MAKING ERRORS AND VISUALIZING SUCCESS: EFFECTS ON TRAINING TRANSFER 

By 

Nathan T. Brucher 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A THESIS 

Submitted to 

 Michigan State University 

in partial fulfillment of the requirement  

for the degree of  

 

Psychology — Master of Arts 

 

2020 

 
 

 

ABSTRACT 

MAKING ERRORS AND VISUALIZING SUCCESS: EFFECTS ON TRAINING TRANSFER 

By 

Nathan T. Brucher 

Error management training and symbolic rehearsal are two training techniques that have been 

shown to affect training transfer. Previous studies have looked at these two techniques in 

isolation, however the effects have never been examined together. The current study attempts to 

examine the effects on training transfer. Using a software training paradigm, error management 

training with an added symbolic rehearsal component was hypothesized to contribute to better 

adaptive transfer, declarative knowledge, and mental models than an error management training 

alone condition. Results indicated there was no significant difference between conditions. 

Exploratory analyses confirmed relationships found in past research. Discussion, implications, 

and limitations of the current study are included.  

 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

 

I would like to thank my three wonderful research assistants who aided in data collection and 

coding: Alexandra Morales, Zachary Stanczyk, and Tom Osborne.  

 
 

 
 
 
 

 

 

iii 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... vi 

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... vii 

CHAPTER 1: .................................................................................................................................. 1 
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 
Symbolic Rehearsal .................................................................................................................... 1 
Symbolic Rehearsal and Psychological Processes .................................................................. 2 
Theories from Behavioral Modeling and Social Learning. ................................................ 2 
Theories from Sports Psychology ....................................................................................... 3 
Activation of Neurological Pathways. ............................................................................ 4 
Motivation. ...................................................................................................................... 4 
Arousal. ........................................................................................................................... 5 
Symbolic Learning. ......................................................................................................... 5 
Schema Automation and Cognitive Load Theories. ........................................................... 5 
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 7 
Error Management Training ....................................................................................................... 8 
A Brief History of Errors in Training and Learning ............................................................... 8 
EMT Design ............................................................................................................................ 9 
Effectiveness of EMT ........................................................................................................... 11 
EMT and Psychological Processes ....................................................................................... 12 
Metacognition. .................................................................................................................. 12 
Motivation. ........................................................................................................................ 14 
Emotional Control ............................................................................................................. 16 
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 17 
Integration of the Two Training Techniques ............................................................................ 18 
Research Model and Hypotheses .......................................................................................... 18 

CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................. 21 
METHODS ................................................................................................................................... 21 
Participants ............................................................................................................................ 21 
Design ................................................................................................................................... 21 
Experimental Manipulations. ............................................................................................ 21 
EMT. ................................................................................................................................. 21 
SR. ..................................................................................................................................... 22 
Materials ............................................................................................................................... 22 
Photo Editing Software. .................................................................................................... 22 
Learning Videos. ............................................................................................................... 23 
Learning Sheets. ................................................................................................................ 23 

 
 
 
 

 

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Distractor Task. ................................................................................................................. 24 
Measures ............................................................................................................................... 24 
Demographics. .................................................................................................................. 24 
Metacognition. .................................................................................................................. 24 
Trait Goal Orientation. ...................................................................................................... 24 
State Goal Orientation....................................................................................................... 25 
Task self-efficacy. ............................................................................................................. 25 
Knowledge quiz. ............................................................................................................... 25 
Adaptive transfer performance. ........................................................................................ 26 
Usefulness. ........................................................................................................................ 26 
Concept Relatedness Task and Concept Map Representation. ......................................... 27 
Experimental Flow ................................................................................................................ 28 
Pre-study phase. ................................................................................................................ 28 
Introductory Phase. ........................................................................................................... 28 
Training Phase. ................................................................................................................. 28 
Post Training/Test Phase................................................................................................... 29 
Pilot Study ............................................................................................................................. 29 
Analytic Strategy .................................................................................................................. 30 

CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................. 31 
RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 31 
Hypothesis 1.......................................................................................................................... 32 
Hypothesis 2.......................................................................................................................... 32 
Hypothesis 3.......................................................................................................................... 32 
Exploratory Analyses ............................................................................................................ 34 

CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................. 36 
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 36 
Limitations and Future Directions ........................................................................................ 38 

APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 41 
Appendix A. Experimental Flow .......................................................................................... 42 
Appendix B. Script................................................................................................................ 43 
Appendix C. Demographics/Information.............................................................................. 46 
Appendix D. Trait Goal Orientation Measure ...................................................................... 47 
Appendix E. Error Management Training Manipulations .................................................... 48 
Appendix F. Learning Sheets ................................................................................................ 49 
Appendix G. State Mastery Orientation Measure ................................................................. 51 
Appendix H. Metacognition Measure ................................................................................... 52 
Appendix I. Self-efficacy Measure ....................................................................................... 53 
Appendix J. Usefulness Measure .......................................................................................... 54 
Appendix K. Video Links ..................................................................................................... 55 
Appendix L. Basic Knowedge Test  ..................................................................................... 56 

 
 
 
 

 

v 

Appendix M. Procedural Knowledge Test............................................................................ 59 
Appendix N. Mental Model Concept Rating ........................................................................ 61 
Appendix O. Tables .............................................................................................................. 62 
Appendix P. Figures.............................................................................................................. 67 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 72 
 

 

 
 
 
 

 

 

 

vi 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Variables ....................................................................................62 

Table 2. Correlation Table of Variables ........................................................................................63 

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of EMT vs EMT + SR groups and results of t-tests  .....................64 

Table 4. Path estimates, standard errors, and p-values of path-model linking goal orientation to 
adaptive transfer. ............................................................................................................................65 
 

Table 5. Adaptive Transfer Scoring Sheet. ....................................................................................66 

 

 

 
 
 
 

 

 

vii 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1. Pathfinder network of photoshop expert  .......................................................................67 

Figure 2. Pathfinder network derived from the EMT group.  ........................................................68 

Figure 3. Pathfinder network derived from the experimental group .............................................69 

Figure 4. Tested Path Model ..........................................................................................................70 
 

Figure 5. Adaptive Transfer Task Sheet  .......................................................................................71 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 

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CHAPTER 1: 

INTRODUCTION 

Training is important for maintaining competency in the twenty-first century. Companies 

need highly skilled workers and individuals need to learn new skills to keep up with an ever-

changing workplace. This study aims to examine alternative approaches to improving training 

effectiveness by combining two previously unpaired techniques. In order for training to work it 

needs to transfer. Transfer is when knowledge, skills, and abilities are able to be used when 

moving from training to a job setting, or from one task to another (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; 

Hesketh, 1997). Without transfer, training is useless. As researchers and practitioners, transfer 

should be the goal of any training program. This study investigates error management training 

(EMT) and symbolic rehearsal (SR) as well as the impact of combining the two approaches on 

training effectiveness.  

First, I outline current and past findings focusing on SR design, history, theory, and 

outcomes. Next, I do a similar review of EMT literature. Finally, I integrate the two literatures 

and develop a research model to drive research and generate hypotheses.  

Symbolic Rehearsal 

Can simply imagining performing a skill increase training effectiveness? Symbolic 

rehearsal is a cognitive technique that has been used to increase effectiveness in learning 

cognitive and motor skills. Symbolic rehearsal is also a key component in behavioral modeling 

training. I will start first by describing symbolic rehearsal and going into the cognitive theory 

behind it and reviewing studies that show its effectiveness.  

 
 
 

 
1

 

Symbolic rehearsal, which has been referred to as mental practice (Driskell, Copper, & 

Moran, 1994; Suinn, 1997), mental rehearsal (Rawlings & Rawlings, 1974), or imagining 

(Cooper, Tindall-ford, Chandler, & Sweller, 2001) is a cognitive technique whereby individual 

imagines themselves performing the skill or action which they are to learn (Bandura & Jeffrey, 

1973). Studies involving symbolic rehearsal usually include a portion after learning the behavior 

where participants are instructed to close their eyes and imagine themselves performing the 

action correctly.  Studies usually include comparisons to a control group which does no practice 

or a motor practice group. They are then assessed on some performance measure (Driskell et al., 

1994).   

Symbolic Rehearsal and Psychological Processes 

Theories from Behavioral Modeling and Social Learning. 

 

Symbolic rehearsal has origins in social learning theory. Two major components of social 

learning theory are symbolic rehearsal and symbolic coding (Bandura & Jeffrey, 1973). 

Symbolic coding occurs when an observed behavior is coded by an individual into mental 

symbols. These are usually represented as verbal or visual representations of the steps and main 

aspects of the trained behavior, but can take other symbolic forms (Bandura & Jeffrey, 1973). 

These symbols provide a way for an individual to remember the behavior beyond a simple 

stimulus response. Many behavioral modeling training experiments have an explicit symbolic 

coding component where the person is either presented or are asked to generate the learning 

components necessary for replication of the behavior. These symbolic coding components of 

behavioral modeling have been shown to be effective, especially when rules for the behavior are 

provided or generated rather than simple summaries or descriptions of behavior (Decker, 1980, 

 
 
 

 
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1982, 1984). In studies with a symbolic rehearsal component, participants are asked to use these 

codes as guides for mentally rehearsing the behavior. Studies in which participants generate their 

own symbolic coding rules have been shown to be the most effective (Decker, 1980).  

 

Symbolic rehearsal occurs when a person consciously uses these symbols to aid in their 

memory of the observed event. This can take the form of internal dialogue, mental imagery, 

verbalizations or other ways of invoking the symbolic codes.  

Symbolic rehearsal has shown effectiveness above and beyond motor rehearsal in 

behavioral modeling studies (Decker 1980, 1982, 1984; Jeffery, 1976). A meta-analysis 

indicated that including symbolic rehearsal in behavioral modeling training has a positive effect 

on training effectiveness (d = .27; Taylor, Russ-eft, & Chan, 2005). Behavioral modeling and 

symbolic rehearsal has been shown to be useful in simple maze tracing studies (Sacket, 1934) , 

interpersonal skill training (Decker, 1984), computer skill training (Davis & Yi, 2004), and 

surgical training (Arora et al., 2011; Mick et al., 2016). Symbolic rehearsal or mental practice 

has been influential in sports psychology, showing improvement in a variety of motor skills 

(Suinn, 1997). 

Theories from Sports Psychology 

While behavior modelling literature has shown benefits to outcomes of training, it has not 

elaborated on the processes leading to those outcomes. Symbolic rehearsal has long been studied 

in sports psychology as a way to enhance training effectiveness. Several theories have been 

proposed to account for the efficacy of symbolic rehearsal in sports training.  

 

 
 
 

 

 
3

Activation of Neurological Pathways. 

One theory is that the symbolic rehearsal evokes a similar neuromuscular motor pattern 

that is needed to perform the act (Suinn, 1997). A number of studies have found small 

neuromuscular activity during symbolic rehearsal, and many studies have found similar EMG 

activity during symbolic rehearsal and the performance of the motor movement (Bird, 1984; 

Harris & Robinson, 1986; Jowdy & Harris, 1990). However, many studies have casted doubt on 

this neuromuscular theory of symbolic rehearsal. A meta-analysis by Feltz and Landers (1983) 

suggests that the effects of symbolic rehearsal are not likely produced by these neuromuscular 

patterns, suggesting that symbolic learning and cognitive explanations are better explanations.  

Motivation. 

