TTT 3 01513 2594 LIBRARY Michican State University PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove thie checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES retum on or before date due. |—— |-— | a ee ee [—— | —— ll t ll |— |__| MSU Is An Affirmative Action/E qual Opportunity Institution cAcirc\datedus. pm3-p. 1 THESIS FOR DEGREE OF MASTER OF AGRICULTURE THE SOIL SURVEY AND ITS RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT by A Warren J. Geib To the Committee on Advanced Degrees of the Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing, Michigan 1915 THESIS TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I Introduction Importance of agriculture to the United States.- Rate of increase in population, in agricul- tural production.= Total land area limited.- Necessity for more rapid increase in food pro- duction.= Present agencies for agricultural improvement.e- Importance of a thorough know- ledge of the SOL]. ---ee re rn nett eettr nen Herne nen 1 CHAPTER II A Soil Survey Defined Brief history of soil survey work.= Definition of the term "soil survey".=- Soil classifica- tion necessary to conduct of work.= Factors necessary in classifying soils.= Soll classi- fication as used by U. S. Bureau of Soils.=- Soil province, series, type, and class de- fined.- Soil surveys of two kinds, reconnois- sance, and déetaillen-----2 en enn en en nn en ewe nn eee 9 CHAPTER III Methods of Making a Soil Survey Factors determining what class of survey shall be made--climate, topography, vegetation, ex- tent of settlement, etc.=- Usual standards for soil survey work.=- Reconnoissance surveys, how made, make-up of party, equipment, rate of pro- gress, etc.- Detail surveys, how made, make-up of party, equipment, rate of progress, etcC.------- 17 36395 Page CHAPTER IV Value, Uses, and Cost of a Soil Survey Results of soil survey work of use to prospec- tive settler, resident farmer, land owner, real estate dealer, loan agencies, banks, agricultural students, and experiment sta- tion woekrs.= Sometimes used to help in tazx assessment.=- Used by various mamifacturers who depend on agricultural development for output of factory.=- Most important use in connection with investigations of experiment stations.= Cost of soil SurveyY8,.--------<--<<-=---=- - 25 CHAPTER V The Soil Survey as a Basis for New Lines of Useful Investigation The Wisconsin State Soils Laboratory--provides for examination of individual farms, examina- tion of soil, soil analysis, and planning of best methods for permanent soil improvement.- Farm Surveys proposed to make more detail soil maps of farms, with topographic maps, and se- curing of cropping history of farms.=- Soil Test Farms to study behavior of important soils under actual farm conditions, and codlect all possible data relative to most important soil LYPOB - nn nen nnn ne nn nnn nn nnn nnn nnn nnn nnn 36 SUMMARY-~-----------------------------------------.-- 43 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Of all lines of industry which are followed in the United States agriculture is without question the most im- portant. The farmers of this country supply the bread for the nation, and the prosperity of our people as a whole de-~ pends. more largely upon agriculture than upon any other one industry. When the hot winds from the southwest sweep over Kansas and destroy the wheat crop; when a cold wet spring delays planting and cuts short the yields of corn and oats; or when any. condition prevails which causes a material ree duction in the supply of farm produce the whole country suf- fers. When the farmers have a bumper crop the whole country considers itself blessed; the buying power of all classes is increased, and the merchant is happy, the banker smiles, and the manufacturer works over time, Agriculture may well be considered the foundation upon which the rapid and substan- tial growth of this country is based, and upon which cone tinued prosperity depends, In order that a permanent condition of prosperity may prevail throughout the land, and that the proper balance be maintained in the Nation's growth, it is necessary that agricultural production should keep pace with the increase in population, Statistics indicate, however, that population is increasing more rapidly than agricultural production, and that if some method cannot be devised to improve this condition, -2- and make our crops grow as rapidly as our boys and girls, the feeding of the people will finally become a problem of grave concern to the Nation. In 1900 the populatim of the United States was approximately 76 million, while in 1910 it was 92 million, or an increase of about 21 per cent in ten years. Basing the increase at the same rate it is estimated that at the beginning of the year 1915 there were in this country slightly over 100 million mouths to feed. Continuing at this rate for half a century the population will be over 200 million, and it is only reasonable to expect that this growth will actually take place. The question of providing a con- tinuous food supply for this vast multitude, and insuring a steady increase that will keep pace with the growth in popu- lation is a problem which should be given most serious con- sideration. From a careful study