CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BURIAL SITES
By
Haoxuan Xu

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Environmental Design â Master of Arts
2017

ABSTRACT
CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BURIAL SITES
By
Haoxuan Xu
Burial grounds, as one of the most important landscape that connect the living and the
dead, can often represent culture, tradition and aesthetic evaluation of a local community;
therefore, understanding the similarities and differences among the burial sites can help people
understand the culture and tradition of places behind the burial sites. This research studies the
similarities and differences among different Western and Chinese burial sites, including Pere
Lachaise in Paris, three municipal cemeteries in Michigan, USA, three public cemeteries in
Shanghai, China, two Chinese imperial tombs in Nanjing, China, and two rural ancestral burial
grounds in Jiangsu, China. Cluster Analysis with Principal Component Analysis is applied to this
research. Eighty-seven significant variables are used for the calculation of Cluster Analysis. In
result, six meaningful principal components are used for further analysis, and the first two
principal components are used as primary dimensions for burial site comparisons. The result
shows that principal component 1 can be used to compare within culturally, and principal
component 2 can be used to compare cross-culturally. And the research further suggests the three
public cemeteries in Shanghai are culturally integrated fusion cemeteries that inherit traditional
Chinese philosophies and adopt Western influences.
Keywords: Landscape Architecture, Environmental Design, Fengshui, Taoism, Picturesque,
Western Culture, Eastern Culture.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In memory of both of my grandfathers, who passed away years ago and loved me with all
their love. Years ago, when they were still around; they were like the magnificent oak trees that
can reach the sky, and I was the little squirrel living on the oak tree.
Now they are long gone, and left with carved names on the stones; the love I felt and the
inspirations they gave will never fade away.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Literature Review of Burial Culture ................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 Burial Ritual and Burial Ground Types ......................................................................... 1
1.2.1.1 Purpose of Funerary and Burial Ritual ................................................................... 1
1.2.1.2 Cemeteries............................................................................................................... 2
1.2.1.3 Churchyards, Burial Grounds, and Pantheons ........................................................ 4
1.2.2 Western and Chinese Designs ........................................................................................ 6
1.2.2.1 Western Picturesque and Chinese Picturesque ....................................................... 6
1.2.2.2 Western and Chinese Landscape Design Principles ............................................... 9
1.2.2.3 Fengshui ................................................................................................................ 12
1.2.2.4 Ancestry Worshiping ............................................................................................ 13
1.3 Literature Review of Western and Chinese Burial Sites............................................... 14
1.3.1 Western Cemeteries ..................................................................................................... 14
1.3.1.1 European Cemetery: Pere Lachaise ...................................................................... 14
1.3.1.2 American Cemeteries ............................................................................................ 18
1.3.2 Chinese Burial Sites ..................................................................................................... 21
1.3.2.1 Chinese Wealthy and Imperial Tombs .................................................................. 21
1.3.2.2 Chinese Traditional Hillside Graves ..................................................................... 30
1.3.2.3 Chinese Public Cemetery ...................................................................................... 31
1.4 Integrated Culture of Shanghai, China .......................................................................... 31
1.5 Conclusion and Purpose of Study.................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY............................................................................................. 34
2.1 Study Sites ......................................................................................................................... 34
2.1.1 Michigan Cemeteries ................................................................................................... 34
2.1.2 Chinese Burial Sites ..................................................................................................... 45
2.1.2.1 Modern Public Chinese Cemeteries ...................................................................... 45
2.1.2.2 Chinese Rural Burial Grounds .............................................................................. 66
2.1.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 72
2.2 Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 72
2.3 Analysis Techniques ......................................................................................................... 74
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS ........................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................... 95
4.1 Scatter Graph and Distinguishable Variables................................................................ 95
4.2 Comparison of Burial Sites and Burial Site Elements................................................... 99

iv

4.3 Future Implication .......................................................................................................... 104
4.4 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research....................................................... 105
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 107

v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: The list of all 91 variables include the four insignificant variables labeled with star
symbols. ........................................................................................................................................ 73
Table 2: List of burial site elements and existence in eleven burial sites. .................................... 78
Table 3: Means and standard deviation of each variables. ........................................................... 81
Table 4: Standardized Score of Variables of the Western Cemeteries. ........................................ 83
Table 5: Standardized Score of Variables of the Chinese Burial Sites. ........................................ 86
Table 6: Principal component Analysis eigenvalues of the covariance matrix from JMP (Version
13; SAS, 2016) software. .............................................................................................................. 90
Table 7: Principal component Analysis coefficient for each significant variable from JMP
(Version 13; SAS, 2016) software. ............................................................................................... 90
Table 8: Burial Sites Scores in First Six Principal components. .................................................. 93
Table 9: List of distinguishable variables in Principal Component 1. .......................................... 97
Table 10: List of distinguishable variables in Principal Component 2. ........................................ 98

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Location of Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, France................................................... 15
Figure 2: The gravesite of Chopin with sculptures, carving portrait of Chopin, fences, and fresh
cut flowers from visitors in Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France. (Copyright ÂŠ2005 Jon Bryan
Burley all right reserved used by permission). ............................................................................. 16
Figure 3: Gravesite of Joseph Lakanal in Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France. (Copyright
ÂŠ2005 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by permission). ................................................ 17
Figure 4: Gravesite of James Douglas Morrison with fresh cut flowers from the visitors in Pere
Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France. (Copyright ÂŠ2005 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by
permission).................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 5: Location of Ming Xiaoling Tomb in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. ..................... 23
Figure 6: Stone Tablet of Ming Xiaoling Tomb with mythical animal statue in between two
archways, and stairs with Chinese dragon carving decoration in Nanjing, China. (Copyright
ÂŠ2008 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by permission). ................................................ 24
Figure 7: Stone paved Sacred Way with mythical animal statues along both sides that creates a
rectilinear symmetrical layout with high visual and physical enclosure in Ming Xiaoling Tomb,
Nanjing, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2008 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by permission). ... 24
Figure 8: The Dismounting Archway with abstract cloud carving decorations and the uphill stone
paved pathway with multiple groups of stairs in Ming Xiaoling Tomb, Nanjing, China.
(Copyright ÂŠ2008 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by permission). ............................. 25
Figure 9: The three arched bridges connecting to the actual burial site in Ming Xiaoling Tomb,
Nanjing, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2008 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by permission). ... 25
Figure 10: Location of Dr. Sun Yat-senâs Tomb in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. Sunâs
Tomb is located approximate to Ming Xiaoling Tomb. ............................................................... 27
Figure 11: Brick paved plaza area of Sunâs Tomb in rectilinear symmetrical design with water
feature, planting beds, and large stairs. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Zhengwei Wu all right reserved used
by permission)............................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 12: Sacrifice Hall of Sun Yat-senâs Tomb with stone plaque on building, and three
archway entrances. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Zeran Zhu all right reserved used by permission). ......... 28
Figure 13: Dr. Sun Yat-senâs Tomb in rectilinear design with massive stair cases and naturalized
landscape. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Zeran Zhu all right reserved used by permission). ....................... 29

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Figure 14: Large stone tablet of Sun Yat-senâs Tomb with the burial information of Dr. Sun.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Zeran Zhu all right reserved used by permission). ......................................... 30
Figure 15: Location of the three municipal cemeteries (Mt. Hope Cemetery, Evergreen
Cemetery, and North Cemetery) of Lansing in Michigan, USA. ................................................. 35
Figure 16: Location of the three municipal cemeteries of Lansing in relationship to Michigan
State University............................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 17: Location of Mt. Hope Cemetery and Evergreen Cemetery. ........................................ 36
Figure 18: Lawn graveyard in Mt. Hope Cemetery with information signage and private vehicle
accessible driveway, Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used
by permission)............................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 19: Memorial Garden in Mt. Hope Cemetery with wall niche burial and curved pathway,
Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). ..... 38
Figure 20: Wall niche burial in Memorial Garden of Mt. Hope Cemetery, Lansing, MI, USA.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). ..................................... 39
Figure 21: Small mausoleum of R. E. Olds with stairs in Mt. Hope Cemetery, Lansing, MI, USA.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). ..................................... 39
Figure 22: Lawn graveyard with private vehicle accessible driveway in Evergreen Cemetery,
Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). ..... 41
Figure 23: Gravestones with special carving of religious symbol, landscape, and portrait in
Evergreen Cemetery, Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used
by permission)............................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 24: Gravestone with portrait, USA flag carving, and memorable in the Little Arlington
Veteran Section in Evergreen Cemetery, Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all
right reserved used by permission). .............................................................................................. 42
Figure 25: Couple grave and gravestones with decorative carvings. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan
Xu all right reserved used by permission). ................................................................................... 42
Figure 26: Miller Rd entrance driveway to North Cemetery wining uphill with signage stating
hours, rules and regulations of the North Cemetery in Lansing, Michigan, USA. (Copyright
ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). ........................................................ 43
Figure 27: Large Canopy tree covered lawn graveyard with one one obelisk memorial and city
view in the back in the North Cemetery, Lansing, Michigan, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan
Xu all right reserved used by permission). ................................................................................... 44
Figure 28: Wining driveways in the hilly lawn graveyards in the North Cemetery, Lansing,
Michigan, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). .......... 44

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Figure 29: Locations of the three public cemeteries (Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Haiwanyuan
Cemetery, and Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery) in Fengxian, Shanghai, China, along Hangzhou bay
in relationship to Yancheng, Jingjiang (near Taizhou), and Nanjing. .......................................... 46
Figure 30: Locations of the three public cemeteries in Fengxian, Shanghai. ............................... 47
Figure 31: The entrance archway of Binhai Guyuan Cemetery with flying eaves detail, stone
carving decorations and mythical lion statues. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved
used by permission). ..................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 32: The decorative wall with Chinese dragon stone carving details in the entrance to
create good Fengshui, and huge vintage cooking vessel made with bronze as symbol of honor
and dignity in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all
right reserved used by permission). .............................................................................................. 49
Figure 33: Pavilion with flying eaves architectural style and miniature mountains that creates
scenic view and recreation area along the pond in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China.
(Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). ..................................... 50
Figure 34: Site map of Binhai Guyuan Cemetery with over twenty graveyard sections and
wayfinding signage, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by
permission).................................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 35: Straight bridge, stone hand railings with stone carving details, miniature rock
mountains and artificial river in Binhai Guyuan, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan
Xu all right reserved used by permission). ................................................................................... 51
Figure 36: Artificial river, waterfall and decorative wall fencing in distance in Binhai Guyuan,
Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). ......... 51
Figure 37: Fountain water feature and pavilions with flying eaves architectural style and site
furniture around artificial pond in Binhai Guyuan, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan
Xu all right reserved used by permission). ................................................................................... 52
Figure 38: Graveyard with artistic customizable gravestones, brick paving, and large bonsai in
Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved
used by permission). ..................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 39: Artistic couple grave with portrait and platform for oblations (fruit, food, and), censer,
and metal bucket for burning fake paper money as part of Chinese traditional ritual in Binhai
Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by
permission).................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 40: Uniform traditional style graves with arborvitae trees that creates high visual and
physical enclosure in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan
Xu all right reserved used by permission). ................................................................................... 53

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Figure 41: Veteranâs Memorial Garden with statues of the veterans in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery,
Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). ......... 54
Figure 42: Entrance Fengshui Wall with Chinese Dragon Carving and flying eaves architectural
style, potted plants, and large digital screen as information board in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery,
Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission). ......... 54
Figure 43: Entrance Archway of Haiwanyuan Cemetery with flying eaves, Chinese dragon
decorations and mythical animal statues in Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all
right reserved used by permission). .............................................................................................. 56
Figure 44: Stone and brick sculpture art installation in planting bed in the entrance plaza of
Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by
permission).................................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 45: Fengshui Wall with stone carving of ancient human and horse in the entrance plaza of
Haiwanyuan Cemetery with fountain sculpture and large Bonsai in Shanghai, China. (Copyright
ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission). ............................................................ 57
Figure 46: Curved stone paving pathway in graveyard with sculptures and neatly trimmed plant
materials and street trees in Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing
Shi all right reserved used by permission). ................................................................................... 57
Figure 47: Straight bridge with stone pavement and archway element with plaque linking one
section of graveyard to the others in Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017
Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission). ........................................................................ 58
Figure 48: Covered corridor with red architectural elements, medium size rocks, curved flagstone
pathway, and white marble hand railings along the river in Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai,
China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission). ............................. 58
Figure 49: Police Memorial Garden with wall niches, statue of the victims, large rock miniature
mountains and pavilion with flying eaves on the top in Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission). ......................................... 59
Figure 50: Couple grave with platform and stone eagle statue decoration and arborvitae trees,
pond with dolphin fountains, and miniature mountains on the edge in Haiwanyuan Cemetery,
Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission). ............. 59
Figure 51: Family Grave with stairs and platform, grave and bamboo stone carving decoration
and white marble elephant sculpture in Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright
ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission)............................................................. 60
Figure 52: Fengshui Wall with Chinese dragon carving and red roof with flying eaves in the
entrance plaza of Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all
right reserved used by permission). .............................................................................................. 61

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Figure 53: Small temple with golden statue of Guanyin on the top, large censer in the front, and
the statues of monks along the stone paved straight pathway in Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery,
Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).............. 62
Figure 54: Stone statues of famous ancient scholars along stone paved straight pathway with
golden statue of Guanyin in distance in Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery, Shanghai, China.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission). ......................................... 62
Figure 55: Multiple arched bridges and hand railings with mythical lion decoration connecting to
the entrance archway with red roof and flying eaves of Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery, Shanghai,
China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission). ............................. 63
Figure 56: Fountain in the entrance plaza of Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery, Shanghai,China.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission). ......................................... 63
Figure 57: Zig Zag bridge with stone pavement, white marble hand railing, stone hand railing,
stone carving mythical lion decoration, abstract stone carving lotus flower petal decoration and
pavilion with red roof and flying eaves. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by
permission).................................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 58: Pagoda style wall niche with censer and mythical lion decoration, pavilion covered
couple grave, and red roofed architecture in the back. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right
reserved used by permission). ....................................................................................................... 65
Figure 59: Location of Yancheng rural ancestral burial ground in Jiangsu Province, China in
relationship to Shanghai, China. ................................................................................................... 66
Figure 60: Location of Jingjiang rural ancestral burial ground under the administration of
Taizhou in Jiangsu Province, China in relationship to Nanjing, Shanghai, and Yancheng, China.
....................................................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 61: Rural ancestral burial ground of the Jiâs consisting multiple bare dirt mound grave
with uniform gravestone and headstones in woodland setting in Yancheng, Jiangsu Province,
China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Ziquan Ji all right reserved used by permission). ............................... 68
Figure 62: Another view of the Jiâs ancestral burial ground with fresh cut flowers around one
individual grave and agricultural field in the background. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Ziquan Ji all right
reserved used by permission). ....................................................................................................... 69
Figure 63: Xuâs rural ancestral burial ground consisting group of bare dirt mound graves with
arborvitae trees in agricultural field facing river. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved
used by permission). ..................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 64: Another view of the Xuâs ancestral burial ground from the back showing the closer
view of the bare dirt mounds with square gravestones and plastic decorative flowers on the top pf
each mound in the rapeseed field. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by
permission).................................................................................................................................... 70

xi

Figure 65: Detail of one grave of the Xuâs ancestral burial ground during the Grave Sweeping
Festival showing oblations (food, drink, and candle), fresh cut flowers, thurifications, and
burning of paper fake money as part of traditional Chinese ritual. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi
all right reserved used by permission). ......................................................................................... 71
Figure 66: A scatter graph of the relationships among all eleven selected burial sites based on the
scores from principal component 1 (Horizontal Axis: Pavilion, Miniature Mountain, and Bridge
Dimension) and principal component 2 (Vertical Axis: Censer, Sacred Way, and Fengshui
Dimension). ................................................................................................................................... 96

xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Introduction
Burial sites are common type of landscape that can be seen in all culture, even though
people may practice burial and funerary culture differently, and the idea of burial sites may
approve differently. Therefore, burial sites can represent local culture and tradition of places.
There are many publications on Western burial sites focusing on landscape, environment, and
architecture aspects. There are also many publications about Chinese burial ritual and traditional
Chinese imperial burial sites. However, there is little publications about Chinese modern burial
sites and Chinese rural burial grounds focusing on landscape, environment. And architecture
aspects. In addition, there is little publications that compares the burial sites cross culturally
using mathematic research strategies.
Thus, in this research burial sites from both Western and Chinese culture located in rural,
sub-urban, and urban settings are selected to represent Western and Chinese design philosophies,
high light the contrast between traditional and modern designs, and discover the similarities
among them. Furthermore, this research is a combination of quantitative research that uses
mathematic research method and qualitative research that includes case studies of each study
sites.
1.2 Literature Review of Burial Culture
1.2.1 Burial Ritual and Burial Ground Types
1.2.1.1 Purpose of Funerary and Burial Ritual
No matter how culture and tradition differ, or even individuals have different preference;
human as a species all desire to do something meaningful about death through funerary and