Another line of thinking proposes that symbolic rehearsal increases motivation and self-

efficacy as the person imagines themselves succeeding at the task. (Paivio 1985). Evidence for 

increased motivation has been argued for in behaviors of athletes. These include engaging in 

longer practice, more practice, or enduring more physical exhaustion (Suinn, 1997). However, 

contradictory results suggest that self-efficacy is not affected by symbolic rehearsal. Other 

studies argue that the symbolic rehearsal vision of success has to be task specific rather than 

general visions of success (Lee, 1990). Finally, the meta-analysis of symbolic rehearsal showed a 

low effect size when comparing motivational and nonmotivational control groups (Feltz & 

Landers, 1983). The motivational theory of symbolic rehearsal does not have strong support 

 

among the field.  

 

 
 
 

 
4

Arousal. 

Arousal theories posit that the symbolic rehearsal process evokes arousal that lead to 

priming of the muscles and lower the threshold required to activate the motor skill (Suinn, 1997). 

There is not much empirical support of this theory. Emotional aspects of symbolic rehearsal have 

not been found to relate to performance and in some cases negative relationships were found 

(Murphy, Woolfolk, & Budney, 1988).  

Symbolic Learning. 

The most empirically supported theories of symbolic rehearsal in sports psychology are 

symbolic learning theories. These state that the effectiveness of symbolic rehearsal is due to the 

fact that people are practicing the symbolic components of the motor task rather than the actual 

motor actions. These are the more cognitive elements of the task rather than the motions. These 

can include temporal, spatial, or plans of action (Suinn, 1997). Support for symbolic learning 

theory is seen by the fact that tasks that contain more cognitive elements benefit more from 

symbolic rehearsal or mental practice (Feltz & Landers, 1983).  

Schema Automation and Cognitive Load Theories. 

One view of symbolic rehearsal states that it facilitates automation of schema (Cooper et 

al., 2001). Schemas allow for the categorization of new information. Automation occurs when a 

task moves from high conscious processing to minimal conscious attention. In the initial stages 

of learning, individuals develop schemas to organize information in their mind. These initial 

schemas are effortful and require conscious working memory to be used. With practice, these 

schemas become automatic and less effortful working memory is dedicated to enacting the 

schemas. For example, novice drivers have to consciously think about pushing the gas pedal and 

 
 
 

 
5

changing gears, but as time goes on this process becomes automatized and requires less attention. 

A study using a computer spreadsheet application showed that SR, aids in the automation of 

schema, but only if a proper schema has been formed beforehand (Cooper et al., 2001).  

Automation of schema relates to cognitive load theories of learning. According to 

cognitive load theory there is a limited amount of cognitive resources that can be devoted to 

novel information (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2004). Working memory process new information 

and is limited in the amount of information it can take in  (Cowan, 2000; Miller, 1956). 

However, working memory does not have the same limitations when working with information 

that has previously been organized and taken from long term memory (Ericcson & Kintsch, 

1995; Paas et al., 2004). To this end anything that facilitates the transfer of memory from 

working memory to long term memory should result in reduced cognitive load, freeing cognitive 

resources for other tasks. Schemas normally take up working memory capacity when they are 

being constructed, however automation of schemas does not. This schema acquisition and 

automation is important for learning (Kotovsky, Hayes, & Simon, 1985). SR processes schemas 

in working memory which facilitates long term memory construction and automation of schemas 

(Leahy & Sweller, 2007). This creates superior schemas in long-term memory that can be drawn 

upon when recalling information and performing skills. 

Research indicates that using SR with higher element interactivity material and large 

cognitive load is most beneficial for this schema construction and automation (Leahy & Sweller, 

2007). Therefore, high complexity tasks such as steps for interacting with a computer software 

are well suited to SR.  

 
 
 

 
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In a nutshell, SR aids in schema construction and automation and transferring that to long 

term memory. The schema can be drawn upon from working memory without using up resources 

which frees resources for future more novel information. 

Conclusion 

 

In conclusion, theories of symbolic rehearsal are varied and there is debate to which 

accurately describes the process by which it enhances training. However, the majority of support 

has been in favor of more cognitive theories. These theories posit that symbolic rehearsal is 

useful for practicing the symbolic codes or cognitive aspects behind the skill being learned. 

Although these theories do not explicitly mention metacognition, the processes they are 

describing fit with how metacognition is conceptualized. Metacognition is conceptualized as 

“knowledge about one’s own cognitions rather than the cognitions themselves” (Brown, 1978 p. 

4). This definition of metacognition fits with cognitive theories behind symbolic rehearsal. 

People using symbolic rehearsal are rehearsing the cognitive aspects of the task and in doing so, 

become aware of them. Therefore, I argue that symbolic rehearsal fits with metacognition and 

that the process of undergoing symbolic rehearsal will increase metacognition. 

 

Additionally, there is evidence and theory that SR can aid in the construction and 

automation of schema. It is thought that the schema is automated and transferred to long term 

memory. This frees working memory to tackle new situations without having to effortfully recall 

the information already learned. Using SR in a training program can aid learning and transfer by 

aiding in organizing and automating schema.  

 

 
 
 

 

 
7

Error Management Training 

Frese and Altmann (1989) state that “errors produce the non-attainment of a goal.” (p. 

67). EMT is focused on encouraging active errors which are defined as “unintended deviations 

from plans, goals, or adequate feedback processing, as well as incorrect actions resulting from 

lack of knowledge.” (Frese & Keith, 2015, p. 663). These are distinguished from inefficient 

strategies where a non-optimal strategy results in delayed goal attainment, as well as violations 

where people actively attempt to break rules (Frese & Keith, 2015). The errors we look at in this 

review are errors of action.  

A Brief History of Errors in Training and Learning 

Training and learning have a deep history in psychology, however the early emphasis on 

training was based on rewarding positive behaviors. Thorndike first developed his law of effect 

which stated that favorable outcomes will increase behavior and negative outcomes will decrease 

behavior (Thorndike, 1927). This focus on positive reinforcement was further refined in 

behaviorist views of operant conditioning. Skinner took these ideas and popularized behaviorist 

views of learning, focusing on reinforcement of behaviors (Skinner, 1953). Theory moved on 

from purely behavioral learning to involving cognitive processes, but the emphasis on positive 

outcomes remained. Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory influenced behavioral modeling 

training where correct behaviors are presented and learners are intended to mimic behaviors. 

Errors are seen as nuisances that get in the way of learning and can actually result in interference 

effects or negative behaviors.   

Cognitive theories began to appreciate that difficulty during learning can serve as a 

positive influence of learning. The desirable difficulties outlined by Robert Bjork (1994) showed 

 
 
 

 
8

that even frustrating experiences where learners are struggling during the learning phase are 

often times the best for facilitating long term transfer and retention, not necessarily for initial 

learning.  

The history of what is now referred to as EMT can be dated back to Frese’s (1991) study 

of error management using word processing software. His paradigm of framing errors positively 

as a learning opportunity has been investigated in number of studies. Many other studies were 

done to explore the psychological mechanisms behind EMT. Studies explored the metacognition 

(Bell & Kozlowski, 2008; Keith & Frese, 2005), motivational(Bell & Kozlowski, 2008; 

Chillarege, Nordstrom, & Williams, 2003; Wood, Kakebeeke, Debowski, & Frese, 2000) and 

emotional processes (Keith & Frese, 2005a) involved. Other studies have looked at individual 

differences and the limitations of EMT (Gully, Payne, Koles, & Whiteman, 2002; Kluge, 

Ritzmann, Burkolter, & Sauer, 2011). Recently research has turned to a more macro perspective 

of looking at error management culture or climate where the organization’s toleration and 

response to errors are examined (Bell & Kozlowski, 2010; Frese & Keith, 2015). 

EMT Design 

EMT is an active learning approach that focuses on the idea that learners should 

appreciate errors as learning opportunities. Typical EMT involves an instruction phase where 

material is taught, as well as an active exploration phase where participants are encouraged to 

apply what they had just learned. The exploration phase is unguided and difficult to ensure that 

participants inevitably make errors. In this way, EMT is not much different from exploratory 

learning approaches which allow participants to explore their new skill in an unstructured setting. 

However, EMT training generally places trainees in more difficult situations where errors are 

 
 
 

 
9

likely to occur. Where EMT differs from pure exploration training is through the framing of the 

errors. In contrast to other forms of training that urge trainees to avoid errors or punish errors, 

EMT frames them as a positive experience that can be learned from (Keith & Frese, 2008). Many 

studies include adapted versions of Frese and colleagues’ (1991) original instructions which 

include statements like “I have made an error. Great!” or “There is a way to leave the error 

situation.” Statements like these are either repeated by an instructor when a trainee makes an 

error or are prominently displayed in the training environment and emphasized to the participant 

beforehand. Thus, the framing of the error shapes trainee’s expectations so they do not see the 

error as a failure, but as a positive aspect that will help them achieve success in the future.  

 

In experimental design, EMT is often contrasted with other forms of training. One of 

these is what is often referred to as “error avoidant” training. Error avoidant training is a 

traditional way of training where positive models or procedures are shown. These are generally 

highly structured trainings where exploration is minimized and errors are discouraged and 

quickly corrected (Keith & Frese, 2008). Error avoidant training was often seen as the preferable 

form of training according to behaviorist and social cognitive theories, because negative models 

could lead to poor learning (Bandura, 1986; Skinner 1953). 

The majority of error management studies have been done within the context of teaching 

computer software skills. A meta-analysis conducted in 2008 found that 21 of the 24 studies 

were all computer skill based trainings and the others were decision making tasks conducted on 

the computer (Keith & Frese, 2008). Recently, EMT has been applied to domains outside 

computer software. The medical field has started to implement EMT in their studies. Studies 

have found the effectiveness of EMT in training surgeon trainees in surgical simulations (Darosa 

 
 
 

 
10

& Pugh, 2012;  Gardner & Rich, 2014), radiology (Gardner, Abdelfattah, Wiersch, Ahmed, & 

Willis, 2014), and ultrasound skills (Dyre, Tabor, Ringsted, & Tolsgaard, 2017). This focus on 

learning from errors is due to the severity of error consequences in the medical field. There is 

little research on interpersonal or other soft skills, however one study did find support for the 

effectiveness of EMT on learning and transfer of a negotiation skill task (Cullen, Muros, Rasch, 

& Sackett, 2013). Behavioral modeling training has traditionally been used to teach these 

interpersonal “soft skills” (Taylor et al., 2005). 

Effectiveness of EMT 

The effects EMT might not be obvious to the trainee or trainer during the actual learning 

session.  The effectiveness of EMT depends on the time performance is examined. If you look at 

within training performance, performance during the learning context is often worse than error 

avoidant methods. Meta-analytic results found a small negative effect on within training 

performance (d = -.15)  However, a large benefit of EMT on post training performance was 

found (d =.56; Keith & Frese, 2008) This is an important distinction because many training 

programs are effective at teaching within the program, but the teaching does not extend to a time 

after the training. The goal of training is not just to impart knowledge, but to have an impact after 

the training is completed. If things are going easy during training, trainees are likely to 

overestimate their learning. (Bjork, 1994).  With EMT, trainees might not feel like they are 

learning, but post training results show otherwise. 

 

In order to examine effectiveness of training, you have to look at transfer of knowledge 

and/or skill. Adaptive transfer is the transfer of the skills to new or more difficult problems than 

the ones encountered during the training (Ivancic & Hesketh, 1995). Analogical transfer is the 

 
 
 

 
11

transfer of skills to similar situations to the one presented in training. Adaptive transfer is 

significantly more important for on the job performance. In a job, individuals encounter a 

number of unpredictable and tough situations that require quick adaptation to new situations. It 

would be much more advantageous to have a worker that can adapt what they have learned to 

new situations, instead only being able to do tasks that closely resemble the training. Meta-

analytic results found a small effect of EMT on analogical transfer (d = .20), and a very large 

effect on adaptive transfer (d = .80; Keith & Frese, 2008). Therefore, EMT results in trainees 

who are better equipped to handle the more rigorous and variable challenges. These harder 

challenges are more similar to what one might encounter on the job. 

