AAT 1293 00706 9242 a” AN INVESTIGATION OF KEROSENE AS A FUEL FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, ERASTUS NEWTON BATES, '06, Note:—- This thesis was worked at State College, Pa. and presented by the writer for the degree of ‘ey 4 wa : a i: INTRODUCTION, To make the problem we are attacking more clearly understood, we feel that it is not out of place to briefly state the situation at the pre- sent time in regard to the design of internal com- bustion engines. Also to put certain data, re- garding crude oil and its products, before the reader in order that he may more fully appreciate the urgent need of a more plentiful fuel than gaso=- kine or at keast a standardization and constancy in the grade of fuels which we already have, THE PROBLEM OF DESIGH, An internal combustion engine is ordinar- ily designed to meet certain requirements in such away as to give its best operation at a certain load, with a definite kind and grade of fuel, This being true, if either the grade or kind of fuel is changed, it could not be ex= pected that the fuel economy of the engine would be equal to, what might be attained in an engine designed to use the new fuel or grade of fuel, This is the perplexing problem that con= fronte the designer of internal combustion engines in this day of unstandardised fuels, He designs a 93863 = gasoline engine for a certain grade of gasoline and in a few years it is impossible to obtain this grade and his engine does not exactly meet the requirements of the new grade of fuel. An engine may be able to burn a large variety of fuels but probably less economically than the engine designed for and operated on one grade of one fuel, THE PROBLEM OF FUEL. Today we have a condition that calls for the adaptation of a fuel to the engine, There are millions of dollars invested in engines constructed to use gasoline of a high grade. The refineries have used every means known to increase the supply to meet the inoreasing demand, The last, and always effectiue means of con= trolling the demand has been resorted to; that of | raising the price until the supply and demand balance, (See Chart Noj;i.) The margin of operation of many gasoline engines is so small that at the advanced price of gasoline, they must remain idle, The problem of the engineer is to adopt a cheaper and more plentiful fuel to the lines of de~ -3= sign already used in the construction of these engines, The interest ig this question is shown by the fact that the largest money prize now open to engineers and chemists is the prise of $100,000 offered by the International Association of Recogn- ised Automobile Clubs, for the best substitute for gaeoline, The prize is to be given only for some product that can be used in existing internal combusti6n engines, The substitute must be available in large quantities.and must be of such a nature that it cannot be monopolised by trust, The only source of relief in sight to-day lies in crude petroleum or some of its products more plentiful than gasoline, Chart II shows the highest and lowest price of Pennsylvania crude oil since 1859 to date, Also the production, Chart III shows the estimated gallons of gasoline used per year for power.in automobiles. PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM, In the process of refining crude oil by -4— distillation there is a wide range of products varying from ailight volatile gas to the heaviest lubricating oils, Early in the history of oil production the lighter distillates were of little worth,and due to their explosive properties, very dangerous, For these reasons the refiner of oils realised little but troubles from these products which they called gasoline, Gasoline then consisted of a small percent of total product of distillation and was, hence very explosive and often the line between gasoline and kerosene was crowded so high that even kerosene became explosive at ordinary temp- eratures and caused many serious accidents, Thies high quality of gasoline was very con ducive to the successful development of the internal combustion engine, With its high thermal efficienoy and adaptability, the gasoline engine became widely used in all fields of industry and by it many new avenues of development were made possible, Chief among these new applications of the gasoline engine is the automobile industry. HOW THE GASOLINE WAS INCREASED. With these new markets for gasoline the -5—- the supply was quickly surpassed by the demand, Now the problem of the refiners became the one of how to inorease their supply of gasoline. The question was easily solved for a time, The solu- tion was in changing the grade of gasodine so that it would include more of the naptha products, This process of adulteration has gone nearly to its limit, Originally 1.5 o/o