1

burial practice (The North American Review, 1841). Deceased bodies always mean something to
the living; it is a universal human nature behavior across most cultural traditions throughout
human history. According to Thomas Laqueur, âIt matters because almost always, the living
need the dead more than the dead need the livingâ (Laqueur, 2011, p. 799). Humans are species
who âcare for the deadâ (Laqueur, 2011, p. 800).
The fact is the deceased body is going to eventually turn into dirt and go back to nature;
but the bereaved tends not to accept the dead is forever gone. The bereaved will give the dead
meaning and make sure they are âsettled safely into the nextâ through funerary ritual and burial
practices (Laqueur, 2011, p. 802). The dead are forever gone, physically, the bereaved will never
be able to reach them again; however, the emotions that connect with the dead will not go away
with the deceased body. The bereaved need some place for mourning and other emotions,
unfortunately âthey cannot be sure that the dead are anywhereâ, so marked graves are to ensure
the bereaved has some place to go for mourning (Laqueur, 2011, p. 804).
1.2.1.2 Cemeteries
There are different types of burial spaces, and not all burial spaces can be called
cemeteries. There are special characteristics which identify cemeteries and separates cemeteries
from other burial spaces such as âchurchyardsâ, âburial groundsâ, and âpantheonsâ (Rugg,
2000). Burial spaces are likely to change over time, and the changes include the practice of
funeral rituals, the significance of burial spaces, landscapes, and ownerships (Rugg, 2000).
Cemeteries are well planned burial spaces emphasize on memorizing the deceased
personsâ individual characteristics, therefore there are four factors of cemeteries: accessibility,
public concerns, enclosure, individualism, and ownerships (Rugg, 2000).

2

Accessibility is the most important physical character of cemeteries. Some cemeteries are
in forest setting, some are in arboretum setting, and some are in park setting, however,
accessibility and visibility are the keys of cemetery location and development (Harvey, 2006).
People want easy access to the cemeteries, on the other hand, people are also concerned about
the corpse may bring public health concerns; thus, cemeteries are usually located close to
populated developments but not within the developments (Rugg, 2000). In the nineteenth
century, cemeteries were considered to have potential to cause public health problems (Harvey,
2006). Another reason for outlaying cemeteries is cost and profit. Cemeteries are usually
relatively large pieces of land that can provide very little municipal revenue, therefore
purchasing cheaper land outside of the dense development becomes a way to eliminate cost
(Harvey, 2006).
Other than public health concerns, there are also other public concerns and solutions that
are established through each communityâs own acceptances and expectations. For example, the
sacredness of the cemeteries is evaluated by each community to meet the agreement of the way
people practice funerary and burial rituals and the purpose people in the community give to the
cemeteries other than burial spaces (Rugg, 2000). Cemeteries belong to the whole community
and belong to individual, because cemeteries offer free choice and individuals can buy pieces of
freehold properties in the cemeteries and become partial owner of the cemetery (Laqueur, 2011).
Enclosure gives the sense of place and protection of the spaces. Cemeteries usually have
marked boundaries and gateways to establish the size and the edges, which protects the dead
from disturbance, separates the dead from the living, and give the space a clear understanding of
its unique purposes (Rugg, 2000).

3

Individualism is greatly manifested in cemeteries. Many physical features are used to
enhance the sense of individualism in cemeteries (Rugg, 2000), such as special monuments,
designed gravestone, designed landscape, individual information and even wayfinding system to
help locate one particular grave. Cemeteries are meant to serve the âcomplete communityâ
(Rugg, 2000), therefore different individuals share the ownerships of the cemeteries. In general,
cemeteries also reveal the communityâs expectations on civic pride and spirit; thus, the
community will form its own degree of sacredness and acceptance to regulate appropriate ritual
practices, activities, and behaviors on the site (Rugg, 2000).
Cemeteries are arts itself (Laqueur, 2011). Other than the four factors of cemeteries, they
are, on the other hand, well designed park like landscapes based on the various design principles
such as picturesque and naturalness. Other than the burial purpose, cemeteries also serve as
âamenity landscapeâ in cities through their âhistoric, scenic, and ecological valuesâ (Harvey,
2006). The Oregon Historic Cemetery Association argued that cemeteries are critical spaces for
wildlife habitat and refuges for wild and semi wild life; and when cemeteries are well
established, they are pleasant spaces for human view corridors and recreation activities such as
âcoming in and walking, enjoying the grounds, being in a secure areaâ just like an active
greenspace (Harvey, 2006, p. 302).
1.2.1.3 Churchyards, Burial Grounds, and Pantheons
Other forms of burial spaces have their own features and characteristics which distinguish
from cemeteries. Churchyards are enclosed area with entrance to demonstrate their purposes and
identities, but they are usually located at the center of the developments and settlements instead
of just outside the boundaries of dense developments (Rugg, 2000). Churchyards are also smaller
in sizes (Rugg, 2000). Other than sizes, compare to cemeteries, another significant physical

4

difference is that even though churchyards also express social status through locations and
special monuments, however, individuality is not obviously celebrated in churchyards (Rugg,
2000). Individual cannot buy pieces of freehold property in churchyards, the church usually
retains the âcustomary rightâ to the graves, therefore actually churchyards are not places that
anyone belong to (Laqueur, 2011). On the other hand, the sacredness of churchyards is usually
because of their historical and religious background (Rugg, 2000). One famous churchyard in the
USA is the Trinity Church Cemetery in New York, it consists three burial grounds (Trinity
Church Wall Street, n.d.). One is the original churchyard located at Wall Street and Broadway;
another one is Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum located at upper Manhattan between
Broadway and Riverside Drive; the third one is the churchyard of St. Paulâs Chapel (Trinity
Church Wall Street, n.d.). They are the only active burial grounds, cemeteries, and mausoleums
in Manhattan (Trinity Church Wall Street, n.d.).
Burial grounds have three distinguish characteristics, smaller, a lot more informal, and
special distinctive memorials and funerary rituals; in many cases, burial grounds are sacred only
to the specific group of people whose family and friends are buried on the site (Rugg, 2000). An
example of famous burial ground is the Egyptian Pyramids.
Pantheons are burial spaces with famous people or heroes; and the sacredness of
pantheons are only based on the presences of these famous or significant dead (Rugg, 2000).
Pantheons attracts many visitors not because of the sorrow for the dead but more for respect and
admiring (Rugg, 2000). One of the most famous pantheons in the world is the PanthĂŠon in Paris,
France (The Pantheon Paris, n.d.). The faĂ§ade of the building mimics the Pantheon in Rome, and
the dome of the building has similar style as the dome of St. Paulâs Cathedral (The Pantheon

5

Paris, n.d.). The PanthĂŠon now operates as a secular mausoleum, and Victor Hugo is buried in it
(The Pantheon Paris, n.d.).
1.2.2 Western and Chinese Designs
1.2.2.1 Western Picturesque and Chinese Picturesque
The concept of âPicturesque aestheticâ is first suggested by Sir Uvedale Price, who was
born in 1747 and died in 1829 (Ballantyne, 1992). There are two schools of thoughts on
picturesque. Price and some other artists and scholars believed beauty is something within the
object itself (Ballantyne, 1992). On the other hand, another group of poets, artists, and scholars
such as Hume and Francis Jeffrey believed that beauty is the perception of human emotion,
therefore things are beautiful because people feel they are (Ballantyne, 1992). According to
William Gilpin, picturesque is âexpressive of that peculiar kind of beauty, which is agreeable in
a pictureâ (Barbier, 1963, p. 98), which means if something can remind someone the work of
painter, then it can be understood as picturesque (Ballantyne, 1992). Gilpin believed that
picturesque is a âtype of beautyâ (Ballantyne, 1992).
Even though the term picturesque is used to describe architecture, art, and landscape; and
picturesque had significant influence on American architecture in the nineteenth century, the
term is more widely used in describing landscape (Maynard, 1997). The idea of picturesque and
the rustic scene of picturesque from England are adopted in the United States (Maynard, 1997).
The fundamental key principles of picturesque are âirregularity, variety, intricacy, movement,
and roughnessâ (Pierson, 1978, p. 10).
When the concept of picturesque first arrived in the United States, it presented the idea
that people can âcoexistâ with the nature (Maynard, 1997). âEmbowermentâ is then brought to
the American culture under the influence âof the Picturesque and of Romanticismâ (Maynard,

6

1997). The perfect âPicturesque-embowermentâ requires the flourish of shrub, vines, and tree
canopy to create an irregular rustic vintage looking (Maynard, 1997). There has a strong
relationship between the plant material that are used in the picturesque landscape and the people
who planted them (Maynard, 1997).
The representative person in the American picturesque landscape is Frederick Law
Olmsted, the founder of American Landscape Architecture (FrederickLawOlmsted.com, 2011).
Olmsted believed sub-urban and rural picturesque natural landscape can serve the urban
population a healthier way of living (FrederickLawOlmsted.com, 2011). He also believed the
picturesque landscape can ease the nostalgia people have for the pastoral life before they came to
the cities (FrederickLawOlmsted.com, 2011). In order to benefit urban population, Olmsted tried
to bring natural landscape as close to people as possible with his picturesque landscape designs
(FrederickLawOlmsted.com, 2011).
In China, where Daoism, Buddhism, Taoism and Confucian have significant influence on
human behavior which also influences and guides the relationship of human and nature.
Confucian tradition believes that human can over dominant nature. However, traditional Daoist
and Buddhist teaching believe that human are part of nature; and different from Confucian
tradition, Taoism also perceive human and nature are âinseparableâ, which have successfully
raise the awareness of environmental issue and sustainable development in China (Ellison,
2014).
By comparing and analyzing the traditional landscape paintings of the United States and
China, it is obvious to discover the similarity between the American sense of picturesque beauty
and Chinese sense of picturesque (Ellison, 2014). Because the underlying concept of picturesque
beauty are similar, both two countries are actually preserving the similar natural landscapes

7

emphasizing the aesthetic and scenic value of the natural landscape instead of their economic
values on âecosystem servicesâ (Ellison, 2014). There is significant âaesthetic appreciationâ of
landscapes that have picturesque quality in the United States. In the nineteenth century,
picturesque beauty was understood as landscape that are âsublimeâ, âcapriciousâ, and âuncaring
naturalâ, which is undisturbed by human intervention (Ellison, 2014).
Both Western and Chinese traditional landscape paintings are trying to express the âsense
of sublimeâ through natural landscape features such as water, rocks, mountains, extreme weather
condition, and wild plant materials (Ellison, 2014). The painters explain the harmony between
human and nature by locating human figure or other human development in the sublime looking
landscape; in such way, the artists can show the landscape they wish to see and show the
relationship between human and nature they wish to have instead of being super realistic
(Ellison, 2014). Thomas Cole painted an oil painting in 1836 describes the beauty of natural
picturesque landscape, called View from Mount Holyoke, Northampton, Massachusetts, after A
Thunderstorm â The Oxbow (Ellison, 2014). Thomas Moran also did a painting describing the
sublime beauty of landscape in 1872, called Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone (Ellison, 2014). In
China, where traditional paintings focus on illustrating the picturesque idea of landscapes instead
of the realistic scene of the landscape, many paintings present the picturesque quality of
mountains and the water (Ellison, 2014). For example, the famous painting called Nymph of the
Luo River by Gu Kaizhi in the Song Dynasty shows the harmony of between the nymph (human)
and the nature landscape (Ellison, 2014).
The idea of picturesque landscape also derived from poetry (Matlock, 2008). In the
Western world, there were several poets contributed in the picturesque movement towards
landscape architecture, Alexander Pope was one of them (Matlock, 2008). The traditional

8

Chinese landscape architecture picturesque design principles can also be seen in some ancient
Chinese literature; for example, the very famous âpeach blossom springâ written by the famous
ancient Chinese poet, Yuanming Tao about 1,500 years ago (Chen & Wu, 2009); the literature
described a sublime utopian landscape with peach trees along a spring where people live in the
village near the spring with their peaceful life.
1.2.2.2 Western and Chinese Landscape Design Principles
Even though there are different design principles and guidelines based on the philosophy
of Western culture and Chinese culture, the common approach is towards sustainable
development (Chen & Wu, 2009). On the other hand, the idea of capturing picturesque beauty is
similar in both Western and Chinese landscape design principles throughout the history, however
there are also other differences.
The Western culture, especially American culture often see human has the power to over
dominant nature and âhave the right and even responsibilityâ to make nature provide ecosystem
services for human (Gu, 1994, p. 1). In other words, the traditional Western sense, human can
use âtechnology and policyâ to alter nature for the good of human development (Chen & Wu,
2009). For example, the Western culture often prefer more permanent material for landscape and
architecture development, such as stone, brick and marble monuments (Chen & Wu, 2009).
Where Chinese culture tends to use materials that can blend with the nature, such as bamboo and
wood to demonstrate the sense of harmony between human and nature (Chen & Wu, 2009).
However, the Western culture has started to adopt the âEastern philosophiesâ on human is part of
nature and human must âblendâ in the nature (Gu, 1994).
There is a list of major landscape design principle for each culture (Western culture and
Chinese culture). The Western design principle list includes: âunityâ, âemphasisâ

9

(âfocalizationâ), âbalanceâ, âscaleâ (âproportionâ), ârhythmâ, âsimplicityâ (Motloch, 1991),
âtimeâ, âspace divisionâ (Crowe, 1981), âcontrastâ and âvarietyâ (Gu, 1994). âunityâ means the
sense of âharmonyâ, which can be expressed by using the same concept repetitively; âemphasisâ
means the design has âa focal pointâ; âscaleâ refers to the size of object in relation to human;
ârhythmâ can be achieved by ârepetitionâ or âunifies a composition through the recurrence of
similar itemsâ; âsimplicityâ represent the idea of less is more (Gu, 1994); âtimeâ is âa principle
unique to landscape designâ; âspace divisionâ is characterized by âpatternâ (Crowe, 1981);
âcontrastâ means âcomparing two or more objects or elements so as to show their differencesâ
and âvarietyâ means diversity (Gu, 1994, p. 25).
The Chinese design principles are derived from the three major school of philosophies,
which are Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Taoism and Confucianism arose about the
same time around 5th and 6th B.C., and then Buddhism came to China during the Han Dynasty
during the first century; despite that Buddhism came from India, both Taoism and Confucianism
had significant influence on the Chinese Buddhism culture and philosophy (Gu, 1994).
Confucianism establishes the social norms and responsibilities between individual,
family, and society; where Taoism emphasizes the natural, âcarefreeâ, and âromanticâ
relationship between people and nature (Gu, 1994). The key theory of Taoism is Tao and Yinyang. Tao literally means the âway of nature and of lifeâ (Gu, 1994, p. 8), and can be concluded
as âthe law of natureâ (Watts, 1975), which is âletting Nature take its own courseâ (Chan, 1963).
The Yin-yang theory explains the world is developed and can be categorized into the âreceptive
Yin and the creative Yangâ; but two parts blends together to reach a stage of equilibrium, which
is âunityâ and âharmonyâ (Gu, 1994). Based on the Tao and Yin-yang theories, Taoism
philosophy really believes in the âharmonyâ between human and nature (Gu, 1994).

