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THESIS FOR DEGREE OF M.S.

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CROP PRODUCTION IN CHINA
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PRODUCTION IN MANCHURIA.

By

HUNG CHUN CHANG.

Thesis submitted to the faculty of the
Michigan Agricultural College in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Science.

1922.
+ wr we
_--*

THES!S

 
a

Acknowl edgments.

The writer wishes to express his sincere
thanks and appreciation to Professor J. F. Cox,
head of the Farm Crops Department, for his kind
suggestions and valuable help during the course
of the work and for the correction of the
manuscript, and also to the other members of the

same devartment.

94640
CROP PRODUCTION IN CHINA, “IT! SPECIAL RaSEsENCe TO
PRODUCTION Iv LUiICHURIA,.

Chapter 1: Introduction.

A. Types of farming.

B. Agricultural conditions.

C. Area, population, climate, topography, and
principal crops in different provinces.

D. Crop production--Its imports and exports.

Chapter £: Leading crops, production methods, and suggestions
for improvement, yield, and quality of crop
production.

1. VHSAT.

A. Origin and general distribution.

Soil and climatic adeptation.

- Varieties.

Fertilizers, manures, and rotation.

lrethods of culture.

narvesting and storing.

Insects and diseases.

- b.ethods of improvement for yield and quality.

bo
e

mRatdtWa

+
.
e

x

“istory, origin, and distribution of rice.

Varieties.

Adaptetion to soil and clinatic conditions.
Irrigetion and dreineve,.

Pertilizers and rotation.

methods of culture.

- Harvesting and thrashing.

- Uses and importance.

Insects and diseases.

Improvement of rice crop.

Oyu awr a

C4 t4
eo °e

5. COTTON.

>

General distribution and production.
Varieties.

Adaptation of soil and climate.
Fertilizers, manures, and rotation.
wethod of culture.

Harvesting.

Insects and diseases.

Improvement.

‘ysoathds

to qa '3J
4, COU.

A. Generel distribution.

RB, Adaptation to climate send soil.

C. Verieties.

). Crovcine systems, menures, end fertilizers.

we .etnods of culture

YW. uervesting and storing

G. Insects and disenses.

y. Uses.

I. Liethods of improvenent for yield and quality.
Oo. SOY BEAN.

A. Origin and senersl distribution.

B. Soil and climatic adaptations.

C. Verieties,.

D. “ertilizers, manures, and rotetion.

*. Inoculation.

¥, iwethod of culture.

G. lIarvesting.

4. The soy bean for silage and hay.

T, iner.ies.

- J. T'ethods of improvenent and tre future

development of soy bean production.

6. SOAGERUL: CR ZAO-LIAUG.

HH YOmy WO eS

Cricin and general distribution.
Ada.tetion to soil and clirste.

rte pee

“ertilizers, manures, end rotetion.
vprourht res iste nee end :ffect on soil.
/ethods of culture.

narvesting.

Uses and importance.

The smuts of xcao-liang or sorghum.

*

rethods of improvenent for yield and ocuelity.

UT
a) e

General distribution and origin.
Varieties.

faapteation to soil end climete.
Fotetion end fertilizers.
Netrods of culture.

Uses.

Inseets and diserses.

r‘ethods of improvement.
Chapter 3:

Chapter 4:

Agricultural and crop conditions in !.anchuria,
area, soil, climate, crops adapted, possible
nddition to Chinese food supvly by proper develop-
ment of ‘’snechuria, outlines of original and re-
vised fields renresertinp !enchurian Ferm Plan as
snown oy mop, rotrntion charts supplemented ‘ith
notes on type of farming, crops, Kinds of live
Stocx, distance from merket, market conditions

and fecilities, preveiling soil types, condition
of soil fertility, present system of fertilization
systems, possibilities for profitable returns.

General discussion for tre future developnent
end improvement of Cninese avriculture, with
possiole adoption of western scientific methods
by introducing rodern ferm machinery.
CROP PRODUCTICN IN CHINA
WITH SPECIAL Ser sc? TO PRODUCTION IN MANCHURIA

Chapter l.

 

INTRODUCTION.

China is noted for her agriculture. The agricultural
methods practiced by her people are the development of 40
centuries of recorded agricultural experience. Any crop
that can be grown elsewhere on the face of the earth can
be grown somewhere in China.

The Republic comprises the eighteen provinces of
China Proper, three provinces of Manchuria, Mongolia, Sin-
kiang province, and Tibet. It has an extreme breadth from
south to north of about 2,500 miles. The southern boundaries
of the Provinces of Yunnan and Ywang-si are approximately 21°
north letitude, while the northern extremities of Mongolia
end VWeilungkiane Province, Manchuria, reach 54° north lati-
tude. The length of the Republic from east to west is
roughly 3,200 miles. The most easterm point of ZYirin Pro-
vinee, ltanchuria, touches the Meridian of 25° east longi-
tude, while the most western extrerity of Sin-xiang Province
has less than 74° of east longitude. In this vast territory
of the Great senublic with its wide ranve of soil, climatic
and market conditions, 2 great variety in crop adaptation
and methods of farming occurs. In respect to climnte, soil,
end facilities of internal navagation and irrigation, China
Proper is, on the whole, superior to any equal area on the
globe. This region is tne best watered of the country. It

is a land of many great rivers bordered in broad valleys
-L—~

and the low mountain ranges rise on fertile plains. The
Yangtgse River, the Yellow iver, “est xiver, and Hwai iver
With numerous canals and tributeries flowing across the
country, irrigating, draining, and connecting ev2ry vart of
it. It is in these sections that most the crops can be
grown successfully under favorable climatic conditions. In
general, rice, cotton, sugar, indigo, silk, and tea are
chiefly produced in the south, and wheat, barley, corn, sor-
ghum, beans, peas, rillet, mnd other cereals in the north,

“orticulture is « favored pursuit in all sections of
Cninea Proper and south ianchuria, and fruit trees are grown
in grest variety. Cotton is grown ell over tne country,
even as far nortn as Province of Uhihli and southern part
of the Province of hurxden. Tea is cultivated erclusively
in tne west and south, in inhwi, Hupeh, Hunan, Chexisneg,
“Warsi, fukien, 3zechwan, and Vkangtung. Silx culture is
one of the most succes..ful industries in Central and South
China. The silx industry depends on the mulverry plant
which is usec exclusively in feeauiiy G.> cllk worms, usually
two or three crops deing produced each year. ‘Yheat, sorghum,
corn, millet, soy beans and other beans are the chief crops
in the north, especially in th2 three provinces of l'anchuria.
Tobacco, sugar beets, indigo, fruits, hemp, other egricultural
vroducts and live stock are reaised to some extent. Silk from
worms fed on oak lenves is one of the most importent products
of tne soutnerr pert of Puxden Province. ‘heat, barley,

millet, and other esrenls are vrown in some sections of Sin-
L hrt tre te
~4-

usually of the exploitive type. Uere the farming is con-
ducted on fertile new soils wnich can be farmed for many
years without attention to fertility. Such fsrming is
usually auite profitable as long ns the fertility of the
Soil lasts.

Diversified farming hes been more or less practiced
oy the Chinese farmers. They want to prow every crop they
need. Hogs and chickens are raised on the farm. ‘orses,
mules, don.ceys, and cattle are kept to do the farm work, but

very few cattle for purpose of meat production.

TYPES OF RPARMING

The most importent types of farming which exist now in
China are truc« farming, fruit growing, silk farming, mixed
stock and crop farming, live stock farming, and poultry farm-
ing.

Truck farming.

The production of garden vegetables is one of the most
important types of farming in 9211 sections of China. Vege-
table culture has reached a hieh state of perfection. tvery
farm has a garden which produces enough vegetables as are
needed for home use. In every town, city, and villege, there
are. a-number of truck farmers who can suuply local markets,
This type of farming is carried on to some great extent near
the big cities where the markets are good and the income is
usually so large that a femily can make a living on a small

aren of land.
ea O2 a,
-5=<
Fruit growing.

This farming cen 02 found in any section of China Proper
and soutn of Menchuria. The fruit trees are grown in great
variety. lowever, some other crops are grown on the farm be-
Sides fruit growing, but the cnief income is from fruit pro-
duction.

Silk farming.

This is the important type of farming in central and
south China. The worms are fed on the mulberry heaves and
usually two or three crops are produced a year, but in south-
eastern section of I'ukden Province the silk worms are fed on
Oak leaves and only one crop is produced a year. Usually
big profits are obtained from this type of farming though
there may be some bad years,

Mixed stock and crop farming.

This type of farming is perhaps the most common type
found in north China. No leguminous crops are grown in
rotation for feed of live stock, save bern growing for seed
production. Cattle, norses, sheep, bogs, and chickens are
all raised on the farm. ‘Theat, sorghum, millet, beans, corn,
and other cereals are grown and crop rotation is practiced.
The millet straw and corn stalks are used as roughages for
norses end cattle, while beans and sorghum grain are used
for concentrates. Sheep pasture all year around with the
only exception of a few days when the ground is covered
with snow in winter, and hogs are fed in combination with

bean leaves and other grain chaff, wnile chickens are entire-
~6=
ly fed on the grains such as corn, millet, and sorghum.
This combination of farmine is usually profitable and every
product raised on the farm cen be utilized witn the result

of a regular income to the farmers.

|

Live stock farming.
This type of farming can only be found in the mountain-

ous sections of China Proper where it is not cultivable for
other crops, but in north of Manchuria, iiongolia, Sin-kiang
and Tibet big live stock farming is carried on to some ex-
tent. These sections are pastoral, enttle, horses, sheep,
goats, donxeys, and others are all raised. Hog raising is
carried on in every part of the Republic, in fact a fev
hogs are Kept in nesrly every country home.