of the United States Census Reports it will be observed that during the period from 1900 to 1910 there was a slight increase in the total acreage de- voted to the growing of corn, but the total yield in bushels in 1910 was 4.3 per cent smaller than in 1900. The total yield of wheat increased 3.8 per cent, but the acreage was reduced by 15 per cent. The yield of oats increased 6.8 per cent. The acreage of cotton increased 32 per cent, but the total yield increased only 11.7 per cent. Taking into con- sideration all cereals the total acreage in 1910 was 3.5 per cent greater than in 1900, but the total yield was only 1.7 per cent greater. This means that the average yield per acre Za during the ten year period was slightly reduced. The total value of all farm products in 1910 was greater than the to- tal value of any preceding year, and also slightly greater than the value of the farm products of 1911. The value of farm produce for 1900 was also greater than the value of any preceding year, and both years cited are normal so that the comparison here made is just and fair. The prices paid for farm produce in 1910 were considerably higher than those paid in 1900, as is indicated by the fact that the total value of farm produce in 1910 was 83.3 per cent greater than in 1900, whereas there was a total increase in the amount of farm produce for the same period of only 10 per cent. By comparing this total increase in all farm produce of 10 per cent, with the total increase in population for the same period of 21 per cent, we find that the population of this country is increasing slightly more than twice as fast as is agricultural production. In considering this question the study would not be complete without a survey of exports and imports of agricul- tural products. In 1900 the value of all agricultural exports was equal to approximately 16 per cent of all products of the farm for that year. In 1910 the total exports had dropped to 9.6 per cent of the total production. During 1900 the value of all agricultural imports was equal to about 49 per cent of the exports, and in 1910 this figure had increased so that the imports equalled 78 per cent of the exports. During this ten-year period the agricultural exports increased only about 5 per cent, while the total agricultural imports increased slightly over 6 per cent. For the year 1910 the difference between exports and imports, which is in favor of exports, was equal in value to only about 2.1 per cent of the total agricultural production for that year. It is very evident, therefore, that with the present rate of increase in ime ports and a continuation of the same conditions in crop pro-= duction, it will be but comparatively few years until the imports of agricultural products will equal and exceed in value the exports of agricultural products, It is not the intention to imply through these figures that when the value of imports equals the value of exports that there will be a shortage in the food supply, but it is very evident that unless some method or plan is devised whereby agricultural production may increase more rapidly than it is at present, that the time will come when the feeding of our rapidly increasing population will be a most serious problem, Wherever there has been an increase in the total yields of crops from year to year the increase, in most cases, igs the result of an increased acreage, rather than an ine crease in the yield per acre. An increase in agricultural production which is brought about in this way can never, of itself, solve this great problem. The total land area of the country is limited, and this source of increase will, there- fore, in time be eliminated. The total land area of the United States is approximately one billion, 900 million acres, In 1910 there were 878,000,000 acres, or 46 per cent of the whole in farms, and of the land in farms 54 per cent, or near= -5= ly 25 per cent of the total area was improved land, In 1910 there were 40 million acres more in farms than in 1900. Should this rate of increase continue, and if all the land area were adapted to some line of farming, every acre of land in this country would be in farms in less than 25 years, But there is a very large amount of land which 1s too rough and mountainous to have any agricultural value, and there are extensive tracts of arid land where there is no water available for irrigation. On the other hand, the percent- age of improved land on each farm will continue to increase until every acre of land suitable for crop production or grazing will be fully utilized. It would be impossible to state with any degree of accuracy just when all available land will be farmed, but with the present rate of increase in population, and with no greater yields per acre, it will be necessary, in order to produce sufficient food to supply the home demand, to have all available land under cultivation within the next 50 years, The present war in Europe will doubtless check immigration and possibly delay for a time the most serious aspect, but this is only a delay and should > be consider-= ed as an opportunity for this country to better prepare ite self to meet the problems of agricultural production which we know the future will present. As the