10

Chinese landscape and garden was evolved from the ancient ânatural hunting grounds for
the Imperial familyâ around two thousand years ago (Gu, 1994, p. 11), however there is no
âwritten theoryâ on landscape design strategies or principles until the Ming Dynasty around six
hundred years ago (Gu, 1994). By analyzing the ancient âwritten theoryâ and the Yin-yang
theory, modern scholars are able to develop a list of Chinese landscape design principles (Gu,
1994), which are âreal and falseâ, âsetting offâ, âassembling and spreadingâ, âunevenness and
neatnessâ, âconnecting and separatingâ, âopen and closeâ, âlevel and solidâ, âratio and distance
of sightâ, âdirectional orientationâ and âexposing and concealingâ (Chen & Yu, 1986).
In âreal and falseâ, ârealâ represents the original object, and âfalseâ represents its
reflection; âsetting offâ means the special arrangement of two objects that can enhance the
aesthetic of both objects; âassembling and spreadingâ refers to use the same or similar objects
respectively to create a group and continue to spread the same objects into a âhorizontal featureâ;
âunevenness and neatnessâ means to create both ârusticâ or sublime features and ârefinedâ
features in order to get the result of harmony; âconnecting and separatingâ means to purposely
create some visual access while limit the physical access or vice versa; âopen and closeâ means
open bright spaces and enclosed shaded spaces with vertical or overhead structures; âlevel and
solidâ means the use of both horizontal wide open plain and vertical elements to reach visual
balance and harmony; âratio and distance of sightâ means the enclosure view angle created by
vertical elements; âdirectional orientationâ means the garden scene is located at the north of the
main building for best quality of view during day time; and âexposing and concealingâ means
borrowed scene from exterior space or creating mystery by allowing to see part of the next
garden scene through some small opening in the current garden scene (Gu, 1994).

11

Both the West and Chinese design principles share some similarities and differences at
the same time. âUnityâ and âharmonyâ are the most common universal design principle in both
culture (Gu, 1994). The universal favorite landscape design element in both Western and
Chinese culture is water features, and rock features that are favored by Chinese culture are not
preferred in Western culture (Gu, 1994).
1.2.2.3 Fengshui
Fengshui is also called geomancy, in Chinese it is derived from two characters, âfengâ
(wind) and âshuiâ (water). According to Poulston and Bennet, âFeng shui considers the earth as a
living organismâ, therefore the earth has its breath (Poulston & Bennett, 2012, p. 24), which is
called âqi (ć°)â in Chinese. The goal of Fengshui is to find the spots in the landscape that has the
breath (March, 1968). By Fengshui theory, a place with good Fengshui must be âlively and
changeableâ, and it does not mean the actual landscape form change in a period of time, but
means the diverse experiences people can feel by moving through the place (March, 1968).
Fengshui is widely used as guidelines to locate and design âcomfortable, attractive, clutter-free
and safe buildingsâŚfor both practical and aesthetic reasons (Poulston & Bennett, 2012, p. 25).
There are many handbooks of Fengshui; and the handbooks are mainly for used for selecting
good Fengshui locations for âgraves, houses, and smaller sites rather than whole citiesâ (Meyer,
1978, p. 139). Chinese urban planning is also based on the philosophy of Fengshui, the history of
using Fengshui for city planning can be dated back to Changan (Xiâan), the capital of Tang
dynasty during 618 to 907 AD as well as the Forbidden City in Beijing (Meyer, 1978).
Fengshui was unaccepted and considered pseudo-science by the Westerners (March,
1968), but now Fengshui is becoming more and more widely accepted by many different cultures
other than Chinese culture. For example, the architecture programs in Oregon State University,

12

Ealing, Hammersmith, and West London College and universities in Singapore offer courses
about Fengshui (Poulston & Bennett, 2012). And the design principle of Fengshui can be seen in
some western architecture designs, such as the very famous Falling Water in Pennsylvania by
Frank Lloyd Wright (Poulston & Bennett, 2012).
Fengshui was initially used for selecting a good location for grave site (Poulston &
Bennett, 2012), it is believed that the ancestor buried in a site with good Fengshui can bring
protect the descendant from bad or evil spirit and misfortune (March, 1968). The recording of
finding good sites for burial using Fengshui principle can be dated back to the Qin dynasty
around 210 B.C. in an ancient Chinese book called Zangshu (The Burial Book) (March, 1968).
1.2.2.4 Ancestry Worshiping
The Taoist philosophy advocates the harmonious relationship between human and the
nature, while the Confucian philosophy emphasize on the relationship among individual, family
and society; therefore, Confucius philosophy and culture âprovided a blueprint for honoring
ancestorsâ (Burley, Machemer, & Liu, 2016, p. 41), which becomes the foundation for ancestor
worshiping. According to Liu, âAncestor worship has been a dominant religious form in ancient
as well as modern Chinaâ (Liu, 1999, p. 602).
Ancestor worship did not derive from the fear of the dead, in fact it arose from respecting
life, the dead, and âdevotion to human undertakingâ for the good of descendants themselves by
building up good virtue (March, 1968, p. 264) or like âkarmaâ in Buddhist tradition.
Ancestor worship can be traced back to one of the earliest civilization group in China, the
Yangshao culture from 4500 to 4200 B.C. during the Neolithic period (Liu, 1999). One of the
most influential ancient mystic ancestor is the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi éťĺ¸); he is believed as

13

the common ancestor of all Chinese, and he was worshiped during ancient times and even now
(Liu, 1999). People built mausoleum for the Yellow Emperor back in 422 B.C. during the
Warring State period, and the mausoleum standing on Mount Qiao is still being maintained today
(Liu, 1999).
1.3 Literature Review of Western and Chinese Burial Sites
1.3.1 Western Cemeteries
1.3.1.1 European Cemetery: Pere Lachaise
One of the most famous cemeteries in the world is Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris,
France. Pere Lachaise, formerly Cimetiere de lâEst, was designed by architect Alexandre
Theordore Brongniart (Masson, 1993). He designed the site based on romantic, natural gardens
of eighteenth-century design principles of picturesque that can make the most out the location to
get the best view overlooking Paris (Masson, 1993). Brongniart planned out major straight allees
accompany with large number of curved pathways (Masson, 1993). By doing so, he is able to
divide the whole site into sections, which becomes much more manageable to situate each grave
or tomb on the grids (Masson, 1993).
According to Thomas Laqueur, PĂ¨re-Lachaise âvery quickly became the symbol of â
almost a name for â a kind of burial place that triumphed whatever the new bourgeois
civilization of the nineteenth century triumphed or hoped to triumphâ (Laqueur, 2011, p. 811).
Pere Lachaise became a popular place for visitors, because it was fascinating to see the huge
contrast between Pere Lachaise and old-style western burial custom that existed prior to Pere
Lachaise in Paris and other European Countries (Masson, 1993). Every other place wants a burial
space like Pere-Lachaise, but the cemeteries are not meant to be the exact copy of Pere-Lachaise

14

instead they are all supposed to have their own unique identities based on the different local
context of each place (Laqueur, 2011).
Pere La Chaise is the âpredecessorâ of Parisian style American cemeteries such as Mount
Auburn in Boston established in 1831 and Greenwood Cemetery in Philadelphia established in
1838 (Masson, 1993). Even though the number of monument has increased dramatically in Pere
Lachaise, making the cemetery over crowded with monuments, and not much effort has been put
on maintaining the picturesque quality of the cemetery (Masson, 1993). Pere Lachaise is in fact
always the start of modern rural cemeteries that gives many other English and American
cemeteries inspirations on how to design and develop picturesque, nature-oriented environments
(Masson, 1993).

Figure 1: Location of Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, France. (Map data ÂŠ2017
GeoBasis-DE/BKG, Google).

15

Figure 2: The gravesite of Chopin with sculptures, carving portrait of Chopin, fences, and
fresh cut flowers from visitors in Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France. (Copyright ÂŠ2005
Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by permission).

16

Figure 3: Gravesite of Joseph Lakanal in Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France.
(Copyright ÂŠ2005 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by permission).

17

Figure 4: Gravesite of James Douglas Morrison with fresh cut flowers from the visitors in
Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France. (Copyright ÂŠ2005 Jon Bryan Burley all right
reserved used by permission).

1.3.1.2 American Cemeteries
There were two environmental thoughts in the nineteenth century on whether the
existence of open green spaces is the need for utilitarian function or simply nostalgia from rural
pastoral life before industrial revolution (Sachs, 2010). The term âcemeteryâ was not really a
common phrase by 1830s (Sachs, 2010). Before cemeteries were well established, people used
churchyards as their burial spaces (Sachs, 2010). Eventually, people had a choice to be buried in
a well maintained public landscape, which is supposed to be both good for the dead and the

18

living (Sachs, 2010). In the nineteenth century, ârural cemeteryâ referred to the type of burial
space âlocated on the outskirts of a cityâ, that are designed and developed based on picturesque
design principles evolved from English gardens, and inspired by the famous Pere-Lachaise in
Paris (Bender, 1974). Cemeteries were once viewed as the most characterized âcultural
repositoryâ; compare to the old graveyards, cemeteries provide more pleasant welcoming open
green spaces, magnificent monuments, and inspirations, which make cemeteries not only places
for burial spaces but also active green parks (Masson, 1993). In the burial tradition context,
people spend far more money in contemporary funerary and burial ritual and practices than
necessary âfor the sake of pride, prestige, and vaingloryâ and it has become some kind of
âcemetery artâ that become very popular in both Europe and United States (McDowell, 1982, p.
10). In those âempty or nearly emptyâ cemeteries, many middle-class Americans spend their
leisure time and âresorting for pleasureâ; this is due to the establishment of the new relationship
between âcityscape and landscapeâ in the accelerating urbanizing America (Bender, 1974).
Mount Auburn, the first rural cemetery in the United States (Bender, 1974), established in
1831 expresses the rural romantic style by using curved pathways and graveyard layouts instead
of the straight avenues in Pere Lachaise (Laqueur, 2011). As the first garden style urban
cemetery; the cemetery really pushed urban public green space movement and pushed the new
way of expressing care to the dead by planting garden materials around the graves (Sachs, 2010).
Mount Auburn is designed and developed based on the principle and guidelines of picturesque
from European gardens instead of sublime from American wildness (Sachs, 2010). Mount
Auburn Cemetery propose the idea that rural cemeteries are much âmore comfortingâ to the
bereaved compare to the stuffy environment in city churchyards (Bender, 1974). Mount Auburn
became a major tourist attraction during the late 1830s, people came to the cemetery not only to

19

relax or grief, but also to re-experience their possible new routines on the site such as joy and
active behavior (Sachs, 2010).
After Mount Auburn became so successful, people started to build similar cemeteries
across the whole country; then the rural park style cemeteries really start the revolution of city
public parks, which leads to public concerns such as public health, aesthetics, and equal access to
green spaces (Sachs, 2010). Laurel Hill Cemetery was established in 1836 in Philadelphia;
Greenwood Cemetery was established in 1838 by New York City in Brooklyn; and several
similar rural park style cemeteries were established by 1842 in New England (Sachs, 2010).
In New Orleans, where above ground burial is preferred because of high water table,
Parisian style monuments similar to Pere Lachaise are widely used unlike cemeteries in other
northern and eastern cities, where underground burial with simpler markers rural park like setting
are more widely used (Masson, 1993). There is large amount of high architectural stylized
cemeteries in New Orleans (McDowell, 1982). The architecture style of above ground burial
attracts large number of visitors through âtombs, monuments, and mausoleumsâ, which
expresses the unique characteristic of âform, function, and artistic tastesâ (McDowell, 1982).
Green-Wood Cemetery with its beautiful rural park style in Brooklyn established in 1838
has become a non-profit public institution that preserves the scenic and historical value of the
magnificent hillsides (Sachs, 2010) and provides peaceful land for the dead, wonderful green
space for the living, and suitable habitat for wildlife.
Even though all the early American rural park style cemeteries are evoked from PereLachaise, they in fact has two different understanding of the relationship between human
establishment and nature (Bender, 1974). Pere-Lachaise was built as a garden and given the
function of cemetery; the American rural cemeteries are intended to preserve the natural beauty

20

of the landscape and incorporate the function of cemetery (Bender, 1974). Pere Lachaise is now
over crowded with monuments along all the narrow pathways, in such case, the original
picturesque beauty has been taken over; the same is true with other Parisian style cemeteries in
United States, such as St. Louis cemeteries in New Orleans (Masson, 1993). Many other
cemeteries are still being maintained to reach the picturesque beauty, because people continue to
âromanticize natureâ mimicking the âEuropean romantic conventionâ under the rapidly
urbanizing living environment (Bender, 1974).
1.3.2 Chinese Burial Sites
1.3.2.1 Chinese Wealthy and Imperial Tombs
There is the âarchetypeâ format of all Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty Imperial Tombs
or Mausoleums, which is a sequence of archway, entrance gates, stone tablet, a bridge, long
sacred walkway with mythical creature statues, pillars, a courtyard, main hall, and the actual
burial site (Lai, 2007). It was very common for the royalty and the wealthy people to have a long
sacred walkway with stone mythical creature statues for their burial grounds before the arrival of
the gate to the actual burial spot. There are many old sacred walkways preserved from different
dynasties; for example, there is a shared sacred walkway leading to Ming and Qing imperial
tombs outside Beijing (Burley, Machemer, & Liu, 2016).
The gravesite of Yellow Emperor located on Mount Qiao was first built during the Han
dynasty during 206 B.C. to 220 A.D., then the mausoleum was built during the Tang dynasty
during 766 to 779 A.D. also has the similar elements in design. There is an entrance archway, a
sacred walkway leads to the actual mausoleum with a few stone steps along with stone mythical
creature statues such as the lion like âkirinâ (supposed to be one of the sons of the Chinese
Dragon), and a stone tablet (Liu, 1999).

21

The Ming Xiaoling Tomb in the tomb complex was built in the Ming dynasty during
1381 to 1431 AD at the base of Purple & Golden Mountain in Nanjing; it is the tomb of âthe first
Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang and his Empress Ma.â (Burley, Machemer, & Liu, 2016). The
design of the tomb is very âexperientialâ (Burley, Machemer, & Liu, 2016); there is a series of
gateways, buildings, sculptures and walkways to go through before the arrival of the actual burial
site. It first comes the âDismounting Archwayâ, then âGreat Golden Gateâ, then âSquare Cityâ,
then âSacred Wayâ, then âStone Beastsâ sculptures, then âStone Human Figuresâ statues, then
âStone Watching Pillarâ, then âTablet Hallâ, then âTreasure Cityâ, and finally the actual burial
site (Burley, Machemer, & Liu, 2016). All these elements are located along the continuous long
pathway with formal symmetrical design landscape plant materials on the side. On the top of the
âDismounting Archwayâ, there are carved ancient Chinese character informing all officials and
visitors must dismount at this point to show great respect to the Emperor and the Empress
(Burley, Machemer, & Liu, 2016). The âSquare Cityâ is an a few stairs raised courtyard area
with a tablet listing the achievements and the âvirtuesâ of the Emperor (Burley, Machemer, &
Liu, 2016). The âSacred Wayâ is a pathway continues about one mile with stone mythical
creature statues that can represent the Emperor (Burley, Machemer, & Liu, 2016). During the
Ming dynasty, the tomb was guarded by 5,600 soldiers all the time (Burley, Machemer, & Liu,
2016).

22

Figure 5: Location of Ming Xiaoling Tomb in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. (Imagery
ÂŠ2017 DigitalGlobe, CNES / Astrium, DigitalGlobe, Map data ÂŠ2017).

