns the shift brought about by the development Of modern science from a concept of static to a concept Of Changing reality. Tax states: With the increasing complexity of society and culture, the direct interaction Of man as a biological organism with his environment is less and less important. Goldschmidt stresses man's inventive ability: Man's capacity to make things with his hands has, in fact, given him the tools with which he has conquered every part Of the world: this aspect Of his physical endowment is crucial to the survival of culture.5 lAckerman, p. 58. 2Havighurst, p. 88. 3Jahoda, p. 43. “Tax, p. 153. 5Goldschmidt, p. 17. 62 Meeting of needs may be defeated by self according to Sullivan: ...limitations and peculiarities of the self may inter— fere with biologically necessary satisfactions. When this happens, the person is to that extent mentally ill.1 Erikson suggests that self-defeating adaptive behavior may start in early childhood: If outer control by too rigid or too early training insists on robbing the child of his attempt gradually to control his bowels and other ambivalent functions by his free choice and will, he will again be faced with a double rebellion and a double defeat. The neurotics of our time include the compulsive type who has more mechanical orderliness, punctuality and thrift, and this in matters of affection as well as feces, than is good for him and, in the long run, for his society. Rivalry explained by Benedict: Rivalry is a struggle that is not centered upon the real objects of the activity but upon outdoing a competitor. The attention is no longer directed toward providing adequately for a family or toward owning goods that can be utilized or enjoyed, but toward out-distancing one's neighbors and owning more than anyone else.... Rivalry does not, like competition, keep its eyes upon the ori- ginal activity, whether making a basket or selling shoes; it creates an artificial situation: tge game of show- ing that one can win out over others. While the individual needs to a) master his life space, b) develop control othis own body functions, c) make choices about what in his environment he shall accept, attempt to change or avoid, and d) adapt to nature's realities, the group requires individuals who can invent and innovate, who 1Sullivan, p. 10. 2Erikson, pp. 78, 77. 3Benedict, p. 247. ‘1‘. ~, '“L—s“ __ I‘ _ 63 will seek out the unknown and explore new possibilities for the benefit of all. The group needs individuals who will adapt to the real situation though it be difficult or unpleas- ant. It also needs controls and protective systems for those who will not or cannot adapt. Release According to Skard: Need energy may get external outlets in different ways.1 Man’s mind portrayed by Low, is ever active with accompan— ing tenseness, release or frustration: Just give yourself over to a few moments of revery or daydreaming and you will realize how your thoughts wan— der across the field of experience, now reaching out into the future, then roaming through the past with a motley assortment of ideas, opinions, plans and dreams crowding in on one another, the ones just entering your brain, the others leaving. This ceaseless hustle and bustle of an up-and-down flowing mentation has been called the "Stream of thought”. ...there are love, devotion and affection, enthusiasm and sympathy, the sense of fellowship and the spirit of self-effacement. These are the emotions of stimula— tion. They stimulate the organs of the body into more vigorous breathing, digesting, heart action. They operate to raise and harmonize the functions of the or- ganism. On the other hand, there are fear and conster— nation, anger and indignation, envy, jealousy and dis- gust. These are the emotions of frustration. They low- er the Sunctions of the body and throw them out of equil- ibrium. Maslow says creativeness is spontaneous expressiveness: Self—actualizing creativeness was in many respects like the creatiVeness of all happy and secure children. It was spontaneous, effortless, innocent, easy, a kind of freedom from stereotypes and cliches. Again it seemed 1Skard, pp. 37, 35. 2Low, pp. 307, 122. ‘_ V; 5.. (r ‘7" 1‘1"" “2- ‘..I‘t:'. 64 to be made up largely of "innocent" freedom of percep- tion and "innocent", uninhibited spontaneity and ex- pressiveness.1 -u.mo‘f’. -‘T ’~ ’ ‘. r ..1 Moreno enlarges on the concept Of spontaneity: 5.,"- Every individual gravitates toward a situation which Offers him as a personality the highest degree of spon- taneous expression and fulfillment and be continuously seeks for companions who are willing to share with him.’ Spontaneity appears to be the Oldest phylogenetic fac— tor which enters human behavior, certainly Older than memory, intelligence or sexuality. It is in an embry- onic stage of development but it has unlimited potential- ities for training. Because it can be tapped directly by Man himself, its release can be well compared with the release of nuclear energy on the physical plane.2 Release by use of the arts is suggested by Mearns: If a Child is released in one medium he will be set free in other ways. If he draws well, he will talk, sing and dance better. Creative work unlooses a fuller personality, permits it to expand and to grow. This is a most important educational fact, not only in the train— ing of a child but even more so in the enlargement of adult personality.3 Montagu suggests that aggressive behavior in babies is a means of seeking love: When (babies') needs for cooperation, for love, are frustrated, they may react with aggressive behavior. Aggressive behavior is originally a means of seeking and if possible compelling love. Aggression is prac— tically always, if not always, the effect of love frus— trated, or Of the expectation of love frustrated.” lMaslow, p. 86. 2Moreno, p. 203 (1934), p. 7 (1947) 3Mearns, p. 223. “Montagu 65 Release by antisocial behavior may aid mental health accord- ing to Carroll1 and the Gluecks:2 Since delinquents are expressing their feelings of resentment through antisocial behavior, it is not surprising that they are less anxious than normal boys. Since they are less anxious, it is also not sur— prising that the Gluecks found that there is less neuroticism among delinquents than among non—delin— quents. Evidently they find their escape in their delinquent behavior. Frustration, relief of aggression and abnormal fixations are explained by Maier: A situation must produce a certain level of distur- bance before it becomes frustrating. As long as aggression is relieved through harmless Channels, the condition is not aggravated. As a mat- ter Of fact, the relief given often is sufficient to permit the person to return to the same situation and view it in a constructive manner. Maier found in working with rats that: ...abnormal fixations occur when animals are forced to continue responding to an insoluble problem. Although the punishment is mild, this situation leads to a great deal Of resistance and the animal must be driven before it is induced to respond. The nervous behavior of the animal in the jumping stand leaves little doubt but that it is under great stress. Abnormal fixations were not only found to resist modi— fication through learning methods, but they also re— mained intact, in most instances, after metrazol shock. However, it was found that they could readily be altered by a form Of therapy that we have described as guidance. The method of guidance leads the animal through an alternate response and prevents the ex— pression of the fixated response. From five to ten trials with guided responses may completely eliminate a fixated response that resisted mgdification by punishment for hundreds of trials. lCarroll, p. 281. 2Sheldon & Eleanor Glueck, Unraveling Juvenile De- linquency, (Commonwealth Fund & Harvard Univ. Press, 1950) 3Norman Maier, R.F., Frustration, (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., 1949(, pp. 129, 69, 79. . r NHL-”1“ 7.. - . 66 Freud writes: ...we have the most unequivocal utterances on the part of patients in proof of the effort of will, the attempt at defense, upon which the theory lays em— phasis; and in at least a number of cases the patients themselves will inform us of the fact that the phobia or obsession first made its appearance after this effort of will had apparently succeeded in its aim. "Once something very disagreeable happened to me and I did my utmost to thrust it out of my mind, to think no more about it. Finally I succeeded, but then I got this, which since then I have never been rid of." The discovery that we made, at first to our own great surprise, is that when we had succeeded in bringing the exciting event to clear recollection, and had also succeeded in arousing with it the accompanying affect, and when the patient had related the occurence in as detailed a manner as possible and had expressed his feeling in regard to it in words, the various hysteri- cal symptoms disappeared at once, never to return. Recollection without affects is nearly always quite ineffective; the original psychical process must be repeated as vividly as possible1 brought into statum nascendi and then "talked out". Moreno reinforces this idea: One of the most powerful media which can produce this effect is mental catharsis. It can take place and bring relief from grief or fear without any change being necessary in the external situation. Large amounts of energy are thus retained whica otherwise would go into efforts to change reality. Low cautions: ...the nervous patient wants to be believed (so) he must make it his supreme goal to compel conviction. (Thus) his incurable fondness for monstrogsly exag- gerating the intenseness of his symptoms. 1Sigmund Freud, Collected ngers, The Hogarth Press, (London, 42 Williams IV St., W.C. 2, 1947), pp. 66, 28. 2Moreno (1940, p. 228. 3Low, p. 196. :. 2.3 ...it»; {W . ., 33:3 - w. 67 Henry H. Murray sums the case for release: Everyone knows, as well as they know anything, that the intrinsic satisfactions associated with eating, with courtship and sexual intercourse, with conversa— tion, with "play" in the true sense, with the enjoy— ment Of literature and the arts, with all types of creative activity, and with man's other activities and dependent on such qualities as tempo, order, harmony, variety, novelty and such experiences as spontaneity, zest, surprise, suspense and resolution—-in short, on form and style, things that cannot properly be repre— sented in quantitative terms, but are, nonetheless, as real and as determining as anything that numbers can express. ~The case for release by the individual is clear: he needs to express himself in play, humor, laughter, sex, crying, spontaneity, the arts, music, crafts, work, fighting, eating. What is not as clear in the literature is the needs of the group, whether it be family, peer or society, of having this release acceptable to those close to the individual. All groups thus build into their culture legitimate means of releasing: games, contest, fairs, rallies, musicals, theaters, ceremonies, visiting, counseling, fighting. Integration Wheelis links identity and integration: Identity is a coherent sense of self. It depends upon the awareness that one's endeavors and one's life make sense, that they are meaningful in the context in which life is lived. It depends also upon stable values, and upon the conviction that one's actions lMurray, p. 195. an. 'uii...‘.¢n ". a . It . 68 and values are harmoniously related. It is sense of wholeness, of integration, of knowing what is right and what is wrong and of being able to choose.1 Ackerman suggests that integration with others is neces- sary for self-preservation: Homeostasis means the preservation of a certain cen- ter of the self, with the addition of new dimensions to the self in a never-ending series of group inte- grations. The mechanism of emotional isolation leads ultimately to a disownment of self, depersonalization and loss of self. The preservation of seld repre- sents rather an ever-expanding matrix of joined iden- tity with other persons, which at the same time adds strength to the core of the self. Barricading or iso- lating the self from an expanding process of social identification condemns the individual to feed on him- self psychically and guarantees a premature psyshic death. One aspect of the function of stability fulfills the conservative requirement of protecting sameness and continuity; another aspect must make room for new experience, learning and further development.2 Integration is an aspect of culture according to Muelder: All cultures are internally integrated, but they are differently integrated.3 Integration is an indication of creativity and health according to Maslow: What I am saying in effect is that the creativity of my subjects seemed to be an epiphenomenon of their greater wholeness and integration, which is what self- acceptance implies. The civil war within the average person between the forces of the inner depths and the forces of defense and control seems to have been resolved in my subjects and they are less split. As a consequence, more of themselves is available for use, 1Wheelis, p. 19. 2Ackerman, pp. 79, 85. 3Muelder, p. 49. ’1'}... . 69 for enjoyment and for creative purposes. They waste less of their time and energy protecting themselves against themselves. f n I 1. E Fl 3 I 5. 