total land area is limited, it is very evi- dent that there must be some other way of increasing the food supply than merely by increasing the number of acres under cultivation. This other way to which it is desired to call -6= attention is by improving the efficiency of each farm by increasing the productivity of the soil as a whole. But the soil as a whole will not reach its highest degree of productivity until all different kinds, classes, and types of soil have been carefully studied as individuals, and only those crops grown, rotations followed, and methods of cultivation and fertilization used which are best adapted to the individual soils. Former Secretary of Agriculture Wilson once stated that the object of the United States Department of Agriculture was to make two blades of grass grow where but one grew before, but if this great problem of food production is to be solved it will be necessary to do even more than this. It will be necessary to make two blades of grass grow where nothing grew before, and to make a stalk of corn or a hill of beans grow where there is now a thistle or a sand bur. While the situation which is now developing was foreseen by some fully a half century or more ago, and while various movements were then started to encourage the higher development of agriculture, it is only within recent years that the magnitude of the problem is beginning to be really appreciated. When all vacant lands suitable for some form of farming are included in farms, when a higher proportion of each farm is improved, and when the popula- tion is nearly double what it is at present, the seriousness of the situation will be clear to all, whereas at present only those who are giving some thought and study to such prob- lems realize what is certain to develop. a] Various organizations have been established from time to time for the purpose of advancing agricultural in- terests, and all of these have appreciated, to some degree at least, the important place which the soil itself holds as a factor in agricultural advancement, Among these or- ganizations are the Federal Department of Agriculture, State Departments of Agriculture, Agricultural Colleges, and Experiment Stations. One object to be attained by such institutions is to advise the farmer as to the lines along which his energy can be most profitably and effectively expended: to help him determine, among other things, how best to use and not abuse our most valuable resource-=-the soil. But the soil is a very complex factor, and we may also say a composit factor, being made up of many individuals which often differ widely from each other. Instructions for the improvement and management of the soil on one farm may not apply to the soil on an adjoining farm--in fact it may not apply to all of the soil on one farm or even in the same field. The differences in soils, and especially in their physical characteristics, are very great, and but few in- vestigators, scientists, or practical farmers fully appre- ciate the variations in the soil, and the relation of these variations to soil management and improvement. As a result of this cmdition a large amount of misleading information has been given out and many farmers have come to look with distrust upon the work of scientific investigation. Before the most intelligent and useful instructions can be given concerning the management of any particular soil it is ne- cessary to have at hand a number of facts concerning that soil. The texture, structure, color, and topography should be known. It is necessary to know the location, extent, and distribution of the soil before the type of farming best adapted to it can be selected. Conditions relative to the origin of the soil, soil acidity, organic matter sup- ply, and the content of mineral plant food elements should also be thoroughly understood. The collection and distri- bution through printed reports and published maps of this andmuch additional information concerning the soils of the United States, is the mission of the Soil Survey. Soil surveys have been made by the Federal Govern= ment in every state and territory within the United States, Alaska included, At present most of the work of the govern- ment is being concentrated within those states which are willing to cooperate, Among the states which have been, or are now, cooperating in carrying forward the Soil Survey are Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, North Carolina, West Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Washing- ton, and California. Other states are entering into a co- operative agreement with the United States Department of Ag- riculture each year for the extension of this work and it is the plan to ultimately cover the whole country with surveys of this kind. The knowledge thus acquired cannot help but be of very great value in the higher development of agriculture and in solving the great problem of a more rapid increase in agricultural production, CHAPTER II A SOIL SURVEY DEFINED The classifying and mapping of soils as now carried on has developed in this country practically with- ing the past 20 years. Previous to this time considerable valuable work had been done in this and other countries, and before taking up the description