23

Figure 6: Stone Tablet of Ming Xiaoling Tomb with mythical animal statue in between two
archways, and stairs with Chinese dragon carving decoration in Nanjing, China. (Copyright
ÂŠ2008 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 7: Stone paved Sacred Way with mythical animal statues along both sides that
creates a rectilinear symmetrical layout with high visual and physical enclosure in Ming
Xiaoling Tomb, Nanjing, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2008 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved
used by permission).

24

Figure 8: The Dismounting Archway with abstract cloud carving decorations and the uphill
stone paved pathway with multiple groups of stairs in Ming Xiaoling Tomb, Nanjing,
China. (Copyright ÂŠ2008 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 9: The three arched bridges connecting to the actual burial site in Ming Xiaoling
Tomb, Nanjing, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2008 Jon Bryan Burley all right reserved used by
permission).

25

Yuan Shikaiâs (the first president of the Republic of China) grave adopts the similar
design layout pattern of Qing Imperial Mausoleums, which includes a sequence of âstone bridge,
ornamental columns, and an epitaph pavilion along the spiritual road, flanked by sculptures of
immortal animals and figures, which led to the sacrifice hall and the tomb behindâ (Lai, 2007).
Sun Yat-Senâs (the Father of Modern China) Mausoleum located at the Purple Mountain
in Nanjing, where the first Ming Emperor (Yuanzhang Zhu) was also buried, was built in the
spring of 1929. The two Mausoleums are only one miles apart, and Sunâs Mausoleum is 90 yards
higher then Ming Mausoleum (Xiaoling Tomb) (Lai, 2007). Sunâs Mausoleum used both western
modern architecture style and traditional Chinese architecture style, which incorporated both
Chinese history and the contemporary modern world (Lai, 2007). Even though Sunâs Mausoleum
is a modern burial site, it also followed the principle and guidelines of Fengshui, therefore the
Mausoleum is built facing south on a hillside (Lai, 2007). Sunâs Mausoleum also partially adopts
the form of Ming Xiaoling Tomb, which is the sequence of âthe archway, the tripartite gate, the
pillars, the hall, and even the long stairway that is analogous to the spirit road of an imperial
tombâ (Lai, 2007). However, for Sunâs Mausoleum, the architect Lu Yanzhi did not use the
mythical animal statues and traditional Chinese dragon ornaments because it was considered to
be the old Chinese superstition tradition, which does meet with Sunâs modern China wish (Lai,
2007).

26

Figure 10: Location of Dr. Sun Yat-senâs Tomb in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. Sunâs
Tomb is located approximate to Ming Xiaoling Tomb. (Imagery ÂŠ2017 DigitalGlobe,
CNES / Astrium, DigitalGlobe, Map data ÂŠ2017).

27

Figure 11: Brick paved plaza area of Sunâs Tomb in rectilinear symmetrical design with
water feature, planting beds, and large stairs. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Zhengwei Wu all right
reserved used by permission).

Figure 12: Sacrifice Hall of Sun Yat-senâs Tomb with stone plaque on building, and three
archway entrances. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Zeran Zhu all right reserved used by permission).

28

Figure 13: Dr. Sun Yat-senâs Tomb in rectilinear design with massive stair cases and
naturalized landscape. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Zeran Zhu all right reserved used by permission).

29

Figure 14: Large stone tablet of Sun Yat-senâs Tomb with the burial information of Dr.
Sun. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Zeran Zhu all right reserved used by permission).

1.3.2.2 Chinese Traditional Hillside Graves
In the Chinese tradition, it is very important to maintain the ancestral grave sites, (Eng,
1999), which is a burial site with many mount shape graves in family order on hillsides. Even the

30

traditional rural Chinese graves in the mountain villages try to follow the principle of Fengshui if
possible. According to Li, a graveyard with good Fengshui should be located by a mountain, near
rivers and with an open view, because good Fengshui will bring good luck to the dead in his or
her after life and next life (Li, 1993). In addition, the location or Fengshui of a graveyard
determines the fate of the deceasedâs offspring (Li, 1993).
The people live in the rural villages feel comfortable to leave the ancestral grave sites on
the hillsides with no vegetation such as tall grasses to hide them, because they maintained the
graves neat and clean to show pride, dignity, and respect (Eng, 1999). The size of the ancestral
grave sites can vary depends on the size of the family group.
1.3.2.3 Chinese Public Cemetery
As land becomes scarcer in many Asian cities; cremation has been largely encouraged,
and other more sustainable âeco-friendlyâ form of burials have been evolved, such as âsea and
woodland burialsâ after cremation (Kong, 2012).
Even though cremation is especially encouraged, many people still want grave burial for
the urn if they are wealthy enough to afford the cost of the piece of private landscape âas status
symbolâ (Kong, 2012). At the same time, the practice of Fengshui and other traditional funerary
and burial rituals and festivals such as the grave sweeping ceremonies of Qingming Festival
(around April 4th), Chongyang Festival (around October 16th) (Kong, 2012), and the Winter
Solstice Festival (around December 22nd) are still continuing.
1.4 Integrated Culture of Shanghai, China
Shanghai as one of the most unique city in China was once controlled and colonized by
Westerners during late nineteenth century to early twentieth century, therefore the city has
adopted complex western integrated culture from Britain, France, United States (Schantz, 2014),

31

and Germany. The settlement started with British and French, and later the Americans also
becomes part of the settlement, and eventually, it evolved into a diverse Shanghai International
Settlement operated by Shanghai Municipal Council (Schantz, 2014). Shanghai then became the
fifth largest city in the world and âthe center of a cosmopolitan cultural spaceâ in 1930âs
(Schantz, 2014). The British had the largest influence among all the foreign settlements from
both the western world and the eastern world.
As the city grows, the boundaries between Chinese and the westerns disappeared quickly,
the âneighborhoods were mixedâ, and the âsegregationâ between all different country residents
was weak (Schantz, 2014). A form of cultural, life, and architectural style must be developed to
meet the expectation of people with different nationality, different utilitarian purposes, and
different aesthetic taste (Schantz, 2014). The unique fusion style quickly evolved in Shanghai to
represent its many contrast and harmony between foreign and Chinese, modern and traditional
(Schantz, 2014).
1.5 Conclusion and Purpose of Study
The literature reviews the different types pf burial sites of both Western World and
China, present the brief history of the burial sites, names the famous examples of different burial
sites, elaborates the Western and Chinese design principles and philosophies, and describes the
uniqueness of Shanghai in its history and culture. However, most of the studies of burial sites are
case studies of individual burial site or comparative studies within the similar culture, very little
cross cultural quantitative comparative studies are done in this field of study. Besides, most of
the studies in the field focus on the funerary and burial ritual instead of the environmental
aspects.

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Thus, this research will compare the environment, landscape, and architecture aspects of
the burial sites cross culturally and find the similarities and differences among them by using a
mathematic method called Cluster Analysis. The study sites include four Western cemeteries in
Paris and Michigan, three modern public Chinese cemeteries in Shanghai, two traditional
Chinese Imperial burial sites in Nanjing, and two rural Chinese ancestral burial grounds in
Yancheng and Jingjiang. By comparing these eleven burial sites using Cluster Analysis, the
research will be able to identify the measurable variables of these four types of burial sites.
Therefore, the study intent of this research is to compare the Western and Chinese burial sites in
order to provide understanding of modern Chinese public cemetery designs, especially reveal its
relationship with Chinese burial culture and western influence.
The hypothesis of this research is that the modern Chinese public cemeteries in Shanghai
are fusion cemeteries that integrates the traditional Chinese design principles, traditional Chinese
burial culture, and Western influences, due to the unique local context of Shanghai.

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CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
2.1 Study Sites
In this investigation, there are total of eleven sites selected for comparison study; they are
Pere Lachaise in Paris, France, three cemeteries (Mt. Hope Cemetery, Evergreen Cemetery, and
North Cemetery) in Michigan, USA, three modern Chinese public cemeteries (Binhai Guyuan
Cemetery, Haiwanyuan Cemetery, and Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery) in Shanghai, China, two
Chinese Imperial burial sites (Ming Xiaoling Tomb, and Sunâs Tomb) in Nanjing, China, and
two group of rural Chinese burial grounds (Jiâs Ancestral graves, and Xuâs Ancestral Graves) in
Jiangsu Province, China. The comparative analysis uses both secondary information and primary
information. The study uses secondary information from literature review for three of the eleven
sites, and uses primary field study information for the rest of the eight sites. The information for
Pere Lachaise and the two Chinese Imperial burial sites is secondary information learned from
published documents. The information of these three sites have been presented in the literature
review section. The information of three cemeteries in Michigan, three cemeteries in Shanghai,
and the two rural ancestral burial grounds in Jiangsu is primary information collected from field
study. In the methodology section below presents the primary information of the eight sites
collected from field study.
2.1.1 Michigan Cemeteries
The cemeteries in Michigan established during the nineteenth and twentieth century also
follows the basic design principles and meet the standard aesthetic requirements of American
rural park style cemeteries. Lansing, as the capital of Michigan has three municipal cemeteries:
Mount Hope Cemetery, Evergreen Cemetery, and North Cemetery. These three cemeteries are

34

selected as study sites due to their easy access for data collection, which can be used to represent
the general characteristics of Americans rural park like cemeteries for this particular research.

Figure 15: Location of the three municipal cemeteries (Mt. Hope Cemetery, Evergreen
Cemetery, and North Cemetery) of Lansing in Michigan, USA. (Map data ÂŠ2017 Google).

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Figure 16: Location of the three municipal cemeteries of Lansing in relationship to
Michigan State University. (Imagery ÂŠ2017 Google, Map data ÂŠ2017 Google).

Figure 17: Location of Mt. Hope Cemetery and Evergreen Cemetery. (Map data ÂŠ2017
Google).

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Mount Hope Cemetery is a medium size cemetery that contains approximately 82 acres
of land, and as a municipal cemetery, it is maintained by the city of Lansing (Lindemann, Mt.
Hope Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). The piece of land was named Millar Farm, and
it was purchased from the previous owners John and Rebecca Miller for the cost of $8,000 on
April 3rd, 1871 (Lindemann, Mt. Hope Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). On November
28th, 1873, the Cemetery was officially named Mount Hope Cemetery after a cemetery in New
York, where many of the pioneers originally came from (Lindemann, Mt. Hope Cemetery
Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). The cemetery was opened in 1874, and it is one of the
cemeteries that follows the nineteenth century American picturesque design principle. Some
gravestones have date information prior to 1874, which means some bodies may be moved and
re-buried in Mount Hope Cemetery (Houghtaling, 2006). The cemetery is well maintained to
keep its picturesque romantic rural park style. There are many interesting and historical
interments, monuments and special sites in the cemetery, for example, the R.E. Olds Mausoleum,
the Spanish American and World War I Veteran Memorial garden (Lindemann, Mt. Hope
Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). The cemetery is fenced, and the only entrance is the
white archway entrance gate. There are both wining driveways and small pathways in the
cemetery through the hilly lawn burial grounds, which divides the whole site into A-Z twentyfour section. Among all twenty-four sections, section U is the only section that has grave sites
available for sale (Lansing Parks & Recreation, n.d.).

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Figure 18: Lawn graveyard in Mt. Hope Cemetery with information signage and private
vehicle accessible driveway, Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right
reserved used by permission).

Figure 19: Memorial Garden in Mt. Hope Cemetery with wall niche burial and curved
pathway, Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by
permission).

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Figure 20: Wall niche burial in Memorial Garden of Mt. Hope Cemetery, Lansing, MI,
USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 21: Small mausoleum of R. E. Olds with stairs in Mt. Hope Cemetery, Lansing, MI,
USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

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Evergreen Cemetery, used to be Tobias Farm, was once owned by Mr. C. Tobias
(Lindemann, Evergreen Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). However, Mr. Tobias did not
have any children, so he deeded the land to his foster son, a young man named Edward
(Lindemann, Evergreen Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). Edward Banks later sold the
land to the City of Lansing in 1922 (Lindemann, Evergreen Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County,
2017). The cemetery has A-P sixteen sections, which is about 104 acres total. Bruce Mckim is
the first person who started with the development of Evergreen Cemetery during the first season
o 1928 (Lindemann, Evergreen Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). Then the
development was passed on to Harold Leavitt on April 7, 1928 to finish some of the previous
work such as seeding, staking of lots and laying out of water lines for the initial two sections,
Section A and Section B (Lindemann, Evergreen Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). One
of the most noticeable piece in the cemetery is the Little Arlington Memorial established on May
30, 1950. Civilian and military services are conducted starting at 12:00 noon on the Saturday
prior to Memorial Day, in order to honor those people who served the country in times of wars
(Lindemann, Evergreen Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). There are 126 graves in
Little Arlington, and 30 marker spaces for Missing in Action memorials or burials of ashes
(Lindemann, Evergreen Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). The military markers
identifying the individual graves reflect a cross-section of service branches, religious faiths and
ethnic heritage. There are also both curvy driveway and smaller walkways in the cemetery to
create the sense of rural romantic park like layout; however, compare to Mount Hope Cemetery,
Evergreen Cemetery is relatively flat instead of hilly.

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Figure 22: Lawn graveyard with private vehicle accessible driveway in Evergreen
Cemetery, Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by
permission).

Figure 23: Gravestones with special carving of religious symbol, landscape, and portrait in
Evergreen Cemetery, Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved
used by permission).

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Figure 24: Gravestone with portrait, USA flag carving, and memorable in the Little
Arlington Veteran Section in Evergreen Cemetery, Lansing, MI, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017
Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 25: Couple grave and gravestones with decorative carvings. (Copyright ÂŠ2017
Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).
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North Cemetery has only 3.24 acres, which makes it the smallest of three municipal
cemeteries in Lansing; however, it is considered the oldest (Lindemann, North Cemetery
Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). The cemetery was previously called North Delhi Cemetery
before the City of Lansing own the partnership and became the maintenance guardian of the
cemetery in 1960, and then it was renamed as North Cemetery (Lindemann, North Cemetery
Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). The piece of land was owned by Joshua North, and the original
tract of the land was sold to the Delhi Township for $55 on May 17th, 1852 (Lindemann, North
Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). The older part located at the south end of the site was
limited to the public and only available for the North family and close friends (Lindemann, North
Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County, 2017). Today, there no gravesites available for sale to the
public and is limited to the persons who already have acquired burial rights privileges through
inheritance or transfers of ownership (Lindemann, North Cemetery Lansing, Ingham County,
2017). There are only two curved driveways loop around and couple small driveway in between
in the site, but the cemetery is more covered by tree canopy compare to the other two cemeteries
discussed earlier.

Figure 26: Miller Rd entrance driveway to North Cemetery wining uphill with signage
stating hours, rules and regulations of the North Cemetery in Lansing, Michigan, USA.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

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Figure 27: Large Canopy tree covered lawn graveyard with one one obelisk memorial and
city view in the back in the North Cemetery, Lansing, Michigan, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017
Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 28: Wining driveways in the hilly lawn graveyards in the North Cemetery, Lansing,
Michigan, USA. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

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2.1.2 Chinese Burial Sites
2.1.2.1 Modern Public Chinese Cemeteries
As discussed earlier in the article, Shanghai is one of the most unique cities in China that
incorporated both traditional Chinese culture and Western culture. Shanghai as one of the first
cities that absorbed Western influences, has the longest history of using modern philosophies,
adapting modern life style, and developing modern aesthetic and utilitarian standards. Therefore,
the three newly developed public cemeteries located near the coast of Hangzhou Bay in Fengxian
District, Shanghai are selected as study sites, which are Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Haiwanyuan
Cemetery, and Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery. The field trip to the three cemeteries was during
December and April which are the times for Chinese traditional Grave Sweeping festivals,
therefore there are oblations such as food, drink, flowers, fake paper money, etc. in the front of
many graves. And people were practicing thurification and burning fake paper money for the
dead as part of traditional Chinese burial and funerary culture.

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Figure 29: Locations of the three public cemeteries (Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Haiwanyuan
Cemetery, and Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery) in Fengxian, Shanghai, China, along Hangzhou
bay in relationship to Yancheng, Jingjiang (near Taizhou), and Nanjing. (Map data ÂŠ2017
Google).