1 4 r Jahoda quoting Glover says: "a normal person must show some capacity for anxiety tolerance."2 Moreno makes this more emphatic: There is no sphere of the universe imaginable, whether physical, mental, social or cultural, from which there may not emerge, at one time or another, some cause of disequilibrium in a person's life. It is almost a miracle that an individual can achieve and maintain any degree of balance, and man has continually been in search of devices which will enable him to attain or increase his equilibrium. Cognitive dissonance is a concept expressed by Festinger: Cognitive dissonance refers to this kind of relation between cognitions which exist simultaneously for a person. If a person knows two things, for example, something about himself and something about the world in which he lives, which somehow do not fit together, we will speak of this as cognitive dissonance. Carroll writes of the reactions of individuals to pre- serve the self: Case studies Of schiZOphrenic patients indicate clear- ly the struggle they go through to preserve their selves. This struggle usually begins in infancy or early childhood in response to an overtly or covertly threatening family environment. In an atmosphere of continued insecurity, anxiety is learned and, in attempts to reduce that anxiety, certain adjustment mechanisms are utilized in extreme form with fantasy and withdrawal rating high as avenues Of escape. In time these defensive barriers against intolerable realities become so wide and so high that the person lMaslow, p. 88. 2Jahoda, p. 42. 3Moreno (1940), p. 228. “Festinger, p. 69. 70 who has built them can no longer see around them or over them. He has cut himself Off from the real world by his own individual iron curtain. Certainly he feels safer in his private world backstage; it is impossible to know whether or not he feels happier.1 The individual person must preserve his own unity, stabi- lity or homeostasis. He needs a minimum of inconsistencies, ambiguities, dissonances and incongruities in his environ- ment. Since life does have these inconsistencies, the group needs members with frustration and anxiety tolerance, endurance and the ability to yield and be peace-makers. Security Trust is necessary to the development of autonomy according to Erikson: To develOpe autonomy a firmly developed and convincingly continued state of early trust is necessary...His environment must back him up in his wish to "stand on his own feet" lest he be overcome by that sense of having exposed himself prematurely and foolingly which we call shame, or the secondary mistrust, that of look- ing back, which we call doubt. Security is believed by Lewin to be obtained from a child's social climate and his perception of unknown regions: The social climate in which a child lives is for the child as important as the air it breathes. The group to which a child belongs is the ground on which he stands. His relation to this group and his status in it are the most important factors for his feeling of security or insecurity. lCarroll, p. 243. 2Erikson, p. 80. Pan-... Si ing _. 71 The child's development naturally leads to an opening up of new unknown regions. Periods of transition are characterized by more than the usual impact Of such 4 new regions. Entering a new social group can mean something very similar to being thrown into a cog- nitively unstructured field, being forced to stand on unfirm ground and not knowing whether the "right thing" is being done. The uncertain character of the adoles- cent's behavior and his conflicts can partly be ex— plained by lack of cognitive Clarity concerning the adult's world which he is going to enter. It follows that this uncertainty is greater the more the indivi- dual has previously been kept out of thf adult world and has been kept in the dark about it. Carroll 2 reports observations made by Escalona at the Massachusetts Reformatory for Women where she served as nursery psychologist and on other security studies: In this study some of the causes of feeding distur— bances in very young children are Clearly revealed. The basic one was the lack Of an atmosphere Of emo— tional security in which the child could satisfy his food hunger. Escalona reports ten instances where infants less than a month old refused the breast, al- though there were no physical conditions present which made breast feeding impossible. In eight of these cases the mothers were very tense, and this tension appeared to be disturbing the infant. In six cases it was observed that the babies were quite willing to be bottle—fed by someone else, but refused to drink when the formula was presented by the restless, excit— able mothers. The lack of affection during the early years of life resulted in an overly strong desire for affection with accompanying hostility. These attitudes, in turn, re- sulted in the impoverishment of human inter—relationships. One patient said, "I hear all the negative things said about me but I cannot seem to hear the more positive things which raise my self—esteem!" lLewin, p. 82 ( 1951), p. 138. 2Carroll, p. 47. 'IIJOI 1'. (3'11 '.' 72 No individual is ever sufficient unto himself along. Human nature is such that every person desires to be at least somewhat dependent upon another who is stronger than himself. A belief in God satisfies his desire. The individual feels secure because Of the faith he has in a Supreme Being. His need is especially great if he has no fellow humans to whom he can turn. .fifiilfi; '2‘ A Freud states that: Any experience which rouses the distressing affects of fright, apprehension, shame or psychical pain can have this effect and it obviously depends on the sensitive— ness of the person concerned...whether the experience acquires the importance Of a trauma. Carl Rogers believes: ...that by setting up conditions Of psychological safety and freedom, we maximize the likelihood of an emergence Of constructive creativity....The individual is as free to be afraid of a new venture as to be eager for it; free to bear the consequences of his mistakes as well as of his achievements. It is this type of freedom responsibly to be oneself which fosters the develo ment of a secure locus Of evaluation within oneself...§ 1S. K. Escalona, "Feeding Disturbances in Very Young Children", Amer. Journal of Orthopsychiatry, v.15, 1945. 2Freud, p. 27. 3Rogers .-W a 73 Transcendency (Giving) Needs Introduction The preceding section on respondent needs was given a more extensive treatment than survival needs or this section on transcending needs. A brief overview from the literature on transcending needs is presented so that the reader will be aware of the total needs construct. Pitirim A. Sorokin calls our modern societies to an account- ing: We are living in the most scientific, most technolo- gical, and most schooled century; and the same cen- tury happens to be the bloodiest of all the preceding recorded twenty-five centuries. (we need) some fundamental change in man's motivations in the direction of altruism.1 Maslow states his case for self-actualization: We can certainly now assert that at least a reason- able, theoretical and empirical case has been made for the presence within the human being of a tendency toward,or need for, growing in a direction, that can be summarized in general as self-actualization or psy— chological health or maturation, and specifically as growth toward each and all of the subaspects of self- actualization. That is to say, the human being has within him a pressure (among other pressures) toward unity of personality, toward spontaneous expressive- ness, toward full individuality and identity, toward seeing the truth rather than being blind, toward being creative, toward being good and a lot else. That is, the human being is so constructed that he presses toward 1Sorokin, Pitirim A., The Ways and Power of Love (New York: Beacon Press, 1954) p. 3. as» 74 fuller and fuller being and this means pressing toward what most people call good values, toward serenity, kindness, courage, knowledge, honesty, love, unselfish- ness and goodness.1 a i j. L Anderson also affirms this and gives characteristics of creativity: The mainspring of creativity appears to be the same ten- dency which we discover so deeply as the curative force in psychotherapy--man's tendency to actualize himself, to become his potentialities. By this I mean the direc- tional trend which is evident in all organic and human life—-the urge to expand, extend, develop, mature--the tendency to express and activate all the capacities of the organism, to the extent that such activation enhances :4 the organism or the self. If creativity is a broad way of life, then the character- istics which describe a person in the full, vigorous ad- venture of living are: affective for an idea, absorp- tion, concentration, intensity of encounter, peak exper- . I ience, delight, ecstacy--such words are used by the au- E y thors of this volume in describing the creative experi- -" ence....0ther characteristics mentioned in these chapters are: desire to grow, capacity to be puzzled, awareness, spontaneity, spontaneous flexibility, adaptive flexibil- ity, originality, divergent thinking, learning, openness to new experience, no boundaries, permeability of bound- aries, yielding, readiness to yield, abandoning, letting go, being born every day, discarding the irrelevant, a- bility to toy with elements, change of activity, persis- tance, hard work, composition, decomposition, recomposi- tion, differentiation, integration, being at peace with the world, harmony, honesty, humility, enthusiasm, in- tegrity, inner maturity, self actualizingo skepticism, boldness, faith, courage, willingness to be alone, I see, I feel, I think, gust for temporary chaos, security in uncertainty, tolerance of ambiguity. These words or their synonyms and many others are representative of most of the chapters. They have practically no internal in- consistencies, and are offered by their authors as essen- tials of the creative process. 1Mas1ow (1959). p. 125. 75 Is there such a thing as a creative person? Or, are there creative processes, creative relations in which persons are involved? Instead of: What are the char- acteristics of a creative person?, would a more proper question be: What is the nature of the creative inter- acting between the person and his meaningful environ- ment? Gnagey gives four aspects of creative problem-solving: 1. Feeling of freedom to explore their own problem area. 2. Ability to recognize more sources of data for solution to classroom problem. 3. Habit of looking for a variety of solutions. 4. Ability to select a solution of optimal value.2 Carl Rogers talks of creativity: The genuinely significant creation, whether an idea, or a work of art, or a scientific discovery, is most likely to be seen at first as erroneous, bad or foolish. Later it may be seen as obvious, something self-evident to all. Only still later does it receive its final evaluation as a creative contribution. It seems clear that no contemporary mortal can satisfactorily evaluate a creative product at the time that it is formed, and this statement is increasingly true the greater the ‘novelty of the creation. ...no, we must face the fact that the individual creates primarily because it is satisfying to him, because this behavior is felt to differntiate "good" and "bad" pur- poses in the creative process.3 Lewin sees creative planning as a spiral: Planning starts usually with something like a general idea. The first step them is to examine the idea care- fully in the light of the means available. Frequently more fact-finding about the situation is required (which) also somewhat modifies the original idea. The next period is devoted to executing the first step of the overall plan. 1Anderson, p. 237. 2Wm. J. Gnagey, "Creative Problem Solving in Teacher Education", Improving College & University Teachigg, Autumn 1961, Vol. IX #4 3Rogers, p. 73. 7‘." _ k 76 (Creativity)...therefore proceeds in a spiral of steps, each Of which is composed of a circle of planning, ac— tion, and fact—finding about the result of the action.1 Perry describes "spiritual" man: Let us, for the sake of brevity, use the term "spiritual" to describe man as a being who is conscious, freely chooses, cherishes hopes and aspirations, prefers one end to another in a scale Of values, acknowledges moral duties and responsibilities, judges by norms, appreci- ates beauty and pursues truth.2 The categories used in this construct are: vision, love of right and truth, purposiveness, faith, sensitive to the needs of others, forgiveness, magnanimity, courage and love. Vision Man is blessed and cursed with an imagination according to Niebuhr: However much human ingenuity may increase the treasures which nature provides for the satisfaction of human needs, they can never be sufficient to satisfy all human wants; for man, unlike other creatures, is gifted and cursed with an imagination which extends his appetites beyond the requirements Of subsistence.3 Perry amplifies this idea: A second condition Of enlightened choice is imagination. While learning in the usual intellectual sense provides the mind with alternatives that are held for true, imagination enables the mind to entertain mere possi- bilities of truth. It plays wantonly with the doubtful, the improbably and the incredible. It is of the essence of fantasy that it should be free. Imagination is the agency by which human mind looks beyond every self- imposed limitation, conscious or unconscious; it is the lLewin (1948), p. 205. 