of the work as now or- ganized it will be of interest to briefly review the history of the development of this line of work. The following historical notes have been taken largely from a paper pre- pared by Dr. George N. Coffey and published in the Proceed- ings of the Amercian Society of Agronomy, Vol. 3, 1911, un- der the title "The Development of Soil Survey Work in the United States With a Brief Reference to Foreign Countries", In France the study of soil classification has been carried on for many years. The first map showing soils and agricultural regions was published in 1843. This was by M. de Caumont, and it covered the Department of Calvados. In Germany the study of Geology in its relation to soil con- ditions has been carried on for over 40 years. In the British Isles the detailed mapping of the superficial deposits is cone sidered as an excellent basis for soil maps, but no true soil maps have been made. The soil surveys simply carry further the work of the Geological Survey as regards surface forma- tions. The Japanese have made a study of the characteristics of the soils of their country and have published a number of agricultural maps. These are based upon geology which is ~J= shown in colors, while the physical characteristics are in- Gicated by means of hatching over the colors. A systematic study of the soils of Russia has been carried on so vigor- ously and so ably for the past 40 or 50 years that probably more is known of the nature of the soils of Russia than of any other country of such large geographic extent, The first attempt at classifying soils in this country was probably by Amos Eaton and T. Romeyn Peck who prepared a report on the soils of Albany County, New York. This was published in 1820. The first map in this country which claimed to show the different character of soils was that of Massachusetts by Edward Hitchcock, published in 1841. In the Natural History Survey of New York, Part V, Agriculture, 1845, Emmons discusses the characteristics of the soils of New York and also gives an agricultural map of New York, which is the first map of the kind published in this country. Owen in Kentucky, Hilgard in Mississippi, and Smith in Alabama all did pioneer work along this line, In 1882 Chamberlain published a soil map of Wisconsin, and this appears to be the first soil map published in this country based upon the physical properties of the soil, In 1891 Whitney made an investigation of the soils of Maryland. The practical importance of this work was recognized by Congress and as a result a Division of Soils was organized in the United States Department of Agriculture. In 1899 actual field mapping was begun and since that time a large number of areas have been surveyed by the Bureau of Soils. These represent the first detailed soil maps published in -ll- this country. Before going further in this discussion it may be well to define what is meant by a soil survey, and describe the classification that is followed in carrying forward work of this kind. A soil survey consists of making a careful examination of the soil in the field, and classifying it in- to various divisions according to certain established rules, It includes a study of the peculiar characteristics of the various soils, processes of formation, sources of origin, etc., but the most important study that is made is that of the physical properties of the soil, and the chief factor in this connection is texture. A soil survey includes the making of a map which shows the location, extent and distri- bution of all different kinds of soil. It also includes a writing of a report in which all soils are fully described. An account is given of the extent of agricultural develop- ment in the community covered, the methods of farming fol- lowed, crops grown, yields obtained, marketing facilities, transportation, and in fact all factors are studied which have a direct bearing upon the agricultural development of the area. In brief a soil survey may be considered as an inventory of the soil resources of a given region. In making a study of the soil under field condi- tions, and over extensive tracts of country, it is neces- sary that there should be some uniform method of study and Classification. The classification here outlined is the one which has been developed by the United States Bureau of Soils, and it is now in use in all of the soil survey work which is =l2= being carried forward by the Bureau of Soils. It 18 also followed by all of the states which are cooperating with the Federal Government along this line of work, Soil fertility depends upon two factors: first, upon the physical characteristics of the soil, such as water-holding capacity, workability, etc., and second, upon the chemical composition of the material composing the soil. The chemical composition depends upon the mode of origin of the soil, and the source of material from which the soil is derived, Water-holding capacity, and other physical pro- perties of soil all depend chiefly upon texture, which re- fers to the size of the individual soil grains, or par- ticles, and the texture of the soil is the most important single factor to be considered in soil classification, A coarse sandy soil, for example, will not retain moisture