46

Figure 30: Locations of the three public cemeteries in Fengxian, Shanghai. (Imagery
ÂŠ2017 Landsat / Copernicus, TerraMetrics, Map data ÂŠ2017 Google).

Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, established in March, 1985, is the first national public
cemetery in Shanghai; is categorized as Class I Cemetery in Shanghai; is the top ten cemetery in
China. The size of the cemetery is about 198 acres; containing 66 acres of parking lots and
functional facilities, and 132 acres of burial grounds with designed landscapes. It is located at
what is previously Five Four Farm, is ranked as Class I Cemetery in Shanghai. Five Four Farm,
established on October 10th, 1954, was the first state-operated farm in Shanghai, which changed
underutilized land along the coast of Hangzhou Bay into profitable farming lands. Five Four
Farm was named Fengxian Municipal Farm because it is located in Fengxian District; later it was
renamed as Five Four Farm after its year of establishment by the Bureau of Agricultural
Reclamation of Shanghai in October 1963. The farm was re-developed into Binhai Guyuan
Public Cemetery in March 1985. The location of Binhai Guyuan Cemetery has good Fengshui
based on Fengshui theory, because it faces south towards Hangzhou Bay with the cityscape in

47

the back, which use the metaphor of facing a lake with mountains in the back. The famous
Shanghai Haiwan National Forest Park is to the west of the cemetery.
The cemetery is divided into multiple section by straight avenue grid forms and curvy
winding pathways; each section has its unique emphasis and characteristics. There are more than
twenty-five sections in the cemetery, that cover diverse religious beliefs, planting material style,
discipline, and function. For example, there is a section of Christian grave yards, Rose Garden
section for artists, Wave Garden section for famous people and celebrities, sea-burial memorial
section, Purple Bamboo Garden section for teachers and doctors, etc. There are also scenic
landscape designs for aesthetic and recreation purposes, such as artificial waterfall, artificial
ponds, artificial fountains, bridges, large rocks as sculptures, gazebos, memorial sculptures, etc.
The slogan of Binhai Guyuan Cemetery is âMake the cemetery satisfying for both the
dead and the livingâ; therefore, there are a lot of cultural festival and ceremonies in the cemetery
to encourage and promote new sustainable funeral and burial rituals, such as live music
ceremony for woodland and sea burial. Customize artistic gravestones and customize
landscaping around the gravestone are available for people who are interested in expressing
personal identity.

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Figure 31: The entrance archway of Binhai Guyuan Cemetery with flying eaves detail,
stone carving decorations and mythical lion statues. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all
right reserved used by permission).

Figure 32: The decorative wall with Chinese dragon stone carving details in the entrance to
create good Fengshui, and huge vintage cooking vessel made with bronze as symbol of
honor and dignity in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016
Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

49

Figure 33: Pavilion with flying eaves architectural style and miniature mountains that
creates scenic view and recreation area along the pond in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery,
Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 34: Site map of Binhai Guyuan Cemetery with over twenty graveyard sections and
wayfinding signage, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved
used by permission).

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Figure 35: Straight bridge, stone hand railings with stone carving details, miniature rock
mountains and artificial river in Binhai Guyuan, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016
Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 36: Artificial river, waterfall and decorative wall fencing in distance in Binhai
Guyuan, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by
permission).

51

Figure 37: Fountain water feature and pavilions with flying eaves architectural style and
site furniture around artificial pond in Binhai Guyuan, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016
Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 38: Graveyard with artistic customizable gravestones, brick paving, and large bonsai
in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right
reserved used by permission).

52

Figure 39: Artistic couple grave with portrait and platform for oblations (fruit, food, and),
censer, and metal bucket for burning fake paper money as part of Chinese traditional ritual
in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right
reserved used by permission).

Figure 40: Uniform traditional style graves with arborvitae trees that creates high visual
and physical enclosure in Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016
Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by permission).

53

Figure 41: Veteranâs Memorial Garden with statues of the veterans in Binhai Guyuan
Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used by
permission).

Figure 42: Entrance Fengshui Wall with Chinese Dragon Carving and flying eaves
architectural style, potted plants, and large digital screen as information board in Binhai
Guyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2016 Haoxuan Xu all right reserved used
by permission).

54

Haiwanyuan Cemetery, was originally named as Fengxin Cemetery, it is a profitable
public cemetery, established in 1985 and it is also categorized as Class I cemetery in Shanghai.
Haiwanyuan Cemetery is located in the Shanghai Fengxian Tourism Development Zone near the
Golden Beach with easy public transportation access; it has about 165 acres, consisting service
facility, landscaping, various sections of burial grounds, and raw gravestone material factory.
Haiwanyuan Cemetery is a sustainable ecological modern cemetery that consists many
rare plant materials and park elements to make pleasant environment and enjoyable experiences.
The slogan of Haiwanyuan Cemetery is âHeaven for the Dead, Outdoor Classroom for the
Livingâ. There are fountains, artificial ponds, sculptures, decorative large pillars, and picnic
areas.
The different sections of burial grounds have different price ranges and different aesthetic
and landscaping styles, can offer diverse choices to people and meet with all different customerâs
expectations. There are twelve pre-designed sections with different styles, and one customizable
section available for individual customized designs. The major tourist attraction of this cemetery
is there are many famous people buried in the cemetery, for example, famous writers Moruo Guo
and Lao She, famous artist Mosheng Yao, several famous businessmen and politicians.

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Figure 43: Entrance Archway of Haiwanyuan Cemetery with flying eaves, Chinese dragon
decorations and mythical animal statues in Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi
all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 44: Stone and brick sculpture art installation in planting bed in the entrance plaza of
Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved
used by permission).

56

Figure 45: Fengshui Wall with stone carving of ancient human and horse in the entrance
plaza of Haiwanyuan Cemetery with fountain sculpture and large Bonsai in Shanghai,
China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 46: Curved stone paving pathway in graveyard with sculptures and neatly trimmed
plant materials and street trees in Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright
ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).

57

Figure 47: Straight bridge with stone pavement and archway element with plaque linking
one section of graveyard to the others in Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 48: Covered corridor with red architectural elements, medium size rocks, curved
flagstone pathway, and white marble hand railings along the river in Haiwanyuan
Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by
permission).

58

Figure 49: Police Memorial Garden with wall niches, statue of the victims, large rock
miniature mountains and pavilion with flying eaves on the top in Haiwanyuan Cemetery,
Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).

Figure 50: Couple grave with platform and stone eagle statue decoration and arborvitae
trees, pond with dolphin fountains, and miniature mountains on the edge in Haiwanyuan
Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by
permission).

59

Figure 51: Family Grave with stairs and platform, grave and bamboo stone carving
decoration and white marble elephant sculpture in Haiwanyuan Cemetery, Shanghai, China.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).

Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery, established in 1998, is relatively small compare to the other
two cemeteries discussed earlier in the article. It has about 82 acres. It is categorized as Class 1
public cemetery as well in Shanghai. The cemetery is proximate to a famous and influential
Buddhist temple called Hongfu Temple initially established in 1766 during the Qing Dynasty.
Hongfu Temple was relocated in the current location in 1995, and new design kept the original
architectures style to mimic the original buildings. During the early stage of the cemetery
development, Fengshui was greatly concerned. The developer of Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery
invited extremely well respected Fengshui Masters from Taiwan to the site and hired them for
involving in the master plan design; therefore, Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery is perfectly designed
based on Fengshui theory.

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The slogan of Yongfu Cemetery is âPeaceful afterlife for the Decedent, Thriving life for
the Descendantâ. The landscape design of the cemetery is based on traditional Chinese garden.
However, the burial grounds are mainly open lawn with artistic gravestones. There are more than
fifteen different sections of burial grounds with distinctive landscape designs; among all the
sections, there is also a section called Heaven Garden for Christians. The grave sizes vary from
individual grave, couple grave, to large family grave. Some of the graves have vertical built
elements to express the ownerâs high social statues. The site masterplan also shows general grid
form with curvilinear designs in the center landscape garden area. The designed landscape also
includes archways, gazebos, artificial lakes and ponds, fountains, bridges, sculptures and statues,
and large decorative rock miniature mountains.

Figure 52: Fengshui Wall with Chinese dragon carving and red roof with flying eaves in
the entrance plaza of Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017
Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).

61

Figure 53: Small temple with golden statue of Guanyin on the top, large censer in the front,
and the statues of monks along the stone paved straight pathway in Yongfu Yuanling
Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by
permission).

Figure 54: Stone statues of famous ancient scholars along stone paved straight pathway
with golden statue of Guanyin in distance in Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery, Shanghai, China.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).

62

Figure 55: Multiple arched bridges and hand railings with mythical lion decoration
connecting to the entrance archway with red roof and flying eaves of Yongfu Yuanling
Cemetery, Shanghai, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by
permission).

Figure 56: Fountain in the entrance plaza of Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery, Shanghai,China.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).

63

Figure 57: Zig Zag bridge with stone pavement, white marble hand railing, stone hand
railing, stone carving mythical lion decoration, abstract stone carving lotus flower petal
decoration and pavilion with red roof and flying eaves. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all
right reserved used by permission).

64

Figure 58: Pagoda style wall niche with censer and mythical lion decoration, pavilion
covered couple grave, and red roofed architecture in the back. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijin g
Shi all right reserved used by permission).

65

2.1.2.2 Chinese Rural Burial Grounds
The Chinese rural burial grounds, which can also be called as ancestral graves, are the
most distinctive form of burial site studied in this research; the Chinese folk funerary and burial
ritual have been discussed in many researches, however, the appearance, form, and the particular
landscape have not been described in detail in other studies. The rural burial grounds are very
informal family oriented burial mounds, and these mounds burial style can only be seen in the
rural villages now. The bodies are cremated and the ash is put in the urns, and the urns are buried
under the dirt mounds. The mounds are located in family owned woods, hillsides, or agricultural
fields. In this research, the two groups of rural burial grounds are described and studied in detail.
One group is in the rural village in Yancheng, Jiangsu Province. Another one is in the rural field
in Jingjiang, Jiangsu Province.

Figure 59: Location of Yancheng rural ancestral burial ground in Jiangsu Province, China
in relationship to Shanghai, China. (Map data ÂŠ2017 Google).

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Figure 60: Location of Jingjiang rural ancestral burial ground under the administration of
Taizhou in Jiangsu Province, China in relationship to Nanjing, Shanghai, and Ya ncheng,
China. (Map data ÂŠ2017 Google).

The group in Yancheng belongs to the Jiâs family, and it is located in woods setting and it
is relatively small with about ten small dirt mounds. The mounds rise about three feet tall, and
there is a piece of headstone on the top of the mound, and a gravestone in the bottle of each
mound. All the headstones and gravestones have the same in appearance with different
decedent'sâ name and dates. There is no planted vegetation around the mounds. People usually
bring oblations such as food, drink, flower, fake paper money, etc. to the graves when they visit
the graves during the Chinese traditional funerary and burial festivals. However, the time of
visiting for this research was not during any of these festivals, so there is no oblation present at
the bottom of each mound.

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Even though, Fengshui is deeply adopted in Chinese culture, but there is no Fengshui
applied in this particular burial site, since it is the only piece of the Jiâs family owns, and the fact
is unfortunately this piece of land does not meet with the standards of Fengshui. Wealthier
families who own more land usually picks a location that has good Fengshui as the familyâs
ancestral burial grounds. However, ordinary peasant family like the Jiâs family is not wealthy
enough to own many land, therefore, they do not have the opportunity for good Fengshui.

Figure 61: Rural ancestral burial ground of the Jiâs consisting multiple bare dirt mound
grave with uniform gravestone and headstones in woodland setting in Yancheng, Jiangsu
Province, China. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Ziquan Ji all right reserved used by permission).

68

Figure 62: Another view of the Jiâs ancestral burial ground with fresh cut flowers around
one individual grave and agricultural field in the background. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Ziquan Ji
all right reserved used by permission).

The group in Jingjiang belongs to the Xuâs family, and it is in an open agricultural field
setting with fields of bright yellow flowering rapeseed (Brassica napus). Compare to the Jiâs
ancestral burial ground, the Xuâs is a little bit larger, and it is less hidden. The graves are located
along the major pathway in the fields. The graves are still dirt mounds, but they are bigger
mounds raised about four to five feet with two cypresses planted on each side of each individual
mound. There is a bunch of colorful decorative plastic flower on each mound instead of a piece
of headstone. And the gravestones have different styles and have much more formal
appearances. The visit to Xuâs ancestral graves was during the Grave Sweeping Festival in April,
therefore oblations were present at the front of each mound, and people were practicing
thurification burning fake paper money for their ancestors.
Fengshui is not strictly applied to Xuâs ancestral burial ground either, even though there
is small river in front of the Xuâs ancestral burial ground and there is a very small local temple

69

approximate to the site, which brings a little bit of good Fengshui to the graves. The Xuâs is
wealthier compare to the Jiâs, and the Xuâs owns a lot more land compare to the Jiâs, therefore
the Xuâs was able to select this particular spot for the ancestral burial ground for its better
Fengshui with the water in the front and the temple nearby.

Figure 63: Xuâs rural ancestral burial ground consisting group of bare dirt mound graves
with arborvitae trees in agricultural field facing river. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all
right reserved used by permission).

Figure 64: Another view of the Xuâs ancestral burial ground from the back showing the
closer view of the bare dirt mounds with square gravestones and plastic decorative flowers
on the top pf each mound in the rapeseed field. (Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right
reserved used by permission).

70

Figure 65: Detail of one grave of the Xuâs ancestral burial ground during the Grave
Sweeping Festival showing oblations (food, drink, and candle), fresh cut flowers,
thurifications, and burning of paper fake money as part of traditional Chinese ritual.
(Copyright ÂŠ2017 Aijing Shi all right reserved used by permission).

71

2.1.3 Conclusion
After studying the eleven sites from published documents and on-site field trips, there are
many characteristics of the sites are observed. The Western burial sites share many
characteristics in common in terms of site layout and design elements, such as the picturesque
quality, the site plan, and the memorial types. The three types of Chinese burial sites share some
common elements in terms of burial tradition, but overall speaking, the three types are very
different in terms of site layout, design principles and site elements. However, the members
within the same type are very similar and have many elements in common. Therefore, further
statistical analysis is required to compare the eleven selected burials sites, and identify the
similarities and differences among them.
2.2 Data Collection
In order to do a cluster analysis for the research to study the sites using mathematical
statistical results, the research must generate a data table of elements to be used for statistical
analysis. For this research, the elements of all eleven selected cemeteries were chosen based on
literature review, site photos, and field study. When reviewing the published documents of Pere
Lachaise and the two Chinese imperial burial sites in Nanjing, all the design elements are
recorded as candidates of study variables. The same process was done for all the field studies of
the other eight sites. Then all the over two hundred candidates are listed in the spread sheet, and
categorized into several groups based on their different attributes. The attributes include paving,
built structure, plant material, burial element, utility and function, location, design principle and
architectural style. Later, in order to eliminate the length of the list to less than one hundred
variables, the rare ones and the ones with less noticeable features are excluded from the
candidate list.

72

After the eliminate process, 91 elements (variables) are initially used in the study, later
four of the elements were found insignificant for this particular study, therefore was ignored and
discarded in the calculation. All these 91 elements have different attributes of different types of
pavement, built structures, plants, burial elements, utility and functions, location, design
principles, and architectural styles. The following is the list of all 91 variables, and the four with
star symbols (Deciduous Tree, Individual Grave, Square Gravestone, and Memorable Element)
are the ones discarded:
Table 1: The list of all 91 variables include the four insignificant variables labeled with star
symbols.
1. Brick Pavement

2. Asphalt

3. Stone Pavement

4. Special Pattern

5. Compact Soil

6. Pavilion

7. Gazebo

8. Main Service Building

9. Ornamental Wall

10. Metal Sculpture

11. Rock Sculpture

12. Large Rocks

13. Artificial Miniature Mountain

14. Waterfalls

15.
17.
19.
21.

