EXAMINING THE IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE AND 

IDENTIFYING CRITICAL JUNCTURES FOR INTERVENTION FROM AN ECOLOGICAL 

SYSTEMS APPROACH 

By 
 

Dessie Clark 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

A DISSERTATION 

Submitted to  

Michigan State University 

in partial fulfillment of the requirements 

for the degree of 

Community Sustainability– Doctor of Philosophy 

 

2020 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ABSTRACT 

 
By 
 

Dessie Clark 

 

 

EXAMINING THE IMPLICATIONS OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE AND 

IDENTIFYING CRITICAL JUNCTURES FOR INTERVENTION FROM AN ECOLOGICAL 

SYSTEMS APPROACH 

Gender-based violence is a public health crisis with over 30% of women experiencing 

violence during their lifetime (Black et al., 2011). The impacts of gender-based violence are 

costly for the survivors who experience it, the communities that they live and work in, the 

organizations that provide supportive services, and the institutions who respond (Corrigan, 

Wolfe, Mysiw, Jackson, & Bogner, 2001). This dissertation examines gender-based violence at 

the individual level and community levels, as well as institutional response. The findings suggest 

that at multiple levels there are critical junctures where even a small intervention can have a 

large impact. Thus, a systems approach to addressing gender-based violence is needed to improv 

 

 

 

 

 

This dissertation is dedicated to all graduate students who lost their lives, in part, as a 

consequence of pursuing a PhD.  

You deserved the opportunity to write your own dissertation. 

May you always be remembered in mine.

iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

 
 
 

I feel incredibly privileged to be able to put these words on this page. The journey to 

complete my Ph.D. has been filled with trials and tribulations far beyond what I could have ever 

foreseen. There were many moments where I was not sure I would complete this milestone. 

Thankfully, I am here today because of the tremendous support system I am lucky enough to call 

mine. First and foremost, I want to acknowledge the invaluable support of my husband, Justin 

Williamson. His sacrifices allowed me to pursue a Ph.D. and his love carried me through the 

hardest moments.  

It is also a priority for me to highlight the amazing partnership I have with Fort Bend 

Women’s Center. The collaborative efforts of Fort Bend’s staff, particularly that of Josh Brown, 

have made this degree possible. I am incredibly proud of the fruits of our labor and the 

productive and warm professional relationship that I continue to have with the staff to include 

Shay Shaikh, Deepthi Suvarna, Ngozi Ashibuogwu, Berenisia Aguilera, Tracy Hosea, and 

(formerly) Carolyn Dylla.  

It is no secret that the completion of my degree is due in large part to the tireless 

advocacy and support of Dean Thomas Jeitschko, Senior Associate Dean Kelly Millenbah, and 

Dr. Rebecca Jordan. There are truly no words to express the gratitude I feel for these people. 

Without a doubt, their commitment to improving graduate education helped ensure my success 

as a graduate student. It would have been very easy for me to fall through the cracks, all three of 

these people were critical in ensuring that did not happen. I want to acknowledge their 

contribution to my education, but also their contribution to my life. I am a better scholar, 

colleague, and person for knowing all of them. I also want to extend my deepest gratitude to 

 

iv 

Dean Ronald Hendrick who was extremely supportive of my transfer to the College of 

Agriculture and Natural Resources and has continued to be essential in navigating the 

completion of my degree. 

I want to thank all of the members of my committee, Dr. Rebecca Jordan (Chair), Dr. 

Stephanie Nawyn, Dr. Wenda Bauchspies, and Dr. Steven Gray. I am blessed to have reaped the 

benefits of a committee who worked together to ensure my success. In particular, I am thankful 

for the advocacy of Dr. Stephanie Nawyn who committed time, energy, and resources to ensure 

both professional advancement and personal well-being. Relatedly, I want to thank my former 

mentors at both Vanderbilt University and Centenary College of Louisiana for their support as I 

have continued my educational journey. Most saliently, I am thankful for Dr. Michelle Wolkomir 

and Dr. Amy Hammond who have continued to provide feedback and guidance for many years 

following my tenure as a student at their institution.  

Broadly, I want to thank all of those at Michigan State University who helped to support 

me in both big and small ways over the last few years. Through thick and thin, my co-workers at 

the Center for Gender in a Global Context showed unwavering support for myself and my 

scholarship throughout the final two years of my graduate school journey. Namely, my co-

workers Dr. Lucy Thompson, Emily Khan, Dr. Rebecca Irvine, and (formerly) Sara Bijani 

consistently demonstrated a commitment to ensuring I was surrounded by people that supported 

my short and long term goals. Relatedly, my colleague Heather Bomsta was by my side from the 

beginning of my time at Michigan State University to the end of it. There are not many people 

who I can say that about, and I am proud to say she is one. I also want to acknowledge the 

invaluable support and guidance of Eileen Gianiodis who, quite literally, always had the right 

words for even the hardest moments. 