so long as a loam soil, or clay loam, because the finer the soil grains, the greater will be the total soill-grain surface area to which moisture may adhere. Texture is de- termined in the field by rubbing the soil between the thumb and fingers, and with experience one soon becomes expert at judging the size of soil grains. This field judgment is verified in the laboratory by a mechanical analysis, which is made by a simple method of separating soil grains into different groups, of which there are seven, These are known as clay, silt, very fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, and fine gravel. @lLje The following table shows the size of soil par- ticles in each of the seven groups, which are known as "separates", Fine :Coarse:Medium : Fine :Very fine: Siit : Clay ; gravel: sand : sand : sand : sand MeMe © MeMe MeMe ; MeMe °& MeMe MmMeMe : MeMe 2-1 212005 10.5-025:-25-.1: 21-005 :.05-.005: .005-.0001 e@ 08 eej ee e808 ee e@ ea fee e8 Another factor which is considered in classifica- tion is the structure of the soil. This refers to the ar- rangement of the soil particles. A soil may be loose and open in structure, or it may be compact. The color of the soil is important as indicating the organic matter content. The origin of the soil and its method of deposition is also important. The topographic position which a soil occupies is often a factor which determines how a soil can be uti- lized. The chemical composition of soils is also important, but this is not given as much consideration as is the phy- sical character of the soil material. A chemical analysis shows whether the soil con- tains a large store of plant food, or only a small quantity, and it indicates which kinds of plant food will probably be needed first. The amount of organic matter in the soil is also determined, and tests are made to show conditions rela- tive to soil acidity. | Soils are grouped according to texture into soil classes, a soil class being made up of soils having the same texture, though differing in other respects. A fine sand, for example, may be light colored and of alluvial origin, -14- while another fine sand may be dark in color and of residual origin, while a third fine sand may have been blown into sand dunes by the wind, yet all of these soils would belong to the same class, because the greater proportion of the soil grains have the same size or texture. Thus we may have dif- ferent kinds of clays, loams, sands, etc., and the class to which any soil will belong depends upon the size of the indi- vidual soil grains of which it is composed, and not upon its color, origin, topographic position, or agricultural value. 50il Classes Soils Containing Less than 20% Silt and Clay Coarse sand.--Over 25% fine gravel and coarse sand, and less than 50% of any other grade of sand, Sand.--Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand, and less than 50% fine sand. Fine sand.--Over 50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand. Very fine sand.--Over 50% very fine sand, Soils Containing Between 20-50% of Silt and Clay Sandy loam.--Over 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand. Fine sandy loam.--Over 50% fine sand, or less than 25% fine gravel, coarse and medium sand. Sandy clay.--Less than 20% silt. Soils Containing over 50% of Silt and Clay Loam,--Less than 20% clay, and less than 50% silt. Silt Loam.--Less than 20% clay, and over 50% silt. Clay loam.--Between 20 and 30% clay, and less than 50% silt. Silty clay loam.--Between 20 and 30% clay, and over 50% silt. Clay.--Over 30% clay. @-15= Soils may be grouped in another way. Where soils are closely related through similar sources of the material from which derived, mode of origin, topographic position, etc., so that the different soils constitute merely a gradu- ation in texture of otherwise uniform material, such a group is called a soil series. It corresponds to the family which is made up of different individuals having the same parent- age. The Miami series, for example, includes light colored, glacial material where the soils have been derived largely from the underlying limestone, and the soils in the series range in texture from a clay loam to sand and gravel, The Plainfield series includes light colored soils in regims where no limestone is present, and where the material oc- curs as outwash plains or stream terraces. The soils in this series also have a wide range in texture. The name used for a soil series usually indicates the locality where that particular series was first recognized and mapped by the Soil Survey. By uniting the name of the soil class,which re- fers to texture, with the name of the soil series, which refers chiefly to origin, we get the soil type, which is the basis or unit of classifying and mapping soils. A soil type, thus, is a soil which is uniform throughout its entire extent in texture, color, topographic position, and other physical properties, and having a distinct agricul- tural unity, that is, being adapted to the same crops, and requiring the same treatment. It is also uniform in the source of material from which it is derived, and the mode -16- of origin which, taken together, determine the chemical composition. Since the soil type is the unit in classi- fying