16.
18.
20.
22.

Pond
Archway
Mythical Animal Statue/Decoration
Monk/Buddha/Guanyin Statue

Straight Bridge
Entrance Gateway
Zig Zag Bridge
Christian Cross

23. Arched Bridge

24. Stone Tablet

25. Plaque on Building

26. Sacrifice Hall

27. Public Memorial

28. Pagoda

29. Bonsai

30. Street Tree

31. Ornamental Tree

32. Evergreen Tree

33. Deciduous Tree***

34. Flowering Tree

35. Lawn

36. Bamboo

37. Magnolia

38. Lotus

39. Boxwood Trimmed Animal Sculpture

40. Rose

41. Christian Style Graveyard

42. Bare Dirt Mound

43. Artistic Gravestone

44. Portrait on Gravestone

45. Individual Grave***

46. Family Grave

73

Table 1 (contâd)
47. Couple Grave

51. Grave Sizes Vary with Price

48. Square Gravestone***
50. Ornamental Carving/Decoration on
Gravestone
52. Grave with Platform

53. Stairs to Grave

54. Pavilion Covered Grave

55. Censer for Thurification

56. Oblation (Food, Drink, Fake Paper Money)

57. Memorable Elements***

58. Headstone

59. Fresh Cut Flower

60. Obelisk

61. Wall Niche

62. Small Mausoleum

63. Private Vehicle Access

64. Electric Trolley Only Driveway

65. Curb and Gutter

66. Curved Pathway

67. Straight Sacred Pathway

68. Flower Shop

69. Metal Bucket for Burning

70. Maintenance Service

71. Public Transportation Access

72. Wayfinding System

73. Street Light

74. Flag

75. Graveyard Sections with Different Theme

76. Sub-urban Location

77. Rural Location

78. Naturalness

79. High Visual Enclosure

80. Low Visual Enclosure

81. High Physical Enclosure

82. Low Physical Enclosure

83. Symmetrical Design

84. Asymmetrical Design

85. Fengshui

86. Strict Grid System for Graves

87. Picturesque

88. Flying Eaves

89. Red Architectural Element

90. White Marble Hand Railing

49. Irregular Gravestone

91. Stone Carving Architectural Elements

2.3 Analysis Techniques
Efficiency is the key to statistical analysis; many analysis techniques are invented to
analyze different data with different attributes. Cluster analysis is a simple statistical method
usually used to put objects into clusters based on their similarities and differences (Xu, 2015).
For this research, principal component analysis (PCA) must be done prior to cluster
analysis. The quintessence of PCA is dimension reduction. Large or high dimension means there

74

are a lot of variables, elements or features, and it can be very inefficient to study with. Ideally, if
the high dimensional data can be represented by fewer dimensional data that has better
generalization; then the process of statistical analysis will be a lot more efficient. PCA is an
analysis technique that can the goal of transforming high dimensional data into lower
dimensional representations of the data. The âsmaller set of uncorrelated variablesâ (Xu, 2015)
will show maximum variances.
A statistical analysis software called JMP (Version 13; SAS, 2016) was used for building
PCA. By running the data spreadsheet of all the original elements (variables) in JMP (Version
13; SAS, 2016), the report will then show the result table of the PCA of the research consisting
the list of principal component (PC) with eigenvalue, corresponding percentage (proportion),
cumulative percentage, and differences. The PC with the highest eigenvalue is called first
principal component, which shows as PRIN1 in the result table; the PC with the second highest
eigenvalue is called second principal component, which shows as PRIN2 in the result table; the
rest is sorted by the same manner. Even though the PCA result table will first show the summary
plots of all the PCs, however, only the PCs with the eigenvalue greater than 1.0 is considered
significant and qualify for further analysis uses. The cumulative percentage shows the percentage
of variance that the useful PCs can account for (Xu, 2015).
The JMP (Version 13; SAS, 2016) PCA also presents the table of covariance matrix,
which compares the similarity of every two variables. The variables with the closer coefficients
are more similar. At the same time, the result also has a table of matrix that shows the
relationship between variables and PCs, which are the eigenvector coefficients under each PC
that âindicate the correlationâ among of the variables in each PC. Again, the similar coefficient
means the variables are similar, or vice versa.

75

Cluster analysis also require means and standard deviations of each variable, in order to
calculate standard score of a variable. However, the JMP (Version 13; SAS, 2016) PCA analysis
does not show the means and standard deviations, therefore, means and deviations are calculated
in Excel spreadsheet. Then there are two equations used for the calculations in cluster analysis.
The equations are used by Yiwen Xu (Xu, 2015) for identifying Classical Chinese Gardens
verses Modern Chinese Gardens, and are now adopted to exam the Western and Chinese burial
sites for this research.
Equation 1:
Standard Score of a variable =
Where:

đĽâđĽ mean
đđˇ

X = Value of Each Variable
đĽ đđđđ = Mean of the Variable
SD = Standard Deviation of the Variable
Equation 2:

đĽ1 âđĽ1đđđđ

Cemetery Score = [(

đđˇ1

đĽ2 âđĽ2đđđđ

)đ1 ] + [(

đđˇ2

đđđđ
đĽ87 âđĽ87

)đ2 ] + âŻ + [(

đđˇ87

)đ87 ]

Where:
Xn = Value of Each Variable
Xnmean = Mean of the Variable
SDn = Standard Deviation of the Variable
kn = Principal Component Coefficient of Each Variable
After calculating with Equation 2, each cemetery will have a score under each PC. The
final step of cluster analysis is to plot the scatter graph to show the clustering of the cemeteries.

76

Because PRIN1 and PRIN2 have the highest eigenvalue, so the cemetery scores of principal
component one and principal component two are used for plotting graph (Xu, 2015). Scores of
principal component one are on horizontal axis, and scores of principal component two are on
vertical axis. The two dimensions used for plotting scatter graph can be named after the feature
associate variables with the highest absolute value of eigenvector from the PCA results table.
The cemeteries can form into several clusters on the scatter graph, and the cemeteries in a cluster
means they are more similar compare to the ones in another cluster, or the ones do not belong to
any cluster.

77

CHAPTER 3: RESULTS
In table 2, it displays the existence of the 91 selected elements (variables) in the eleven
study burial sites. If the element is present in the burial site; it gets a score of 1; otherwise, it gets
a score of 0. Among all the 91 elements (variables), four of them (deciduous Tree, individual
grave, square gravestone, and memorable element) are insignificant for this study as discussed
earlier, because they are present in all eleven burial sites therefore they all have a score of 1 in
the study and is not eligible for PCA.
Table 2: List of burial site elements and existence in eleven burial sites.
Western Burial Sites

Chinese Public
Cemeteries

Chinese
Imperial
Tombs

Chinese
Rural
Burials

Binhai Guyuan

Haiwanyuan

Yongfu Yuanling

Jingjiang Burial

North

Yancheng Burial

Evergreen

Sun's Tomb

Mt. Hope

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

Asphalt

0

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

Stone Pavement

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Special Pattern

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

Compact Soil

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

Pavilion

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Gazebo

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Main Service Building

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Ornamental Wall

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

Metal Sculpture

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Rock Sculpture

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Large Rock

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

Artificial Miniature Mountain

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Waterfall

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Pond

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

78

Xiaoling Tomb

Pere Lachaise

Brick Pavement

Table 2 (contâd)
Straight Bridge

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

Archway

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Entrance Gateway
Mythical Animal
Statue/Decoration

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Zig Zag Bridge
Monk/Buddha/Guanyin
Statue

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Christian Cross

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Arched Bridge

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Stone Tablet

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Plaque on Building

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Sacrifice Hall

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

Public Memorial

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Pagoda

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

Bonsai

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Street Tree

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Ornamental Tree

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Evergreen

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

1

Deciduous

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Flowering Tree

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Lawn

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Bamboo

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Magnolia

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Lotus

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Boxwood Animal Sculpture

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

Rose

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Christian Style Graveyard

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Bare Dirt Mound

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

Artistic Gravestone

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Portrait on Gravestone

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Individual Grave

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Family Grave

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

Couple Grave

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

Square Gravestone

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Irregular Gravestone
Ornamental
Carving/Decoration on
Gravestone

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

79

Table 2 (contâd)
Grave Sizes Vary with Price

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Grave with Platform

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Stairs to Grave

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Pavilion Covered Grave

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Censer
Oblation (food, drink, fake
paper money)

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

Memorable Element

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Headstone

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

Fresh Cut Flower

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

Obelisk

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Wall Niche

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Small Mausoleum

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Private Vehicle Access
Electric Trolley Only
Driveway

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Curb and Gutter

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Curved Pathway

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Straight Sacred Pathway

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Flower shop

1

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Metal Bucket for Burning

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

Maintenance Service

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Public Transportation Access

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Wayfinding System

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Street Light

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Flag
Graveyard Sections with
Different Theme

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

Sub-urban Location

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Rural

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

Naturalness

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

High Visual Enclosure

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

1

0

Low Visual Enclosure

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

High Physical Enclosure

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

Low Physical Enclosure

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

Symmetrical Design

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Asymmetrical Design

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

Fengshui

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

Strict Grid System for Graves

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

80

Table 2 (contâd)
Picturesque

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

Flying Eaves

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

Red Architectural Element

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

White Marble Hand Railings
Stone Carving Architectural
Elements

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

In order to standardize the variables for running PCA, Equation 1 is used to standardize
the variables. First step is to calculate mean and standard deviation of all values using Excel
spreadsheet. Second step is to use Equation 1 to calculate the standard score of each variable.
The mean and standard deviation of all variables are listed in Table 3, the standard scores of four
Western cemeteries are listed in Table 4, and the standard scores of seven Chinese burial sites
are listed in Table 5.
Table 3: Means and standard deviation of each variables.
Variables:

Mean:

Std. Dev.

Brick Pavement
Asphalt
Stone Pavement
Special Pattern
Compact Soil
Pavilion
Gazebo
Main Service Building
Ornamental Wall
Metal Sculpture
Rock Sculpture
Large Rock
Artificial Miniature Mountain
Waterfall
Pond
Straight Bridge
Archway
Entrance Gateway
Mythical Animal Statue/Decoration

0.454545455
0.454545455
0.545454545
0.363636364
0.272727273
0.272727273
0.272727273
0.636363636
0.363636364
0.636363636
0.818181818
0.363636364
0.272727273
0.272727273
0.272727273
0.363636364
0.545454545
0.636363636
0.454545455

0.522232968
0.522232968
0.522232968
0.504524979
0.467099366
0.467099366
0.467099366
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.404519917
0.504524979
0.467099366
0.467099366
0.467099366
0.504524979
0.522232968
0.504524979
0.522232968

81

Table 3 (contâd)
Zig Zag Bridge
Monk/Buddha/Guanyin Statue
Christian Cross
Arched Bridge
Stone Tablet
Plaque on Building
Sacrifice Hall
Public Memorial
Pagoda
Bonsai
Street Tree
Ornamental Tree
Evergreen
Flowering Tree
Lawn
Bamboo
Magnolia
Lotus
Boxwood Animal Sculpture
Rose
Christian Style Graveyard
Bare Dirt Mound
Artistic Gravestone
Portrait on Gravestone
Family Grave
Couple Grave
Irregular Gravestone
Ornamental Carving/Decoration on Gravestone
Grave Sizes Vary with Price
Grave with Platform
Stairs to Grave
Pavilion Covered Grave
Censer
Oblation (food, drink, fake paper money)
Headstone
Fresh Cut Flower
Obelisk
Wall Niche
Small Mausoleum

0.272727273
0.272727273
0.636363636
0.272727273
0.454545455
0.454545455
0.181818182
0.545454545
0.181818182
0.272727273
0.818181818
0.818181818
0.636363636
0.636363636
0.636363636
0.272727273
0.272727273
0.272727273
0.272727273
0.363636364
0.636363636
0.181818182
0.636363636
0.636363636
0.818181818
0.909090909
0.636363636
0.636363636
0.636363636
0.636363636
0.727272727
0.636363636
0.636363636
0.454545455
0.181818182
0.818181818
0.363636364
0.545454545
0.363636364

82

0.467099366
0.467099366
0.504524979
0.467099366
0.522232968
0.522232968
0.404519917
0.522232968
0.404519917
0.467099366
0.404519917
0.404519917
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.467099366
0.467099366
0.467099366
0.467099366
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.404519917
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.404519917
0.301511345
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.467099366
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.522232968
0.404519917
0.404519917
0.504524979
0.522232968
0.504524979

Table 3 (contâd)
Private Vehicle Access
Electric Trolley Only Driveway
Curb and Gutter
Curved Pathway
Straight Sacred Pathway
Flower Shop
Metal Bucket for Burning
Maintenance Service
Public Transportation Access
Wayfinding System
Street Light
Flag
Graveyard Sections with Different Theme
Sub-urban Location
Rural
Naturalness
High Visual Enclosure
Low Visual Enclosure
High Physical Enclosure
Low Physical Enclosure
Symmetrical Design
Asymmetrical Design
Fengshui
Strict Grid System for Grave
Picturesque
Flying Eave
Red Architectural Element
White Marble Hand Railing
Stone Carving Architectural Element

0.272727273
0.272727273
0.363636364
0.636363636
0.454545455
0.454545455
0.454545455
0.818181818
0.545454545
0.636363636
0.272727273
0.545454545
0.363636364
0.727272727
0.363636364
0.454545455
0.545454545
0.909090909
0.454545455
0.909090909
0.545454545
0.818181818
0.545454545
0.636363636
0.818181818
0.454545455
0.363636364
0.545454545
0.545454545

0.467099366
0.467099366
0.504524979
0.504524979
0.522232968
0.522232968
0.522232968
0.404519917
0.522232968
0.504524979
0.467099366
0.522232968
0.504524979
0.467099366
0.504524979
0.522232968
0.522232968
0.301511345
0.522232968
0.301511345
0.522232968
0.404519917
0.522232968
0.504524979
0.404519917
0.522232968
0.504524979
0.522232968
0.522232968

Table 4: Standardized Score of Variables of the Western Cemeteries.