 

v 

I think it’s important to acknowledge the difficulties I have experienced on this journey. 

I’d be remiss if I did not indicate the places where things went wrong. Completing this degree 

meant overcoming traumatic reporting processes at the Office of Institutional Equity and the 

Research Integrity Office. This was complicated by a series of issues best labeled as institutional 

betrayal in the Psychology Department, College of Social Science, the Office of General 

Counsel, the Office of Sponsored Programs and Contract and Grant Administration, and the 

Office of Regulatory Affairs – Human Research Protections Program. These issues were 

mitigated, in large part, by Elizabeth Abdnour, Esq. and the attorneys at Grewal Law, namely, 

Tim Seeger, Esq. Liz and Tim both worked hard to ensure my rights were protected as a graduate 

student. Liz’s empathy allowed me to find the confidence to speak my truth. Tim’s commitment 

to justice helped me to demand accountability. Additionally, I am thankful for the assistance of 

my elected representatives Congresswoman Julie Brixie, Senator Curtis Hertel Jr., and 

Congresswoman Elissa Slotkin. These representatives and the various members of their 

respective staff, particularly those in Congresswoman Slotkin’s office, helped me navigate 

various external reporting mechanisms while finishing my degree. 

I want to thank my close friends and family. My parents, Marijane and David Sisson 

were critical in helping me stay focused while I finished my degree. My close friends, to include 

Johnvrsh Ashley, acted as important sounding boards and people of comfort when things were 

difficult. I connected with hundreds of graduate students all over the globe and their contribution 

to my experiences can never be understated. I spent many late nights on the phone listening to 

other students tell me about situations that were similar to my own. There are so many people I 

leaned on during this time, but Abby Nissenbaum and Ania Sergeenko helped ensure that there 

was always a listening ear and open heart when I needed it. Through #AcademicTwitter and 

 

vi 

#AcademicChatter I was able to grow my personal and professional network and receive advice 

and support from academics across the globe. 

Finally, and most personally, I want to thank all of the survivors that have trusted me 

with their truth. Your voices and your experiences have carried me here. You are all living proof 

that the things you, and myself as a fellow survivor, carry are not just heavy – they make us 

strong. Our collective strength is insurmountable. And no one, and I mean no one can ever take 

that from us. May I continue to do your voices justice, particularly when the idea of justice feels 

so elusive. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vii 

 

PREFACE 

The three main chapters of this dissertation have been published in peer-reviewed journals with 

co-authors. Due to copyrights, these chapters could not be reprinted here. Thus, these chapters 

are briefly summarized in the main body of this document, followed by a link to the online 

article. The citations for these chapters are below.  

Chapter 1: Brown, J., Clark, D., & Pooley, A. (2019). Exploring the use of neurofeedback 

therapy in mitigating symptoms of traumatic brain injury in survivors of intimate partner 

violence. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma (1-20). 

Chapter 2: Clark, D., Wood, L., & Sullivan, C. (2018). Examining the needs and experiences of 

domestic violence survivors in transitional housing.  Journal of Family Violence 34(4), 275-286. 

Chapter 3: Clark, D., Bauchspies, W., & Nawyn, S. (2019). Feminist transformative leadership 

from inside the university. Psychology of Women and Equalities. 

 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 

viii 

 
 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ x 

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 

CHAPTER 1: EXPLORING THE USE OF NEUROFEEDBACK THERAPY IN MITIGATING 
SYMPTOMS OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY IN SURVIVORS OF INTIMATE 
PARTNER VIOLENCE ................................................................................................................. 5 

CHAPTER 2: EXAMINING THE NEEDS AND EXPERIENCES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 
SURVIVORS IN TRANSITIONAL HOUSING ........................................................................... 6 

CHAPTER 3: FEMINIST TRANSFORMATIVE LEADERSHIP FROM INSIDE THE 
UNIVERSITY ................................................................................................................................. 7 

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 8 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 10 

 

 

 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

ix 

LIST OF FIGURES 

 
 
Figure 1: Model: Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) Ecological Theory of Development…………………1 

 

x 

INTRODUCTION 

The study of gender-based violence has historically and necessarily focused on the individual 

outcomes of experiencing violence. In recent years however, more work has examined how 

external systems impact survivors’ experiences of violence, reporting violence, and healing from 

violence. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory provides a framework for 

examining the ways in which individuals interact with five systems – the microsystem, 

mesosytem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem (Fig. 1). This dissertation is a sampling 

of my broader work, which seeks to find critical points in these systems where intervention can 

help improve outcomes for survivors.  