2Perry, p. 10 3Niebuhr, p. 1. . . A ' 6 ‘mz—é~._ 77 ~ chief antidote to habit; it recognizes no impossibility 4 save the elastic power of invention. Here again, as A in the case of the intellect, it is a mistake to suppose that there is a faculty which can be sharpened like a i tool or strengthened like a muscle. But the imagina— ( 3 tion, like the intellect, can be fed; or provided with "a garden of bright images", wherein to wander.1 Mearns points to the personalness of originating ideas: The region where the teacher may not enter is that of the origination of ideas and of their expression in language.2 And Low sees an occupied imagination as fostering health: The acts of planning, dreaming, hoping and anticipating keep imagination busy and occupied, interested and stimulated. They prevent idleness and boredom. And if imagination is properly kept from being idle or bored, there is no or little occasion for restlessness and irritability.3 Mayer sees the need of vision in our institutions of higher learning: (We) want individuality not blind imitation.. ..Univer— sities lack sense of purpose and mission. A real uni- versity is a creative center which anticipates the future and which has a sense of conscience and moral Obligation. Love of Right and Truth In a speech at a symposium on creativity, Carl Rogers gave a number of ideas about truth seeking: Openness to experience: extensionality...is the Opposite of psychological defensiveness....In a person who is open tO experience each stimulus is freely relayed through the nervous system, without being distorted by any pro— cess Of defensiveness. lPerry, p. 31. 2Mearns, p. 257. 3Low, p. 41. “Fredrick Mayer, "A Real University Is a Creative Cen- ter" Improving College and University Teaching, Autumn 1961 Vol. IX F4 78 It means lack of rigidity and permeability of boun— daries in concepts, beliefs, perceptions and hypo- theses. It means a tolerance for ambiguity where r ambiguity exists. It means the ability to receive ‘ much conflicting information without forcing closure upon the situation. r The ability to toy with elements and concepts...from this spontaneous toying and exploration...there arises the hunch, the creative seeing of life in a new and sig— nificant way. It is though out of the wasteful spawning of thousands of possibilities there emerges one or two evolutionary forms with the qualities which give them a more permanent value. Perhaps the most fundamental condition of creativity is that the source or locus of evaluative judjment is internal. The value of his product is, for the crea- Es tive person, established not by the praise or criticism Of others, but by himself. 2‘! _ In almost all the products of creation we noteaise- lectivity, or emphasis, and evidence of discipline, an attempt to bring out the essence.1 18;. . Ligon in studying the psychology of a Christian personality defines "love of right and truth" as: ...genuine interest in the things about you...desire to know the truth...tendency to think out problems... logical and coherent thinking...willingness to change one's mind in the face of new evidence...willingness to admit one's mistakes.2 Purposiveness The most universally recognized source of integration accord- ing to Ligon "is a dominant purpose in life:" ...one's purposes must be in line with his capacities. One must find a task which uses all his natural abili- ties, but does not require abilities which he does not possess. 1Rogers, pp. 75, 76, 77. 2Ernest M. Ligon, Their Future Is Now, (New York, The Macnillan Co. , 1947), p. 25. 3Ernest M. Ligon, The Psychology of Christian Person- ality, (New York, The Macmillan Co., 1935), pp. l6, l7. 79 Carroll links achievement and adjustment: The need for achievement must be satisfied frequently if an individual is to be well-adjusted. Conversely, if the need for achievement is completely or for the most part, frustrated over a long period of time, the individual will inevitably become maladjusted. One's goals should be obtainable. Repeatedly to attempt the impossible--habitgally to reach for the stars, is to court a neurosis. Mearns writes of the need of children to be fed experiences: If the children are fed with experiences they will come along naturally. Once you get the urge to create going, there seems to be a normal development of taste, a growing sense of appropriateness. The only material of art is personal experience.2 Low gives some poignant ideas about education: With regard to that variety of knowledge and experience that tells you what to do and what not to do, there can hardly be any doubt that the muscles are pre-eminently the teachers and educators of the brain. Carl Rogers indicates the feeling of creativity: "I have discovered I am alone. No one has ever done just this before..." (This is) a feeling of the desire to communicate. There must be some observable product for creativity to be purposeful according to Anderson who quotes Sinnett and May : There must be something observable, some product of creation. Though my fantasies may be extremely novel, they cannot be defined as creative unless they eventuate Carroll, p. 100. Mearns, pp. 227, 91. Low, p. 65. :waI-J Rogers, p. 77. ‘U‘Ifl ‘ I "~56“ 80 in some observable product——unless they are symbolized in words, or written in a poem, or translated into a work of art, or fashioned into an invention. an! [‘19: V Sinnett expressed the keynote of authors who verbalized their thinking on these points: "...inspiration, it is well recognized, rarely comes unless an individual has immersed himself in a subject. He must have a rich back— ground Of knowledge and experience in it". May, speak— ing of unconscious insights, or the answers to problems that come in reverie, said that they do not come hit or miss. "They come only in the areas to which the person is intensively committed in his conscious living...they come in those areas in which the person has worked laboriousl and with dedication in his conscious ex— perience." Booker T. Washington gives some advice: Fl In order to be successful in any kind of undertaking, I think the main thing is for one to grow to the point where he completely forgets himself; that is, to lose himself in a great cause. In proportion as one loses himself in this way, in the same degree does he get the highest happiness out of his work.2 Experimental Faith According to Ligon: Faith has a tremendous force, but like other great forces it can lead to disaster if ignorantly used....Men have had all sorts of superstitious beliefs in various fields of nature. It was only when they adopted the experimen— tal faith of modern science that they began to do greater things. The scientist has an unshakable faith that the universe is lawful; that its laws are worth discovering; that whatever happens is in line with them; and that he can devote his whole life to their discovery with confidence.3 Maslow links creativity and lack of fear: lAnderson, p. 70, Sinnett, p. 243. 2Booker T. Washington Up From Slavery, (Doubleday and Co., Inc., 1900), p. 181. 3Ligon (1935), p. 62. ...that (creativity) which cgées easily and without effort as a spontaneous expression of an integrated per— son, or of a transient unifying within the person...can come only if a person's depths are available to him, only if he is not afraid of his primary thought processes.1 Fear of failure stops learning according to Cantor: ...many pupils who knew correct solutions Of problems were afraid to offer them. Pupil after pupil displayed such a fear of failure and reluctance to speak that one could almost touch the tenseness in the classroom. There was almost no self—confidence or self-trust. I don't think any learning could possibly result from such insecurity.2 Mearns sees certain types of education and educators as blocking creativity and suggests exercising one's creative spirit: We know now a number of profitable procedures useful in the education Of taste but we have discovered no rule applicable to everyone alike, except this one: the more educated, up to a certain point, the more set. Few well- educated persons have a noticeable confidence in their own measure of esthetic value; when it comes to what should be liked, and how much, they look it up in a book, as they would prices in a trade catalogue. The schools have done well in giving us information and mechanical skills but they seem to have petrified our native sense of things delightful. ...little could be done in the creative education of youth by any adults until they themselves had first learned to respect their own sense Of what is true and good and beautiful, who are unafraid of the imputation either of ignorance or of low taste. Seek that artist within you, your submerged, seldom expressed creative spirit. Give it the exercise it must have if it is to grow in strength and power.3 lMaslow, p. 93. 2Cantor, p. 18. 3Mearns, pp. 73, 10. 82 May links creativity and affirmation of self: Creative living is that attitude, therefore, which wel- comes each day with calm enthusiasm instead of melan- choly boredom. It is that state of soul by which one can work with success and satisfaction and occasionally a little joy, can love and move through love into a hap- py marriage and then enjoy the simple pleasures of a family. The creative person can affirm life in its three dimensions--affirm himself, affirm his fellowmen and affirm his destiny. To him, life has meaning.l Sensitive to the Needs of Others Ligon suggests that this trait includes: ...unselfish social contacts--capacity to be moved by the suffering of others...being interested in what others are doing...tendency to see the best in others...making oneself congenial with others...trying to know and under- stand others. Forgiveness According to Ligon forgiveness implies regeneration and suggests that a person should have: ...determination to give every man his chance at happi— ness and success...willingness to assume social re- sponsibility...to share community responsibility...sense of fair play...generosity...ability to apologize...be hard to irritate. Magnanimity Using Ligon's writings, this transcendency need means: ...the determination to resolve the conflict within men and between and among them...c00peration with authority... respect for pr0perty rights...ability to profit from negative criticism...tolerance of other people's points of view...to assume the friendliness of others. 1Rollo May, The Springs of Creative Living, (New York, Abingden-Cokesbury Press, 1940), p. 19. 2Ligon, (1947) lm‘v . 1'1 ..l I 83 There are three kinds of conflict which challenge the peacemaker...(l) the struggle between various forces within the individual...(2) the conflict which arises between the individual and his society...(and 3) those forms of economic and political warfare... A I _ a 4 Inner conflicts can be classified in three groups: lusts, fears, and angers....A man who has lain awake nights in terror of possible calamities in the future, does not have to be told the mental torture of fear. When one is constantly losing his temper in violent anger he is indeed unhappy. The man, who can help us gain control of our appetities, gives us courage to meet our dangers, and teaches us magnanimity with which to replace our anger, is a real peacemaker. Courage T) To Ligon this means: ...being determined to serve men whether they want to be served or not...ability to endure pain without stOp- . ping one's work...acting because of the value of this > activity itself and not for praise...willingness to take a chance...determination to be worth more than you are paid...carry out one's purpose even in the face of pov- erty...carry out the dictates of one's conscience no matter what the cost may be. 1|.- _" ‘1' a Courage is highly desirable, but only when it is mentally healthy....There is the courage of: (1) the_gangster, driven by greed and lust for adventure...(2) fear, shown by the animal fighting at bay...(3) anger, demonstrated by one whose rage has so warped his judgment that he rushes into danger in blind fury...(4) the man who is afraid to be afraid, which is a compensation for an in- feriority complex...(5) those individuals who have been trained to the social philosophy, "boys don't" cry... (6) love, exemplified by the parent trying to save a child. This (6) is the highest type of courage, the one which is surest and most dependable, the one which is mentally healthiest, and from which men derive the greatest satisfaction.2 Montagu states that: Ligon, (1935),p. 77. Ligon, (1935), p.87. 