Brick Pavement

Pere Lachaise
Cemetery
1.04447

Mt. Hope
Cemetery
-0.87039

Evergreen
Cemetery
-0.87039

North
Cemetery
-0.87039

Asphalt

-0.87039

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

Stone Pavement

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

Special Pattern

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Compact Soil

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Pavilion

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

83

Table 4 (contâd)
Gazebo

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Main Service Building

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Ornamental Walls

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Metal Sculptures

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Rock Sculptures

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

Large Rocks
Artificial Miniature
Mountains

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Waterfalls

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Pond

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Straight Bridge

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Archway

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

Entrance Gateway
Mythical Animal
Statues/Decorations

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

Zig Zag Bridge
Monk/Buddha/Guanyin
Statue

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Christian Cross

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Arched bridge

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Stone Tablet

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

Plaque on Building

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

Sacrifice Hall

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

Public Memorial

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

Pagoda

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

Bonsai

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Street Tree

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

Ornamental Tree

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

Evergreens

-1.26131

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Flowering Tree

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Lawn

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Bamboo

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Magnolia

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Lotus
Boxwood Animal
Sculpture

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Rose
Christian Style
Graveyard

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Bare Dirt Mound

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

84

Table 4 (contâd)
Artistic Gravestone

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Portrait on Gravestone

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Family Grave

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

Couple Grave

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

Irregular Gravestone
Ornamental
Carving/Decoration on
Gravestone
Grave Sizes Vary with
Price

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Grave with Platform

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Stairs to Grave
Pavilion Covered
Grave

0.58387

0.58387

0.58387

-1.55700

-1.26131

-1.26131

0.72075

0.72075

Censer
Oblation (food, drink,
fake paper money)

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

Headstone

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

Fresh Cut Flower

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

Obelisk

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

Wall Niche

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

Small Mausoleum

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

Private Vehicle Access
Electric Trolley Only
Driveway

-0.58387

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Curb and Gutter

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Curved Pathway
Straight Sacred
Pathway

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

Flower shop
Metal Bucket for
Burning

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

Maintenance Service
Public Transportation
Access

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

Wayfinding System

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Street Light

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Flag
Graveyard Sections
with Different Theme

-1.04447

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-0.72075

-0.72075

1.26131

-0.72075

Sub-urban Location

-1.55700

0.58387

0.58387

0.58387

Rural

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

85

Table 4 (contâd)
Naturalness

-0.87039

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

High Visual Enclosure

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

Low Visual Enclosure
High Physical
Enclosure
Low Physical
Enclosure

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

Symmetrical Design

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

Asymmetrical Design

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

Fengshui
Strict Grid System for
Graves

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

Picturesque

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

Flying eaves
Red Architectural
Element
White Marble Hand
Railings
Stone Carving
architectural elements

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

Table 5: Standardized Score of Variables of the Chinese Burial Sites.
Binhai Guyuan
Cemetery

Haiwanyuan
Cemetery

Yongfu Yuanling
Cemetery

Xiaoling Tomb

Sunâs Tomb

Yancheng Burial

Jingjiang Burial

Brick Pavement

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

Asphalt

-0.87039

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

Stone Pavement

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

Special Pattern

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Compact Soil

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

1.55700

-0.58387

1.55700

1.55700

Pavilion

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Gazebo
Main Service
Building

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Ornamental Walls

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Metal Sculptures

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Rock Sculptures

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

-2.02260

-2.02260

Large Rocks

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

86

Table 5 (contâd)
Artificial Miniature
Mountains

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Waterfalls

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Pond

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Straight Bridge

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Archway

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

Entrance Gateway
Mythical Animal
Statues/Decorations

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

Zig Zag Bridge
Monk/Buddha/Guan
yin Statue

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Christian Cross

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Arched bridge

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Stone Tablet

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

Plaque on Building

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

Sacrifice Hall

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

2.02260

2.02260

-0.44947

-0.44947

Public Memorial

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

Pagoda

-0.44947

2.02260

2.02260

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

Bonsai

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Street Tree

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

-2.02260

-2.02260

Ornamental Tree

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

-2.02260

-2.02260

Evergreens

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

0.72075

Flowering Tree

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Lawn

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Bamboo

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Magnolia

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Lotus
Boxwood Animal
Sculpture

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Rose
Christian Style
Graveyard

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Bare Dirt Mound

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

2.02260

2.02260

Artistic Gravestone
Portrait on
Gravestone

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Family Grave

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

-2.02260

-2.02260

0.44947

0.44947

Couple Grave
Irregular
Gravestone

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

-3.01511

0.30151

0.30151

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

87

Table 5 (contâd)
Ornamental
Carving/Decoration
on Gravestone
Grave Sizes Vary
with Price

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Grave with Platform

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Stairs to Grave
Pavilion Covered
Grave

0.58387

0.58387

0.58387

0.58387

0.58387

-1.55700

-1.55700

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

Censer
Oblation (food,
drink, fake paper
money)

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

1.04447

1.04447

Headstone

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

-0.44947

2.02260

2.02260

Fresh Cut Flower

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

-2.02260

-2.02260

0.44947

0.44947

Obelisk

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Wall Niche

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

Small Mausoleum
Private Vehicle
Access
Electric Trolley
Only Driveway

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Curb and Gutter

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Curved Pathway
Straight Sacred
Pathway

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

Flower shop
Metal Bucket for
Burning
Maintenance
Service
Public
Transportation
Access

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

1.04447

1.04447

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

-2.02260

-2.02260

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

Wayfinding System

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Street Light

1.55700

1.55700

1.55700

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

-0.58387

Flag
Graveyard Sections
with Different
Theme

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

-1.04447

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

Sub-urban Location

0.58387

0.58387

0.58387

0.58387

0.58387

-1.55700

-1.55700

Rural

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

Naturalness

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

1.04447

1.04447

88

Table 5 (contâd)
High Visual
Enclosure
Low Visual
Enclosure
High Physical
Enclosure
Low Physical
Enclosure

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

0.87039

-1.04447

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

-3.01511

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

-0.87039

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

-3.01511

0.30151

0.30151

0.30151

Symmetrical Design
Asymmetrical
Design

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

-2.02260

-2.02260

0.44947

0.44947

Fengshui
Strict Grid System
for Graves

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

0.87039

0.72075

0.72075

0.72075

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

-1.26131

Picturesque

0.44947

0.44947

0.44947

-2.02260

-2.02260

0.44947

0.44947

Flying eaves
Red Architectural
Element
White Marble Hand
Railings
Stone Carving
architectural
elements

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

1.04447

-0.87039

-0.87039

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

1.26131

-0.72075

-0.72075

-0.72075

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

0.87039

-1.04447

-1.04447

After calculating the standard scores of all variables, the data sheet is now ready for
running PCA. Then the eigenvalues are listed in Table 6 and the PCA coefficients of all
significant variables are listed in Table 7.
Table 6 presents the eigenvalues for the 87 significant elements from the JMP (Version
13; SAS, 2016) software, there are total of ten principal component eigenvalue calculated from
the software; however, only the first six have the eigenvalues greater than 1. Therefore, only the
first six principal components are eligible for further statistical analysis. The eigenvalues for the
first six principal components are later used to calculate principal component coefficient for each
variable. The first six principal component makes up 98 percent of the variance; where the first
principal component contains 44.982 percent as the primary candidate, and the second principal

89

component contains 28.559 percent as the secondary candidate for further analysis when plotting
cluster analysis scatter graph.
Table 7 presents the coefficients that will be later used in Equation 2 to calculate the
standard scores of all eleven burial sites. The variables have the coefficients with the highest
absolute values in Principal Component 1 and Principal Component 2 are later used for naming
the dimensions used for plotting scatter graph as discussed earlier. And the variables have the
coefficients greater than 0.7 and smaller than -0.4 are considered as distinguishable variables,
which will be discussed later in the Discussion Chapter.
Table 6: Principal component Analysis eigenvalues of the covariance matrix from JMP
(Version 13; SAS, 2016) software.
Number

Eigenvalue

Percent

Cum Percent

Differences

PRIN1
PRIN2
PRIN3
PRIN4
PRIN5
PRIN6
PRIN7
PRIN8
PRIN9
PRIN10

39.1341
24.8467
12.1856
4.8637
3.0877
1.1432
0.7143
0.4983
0.3406
0.1858

44.982
28.559
14.006
5.59
3.549
1.314
0.821
0.573
0.392
0.214

44.982
73.541
87.548
93.138
96.687
98.001
98.822
99.395
99.786
100

3715.96
3706.27
3668.22
3605.64
3529.83
3451.23
3370.39
3289.61
3209.25
3130.07

Table 7: Principal component Analysis coefficient for each significant variable from JMP
(Version 13; SAS, 2016) software.
Variables

Prin1

Prin2

Prin3

Prin4

Prin5

Prin6

Brick Pavement

0.74751

-0.39342

-0.07199

-0.41937

0.31379

-0.01982

Asphalt

0.41403

0.59595

-0.07531

0.51913

0.08559

0.00404

Stone Pavement

0.61274

-0.62451

-0.31823

-0.33708

-0.12585

-0.02094

Special Pattern

0.74705

-0.53993

0.05207

0.12321

0.36254

0.00128

Compact Soil

-0.63589

-0.47046

0.39113

-0.05125

0.46519

0.02963

Pavilion

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

Gazebo

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

Main Service Building

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Ornamental Wall

0.74705

-0.53993

0.05207

0.12321

0.36254

0.00128

90

Table 7 (contâd)
Metal Sculpture

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Rock Sculpture

0.62118

0.13523

-0.76737

0.07513

-0.01261

-0.02618

Large Rock
Artificial Miniature
Mountain
Waterfall

0.74705

-0.53993

0.05207

0.12321

0.36254

0.00128

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

Pond

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

Straight Bridge

0.74705

-0.53993

0.05207

0.12321

0.36254

0.00128

Archway

0.61274

-0.62451

-0.31823

-0.33708

-0.12585

-0.02094

Entrance Gateway
Mythical Animal
Statue/Decoration
Zig Zag Bridge
Monk/Buddha/Guanyin
Statue
Christian Cross

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

0.58695

-0.75272

-0.19594

0.20132

-0.0894

0.00012

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Arched Bridge

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

Stone Tablet

0.58695

-0.75272

-0.19594

0.20132

-0.0894

0.00012

Plaque on Building

0.58695

-0.75272

-0.19594

0.20132

-0.0894

0.00012

Sacrifice Hall

-0.28707

-0.70635

-0.63363

0.1222

-0.04302

0.00659

Public Memorial

0.75706

0.41543

-0.02084

-0.18474

-0.02022

0.46814

Pagoda

0.70437

-0.1721

0.25931

0.15989

-0.03938

0.00436

Bonsai

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

Street Tree

0.62118

0.13523

-0.76737

0.07513

-0.01261

-0.02618

Ornamental Tree

0.62118

0.13523

-0.76737

0.07513

-0.01261

-0.02618

Evergreen

0.45402

0.48898

0.33049

0.53918

0.04209

0.01458

Flowering Tree

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Lawn

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Bamboo

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

Magnolia

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

Lotus
Boxwood Animal
Sculpture
Rose

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

0.63238

-0.01209

0.08221

-0.57921

-0.09332

-0.03878

0.86442

-0.08008

0.17863

-0.44688

-0.09577

-0.02696

Christian Style Graveyard

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Bare Dirt Mound

-0.62118

-0.13523

0.76737

-0.07513

0.01261

0.02618

Artistic Gravestone

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Portrait on Gravestone

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Family Grave

0.28707

0.70635

0.63363

-0.1222

0.04302

-0.00659

Couple Grave

0.23343

0.40026

0.42651

-0.14253

0.76148

0.00194

91

Table 7 (contâd)
Irregular Gravestone
Ornamental
carving/decoration on
Gravestone
Grave Sizes Vary with
Price
Grave with Platform

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Stairs to Grave

0.59781

-0.14726

-0.57204

-0.10072

-0.05986

0.5291

Pavilion Covered Grave

0.51839

-0.28124

-0.39163

0.52169

-0.01201

-0.25609

Censer
Oblation (food, drink, fake
paper money)
Headstone

0.10951

-0.88756

0.41245

0.14815

-0.08243

0.02111

0.32816

-0.31032

0.88927

0.04847

-0.04631

0.01529

-0.62118

-0.13523

0.76737

-0.07513

0.01261

0.02618

Fresh Cut Flower

0.28707

0.70635

0.63363

-0.1222

0.04302

-0.00659

Obelisk

-0.10951

0.88756

-0.41245

-0.14815

0.08243

-0.02111

Wall Niche

0.75706

0.41543

-0.02084

-0.18474

-0.02022

0.46814

Small Mausoleum

-0.10951

0.88756

-0.41245

-0.14815

0.08243

-0.02111

Private Vehicle Access
Electric Trolley Only
Driveway
Curb and Gutter

-0.14711

0.81533

-0.30877

0.44193

0.12979

0.00074

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

0.86442

-0.08008

0.17863

-0.44688

-0.09577

-0.02696

Curved Pathway

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Straight Sacred Pathway

0.58695

-0.75272

-0.19594

0.20132

-0.0894

0.00012

Flower shop

0.78157

0.15909

0.08982

-0.28345

-0.04875

-0.51956

Metal Bucket for Burning

0.32816

-0.31032

0.88927

0.04847

-0.04631

0.01529

Maintenance Service
Public Transportation
Access
Wayfinding System

0.62118

0.13523

-0.76737

0.07513

-0.01261

-0.02618

0.61274

-0.62451

-0.31823

-0.33708

-0.12585

-0.02094

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

Street Light

0.90485

-0.22984

0.32967

0.11926

-0.06269

-0.00557

Flag
Graveyard Sections with
Different Theme
Sub-urban Location

0.67774

0.52368

0.0187

0.50194

0.06001

-0.00433

0.80397

0.04035

0.20206

0.27023

-0.02284

0.24946

0.50913

-0.02623

-0.52783

0.66702

0.02984

0.00087

Rural

-0.72822

-0.67477

0.10723

0.03774

-0.02439

0.02627

Naturalness

-0.61274

0.62451

0.31823

0.33708

0.12585

0.02094

High Visual Enclosure

0.50547

-0.44689

0.22183

-0.49652

0.34291

-0.01795

Low Visual Enclosure

0.15172

0.54741

0.42359

-0.02141

-0.70376

-0.01078

High Physical Enclosure

0.74751

-0.39342

-0.07199

-0.41937

0.31379

-0.01982

Low Physical Enclosure

0.15172

0.54741

0.42359

-0.02141

-0.70376

-0.01078

Symmetrical Design

0.61274

-0.62451

-0.31823

-0.33708

-0.12585

-0.02094

92

Table 7 (contâd)
Asymmetrical Design

0.28707

0.70635

0.63363

-0.1222

0.04302

-0.00659

Fengshui
Strict Grid System for
Grave
Picturesque

0.34784

-0.80399

0.10464

0.22028

-0.10874

0.01853

0.72822

0.67477

-0.10723

-0.03774

0.02439

-0.02627

0.28707

0.70635

0.63363

-0.1222

0.04302

-0.00659

Flying Eave

0.58695

-0.75272

-0.19594

0.20132

-0.0894

0.00012

Red Architectural Element
White Marble Hand
Railing
Stone Carving
Architectural Element

0.74705

-0.53993

0.05207

0.12321

0.36254

0.00128

0.61274

-0.62451

-0.31823

-0.33708

-0.12585

-0.02094

0.61274

-0.62451

-0.31823

-0.33708

-0.12585

-0.02094

Then, the burial scores of all eleven selected sites can be calculated with Equation 2
explained earlier in the Methodology section of the article, using variable value (0 or 1 from
Table 2), means (from Table 3), standard deviations (from Table 3), and principal component
coefficients (from Table 7). The scores of all eleven burial sites in principal component 1 to 6 are
listed in table 8. The example calculation illustrates how the calculation is done with Equation 2;
the score of Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Principal component 1 can be calculated as:
Cemetery Score = [(

đĽ1 âđĽ1đđđđ
đđˇ1

1â0.54545454
0.52223

đđˇ2

đđđđ
đĽ87 âđĽ87

)đ2 ] + âŻ + [(

đđˇ87

1â0.45454545

0â0.45454545

0.52223

0.52223

Cemetery Score = [(
[(

đĽ2 âđĽ2đđđđ

)đ1 ] + [(

)Ă 0.7451] + [(

)đ87 ]

)Ă 0.41403] + âŻ +

)Ă 0.61274] = 5.26977546

Table 8: Burial Sites Scores in First Six Principal components.