EMT and Psychological Processes 

 

The effectiveness of EMT interventions is consistent with the principles of active 

learning theories. The design elements of EMT are in line with the elements of active learning 

and self-regulatory strategies espoused by Bell and Kozlowki’s (2008) model. These are 

exploratory learning, error framing, and emotion-control strategies. These design elements exert 

effects through metacognition, motivation, and emotion process pathways. The next section will 

go over these different processes and how they increase training effectiveness. 

Metacognition. 

 

EMT is seen as promoting increased metacognition and fostering deeper mental models 

(Bell & Kozlowski, 2008; Keith & Frese, 2005a). Metacognition is a process where learners 

monitor, are aware of, and check their own cognition process (Flavell, 1979). Metacognitive 

processes during training have been linked to greater knowledge acquisition and performance 

(Ford, Smith, & Weissbein, 1998).  Error management involves a large amount of exploration 

 
 
 

 
12

which promotes metacognitive thinking (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008; Keith & Frese, 2005a). 

Instead of restricting the learning to simple mimicking of the trained behavior, EMT involves the 

active exploration of the skill being learned (Frese et al., 1991). Learners are allowed to explore 

the task, trying out new ways of looking at the problem and discovering the strategies that work. 

According to control theory, errors give feedback that increases attention until the error can be 

resolved (Keith & Frese, 2005a). Learners determine what worked in that situation, as well as 

what did not work. This enhances the mental model of the learner in terms of creating stronger 

understanding of relationships among the task elements and thus invokes deeper and richer 

learning (Frese et al., 1991; Frese & Altmann, 1989; Keith & Frese, 2005).  

Action and control theories are thought to be important contributors to EMT processes. 

An action theory view of EMT suggests that errors disrupt the premature automation of process, 

which requires learners to rethink their strategy and try new approaches. A control theory view 

proposes that errors cause a discrepancy between the current state and the end goal state that 

results in more attention being paid attention to one’s performance on the task and causes an 

adjustment in strategies and performance (Keith & Frese, 2005a).  Recent research has shown 

that participants undergoing EMT had more on task thoughts than participants in an error 

avoidant condition (Dimitrova, van Dyck, van Hooft, & Groenewegen, 2015). This suggests that 

EMT does devote more attentional resources to the task. According to Craik and Lockheart 

(1972), engagement with a topic on a deeper level of cognition results in increased long-term 

learning and memory retention. 

Metacognition has been shown to be a mediator of the relationship between EMT and 

adaptive transfer by a multitude of studies (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008; Keith & Frese, 2005a; 

 
 
 

 
13

Steele-Johnson & Kalinoski, 2014). In Frese’s original study (1991), he found that participants in 

the EMT condition performed better on a free recall test of computer commands. He claimed this 

suggested a more organized mental model. Additionally, individuals undergoing EMT exhibited 

a higher level of  metacognitive processes based on the analysis of verbal, think aloud procedures 

(Frese et al., 1991). Keith and Frese (2005) found that the relationship between EMT and 

adaptive performance was fully mediated by increased metacognition and emotional control. 

Emotional control in their study is the mitigation of the effects of negative emotions that arise 

when errors occur. EMT resulted in enhanced declarative knowledge which researchers have 

argued suggests a richer mental model (Chillarege et al., 2003; Frese et al., 1991). 

In conclusion, the metacognitive psychological processes relevant to EMT are well 

supported. There is strong evidence that metacognition mediates the relationship between EMT 

and adaptive performance. The metacognitive processes result in a more concrete mental models 

which prepares learners to tackle novel situations. 

Motivation.  

 

Another aspect of EMT that is hypothesized to contribute to its effectiveness is through 

its impact on motivational processes. One avenue that has been suggested is that EMT promotes 

higher intrinsic motivation (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008; Frese & Altmann, 1989). The empirical 

support for this hypothesis is strong. Most studies have found increases in intrinsic motivation 

due to EMT (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008; Nordstrom, Wendland, & Williams, 1998; Wood et al., 

2000). While most studies indicate that EMT increases intrinsic motivation, it has not been 

determined whether changes in intrinsic motivation relate to positive training outcomes. While 

some studies found a benefit of increased intrinsic motivation training outcomes such as 

 
 
 

 
14

performance and transfer (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008) others have not (Debowski, Wood, & 

Bandura, 2001; Wood et al., 2000). This difference may be as a result of the task that participants 

are trained on. The Debowski et. al (2001) and Wood et. al (2000) studies utilized an electronic 

search task which may not rely or engage motivational aspects.  

Goal orientation shapes how people interpret challenges. Goal orientation can be a trait 

that differs between individuals or a state that is induced by a situation.  Goal orientation can be 

split into learning and performance-prove, and performance avoid goal orientation. Learning 

goal oriented individuals are motivated to developing competency in their work, while 

performance goal oriented individuals are motivated to prove their competency to others 

(performance-prove) or avoid criticism from others (performance-avoid).  (Kanfer, Frese, & 

Johnson, 2017). People who are learning oriented are more likely to see challenges as a chance to 

learn and improve. In contrast, people with a performance-prove orientation are more motivated 

by success and comparing oneself to others which can lead to demotivation when performance is 

not satisfactory. Similarly, people with a performance-avoid goal orientation are motivated to 

prevent failure and embarrassment and get discouraged by errors and failure. The positive 

framing of errors central to EMT is thought to promote state learning goal orientation. Since 

performance is not emphasized and errors are treated as learning events, people tend to take a 

learning orientation towards the training and move away from performance goal orientation. In 

EMT, individuals are not discouraged by the errors, but see them as a part of the learning process 

that will help them grow. Learning goal orientation typically is associated with improved 

performance and learning, whereas performance-prove goal orientation is uncorrelated, and 

 
 
 

 
15

performance-avoid goal orientation has detrimental effects (Payne, Youngcourt, & Beaubien, 

2007). 

 

Studies have been supportive of the hypothesis that EMT instates learning goal or 

mastery orientation.  One study examined the interaction between a trait goal orientation and 

EMT. No interaction was found between trait goal orientation and EMT. They attributed this to 

the fact that the EMT manipulation was strong enough to override the effects that trait goal 

orientation had  (Heimbeck, Frese, Sonnentag, & Keith, 2003). Empirical results have since 

confirmed that EMT interacts with trait goal orientation such that it compensates for low trait 

learning goal orientation and instates a high state learning orientation in these individuals, but 

there is no direct effect of error framing on motivational state (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008).  

 

Self-efficacy is an important measure of training effectiveness and is associated with 

mastery goal orientation (Ford et al., 1998).. It has been theoretically argued that promoting 

mastery orientation in EMT could promote self-efficacy (Keith & Frese, 2005).Self-efficacy in 

active learning tasks was found to be associated with both analogical and adaptive transfer as 

well as post training performance (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008; Kozlowski et al., 2001). It has been 

found to be related to transfer performance, goal orientation, knowledge acquisition, and 

metacognition(Ford et al., 1998). Because EMT promotes mastery orientation in trainees it 

should additionally boost task specific self-efficacy.  

Emotional Control 

 

Making errors when attempting to gain new knowledge or improve a skill can be seen by 

the trainee as a negative event. Such reactions can result in negative emotions such as anxiety, 

frustration, and negative self-evaluations. Errors require resources and regulation to keep 

 
 
 

 
16

negative emotions in check.  Theories posit that the positive error framing present in EMT 

invoke emotional control in participants (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008; Keith & Frese, 2005, 2008). 

The error framing instructions (e.g., “I have made an error. Great!”) cause the learner to 

cognitively reevaluate the learning situation in a way that eliminates the negative aspects and 

focuses their attention on finding a new solution (Heimbeck et al., 2003).  If errors are 

encouraged, then negative emotions associated with them will be eliminated (Frese & Altmann, 

1989).  Emotional control is a self-regulatory skill that limits performance anxiety and other 

negative emotional reactions during the task while learning. Negative emotions use cognitive 

resources that could be more productively used on the task and can direct attention away from 

the task (Frese & Altmann, 1989). Early support had been found for emotion control as a 

mediator of increased adaptive transfer in EMT(Keith & Frese, 2005). However, a more robust 

study examining this relationship in conjunction with the exploratory learning, and error framing 

aspects of training found no significant relationships between emotion control strategy and 

training performance, adaptive transfer, or analogical transfer (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008). 

Another study focusing on error framing effects in a computerized scheduling task found support 

for cognitive and motivational processes of error framing, but weaker support for an emotion 

control process (Steele-Johnson & Kalinoski, 2014). For this reason, emotional control was not 

included in the current study as an observed variable.  

Conclusion 

 

EMT is a technique that can enhance the adaptive transfer of training. It does so primarily 

through metacognitive and motivational pathways. In line with these results, EMT should be a 

boost to training effectiveness when added to trainings with a SR component. 

 
 
 

 
17

Integration of the Two Training Techniques 

Research Model and Hypotheses 

The current study is novel in integrating SR and EMT components into one training 

program for computer skills. The study seeks to examine how adaptive transfer is affected by this 

unique training and how processes of the training affect adaptive transfer.  

EMT works mainly through promotion of metacognition and motivational pathways. 

EMT motivates and increases knowledge through encouragement of errors and increased 

experience while exploring the new skill.  

SR increases metacognition but also facilitates the important process of automating 

schemas or mental models. Automation is when a set of actions requires minimal cognitive 

effort. An example is a golf swing, at first it takes a lot of effort to think about how to hold it, 

focus on the ball, how far to bring your backswing and a multitude of other features that go into a 

spring. For a novice this is a deliberate procedure that requires cognitive resources for each 

aspect that must be controlled. However, with repeated practice and experience this becomes 

“automatic” for expert golfers. Research has indicated that schemas or mental models that are 

committed to long term memory do not use up cognitive resources (Davis & Yi, 2004). This 

frees up cognitive resources for the golfer to focus on other aspects such as the length of the 

green, spin, and other advanced aspects needed for successful golfing. I am proposing that SR 

aids in this automation process. This in turn will free up cognitive resources which allow for 

more advanced skill acquisition and demonstration.  

Error management is a great tool for learning topics. It encourages people to explore and 

to learn from mistakes.  This active learning strategy leads to an increase in mastery orientation, 

 
 
 

 
18

metacognition, and self-efficacy. Adding in SR at the end of training can help the learner 

consolidate the knowledge gained in an organized way that that allows more cognitive resources 

to be focused on novel information during the transfer task. This will help with adaptive transfer 

because more resources are available to take on new information and less are spent processing 

the schema. It will also help with procedural knowledge of steps to take to complete actions. 

Learning requires several stages before mastery is gained. An important theory of 

learning is Anderson’s ACT model (Anderson, 1987, 1996). It separates learning into several 

stages: declarative, knowledge compilation, and proceduralization. Learners focus first on 

learning facts and instructions, then turning “what” knowledge into “how” knowledge by turning 

declarative knowledge into proceduralized knowledge. Finally, the knowledge is fully 

proceduralized and automated, requiring little to no attention to use. 

Other models, including those based on cognitive load theory, have different amount of 

stages or names for stages, but all focus on the difference between initial effortful learning and 

its progression towards more integrate and automatic knowledge of skills. According to 

cognitive load theory, learning is a process that includes schema creation and schema automation 

(Van Merriënboer & Paas, 1990). In order to learn new learners must construct schemas or 

mental models which relate the concepts to one another. Learners with appropriate background 

knowledge likely have these relationships consolidated into schemas. SR helps schema 

automation (Cooper et. al., 2001). Working memory is limited in capacity. There are no 

limitations for dealing with previously stored information in long term memory (Davis & Yi, 

2004).  Studies have found that SR shows the greatest improvement when participants have more 

background knowledge.  Therefore, SR should have its largest effects after material is properly 

 
 
 

 
19

learned (such as after undergoing EMT). People must be familiarized or study with the material 

before to get the enhanced effects. 