84 ...it is up to all of us, scientists, men of religion, and laymen alike to realize that holiness is where love dwells, and the promise of good, and that each of us as persons and as members of a community have it in our power to apply the knowledge we are in process of ac— quiring toward assisting our fellow human beings to grow and develop in their potentialities for being warm, loving human beings. Let us then have the courage of the new knowledge and act in the faith that we cannot go wrong where love and wisdom dwell.l Washington advises: My experience with them as well as other events in my life convince me that the thing to do, when one feels sure that he has said or done the right thing, and is condemned, is to stand still and keep quiet. If he is right, time will show it.2 Low states emphatically: If you want to maintain the values Of health and self— respect, Of initiative and determination, of character and self—discipline, what you will have to learn is to bear the discomfort of controlling your impulses, of steeling your Will, Of curbing your temper. This calls for an attitude which far from exalting the virtues of comfort places the emphasis where it belongs: on the WILL TO BEAR DISCOMFORT. We have to learn to make decisions and to take chances that we may be wrong. You know the doctor tells us we must have the courage to be wrong in the trivialities Of everyday life.3 Love Quoting Montagu again: But in our present day we perceive the dawn of a new life, a life in Which, as a consequence of the discoveries being made by investigators in the behavioral sciences, we shall assist human beings to become accomplished per— 1Montagu, p. 27. 2Washington, p. 232. 3Low, pp. 143, 34- .q-u—‘zmlfi imman— c 85 formers in the most important of all the arts--the art of becoming what it is in one to become, the art of being a warm, loving human being, one who confers survival , benefits upon others in a creatively enlarging manner.1 i And Washington: “- I learned the lesson that great men cultivate love, and that only little men cherish a spirit of hatred. I learned that assistance given to the weak makes the one who gives it strong; and that Oppression of the unfortu- nate makes one weak. I pity from the bottom of my heart any individual who is so unfortunate as to get into the habit of holding race prejudice. In meeting men, in many places, I have found that the 1 happiest people are those who do the most for others; the most miserable are those who do the least.2 " ' '11.. Anderson warns: Socially integrative behavior (the creative growth cir- cle) can occur only between persons; this is the positive meaning of treating a person as a person. To work against in a person, to dominate, attack, threaten, ridicule a per- ' son (the uncreative vicious circle) is to show lack of respect for the dignity of the person as an individual and to treat him as a thing. Dorothy C. Conrad gives an explicit statement of the posi- tive aspects of love: Has positive affective relationships. The person who is able to relate affectively to even one person demonstrates that he is potentially able to relate to other persons and to society. Promotes another's welfare: Affective relationships make it possible for the person to enlarge his world and to act for the benefit of another, even though that person may profit only remotely. lMontagu, p. 27. 2Washington, pp. 165, 229. 3Anderson, p. 25. 86 WOrks with another for mutual benefit: The person is largely formed through social interaction. Perhaps he is most completely a person when he participates in a mutually beneficial relationship. Affection is an effective force in education according to Mearns: Affection is one of the greatest forces in education. Loyalties thrive within its unquestioned influence. Hard tasks are taken on willingly for those we love, which is another way of saying for those who believe in us; which is still another way of saving for those who believe in the worth of our creative selves. There is such a thing as contagion Of mind, spirit acting upon spirit; it is an important instrument of education; perhaps it is the only important one. Montagu would replace the idea of original sin or selfish- ness with the idea of original love: Love is the communication of the feeling to the other that you are all for him...a11 the basic needs may be inadequately satisfied--nutrition may be poor, the oxy- gen inspired may be laden with noxious gases, rest may be interrupted, activity limited and so on--but so long as the need for love is satisfied, the organism will develop as a warm, loving human being, in all his potentialities as Optimally developed as may be. Children are not born selfish, they are made selfish by being forced to attend to their own need as best they can by the failure of their discipliners to attend pro- perly to their needs for cooperation. The natural self- ishness of the child is, indeed, a monstrous notion. When one analyzes the basic needs of the human organism, those needs which must be satisfied if the organism is to survive, one finds that they are oriented in the direc- tion of cOOperation, of wanting to love, as well as want- ing to be COOperated with and loved. It is in this sense that the organism may be said to be born good, and it is one of the few senses in which the word good means any- thing. 1Dorothy C. Conrad, "Toward A More Productive Concept of Mental Health," Mental Hygiene, 1952 36:456, 466 2Mearns, pp. 227, 208. 87 ...to live as if to live and love were one is the only way of life for human beings, because indeed this is the way of life which the innate nature of man demands. The highest ideals of man, therefore, spring from man's own nature, and the highest of these ideals and the one which must informs all others is love. The reason why people don't live by the principle of love is that they haven't been raised by it. On the other hand, most of them have been raised by the princi- ple of systematic frustration--which in our culture we often call "discipline".1 Sex is elevated by love says Perry: Romantic love embraced and humanized the sexual appetite and raised sex to a higher level through the infusion of chivalry and the love of beauty.2 Oates puts the same idea as a stage of sex--love development: The fourth stage of sexual encounter usually comes in the mature years of marriage. Here the basic skills have been learned, but the meanings have (or have not) been enriched. All the surface mysteries have been revealed. Then the couple either face each other as persons or retreat into boredom in which the acts of sex themselves become meaningless rituals.3 With Sorokim this section on transcendency (giving) needs was opened and now with him it is concluded: The last few decades have been marked in many disciplines-- biology, sociology, psychology, anthropology and others-- by an emergence and growth of a remarkable convergence toward one central point. All these disciplines have been increasingly emphasising the all-important role of this mysterious power of love. Creative love increased not only the longevity of indi— viduals but also of societies and organizations.... In our age of psychoneurosis and juvenile delinquency, the Mennonite, the Hutterite, some Quaker and even the lMontagu. 2Perry, p. 17. 3Oates (1957). p. 102. ML? (‘9 l 88 Chinese communities in the United States yield either none or the lowest quota of delinquents, mentally sick persons and drug addicts. The main reason for this is that these communities not only preach love but realize it in their daily life, they are united into a sort of a real brotherhood. We can say that unselfish creative love can stop aggres- sive inter-individual and intergroup strife and can transform inimical relationships between persons and groups into amicable ones; that love begets love and hate begets hate; that love can tangibly influence inter- national conflicts. In addition, unselfish and wise lovelis a life-giving force, necessary for physical, mental and moral health; altruistic persons live longer than egotistic individuals; children deprived of love tend to become morally, socially and mentally defective; love is a powerful antidote against criminal, morbid and mentally defective behavior; love is the loftiest educat- ional force for enlightenment and moral ennoblement of mankind; love performs important cognitive and aesthetic functions; love is the heart and soul of freedom and of all moral and religious values; a minimum of love is necessary for a durable, reactive and harmonious society and its progress; finally, in this catastrophic moment of human history an increased "production, accumulation and circulation of love energy" in the whole human universe is a necessary condition for the prevention of new wars and for the alleviation of enormously increased inter- individual and intergroup strife.1 This brief account of transcendency (giving) needs is related to the work of Ernest Ligon in his study of the Christian personality. The categories used here are based on those used by Ligon which are in turn based on those used by Jesus as recorded in His Sermon on the Mount. lSorokim, pp. 5, 9, 7, 10. 89 Summagy The literature has been selected to build a construct of human needs. As a summary the following two-page outline assembles the complete construct in compact form. The respondent needs in each area should be seen as complementary between the individual and those primary groups of which he is a part. Neither survival needs nor transcendency needs were a subject of this study. Thus they were not given a full range of quotations available. Because of time and space limitations, the decision was made to restrict the construct mostly to respondent needs. There is no implication that the author believes these survival and transcendency needs are less important but that they did not relate directly to the study. Now follows the outline of the human needs construct. . — gun—fl OUTLINE OF UNIVERSAL HUMAN NEEDS Survival (Receiving) Needs Individual Needs Food Water Air Sleep 90 Freedom from destruction or over—expos ure Physiological Functioning Affection Life Space Respondent (Exchange) Needs Individual Needs Acquisition: goods, wants, services, comforts Leadership: decisions, guidance“ Standards: rules, customs, mores Identity: support, belong, recognition, approval Affiliation: affects, power, roles with signi- ficant others Area 4, ECONOMY \, \ I / POLITY \ I 1. VALUES \5 \ / éOOTEDNESS \ \ LRELATEDNESS \_ ‘ I mam-2&7. ..‘R‘. '. Grogp Needs Reproduction Affiliation Adjust to: new members, newborn, dependents, de arted and the dead. cu tural & technological Communication change Organization Cultural Transmission "‘“"3 Grogp Needs Production: labor, payment, medium of exchange Compliance: loyality, fidelity Conformity: acceptance, agreement Participation: adherence, alliance, allegiance Reciprocal: father, mother, kin peers, spouse, sib- lings, employer, groups, insitutions, friends 91 Perception: ,.AWARENESS g. Constructs: time, space, known, VT " organized system of unknown, concrete- thought, common ness, abstractness ‘ logic and language Environmental Mastery: A, ECOLOGY ~\ Environmental Adapta— 1ife space, test '\ ’7 tion: abilities, chance to stability, defined grow in autonomy, take limits, protective risks, self—locomotion, devices, control independence, control of nature, trans- of elimination, sex portation resource, modesty, choices members who adapt and invent Expression: 1, RELEASE .\ Means of Relieving play, humor, sex, \ " Tension: laughter, crying, games, contests, spontaneity, arts, fairs, rallies, dance, music, crafts, musicals, cere- work, hunger monies, folkways, visiting, coun- seling, fighting Unity: ZINTEGRATION\ Tolerance: stability, homeo- ‘\ 7' endurance, yielding, statis, reduction members with anxiety of inconsistencies, and frustration, ambiguities and tolerance, peace— incongruities makers Protection: 1 SECURITY,\ Order: from violence, ‘\ " protective societies, alienation, instruments, laws, humiliation, police, courts, abandonment armies Transcendency (Giving) Needs Individual Needs Grogp Needs Vision (Imagination) Sensitive to needs of others Seeking Truth (Learning) Forgiveness Purposiveness (Doing) Courageous Decisions Faith (Trust) Magnanimity Love (Give Affection) “w CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY This study was done in retrospect and thus many ele~ ments of the program were already accomplished before the study was designed. The background of the project was given in Chapter II, along with the construct of needs that was the object of this inquiry. The tasks of the project are now outlined, followed by the design tasks of the study, research rationale,hypotheses, population, program, staff and staff training, procedures, source of data, treatment of data, inferences, and limitations of the study. Tasks of the Project l. A major task of the Y.M.C.A. project studied herein was to review the literature and to develop a con- struct of needs. This was used as the conceptual basis for working with young adults, which was dis- dussed in Chapter II. 2. A group program was developed to see if improvement in adjustment of young adults could occur by the involvement with each other and leaders oriented to their needs. This was done in order to test the ideas in the constuct. Transactional learning was 92 _..__.._.