Poultry farming.

Poultry reising is just a side-line farming of the
common farmers and is found on any farm in China. The chickens
can find their living from waste products of tne farm and it
is, therefore, profitable to furmers. ‘iowever, there are
quite a number engaged in poultry farming near the big cities
and the poultry raised for the demand of meat and egg produc-
tion of the market.

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS

It is very hard to deal witn agricultural conditions in
a cOmprenensive way because there are no reliable stntistics
published. In some sections with a dense population, every
spot of land is being cultivated even on the hillsides, while

in other sections some lerge areas are unfarmed. Rainfall in
-~7-
some sections is uncertrin on the nignlands end irrigation
is practised. The almost entire sbsence of timber or wood-
lnnd in north and eastern part is noted with surprise. ‘he
highlends ond tne mountains sre comoletely denuded with the
usurl result of alternate periods of grent drouth and excess-
ive re infall. in general, the farms are small and the method
of ferming is crude. The principal implerents on the ferm ere
Shallow plows, single-handed with iron point, hsrrows and
seeders. ‘ioes and sickles are used for cultivetion end har-
vesting while the fleils end stone rollers are used for
threshing.

There is no recognized method of financing and marketing
the crops. The small farmers borrow money, but not in recog-
nized manner, with a higher rate of interest at times. The
prodicts usually sell at local markets, but in big centers
the market is in the hands of n few wholesale dealers who
bring ell that reaches this market from the interior of the
farms and then sell to others. ‘They dispatch agents to the
places of voroduction to arrange for the purchase, sipment,
end disposel of the produce. Contracts are sometimes made
on the besis of one-third of the purchese price being deposit-
ed, but usually business is trensacted on ® cash basis. Yet
very few farmers sell the products in that way and they market
the grain themselves to the locrl market under conditions they
know bést. However, the arriculturel conditions in China are
not as they should be, but due to certein difficulties the

farmers h:ve a hard time to produce and to market their pro-
~8~-
ducts. The most important factors wich affect the develop-
ment of avriculture and avricultural conditions are lack of
transportation fecilities on one hand and the old type of
implements used on the other, ‘The transportation facilities
should be improved for marketing the farm products from remote
regions to the business centers, and vetter implements should
be introduced for effective cultivation,

The conditions in central and south China, as a rule, are
better than those in northern China, because a certsin amount
of production of crops can be depended on in norml vears as
the rainfall and temperature are so favorable in those sections,
The transvortation facilities are also good on account of many
rivers being navigable and better rnilway lines. But in the
remote regions and slong boundary lines, especially in north
anehuria, siongolia, sin-<iang, and Tibet, the rainfall usually
is uncertain and the crops often a failure due to the drouth.
Products are difficult to market due to voor transportation
facilities and higher freignt to pay where transportation is
possible. However, tne three provinces of !.anchuria are
better off than the other boundary lines, such as Nongolia and
Sin-kiang Province, because there are some big rivers which are
navigable for hundreds of miles in the three provinces. Ian-
churia always has a surplus of food supplies for her sister
provinces whether the year is good or bad. The agricultural
conditions usually are good, but much ern be accomplished by

improving cultural methods.
9.

AREA, PCPULATION, CLINATE, TOPOGRAPHY, sND PRINCIPAL ChOPS
IN DISPGASNT PROVINCES

It is very difficult to state exactly the area and popu-
lation of each province, because China has not yet carried out
a proper census so only the estimation can be given for each
province and the wnole country. This is simply to show the
climate and topogprapny briefly in different sections to which
crops have been best adapted and the principal crops of each
province.

The eignteen provinces of Chine Proper.

 

Anhwi:

The Province of Anhwi, with an area of 55,000 square
miles, has 9 population of 20,000,C00, with a density of 360
per squsre mile. It is well watered by the Yangtze niver in
the south and the Hwai siver in the north. In the south,
there are rolling plains and mountains, but in the central
sections the soil is fertile, well watered, and good for agri-
culture. The climate is moderate. Its temperature is about
13 to 97° and the rainfall is about 45 inches or more. Llong
the rivers much rain comes during the spring and summer seasons.
The principal occupation of the people in this province is farm-
ing. In nortnern sections wheat, rye, millet, corn, rice,
ground nuts, beans, and sweet potatoes are the important crops,
While in the south, rice, hemp, cotton, and tea are produced.
The crops of corn, kao-liang, beans, peanuts, cotton, millet,
tobacco, and some trucx crops are planted from March to May.
Sweet potatoes and buckwheat are sown “rom June to August.

wheat and barley are sown during the months of 5Sectember,
~10—
October, and :.ovember. The erops that are narvested at these
times are beans, sweet votntoes, peanuts, cotton, rice, tobacco,
sorghum, and some truck crops.
Chekiang:

“ne 2rovince of Chexciang, with an area of about 37,000
square miles, nas a population of 17,000,000, with a density
of 460 per square mile. It is situated between 27° ana 31°
north latitude, and 118° and 122° east longitude. This is 2
province of wooded hills and fertile valleys. The west and
south are mountainous, but the large fertile plains are in the
east and north and rich for agriculture. The climate is warm
in this region. The temperature is about 14° to 102°R, ana
the rainfall is about from 45 to 52 inches or more. The soil
is very fertile and the latitude, together with the fact that
the reinfall is plenty, evenly distributed throughout the yerr,
permits the production of t..o crops a year. Rice, tea, silk,
cotton, wheat, nemp, indigo, sugar, and fruits are produced.
Rice, tea, and cotton are the principal crops. Silk produces
two crops a year for vnich the province is noted.

Chihli:

The rrovince of Chihli is located in nortn China, with an
aurea of 116,000 square miles and a population of 30,000, O00,
and a density of 250 per square mile. It is mountainous in
the nortn and west, but tne soil of tre exstern plain is an
alluvium devsosited in the deltas of rivers, and is hot in
summer snd productive. Yvhe climat» is cold in winter and warm

in summer. At times she temverature rises in summer to 100°F.,
~ll-
while the daily variation may be as much as 30°F,, and falls
in winter to even 30° or 40° below zero. The climate is dry
and the months of June and July are the rainy season, The
annual rainfall,including snow, is about 30 inecnes. This is
an agricultural region and orectically the entire srea of the
section is developed arriculturally. Sorghum, millet, peanuts,
wheat, corn, beans, cotton, and barley are the main crovs.
“ruits and vegetables are produced. Cattle, sheeo, gonts, pigs,
horses, mules, donkeys, and fowls are »lso raised.
fukien:

The ~rovince of Puxzien with an area of 46,000 square miles,
has e population of 13,000,000, wits a density of 280 ner square
mile. This section is broken and mountainous and the soil on
the hills is poor, but fertile in the valleys. The climste is
Semi-tropical in the enstern portion, but in the extreme west
it veries toward the temperate. The annual reinfall is svout
46 incnes end neavy rains come during the summer season. ice,
tea, wheat, sugar, indigo, bamboo, oranres, nnd other fruits
are the vorinciprl crops of this province.
onan:

The ~rovinee of onan, with an ares of 69,000 squsere miles,
has a population of 25,000,0C0, wits = densit. of 375 per scuere
mile. The vorovinee is srepsda lixe nn irrerulnar trisagle ana
is hilly on the western voundary, with vlsins elsewhere. Tris
area ic divided into three basins, that of tre Yellow .iver in
the uorth, of the “wai .iver on tne south, ond of the len :.iver

on the southeast. The soil is very fertile and rich for ss:i-
12-
culture. The climate is frirly severe in dotn summer and
winter, fhe reinfall varies from ¢0 to o0 inches or more,
and the heavy rein comes in summer. Cotton, wneet, sorghum,
beans, millet, sesrme seed, ard corn are the main crops of
the province.
rlunan:

The Province of unan, with an area of 83,000 square
miles, nes ©= population of 24,000,000, with a density of 280
per square nile. It, lying between 25° and 30° latitude and

109°

and 114° longitude, is hilly and mountainous, esrecially
in the west and south, and Tune Ting Lexke is in the northeast
with four rivers emptying into it. In the west and south the
nills end mounteins are well wooded, wile in tke plein sections
the soil is rich. The climate is sub-tropical and moist. The
Summers ere warm and winters cold, but the temperature rarely
falls belo. freezing point. Tre temperature? varies from 23°
to 95°R, The anniunl rainfall is no,out 63 inches and the heavy
rain comes in June. hice is the principal crop. “heat, com,
beans, sesame, berley, millet, cotton, tea, bamboo, and fruits
are all produced. It is estimated that 60% of the population
of this province lives by tilling the soil and in fact tris is
one of the richest in agricultural wealth.
Hupeh:

The Provinee of Hupeh, with an area of 71,000 sauare
miles, has a population of 25,000,000, with a density of 350

per square mile. The Yangtze and Jan hivers intersect the

province as we 1 as numerous lakes and canals. This region is
~13~
hilly and mountainous, especinlly in the west,yet however the
southeast? plein is considered the most fertile part of the
epudlic. ‘he climate is warm, and in hot summer the nights
are as warm as the days. the temperature is avout 20° or 25°
0 0

to 104 or 105 *, ?tuch rain comes in summer and the annual
rainfall varies from 30 to 60 inches or more, Rice, cotton,
tea, and beans form the principal crops. ‘Theat, silk, tobacco,
rarn.ie, and sesame are also important agricultural products of
Chis province,
Ensue

The Province of Mansu, with an area of 125,000 scuare
miles, nes & populazsion of 5,000,000, with a density of 40 per
square mile. This province is divided into two sections by
the mountains runnin: nerrly north and south, separating the
Yei and Yellow siver basins. In the east and northeast a
large loess plateau is fertile and the vei Besin is rich in
soil fertility. The climate is dry with cold winter. Much
snow falls in winter montns and all the rivers are frozen
over. In summer the temperature at times rises to 102° or
104°R, , so that crops grow with great ravidity. ‘Yheat, cotton,
tobaeco, rhubarb, licorice, and fruits are the principal crovs.
Tris province is onstoral ratver tran acricultural, and sheep
and cattle are raised,
iilangsi:

The Province of iangsi, with en area of 68,000 square

miles, hes ea population of 15,000,000, with a density of 210

per square mile. It is msde up of the beautiful basin of
-14-

28an “liang, inecludine all tre affluents and their minor valleys.
1.0St parts of this reavion are nountrinceus except Poyan: Lake
Zasin. “en wiange drains large parts of the province and plains
of some sections ere fertile. The ciimate is humid, generally
very not in summer and mild in winter. The temverature in
summer rises to 100° or even to 105° in the extreme south out
seldom frlls in winter to 20° or 25° R, The heavy rein comes
in Summer months and the anrual reinfeall is a»out 40 to 50
inches. xice, tea, tobacco, peanuts, fruits, indigo, and
grains are the principal crops in tris province. Due to the
not climate usually two crops are produced a year.
nlangsu:

The Province of ‘tiangsu, with an area of 37,000 scuare
miles, has a population of 18,000,00C, with a density of
450 per square mile. This region is a fertile plain crossed
by the Yangtze zsiver from east to west and the Grrnd Canal
from north to south. Tne two water courses form the basis
of the series of cannls and tributaries wnich make the province
one Of the best-watered sectiors in China. The great alluvirl
plain and the land of Yangtze Delta are noted for fertility.
The climate is warm and its temperature is about 13° to 98°R,
Much rain comes during summer months, evenly well distributed,
and the annual rainfall is about 45 inches. Farming is the
principal occupation in the province. ‘Silk, cotton, rice,
beans, peanuts, fruits, wheat, and bamboo are the principal
crops. It is this vrovince that produces the finest silk in

the world, and cotton is produced in large quantities each year.
~15—=
Kwangsi:

The Province of “vanes, with en area of 77,300 square
miles, has * populasion of 6,500,000, with a density of 84 per
scuare mile. The ereater part of tne re-ion is mountainous
and the mountain ranges run from southwest to northeast. The
land along the Yest iver and its tributaries is fertile. The
Climate is tropicrel in the south, but temperate in the north.
The temperature is changeable and winters are cold. In the
southern valleys the thermometer never falls nelovw 37°R, and
rises in summer to 100° and sometimes to 104° The heavy rain
comes during the summer months and the annual rainfall is about
from 60 to 70 inches. Rice, sugar, fruits, grains, bamboo,
aniseed and cassia are the principal crops. The large part of
this region is mountainous and is not available for agricultur-
al purposes so only the rich soil of the plain and valleys is
cultivated.

"wang tung:

The Province of Hwangtune, with an area of 100,000 square
miles, has 2 population of 28,000,000, with a density of 280
per sauare mile. This region is for the most part a mountain-~
ous one, but it has a large plain extending over the delta of
the Yest River. Tne plains, particularly the fertile sections
Of Canton Delta, rich and well-wnitered, are cultivated. ire
climate is tropicr:l and very cranzeable. The temperature sel-
dom rises to 100°, in summer and fails to below 25°3., The

Yain comes most in summer months and the annual rainfall is

about 70 to 8O inches. ‘Silk, rice, suvar, tobacco, cassia,

 
~16-

fruits, oamooo, tes, cotton, gitiger, indigo, rnamie, cnmmphor,
and hemp are the mein products. ice is the princivel crop
and vecnuse of the richness of the soil end tre frvoreole
climate two or three crovs 8 yenr are reaped,
s.weichow:

The rrovince of ‘Iweichow, with ean area of 67,0CO square
riles,has a population of 8,000,000, with a density of 120
per square mile. This is mounteinous province ant the mean
altitude of the great tadleland is evnout 4,000 feet. The soil
is poor send it has the reoutation of being the most unproductive
in China. T:2 climate ic moist snd changeable. In summer the
therrometer rarely reaches 84°R,on the tableland, «rile in

Winter it frlls to 18°R, Jense fogs prevail throughout the

A

v6
‘

province, particularly in the deep velleys of the south. ituch
rain fells tnroughout the year. Tris rersion is poor in agri-
culture and the main crons sre tobrcco, bamnoo, fruits and
wheat.

Shansi:

The Province of Shunsi, with en area of 82,000 saunre
tiles, has a population of 10,000,000, with a density of 122
per squsre mile. Practically the entire province, with the
exception of Taiyuan Plateau, is covered by mountsin ranges
running eest and west. “owever, several depressions, formerly
lakes, form the fertile sections .wnich ere productive. The
loess soil of these plains is rich and fertile. The climate
is very cold in winter and hot in summer. The temperature

rises in summer sometimes to 100°F., but the daily veriation
-17~
is great and falls in winter to occasionally 10°F, below zero.
The rnin comes in lmte summer months and the annual rainfall
is avout 30 inches, This section is good in arriculture in the
plains and wheat, millet, sorzhum, corn, cotton, tobacco, and
fruits are the prirvipnl crops of the province.

Shentung:

The Proviriee of Shantune, with an area of 56,000 square
miles h:s a population of 30,000,000, with s density of 525
per saqusre mile. Tre soutnern ano southwestern carts are moun-=
tainous, “ith a watershed bisecting that part of the province
running southeest to northwest, and with meny small streams
flowing north and south. The western part is a great plain
and the Yellow siver flows in ® northeasterly direction through
the province with frequent floods. In central portion is a
plain and comparatively low land and the soil is rich. The
climate is cold and dry in the long winter, but is hot end
moist in the short summer. The rainfall is about 26 inches
annuelly and is confined mainly to the months of June, July,
and Aucust. Heavy snowfalls occur in December and January.
The temperature rises in summer, occasionally to 105° or 106°,
but falls in winter to 9°R. “heat, cotton, corn, sorehun,
millet, beans, tobacco, peanuts, silk, hemp, walnuts, sweet
potatoes, and fruits are the principal crops.

Shensi:

The Frovince of Snensi, with an aren of 75,300 squrre

miles, has 2 population of 8,000,000, with a density of 105

per square mile. It has the fertile loess teble-lands in
~18~
the north, the plain in the center, drained by ‘lei Hiver
and its tributaries, and the mountains in the south. ‘he
nortrern section nes a good soil, but the crop production is
urigertain due to the fact of droughts which often occur. The
central section, lying in the valley of the ‘fei Kiver, is
rich in soil fertility and is, therefore, good for avriculture,
“he southern section nas numerous mounts in rmges which mark
the boundary of the province. Vhe climste is dry and cold in
winter and warm in Sumser. Ihe temperature rises to about
100° to 104° in sumer and falls to O°#, in winter. The
climate is widely different in che nortn and south and also
changeable. ‘T'ne reinfell is avout 30 inches and is confined
mainly to the summer months. The velley of Han and Vei Rivers
is particularly productive. ‘Theat is the steple crop in the
province and tne »est and the finest cotton is produced in
the vei Basin. Corn, beans, oats, barley, millet, silk,
tobacco, peanuts, Irish potatoes, alfalfa, repeseed, and
persimmons are produced in the province.
Szechwan:

The Province of Szechwan, with an area of 220,000 square
miles, has - population of 45,000,000, with a density of 200
per scuare mile. Tris is the biggest of China's provinces
and lies betveen latitude 26° and 34° north and longitude
98° and 110° east. Three-fourths of the province is a high
plateau with mountains extending to an altitude of 18,000
feet and tris clatesau of red sand stone slonres toward east

and southeest. ‘The principal river of this section is the
~19~
Yangtze flowing soutnward. The westerm watershed of the
"River of Golden Sand" marks the western boundary of the
province. There sre some otner rivers, the Yalune, lin,
and Lu flowing west, the Chisling flowing south, and the
sung Tan flowing north. ‘he cliriate is dry in the west with
cold winters and warm summers wnile in the erst it is mild
and tne soutnern part is seni-tropical. In summer the tem-
perature rarely exceeds 100°, end in wiriter it mey fell to the
freezing point for a snort period, In tne seri-tropical sec-
tions the extremes of temperature in winter and summer are
aoout 35° to 106°*, The avernare annual rsinfall is about 50
incnes and the heavy rein comes from April to October. The
province claims to produce everytring raised elsewhere in
Coina, and agriculture is the principal occupation or the
people. Silk, rice, wheat, sugar, tea, tobacco, fibers,
bamboo, beans, and fruits are the principal crops. The
Chenstu Plain is the most fertile spot or its size in China
end is irrigated bv artificial system for a thousand years,
Yunnan :

