Ecosystem services science theory highlights the interdependency of people and nature. Ecosystem services (ES) science theory posits that the biophysical ecosystem generates ecosystem services, which are benefits that improve human well-being, identified by beneficiaries. Human action, influenced by human well-being, in turn affects the biophysical system. Social-ecological systems research describes the complex and dynamic feedbacks between the social and ecological components of a given system. ES science is one way to explore social-ecological systems. Placing ES science within a social-ecological system allows for questions about the social and ecological drivers that affect ecosystem services provision. This dissertation research explores the relative contribution of social and ecological drivers on the provision of cultural ecosystem services (CES) of spirituality, cultural heritage, and cultural identity, in the Mono-Kouffo, Republic of Benin and in Michigan, USA, by characterizing CES and developing conceptual causal loop diagrams (CLDs). Results demonstrate that CES, especially spirituality, heritage, and identity, are strongly overlapping and rely upon social institutions for people to develop the capacity to identify these benefits from nature. Further, results show these particular CES contribute toward a eudaimonic sense of well-being, or of living a good life, as well as feeling well, like being happy and relaxed. A third major finding is that while CES are strongly associated with pro-environmental and pro-social behaviors, the size and ecological quality of the space where CES are identified may likely be relatively small.The results of this research contribute to conceptual development of what cultural ecosystem services are, especially spirituality, cultural heritage, and cultural identity, as well as their mechanisms of provision. Results from both the Republic of Benin and the USA illuminate the social-ecological dynamics of systems where people identify ecosystem services by articulating their actions in and about the woods and how those actions facilitate benefits to their well-being via the woods. The two case studies are used to build causal loop diagrams that are compared and contrasted to contribute knowledge of CES mechanisms and to identify relevant areas of further research. This dissertation research demonstrates the utility of the connectedness to nature scale in incorporating CES in ES assessments and evaluations, and considers the important time-dependent relationship between people's knowledge and skills, the capacity to identify benefits from nature, and the size and quality of the wooded space. The time-dependent relationship emphasizes ways in which people affect nature in a positive way. These points should be further pursued in research and incorporated into policies and practices that affect natural resources and human well-being based on decisions made through ES science.
Read