— --. ‘ — I - 93 the name given to distiguish it from group therapy, classroom or some other type of learning. The third major task of the project was the selec- tion of staff and their training in young adult needs. The quality of transactional learning de- pendaito a considerable degree on the individual young adults in the group whose adjustment was un- known, but also on the skill and orientation of the staff which might be known and controlled by selec- tion and training. Another set of tasks was determining the criteria for selection of the possible participants, finding those young adults who met the criteria and involv- ing them in the program. About one third were re- ferred from the YOuth Division of the Michigan Em- ployment Security Commission, another third were in counseling,and the rest were in Y.M.C.A. programs. A standardized, objective inventory was selected to organize and understand the variety of poor adjust- ments which were present in these individuals. The California Test of Personality was selected be- cause the twelve components of adjustment which it assesses were judged to be more representative of the needs with which this study was concerned than were items assessed by other standardized tests studied. Detailed descriptions of the twelve components are given in Apppendix D. ‘ -‘(le l.‘-’.‘ A'-’ 94 6. An inventory of needs (Appendix A) was developed in two stages from the needs construct, Part A, developed after the first group, and Part B, developed after the second. 7. The project was developed to be a pilot for a larger Y.M.C.A. study that would involve many leaders and organ- izations. A system of simple and factual reports and records was organized. Personal data were collected by a six-page standard questionnaire used by the counseling office (Appendix B) at the beginning of each sixteen— week program. Attendance and individual participation information was kept. Leader's evaluations of all persons were made at the end of the 16 weeks and those who were in individual coulseling had periodic assessments recorded. Pre- and post-adjustment scores from the California Per- sonality Test were recorded. Needs Inventory (Part A) scores were obtained on the second group. Research Rationale and Design Tasks of this Study The program rationale stated: Given young adults with poor adjustment (A) and desiring improvement in their per— sonal and social adjustment (B), then this improvement might be served by transactional learning with other young adults and staff in a needs-oriented group experience (C), provided that the staff were sensitive to needs of young adults(D); and that the competence of the staff (E), could likely be increased by an evaluation and description of young adult needs (F), using the developed respondent needs construct (G). Given A, then B depends on C depends on D; but (a priori) D depends on E depends on F depends on G. . 1'11 )[fiA' 95 Appraisal of the participants' adjustments had been . made before the experience and immediately after the exper— ience, and could be done again four or five years after the experience. The developed needs inventory could be used to test the relationship between the scores on the adjustment and the unmet respondent needs of the participants. The research rationale was that if the experience, which was designed to met respondent needs of the participants, produc- ed positive changes in their adjustment scores, and there was a high correlation between the two instruments (that is, the Needs Inventory and California Test of Personality), then the respondent needs construct could be considered a useful conceptual tool in working with poorly adjusted young adults. The Needs Inventory would gather categorized information about the participants that could be used to describe each in terms of respondent needs which would be useful for staff awareness and competence. In addition the experience could be re-eval- uated by the staff and the participants themselves after four or five years to affirm or deny the value of the respondent needs approach in developing program for long term adjustment. The Y.M.C.A. pilot project spanned a total of seven years. Planning was started in 1965. The basic program in- volved two groups, the first in 1966 and the second in 1967. As many of the participants of both groups as could be lo- cated in Metropolitan Detroit in 1970-1971 were contacted for a follow-up study. Its purpose was to assess possible effects of the transactional learning experience based on young adult needs. The assumption was that such later information 96 from them, in addition to the data already on hand from the programs, might help answer the questions posed in Chapter I as to the usefulness of the needs construct in working with young adults with poor adjustment. Each person was described in terms of needs, using the respondent needs construct as a framework. Personal and social adjustment profiles were developed from published norms of the California Test of Personality. Personal evaluation of the experience was obtained from each participant by means of questionnaire developed to gather this information. The California Test of Personality had been administered before and after each group experience. Scores were avail— able for Part A of the needs inventory with the second group. Follow-up scores on the California Test were obtained and used for two purposes: to evaluate long-term adjustment of participants and to determine correlation between them and scores obtained on the Needs Inventory (Part A and Part B combined) at follow-up. These tasks all relate to the purpose of the study: to show the usefulness of the respondent needs construct as a conceptual tool in working with poorly adjusted young adults and begin evaluation of a develOped instrument to inventory respondent needs. The questions that the data needed to answer were: 1. What, as measured by the California Test of Personality, was the level of adjustment of each of the participants before the experience, immediately after the experience, and four or five years later? 97 2. Was there a significant improvement in adjustment as shown in the scores of the California Test of Personality: a) immediately following participation in the program,and E b) four or five years after? E . L 3. What were the participants' respondent needs as shown by their scores on the Needs Inventory? 4. How much correlation was there between the respondent needs of these young adults as shown by the Needs Inven- tory and their adjustment as shown by the California Test of Personality? 5. How did participants, in retrospect, perceive changes in their own adjustment as they participated in these trans- actional learning groups? 6. Did the participants feel that the staff was concerned i? for their needs? 7. Would they participate again if given the chance? Hypotheses . 1. Young adults with poor adjustment who participated in a time limited, needs-oriented transactional learning group will, in retrospect, view the experience in positive terms for their personal and social adjustment. 2. There will be a significant improvement in adjustment in these young adults as shown by scores on the California Test of personality administered before the experience and immediately after the experience. 3. There will be a positive correlation between scores on the Needs Inventory and scores on the California Test of Personality. Hypothesis No. 1 called for a subjective appraisal of the prOgram by participants viewing the transactional learn- ing experience in retrospect after four or five years. Positive assessment by the participants is taken to mean that a needs—oriented staff was beneficial to poorly adjusted young adults in a transactional learning group experience. 98 Three aspects of this appraisal relate to questions 5, 6, and 7 on page 97: 1. the participant's perception of his own adjustment as a result of the experience, 2. his feelings about the staff's concern for his needs,and 3. his experssion of willingness to have a similar experience if it could be done over again. Hypothesis No. 2 required a statistical appraisal of scores on the participant’s adjustment. The portrait sheets show the adjustment for each participant in answer to ques- tion 1 on page 96. Eleven of the 14 had both pre—experience and post-experience scores on the California Test of Per- sonality. Two of the participants came into the program after the beginning and did not take the test and one was not present at the time the post-test was given. The "t" technique for small samples on paired scores was used with significance at the .05 level of probability. Scores obtained after four or five years were appraised similarily. These answer question 2 on page 97. The basis for testing hypothesis No. 3 was the respon- dent needs construct presented in Chapter II through the use of the Needs Inventory. Scores from this were compared to the scores on the California Test of Personality to answer question 4 on page 97. The purpose of the comparison was to evaluate the Needs Inventory and thus the needs construct against a known test, developed ssecifically to detect the areas and specific types of tendencies to think, feel, and act which reveal undesirable individual adjustment. A posi- tive correlation between the Needs Inventory scores and 99 adjustment scores would indicate that the needs construct had value for perceiving poorly adjusted young adults in needs terms. A description of each participant is given in terms of his respondent needs to answer question 3, on page 97. The Population The young adults of this study were asked to join a group because each was, in some respect, not fulfilling cer- tain life deve10pment tasks. They were either single or not successfully married. Most were not successfully employed. Most were not in any active groups. Most were not complet- ing their education. Several were involved in personal counseling at the Y.M.C.A. Counseling Service. About one- third of them were referred by the Michigan Empolyment Security Commission because of their lack of employment and social adjustment. Ages were between 18 and 31. Educa- tion varied from sixth grade to college graduates. The number in the first group was 15 and in the second group was 13. Participation was voluntary and somewhat sporadic although several attended all 16 planned weekly meetings and the week-end camping experience. The Program The meetings consisted of an evening meal together, group discussion, planning and personal problem conversation, and group recreation. Time spent together each week was from three to five hours, depending on activities. At the end of 16 weeks there was a week—end together at a J I I. “It, o“.\) I 1 ‘* '. 100 Y.M.C.A. camp. Group work and counseling skills were used by staff with a permissive atmosphere throughout. Inter- action between all participants was encouraged. The learning is described as transactional to distinguish it from instructional or some other learning experience. The focus was not on problems but on groupness and "really living". The process was sometimes described by the staff as low-pressure group counseling. The Staff and Staff Training Three Y.M.C.A. professionals were leaders in the first group. One professional Y.M.C.A. worker, his wife, and three second-year psychology graduate students were leaders in the second group. All were selected because of their in- terest in young adult counseling and group work. A The three Y.M.C.A. professionals were involved in the development of the project from its inception with this in- vestigator carrying the primary responsibility. Criteria for selection of young adults and program parameters were decided cooperatively. Discussions were held about the format of the group experience and about the young adults' possible unmet needs. In the beginning of the first group, the conceptual material was in skeletal form with no exposi- tion or descriptive material available except in the thoughts of the investigator. Discussions were held with the staff members before or after the group meetings conserning the needs of the individual participants. In. 101 Three psycholgy graduate students were selected by the head of the Psychology Department in a large private univer— sity to help staff the second group. Two were men and one was a woman. All were in their second year of graduate study and all were in their middle twenties. One of the two men was married whik3the others were single. Training started with an orientation meeting in which the general scope of the project was discussed and the objectives outlined. The review of the literature on needs was given to each to read in prepar- ation for the second staff meeting. Young adult needs and the needs construct was the major subject of this second meeting. A third staff meeting was held immediately prior to the first group meeting. It was concerned with practical matters. About every third meeting the staff met an hour ahead of the group to evaluate the experience and suggest new approaches for getting involvement from the participants. Part A of the Needs Inventory was discussed and trials made on each staff person in preparation for using it later with the group members. During the last four regular meet- ings, each staff member did an inventory on a different young adult each time. Staff training was considered insufficient by the three graduate students as the problems of the participants emerged. More intensive efforts should have been made to deal with the needs of each participant on an individual basis. Group needs were discussed but the respondent needs concept was difficult for them to see in action in the group process with the material available at that time. 102 Procedure Prior to the first group experience, the human needs outline began to be developed as a guide to the staff. 