The Provinee of Yurnan, with an. area of 146,000 sauare
miles, has 2 oopulation of 9,000,000, with a density of 60
per square mile. It has high mountein rmezes in the west and
tavle-lands in the south. In the nortnern part tne lana is
low, wile in the eastem part it is nigh. The climate is
tropicel in tne south wnile in tne nortrern cert it is mild
and ayreeable on the nign table-land. The therrometer

, 0 Oo. , ; 0
reaches 80 to 85° in summer and se2ldom falls below 32 @,
-21~
1s about £5 inches in tnese sections. i-enehuria contains
some of the finest acriciultural lands in the world, but there
are soue dig areas of iand ..ich are not under cultivation,
The principal crop now is soy beans and went renks second in
importance. Other cereals, such as sorghum, nillet, corn,
and rice are raised in large quantities. Tobacco, sugar beets,
indigo, silk, hemp, and flax are also vroduced. “ive stock
raising is c:rried on to some great extent. -etails will be
given in Chapter III.)
Mongolia:

wOnpolia, witn an area of 1,370,000 square miles, has a
population of 2,500,000, With a density of 2 per square mile.
This is a vast basin-like plateau sirrounded by mountein

anzes and undulating stepoes and the Gobi Desert is nearly

in the center. ‘he climate is dry and winters are extremely
cold. sain comes in the summer season and snow in the winter.
tn certain favorsble regions there are some onderful stretches
of fertile virgin lands ...icn are ecspable of producing enormous
crops. It is a pastoral region end the vast stretches of lnnd
ere wonierrully adapted to grazing, so ecxttle and shoep reis~
ing is carried on exclusively.

Ssin-c<iang:

Toe Province of Sin-zinng, with an area of 550,000 sauare
miles, nas a popula-sion of 2,500,000, with a density of 4 per
square mile. \ large part of this region is a desert surround-
ed by high ranges of mountnins and with fertile spots occurr-

ing only here and there. Tre climate is dry and cold in winter.

Thre rain comes mostly in stusrer, but the moisture is not
sufficiently availnole to prodice rood ecrovs yat, novever,
Solendia crops ¢ 2 oe produced only where irrige tion is possi-
ble. In Yertile sections crovs of barley, millet, snd wheat
ace produced,

Tibet:

Tibat, with an aren of 465,000 saquare miles, hrs a popu-
lation of 6,000,000, vith rw density of 12 per square mile. The
erenter part of this regiin is desert, but valleys in the south
and west are fertile. Tne velley of the Chumbi iver is re-
ported to de the most fertile portion in the section, however,

4.

the region as a wnole hss tne rvreatest averavs elevetion of
eny Similar aren in tne orl. In the north end west there is
an immense tevle-leand and on the south there ere tiveh renzves
end deep river villeys. ‘whe climate is necessarily veried
but is generrlily very dry and henlthful. It is subject to
extremes of preat cold and heat, and in the soubrern part much
rein and snow fall in season. There is little asriculture in
this rerion, but it furnishes e~cellent pasture lands. ‘ne
raising of live stocz is tne principal occupetion of the people.
Yaks, sheen, goats, horses, snd ssses are reared in -reat num-
bers. “owever, in the Yertile valleys, brrley, millet, fruit,
as weil ms corn are produced,
ROP PRODUCTION--ITS IMPOnTS ALD EXPORTS

In regard to the production of farm or erricultural pro-
ducts the writer has no definite firures to give, because there
are no statistics boing worked out by the sovernment of the

nepudlic of Chine. “‘owever, it is safe to say that Crinn hes
~23.
the birrest production of a:ricultural products of alli the

x

mations of tre world. ‘2 ctrodvces -ufficient food supplies
for her populetion of rnbout 400,000,000. In normal years she
can exvort a certain rvrount of the vroduction to foreion mear-
cets, but tne exportrtion ov grei: is prorivited by the povern-
ment in order to have = sufficient food supvly on nhend to cre-
vent a famine. Comparatively, the wcroduction per ecre in

China is not lower then that in tne United “tetes or other

ts

perts of the world. ‘che low yield of crop production is due
more or less to tre poor quality of seed planted end the in-
crease of production cnn be greater it good seed is used.

There are still many acres of land in the north, such as
Manchuria, Vonvolia, Sin-xiang, and libet, «ich are, in most
part, good for agriculture and even in China Proper some sec-
tions of the lmnd are vneultivated., “Jith the regions alorg

the valleys of the fellow River end “wai siver reclaimed and
the bordor vrovinces colonized, Crina's crops alone wold
support double her present poprlation, so the production in the
future .:ill be not only sufficient for nome consumption but for
the world supply as well. China exports more a-ricultural
products than she imports, tnat is, she exports raw materials
and imports finished goods. ‘he writer has not secured any
available statistical reports relative to crop production,
eyports, and imports, so no data is very available. lUowever,
the writer wants to state just a few of the products wrich
constitute the present exports and imports. GY course, no

grain is allowed to ve exported except soy beans unless there
-24-
is a big over-production or surplus of food at home. At
present the principal exsort products -re beans, bern products,
Silx, tea, ana cotton, wrile the inports ere -scry Tew save fin-
ished soods.
The following table shows an estimation of the principal
products of exports and imports during 1913-1918. (Commercial

Handbook of Chins, J.S.D.A., Yasnington, D. C.)

 

 

 

 

Cereal > NO. OF POUNDS EXPORTED 3:3
: —L9LS : 1918 3; LILS : 1918

Corn > 7,414,800 : 9,747,567:: 1,103,200 ; Do, 793,986
Barley > 20,434,800 : 4,653,722;; 682,267 ; 630, 398
Villet and: : 23 :

Sorghum : 7122,871,426:: :
nye : : 33 156,800 ;
Oats : > 2,239,194:: 3,407,600 : 7,600
nice : >: 4 437 456: : :

Theat :246,409,467 3242, 060, 8263: 275,200 : 2,133
Other kinds239, 889. O67 : 14, 254, 631:: 1,729,200 : 2,349,194
Beans: 33 : 23 :

Black : >: 13,481,033::

Grean : >; 21,546,879:;

nite 13376,795,200 : 63,360,375::

Yellow : 3849 479, 343:: :
Other kinds :250,250,891:: :
Fibers: : : 38

Coir : >: 2,074,395:: :

Hemp ; 10,788,400 : 19,817,817:: 2,841,600 : 2,083,861
Jute >; 14,053,866 : 11,293,572::; :

Ramie ; 22,816,800 : 36,617,108:: :
Bean: : 33 23 :

Cake 1;575,729,400 2,182,241, 744: $

Curd > 4,846,533 : 3,765,591:: :

Oil > 65,575,600 : 303,621,508: :
Peas : : 34,874,713; :

Potatoes : 20,788,133 : 7,702,514::;
Seeds: : : 23
Apricot : 6,136,000 : 2,233,194::;
Cotton > £24,332 ,533 : 22,040, 345:;
Lily-flower : 929 ,864::
Linseed : : 11,744,504: ;:
Melon > 7,099,866 : 4,410,122::
 

 

 

Cereal sO. CH# PCUN moe ORTED 3:3 NO. Of POUNDS IMPORTED
: 1915 1918 3 L915 :
Seeds(conts } : 23
Lape > 82,236,400: 89,349,910:
Sesame : 271,286,267: 31,213,655:

Cther xinds 100,744,800: 35,465,778::

Seed cake::
rape
jeseme

Other xinds

Yruits:
Dried
“resh

Cotton:
Raw
Taste

Tea: :
Black

Creen
Brick:
Black

Green

Tobacco:
Heaves &
Stalks
Prepared :

Silk: :

Aaw :
eth 1 te e
Yellow :
wild

Cocoons

Groundnuts:
In shell :
xernels

30,043,400:

: 53,072,801::
: 175,059,667:
:102,982°943::

59, 333::

7,037 849%:

713. 173, 733: 22. 031, 278:
Cranges (fresh)
Pears (fresh)

98,505, 300:172,278,769::
7,480,400:

735,027, 733: 23, 328 -208::Ind.& Ceylon:

:: 19,572,667:
36,979, 066: :
57,442,533:

23, 360,133:
20,268,533:

13,401,600:
2,019,950:
3,954, 933:

152,680, 756:
11,133,200:

22,450, B99:
Other rroducts :

: 22. O31, O00;

2. 673, 5273

ce

4,461,189::

eo ¢
oe @

20,094,616::
8,765,578: :Formosa

1,858 133:

1,255,730::Java’
>: 4,466,800:

-:Other kinds.: eee

25,200,070::
8,620,512::

215,448

10,614, 240::
2,234,527::
5,811,724::

27,280, 331::

70,755,690. .
15,257, 295::

Animals (According to number of snimals.

Cattle
Goats
Horses

86,565:
10,195:

1,882

28,852:: 7,968
16,914:: 770
461:: 1,014

17,767,337:
Finisned goods.