Figure 1: Model: Bronfenbrennner’s (1979) Ecological Theory of Development 

 

1 

 

The first chapter examines a neurofeedback intervention, within the microsystem, for 

survivors that have experienced traumatic brain injury (Brown, Clark, & Pooley, 2019). Despite 

the high rates of survivors who are often struck in the head, neck, and face, there has been 

minimal work to examine traumatic brain injury in survivors (Muelleman, Lenaghan, & 

Pakieser, 1998). This is exacerbated by the fact that mild and moderate traumatic brain injury is 

often undiagnosed, particularly in survivors of intimate partner violence (Monahan & O’Leary, 

1999). The symptoms of traumatic brain injury often include issues with emotional regulation, 

cognitive impairment, attention, and memory (Banks, 2007; Brewer, Metzger, & Therrien, 2002; 

Jackson, Phillip, Nuttall, & Diller, 2004). Without screening for traumatic brain injury these 

symptoms in survivors are often attributed to mental health issues such as depression and post-

traumatic stress disorder. Thus, issues related to physical injury to the brain may be treated in 

another way that does not specifically target the brain injury such as such as counseling or 

medication. Neurofeedback suggests a promising method for helping to rehabilitate the brain by 

normalizing frequencies impacted by traumatic brain injury. In doing so, symptoms such as 

depression, anxiety, and PTSD improve (Clark, Brown, & Pooley, 2019). This has potential to 

have both short and long term impacts as these symptoms can prevent survivors from achieving 

stability for themselves and their families.  

Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) sytems theory situates the mesosystem as those nearest to the 

individual. This system consists of group, communities, and institutions that directly impact the 

individual’s experiences. Community-based programs often provide important resources for 

survivors such as shelter, mental and physical health care, and advocacy. These community-

based services are critical for ensuring both short-term and long-term outcomes for survivors. 

The second chapter examines the needs of survivors of domestic violence in a transitional 

 

2 

housing program (Clark, Wood, & Sullivan, 2018). Transitional housing provides those who are 

facing homelessness with affordable housing and supportive services, such as counseling and 

case management for a fixed period of time (U.S. Department of Justice Office on Violence 

Against Women, 2015). While some evidence suggest transitional housing helps lead to long-

term stability, limited research has explored if transitional housing is helpful for survivors of 

domestic violence (Mekolichick, Davis, & Choulnard, 2008; Wendt & Baker, 2013). These 

findings suggest that for survivors facing elevated threats to their safety, greater psychosocial 

needs, and survivors dealing with immigration related issues, transitional housing is a critical 

resource (Clark, Wood, & Sullivan, 2018). In this work, survivors were also asked about another 

housing intervention, rapid re-housing. While transitional housing and rapid re-housing both 

provide affordable housing and supportive services, rapid re-housing allows survivors to stay in 

their apartment after assistance ends – a key criticism of transitional housing (U.S. Interagency 

Council on Homelessness, 2015). Given their experiences in transitional housing, survivors were 

if they would have preferred a rapid re-housing approach. Survivors who preferred rapid re-

housing were often stably employed, with lower psychosocial needs, and did not have barriers to 

securing an apartment on their own, such as an eviction history or immigration concerns (Clark, 

Wood, & Sullivan, 2018). 

For survivors of gender-based violence, there is the potential for many points of contact 

with instiutions such as rape crisis centers, police departments, medical offices, and places where 

the survivor is employed or attending school. As the microsystem is the most closely nested 

system to the individual, the ways in which these institutions interact with survivors of gender-

based violence is critical. The third chapter examines the Center for Gender in a Global Context, 

a center housed within Michigan State University (Clark, Bauchspies, & Nawyn, forthcoming). 

 

3 

This center is feminist in nature and committed to mitigating issues around gender, justice, and 

equity. In this case study, we examine how a center housed in an institution can flourish to 

uphold these principles, even when they may not be shared by the larger insititution. This work 

identifed the ways in which the organization model, a commitment to feminist bureaucracy and 

feminist standpoint, combined with pluralism, diversity, and reflexivity create a framework for 

transformative feminist leadership (Clark, Bauchspies, & Nawyn, forthcoming). It is argued that 

this framework allowed the Center for Gender in a Global Context to be a successful and 

important leader when addressing the sexual assault crisis on Michigan State University. This 

chapter provides suggestions for how insitutions can better support feminist values, such as 

supporting survivors of gender-based violence, and improve the first line of contact, the 

mesosystem, for the individual. I conclude this dissertation bringing together the importance of 

both chapters and considerations for future work. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

4 

CHAPTER 1: EXPLORING THE USE OF NEUROFEEDBACK THERAPY IN MITIGATING 

SYMPTOMS OF TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY IN SURVIVORS OF INTIMATE 

PARTNER VIOLENCE 

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is an injury to the brain caused by an injury to the head, neck, or 

face, such as blunt force trauma or shaking. Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) are at 

high risk for TBI, given how frequently they are repeatedly struck in the head, neck, and face. 