of the crude oil was taken as gasoline. Now gasoline inoludes from 15 to 30 o/o or practically all of the naptha products, Another method of inoréasing the supply of lighter oils for internal combustion engine use is by the process of cracking the heavier oils into two or more com ponent hydro carbon products, This cracking is accomplished by distilling the heavier products under pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure, It is claimed, however, that this means of inoreasing the lighter products is only "robbing Peter to pay Paul" for the residue which is subjected to this cracking distillation would make lubricating o11, if properly treated, but after the cracking process has been preformed the lubricating -6§— properties are distroyed, Hence, the gain of motor oil and the loss of lubricating oil. There is a plant in Pennsylvania manu- facturing gasoline of a very excellent quality by condensing natural gas. This is done by subjecting it to high pressure under low temp- erature conditions, GASOLINE PRODUCING CRUDE OIL DECREASING, The government figures place the pro~ duction of orude petroleum in the United States for 1912 at 320,200,000 barrels:or 250,000 barrels less than in 1911, ‘There has been a decrease in all the old oil fields but an increase in Califor- nia and from the gulf districts, However, the crude petroleum from California and the gulf dis- tricts are very low in the lighter distillates, ‘which has meant a considerable decrease in the produotion of gasoline, KEROSENE THE LARGEST PRODUCT OF CRUDE OIL. In the process of refining crude oil by distillation assuming that already the naptha pro= ducts have been incltded in the class of fuels 7a known as gasoline or moger fuels, the next product and by far the largest produot of the orude oil is the product that comes over at temperatures from 300° to 600°F, and is known as kerosene, Kerosene may be said roughly to make up 50 o/oof the orude oil and at the present time there are millions of barrels of kerosene in storage as it has been impossible to market this product as fast as it was necessary to produce it in order to supply the demand for the lighter produots. KEROSENE, Keresene is known in the markets in these grades according to its fire test, Kero- sene that burns at 110°F and is known as 110° standard white, 130° standard white and 150° water white, The degrees in each case indi- cating the fire test, There is very little of the 110° kerosene used in this country. In some states it is unlawful to sell kerosene in such a low fire test. This grade is usually exported, THE FIRE TEST OF FUELS, -8- The fire test is to determine the flashing point and is in general conducted by heating the fuel under test until a light- ed taper held at a standard distance from the surface of the liquid will cause a flash from the gas given off from the surface. The degrees, as 110° is the temper= ature at which this flash oocurs, See Charts NO, 4, KEROSENE AS FUEL FOR THE GASOLINE ENGINE, The gasoline engine is designed with the idea of gasoline only as a fuel. The eame design will give very satisfactory results with a heavier fuel such as kerosene, if certain requirements are met. Gasoline vaporizes at ordinary atmospheric temperatures by merely atomizing it ia&to the intake manifold of the engine, To use kerosene in such an engine it is necessary to use higher temperatures, for kerosene does not vaporize at atmospheric tem- eratures, -9= There is an abundance of heat available for heating purposes both in the exhaust and in the oooling jacket water, CARBURETION OF GASOLINE, The function of a carburetor is to first convert the liquid fuel into a vapor and second to mix this fuel vapor with air in the right propor tion to cause complete combustion of the fuel, The most common means of vaporizing gaso~- line for gasoline engine use is by atomizing it into the proper amount of air, as it is drawn into the | cylinder. Heat is necessary to change a liquid into a vapor, hence if the gasoline is completely vap— orized it must take its heat of vaporization from the air with which it is mixed, Now the heat of vaporization of gasoline is 330 B.T.U. per pound, The Specific Heat of air is about .326 B.T.U. per pound, The proportion of fuel to air by weight for a good complete com bustion, is about (1) to (14) Now let t. the change in temperature of air necessary to vaporise -10- gasoline and we have the equation, (1 x 320). (14 x .36)% 30 te x 88°F The lowest point at which gasoline vaporizes is about the freezing point of water; hence, if all the. heat of vaporisation is furn- ished by the air it must be heated to approximately $3°F , 88°F, 339°F in order that the final tempar- ature will be above 32°F, CARBURETATION WITH KEROSENE, The heat of vaporisation