44,568,267 :

25,347,937

1,877,729

1,132,397
3,338,392

24,145,406

93,527,900

2 685
3067
522
~26-

 

 

: 1913 1818 23 1913 1918

Adimals (cont. ) : 3

Yors >: 277,848 £299,512 3: 284,217 3,287
Poultry :2,779,543 22,675,505 :: 21,695 39,171
Sheep : 44,073 : 23,714 3:3 10
Cther kinds : 33

including: : 23

asses and: : | 33

rules : 308 : 2,41 33 523 2.018

 
Chapter 2,
LEADING Ci.0b5, PRODUCTION VaTeODS, AND SUCCE TIONS FOR

rem say cr. crm

~
ake AEM altmg

YIEDD, *#2D GCUALITY OF CuOP PRODUCTION

There are meny ciops grovm in China, but only the seven
leading crops of wheat, corn, sorghum, cotton, rice, millet,
soy venans, and otner benns are discussed in this chapter. [In
tie United states there are sections called the corn belt,
cotton velt, wheat region, and so on. Tnis is also true in
China becruse tne soil end climatic conditions of the central
and southern provinces sre so differmt from those of the
north tnat different svecies of culants as well as different
cultural methods are necessary to success in crop production,
Cotton and rice are grown mostly in the central and southern
provinces because in those sections they have a longer grow-=
ing season with heavy r:-infell, high temperature and not sun-
Shine. Tnese to crops are best adapted there more or less
due to the climatic conditions rsatner than that of soil, be-
cause they require a longer growing season and a warm and hot
climate. “heat, corn, sorghum, millet, soy beans, and otners
are chiefly cultivated in the north. But still there is a
limiation for srowing these crops because the corn crop is
grown mostly in centrel and northern China, even far north in
Manchuria though it ern not be grown successfully in Mongolia
and Tibet. ‘heat, sorghum, soy beans, millet, and corn are
all staple crops in north China, especially in l’enchuria. In
recent years the soy bean crop production has increased to a

preat extent due to the great demnand of *ome and foreign
-28—

markets. in feneral, the methods of production of these crovs
are very similar in the north and south districts, but there
is some difference between the southern and northern farmers,
AS a whole the soutnern fermers handle less acreage than those
of the north, especinlly in the three easterm provinces. For
this reason, tne farmers in ianenurie cennot cultivate the
erops so carefully as those in tne central and tne soutnern
part. Generally 15 to 20 acres of land are the maximum number
for a farmer to handle, but in central Chinn and in the south-
ern sections the farmers even cannot handle tnat ruch and 6 to
10 acres of rice fields are planty of work for nan farmer.

Parm methods are ratner primitive. The tools used and

c

the metnods of planting and harvesting nre mucn the same as the
people have emploved since ancient times. A V-shaped plow is
used wrich does its work only superficially. The hoe is used
for cultivation, while stone rollers rnd flails are used for
thresning. The strong ridging-.and the close level rows are
largely adopted because they have marked advantages in utiliz-
ing the rainfall, especially the portions coming early and
later elso if it should come in heavy showers. ‘Vith steep
narrow ridging, heavy reins would be sned at once to the bottom
of the deep furrows without over-saturnatineg the ridges, wnile
the wet soil in the pvottom of the furrows would favor deep
percolation with lateral capillary flow taxing place strongly
in under the ridges from tne furrows, carrying both moisture

and soluble plant food «where they will be most completely and

quickly available. ‘‘hen the rain comes in rneavy showers efch
-30—{
furrow may serve as a lon reservoir weicn will prevent wash-
iss end et tre seme time permit quicx penetration, the ridges
never nscomins Floodea or ouddled, permit the coil rir to
esenpe reedily as the anter from the furrows sinis which it
eae rot erssily do in flat Tields wren the rains fell rapidly
and fill sll of the soil pores, Snus cloein tren to tre es-
cape of rir fro. below, wrich must tezxe place bderore the weter

ern enter. or tnis rerson nsrrow rows witr ridsins does not

5

wegte muc: soil moisture as compared wits Large flat surfrce

t

Gultiveacion., Ye metnou of planting is oy nan. or by weans
of a Ove ro. seeaer, Ususlly © persons do tne olertine, one
man maces tre fSurrow with e plow, one men does tne sddeins,
end enother man does the coverinm: o” the seed. In cnse nn
mpolication of Yartilisers or menures is made there should be
One r.ore man ror bois work.

COrLercial fertilizers are nob xsnown to Chinese ferrers,.
frnimal and human manures, eartn conpost, acnes, garbage, and
ot: ar refuse are nepli:d to the soil. Toy oern caxe end

sesnme e@ernxe sre used in sore seerions, The Chinese frrmers

allow no weeds to trke away the life of the soil from the

Q

rro .ive crop. Crrevul hoeins is the best cle: ning cultivation

~

the; use. ““"e diftverence betveen testern countries end Chine
in cilturel metnods is thet in western countries tne crops
aro surface planted whil2 in “hine trey sre -rown on tne

ridge Woicn is Deiny Cormed after the first hoeine. Sy ob-

s OU fFPRVLN- Lit seems trat the Chinese frrmers

go.

serving tne metro

scientificnlly «no. .itsle avoulb eericalturs, out crectically
they have developed their own secrets to t1ceess. However,
nucn e:.n oe eccomplished uy Lisgrovirns ciulturel retrods., There

ere at lesst four wes of eecomsliavive improvement in the

quality and ~ield o° crops.

Ll. EHEetter methods culture. Tne mati.od of soil culture shoulda

| Ms

 

oo the 1ost efrective in mn.tine tie soil condition fit for tke
crovs to develop tre dest crowth. “Jodern fern nmectinery would
in many cases dean advantage iv. Titting seed beds, planting,

S are rot

5
r¢0)

fu

ond cultiveting. “‘owever, the western feim mac in

n

ell siiteable to Crines? farmers nec:use tne frrming conditions
end Llrabor conditions are so much different. ‘“‘Tnat Chirese ferm-
ers need now are the horse power tools such es the plow, culti-
drill, and obtner tillrse implements. It will be so

rucn tne oetter if a men crn make a new design of n type of
ferm tools weice sre suited to Chinese fermine conditions.

“itn the nes implements the metvod of cultivation will be
effective in producin: better crorvs end in xeeping the soil

in good condition. or improvement in metnod of cultivation
practicnl fermers Will understrnd the imcossi»vi.ity of giving
specific directions reverdine tne vest matnods of planting

and cultivatines thet sould be spplicrole to any considerable
portion of the .epunlic. It is the vdentetion of method to
conditions, lethods oest edspted to many various latitudes,
conditions of climate, soils, and «xinds of crops should be

left to the judement or the farmers.

s. setter quality of seed planted. This is one of the most

 

 
~32.
important factors in cropy production. It is tne seed that larre-
ly determines the good and bad yieldin: aoility of the crop.
Put Chinese frrmers neglect tris elmost entirely anda they plant
the crop by tecing tre ssed trom the pulx grein and they know
not whether or not it will srow. In some sections the farmers
sometimes do the seed selection during the harvesting time, out
that selection is done in shoex and nothines is known about the
vlent growth in tre field. So the very first step for our fern-
ers to undertake is to select the seed of good quality with the
ebility to scroduce tne highest production. This can be done
at least in four weys: (1) To grow the better varieties which
heave been best aderted to loeal conditions, (2) To have the
germination test of tne seed made by individuals, avriculturesl
experiment station, or institution, (3) To improve the crop
tnrough plant bre2ding, (4) To neve an zovernment or provincial

plent improvement station.

3. Hight crops for soil types. The success of crop production

 

depends lervely in choosins tre crop that is best adapted to
soil conditions. Cne cron may de edapted to light soil, while
others may be adezpted to heavy soil. Of course, nearly all
crops can be grovn on good soil, bout tre lands are not all the
same in texture and fertility, so tne soil hes been classified
into so many types of sandy soil, loams, silt, clay, and muck
soils. ‘S50il adaptation will be given in the folloine order
to show which crovs are adapted to the soils.

Sandy lend is not .ell suited to crop production beceuse

it costs too much to fertilize the soil to produce ® vood cror.
WZ.
It is, however, good for grazing snd forestry. Cn oetter sandy
lands, prass crops are adrpted and sometimes the soy bean and
pernuts can be grown well, varticularly wnen the soil is well
supplied with orgsnic matter and the distribution of reinfall
is uniform end sufficient.

sandy loams are »vood for potatoes, beens, pens, melons,
picxles, berries, end smell fruits. Tye, persnuts, end barley
ere adarted, and corm mey do vell if the land is fertile and
well supplied with organic matter. “ut the most profitabvle
crops for this land are potsxtoes, beens, melons, picxles, and

mall fruits.

Loams are sood for general farming. This soil is vest
edavted for barley, corn, rice, sorghum, millet, beans, sugar
beets, sweet potrstoes, notatoes, cotton, and wheat. They are
also good for some truck crops.

Clay land is good for grains, such as wheat, barley, rye,
cets, and rice. It is also used to prow millet, sorghum, and
sometimes sweet potatoes. ‘owever, it is best adapted for
smell grain.