4 After the 16 weeks experience, a brief evaluation of each person was made in general terms by the staff members and these are part of the information available. Other personal information was recorded along with results of a pre— and post—test of adjustment and interaction patterns within the group. In the interim between the end of the first group meet- a ings and the beginning of the second group meetings, all of the material that had been collected in a review of the literature was re—evaluated. It is from this material that the present conceptual framework of Young Adult Needs ,3 was organized and condensed. The Needs Inventory Part A (Appendix A) was also developed during the interim from this same review of litera— ture and the authors experience and knowledge of existing personality tests and inventories. It was built on the needs construct using questions similar to those used in many personality inventories. The Needs Inventory was kept simple for staff convenience, using ten categories with five questions each. A group of persons met to evaluate the project. The group consisted of a vice—president of a state university, head of a psychology department of a large private univer— sity and an assistant director of a government employment agency. Each was asked to use the inventory about one per- 133 son whom they thought was poorly adjusted. None of the group perceived the scoring method. All the recorded scores were low, denoting unmet needs. Thus, it was felt that the inventory could be used with the next young adult group on a trial basis. The second group was programmed as nearly as possible like the first except that the newly develOped inventory (Form A) was introduced during the twelfth week of the 16 week program as participants had come to know each other. Each participant during the last four weeks evaluated himself and one (or more) other person (s) in the group. Each staff member evaluated a different young adult each week. Results of those evaluations are available in the form of raw scores. At the end of the second series of meeting, all participants made evaluations of the experience. Each person in the two groups was later described in terms of concrete particulars related to the 10 respondent needs categories. The Needs Inventory (Part A) was then matched with these descriptions and was found deficient in varying degrees in all 10 categories. Five new questions were for- mulated for each category to cover the areas missed in Part A and this became Part B on the Needs Inventory (Appendix A). A very perceptive and well adjusted second-year social work graduate student was asked to complete the Inventory (Part B) on herself and on one person whom she knew was functioning poorly. Her own score was 48 out of a possible 50 correct, and the young man she chose to evaluate had a score of 23. She detected the scoring method after doing 43—- .. 104 the inventory twice, but it was decided to use it as com- posed even though a few of the participants might possibly if be as perceptive. Both Parts A and B of the Needs Inven— tory, with a total of 100 questions, were used in the final assessment. In 1971, five years after the first group completed the program, an intensive effort was made to contact all participants that had participated in the two Y.M.C.A. "Really Living" groups. Of the 15 individuals in the first F] group, six were found and eight were found from the second A group of 13. All were personally interviewed and all com- pleted the California Test of Personality, the Needs Evalu- L_. ation Inventory (A and B), and the Evaluation Form. There was thus a gradual building and use of the con- ceptual material from the review of the literature to the skeleton construct, exposition, Needs Inventory (Part A), individual description in relation to the conceptual frame— work, Needs Inventory (Part B). use of both on all avail- able participants, and finally a description of the 14 available participants in Respondent Needs terminology as well as statistical evaluations of adjustment and needs. Source of Data The data on these 14 young adults included information from the following sources: 1. Individual counseling on six from personal files 2. Group counseling on all 3. Personal data form (Appendix B) 4. Attendance and group participation figures _‘ all. 105 Pre- and post-group and follow-up administrations of California Test of Personality - Personal and Social Adjustment (Appendix D) Needs Inventory (Part A) on second group Needs Inventory (Part A and Part B, Appendix A) Evaluation questionaire (Appendix C) tam 106 Treatment of the Data A case study format was chosen to present the data on adjustment and respondent needs. Each of the 14 parti- cipants is described by a portrait of his or her personal and social adjustment using the 12 categories of the Cali- fornia Test of Personality, using the norms given in the test manual. Three portraits are incomplete because two individuals came into the program late and did not take the pre-test and one participant was not present at the conclud- ing meeting when the post- test was given. The description of respondent needs for each parti- cipant was done by the leader of his or her group using the needs inventory records and the leader's perceptions of the participant's needs. The leader's evaluation was based upon recall of the participant's functioning in the group along with information from personal data or counseling. The adjustment and needs descriptions indicate a very divergent and non-comforming group, each beholden to him— self. This appeared to dictate the individual case study approach. The participants‘ evaluation of the experience was a very subjective matter. The data collected by the question- naire was brief, usually one sentence for each question, and are presented verbatum so as to retain this subjective information. Brief summaries of the findings for the questions are presented. .53.” 107 Scores were available from eleven participants on the pre-, post- and follow-up testing on the California Test of Personality and were statistically analyzed using the t test for small groups. The differences between the pre-test scores and post-test scores, and between the pre-test scores and follow-up scores were used. Raw scores from Part A and Part B of the needs evalu- ation and California Test of Personality were available on all 14 participants from the follow-up testing. In addition five of the participants had scores from the needs inventory (Part A) and adjustment testing at the end of the 1967 group. Scores from the needs inventory by the five individual participants were combined with an average of others' evaluation of each person. Each follow-up needs score is the sum of Part A and Part B scores. This made a total of 19 pairs for comparison. A Pearson product moment coefficient of correlation was done on these 19 pairs. A coefficient of correlation was determined between the two forms of the needs inventory for all 14 participants. Also the same was done for each of the 10 categories bet- ween the two forms for all 14 participants (140 total). Inferences Results of the statistical analysis and the individual portraits and needs evaluations are given in Chapter IV. Because the participants were not randomly selected, no in- ference should be made to a particular general population. Although there may be such a pOpulation, it is outside the ‘_‘m.‘ tl_ 108 scope of this study to identify it or to suggest how it might be used in an analysis of under-adjusted young adults, such as the ones described here. That 28 were found and involved in the program indicates that there are persons who are in this "under—adjusted" population in our U.S. culture. No reliable statistic was found in the literature to indicate the actual number, percentage of the total-pOpulation or other identifiable ”label" for this population. The needs inventory was developed during the time that the program was developing. It was used here for the first time and there has been no validity, reliability or other testing of it. Part A was developed after completion of the series of meetings of the first group. It was used with the second group, after they had some knowledge of each other. It was used by each participant on himself or herself, and on other participants. The leaders also used it on themselves and members of the group. The results were then evaluated against the descriptions of the participants' needs. Where the inventory was see as lacking, new questions were formul- ated and eventually this became Part B. The two parts are thus complementary, each serving to fill out or complete the other. The two statistical comparisons are a beginning attempt to evaluate the inventory. The obtained coefficients of correlation are included in the data. The only inference made was that the two parts should be used together rather than as two equivalent forms of the same test or split halves. 109 The participants' evaluations of the experience were subjective and any inferences and general conclusions acknowledge this. Their answers were direct and they were asked to be honest as to what they thought and felt. The fact that they evaluated the experience four or five years after having participated gives a time perspective on the effects of the experience that they could not have had at termination. The long term effect was important in evaluat— ing the experience. Limitations Several factors of the project and study have created difficulty for research and certainly constitute limitations: 1. The study was done in retrospect so that many elements were pre-determined. 2. Subjects were not randomly selected from a clearly defined population. 3. Criteria for selection of subjects were very general and somewhat vague. 4. No previous similar experience focused on needs was found or perhaps even available. 5. Since this was a pilot study, many of the objectives were in the developmental state and not firm. 6. The investigator was also the group leader, project leader and personal counselor of several of the participants. 7. The subjects themselves were, to a large degree, not disciplined or reliable and were free to "not parti- cipate“ as they wished. P-Q A.) -' II ‘1 ”m..- 110 Three important findings appear from the experience for which no questions were asked nor data kept. This is an important oversight but should be reported. The three questions might be: 1. How much staff time and emotional energy was used to develOp the program and deal with these poorly adjusted young adults? 2. What was the long-term emotional effect (in feelings of belonging) of the transactional learning experience for the participants? 3. Could poorly adjusted young adults function in a group without adult leaders? Cursory answers, without data to back them, are: 1. A large amount of time and energy was expended to moti- vate the encourage these poorly adjusted young adults, 2. There were indications of a continued feeling of belong— ing generated that lasted at least four or five years and, 3. These young adults could not sustain a group without adult participation. The project was designed to have some objective means of evaluation of adjustment and needs. The California Test of Personality and Needs Inventory have raw scores that are usable statistically. The results are presented in Chapter IV, along with the portraits of adjustment, case study of needs, and the subjective retroactive evaluation by the participants of the transactional learning groups. Even with the limitations of the study, the data present useful information to evaluate the program and the needs construct. '1 $7.: a-xa'ni.‘ 0‘ V . '4‘. EH." CHAPTER IV DATA AND ANALYSES Introduction The first two questions to be answered by the data were: 1. What was the adjustment of each of the participants before the experience, immediately after the experience, #- and four or five years later? 2. Was there a significant improvement in adjustment as shown in the scores of the California Test of Personal- ity: a) immediately following participation in the program, and b) four or five years after? A profile sheet for each participant showing the re- sults of all three adjustment tests using 12 categories follows this introduction. Statistical analyses using the t test for small samples is used to determine significance of differences between the scores of the pre-experience test and the post-experience and follow—up tests. These analyses follow the case studies. The next two questions to be answered by the data were: 3. What were the participants' respondent needs? 4. What relationship is there between the respondent need scores of the participants and their adjustment scores? A case study of each participant is given in the follow— ing section using the respondent needs construct as a frame— work. Scatter diagrams and Pearson product moment coeffi- cients are used to show the correlation between need scores 111 112 and adjustment scores. Findings are presented in the section: Correlations of Adjustment and Respondent Needs. The last three questions to be answered by the data 4, were addressed to the hypothesis that "Young Adults with poor adjustment who participated in a time-limited needs- oriented transactional learning group will, in retrospect, view the experience in positive terms for their personal and social adjustment": 5. How did participants, in retrospect, perceive changes in their own adjustment as they participated in these trans- actional learning groups? .. "“5 6. Did the participants feel that the staff was concerned for their needs? 