and mapping soils, and the basis upon which experi- mental work should be conducted, every farmer should be familiar with the soil types on his farm, and their lead- ing characteristics. The work of classifying and mapping soils may be divided into two general groups. One of these may be called a general, preliminary, or reconnoissance survey, and the other a detailed survey. The name indicates the difference between the two lines of work, In making a reconnoissance, or preliminary survey the region in ques- tion is covered in a much more general way, and much more rapidly than in a detail survey. The amount of detail which may be shown will vary within certain limits in both classes of work, depending upon a number of factors to be considered later and each class of survey has a particular field of usefulness which will be brought out in the following chapters, CHAPTER III METHODS OF MAKING A SOIL SURVEY As indicated in the preceding chapter there are several factors which go to determine what class of survey shall be made of any particular region. Most of the recon- noissance or general surveys which have thus far been con- ducted have been in newly developing sections of the coun- try, where but little settlement has been made. One object of general work of this kind is to indicate which land is suitable for farming, and which has but little or no value for agricultural purposes. In some cases the object has been to determine which lands were suited to agriculture and which suitable for forestry purnoses. Where a region is thickly timbered, or in a cut over gondition and thickly grown up with a dense second growth, the making of a de- tail survey would be so costly as to be prohibitive, In suchcases a general survey answers the purpose for a number of years until the country becomes settled, after which a detail survey can be made. In semi-arid regions extensive reconnoissance surveys have been made, and these have outlined the various soils so that it could be determined which sections would permit the develop- ment of dry farming or irrigation projects. General sur- veys are also being made in some cases of entire states in order that a broad general knowledge of the soils and their distribution may be gained quickly, before the detailed classifying of the soils is undertaken. The general -17- -18= knowledge acquired in this way is of great assistance in developing the agriculture of a state by directing settle- ment first to the most desirable regions, in helping to study soil problems in old settled regions, and it is also of great value in the follow-up work of the detail soil surveye Detail soil surveys can be made to best advant- age in sections which are well settled, and where all por- tions of the region are readily accessible, While general surveys usually cover six or eight counties as one group, or in some cases, nearly half of an entire state, a detail survey is usually confined to the limits of a single county. The chief object of a detailed survey is to make a very careful study of the soils in such a way as to determine the character of the problems which will be met with on each soil type, and to assist in the solution of these problems, in so far as that is possible. Different standards are used in these different classes of surveys. In the general survey the unit of map- ping may range from 1/4 square mile to several square miles, which means that these sized tracts would be the smallest variations which could be indicated by a general survey. Maps of general surveys are published on the scale of three miles to one inch, six miles to one inch, or sometimes on a still smaller scale. In a detailed survey, on the other hand, the unit of mapping is 10 acres, which means that any variation of ten acres or more in extent would be shown on a detailed soil map. Frequently even smaller tracts are in- dicated. Detail maps are usually published on a scale of -19= one mile to one inch. The methods which are followed in the reconnois- sance and detail surveys differ somewhat, and of the two the general survey is usually the more difficult to make. survey parties usually consist of two men, though within any area there may be several parties of two each, both in the general and in the detail work. A brief description of an outfit used by a party of which the writer was a mem- ber will give an idea of how reconnoissance work in a semi- arid region is conducted. The party was made up of two soil survey men, each supplied with a saddle horse. A large covered wagon, with a team of mules attached was in charge of a Mexican driver who served as cook, driver, and handy man about camp. The wagon carried tent, cots, bedding, camp stove, survey equipment such as soil augers, plane- tables, etc., food supplies, and hay and grain for horses and mules. Camp was established about every ten or fifteen miles, and was kept in each place from one to two days. While proceeding from one camping place to the next the road or trail was traversed by the use of an ordinary plane table. The distance was measured by an odometer attached to the wa- gon wheel, The soils were examined and mapped as the camping outfit moved along. The base map with which we were sup- plied was very inaccurate