Pere Lachaise Cemetery

PRIN1
Score
5.270

PRIN2
Score
16.636

PRIN3
Score
-7.782

PRIN4
Score
-13.675

PRIN5
Score
-0.588

PRIN6
Score
-0.126

Mt. Hope Cemetery

-9.286

32.211

-5.966

2.352

0.618

1.482

Evergreen Cemetery

-6.665

31.733

-6.342

3.922

0.5481

1.469

North Cemetery
Binhai Guyuan
Cemetery

-10.941

30.682

-5.266

3.767

0.706

-2.946

53.896

-9.3774

5.982

-0.437

-0.412

-0.050

93

Table 8 (contâd)
Haiwanyuan Cemetery
Yongfu Yuanling
Cemetery

56.430

-8.662

6.479

0.953

-0.346

-0.031

55.076

-8.636

6.303

2.193

-0.146

0.052

Xiaoling Tomb

-17.902

-41.010

-15.563

0.314

6.552

0.037

Sunâs Tomb

-27.543

-29.986

-15.670

2.090

-7.090

-0.007

Yancheng Rural Burial

-49.467

-6.939

18.698

-1.960

0.470

0.011

Jingjiang Rural Burial

-48.869

-6.653

19.128

0.482

-0.312

0.110

94

CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION
4.1 Scatter Graph and Distinguishable Variables
After all the burial site scores are calculated, the final step of the statistical analysis is to
plot scatter graph of the calculation results. Scatter graph is the final step of cluster analysis that
plots results into visually identifiable clusters. Since the first two principal component can
already account for 73 percent of the variance of the study, the study will use the scores in the
first two principal components as representatives for further analysis. Therefore, the scores in
principal component 1 and principle 2 are used to plot the scatter graph, where the scores in
principal component 1 are plotted on horizontal axis, and the scores in principal component 2 are
plotted on vertical axis. As discussed earlier, the two dimensions can be named after the
distinguishable variables, which are the variables with the high absolute value of coefficients in
Principal Component 1 and Principal Component 2. Therefore, the Principal Component 1
dimension can be named as the âPavilion, Miniature Mountain, and Bridge Dimensionâ.
Principal Component 2 dimension can be named as the âCenser, Sacred Way, and Fengshui
Dimensionâ. And according to the scatter graph show in figure 62, the result already clearly
reveals calculation results in clusters; thus, the study can use the scatter graph of scores in the
first two principal components as representatives for further analysis and explanations.
The scatter graph in figure 62 shows that the eleven burial sites can are distributed into
four clusters. When looking at the âPavilion, Miniature Mountain, and Bridge Dimensionâ, the
eleven burial sites can be divided into positive and negative ranges. There are four burial sites in
the positive range, which are Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Binhai Guyuan Cemetery, Haiwanyuan
Cemetery, and Yongfu Yuanling Cemetery. The rest of the burial sites are all in the negative
range, which are Mt. Hope Cemetery, Evergreen Cemetery, North Cemetery, Yancheng Burial,

95

Jingjiang Burial, Xiaoling Tomb, and Sunâs Tomb. Thus, principal component 1 can be used to
analyze the relationships among all these burial sites considering the differences and similarities
within culture and cross culture. The âCenser, Sacred Way, and Fengshui Dimensionâ divides
the eleven burial sites into two groups. All the Western burial sites are in the positive range of
the vertical axis, where all the Chinese burial sites are in the negative range of the vertical axis.
Therefore, principal component 2 can be used to identify the differences between the Western
burial sites and the Chinese burial sites.

Figure 66: A scatter graph of the relationships among all eleven selected burial sites based
on the scores from principal component 1 (Horizontal Axis: Pavilion, Miniature Mountain,
and Bridge Dimension) and principal component 2 (Vertical Axis: Censer, Sacred Way,
and Fengshui Dimension).

96

The distinguishable variables that has coefficients greater than 0.7 and smaller than -0.4
in Principal Component 1are listed in Table 9. The distinguishable variables that has coefficients
greater 0.7 and smaller than -0.4 in Principal Component 2 are listed in Table 10. These
distinguishable variables are what make the burial sites score very high or very low, which make
the burial sites spread into clusters based on the two dimensions.
Table 9: List of distinguishable variables in Principal Component 1.
Coefficient Greater than 0.7

Coefficient Smaller than -0.4

Brick Pavement

Compact Soil

Special Pattern Paving

Bare Dirt Mound

Pavilion

Headstone

Gazebo

Rural Location

Main Service Building

Naturalness

Ornamental Wall
Metal Sculpture
Large Rock
Artificial Miniature Mountain
Waterfall
Pond
Straight Bridge
Entrance Gateway
Zig Zag Bridge
Monk/Buddha/Guanyin Statue
Christian Cross
Arched Bridge
Public Memorial
Pagoda
Bonsai
Flowering Tree
Lawn
Bamboo
Magnolia
Lotus
Rose
Christian Style Graveyard
Artistic Gravestone

97

Table 9 (contâd)
Portrait on Gravestone
Irregular Gravestone
Ornamental Carving/Decoration on Gravestone
Grave Size Vary with Price
Grave with Platform
Wall Niche
Electric Trolley Only Driveway
Curb and Gutter
Curved Pathway
Flower shop
Wayfinding System
Street Light
Graveyard Sections with Different Theme
High Physical Enclosure
Strict Grid System for Grave
Red Architectural Element

Table 10: List of distinguishable variables in Principal Component 2.
Coefficient Greater than 0.7
Family Grave
Fresh Cut Flower
Obelisk
Small mausoleum
Private Vehicle Access
Asymmetrical Design
Picturesque

Coefficient Smaller than -0.4
Stone Pavement
Special Pattern Paving
Compact Soil
Ornamental Wall
Large Rock
Straight Bridge
Archway
Mythical Animal Statue/Decoration
Stone Tablet
Plaque on Building
Sacrifice Hall
Censer
Straight Sacred Pathway
Public Transportation Access
Rural Location
High Visual Enclosure
Symmetrical Design
Fengshui
Flying Eave

98

4.2 Comparison of Burial Sites and Burial Site Elements
The most obvious differences between Western and Chinese burial sites is that the four
Western cemeteries have similar scores, where the Chinese burial sites scored differently and
dividing them into three groups. The Western cemeteries scored similarly, meaning they are
similar in their environmental, landscape, and architectural style even though they are different
in sizes and location. Within the Western Cemetery group, the three American cemeteries in
Michigan are clustered relatively closer to each other, showing the three Michigan cemeteries are
even more similar and on the other hand, the Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris is relatively
different. This phenomenon can be explained with previous literature review information. Pere
Lachaise is the parent of American rural romantic style cemeteries, which means the American
cemeteries adopted the design of Pere Lachaise with some American modifications to suit the
American society better with distinguishing American history, culture, taste, preference, and
functions. The major differences between Pere Lachaise and the three Michigan cemeteries is
that the three Michigan cemeteries are much more simple and open with less design elements
and features. For example, the Michigan cemeteries have much simpler pavement style, less
architectural elements such as stone archway, and less complex plant material composition.
The Chinese burial sites are divided into three groups; where the three Chinese public
cemeteries in Shanghai are clustered very close to each other, the two Chinese rural ancestral
graveyards are clustered very close, and the two Chinese imperial tombs are clustered relatively
close, but apparently not as close as the members of the other groups. This is an interesting
phenomenon because the result shows even though these seven sites are all Chinese burial sites,
they are developed and influenced by different historical social and cultural background, school
of philosophies, and resource limitations. The three public cemeteries in Shanghai scored very

99

high in principal component 1 because the three sites had all the positive coefficient and they do
not associate with any negative coefficient elements in principal component 1. The two rural
ancestral graveyards are the total opposite of the public cemeteries in Shanghai; the rural
ancestral graveyards included all the negative coefficient elements but have very little
association with the positive coefficient elements in principal component 1. The two Chinese
imperial tombs are relatively different. They have the similar structure as imperial tombs, such as
the stairs, the symmetrical design, the sacrifice hall, the stone animal statues, and the stone
tablet; but they are also significantly influenced by different social context within the particular
time frame. The Xiaoling Tomb is a classical example of traditional Chinese imperial tombs for
emperors. On the other hand, Sunâs Tomb is relatively a modern design for imperial tomb due to
the characteristics of Sun. Sun is the founding father of the modern China; so, the design of
Sunâs Tomb follows the wishes of Sun, which is towards Western-influenced modern design.
Therefore, the design of Sunâs Tomb still follows the classical structure of an imperial tomb, but
it purposely avoided many symbolisms that are used in traditional royal Chinese imperial tomb
designs as the representative of rejecting the old feudal society.
After discussing the broader differences and similarities among all these eleven burial
sites, the focus of the discussion is to discuss the similarities and differences of the three public
cemeteries in Shanghai as compare to the other eight burial sites in the study to provide a better
understanding of the design and development of the modern Chinese public cemetery.
The modern Chinese public cemeteries are unique existence; because they are where the Chinese
traditional landscape designs and Western influences fuse together. These three cemeteries are
very similar, which share the same design layout, design elements, and concepts. Generally
speaking, they are carefully designed with Chinese traditional landscape and garden design

100

principles with various landscape and architecture elements can be seen in traditional Chinese
gardens to enhance the beauty of the site and to create a place for not only mourning but also joy,
such as miniature mountain and waterfall, decorative walls, gazebos, bonsai, pond, zig zag
bridges, etc. The design of the three public cemeteries also strictly follows the principle of
Fengshui, which is the primary design principle of the Chinese imperial tombs. The modern
design mimic the elements used for Chinese imperial tombs to create good Fengshui and
generate the sense of solemnity and respect. For example, they consist the sequence of a long
sacred way with stone animal statues along the way, the grand entrance archway with the stone
plaque on the top, the large stone tablet right after the archway and the bridges that connect to
the actual burial site.
Besides, due to the distinctive historical background of Shanghai as discussed in the
literature review, the culture and tradition in Shanghai have been incredibly integrated with
Western culture. Therefore, the three public cemeteries also adopt many Western design layouts,
principles, functions, and even religious practices regarding environmental, landscape, and
architectural style. There are mainly two categories of design that are adopted from the Western
and now has become the fusion culture in the three public cemeteries; they are the master plan
layout and the evolved graveyard style.
First, the master plan layout of the cemeteries is based on the grid system, which is
similar with the four Western cemeteries. The traditional layout for Chinese imperial tombs is
linear symmetrical design. However, the three public do not apply such design form throughout
the whole site; the only adopted part of the linear symmetrical design is the long sacred way with
animal statues. The traditional Chinese landscape and garden design are based on irregular,
asymmetrical designs with diverse elements installed in a complex form to create the sense of

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mystery and discovering within and through different places. However, the three public
cemeteries do not apply such form throughout the site either; the irregular Chinese garden style
design can be seen in a very small portion of the cemeteries for the purpose of garden aesthetic
and recreation. The fact is that the three public cemeteries use grid form rectangular design
incorporate with curvy pathways to distribute the large site into smaller manageable sections,
which is the form the Western cemeteries use for cemetery master plan design. The grid form
design makes the large site very manageable and also helps locate each grave as part of the
wayfinding system that has the purpose of encouraging individualism as discussed earlier in the
literature review.
Second, there are plenty of Western-styles built, and design elements throughout the
cemeteries and the Western thoughts, philosophies, and religions are percolating into the design
and development of the graveyards. Western style design elements include metal sculptures, the
use of entrance gate instead of grand archway like the ones in imperial tombs in several places,
and the use of open lawn graveyards. Well established wayfinding signage system similar to
large park wayfinding system throughout the site is also one design and functional element that
has been adopted from the Western culture. The Western philosophy of being unique to express
the idea of self and individualism has also influenced the development of the graveyards
significantly, especially on the artistic customizable irregular gravestones. There cemeteries offer
services to find the type of stone customers want to use, and offers carving and landscaping
services; therefore, most of the gravestones are all different in texture, color, shape, and
decorative carvings. The decorative carvings are where personality and characteristics took
place. Some gravestones have carved portraits or profile of people; some have carved landscape
paintings, and many others have carved plants or animals on the gravestones. Some of the graves

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even have different landscaping style with the particular types of plant materials they want in the
trimming style they like. Also, there is Christian style graveyard sections for people worshiping
Christianity. There is the statue of Jesus in the middle of the sections, and the giant sculpture of
Christian Crosses throughout the section.
Even though there are plenty of clear traces of Western influences in the three public
cemeteries in Shanghai, they kept the Chinese traditions and cultures that derived from the three
major schools of philosophy in China, which are Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. There
are the statues of the famous ancient Chinese scholars especially in the school of Taoism and
Confucianism with their very famous quotes on understanding life and death in different sections
of graveyards. There are also many uses of symbolism in the landscape design; for example,
there are lotus flowers and koi fishes in the ponds, and sculptures, carvings, and statues of lotus
flowers, Buddha, and Guanyin as symbols of Buddhism. The symbol of Yin-yang from Taoism
is also used in many details, such as sculptures, arts, and paving patterns. Other than that, the
tradition of ancestor worshiping is originated with Taoist traditions and beliefs, which almost all
Chinese follows even when they are not aware of. Therefore, there are many ancestor worshiping
elements in the cemeteries just as the ones be seen in the Chinese rural ancestor burial grounds,
such as metal buckets for burning fake paper money, censor for thurification, and oblations
(food, drink, little objects, etc.).
Therefore, the three public cemeteries in Shanghai are really the fusion cemeteries that
integrates traditional Chinese civilian worshiping practices, traditional Chinese school of
philosophies and design principles of imperial tombs and gardens, and the Western culture and
traditions. In the twenty-first century, with the continued rapid growing of cities that brings more
global sharing, the simple traditional only designs may not be suitable for peopleâs modern life;

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thus, the fusion cemeteries can offer the variety of choices for people who have different
interests and expectations.
4.3 Future Implication
The research compares the Western and Chinese burial sites cross-culturally and within
culturally, and provides guides of designing burial sites according to the local context of the
location in the future. The research result shows the different type of burial sites (cemeteries,
imperial tomb, and ancestral graves) in the various area the built in the different period consist
different lists of site elements, which makes the burial sites easily identifiable and can be
distinguished from one another. Furthermore, the research explores and provides an
understanding of the Chinese rural ancestral burial grounds regarding their environment and
landscape style in detail instead of funerary and burial ritual, which is not previously discussed
very much in other studies. Thus, help ordinary readers and researchers have a better
understanding of the role of ancestral worshipping, environment, landscape, and Fengshui in
rural China, which is still the majority type of land and lifestyle in China.
Also, the research studies and describes the three fusion cemeteries in great detail, which
also provides design concepts and guidelines for culturally integrated cemeteries. The research
elaborates the uniqueness of the modern fusion style Chinese public cemeteries in Shanghai. The
concept of fusion cemetery is to integrate different culture and tradition with distinctive design
elements to celebrate the uniqueness of different culture. This particular concept may perhaps be
adopted and evolved by many cultures not only in Shanghai or other large cities in China but
also large cities with great diversity around the world. Therefore, the fusion cemeteries in
Shanghai may become the parent of future culturally integrated cemeteries around the world, just
like how Pere Lachaise has become the parent of all modern picturesque style cemeteries in the

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world. Even though, the actual design and design elements of future fusion cemeteries will be
based on the local context of their location, the research as case studies of the three fusion
cemeteries in Shanghai, can still provide some basic design guidelines of how the integration can
be done through various site organizing and site managing strategies in terms of master plan
layout.
4.4 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
First, the research uses four group of burial sites to elaborate in detail; however, the
groups are relatively small with the great local context that may not be able to represent other
burial sites. In the result, the selected site in within the same geographic region are very similar
with the similar scores and are clustered very closely on the scatter graph. It might be the result
of small study groups, due to the time and geographic limitation of the research. However, there
are a large number of other burial sites in Michigan, Shanghai, and Jiangsu established during
the similar time frame, that can be studied for future research. Even more, the burial sites all over
the world can be explored in the future for more comparison studies both horizontally and
vertically.
Second, the data and information of eight burial sites are primary information collected in
field studies because the lack of literature review secondary information, therefore the primary
information are based on personal understanding and experiences that may not be comprehensive
and involve personal biases. Especially, there is very little secondary information on the
environment, landscape, and architecture style of modern Chinese urban public cemeteries. And
all the secondary information on the Chinese rural ancestral burial ground focuses on its religious
importance to the community and its ritual practice. However, there is no secondary information
describing the environment and landscape aspects of Chinese rural ancestral burial ground other

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than its application of Fengshui when possible. The information of these five selected sites (three
public cemeteries in Shanghai, and two rural burial grounds in Jiangsu) are significantly
dependent on personal observations. Thus, further studies can focus on collecting more
information on the modern Chinese public cemeteries and rural burial grounds, and accomplish
more data collection research method for these burial sites; to contribute to the literature pool in
this field. For example, more sites in various places in China can be studied and documented to
discover the commonality among the sites in the different location with relatively different local
context.
Finally, future research in the field can also adopt the equations used for this research to
test if the equation work for other burial sites among the four group of burial sites studied in this
research or even another type of burial sites. Thus, more studies can contribute to the data pool
of the field of burial site environment, landscape and architecture style research in the future.

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