Research suggests that “mild” TBI can have lifelong impacts, such as personality and behavioral 

changes. TBI often goes undiagnosed. This is particularly true for survivors as most do not seek 

medical treatment following IPV. Given the lack of diagnoses, these symptoms may often not be 

addressed or misattributed to mental health concerns. Neurofeedback (NF) is an intervention that 

may help may treat the symptoms of TBI. NF uses operant conditioning to regulate electrical 

activity in various regions of the brain. NF can lead to improved cognitive performance and 

emotional regulation. Given the potentially high rate of TBI in IPV, this study explored if NF can 

reduce the symptoms that negatively impact survivors. In particular, this study explored the use 

of NF to treat IPV survivors who experienced injuries to the head, neck, or face, and, as such, 

probable TBI (N = 32). Survivors participated in a quantitative EEG (qEEG) areas of the brain 

that may be impacted by TBI and completed written assessments, before and after treatment, to 

assess constructs such as depression and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Results 

showed significant differences in both the qEEG data and assessments following the completion 

of NF. These results suggest NF could mitigate symptoms commonly associated with TBI in IPV 

survivors. 

For a full text of this work, go to: https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2019.1603176 

 

5 

CHAPTER 2: EXAMINING THE NEEDS AND EXPERIENCES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 

SURVIVORS IN TRANSITIONAL HOUSING 

The goal of Transitional Housing (TH) programs is to provide survivors of domestic violence 

(DV) with the time, financial assistance, and supports needed for survivors to achieve long-

term safety and housing stability. Research indicates TH may be effective for homeless 

families, but there is a lack of evidence related to TH with DV survivors. TH is a housing 

intervention that is space limited and requires survivors to relocate after the program ends. It is 

important to understand who is best suited for, interested in, and helped by DVTH. Thirty 

survivors in a DVTH program were interviewed in order to assess the benefits and drawbacks 

of DVTH. The interviews were semi-structured, with both quantitative and qualitative data 

collected. Findings suggest that survivors in with elevated safety risks related to their abusive 

partners and ex-partners, those with heightened psychosocial needs, and immigrant survivors 

identified services unique to DVTH as important to their safety and well-being. Although a 

small number of survivors would have preferred a less intensive and structured housing option, 

such as Rapid Re-housing (RR) had such an option been available. DVTH appears to be an 

important option for some DV survivors, but more affordable and accessible housing options 

are needed across communities to meet survivors’ needs. 

For a full text of this work, go to: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10896-018-0010-4 
 

 

 
 
 
 

 

6 

CHAPTER 3: FEMINIST TRANSFORMATIVE LEADERSHIP FROM INSIDE THE 

UNIVERSITY 

In academia, gender-based violence has reached epidemic levels. As universities grapple with 

institutional change to address these issues, feminist academic leadership is a critical site for 

enacting change. This work is, in part, a case study examining the Center for Gender in Global 

Context (GenCen) at Michigan State University. This case study highlights opportunities and 

limitations of feminist administrators leading campus movements that challenge sexist, racist, 

and heteronormative cultures at a university in crisis. The aim of this work is to contribute to the 

emerging literature on gendered organizations and feminist leadership and to propose a potential 

framework for transformative feminist leadership within the academy. The intention is to place 

this commentary in important and ongoing conversations about leadership and practices of an 

organization committed to feminist principles and social justice. This work highlights the ways 

in which transformative feminist leadership can help to address issues of gender-based violence 

in the academy. 

For a full text of this work, go to: https://shop.bps.org.uk/publications/publications-by-
subject/psychology-of-women/psychology-of-women-and-equalities-review-vol-2-2-winter-
2019.html 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 

 

7 

CONCLUSION 

These three chapters work together to begin building a foundation moving from the inside of 

Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) model outward. This, and other work, highlights that points of 

intervention exist at all levels. Neurofeedback provides an opportunity for tertiary protection for 

survivors who have experienced traumatic brain injury. Findings suggest that neurofeedback can 

improve long-term mental health outcomes related to anxiety, depression, and PTSD (Brown, 

Clark, & Pooley, 2019). Future research should address if the effects of neurofeedback last over 

time. Additionally, the importance of community-based services cannot be underestimated. 