.uck land is pood for truck crops, celery, onion, cabbage,
radishes, and beans. Sor the field crops it is adapted to bar-
ley, oats, millet.

Crops adapted to svecial soils are:

Sandy loams: Pennuts, sesame, buckwheat, rye, oats, barley,
sorghum, corn, venns, peas, oicxles, melons, small fruits, and
vegetables.

Loams: Corn, wrest, oats, barley, rice, cotton, sorghur ,
~24—

millet, potatoes, beans, beets, pennuts, end tiucer crops.

Silt loans and cley loams: corn, wheat, oats, barley, beans,
beets, fibre flax, rice, cotton, kKaoliang, and millet.

Clay: Corn, wheat, bnrley, oats, rice, beans, pers, sweet
votatoes, and some trucc« crops.

Luck: beans, celery, onions, cabbare, millet, barley, end
Oats.

4, Better systems of cropping and fertilization. A good system

 

of cropping and fertilization is the first consideration of the
good farmer. This snould not be a matter of hurried planning
at planting time, but srould be 2 program laid out for a number
of yenrs. A well-planned system of crop rotation is the key
riote of progressive farming. It snould be laid out vitn refer-
ence to the <ind of soil, the distance from tovm, the available
markets, and the personal preferences or adilities of the farrer
himself. ‘There is no question of the wisdom of rotation over
the practice of growing orie crop year efter year on the seme
soil. The ressons for rotseting are:

To increase nitrogen.

To increase organic m.tter--humus,

To improve the physical condition of the soil.
To use different kinds of plant food,

To use food in tne soil at different depths.
To help control fungus diseases.

To help control insect pests.

To help control weed pests.

TO enable beneficial bacteria to develop.
To help distribute labor throughout the year.

Ow Warf We
e

~~

‘Then any one crovo is grown continuously on the snme field
for a number or years, the average yield is almost sure to be

less than if thet cro: had been grown in a suitable rotstion

With other crops. ‘ence it is profitable to have several ecr>
w35—

grown on the farm, end the lend devoted to the crops may be
divided into a number of fields of equal size and the crops
chnnged ereer yerr in regular order from one field to another,
“Or these reasons any farm or food size may have 2, 3, or more
different rotations in progress.

the first tuning to consider in plenning the rotation is
the crovo one desires to reise. Tne crop must be most profitable
for the locality and oest adz;ted to the soil conditions. ine
rotation of crops should be suitaole in such 8 way to produce
greater yield end to lessen the lsebor with greatest net profit.
The rotation should contsin at lerst one lesume crop, a sod
crop, and 2 cultivated crop. Deep-rooted crops sould be slter-
nated with shallow-rooted crops. The small grain does well
following a cultivated crop, and especially such legumes as
beans. ‘ror. the standpoint of fertility a long rotation with
a great variety of crops may be best, but is seldom practicable
to erry out, end so four, five, or six years rotation will be
suitable to work out successfully. However, rotation does
not maintain fertility but the soil cen be Kept in good pro-
portion of elements required for plant growth if the applica-
tion of liberal amounts of ferm manure and other fertilizers
is made ench veer as to crops adapted to soil and climetic
conditions.

The rotation practices depend on many local and svecial
considerations. In the first place tne crop rotsetion must

adept itself to tne farmer's business and to goil and the
Pp

fertility vwroblem. Fertilizer applications should se made
if manures and fertilizers enn be wurchrsed cres ply. The
Size or tne fein and the sind of soil end tre climnto ney
dictate the rotation. otation must be planned witn reference
to the species of plants that will produce the best inter-re-
lationship result, and also must consider in what conditions
One crop will leave the soil for the succeeding cror, sand now
One crop can be seeded with anotnrer crop. The following sre
suggestions for rotations:

a. Crop rotation on sandy loams:

Three years rotation:(1) Beans, (2) Peanuts, (3) Ber-
ley or oats.

Four years rotation: (1) Sesame, (2) Beans, (3) Sor-
shum, (4) Buckwheat, peas, or
her or-

1) Peanuts, (2) Peas, (3) BRar-
ley, (4) Beans.

b. Crop rotation on loams:

Three years rotation:(1) Corn, (2) Beans, (3) Wheat,
rice, millet, or barley.

Four yeers rotation: (1) Corn, (2) Berley, (3) “heat
or oats, (4) Eeans or peas, or-
(1) Sorghum, (2) Berley, (3) Rice
or cotton, (4) Seans or peas.

Five years rotation: (1) Corn, (2) Barley, (3) “heat,
(4) “eans, (5) Eeets, or -
(1) Sorghum, (2) Oats, (3) Rice,
(4) Peas, (5) iillet.

c. Crop rotation on clay:

Three years rotation:(1) Corn, (2) Beans, (3) “heat,
Oats, rice, and cotton, or-
Sorghum instead of Corn.

four years rotation: (1) Corn, (2) Beans, (3) wheat,
(4) Peas, (5) Millet, or-
(1) corn, (2) Oats, (3) “heat,
(4) Beans, (5) Millet.

ad. Crop rotation on muck:

™hree years rotation:(1) Beans, (2) Barley, (3] Millet.
~27—

The rotntions mentioned above only give en iden for a
system of cropping, bit trey cen not be avplied to all conditions
of farming becnuse many considerations depend on (1) adaptation
of crops to soils, climatic and market conditions, (2) type of
farming, (2) general farming and live stock, (4) special crop
farming, (5) distance from market, (6) size and location of the
farm land.

Tre system of fertilizetion should be worked out in such &@
way to produce the heaviest yield of crops and at the same time
maintain the soil fertility. Tne farmers in iienchuria, longolia,
and Tibet have not xept as much live stock as they ought to so
the stock raising snould be carried on to maintain the soil fer-
tility. Commercial fertilizers may be used in application vith
farm manure to the soil if it is profitable in returm. The
amount of application uepends on the condition of the soil and
it should be sufficient to increase fertility and to give
profitable returns at the same time.

The seven leading crops are to be discussed in followings
pages relative to methods of culture end improvement for further

development.
-38—
“HEAT
Origin and general distribution.

Ito one ern say definitely where tnis plant wes originated,
but it is believed by the Chinese people that this plant is
regarded as native to tre country. It is one of the oldest
cultiveted crops and was one of the five plants sown each year
in 2 public cerenony by the emperor since anncient times. The
wheat crop is considered as a nortnern crop of Chinn, beceuce
it is well adapted to the climatic conditions of the north.

It is grown extensively in central and northern China and
now particularly in the three provinces of !'anchuria.
SOil and climatic adaptation.

Yheat is successfully grown on a wide range of soils. It
will yield the best on fertile soils, although good yields may
ve secured on rather poor types of soils if proper fertiliza-
tion and culturnl methods are employed in growing it. ‘heat
being sensitive to its soil conditions, reauires thoroughly
pulverized soil and well compacted. If manure is applied or
sod is turned under, the organic matter must reach ea thorough
state ot decomposition to produce a good effect on this crop.
The bést soils for wneat are of hich fertility and of fine
texture, such as silts, silt loems, and cley loans, usually
With a large humus content. “heat is the cereal of the moder-
ately dry temperate climate and has a rather wide climstic
adaptation, The srowing season shonld not be less than 90

days and the annusl rainfall should not be less than 9 to 10

inches, except unier irrigation, The seasonal distribution
-39.
of tre rainfall is as important as the yerrly amount, end the
best conditions for wheat growing are in the sections where
they have n cool nnd rather iet growing sesson during the early
life of plants, followed by rather hot, dry, sunshniny weather
during the ripeniny period. Yhen these conditions are prevalent,

the largest yields sre secured and the grain is of best quality.

Varieties. There are many varieties of wheat, some being winter,

 

sown in the fall and harvested in ernrly simmer, while others sre
sown in the spring and harvested usually a little later than

the winter verieties. In China there are only two terms given
to tne different varieties of whert, namely, spring end winter.
The spring varieties sro most in north China, particularly in
Lanchuria, wreile the winter varieties grow in central and north
China.

Yertilizers, manures, and rotation.

 

fertilizers ere most profitaole wren the crop is grown in
2 rotation that keeps tne soil well supplied with decayed veze-
taole matter. tut no commercial fertilizers heave been used on
farms in China, ena manure end earth composts are the only meens
applied to the soil for production. ‘iowever, manure is the most
effective fertilizer used on the farm and «ood yields crn 02
Obtained from the land when it is applied to the soil. The
menure is deficient in phospnorus and so acid prosphete should
be used, becreuse it is the most effective mineral that can be
Applied to this cron wnich demands a large amount of this
element in order to develop vlump crain and to yield henvily.

Tris crop does best when following leguminous crops, such as

beans and pers. 30 a rotation of benns, wheat, and corn or
sorghum is used to 2» great extent in all the sections in north
China,
Petnods of culture.

Preperetion of seed ded: Yne ideal seed cad for wneat is
one that is thorouenly pulverized, well compacted, with -
loose ruler on tne surfece and a -ood contsect sith tre subsoil.