is about 400 B.T.U, She proportion of fuel to air for best combustion is assume 1 to 14. Wow letting (t). the temperature change in air necessary to compeltely vaporize the kerosene and we have the following equation, H of V (1) (400) — %(14 x .36) Or tha air must ohange 151° in temperature to furnish the heat necessary to form a vapor of the fuel. -ll- But the lowest fire test of kerosene is 110°F so that the lowest temperature at which the air should go to the carburetor would be 151°, 110°, 3861°F, This is also assuming that the kerosene itself is heated to 110°F before entgring the craburetor, These temperatures are not noticed in most gasoline engines as the air is constant— ly taking heat from the metal parts of the eng- ine, and also it is quite certain that a large part of the fuel is mechanioally mixed with the air instead of being in a vapor state. DIFFICULTY OF COMPRESSION, The boiling point of gasoline ranges from 100°F to S00°F, while the boiling point of kerosene ranges from 300°F to 600F, but strange as it may seem, kerosene will not permit of as high com pression without auto-ignition as will gasoline. This makes the problem of adapting kerosene to the gasoline engine a very difficult thing to accomplish. NOTE: I might say here that none of our tests were conducted at this high temperature, and I feel that a further study and experiments at mhoh higher temper- atures might present some interesting results. ~13- Here are the two horns of the dilemma, If you keep your cylinder cool to prevent auto ignition much of the heavier products will not be burned and carbon or soot will be deposited on the walls of the cylinder and clog its action, giving a smokey exhaust, On the other hand if you run the temperature high you will burn your fuel much more comletely, giving better exhaust conditions, but at anything but very light loads the compression at these | temperatures will produce auto ignition, made evid= ent by a sharp pounding sound, This pounding can be overcome by inject- ing water into the cylinder with the fuel, However, this injeotion of water slows down the point of ignition and also the rate of flame propogation both of which make geridus inroads upon the economy of the use of fuel APPARATUS USED, Most of our teste were conducted on a Jacobson 10 H,P, Engine, A description of the engine and other apparatus is here given. -13= JACOBSON ENGINE, GENERAL DESCRIPTION. This engine is a single-cylinder, her- igzontal, 4-cyole, stationary type. The engine is rated at 10 horse power with a normal speed of 300 R.P.M, The piston diameter is 64 inches and the length of piston stroke is 104 inehes. ENGINE BASE: The upper portion ef the base supporting and making up the main bearings is of the double box: housing type. The lower part of the base serves also as the tank for gaseline. CYLINDER: The wearing part of the cyl- inder is made separate from the water jacket part. This provides for the expansion, due to heat, without disturbing the cylindtical shape of the wearing surface, The opening in the com bustion chamber for inlet valve is on the top of the chamber, while the openeing for the ex- haust valve is directly below. This leaves the combustion chamber perfectly smooth when both valves are closed. oe -14= PISTON: The piston is of the trunk pattern, Piston pin is placed well back on the piston, Piston rings are of cast iron. They are machined eccentrie, The orank pin is made extra large. The oonnecting rod is made of malle— able iron of I beam section provided with liberal bronze bearings, The bearings are adjustable to compensate for wear. VALVE GEAR: The side shaft driving the vatve mechanism is operated by a spiral gear connecting with the main shaft. The oam oper- ating. the exhaust valve is keyed to the side shaft, The igniter trip is driven directly from the side shaft by means of a orank pinned rigid- ly to the shaft, GOVERNORS: The governor is of the fly ball type, the batis are separated, due to increased speed, the latch engages a latch block, on the upper end of the exhaust lever, which holds the valve open until the gdévernor balls assume a position which releases the latch, IGNITER: The igniter is provided with -15- an eccentric roller shaft with handle attached. The electrodes are mounted in a removable plug which may be removed from the cylinder for purposes of cleaning. LUBRICATION :: Oil is admitted to the wearing eurface of the piston near the front end of the cylinder chamber, The main bear~ ings are lubricated by means of grease cups, CARBURETOR: The Carburetor provided with the engine was of the jet type drawing fuel from the base of the engine. This was removed and the carburetor to be tested con- nected as near the engine as possible, COOLING SYSTEM: The cooling water for the