Transitional housing provides a critical resource for survivors who are facing homelessness, 

particularly those who are facing increased safety concerns, greater psychosocial needs, or 

having immigration concerns (Clark, Wood, & Sullivan, 2018). Future research should explore 

the outcomes of survivors who have completed a transitional housing program to determine if 

this participation in the program impacts housing stability over time. Finally, transformative 

feminist leadership offers a framework to help better institutional response and function (Clark, 

Bauchspies, & Nawyn, forthcoming). Both of which are particularly salient for survivors of 

gender-based violence who have experienced trauma. Future work in gender-based violence 

must address the barriers, impediments, and potentials for harm at all systems levels, particularly 

how institutions respond to survivors. Aptly, Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) model centers the 

individuals much in the same way that those who support and serve survivors must center their 

needs as well. However, to date the majority of literature around intimate partner violence has 

focused on the individual such as assessing prevalence rates and examining demographic factors 

that may impact victimization. While my work largely explores the microsystem and begins to 

build a foundation for examination of the mesosystem, there is still much work to be done at the 

 

8 

other levels of the model. In the #MeToo movement we are uniquely positioned to focus 

attention on the macrosystem and chronosystem. These are critical directions for future research.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

9 

REFERENCES

 

10 

REFERENCES 

 

Banks, M. E. (2007). Overlooked but critical: Traumatic brain injury as a consequence of 

interpersonal violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 8(3), 290–298. doi:10.1177/ 
1524838007303503 
 

Black, M. C., Basile, K. C., Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Walters, M. L., Merrick, M. T., &  
Stevens, M. R. (2011). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey: 2010 
summary report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers 
for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from 
https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/nisvs_report2010-a.pdf 
 

Brewer, T. L., Metzger, B. L., & Therrien, B. (2002). Trajectories of cognitive recovery  
following a minor brain injury. Research in Nursing & Health, 25(4), 269–281. 
doi:10.1002/nur.10045 
 

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development. Harvard University Press. 
 
Brown, J., Clark, D., & Pooley, A. (2019). Exploring the use of neurofeedback therapy in  

mitigating symptoms of traumatic brain injury in survivors of intimate partner violence. 
Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma (1-20). 
 

Clark, D., Wood, L., & Sullivan, C. (2018). Examining the needs and experiences of domestic  
violence survivors in transitional housing.  Journal of Family Violence 34(4), 275-286. 
 

Clark, D., Bauchspies, W., & Nawyn, S. (Forthcoming). Feminist transformative leadership from  

inside the university. Psychology of Women and Equalities. 
 

Corrigan, J. D.,  Wolfe, M.,  Mysiw,  W. J., Jackson,  R. D.,  & Bogner, J.  A. (2001). Early 
identification of mild traumatic brain injury in female victims of domestic violence. 
American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 188(5), S71–S76. 
doi:10.1067/mob.2003.404 
 

Jackson, H., Philip, E., Nuttall, R. L., & Diller, L. (2004). Battered women and traumatic brain 

injury. In K. A. Kendall-Tackett (Ed.), Health consequences of abuse in the family: A 
clinical guide for evidence-based practice (pp. 233–246). Washington, DC: American 
Psychological Association. 
 

Mekolichick, J., Davis, J., & Choulnard, J. (2008). Transitional supportive housing in a rural  

location: A preliminary case study and lessons learned. Journal of Applied Social 
Science, 2(1), 36–46. 
 

Monahan, K., & O‘Leary, K. D. (1999). Head injury and battered women: An initial inquiry. 

Health & Social Work, 24(4), 269–278. doi:10.1093/hsw/24.4.269 

 

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Muelleman, R. L., Lenaghan, P. A., & Pakieser, R. A. (1998). Nonbattering presentations to the  
ED of  women in physically abusive relationships. The American Journal of Emergency 
Medicine, 16(2), 128–131. 
 

U.S. Department of Justice Office on Violence Against Women (2015). OVW fiscal year 2016  

transitional housing assistance grants for victims of sexual assault, domestic violence, 
dating violence, and stalking solicitation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice 
Office on Violence Against Women. Retrieved from 
https://www.justice.gov/ovw/file/800641/download 
 

U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness. (2015). Rapid re-housing. Retrieved May 30, 2018  

from https://www.usich.gov/solutions/housing/rapid-re-housing. 
 

Wendt, S., & Baker, J. (2013). Aboriginal women's perceptions and experiences 

of a family violence transitional accommodation service. Australian Social Work, 66(4), 
511–527. 

 

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