Based on the discussion above, I expect that the following hypotheses will be found 

between the EMT alone condition and combined EMT + SR condition. The addition of SR to 

EMT will provide benefits above and beyond traditional EMT alone.  

H1: The combined SR and EMT experimental condition will perform better than the EMT 

alone condition on adaptive transfer tasks.  

The process by which this occurs is that the addition of SR will result in a more 

integrated schema (more similar to experts), as well as better performance on procedural 

knowledge (and similar/no difference in performance on declarative/basic knowledge). 

H2: Participants in the SR and EMT experimental condition will perform better on a 

procedural knowledge task than participants in the EMT alone condition  

H3: Participants in the SR and EMT experimental condition will have a more similar 

mental model to experts than participants in the EMT alone condition  

 

 
 
 

 

 
20

CHAPTER 2 

METHODS 

Participants 

The sample was taken from an undergraduate population of a large midwestern public 

university. 135 participants had an average age of 19.31(SD = 1.93). The sample was majority 

female (65%) and majority White (58%) followed by Asian (26%) and Black (10%). Participants 

enrolled in the experiment in exchange for credit in psychology undergraduate courses. 

Participants had a mean familiarity of 1.86 out of five, indicating that the majority of the 

participants were slightly familiar or not familiar at all with photo editing software, indicating 

that the majority were novices. Participants were tested in groups of 1-5.  

Design 

Experimental Manipulations. 

 

The study had a between-subjects design with a EMT only group and an EMT + SR 

group. In both groups, participants were presented with the EMT instructions and all the 

materials. In the EMT group, after learning the material and before being tested, participants 

were given a distractor task (Tetris) for three minutes. In the SR group, after learning the 

material, they were asked to imagine themselves performing the task for three minutes (full 

instructions can be seen in Appendix B).  

EMT. 

 

An EMT environment was created learning module by providing sheets with statements 

encouraging errors (e.g. You made an error, great! You can learn from that). Additionally, 

experimenters conducting the training emphasized the positive nature of errors by repeating 

 
 
 

 
21

those phrases.  Experimenters were instructed only to help in the case of technical errors, such as 

a computer crashing, and only to provide encouragement after participants made an error 

(examples of the EMT instructions can be found in Appendix E).  

SR. 

 

SR was added to the experimental condition after learning the material, and before 

undergoing the adaptive transfer task. Participants were presented with the adaptive transfer task 

sheet and asked to imagine themselves performing the actions necessary to create the card shown 

in the task (see Appendix B for exact SR instructions). After hearing the instructions, the 

participants were asked to practice SR for three minutes. The time frame was chosen because 

previous results from a meta-analysis indicated that large effect size was found for cognitive 

tasks with small trials and relatively short periods of practice time (M= 3.17 mins). Additionally, 

cognitive tasks were found to require less time and trials than motor tasks (Feltz & Landers, 

1983). 

Materials 

Photo Editing Software. 

 

The training was focused on using Photopea. Photopea is an image editing software that 

is very similar to Photoshop which is popular among photographers and graphic designers. 

Photopea is a free alternative to Photoshop and contains an almost identical interface. Photopea  

was chosen because it is a complex program that the majority of people are not technically 

proficient on, and because it was thought to be intrinsically motivating as a practical skill. It was 

thought that using Photopea would keep participants engaged more than an arbitrary task. 

 
 
 

 
22

Similar studies using EMT and SR have been conducted on computer software (e.g., Davis & Yi, 

2004; Keith & Frese, 2005).  

Learning Videos. 

 

Training videos were taken from the Adobe website. Video times differed ranging from 

2-5 minutes. Videos were divided into two different groups: introductory and task focused. The 

introductory videos focus on basic skills required to navigate the program such as learning the 

toolbars, functions, layers, and selections. Introductory training videos include: Work area 

(3:58), Undo (4:53), Understand Layers (4:44), and Selections (4:18). The work area video 

focuses on navigating the interface of photoshop including the menu bar, options bar, tools 

panel, panels, and document window. The undo video focuses on how to undo an operation using 

commands and the user interface. The understand layers video teaches participants use layers, a 

crucial concept for using photoshop. The selection video focuses on how to select certain 

elements within the document. 

Task-focused videos focused on specific skills that participants will practice and will be 

tested on. Adding an image (3:06), Inserting text into an image (4:57), Adding shapes (4:15), and 

Brush tool and Color Selection (3:41). Each video focuses on a specific task you can do in 

photoshop. Each learning module includes a narrator walking the viewer through the precise 

steps needed to complete the task. Screenshots and links to the videos can be found in Appendix 

K. 

Learning Sheets. 

Each learning module was accompanied by a paper sheet outlining the key steps. These 

included steps on how to perform the particular action, as well as icons and keyboard shortcuts 

 
 
 

 
23

that are useful in completing the actions. Learning sheets can be found in Appendix F. The 

training tasks were directly related to the task-focused video modules. Tasks were related to 

adding images, inserting text, inserting shapes, and brush tool use and color selection. Details of 

these tasks can be found in Appendix F. 

Distractor Task. 

A distractor task was given to participants in the EMT condition in between the training 

phase and the adaptive transfer test. Participants were directed to the webpage “freetetris.org” 

and started a game of the popular brick stacking game. Participants played for three minutes. No 

measurements were taken, nor scores recorded. The task was purely meant to keep them from 

practicing or thinking about the training they underwent.  

Measures 

Demographics. 

Gender, age, race, ethnicity information from participants. A sheet can be found in 

Appendix C. 

Metacognition. 

 

Following the last trial, participants completed a 12-item measure of metacognitive 

activity adapted from Ford et al. (1998). Items asked about self-monitoring and planning 

behaviors. Reliability was high (α = .82) See appendix H for items. 

Trait Goal Orientation. 

 

Vandewalle (1997)’s measure of trait goal orientation was used to assess trait goal 

orientation. Response options ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. An 

example item for trait mastery orientation is “I am willing to take on challenges that I can learn a 

 
 
 

 
24

lot from.” An example item for trait prove orientation is “I’m concerned with showing that I can 

perform better than my peers.” An example item for trait avoid orientation is “I prefer to avoid 

situations where I might perform poorly.” Trait mastery (α = .85), prove (α = .70), and avoid (α = 

.78) goal orientations all had high reliabilities.  Trait goal orientation was be measured only once, 

before the familiarization phase. See Appendix D for items.  

State Goal Orientation. 

 

 Following the last trial, participants filled out a fifteen-item questionnaire measuring 

goal orientation (Hovarth, Scheau, & Deshon, 2001). The scale has subscales for three goal 

orientations: learning, prove, and avoidance. Questions focus on the motivation for how they feel 

about the training. E.g, “On this task, my goal is to learn the task as well as I can”. Reliability for 

the learning (α = .90), prove (α = .81), and avoid orientation (α = .81) were all high. See 

appendix G for items. 

Task self-efficacy. 

A measure of task self-efficacy was adapted from Ford et. al. (1998) and made specific to 

the photo editing training.  Items asked about the extent to which participants felt confident in 

their abilities and potential to learn photoshop skills. Participants were asked both before 

undergoing training and after the adaptive transfer task. Reliability was high for both pre-test (α  

=. 82) and post-test measures (α = .87). See Appendix I for items.  

Knowledge quiz. 

A knowledge quiz was created to test the knowledge of photoshop skills learned in the 

training. The quiz included measures of basic knowledge such as what certain icons are, as well 

as procedural knowledge questions about the processes of completing certain tasks within the 

 
 
 

 
25

software.  This was a self-made measure. The basic knowledge test was 17 items (α = .64) and 

the procedural knowledge test was 11 items (α = .61). Because of high correlation between the 

measures (r = .53) they were combined for the exploratory path modeling (α = .75) . See 

Appendices M and N for the items. 

Adaptive transfer performance. 

Adaptive transfer performance was be measured using a task that is harder to implement 

than the previously learned skills from the training. No direct directions were given, they were 

instructed to recreate a birthday invitation to the best of their ability. The task was to design a 

birthday invitation with the following elements: a picture of the person provided, text, a 

background image, and more. Participants received a score based on how many elements they 

complete correctly.  See Table 5 for task instructions. The task was scored by two independent 

raters by awarding points for correct elements. The average of the two raters was used. The 

correlation between raters was r = .98. A two-way random effects intraclass correlation 

coefficient (ICC) for multiple raters using consistency was calculated according to guidelines 

found in Koo et. al (2016). The ICC = .99 which indicated a high level of interrater reliability. 

See Table 5 for the scoring rubric used. 

Usefulness. 

Participants were asked if they found the training useful. This was a self-made measure 

consisting of three items related to the perceived usefulness of the training (α = .88). See 

appendix J for items. 

 

 
 
 

 

 
26

Concept Relatedness Task and Concept Map Representation. 

 

Schemas and mental models were measured using a rating procedure to generate a 

network of relationships among topics which were then used to create a concept map using 

Pathfinder analysis. A list of 16 topics was created to represent the main concepts of the training. 

The list of topics was given to an expert in photoshop. The photoshop expert is a designer and 

owner at an advertising firm and uses the app extensively in his day to day work. He has 17 years 

using the app to create artistic and commercial projects.  The expert was asked the relatedness of 

two of the concepts, one pair at a time (1 not related at all, 7 completely related). This was used 

to create an expert mental model using the PATHFINDER analysis (Schvaneveldt, Durso, & 

Dearholt, 1989).  

` 

Participants in both experimental conditions then filled out the same relatedness ratings 

on the 16 concepts. Each experimental group had their ratings averaged; these average ratings 

were then input into the JPathfinder software to calculate the pathfinder networks for each 

experimental group. The models were compared using the pathfinder analysis (Schvaneveldt, 

1989). Models more similar to the expert model were judged to be better organized mental 

models and thus indicative of commitment of the mental model/schema to long term memory. 

See appendix N for an example of the rating task.  

For both the expert and experimental groups Pathfinder concept maps were created using 

JPathfinder software (Schvaneveldt, 2017). Ratings data were used to create the maps according 

to the guidelines set out in Schvaneveldt et. al (1989) for ordinal data. The r parameter of infinity 

was used. The p parameter was set to (n-1) in this case 15. This resulted in the most 

parsimonious model with only the strongest links shown.   

 
 
 

 
27

Experimental Flow 

The experiment had five phases, the pre-study phase, introductory phase, the training 

phase, the test phase, and the adaptive transfer phase. The study was focused on the outcome of 

adaptive transfer. In order to best detect this effect, it was crucial that the SR immediately 

preceded the adaptive transfer task. For this reason, the survey measures were completed after 

the adaptive transfer task. The focus of the study was on the addition of SR to aid adaptive 

transfer, not on the general mechanisms which have been covered in other research. Appendix A 

has a summary of the experimental flow. 

Pre-study phase. 

 

Participants filled out an online form including demographics, and measures of goal 

orientation and state mastery orientation.  

Introductory Phase. 

Participants entered the testing room and sat at computers with the familiarization video 

loaded. The videos taught basic aspects of navigating the software.  

Training Phase. 

 

The training phase consisted of four learning modules based on each video. 

Participants were informed that they were watching a training video and to pay close attention. 

Participants then watched the video.  

After this, the participants were instructed to complete tasks based on what they learned 

in the video (see Appendix F). Participants received the error framing instructions (e.g., “Errors 

are good for learning) before attempting the tasks (see appendix E for instructions). These were 

repeated for each learning module. 