engine was circulated by high static pressure, being connected to the city water supply. By this meant temperature of the cylinder could be/ at practically any temperature above that of the water in main, Temperature was the only data we were interested in as the efficiency of the -16= engine either thermal or mechanical was not sought, EXHAUST: The exhaust of the engine came from the engine through a 33" pipe, about three feet long to a muffler, From the muffler it passed into a 4" pipe and rose about 8'-0 to the main exhaust pipe for ‘the laboratory which was a 6" pipe. A by-pass was provided as near to the engine as possible, for the purpose of forcing the exhaust gases through carburetor, ( if pro- vided for such heating) A valve was placed in the by-pass and another in the main pipe, in such a way as to make it possible to turn any part, or all of the exhaust gases through the carburetor, IGNITION: The ignition system is of the make and brake, or contact spark type. Part of the tests were run with the ooil connected to the lighting system through lamp resistance, And part of the tests were run by the use of gix dry cells, as the source =~] 7 of ourrent. INDICATORS: We used Tabor Indicators, ‘The first one was an internal spring type and worked well up to the limit of its spring, but due to the excessive pressure at time of pound ing, we were unable to use this indturment with- out danger of exceeding the capacity of the spring (100 pounds) and breaking the swivel joint. Due to several accidents of this kind we changed to an external spring type which had a heavier epring(150 pounds) BRAKE: The brake used on the engine was of the Prony type attached to the pulley of the engine, which is an 18" pulley, 7 * wide, Water piping was so arranged that we could allow a small stream of water to flow into the inside rim of the pulley wheel for cooling. Width of the brake was 6, FUEL TANK: The fuel tank used in these -18 tests was made of galvanized iron provided with a guage glass to show the level of fuel in the tank. Also a cock at bottom of tank for turning off fuel when not in use, This tank was placed about 30" above the carburetor the connection between the two being made by a flexible tube ( See Sketch) SCALES: The scales used to weigh the fuel in these tests were Fairbanks No, 0 equal beam scales, graduated to read in hundredths of a pound, capacity 35#, The scales used to weigh the brake load were of the ordinary platform scales with capac- ity of about 500%. This soales had two sliding weights, One of these weights was set for tare, enabling us to read the net load on brake from the other bean, SPEED COUNTER: The speed was taken with the ordinary type of speed counter and a watch. THERMOMETERS: The thermometers were all of the Fahrenheit scale and read to 300° standard make, -19— THE OBJECT OF TEST. The object of these tests were to compare some of the carburetors now in use, using both kero- sene and gasoline and also to study the general principles of carburetration of kerosene, In order to have data for comparison we tested each carburetor on gasoline, a mixture of one half gasoline and one half kerosene, and on kerosene, Some carburetors would not operate on kerosene alone but most of them would give very good operating conditions on a mixture of half gaso- line and half kerosene, This seemed to be pretty generally true of all carburetors, It was not our purpose to determine eff- iciency, or heat values of the fuel, but simply to operate each carburetor on the same fuel at its best adjustment. DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST, After adjusting the grease oups, and filling the fuel can,placing the thermometers in the wells, and seeing that the spark was retarded, we started the engine ~20— and‘ turned on the cooling water. If we expected to run on kerosene it was always necessary to start the engine on gasoline and when the cylinder and carburetor had become heated sufficiently the kerosene was turned into the carburetor, After the engine was started on the test fuel we would adjust the needle valve of the carburetor and the auxiliary air valve to give the best operating con- ditions on a medium load, When these conditions were satisfactory the test was started by taking the weight of the fuel at a definite recorded time and every five minutes thereafter, We then read the thermometers and took the spped, always keeping the load at the brake constant, We usually started with 320¢ net load on the brake, The second load we took at 30#, then we changed the net load by 5# steps tto as high a load as the engine would carry, It was usually necessary to open the needle valve slightly upon the higher loads, especially with kerosene, All the conditions were kept as constant as possible