The land si:ould nde plowed esrly to a «ood deptn snd then disked

re

and herrowed before plirntineg, possivly also rolled, vecnuse of
maxing tne seed bead level anu fine, nnd well paccxed as the sriell

yrein seeu recuires a firm seed oe. for good geimingtion.

tO

loose seed bead will not eallow proper root developrient, end also
it is apt to be dry. I% is elso true thet the plents do not
VWincer Kill to # great extent on e firm seed ved. ‘Then seed
bed is well prevered, usually a clean crop can be ohtsined nnd
therefore early plowine followed by disking end harrowin-. be-
fore plentines is nocessary for vn Tirm seed Ded,

Time of plranting: ‘The time of planting vsries with
sections end climatic conditions. In north China it is plent-
ed in Uctover, hile in the central part it is planted in Nov-
eniner. asnere is no dete which can be given in al’. sactions for
plantiig 3s. o..s “will lesve to the farmers who know the loca
conditions oest.

Rate of planting: tne rate or seeding also varies with
the conditions of the soil end time of sowing. lore seed is
required for late plenting than for early planting and more
for poor soil then for rien soil. ‘Uovever, the usunl rate of

plantins is /s1om four to six pecxs to the acre.
~4]-

i etnod of planting and cultivetion: io drill has been
used by the Chinese formers to sow this crop end the metnod
they use is by merns of a seeder to seed in the furrow made
‘by the V-shaped plow and then covered “ith the soil. In
the spring vnen tne plents -ro¥ about 6 to 7 inches high or
more e careful oeing is given to keep the weeds down, ‘Some-

tines tvo hoeings are needed for the wheat crop if the field

\

is ver3 woedy.

_

carvesting end storing. Tre methods of rervesting, threshing,

 

ena storing are nearly the seme for the otner crops. ‘the
grain is cut oy hend . itn sickles and mede into bundles. It
is thresned on the cley floor by ruonring a stone roller over
it. “hen it is threshed it is stored in bins or a store
house. sometimes it is sacked for market right efter thresh-
ing e

Insects end diseases. A large number of insects feed on and

 

injure growing wheset, out the most destructive insects are
the cninch bug, hessian fly, and army worm.

The chinch bug goes through six different stages from the
egg to the adult insect and it causes a great loss to the wheat
crop. The methods for ~revention and remedies are burning,over
waste land, rotation, and early plowing.

The tiessian fl, is one of tne principal enemies of the
Wheat crop. It ras four stezes in its life cycle and does
more injury to the crop at the larvaz stece. Tne metnods of
controlling this insect are late plantine of winter wheect,

burning stubole, plowing under stubble, and rotation of crops.

The army worn also csuses ruch loss to the wreat crop
wh 2m
and the oest wey to control t:.is insect is to nave clenn culti-
vetion anu tne adoption of » reeuler system of rotation of crops.

hust and smut are the two diseases cnusing serious injury

to wheat. Two xinds of rust are generally sxnown. Cne occurs
principally on lesves end the otner affects the stems, but trere
is no successful treatment for these rusts. Tne best way to
control tnis disease is to vrow rust-resistant varieties of
wheat.

The two common smuts of wheat sre the loose smut and the
covered smut (stinxing srut or bunt).

Tne loose smut, having iv.fected the seed in tne field wrile
very young, turns the entire wneat head into a black powdery
mass and is distributed by wind to the next year's crop. This
disease cen be prevented by trentine tne seed with not water.
Pirst soak the seed in cold water for four to six hours. /fter

draining, iru.erse the seed in tne not water at a temperature of

Bs
2o00utb 129°, ne temoerature svo.ild be constant at 129°R, during
the process and thes eed snould be immersed for ten ).inutes.
Covered smut produces its spores erclusively within the
xernel filled witn a olackx dust-like mass. ‘nis disease can be
controlled oy treating the seed with not water, formalin, and
co.per sulfate.
“ot water treatment: Soak the seed for ten to fifteen
minutes in water Kept at a temperature from 132° to 133 8,
After the treatrient the seed should be drained at once,

*ormelin treatment: Taxe one pound of formalin mixed to

every forty-five gallons of water. lMoisten the seed thoroughly
~43~
with the solution and the seed should be dried when it is to
be sowed,

Copper sulfate treatment: Dissolve one pound of copper-
sulfate in four gallons of wnter and then immerse the seed for
One or two minutes in the solution. Then take the seed out
end let it dry.

Methods of improvement for yield and quality. The mein object

 

of improving the wheat crop is to increase the production with
the best cuality to the ecre. The most practical methods for
this improvement are (1) growins best adapted varieties, (2)
better culture, and (3) selection and breeding.

There are at least trree ways to get varieties adapted:

Le. Uxyperiment station recomiende tion: This is dependable
because the station has conducted tests of varieties and
carried on varietal improvement for long and it nas been shown
by the results in the exveriments those varieties wrich are
best adapted to its section conditions so that the grower may
sefely adapt the best variety as a standard to increase the
yield and to produce a vetter quality.

2. itudy of farmers' experiences: This varies in locality
of sections because the farmers of one locality have different
metnods of farming from others and the same thing is true with
the variety adapted. Tnis is the result of eyperience through
which they know what varieties are best adapted to their local
conditions as conpared .sith the results of production they ob-
tained from the acre. It is worth more to study the fermers'

experiences of varieties ednpted tran to vrow a variety wnrich
-44.
has deen «nown as a cood yielder in the whole section, bvecsuse
the soil conditions very grently in loe::lities and the farmers
of this locality xnow the soil conditions better by their er-
perience,

Oo. nun variety tests: Tris is a sure way to get tne adapt-
able varieties when new varieties are introduced, Yhe variety
tests are so ensily conducted tnt no fsrmer snould long be in
doudt as to wnether or not he ern increase “is production by
secured seed of a different variety from that which he is now
erowing. “requently an increase of several bushels per acre ny
be secured by the growing of a better adnpted variety. It iis
the curnose of the variety tests to determine wrich variety
or strnin is best adapted to a given soil for a series of yerrs.
The variety tests may be conducted with few or severnl varieties.
Any farmer c#n conduct a test with a few of the most prominent
varieties witnout srent inconvenience. The variety test con-
Sists in prowine several varieties side oy side under uniform
conditions of soil ena culture. Tne farmers may find the
yield and tne cueality of the crop at harvest time.

Setter culture. ‘ith whent, the prover treatment of the soil

 

mey oe considered half tne battle. In wheat erowing a preat
deal depends upon locel conditions of soil and climate, and

nas these corditions in an, particuler locelity can be thorough-
ly understood by long residence in that locelity the farmers
xnow best the adaptability of wheat to any particular section.
The early end deep plowing is best. This especially is true

in arid rerions where conservation of moisture is a very inm-

portent me cter. ‘or srrirs sowing plowine should be done in
4 5—
the fall, ana for frll sowing plowing should be done soon after
harvest. The sead ded should ne meade very fine and mellow be-
fore pl:ntins, The vroper time for seeding veries, of course,
With the lstitude, wrile depending also occrsionnally on the
locality and on the variety used. Eut whstever tne conditions
otherwise, it is » safe rule to sow at a period wrich is con-
Sidered early in tne locslity where the sowine is done.

selection and breeding. The 1.0st important tine for improve-

 

ment of seed grein on the farm is the cunlity and purity of
the seed. For quality of the seed, (1)it should be adapted
from « veriety «anown to be e good yielder in the rezion in
which it is to be grown, (2)it snould be adapted seed of the
variety chosen, produced under conditions similar to those
under vhich it is to be srown, (3)it should be practically
free from inpurities, including weed seed, seed of other grein
and seed of other varieties, (4)it should be free trom seed borne
diseases. for purity the seed planted should be free from nmix-
ture of other grain and seed of other varieties. The field
should be kept clenn from weeds so that a pure grain will be
obtained,

“election of varieties is n matter of much importance.
Vell known varieties that are best adapted to local conditions
should be planted. One of the first tnings to béar in mind is
the utter uselessness of giving any attention to sxnnouncements
made by certein farmers of new varieties that make such an
astonishing yield as 50 to 70 bushels per acre where the farn-

ers' best average oefore hrd been only 25 bushels. This

Occasionally mey oe true or a fraud and in fact no one
-46-

variety can succeed in all sactions of the country. Therefore,
it is best to grow home grown seed for its best adaptation.
Improvement hy head selection is the most reliable way to
improve the seed prain. This is the practice of selecting
enough of tne best heads in tne fiela to plant a seed plat
of one-half an acre or more in size. ‘This seed plet is care-
fully prepared and planted, and after further head selections
for another year's planting are made, it is harvested separate-
ly and the seed used to plant s general field the following
year. To obtain the best results the farmers must get seed of
the best vrarieties and then creep the seed up to a high standard
of purity and cuality. The matter of seed selection is of such
vital importance that probaodly nothing would be of more hene-
fit to the farmers than the establishment of special seed plats
of a few acres from wich to select seed each year.

fhe improverient by breeding is a rather slow process and
the farmers can nardly worx out tris problem on account of

much work on the farm so tis must be left to tne plant breeders.
~47—

nICH

distory, origin, and distribution of

rice. nice is one of the

Oldest of cultivated cerenls and has held an important place

in the agriculture of China.