 
 
 

 
28

Post Training/Test Phase. 

  

After all video and practice, the participants were shown the final task sheet (see Figure 

5). They were given 30 seconds to look it over. After looking at the sheet, the participants were 

instructed to do SR for three minutes and imagine themselves recreating the card (see appendix 

B for instructions). Participants in the EMT condition worked on the distractor task (Tetris) for 

the same amount of time as the combined EMT + SR condition. Both conditions were three 

minutes long. Participants then did the adaptive transfer task. They were given fifteen minutes to 

recreate the birthday card on the sheet. A post survey was taken. Measures of state mastery 

orientation, metacognition, and task self-efficacy were taken.  Participants then completed the 

basic knowledge and procedural knowledge tests.  

Pilot Study 

 

Pilot studies were conducted to ensure the experiment is working as described. SR 

manipulations were checked in order to determine if instructions are adequate to be followed by 

participants and if participants engage in SR. The overall time of the study was examined to see 

if it runs too long and whether adjustments need to be made. Overall aspects of the study such as 

the script, ordering of the manipulations, and time allowed were examined. After running an 

initial twenty participants it was determined that the materials and the study design were 

adequate to move into the final study with minor changes. The largest change from pilot to full 

study, was the experimental manipulations. Originally, in the EMT condition, participants were 

given a break and not instructed to do anything during this break other than relax. This was 

changed in the final study to a distractor task (playing Tetris) in order to prevent them in 

engaging in symbolic rehearsal on their own or reviewing the material or skills they learned.  

 
 
 

 
29

Additionally, the SR instructions were altered to include an explanation for why they were doing 

the SR exercise and its benefits for learning.  

Analytic Strategy 

 

Hypotheses 1 and 2 were tested using between subjects t-tests to test for significant mean 

differences in outcomes. Hypothesis 3 was tested using Pathfinder analysis and the Jpathfinder 

software to generate concept maps. Concept relatedness ratings were correlated between 

experimental conditions. The number of links shared in common between the concept map of the 

expert, and both experimental groups was compared.  The similarity between models was also 

calculated according to guidelines found in Schvaneveldt et al. (1989).  

 

Post hoc analyses were conducted based on the significant findings in the correlation 

table and past research on the subject. An illustration of the tested model and paths can be found 

in Figure 4.  

 

 
 
 

 

 
30

CHAPTER 3 

RESULTS 

Means, standard deviations can be found in table 1 and bivariate correlations between 

variables are provided in table 2. Means and standard deviations for the variables separated by 

experimental conditions are presented in table 3. A high correlation was found between the 

procedural and basic knowledge test (r = .53), so, a combined measure was created by summing 

the scores of the two tasks together (α = .75). All reliabilities were acceptable with the exception 

of the basic (α = .64) and procedural knowledge tests (α = .61) which were lower.   

Examining the bivariate correlations, several relationships were found that match with 

previous research (e.g., Bell and Kozlowski, 2008). Significant relationships were found between 

the adaptive transfer measure and the knowledge measure (r = .42), the state prove measure (r = 

.30) and the state learning measure (r =.27), as well as a change in self efficacy (r =.41). The 

combined knowledge test was related to self efficacy (r= .23), state learning orientation (r= .27) 

and negatively related to a trait performance prove orientation (r = -.19). State learning 

orientation was positively related to metacognition (r=.56) and trait learning orientation (r = .34). 

No significant correlations were found between the experimental conditions, and any of the 

variables in the experiment. In order to test the main effect of the experimental manipulation on 

outcome variables, between subjects t-tests were conducted between the two conditions (SR and 

SR + EMT). Results of these tests can be found in Table 3. None of the tests revealed significant 

differences between conditions. The addition of SR did not show a significant effect on any of 

the observed outcome variables.  

 

 
 
 

 

 
31

Hypothesis 1 

Hypothesis 1 stated that experimental condition adding together SR and EMT will 

perform better than the condition that has EMT alone on adaptive transfer tasks. This was not 

found to be the case. There was no significant difference between the EMT condition (M = 12.2, 

SD = 4.9) and the SR + EMT condition (M = 12.7, SD = 5.6) in performance on the adaptive 

transfer task (t = .51, p = .61, d = .09,). Hypothesis 1 was not supported. 

Hypothesis 2 

Hypothesis 2 stated that participants in the experimental condition adding together SR 

and EMT would perform better on a procedural knowledge task than participants in the condition 

that has EMT alone. This was not found to be the case. There were no significant differences 

between the EMT + SR (M = 7.58, SD = 2.29) and EMT conditions (M = 7.74, SD = 2.05) in 

performance on the procedural knowledge task (t = .44, p = .66, d = .08). The addition of SR to 

EMT did not result in increased procedural knowledge. Hypothesis 2 was not supported. 

Hypothesis 3 

Hypothesis 3 stated that participants in the experimental condition adding together SR 

and EMT will have a more similar mental model to experts than participants in the condition that 

has EMT alone.  In order to test this hypothesis, pathfinder concept maps were created using 

JPathfinder software (Schvaneveldt, 2017). Ratings data were used to create the maps according 

to the guidelines set out in Schvaneveldt et. al (1989) for ordinal data. The r parameter of infinity 

was used. The p parameter was set to (n-1), in this case 15. This resulted in the most 

parsimonious model with only the strongest links shown. The average ratings were calculated for 

 
 
 

 
32

each experimental group; and input into the Jpathfinder software to calculate the pathfinder 

networks, and generate the concept maps.  

The expert model had 19 links between the nodes, compared to 15 links in the EMT 

condition and 16 links in the EMT + SR condition. The expert concept model can be seen in 

figure 1, the EMT group can be seen in figure 2, and the EMT + SR group model can be seen in 

figure 3. 

This demonstrated that the expert had a more interconnected mental model than the 

novices in this sample. Tools, color, and layers emerge as central nodes in this model with the 

number of links to other nodes of 5, 5, and 4 respectively. This indicates that these are central 

concepts of the photoshop software.  

Pathfinder analysis can be analyzed in terms of similarity of the links between the expert 

and learner models. The similarity between pathfinder networks is the number of links in 

common divided by the total number of unique links in the two networks Two identical networks 

will yield a similarity of 1 and two networks that share no links will yield similarity of 0. 

(Schvaneveldt et al., 1989) The measure is the proportion of all the links in the two networks that 

are in both networks. From this formula, the similarity between the expert network and the two 

conditions was calculated. The EMT condition had a similarity of .36 (p < .01) when compared 

to the expert network, and the EMT + SR condition had a similarity of .30 (p < .01). The 

similarity between the two networks derived from novices in the different conditions was .55 (p 

< .01).  

When examining correlations between the ratings of groups the correlation between the 

EMT group and the EMT + SR group was r = .94, between the expert rater and EMT of .65, and 

 
 
 

 
33

between the expert rater and EMT + SR group was r = .71. A Fisher r to z transformation was 

used to test for a significant difference between these correlations. No significant difference was 

found. z(135) = .64, p = .52. Hypothesis 3 was not supported. 

Looking at the structure of the models, both of the novice derived networks were more 

linear than the highly interconnected expert model. Many of the nodes only have one or two 

links and there were not a lot of nodes that were heavily interconnected with others. For 

example, in the expert node, layers is connected to 5 other nodes, while in the EMT group 

network it is connected to 3 nodes and in the EMT + SR group it is connected to only 2. Between 

the EMT group and EMT + SR group, the tools concept was more connected in the EMT (4 

links) than in the EMT + SR group (2 links).  

Exploratory Analyses 

After testing the main hypotheses, exploratory analyses were conducted using the 

information collected. These were modeled based on the findings in previous research. These 

analyses looked at the relationships among variables independent of the experimental condition. 

Previous training research indicated state learning orientation was predictive of change in self-

efficacy, declarative knowledge, and metacognition activity (Ford et. al., 1998; Keith & Frese, 

2005; Bell & Kozlowski, 2008). Previous training research indicated that self-efficacy has 

predictive relationships with declarative knowledge and adaptive transfer (Bell & Kozlowski, 

2008, Kozlowski et. al., 2001). Meta-analytic results also indicated a significant relationship 

between declarative knowledge and adaptive transfer (Blume, Ford, & Baldwin). A path model 

was created to model these relationships. The model can be seen in figure 4. The model tested 

has trait mastery predicting state learning which then predicts score on the knowledge quiz, 

 
 
 

 
34

change in self-efficacy and the measure of metacognition.  The score on the knowledge quiz, 

metacognition, and change in self-efficacy then predict the score on the adaptive transfer task.  

The model fit well (Chi-square (7) = 7.77, p = .35, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .03, SRMR = .06). 

Significant path coefficients were found with trait mastery orientation predicting state learning 

orientation (b = .5, p <.01). State learning orientation predicted metacognition (b = .57, p <.01), 

change in self-efficacy (b= .36, p < .01) and declarative knowledge (b = .22, p = .01). Change in 

self-efficacy also predicted declarative knowledge (b = .18 p = .03) declarative knowledge (b = 

.43, p <.01) and change in self-efficacy (b = .35, p <.01) were both predictors of adaptive transfer 

performance. The only nonsignificant path was metacognition predicting declarative knowledge 

(b = -.03, p = .82).  

An alternate model was tested removing the nonsignificant path between metacognition and 

declarative Knowledge. Model fit indicated an increase in fit (chi-square (8) = 7.79, p = .46, CFI 

= 1.00, RMSEA = .00, SRMR = .05).  A chi-square difference test was not significant (chi-

square (1) = .01 p = .91), indicating that the two models did not fit significantly differently. The 

alternative model provided better explanation without decreasing model fit and was thus 

adopted. Path estimates, standard errors, and p-values of the path model can be found in Table 4.  

 

 
 
 

 

 
35

CHAPTER 4 

DISCUSSION 

The purpose of this study was to examine whether an integration of SR and EMT 

methods of training would result in increased training effectiveness. Using theories from active 

learning and both the EMT and SR training literature, I predicted that by integrating EMT and 

SR adaptive transfer would be enhanced by increased procedural knowledge and more expert-

like mental models. Results suggest that this was not the case. A specific discussion of the results 

of each hypothesis follows. 

Hypotheses 1 and 2 examined effects on the outcomes of adaptive transfer and procedural 

knowledge respectively. These were both not supported by the data of this study. Adding SR to 

EMT did not produce a significant difference in these outcomes.  

Hypothesis 3 proposed that the mechanism by which SR could enhance EMT is though the 

organization of better mental models. Hypothesis 3 was not supported; the experimental group’s 

mental model was not closer to experts as predicted. The EMT group had a slightly more similar 

mental model to the experts than the EMT + SR group. However, the correlation of .94 between 

EMT and EMT + SR group concept ratings indicates that the two groups rated concepts 

extremely similarly. The hypothesis that adding SR would help to create a better mental model 

that was related to experts was not supported in this experiment.  

The lack of significant differences between groups in several key indicators could suggest a 

variety of explanations. One of which is that SR and EMT are both techniques that encourage 

similar mechanisms in learning.  Both are forms of deliberate practice, although with different 

emphases and tangibility. In EMT metacognition is encouraged through the exploration and 

 
 
 

 
36

monitoring of learning throughout. During EMT here is considerable planning, rehearsing, and 

practice that takes place when trying new things or imagining yourself completing a task. When 

approaching new situations in EMT people are navigating an unfamiliar environment that causes 

them to be constantly evaluating their own knowledge and testing new things. In SR the person 

has to come up with a way of achieving some goal by practicing learned behaviors in their mind.  

in the same way they are navigating the environment in their mind and testing out ways to do 

things in a way they think will work. They draw on prior knowledge and their experience 

working with the program. In actuality the cognitive mechanisms used in the two techniques 

might not be different at all. Both highlight metacognitive processes and highlight gaps in 

knowledge. It might be the case that since they both have similar mechanisms and are effective 

for enhancing training effectiveness, that adding them together doesn’t add additional benefit to 

training transfer. However, the lack of a control group between EMT and SR limits what the 

process behind this similarity might be. Future studies should compare and contrast the 

mechanisms responsible for enhancing training transfer in both.  