during a test. Fuel economy and good working conditions being the thing aimed at in all tests, Indicator cards were taken in order to -3l- study the burning conditions in the oylinder. A few cards are shown herewith. The temperature of the fuel was taken at a point in the intake manifold about eight inches from the engine, At this point a ther- momet er well was placed in the path of the mixed fuel, passing to the engine, | The temperature of the cooling water was taken about two feet from the engine on each side by the use of a thermometer well, similar to the one used for the fuels, DESCRIPTION OF CHARTS, CHART WO, 1. This chart was plotted from data obtained as follows: | The prices for the years 1897 to 1904 were taken from the Geological Survey Report of the Gov ernment, The prices for years from 1904 to 1913 were gotten from the Oil Company of Bellefonte, Pa, and are grades 8° to 88°B,, which, of course, is a high grade of gasoline. -323~ CHART NO, 38. The data for this chart was taken from the latest available government report and the last two years from News Paper reports, CHART NO, 3. This charts shows the enormous increase in the demand for gasoline, due to the automobile indus- try. Values were obtainable for years 1910,11,18, With these three points the curve was continued to make an estimate of the gasoline which will probably be used in 19135, which amounts to nearly 16,000,000 barrels, CHARTS NO, 4. The ddta for this chart was taken fron "Crews" book entitled "Practical Treatise on Pe- troleum", The following is a quotation from this book in regard to the data plotted, It also shows the worthlessness of gasoline at that time(1887) "We do not mean to be understood to say that the firet.distillates make their appearance at 167 °F, Products of .630 specific gravity pase over at 132°F, but as there is very little demand for -33- euch light oil comprising benzine, gasoline, etc,, it ie in most instances allowed to run into the sea, * This chart simply shows that there are products being given off at all temeratures between the highest and lowest, and that ite flashing point increases as the temperature of distillation increases, and also that the products become heavier about in the same proportion that the flashing point rises, CHART NO, 5. This chart is used in changing readings of specific gravity in the Baum scale to term as referringto the percent of weight of the liquid to the weight of an equal volume of water, and a taken was plotted from/table of the two scales/from the book mentioned above by M Orew, CHART NO, 6, The chart was gotten up for the purpose of facilitating the work of computing the horse power hour costs from te consumption, ‘taking into account the epecific gravity of the fuel. ~24- This curve was constructed for values ranging between the limits of our readings and test conditions, It can readily be seen that for very low consumption and very low price this chart would not be very accurate, but for most conditions I feel that it is sufficiently accurate for practical commercial purposes, CARBURETORS, Holley Carburetor is described in the Scientific American of January 11, 1913. The Air Friction Carburetor does not preheat either the air or fuel but by a vigorous agitation of the air seoures an intimate mixture of the air and fuel, The built up carburetor used in these tests, called on the data sheets, the Moyer Car- buretor, differed slightly from the later type, ( a blue print of which appears in this thesis.) The exhaust pipe was much more restricted and the whole device was smaller, | Aside from these changes the design is similar to the one shown here, With the new type it is hoped to secure much higher temer-~ -325- atures, and therefore, much better operation. The new carburetor was not comleted in time to allow the tests to be included in this thesis, CONCLUSIONS. lst- The following fact we consider the most important result of our tests. That which has uaually been consid- ered preignition, causing a sharp pounding sound at the connecting rod, is not preignition as is shown by many of the indicator cards in- Gluded herewith, These cards were taken while the pound was very severe, The ignition is automatic as was shown by the fact that the engine would continue to run after the electric circuit had been disconnected, The explosion,however, which by the way appears to be a very violent and almost instantaneous burning, does not ocour. until after the piston is started on the return stroke, The cause of this may be due to a oracking of the heavier portion of the kerosene, which due to the lack of high temperature and quantity of heat necessary to vaporise it, has been oarried into ~36~ the cylinder in small drops and under the high temperature and high pressure of