7. Would they participate again if given the chance? (to. -‘ I Individual responses to a questionnaire were used to evaluate the experience, reveal their feelings about staff concern and get an overall reaction to the program. Findings are presented in the last section of this chapter. General information about the 14 participants is given in Table 4.1. Their ages varied from 22 to 32, with a mean of 26 years. Schooling varied from sixth grade to college graduates with a mean of 11.5 years. They were from many religious faith and varied ethnic backgrounds. There were whites and blacks, and they came from European, African, and Asian extractions. The groups were cosmopolitan in nature and the young adults were selected essentially because they were not adequately adjusted. There were eight women and six men in this study al- though more than half of the 28 participants in 113 Table 4.1 Personal Information— Sex, Age, Years School, Group Attendance— on the Subjects of this Study Years Groupl Subject Sex‘ Age School Attendance A F 22 12 13 B M 22 12 8 D M 29 7 13 G F 26 12 9 I M 26 16 7 L F 32 12 17 M F 23 6 13 N M 23 12 12 R F 22 12 17 S M 26 14 17 T F 32 16 4 U M 28 6 11 W F 27 12 11 X F -- 12 4 MEAN 26 11.5 11.2 1Number of times subjects attended group meetings. Gil-H-512! ‘1‘: ._ 114 the project were male. When they were in the "Really Liv- ing“ program all were unmarried or had had unseccussful marriages. Five of the 14 were successfully married at the time of the follow-up study. Although most were not success- fully employed at the time they were in the program most were employed or were housewives five years after the group experience. Adjustment and Respondent Needs The adjustment and the respondent needs of these young adults are now presented in 14 case studies. Each particip- ant's case study has a profile of adjustment, personal data, leaders' evaluation and a description of this young adult's respondent needs. Each adjustment profile with numerical counterpart uses the 12 components of the California Test of Personality; Adjustment scores are percentile ratings when the young adult is compared to the adult U.S. population norms. These are abbreviated to ”%i1e" to shorten the text. The profile sheets show the before experience results as ”Pre-%ile", the after experience results as "Post—%ile", and the follow- up results as ‘Long-%i1e”. The raw scores obtained on the California Test of Personality (Table 4.2) were converted to percentile ratings using the (Percentile Norms)l given in the manual. Each of the 12 components of the test has a percentile norm for adults. 1Thorpe, p. 32. 5“ A" c. ‘ ' -\ 131.1 115 The sum of the raw scores for personal adjustment has a norm in the test manual as has the sum of the raw scores for social adjustment. The total adjustment raw score that was obtained as a sum of all 12 raw scores also has a percentile norm in the test manual. These percentiles are used for the profile sheets. In the 14 case studies that follow (page 116 to 175 Inc) each young adult is designated by a letter. This is followed for each by the sex, age, years in school, and number of group sessions attended. A brief staff evaluation is given to describe their adjustment and actions in the group exper— ience. Each young adult is described using the 10 categories of respondent needs. These brief statements are intended to give a number of concrete particulars about the person's respondent needs. The categories are not meant to coincide with the adjustment components on a one-to-one basis. Rather, the need descriptions are meant to give reasons for the poor adjustment and are thought to be basic in stating that person's lack of adjustment. - W..V..J'-1 !W_w L 'F-‘l‘r‘f. 1.3— _ J (me a“: ‘1 .vv.|-Ov» 1!. o n... ... f. 0 t n a m t s U I] d A 116 Figure: . . California Test of Personality ERCENTILE RANK 20 30 40500070 00 O 0 4 a .o, m m m m I, I i I, I, I, ,L 5 5 0 0 0 5 5 9 9 9 8 9 9 1!, I I I O 0 O O O 0 2 4 4 l 2 5 1 m h d . e m a mm m m. n ...I g ...-.8 {IS a I I n w m m m 0 mm mm. I L r 0 O n dd do A f m m 0 sum 8 N T a e e e r r e O S P P B F FN T h2w.2._.w3_d< ..(Zmewm j I‘ n- .l T F j I]? ' 'IIIPI T I---‘ I T l IR- ] I I I .I r F r 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. 6 8 9 8 5 7 8 I l] l J 0 0 0 0 0 0 O O 6 7 7 9 7 6 8 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 l 7 6 5 8 6 3 L T 8 8 e . N .m . n R d E a mm ...... .. n M n lb. Ml .m m w. T a .I a e O .I S ..l k mm r v“ n U 8 s a u J I I 00 y p m L D .m .m d6 H u A A c c Wu... m C m T — —S S FA F O C T M O T him—25.9423 ._<_00w 117 Subject - A i 1": 1 Female, 22 years old, high school, 13 sessions 3 i Leaders' Evaluation A felt very little self-reliance. Her social skills were so low that she was barely able to speak in the group and was so self-conscious that she blushed as she listened to group conversation. She had a job and was doing satisfactorily but her social life was. nil at the beginning of the project. Her average response rate per session was five but she gave only one response in the first three meetings. In the last two sessions where res- ponses were recorded she had 10 each. Her over all adjust- ment changed from the 30%ile to the 90%ile during the 16 week period. This was the most dramatic of all the members. EEQEQEX» .g was doing satisfactorily on a job. She handled her finances so that she had transportation and paid her way at all times. Values A was so quiet that she seemed to accept and con- form to most situations. She was passive, conservative and agreeable, yet alert as plans were made. Polity She followed the direction of the group leaders completely, became loyal to the group and was trusted by them. She depended on the group to make most of the decis- ions and rarely participated in making or changing policy. 118 Release §_was so quiet, reserved and inside herself that she seldom laughed out loud. Her emotional life was running cool. She was not spontaneous, joyous or bubbling, yet it appeared that she wished she could be so. She did not appear to be depressed or moody but rather passive and low-keyed. Integration é seemed tolerant of all kinds of inconsis- tencies and incongruities. If she was frustrated it was not visible except in her own inability to be socially aggres- sive. She was integrated but not active. Security g was not afraid but she did feel unwanted by anyone except her parents until she became a member of the group. 1. “I. . . tel—u- wmul.i . ‘, i 119 Figure: ...4..'...2. ........ Adjustment of up .............. California Test of Personality é o §° $5 s. @598 :5 g" 6f: PERCENTILE IIANK Q ,0 f f’ fl ,“° 7’ I 2 s 10 20 30 405000 10 00 90 as am | | I l I I l ' - - I I I l l - i I l I . . ' . ' Self reliance 80 90 98 f L I I I I I W. .I I I I I I I , - I I I I 98 I98 I98 I ' ' ' .' Personal worth . I I I I . ._ I I. I I .I I I I I I Z — l I I E 90I90 90 I I I I 5 Personal freedom . Lr n i I H I I I I I D - . I I I 3 L90 I90 70 I ' ' ' < Belonging , 7 I I I I -.. _. I II I I II I I r I IE. I. ‘21 d f l ‘ ' I I Free om rom I I j I 8 Withdrawal Td. 95 95 95 L I I I ('5 f _ W: I I :I I I I I I a” Freedom from 95 80 I95J I I I Nervous Sym. , - I I I I I II I r .I fI I I I - - - I I I I I I I TOTAL I991” [99] L I l . I __ I II I I .r I I I I I I. I I I l I I * ' ' : ' i — » I l | Social standards I901” I9°J I I I I I ,. I I I. I I .r I I I I I I. * * I ' : ' EV I I _ Social skills 95 95 I90] . I I . l '- I I II I I II I I I I I II I , _ I I l | ' I I- Freedom from I I I I I I ' I E Anti-sociale. 90 80 90 l I I I . I 2 I I. I I .r I T I I I , 5 . ('3 ' * I I I . .I I 3 90 I80 I90 ' ' ' I " ' 3 Family relations I I I I ' I < r I. I FII I I I I T V- I _, * . I I I I . I ' 0 I I 3 Occupational Rel. I80 98 I90] I I I I g ' O r I. I I .I I I I I l. (I) . I I I I I80 90 80 ' ' ‘ Community Rel. . I ' I I _ I T Fifi j | T—l T 1 T l "' . I * l i I I I I I98 99 98 ' ' ' I ‘~ TOTAL L I I . . ... I- i II I I II I I I II II I I I I I I I I I I I I I TOTAL ADJUSTMENT '99 99 ”J l I I . I .1: IT I l 1 j 1 r I T r U T— T 120 Subject - 2 Male, 22 years Old, High school, single, 8 sessions Leaders' Evaluation g came into the group at the 11th meeting. He graduated 'cum laude' from high school and had three years of college. His adjustment according to the test results was at the 99%ile. However, he was always apologetic in the meetings, tended to "doctor" the leader to death and appeared to over-conform to everyone. He appeared to be neat, meticulous, orderly, and one who doesn't give up easily. When he joined the group, he was seeing a psychiatrist as he says, "discussing my feelings, ideas and problems. It helps me to feel better, to solve problems and to be happier." Economy At age 22, g had been on eight different jobs, some of them for only three days. Several of these were accounting, which was his major in three years of college. His latest employment was parking cars for the Detroit Zoo- logical Park. He said he liked the accounting positions best but was let go because he said they wanted someone with more experience. Values He had been a member of the Zionist Student Orga- nization while in high school where he was interested in dating, sports, people, driving, movies and concerts. He I appeared to have set extremely high goals for himself. I I' --A_v I' v—“rn-_ _ I . ‘. 4.‘_.__ ‘ZJ -_ 121 Polity g asked for guidance continually in one way or an- I other, was over-compliant to others and leaned on the group. Rootedness g had great needs for approval. He had attempted to use academic accomplishments to get approval, perhaps from his parents and from others. The group saw him as being Odd, affected or strange. He was only partially accepted by the group and this was not at the "feeling" or "closeness" level. His father was a physician. Relatedness 8 did not show his emotions at meetings as he expressed himself and somehow his statements did not carry much weight or power. He did not talk about his family but rather about dating or his friends. Some of his friends were what the group called "odd-balls." He remained rather aloof. Awareness Although g said he graduated 'cum laude' he appeared to be in a world of his own. Either he was com- pletely above and beyond the group intellectually or he was unable to relate to the real world of others. He was not aware that his responses were sometimes inappropriate. Ecologv §_was testing his abilities on different jobs but he appeared to be reading the results incorrectly. He was not adapting successfully to his environment. By over- rating himself he was constantly on the verge of failure. Release g was always serious and what laughter he dis- played did not seem real. He was tied up with himself and 122 his problems and very restrained. Integration 2 was outwardly extremely tolerant and yield- ing, almost to the point of not having a soul of his own. He probably could and had taken heavy psychological beatings without cracking, so strong were his defense mechanisms. Security .g acted as though he was on the edge of being alienated from the group, but kept a composure that would indicate the reverse. His apologetic behavior seemed to be a form of insecurity. He needed to succeed and become more relaxed with life. "J l -_‘- I” '9'. ‘9'), - i w '."- :q:. l. . ' Eel N! \‘N 1.: d: u! ..a 20 30 40506070 00 10 Adjustment of D .. 5 123 2 4.3 1 Figure: California Test of Personality N 4’ / I I r I l A: '- ..... j b!1l‘llhl. I! .I II 0.] Ill {IF / i~l I I ,Q Tl .' % i I I I --i'""|m """""""""" I ”'."""T""“"'h'l'“...T I, .1 _I, J _j, ,l ,l, J, l, I. 0 O 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 O O 0 0 0 8 7 7 2 9 7 8 5 5 7 5 8 2 6 7 I l ,I I I I, l l J I, III 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 O 0 O 0 0 0 5 5 I4 3 5 8 5 8 8 8 3 6 6 7 6 I I I I ,l ,l I .II. 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 4 4 2 l 3 5 2 5 7 4 2 5 5 4 3 [, ,[, I l I, L m s s a m h d . . d . n R Inlv F. 6 fl 6 mm m m M Md .m I Du M o e 0 o d 8 0T t a C r r..| r V. n l fl! 3 n W: T M I I n t k i r i n U II a a .I m a m 8 3 8 m C f. U J .I. e n n 9 or on L I I 00 v. W L D r. O 0 n dd .0 O A a a d an. H U m A f s s 0 eh e N T .I i e... m c m T A .l r r I. 6P... 6 c c at e e e e r r e O o o r n a c o 0 L S P P B F FN T S S FA F O C T A _ _ _ L T 0 ll Tl ._.Zm5_._.w:_.0< 4/ I '\ - c k \‘ \ \ ' .\‘ \\_ . .\_ . l) A l Self reliance Personal worth Personal freedom Belonging Freedom from Withdrawal Td. PERSONAL ADJUSTMENT Freedom from Nervous Sym. TOTAL Social standards Social skills Freedom from Anti-social Td. Family relations Occupational Rel. SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT Community Rel. TOTAL TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 148 49 Figure: .-..° ............... Adjustment of ....13 ............. California Test of Personality \0 ° So’ .x?’ If" PERCENTILE RANK 0 . 5? 