Exploratory analyses confirmed several relationships found in previous studies. State 

Learning orientation was found to be predictive of change in Self-Efficacy, Declarative 

Knowledge, and Metacognition activity. This is in line with previous training research (Ford et. 

al., 1998; Keith & Frese, 2005; Bell & Kozlowski, 2008). Change in Self-efficacy was found to 

predict Declarative Knowledge and Adaptive Transfer. Once again, this was in line with 

previous research studies including these two variables. (Bell & Kozlowski, 2008, Kozlowski et. 

al., 2001). Declarative Knowledge predicted Adaptive Transfer. Meta-analytic results are in line 

with this relationship (Blume, Ford, & Baldwin, 2010). 

 
 
 

 
37

Limitations and Future Directions 

There are several limitations to this study that can be addressed in future research. The first 

of which is the fact that this is a an experimental study with no results over time. Knowledge and 

training transfer were taken at the same time the training occurred. For EMT, the effectiveness of 

training is seen largely in posttraining contexts and there is actually a decrement in performance 

within training (Keith & Frese, 2008). A separation between the time of the training and the time 

of the transfer task might yield different results for training transfer and knowledge acquisition. 

Additionally, with a longitudinal study design there could be an examination of trajectories such 

as skill/knowledge decay, mental model stability, and other outcomes that show how EMT and 

SR could have differential effects over time. Additionally, constructs such as self-efficacy, 

metacognition, and state goal orientation were taken after the adaptive transfer task. These were 

used as predictors of adaptive transfer in the exploratory analysis, but did not precede the 

adaptive transfer measure. 

The concepts were chosen based on relevance to the training program. However, these 

concepts were not created using subject matter experts. Future studies should use the knowledge 

of subject matter experts or people who teach photoshop to create the most relevant and useful 

concepts for assessing a conceptual model of the photoshop software. 

Second, there was no control group and comparison between SR and EMT. There was only 

an EMT group and the combined EMT and SR group. This did not allow for direct comparison 

of the techniques, it only allowed for comparing EMT and the combination of EMT and SR. A 

future study could employ a 2x2 design with EMT and no EMT instructions on one axis, and SR 

and no SR on the other axis. This would include a true control group and would allow for the 

 
 
 

 
38

comparison of the addition of either technique to a training with each other. Do they both 

improve training effectiveness equally, or is one better than the other? Which areas do they affect 

the most? It would also allow for the comparison of the psychological mechanisms such as self-

efficacy, metacognition, mental models, and more. It would reveal whether the techniques 

invoke similar or different mechanisms. A larger study would allow for answering these 

questions and would better illustrate the interaction of the two training techniques.  

The symbolic rehearsal manipulation might not have been strong enough to evoke a 

difference in any of the outcome variables. There was only one three-minute period where 

participants were asked to participate in SR. A future study with more opportunities for SR 

maybe after each learning module, might produce stronger differences that could be detected. 

The manipulation was not checked with a measure to ensure participants were actually engaging 

in SR. Pilot studies were not focused on the content of SR that participants were engaging in. 

Future studies should monitor this to determine the correct amount of SR and whether it is 

effective for training. 

The measure of posttraining self-efficacy was taken after the adaptive transfer test. This ties 

self-efficacy directly to performance which makes it hard to state whether self-efficacy predicted 

performance or whether high performance predicted self-efficacy. Future studies should 

counterbalance the timing of this measure to examine this relationship.  

Metacognition was self-reported after learning and the adaptive transfer task. It was not 

taken while undergoing the training. Other studies could look at this measure as the experiment 

goes on through think aloud procedures, or to take more frequent samples of self-report 

metacognitive activity throughout the task.  

 
 
 

 
39

The experiment did not provide much task feedback to participants. A meta-analysis of 

EMT has indicated that task feedback is important for training transfer (Keith & Frese, 2008). In 

future studies, task feedback could be given after each trial to help cement learning and the 

correct techniques. This could be done by having experimenters look at the work and give 

feedback. 

Another limitation is that of external validity. This experiment was done in a laboratory 

environment with college undergraduate students. No samples were taken in the workplace. 

Workers in training situations have different motivations. They might be more motivated to 

complete the training and transfer it if it is required by their job. SR might be a more effective 

tactic to use in a workplace setting. 

 

 
 
 

 

 
40

 

  
 
 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDICES 

 

 
41

Appendix A 

Experimental Flow 

Pre Survey 
Fill out consent form, trait goal orientation, intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy  
Subtotal: 10 minutes 
Introductory Phase 
Work area (3:58) 
Understand Layers (4:44) 
Selections (4:18) 
Subtotal: Videos (13:00) 
Training/Manipulation Phase 
Add image (4:25) 
Add text (4:57) 
Create Shape (4:32) 
Use color /the brush tool (4:44) 
 
Watch training video (3-7 min) 
Symbolic rehearsal/break (3 min) 
Instructions/error framing (1 min) 
Exploration/practice task (5 min) 
Subtotal – 16 mins X 4 = 64 minutes 
Posttraining Test Phase 
Knowledge Test (15 min) 
Adaptive Transfer (15 min) 
Post survey/Knowledge Quiz (20 min) 
Subtotal  (50 min) 
 
Total: 127 minutes 

 

 
 
 

 
42

Appendix B 

Script 

Pass out sign in sheet, ask them to put down their full name. Make sure you fill in the date.  
Introduction: 
Hello, thank you for participating in this experiment. For this experiment you will be learning 
various skills in Photopea. Photopea is a photo editing software very similar to photoshop. 
Please review and then sign the consent sheet when you are ready.  
Consent sheet is included on the first page of the Qualtrics survey. 

1.  Pre-Survey Phase: 

Now we will be filling out a survey. Please answer honestly and how you feel. When you 
reach a page that says minimize the response, please contact the experimenter and wait 
until the next phase of the experiment. 
(direct all participants to the Qualtrics survey page) 

2.  Familiarization Phase 
Thank you. Now you will be watching videos on various photoshop elements to help get you 
familiar with the software. At this point nothing is required other than viewing the videos.  
Please put on the headphones provided and watch the videos. I will load the videos for you 
to watch. 

(Put on the familiarization video 1.IntroVideo.mp4,  subsequent times follow the order 
2.AddingText.mp4, 3.AddingShapes.mp4, 4.colors.mp4 ) 
 

3.  After video: 
(Only after the first video) 
Pass out the error management instruction sheet and the learning sheet.  
Here is a sheet that has some phrases I would like you to think about during the instruction 
today. Please read over these phrases and use them during the training today. 
Give 30 seconds or so to allow people to read the sheets 

 
SAY THIS THE FIRST TIME 
During today’s training, do not hesitate to make errors as you explore and learn Photopea. Errors 
are a natural part of any training experience! When you make errors, you create opportunities to 
learn from your mistakes. By making errors, you can develop a better understanding of the task. 
When you make an error during the task, view it as a chance to learn something new! Remember 
that you should make errors in the training simulation today.  
 
SAY THIS SUBSEQUENT TIMES 
Please do not hesitate to make errors as you explore and learn Photopea. Errors will help you 
learn. Consult the helpful phrase sheet for things to think and say when you make an error.  
 
Say this every time 

 
 
 

 
43

Now you will be asked to complete the tasks indicated on the learning sheet and the video you 
just watched (direct them towards the proper number on the learning sheet). You will have five 
minutes to complete the task and explore as you wish. Please use Photopea to complete the 
tasks.  
 (Set timer for 5 minutes, allow them to explore and work)  
 
Don’t answer any questions or actually help them beyond critical failures (e.g. browser closing, 
computer shutdown). Respond positively to any questions saying that they are supposed to make 
errors and explore. If they really press you, you can say that you are not there to help them, just 
let them try to fix the problem on their own.  
 
AFTER 
Thank you. Now I will be putting on another video for you to learn.  
 
REPEAT Step 2 and 3 for each module changing videos each time. You don’t need to pass out 
the sheets again. 
 

4.  After all videos have been shown and practiced 
Pass out skill test sheet with birthday card on it 

 
You will be asked to recreate this birthday card using Photopea. Please view the card. Please do 
not start working. 
(Wait 30 seconds, don’t let them work on it) 
 
 
 
Administer the following instructions to the attendees.  
NO SR condition: 
Now you will be doing something different this time. Please play the game Tetris for the next 
three minutes. 
(Open up freetetris.org in a new tab and start a game, set timer for 3 minutes) 
 
SR condition: 
 
Now we will be doing visualization. Research has shown that by doing a visualization exercise, 
you can enhance learning and performance. It has been used in sports psychology to help 
enhance training and performance of Olympic athletes.  
 
For the next three minutes please close your eyes and imagine yourself performing the actions 
necessary to create this birthday card. Draw on your experience with the software and the 
learning videos to help you imagine. Visualize yourself interacting with the software and the 

 
 
 

 
44

computer in order to accomplish the task. Try to use as detailed imagery as you can when 
imagining the task. 
(Set timer for three minutes and wait) 
 
After SR or Tetris 
Now you will be tested on your skills. You will be asked to create a birthday card identical to the 
one shown in the picture on the sheet. Pay attention to the color and position of the text, shapes, 
images and background. Try your best. You will have 15 minutes to complete this test. 
(Open up a new document in photopea, Use default settings 1280 x 720 pixels, 72 dpi, 
background white give it the name give it the name XXXXcard (XXXX = ID number)) 
(Set timer for 15 minutes, update participants by announcing time left at 10, 5, and 1 minutes left 
Do not help them except for technical problems such as exiting the webpage, or other critical 
errors, don’t help with content or skills.) 
 

5.  Post Survey 
Now you will be completing the survey. Direct everyone back to the Qualtrics survey in the 

other page.  

First, you will be doing concept ratings. Please answer how related each of these concepts are 
to each other. Use 1 for not related at all and 7 for extremely related. Please respond to each pair.  

After this, there will be some questions asking you to reflect on the training.  
Finally, there is a knowledge test. Please answer all the questions and select the correct 

answer to the best of your ability.  

After you have completed all of these elements, please let the experimenter know. 
Participants may leave after completing the survey 

 
 

 
 
 

 

 
45

Appendix C 

Demographics/Information 

 

Demographics Questionnaire  
Please provide as much of the following information as is applicable. It is important to 
understand that these scores will be kept confidential and used only for research 
purposes. If you do not remember your exam scores, please put a zero in that space.  

Gender: _____ (M / F / Other: please list)  
Age: _____  
Race: ___________________ 
 
What operating system is your main computer? 
Windows ___ 
Macintosh OS ___ 
Linux ___ 
Other ___ 
Do you have experience with image editing software (e.g., photoshop, GIMP, MS paint, etc.) 
I have no experience __ 
I have used it once __ 
I occasionally use it __ 
I use it every day __ 
It is part of my job __ 
 

 

 
 
 

 
46

Appendix D 

Trait Goal Orientation Measure (Vandewalle, 1997) 

 
For each of the following statements, please indicate how true it is for you on the scale provided 

below.  

1 

Strongly 
Disagree 

2 

Disagree 

3 

Neither Agree 
Nor Disagree 

4 

Agree 

5 

Strongly Agree 

I am willing to take on challenges that I can learn a lot from.  
I often look for opportunities to develop new skills and knowledge.  
I enjoy challenging and difficult activities where I’ll learn new skills.  
For me, development of my abilities is important enough to take risks.  