compression, brakes up into an explosive gas and a very heayy oil or even sgarbon, As the pressure begins to be released, this explosive portion bursts into flame and causes a very sudden high pressure which throws the reciprocating partes against their supports, making the sharp pound, I believe if the kerosene could be thoroughly vaporized and all temperatures kept high enough to maintain the fuel in the vapor form until ignited, that this very serious objection and also the snokey exhaust could be eliminated. and- The operating coiditions are very much in favor of gasoline, but owing to the great difference in price between gasoline and kerosene, the cost of operation would seem to warrant the use of kerosene in stationary gasoline engines, In the summation that follows wetookm the price of gasoline at 24 cents per gallon and kerosene at 9 cents per gallon, We took the —2 Pe specific gravity of gasoline at .7320 and for kero- sene we took .&10 and chose the best reading in each test to make our comparisons, By this we mean that in comparing the costs per B.H.P. hour, we took the reading in each test that gave the lowest cost, for this condition cculd have been continued indefinitely under the same conditions of fuel and load, Now in comparing the maximum load that could be carried on any fuel, we com- pared the highest B.H.P. attainable although this did not always ocour at the load of most efficient operation, We conclude from our results that the capacity of the engins is not impaired by chang- ing from gasoline to kerosene and even seems to be inoreased if the fuels are mixed in proportion of 1/3 gasoline to 1/23 kerosene( by volume) The consumption of fuel per B.H,P. hour is practically the same for gasoline and 1/3 gasoline and 1/2 kerosene mixtures, but is practically 33 0/o greater for kerosene, This shows a poor thermal efficiency in the use of kerosene for its calorifio value is -38~ about 10 o/o higher than the calorific value of gasoline, but owing to the great discrepancy in the price of the two fuels we still have kerosene by far the cheaper fuel to use, For the same power, gasoline costs 152 0o/o more than (1/2 gasoline and 1/3 kerosene mixture) and 345 o/o more than kerosene, Or we might say kerosene costs 40 0o/o less than (1/3 gasoline and 1/8 kerosene mixture) ane 60.6 0o/o less than gaso- line, To be more concrete one dollar& worth of gasoline power is equal to 65.7 cents worth of (1/3 gasoline and 1/3 kerosene) power or is equal to 39,4 cents worth of kerosene power, By these results it would seem that kerosene may well be considered a commercial fuel for gasoline engines in the near futtre, A PERFORATED COPPER PLATE 2"x2"x 2" COPPER OR BRASS -T. ay vy ae 2° PEEP HOLE Be! | A a *— NEEDLE VALVE oa stat E Nic es 4°x 2° CAAT. Pan Thole (<= « wot) — \ Cy A] 1) 4) . Ay Ce = 2"x Rx 2-3 WAY cocKn, 2” BRASS oR 4" ~w.1.PIPE — PERFORATED 4 7T02 REDUCER « ae a ed COPPER PIPE — ~y re ce af Bee mi a me--- ane --------4 Hf BRASS PLUG ee MANIFOLD REAR VIEW OF ied SS Th | BS ss. Toe Se 0° ae Ty kon bees caer) oogooed i jo ey, Pe epee tS SHEET IRON 2 heh THE MOYER BUILT FoR FUEL MIXTURE TO ma THE EFFECT OF SPRAYING THE FUEL UNDER PRESSURE UP CARBURETER. THIS CARBURETER WAS BUILT UP AT THE COLLEGE FOR THE PURPOS OF OBTAINING HIGH TEMPERATURES AND ALSO Yo sTUDY INTO THE AiR GASOLINE ENGINE, a ach i; eu ia @ 14a i meee = b= Oe ee ee re EL igio oe a yt SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 1O5S SECTION 300 200 1Qo (2) ° ° a NAOY W3WH 2D AR223 JSAIAVIN YS OR Tria R eke OL EOL Vie JiiM =, @& PROBLEM—ENGINE CONSUMES 1.21* PER HPEHR FUEL 9.¢ PER GAL, SP GR.=640. FIND COST OF OPERATION PER HP. HR. ANSWER= 2 04 cENTS. Card /va. /. VE ae The performance of 1A Jacebsoun. Crgine was good Wo p fuel Gasef/isee and exhaust practical. Loa@d-ZLbs. on co/or/ess, lee a Carbure Ve 1 -e AEE GEA CE RF a a> aD Spring-100” ee es Spark-Adrauced, lard Ne. . et Ah dda The performance af Lrgine- Jacobson ET bal heh CngIine was norma/ / Zrplastons th . Crery way, /le//4 Carb ee eee Bate os 7 J Spr/ng {O00 * AF PT 2TH Spark fully Ue re aoe dod Card No. 3. Engine - Jacobson with Helly Carbures er, Fiuel- tralf Potor gasolsne and half Kerosene Load »ef - Oa The lia ae ance a LZ -xXplostons th Cngine was Poor fhe | Set -— four was smoley. TAere sh ME eek ee ae A as Fave been fur onre 2x ae (Kh @ SC@k af KO (/oad, Spring-150 a Lt Oe hes RP. 300 lL acharge of fuel but Lrolthre- Jacobson | rN gies 8) So eM L Ali Dit Fue/l-$k. &G The performance of fae Load Mot a ae wes good. There wras a 3// Explosions ( 3@%- 4, ty CXhaagst, no PIAnd Ji xture-pormal aime Lae Spring —/50 # Spark -advanced eT Card No.5 a Fe cog - Jacobson ve Lisi lch ee ime aay | Fuel 50% Gasoline a e€ was good. 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