and many corrections were necessary. When camp was established the Mexican was left to look after the outfit and each of the soil men went in different direc- tions from the camp. If roads or trails existed these were followed. Where no roads could be found a course was decided upon and followed by the use of the compass. In such cases -20- the distance was estimated by timing the horse, after first having determined as carefully as possible at what rate the horse would travel. The direction was kept, and the mapping was done by the use of a small army sketching case which can be used while riding, it only being necessary to stop to ex- amine the soil at various places. An effort was made to co- ver the country over lines approximately three miles apart. In some places we could get over a region more closely than this, while in others it was impossible. The growth of cactus was in places so large and so dense as to make it impossible to get into certain localities. In such places field glasses aided in gaining an idea of the character of country which could not be visited. The country was very sparcely settled, the graz- ing was very limited, and it was necessary to haul along sufficient hay as well as grain for horses and mules, Roads were often poor, and as the mule team was light it became necessary to supplement our original outfit with a three- yoke team of oxen and an extra wagon with Mexican driver, to carry along feed, -. Their only food was cactus (prickley pear) from which the spineé had been burnt. The moisture in the heavy leaves often enabled the oxen to go without water for two days at a time, when the supply was limited, With this outfit we were for a time over 70 miles from the railroad. The food which we ate consisted chiefly of beans, bacon, rice, corn bread, bisuit and coffee, all of which our Mexican cook was good at preparing. Quail and rabbits were plentiful so that we were often enabled to have fresh meat, as the outfit was always supplied with -2l- guns and plenty of amunition. Our work in the semi-arid region of Texas extended over a period of nearly six months, during which time we covered an area of 4000 square miles, or at the rate of ap- proximately 160 square miles per week, An account of the outfit and methods of work on a reconnoissance survey in northern Wisconsin will also be of interest at this point, since the conditions in the two sec- tions of country are radically different. The region re- ferred to here consisted of new country either in virgin forest, or cut-over land which had grown up with a dense second growth of popple and birch. Swamps were also nume-e erous, and over extensive tracts forest fires and heavy wind storms had swept, leaving the country in an almost im- passable condition. Wagon roads were scarce, but wherever these were found they were used as the starting points for the work, The small towns scattered through the region, and the logging camps supplied a base from which supplies could be readily secured. After the wagon roads were tra- versed the only way of getting over the remainder of the country was to walk, and the lightest camping outfit ob- tainable was selected, and the area was so divided up that by taking camping trips of from one to two weeks each all portions of the region to be surveyed could be reached, and a sufficient food supply could be carried along for each trip, Rach party consisted of two men who worked together the greater portion of the time, One member of each party was a soil expert and the other a compassman, Each man was supplied with a pack sack in which was carried a food sup-= =22= ply sufficient for the proposed trip of from one to two weeks. In addition there was one light weight tent, blankets, hand ax, frying pan, and a small bucket for boiling rice, etc. Note books, compass, soil auger, and maps were also necessary in the conduct of the work. When starting out on a camping trip each pack would weight from 40 to 60 pounds. The first camp could usually be estab- lished at from 8 to 10 miles from the base of supplies and work carried on from such a point for a couple of days, when camp would be moved several miles again. In this work an effort was made to see something of every section of land, which made it necessary to go over parallel lines two miles apart. Work was started each day from some section corner, and by the use of the compass the section line was followed, and as many as possible of the section corners were located. The compassman attended to keeping the proper course, and counted paces to keep the location, and the soil man examined and mapped the soil, While in camp each man did his share of cooking, making fires, washing dishes, etc. Travel through this region was often very diffi- cult. Slowest progress was made while crossing swamps in which there was a dense growth of alder or cedar, or where fires had run through, and where there was a dense tangle of fallen trees, stumps, brush, and vines. Over such a course it would sometimes take one hour to go half a mile. In the open virgin forest two miles an hour was considered about the maximum rate of progress that could be kept up all ~ 25 = day. In the making of a general survey of this kind under such conditions