I prefer to do things that require a high level of ability and talent.  
I’m concerned with showing that I can perform better than my peers.  
I try to figure out what it takes to prove my ability to others.  
I enjoy it when others are aware of how well I am doing.  
I prefer to participate in things where I can prove my ability to others.  

I would avoid taking on a new task if there was a chance that I would appear rather 
incompetent to others.  
Avoiding a show of low ability is more important to me than learning a new skill.  
I’m concerned about taking on a task if my performance would reveal that I had low 
ability. 
I prefer to avoid situations where I might perform poorly 

 
Goal Orientation Learning  
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
 
Goal Orientation Prove:  
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
 
Goal Orientation Avoidance:  
1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 
 
 

 
 
 

 

 
47

Appendix E 

Error Management Training Manipulations 

 
EMT Instructions. 
During today’s training, do not hesitate to make errors as you explore and learn Photoshop. 
Errors are a natural part of any training experience! When you make errors, you create 
opportunities to learn from your mistakes. By making errors, you can develop a better 
understanding of the task. When you make an error during the task, view it as a chance to learn 
something new! Remember that you should make errors in the training simulation today.  
 
EMT Quick Reference Document 
Read and recite these phrases to yourself when participating in the simulation. 
 
I have made an error. Great! 
There is always a way to leave the error situation! 
Look at the screen to find out what happened and when an error was made. 
Watch what is on the screen and what is changing.  
It is good to make mistakes.  
You can learn from errors. 
Errors are a natural part of any training experience. 
Errors inform you about what you can still learn! 
The more errors you make, the more you learn! 
Remember you can always come back from an error, use “control + z” to undo an action 
 

 

 
 
 

 
48

Appendix F 

Learning Sheets 

 
1. What you learned: To add images to a design 

1.  Choose File > Open and Place, navigate to the any image (This PC > Pictures >Photoshop>) file 

in File Explorer (Windows) and click Open.  

2.  Hold the Shift key to avoid distorting the image and drag the corners of the image border to 

resize the added image. 

3.  Drag inside the border to position the added image where you want it. 

4.  Click the check mark in the options bar to finalize the placement. This automatically creates a 

new layer containing the added image. 

5.  Try adding and rearranging multiple images on the canvas 

 
2. What you learned: To add text 

1.  In the Tools panel, select the Horizontal Type tool. 

2.  In the options bar, choose a font, font size, color, and other options for your text. You can edit 

any of these settings later. 

3.  Click on the canvas and enter a single line of text. You can also create a paragraph of text by 

dragging out a text box and then typing inside the box. 

4.  Click the check mark in the options bar to accept the text and exit text mode. 

This automatically creates a new, editable type layer in the Layers panel. 

5.  Use the Move tool to move your text into position in the image. 

 
3. What you learned: To create a shape 

1.  In the Tools panel, click and hold the Rectangle tool (or whichever Shape tool is showing 
in your Tools panel at the moment) to view all the shape tools. Select a tool for the shape 
you want to draw. 

2.  In the options bar, choose a Fill color and other options for your shape. These can be 

changed later. 

3.  Hold the Shift key to avoid distorting the shape as you drag in an image to create an 

editable shape. This automatically creates a new shape layer in the Layers panel. 

4.  Use the Move tool to move the shape into position in the image. 
5.  Scale, transform, or rotate a shape without harming its image quality by choosing Edit > 

Free Transform or pressing Control+T (Windows) or Command+T (macOS). 

 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 

 

 
49

4. What you learned: To use tools that have brush tips 

1.  In the Tools panel, select the Brush tool. 
2.  In the options bar, change the size and hardness of the brush. You can also select a 

different brush tip to change how the brush strokes look. 

3.  An alternative way to increase brush size is to press the right bracket key several times. 
4.  To decrease brush size, press the left bracket key several times 

 
What you learned 

1.  The Brush tool, the Shape tools, the Type tool, and other features that apply color use the 

color in the Foreground Color box at the bottom of the Tools panel. 

2.  There are multiple ways to set the foreground color. You can select the Eyedropper tool 

and sample a color from the image, or use the Color Picker, Color panel, or Swatches 
panel. 

3.  Behind the Foreground Color box is a Background Color box, where you can store 

another color. 

4.  To switch the Foreground and Background color boxes to quickly access either color, 

click the double-pointed arrow just above the two color boxes or press the X key. 

 
 

 
 
 

 

 
50

Appendix G 

State Mastery Orientation Measure (Horvath et al., 2001)  

 

For each of the following statements, please indicate how true it is for you with regard to how 

your approach this task on the scale provided below.  

1 

2 

3 

Strongly 

Disagree 

Disagree 

Neither Agree 
Nor Disagree 

4 

Agree 

5 

Strongly Agree 

I prefer to work on aspects of this task that force me to learn new things.  
I am willing to work on challenging aspects of this task that I can learn a lot from.  
The opportunity to learn new things about this task is important to me.  
The opportunity to work on challenging aspects of this task is important to me.  
On this task, my goal is to learn the task as well as I can.  

 
Goal Orientation Learning  
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
 
Goal Orientation Prove:  
1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 
 
Goal Orientation Avoidance:  
1. 
2. 

It is important to me to perform better than others in this task.  
It is important to me to impress others by doing a good job on this task.  
I was the experimenters and other students to recognize that I am one of the best on this 
task.  
I want to show myself how good I am on this task.  
On this task, my goal is to perform well.  

On this task, I would like to hide from others that they are better than me.  
On this task, I would like to avoid situations where I might demonstrate poor 
performance to myself.  
On this task, I would like to avoid discovering that others are better than me.  
I am reluctant to ask questions about this task because others may think I’m incompetent.  
On this task, my goal is to avoid performing poorly. 

3. 
4. 
5. 
 

 
 
 

 

 
51

Appendix H 

Metacognition Measure 

 
Metacognition (Ford et al., 1998).  
 

1 

Strongly 
Disagree 

2 

Disagree 

3 

Neither Agree 
Nor Disagree 

4 

Agree 

5 

Strongly Agree 

While practicing a module, I monitored how well I was learning its requirements. 
As I practiced the modules, I evaluated how well I was learning the skills of the 
simulation. 
When my methods were not successful, I experimented with different procedures for 
performing the task. 
I tried to monitor closely the areas where I needed the most practice. 
I noticed where I made the most mistakes during practice and focused on improving those 
areas. 
I used my performance on the previous module to revise how I would approach the task 
on the next scenario. 

 

 
1. 
2. 

3. 

4. 
5. 

6. 

 
 
 

 
 
 

 
52

Appendix I 

Self-efficacy Measure (adapted from Ford et al., 1998) 

1 

Strongly 
Disagree 

2 

Disagree 

 
3 

Neither Agree 
Nor Disagree 

4 

Agree 

5 

Strongly Agree 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

 
I can meet the challenges of this training 
I am confident in my understanding of photoshop 
I know how to navigate the photoshop software 
I am certain that I can manage the requirements of using photoshop 
I believe I can learn photoshop 
I am confident that I can learn more difficult elements of photoshop 
 

 

 
 
 

 
53

1 

Strongly 
Disagree 

2 

Disagree 

Appendix J 

Usefulness Measure 

3 

Neither Agree  
Nor Disagree 

 

4 

Agree 

5 

Strongly Agree 

I found this training to be useful for learning photoshop. 
I enjoyed this training 
I would recommend this training to others wishing to learn photoshop. 
 

 

 
 
 

 
54

Appendix K 

Video Links 

 
Get familiar with the work area & Undo a Command 
https://helpx.adobe.com/photoshop/how-to/ps 
basicsfundamentals.html?playlist=/ccx/v1/collection/product/photoshop/segment/designer/exple
vel/beginner/applaunch/ccl-get-started-1/collection.ccx.js 
 
Selections 

https://helpx.adobe.com/photoshop/how-to/selection-tools-
basics.html?playlist=/content/help/en/ccx/v1/collection/product/photoshop/segment/designer/exp
level/beginner/applaunch/ccl-get-started-1/collection.ccx.js 
 
Understand Layers 

https://helpx.adobe.com/photoshop/how-to/ps-layers-
basics.html?playlist=/content/help/en/ccx/v1/collection/product/photoshop/segment/designer/exp
level/beginner/applaunch/ccl-get-started-1/collection.ccx.js 
 
Adding text and Shapes 
https://helpx.adobe.com/photoshop/how-to/adding-text-shapes-
basics.html?playlist=/ccx/v1/collection/product/photoshop/segment/designer/explevel/beginner/a
pplaunch/ccl-get-started-2/collection.ccx.js&ref=helpx.adobe.com 
 
Work with Layers and Add Images 
https://helpx.adobe.com/photoshop/how-to/ps-layers-
basics.html?playlist=/content/help/en/ccx/v1/collection/product/photoshop/segment/designer/exp
level/beginner/applaunch/ccl-get-started-1/collection.ccx.js 
 
Using Color 
https://helpx.adobe.com/photoshop/how-to/color-management-
basics.html?playlist=/ccx/v1/collection/product/photoshop/segment/designer/explevel/beginner/a
pplaunch/ccl-get-started-2/collection.ccx.js&ref=helpx.adobe.com 
 
 
 
 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 
55

Appendix L 

Basic Knowledge Test 

 

The following is a knowledge test about the simulation. Please select the response that best 
answers the question. 

1.  Where is the selection tool located? 

a.  Tools 
b.  Properties 
c.  Options 
d.  Party 

 
 

 

 
 
 

 
 
 

2.  What option changes the edge of a brush? 

a.  Hardness 
b.  Opacity 
c.  Hue 
d.  Transparency 

 

3.  What is the best tool for creating rectangular or elliptical selections? 

a.  Magnetic lassos 
b.  Lasso 
c.  Shape 
d.  Marquee 
 

4.  The _______ tool allows you to select a rectangular or circular area of an layer to change 

or delete.  

a.  Shape 
b.  Marquee 
c.  Crop  
d.  Spot healing  

5.  If you want to change the foreground color selection to one present on the campus what 

tool should you use?  

a.  Paint bucket 
b.  Gradient 
c.  Brush 
d.  Eyedropper 

 

6.  The "eye" icon in the layer panel does what when clicked? 

 
56

a.  Deletes the layer 
b.  Merges layers together 
c.  Hides the layer 
d.  Applies a filter to the layer 

 

7.  Which key/keys do you hold down to prevent distortion when resizing an image 

a.  Option 
b.  Control 
c.  Control + D 
d.  Shift 

8.  If I want to create a rectangle in the most efficient way what tool should I use? 

a.  Marquee 
b.  Shape 
c.  Pen 
d.  Brush 

 

9.  If you want to remove small blemishes from a picture of someone’s face, what tool is 

best for the job? 
a.  Crop tool 
b.  Paintbrush 
c.  Spot Healing Brush 
d.  Selection 

 

10. What keys do you use to deselect a selection you made? 

a.  Control + D 
b.  Control + U 
c.  Option + D 
d.  Option + U 

11. These are the separate pieces for an overall image 

a.  Files  
b.  Groups  
c.  Layers 
d.  Filters 

12. Which is not included in the menu bar 

a.  File 
b.  Edit  
c.  Image 
d.  Crop 

13. What key do you hit to increase the size of a paintbrush 

a.  “/” 
b.  “]” 
c.  “b” 

 
57

 

 
 
 

d.  “m” 

14. What is the name of this tool? 

a.  Paint brush 
b.  Eyedropper 
c.  Spot healing brush 
d.  Marquee tool 

15. Clicking and holding the mouse button on a toolbar icon does what? 

a.  Jncreases the size or strength of that tool 
b.  Locks that tool as the default option 
c.  Reveals help text for that tool 
d.  Shows additional tools related to that tool 