12 510 20 304050607080 90 95 9099 ,_.,I \I O i——.Il \O O L» O Ql r l-- I I I r I ‘ I e" ‘ I 1] slzJ 'w" . l U 7 h ""1 II Ij T T I II I I II I A I" -. I I l .‘.-.. I I 50 l 40 70 J l : ' 'ne’l... : | ’ WI I I II T ... I I , I I" ...-3’ I I l t! . " 5 20 IOJ . it. I I I4 * I ~..I I I I I I II I I II I , I I l l : I - '0, I I solzolwl . . . . . 7 7 I—II I I ,o I I I II I I :I I ' ‘ I I‘o’o I I ’g" I I I 10 l llOJ ‘I ' ' I J a “ II VI I I I II I T II I r , I I I I I I I l I [10 10 [10] I I i I J I II I I I I I II I IjI I I I I I I 7 I I : l I I I I ’ I TI I I II I I. I I II , I I ' I : 7o 7ol7oj l : : . . I IjI I I II I IT II T I II I , , > I I I I I I I I 7 7 II I I I II I I IIj - I I I l I I I I I BOIZOI 5 I ' | . . ' I I I II I I II I , , I I I I I I I I I10 10 4o] , . , . I I I TI I I III I I I I [30 20 3o] . i I I I 7 I I I II T I Irl ~ I I I I I I I I 30 40 3d LI : u I I . 7 I II I I II I I TI I‘I I17 - - I I I I l I I I I I 20 zolzoj L, , , I , . 7 I I I I T Ii I I I T Tj \ ‘I I ‘ T . ,‘ .K D I n . r‘ w. I . . ,Ii . - i ii 149 : Subject — 3 E { Female, 22 years, high school, single, 17 sessions i-j Leaders' Evaluation 3 had very low personal adjustment especially in feelings of personal worth and belonging. She had many nervous and withdrawal symptoms. Although she had some self-reliance and freedom she was over-burdened with negative feelings about herself. She had very high social standards and social skills and she liked people. However her family, work and community relations were low. She felt that she made many friends in the group and wanted an Opport- unity to do for more people. Economy 3 had not found satisfactory employment. Her few jobs were menial, such as addressing, stuffing, and sorting enve10pes. Her salary had not sustained her so she lived at home and her family furnished her material needs adequately. She wanted to work, was willing, but she had personal problems that interfered. Values 5 had values that she defended but at the same time she was suggestable. She became extremely upset when criticized even though she tried to cover it. Some of her self-defeating behavior carried behind it a philoSophy or set of values that sustained it. She refused to change these beliefs so they reinforced her poor living patterns. Polity ‘3 was dependent on others in that she was willing to do anything the group chose to do but was not very willing 150 to participate in making those decisions. She became a loyal member, but was too willing to be the chore girl. Rootedness B was overly concerned for approval from others. When firmly attached to a person, she could not let go and the relationship became strained and intolerable for the other person. She had had several attachments of this type, each similar: one was with a female teacher, another with a group worker, the third with a grandmother, the fourth with a male counselor. She was very angry with her parents, especially her mother, but she was unable to tell them. Her feelings of inferiority kept her from activities with others, and she would often do chores rather than socialize. Relatedness 3 had intense feelings that no one liked or wanted her. As a child she had been epileptic, and she was super-sensitive about her enlarged head. She was incapable of relating to men as a girl friend and here had feelings of rejection. She was very often on the verge of tears when emotional things were discussed. She had many social graces, but they were often overdone, especially thanking peOple for ordinary courtesies. Awareness Even though occasionally 3 was preoccupied with her own feelings, she was alert and attentive to the needs and moods of others. Her ability to pick up subtle humor and wit was a little below average. She sometimes mis- understood the motives of others and at times was misunder— stood by the group. She kept a considerable amount of her 151 life and problems hidden which kept her on guard all the time. She finished high school but some of her schooling was in special classes. Ecology 5 had several physical and emotional problems that were interfering with life deve10pment. Her large, heavy head was difficult to balance and control. By per- severance she did learn to ride a bicycle. Though she was slow to break out on her own, she took and faithfully kept a volunteer job downtown in order to get out of the house and away from her mother. Because of her inability to master more difficult work she often felt trapped even at home and remained secluded and crying in her own room. Life was too much for her most of the time as she was in many ways like a small child. Integration 5 was under strain when there were many people and conflicting situations. She could not tolerate rejection and would nearly go out of control when too many pressures were on her. She was always trying to make peace between people. People were unaware of her internal con- flicts which made her almost unable to function. In some ways she was durable because she was still operating with a number of strikes against her. Release 3 expressed some of her emotions readily but others, especially her anger, were kept covered to the point of explosion. Control consumed her energy and she was tired much of the time. Her crying was a form of release but was E 152 prolonged beyond usefulness. She was able to be gay, laugh, and make others laugh. She liked to have fun and was willing to do vigorous activities in keeping with her abilities. Security 3 felt as though she had been abandoned by society which was nearly correct. Her folks were frustrated with not knowing what to do for her and any close acquaint- ance became the object of her severe attachment. She could not have close friends because she captured them and made them her emotional and psychological slaves. She had thought often of suicide and attempted it at least once. She felt unsure of herself in school, work and in social situations. She was extremely self-conscious about her appearance and greatly embarrassed at any social error. She was afraid to just relax and be herself. I l .'. ‘nfiL- b FE»? if 1;: I: 153 Figure: ”43.;9 ..... Adjustment of ...S. ............... California Test of Personality ¢§ g s! a, £5? °\°’§, ?‘° is?” PERCENTILE RANK 0 O f f’ f!“ /‘° |/‘ 5 II 20 so In so so 70 on so as am I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I F-Self reliance SISO I4J1II f I I I I~I II u II I, ‘I II I I am , I’ I ,o' I I l ' I Personal worth L2 I70 20 I I"! In. I I I ,_ I I . I I ' II I I II I z + + + I' ' ‘ . ' : III-I II P I 2 2 I zlw l . . . . 5 Personal freedom . i H .J I I r n I I n J' D I I... I I I 3 2 10 I10 II ..r I I I < Belonging 7 .'I an I I I I _l I I I I I I II I I II 1 g 7 I e... I I I Freedom from L I I I I u.” I I 8 Withdrawal Td. 1° 4° 50 I I «I I l l E I s ‘ I ..‘N I I a 7 ... Freedom from I J 6’ I ' ‘1”. ' Nervous Sym. 1 7O 95 f Lfl I I I ‘t- I ' W I II I I I I ‘0- I 7 7 I ' 0 ‘9 t.. l - I I ..--” I I TOTAL 1 30 I30 I I I «'1’ I I J __ ‘ II I I II I I I I II I I Ifl I I I I I * I I I l I — I I I ' Social standards LSJSO I10 I ml i . I I I I J II Io. IT I I I I II I I II“I A I ‘.I I I I ‘4 I I Social skills 5 50 I20] I I»._ l I , I V7.71“: I I II I I II I - , A I I ' . I I I- Freedom from L I J I I I h I I E Anti-sociale. 20 70 90 _ I I I "‘I-«h I I 2 I II I I T I I‘l.¢“ I II I 5 7 ' ‘7" ' .- fl‘. ' ' D I 2 1 [20 I ' ..-" I I 3 Family relations 7 .1. L4,.» I I I I < .. I my I I I I I i: I I II I .°I 2' I 2 .0 I I ' ' ' 5 Occupational Hal. 5 _ _ , I I ' I O IN V I I I um I um (I) : 4 Sn. ' I ' 40 1 I60 I 7's .I I I Community Rel. L I I ‘4“. I I J I I II I, I.oI I II I I II I I Id, 0’. I I , l I l 00" I I TOTAL 5 20 30 I A lo" I I I J h ’ I “ I I I I I I I II T I II E - I I I I I l . _ I I TOTAL ADJUSTMENT 2 I20 30 I '7‘? 'IrI ' ' ' ' I I E T I I I I T r I 1 154 Subject - S Male, 26 years, 2 years college, divorced, 17 sessions Leaders' Evaluation When § came into the group his personal adjustment was extremely low. He had little self- reliance or feelings of belonging or personal worth. He was very nervous and withdrawn and felt captured by life. After the sixteen weeks he was much more composed, self-reliant and had more self-esteem. His social standards and skills were low when he entered but these improved. Family relat- ions and occupational relations were very poor but he began to have a better outlook on his job. Only one person out of a hundred functions as poorly as he did in the beginning. After the experience he was doing better than one fifth of the population. Economy g had not found a satisfying vocation. He was operating a movie projector and attempting to manage his own business which was failing. He had taken accounting and business management in college but was dismissed because of cheating. He was in debt from gambling and drinking, and had creditors constantly after him. His father was dis- appointed in his job performance. Values §_was very confused about his values as he had several sets: his church said one thing, his family especially his father said another, and his talents and drives said another. He set high goals for himself but was It! I V ; l l“ 155 unable to attain them. He did not live his beliefs. Polity In the group g was one of the loyal leaders and decision makers yet he often made the matter at hand more complex than it really was to the confusion of the others and himself. He was willing to express himself but often overdid it. He acted responsibly when assigned a task and complied with the group's wishes. He was able and willing to break laws and cheat if he thought it to his advantage. He liked power but did not use it within the usual limits of law and social approval. Rootedness §_was deeply rooted in the Catholic religion J and in his family's sub-culture but there were many disturb- ing experiences in both that interfered with his identifi- cation. Sometimes he had been a good student and at other times a delinquent. He was a good son or a terrible son. He both loved and hated his father. His few friends were the poker players and they were often his rivals or enemies. He was not sure anyone liked him except his mother. Relatedness g was very much a "loner" although he was in contact with others in business and gambling. He had warm feelings for his mother but hostile feelings toward his brothers, sisters, and especially his father. His short marriage failed because he could not stand his wife's demands, challenge for power, and refusal to obey him. He had an extremely difficult time accepting the divorce. He misused his power and was often ruthless with his employees. 156 He kept a casual relationship with the members of the group. It was particularly difficult for him to relate to the girls. He had a fairly deep experience with the leader with whom he was in private counseling. Awareness g was engrossed in his own life and problems and seemed able to understand others better than he could communicate about himself. He could talk for hours in private about his life situation--marriage, business, family, but in so much detail that he would lose himself and his listener. There was proliferation without adequate restraint or organized structure. He thought very deeply about life but in fragmented and dissociated fashions. Ecology § had been a well coordinated athlete at one time, playing football and other active vigorous games. However, he lost control of himself, drank, smoked, probably used some drugs and in general dissipated his strength. He worked until midnight, gambled the rest of the night then slept most of the day. His business was constantly on the verge of collapsing because of poor management and misuse of capital funds. Therefore he became increasingly more depend- ent on his family with added frustrations and poor relation- ships. He made poor choices in friends and situations. Integration g's life was so full of ambiguities and in- consistencies that he was in a constant state of disinteg- ration. He had many violent aspects in his life which he either attacked, escaped by sleep or alcohol, or became i i Qty 157 moody with hours of contemplation. Many emotional struggles raged within g. Release g's major release was through the use of alcohol. Although he loved sports he did not use them creatively to build himself physically or obtain release from over-thinking or frustration. His father would badger and goad him until he was in a hyper-state of restrained anger. This caused him to argue violently and occasionally strike out. He beat and nearly killed his wife in such a state of repressed anger and frustration. § found release in both the discussions and the activities of the group. Security Although §_was in trouble at times with his family, schools, and civil authorities, the chief threat to his security was within himself. He set up conditions that alienated him from others, was insecure and often tried to cover this by talking and using legal or other "learned" conversation. He often tried to beat the law and usually ended in trouble. He could not be himself because he was so many personalities. He was uneasy around women and had not dated much though he had married. He could not be protected from humiliation because he established the pre-conditions for failure. ”I 1"! - 5!! Hull ant-9‘ ' ~’ 1 ”q ‘75" -. Iv 158 Tm f. O t n e m t 8 .N d A 4.11 Figure: California Test of Personality ...ZMSFmDsoa‘ ._