it will be readily understood that it re- quires good judgment, as well as a strong healthy body, and the good nature of an optimist. Profress in reconnois- sance work in wooded regions such as northern Wisconsin is much slower than in semi-arid regions as southwestern Texas, Under the Wisconsin conditions, which are typical of a very large scope of country in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, the soil survey progressed at the rate of from one to two townships per week, depending upon the distance from the base of supplies, and the character of country being surveyed, In detail work of the soil survey an area usually consists of a county, and the unit of mapping is 10 acres, The work is usually conducted by parties of two. Headquar-= ters are established at some central place, usually the county seat, and the surveying operations started from this point. If there is no reliable base map of the area one must be constructed by the use of the plane table as the soil mapping progresses. The amount of detail which is shown varies somewhat, but some portion of every 40-acre tract of land should be seen. Usually every section line is followed, and one trip taken across on a quarter line, Side trips from these courses are taken whenever surface features of other factors indicate that there is some variation in the soil back from these lines of travel. Where extensive open marshes occur, or where there are large areas of uniform soil, as in prairie regions, the necessity for getting over the country in this amount of detail is not so great as where the soils are -24< complic ated and change radically within short distances. In making a detail survey of a region a team and buggy can be used to advantage. The soil in the fields along the roads can be examined by the man with the team while the other man crosses the section. It is customary for the men to alter~ nate in the taking of these cross section trips. The men can usually return to town each night, but when the distance be- comes too great, accommodations can usually be secured with farmers, and thus the field work carried on without the loss of time in taking long drives. Trips of several days or a week out from headquaeters can usually be planned to advant- age after the work is well under way. All the equipment ne- cessary, for detail work such as soil auger, plane table, sacks for taking samples, etc., can readily be carried in the DUgLY e The progress possible in a detail survey will de- pend upon the uniformity of the soils, and the character and number of the roads over which it is possible to drive. Where soils are uniform as in a prairie region the progress may be as rapid as in reconnoissance work where the diffi- culties are most numerous. On the average 36 square miles per week is considered a fair rate of progress for a party of two men, while it may vary all the way from 10 to 40 square miles per week, The taking of samples for laboratory study is im- portant, and in both detail and general work several samples of both soil and subsoil are taken from each type mapped. These are selected so as to be typical of the soil they re- present, CHAPTER IV VALUE, USES, AND COST OF A SOIL SURVEY While the Federal Government has been making soil sur- veys and soil maps for the past 16 years, the large number of uses to which such maps can be put, and the great value of work of this character is just now beginning to be fully appreciated by both the practical and scientific men through- out the country. It would be impossible to estimate with any degree of accuracy the value to the country in dollars and cents of such soil investigations as are now being carried one While the object of soil survey work is primarily to aid in the agricultural development of the country, there are a number of lines quite distinct from agriculture along which the results of the soil survey work are being found very use- ful, In the first place, a soil survey provides an ac- curate, up-to-date map of the region covered. This maps shows all cultural data, such as roads, streams, houses, schools, churches, town and county boundaries, and frequently the con- tour lines indicating the elevation, and configuration of the surface of the land are also shown, In addition the soil map shows in colors the location and extent of all the different classes and types of soil which occur in the region surveyed. A soil survey of a newly developing region is of value to a prospective settler, since from it he can learn the character of the soil, extent of settlement and develop- ment, crops which are being grown, cost and methods of clear- -25- =26-= ing land, something of the transportation facilities, cli- matic conditions, labor problems, and other factors and conditions prevailing in the region to which he may desire to gow It would not be advisable to purchase land entirely on the strength of a soil survey report, but such a report and map will direct a man and be of valuable service in se= lecting a farm in a location best suited to the line of farm- ing which the prospective settler may wish to follow. It gives reliable, unbiased information concerning the soil and its crop-producing powers which could not be supplied in any other way.