16. Singular transparent sheets which hold a particular part of an image are called: 

a.  Pixel aspect ratio sheets 
b.  Layers 
c.  Fill filters 
d.  Stylize filters 

17. Photoshop keeps track of all of your edits in the _____ palette 

a.  Help 
b.  Gallery 
c.  History 
d.  Clipboard 

 
 

 

 

 
 
 

 
58

Appendix M 

Procedural Knowledge Test 

1.  If you accidentally delete an image what is the BEST way you can get it back? 

a.  Click on edit > undo  
b.  Search in trash on the desktop of the computer 
c.  You cannot retrieve a deleted image 
d.  Download a new image and reinsert it 

2.  You have two existing images on your canvas on separate layers. The images overlap 

such that one occludes the other. You want to change the position of these images such 
that one is in the foreground and one is in the background. What is the best way to go 
about changing this? 

a.  There is nothing you can do, start a new document and insert images in the proper 

order 

b.  Switch the image positions in the layers panel 
c.  Drag and drop the image you want in front 
d.  Delete both images and then reinsert them 

3.  You want to change the color of some text such that it is has a white fill and black outline 

like this: 

What would be the best way to do this? 

a.  Use the color swatch to change the foreground to white and the background to 

black 

b.  Use the paintbrush tool to fill in the text with white and outline that in black 
c.  Use the paint bucket tool to fill the text 
d.  Use word art to find similar looking text  

4.  If you use the selection tool and then use the paintbrush what will happen? 

a.  The paintbrush will only be applied in the area of the selection where you click 
b.  The entire selection will be filled with paint color selected 
c.  The paintbrush strokes will be applied to a new layer within the selection 
d.  The paintbrush will not apply any strokes within the selection 

5.  What is the MOST efficient and accurate way to match a color you see in part of an 

image? 

a.  Look up the color online to find its hexadecimal value and then select that in the 

colors panel 

b.  Use the color wheel picker to see and match the color  
c.  Use the eyedropper tool and click on the part of the image with the color you wish 

to match 

d.  Adjust the hue of the current color selected until it matches that color 

6.  What function does the Magic Wand tool, the Lasso tool, and the Rectangular Marquee 

tool have in common? 
a.  A. Feathering 
b.   Selecting  
c.  Pasting 

 
 
 

 
59

d.  Previewing 

7.  What is the BEST way to create a perfect circle in photoshop? 

a.  Select the shape tool and hold down to select the ellipse tool, drag to create a 

circle 

b.  Use the brush tool to draw a circle 
c.  Use the pencil tool to draw a circle, fill in with the paintbucket tool 
d.  Use the pen tool to draw a circle, dragging to create curves 
8.  What tool will NOT allow you to make a selection on the image? 

a.  Lasso 
b.  Marquee 
c.  Eyedropper 
d.  Magic Wand 

9.  How do you access tools not directly displayed on the toolbar? 

a.  Go to options> tools 
b.  Go to the properties menu and change the tools 
c.  Click and hold the tool icon to see other options 
d.  Hit CTRL + T 

10.  What happens when the eraser tool is used? 
a.  Everything on the layer gets deleted 
b.  Everything on the document gets deleted 
c.  Parts that are clicked on are erased on the layer 
d.  The background layer becomes transparent 

11. A square shape is in front of (occluding) a circle shape. You want to want to rearrange 
this so that the circle shape is now in front and the square is behind? What is the BEST 
way to do this? 

a.  Double click the circle 
b.  Double click the square 
c.  Elevate the circle layer above the square layer 
d.  Lower the circle layer below the square layer 

 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 
60

 

Appendix N 

Mental Model Concept Rating 

 

How related is  each concept to each other? (e.g., 1 – related to no extent to 9 = related to a large extent) 
 
Tools panel 
Crop 
Layers 
Selection 
Marquee 
Undo 
History panel 
Add image 
Text  
Font 
Save 
Color  
Opacity 
Hue 
Shape 
Brush 
 

 

 
 
 

 
61

Range 
18-36 
1-5 
8-30 
10-25 
9-25 
4-20 
11-30 
7-30 
3-15 
10-25 
5-25 
5-25 
5-17 
1-11 
8-28 
0-21 
-12 - +15 

Reliability 
-- 
-- 
.82 
.85 
.70 
.78 
.82 
.87 
.88 
.90 
.81 
.81 
.64 
.61 
.75 
-- 
-- 

 
Table 1. 
Descriptive Statistics of Variables 
 

Variable 
Age 
Familiarity 
Self-Efficacy Before 
Trait Mastery 
Trait Prove 
Trait Avoid 
Metacognition 
Self-Efficacy After 
Usefulness 
State Learning 
State Prove 
State Avoid 
Basic Knowledge 
Procedural Knowledge 
Combined Knowledge 
Adaptive Transfer Skill Test 
Change SelfEff 

M 
19.31 
1.86 
20.76 
20.02 
17.49 
11.43 
23.22 
21.53 
11.74 
19.63 
14.27 
12.66 
12.28 
7.66 
19.94 
12.50 
.78 

 
 

 
 
 

Appendix O 

Tables  

SD 
1.93 
.84 
4.34 
2.60 
3.36 
3.24 
4.00 
5.03 
2.80 
3.91 
4.36 
4.51 
2.58 
2.16 
4.16 
5.20 
4.85 

 
62

 
Table 2.  
Correlation Table of Variables 
 

 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

 
 

2 

 
 
 

1 
 
-- 
1.SR 
-- 
.01 
2.SE T1 
.40* 
.00 
3.Trait Mastery 
-.06 
.25* 
4.Trait Prove 
-.01  -.09 
5.Trait Avoid 
.26* 
-.02 
6.Metacognition 
.47* 
.00 
7.SE T2 
.00 
.21* 
8.Usefulness 
.34* 
-.05 
9.State Learn 
.28* 
-.10 
10.State Prove 
-.06 
.02 
11.State Avoid 
.01 
.16 
12.Basic Knowl 
.09 
-.03 
13.Procedural Knowl 
.14 
14.Combined Knowl 
-.01 
15. Adaptive Transfer  -.11 
.07 
16.Change SE 

-- 
.19*  -- 
.17* 
.13 
.03 
.30* 
.10 
.25* 
-.02 
.15 
.08 
.34* 
.35* 
.05 
-.12 
.21* 
.18*  -.14 
.03 
.13 
.08 
-.01  -.41*  -.10 

 
 
 
 
-- 
-.12 
-.09 
-.14 
-.22* 
.07 
.36* 
-.01 

 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
-- 
.30*  -- 
.49* 
.59* 
.27* 
-.10 
.12 
.15 
.15 
.15 
.08 

-.20*  -.25* 
-.19*  -.14 
.14 
.10 
-.12 
-.01 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

.49*  -- 
.54* 
.44* 
-.12 
.28* 
.33* 
.34* 
.44* 
.61* 

.56*  -- 
.16 
-.10 
.06 
.19* 
.14 
.24* 
.32* 

.35*  -- 
-.15 
.17 
.33* 
.27* 
.27* 
.25* 

.25*  -- 
.03 
.19*  -.12 
.11 
-.09 
.30*  -.12 
.20*  -.07 

-.05  -- 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

.53*  -- 
.90* 
.41* 
.14 

.85*  -- 
.32* 
.26* 

.42*  -- 
.23* 

.41*  -- 

 
 * = p < .05 
SR = Symbolic Rehearsal 1= EMT + SR, 0 = EMT; SE = Self-Efficacy, T1 = pretest, T2 = posttest, Knowl = Knowledge Test  
 

 
 
 

 

63 

d 

.01 

.01 

.02 

.08 

.03 

.00 

.05 

.09 

.09 

 

 
Table 3.  
Descriptive statistics of EMT vs EMT + SR groups and results of t-tests.  
 

 

Variable 

EMT 
M(SD) 

EMT + SR 

M(SD) 

t 

Self-Efficacy T1 

20.7 (4.62) 

20.8 (4.06) 

.08 (p =.93) 

Self-Efficacy T2 

21.6 (4.62) 

21.5 (4.06) 

.04 (p = .97) 

Basic Knowledge 

12.3 (2.73) 

12.3 (2.44) 

.09 (p = .93) 

Procedural 
Knowledge 

Combined 
Knowledge 

7.74 (2.05) 

7.58 (2.29) 

.44 (p = .66) 

20 (4.25) 

19.9 (4.09) 

.17 (p = .87) 

Useful 

11.74 (2.68) 

11.74 (2.95) 

.01 (p =.99) 

Metacognition 

23.31 (3.80) 

23.13 (4.21) 

.26 (p =.79) 

State Learning 

Orientation 

19.81 (3.59) 

19.45 (4.24) 

.53 (p =.60) 

Adaptive Transfer 

12.7 (5.55) 

12.2 (4.86) 

.51 (p = .61) 

task 

 

 
 

 
 
 

 
64

 
Table 4.  
Path estimates, standard errors, and p-values of path-model linking goal orientation to adaptive 
transfer. 
 

Path 

Estimate 

SE 

P-Value 

State Learning Orientation as 
Predicted By: 
        Trait Mastery Orientation 
Metacognition as Predicted By: 
        State Learning Orientation 
Declarative Knowledge as 
Predicted By: 
        State Learning Orientation 
        Metacognition* 
        Change in Self-Efficacy 
Change in Self-Efficacy as 
Predicted By: 
        State Learning Orientation 
Adaptive Transfer as Predicted By: 
        Change in Self-Efficacy 
        Declarative Knowledge 

 

 

 

 

* = removed in final model 

0.50 

0.57 

0.22 
-0.01 
0.18 

 

0.36 

0.43 
0.35 

 

 

0.12 

0.08 

 

0.07 
.12 
0.08 

 

0.11 

 

0.10 
0.09 

0 

0 

 
0 

0.06 
0.03 

 
0 

 
0 
0 

 

 
 
 

 
65

Points  Points 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

Received 
 
 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 
 

 

 
Table 5. 
Adaptive Transfer Scoring Sheet 
 

Category 

Criteria 

Background 
Images 

 
Text 

 

 

 

Is it blue? 
Balloon Image Present 
Second Balloon Image Present 
Todd Image Present 
“Surprise Party for Todd!” Present 

-  Text is white 

Address Present  

-  Text is Black 

Date Present 

-  Text is Black 

Don’t Tell Todd! Present 

-  Text is Red  

Shapes 

Left is present 

- 

Left star is yellow 

 

Right star is present 

-  Right star is red 

Layout 

 
 
 
Misc. 

“Surprise Party for Todd!” is in front of the 
two balloons 
“Don’t Tell Todd!” is on top of the Todd photo  1 
1 
The address is on top of the left star 
1 
The date is on top of the right star 
Balloon Background is Transparent 
1 

Total 

 

21 

-  Only on one (give .5) 

 

 
 

 
 
 

 
66

Appendix P 

Figures 

Figure 1. 
Pathfinder network of photoshop expert 

19 links between nodes. q = 15, r = infinity  
 

 

 
 
 

 
67

Figure 2. 
Pathfinder network derived from the EMT group. 

15 links between nodes. q = 15, r = infinity 

 
 
 

 
68

Figure 3. 
Pathfinder network derived from the experimental group 

16 links between nodes. q = 15, r = infinity 
 
 

 
 
 

 
69

Figure 4. 
Tested Path Model 
 

 

 
 
 

 

 

 
70

Figure 5. 
Adaptive Transfer Task Sheet 
 

Recreate this birthday card, match the text, colors, shapes, images, background, etc. as 

closely as possible. You will receive a score based on your ability to recreate this. 

 

 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 

 
71

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 

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72

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