“or tnousands of yerrs before

the dewn of the Christian “ra and continuing down to the

present day,
people of China. It

home and then it was introduced

to southern urope. In 1647 it

States and from that time on it

Rice is considered as a crop of
is well adzxpted to tne climatic
China. It is grown extensively

to iwangtung.

rice nas been the staple article of food for the

is probvaole that Crina is its original

to Jnpan and India and later
was introduced into the United
has deen grown to some extent,
soutneim Crina, oecause it

conditions in south and central

in the Yanetze basin and south

nOowever, it has been grown to sone extent in

the northern provinces and at pres2nt even far in the three

eastern provinces of l:anchuria.

sut it is only grown in south

Manchuria because of the limitation of climste,

Varieties. There are an immense

 

number of varieties of rice,

differing in length of the season recuired for maturing and

in character, yield, and quality.

extends to size, srnoe,

Their divergence not only

and color of the grain, but to the

relative proportion of food properties and the consecuent

flavor.

Ovine to the great antiquity of rice and the varied

conditions of soil, climate, and culture under wnich it has

been vroduced, many varieties have come into existence. ‘Some
varieties known in the Vnited States are Carolina Cold Seed,
Honduras, -iue nose, etc., but in Chinn ve do not nave trose
~48—
names. /e call them "water-rice" wien is srowm in water,
and "dry-lond-rice” weichn is »rown on dr; Isnd. Cf cours
tnere are mary different varieties but no verticuler names
are eiven end sometines a veriety neme is given vy the loerl
growers Wien is not xnown to “he wrole country.

uOWland and nhizhleand rice. "nile rice is c’iefly grown on

 

lands tnat are low, level, and easily irrigated, tnere are
varieties wricn enn be grown on fertile uplands without
irrigetion. In nortn China the upland rice has been grown
to a consideravle extent, but the «uality and flavor is not
so ood es waiter-rice. The water-rice cin sell for a nigher
price on the marxet than the dry-landi rice, so the farmers
Will grow it in water wherever vossibdle,

Adeptetion to soil and climatic conditions. The best soil for

 

 

rice is ea moditm loen, contsining about 50 percent. of clay.
Tris allows the oresence of su rficient humus for the highest
fertility without decreasinz too much tre compnrct nature of
the soil. swne alluvial lerds elone tee rivers where they
crn be drained sre well ade; ted to rice cultivation. I[t hes
m wide rence of ndaptetion vut bie best Lands are underlnid
by an imoervious sub-soil. Gravelly or senay soils are rot
adapted to rice cultivation vecause they ago not possess the
mecneanieal condition for the retention of water. In general
it msy ve seid that rice cfn be vrown on snv soil adepted to
wheat provided climatic conditions are favora le.

Riee is a tropierl or seri-tropical plent, and recuires

© Lous, hot growine season, with a moist, rumid climate. It

is erovm therefore oily in low-lying rezions with a plentiful
supply of moisture snd a lon erovineg senson,

Irrires Sion ana drninere,.

 

L a

Irrigation is sn irportent feecure in tre culture of

rice. ‘aver must ve apolied conbiriously and ef uniform
tepth for days. "or tris reeson in the first place we have
to consider the sources of irrigrtion weter. In China th
water needed for rice production is obtrined mostly from
streams and wells. “rom the streams it is iifted by pumps

Or other menns end distributed by crnals. It is elso import-
ent to consider the size of the field. Yowevor, in rice
culture the size of the fields denends on cireumstences chief
amonz whicn are tno slore of the lsnd end the charecter of the
Soil as regraras adrrina;e. s“lelds may renee in size from 50
to 100 ecres, out in Cnins vory few fields are more then 10
acres in size. ‘his does not menn that there is not a field
of that size but tnet tre fields s:e ususlly divided into
smaller fields to have hetter irrigation with even deptn of
weter and to sive greater convenience in pullins weeds. The
entire surface of each field should be nerrly et the seme
level so thrt the irrigation water will stand at avout the
same depth. Jsnce, wnere the slope of the surface is consider-
adle, the field must be made small. "ields must be also laid
off in such » manner as to allow effective drainage. The
next important thing -:e have to corsider is the method of
applying irrigation water. . rice field must be enclosed by
strong levees in order to hold the water that may be put upon

it. The most important thing is to locate the levees espocial-

ly thoso thet separente the subfields, ‘These levers srould 5e
m5 Ou
permenent end corstructed on contour lines at distnmnces wnich
Will hold the water at an desirable dapth or a depth of about
D inches. They snovld be at lerst 10 feet at the base and
built up .it»: slopine sides to a hteirht treat is just sufficient
to prevent tne weter from overflowin. into tne sunfields below,
those Levees ern oe meade in winter tire. she weter is ed: itted
to suofields through openings in tre levees. These ovenings
should oe controlled oy tre wooden gates :nd not made with a

3

Snovel eesch time water is needed. The gates shovld consist of

© floor and end pieces to hold n sliding shutter in a ve:rticel

3

position across the opening, ‘the “low of water may oe rerulsted
oy the shutter, wich consists of a narrow piece of wood thrt
may be increased in number or removed as the water is raeised

or lowered,

Draeinace,

»

Perfect drainage is one of tne most importent considerations
in rice farming, because upon it depends the proper conditions
of the soil for plenting. Comvlete and rapid drainage at har-
vest time always’ insures the savine of the crop under the best
conditions and reduces the expense of the hervesting. Thorough
drainage is more essential for rice then for other crons be-
cause irrigation orin-s tre alkali to the surface to an extent
that finally becomes detrimental to the rice plant. Alkali
sometimes accumulstes in the soil just voelow tne deptn of the
usuezl furrow to such an extent that eny olowine is dangerous
to the crop. But the effective way of disposing of these

salts is by thorough drainave and deep plowing. The ditches
-5l-
should be d:eper then the furrow so trat water drains awsy
end the excess o: soluble sslts is cerried orf,

Ceneral directions for floodine.

*loodins is the most destructive feature of rice culture
as compared with the culture of other crops in general. wxcept
where wat3r is necessary for cerminating the seeds, flooding is
not practiced until the rice is 6 to & inecnes hign. If snowers
are abundent enouen to xeep the soil moist, it is better to de-
lay flooding intil the rice is 8 inches high, as there is con-
Siderable dan:rer of scaldiny tne rice wren very young. The
deptr of w:ter that snould ve maintained from the first flood-
ing until it is withdrevn for the hervest depends upon other
conditions. If the growing crop thoroughly snades the lend,
just water enough to xeep tne soil satureted vill answer. To
be safe, however, for all portions of the land or fields, it
Should stand 4 to 6 inches deep, and, to avoid starnation, it
snould be renewed by a continuous inflow and outflow. The
water should stend at uniform depth all over the field or it
Will cruse the crop to ripen at dirferent times.

“ertilizers end rotation,

 

Rice is not a srenat impoverisher of tre soil, esvecially
if the straw and chaff are regularly returned to it. It hers

fielas restores to the

oO

been clnimed that the floodine of ric
SOil as mucr nutritive materiel as tre rice crop removes. This
may be true in central Chine along tne Yangtze Hiver iwtrich

carries e large amount of silt, out it is not the cese where

floodine is done with oure weter from tre .ells. In Chins
woe

©

applications of manures and errth compost rare made to the
soil every yenr to grow this exvov. It ic a aguestion whether
commercicl fertilizers .ill ony for tneir applice tion anda I
Crinx tris snould ve left to the farmers to Gecice according
to the conditions oreseited. Crop rotertion has been vracticed
to 2 small extent in the rice fields in centrel end soutn Chine.
In many pleces tnere is no rotation for rice fielas because thre
fields sare the low land and ess; to irsigate. If the freirers
make a consideravsle avoliertion of manures and oeen ecriucos trey
may mace more money on rice then by growing otner cronvs. or
water-rice no rotation is used whatever.
.ethod of culture.

Time of plowing: The time of plowing differs somewhat
With soil. Ft rey bea oloved in the fall, winter, or springs.
"sll or sinter vlowires will pormit tne free cireuletion of rir
in the soil if the inna is well drsined nt that time. Springs
vlowins Lend should be disazed end harro.ed im.ediately siter
plowins because the soil dries out very rapidly under the action
oF tne winds which ususlly prevail at tris serson, and if
allowed to dry out, » satisfectory seed ved c71 not be ovdteineu.

Depth of olowing: j3ome farmers do shallow plowinys for
tnis crop ovecnause it eppears to thrive best in compect end fir
ground. ovever, deever plowing gives vetter results because
the better tire soil end the riore thorournly it is pulverized
the better the crop. The pblrnts do not feed mucn delow the
plow line, so thet it is evident that deep cultivation pleces

more food witnin tne reach of tne plants. It should be plowed

in the fall to the depth of 5 to 7 inches. If pulverizing or
~53-
or plowine tre soil or ground deeply is a disadventage by
rekeon Of the -readb porosity of tre soil at seedins tire, it

Cs

Cnn 22 ersily roreadied oy te use of a heavy roller subsequert-

e!

ly. ff tne soil is woll-dreined, deep plowine will be found
erolitaole # Firm ana oven sead oed iss required for this crop.

Oving ena tine of slanting.

 

hefore plantins is of ubtrsost importernce.
tae seed si .01a be Troe rom red rice, grass, end weed seeds.

5 essentierl and seed srould be good

C4)

“nilformity of xernels is ros
in quality and fre2 from sun crecdas.

the vest time to sov rice differs in sectiots and varies
Somewhat with varyinyes coaaisions in seme soetion. In south
Cnins it is sovn esrly in the soring while in the nortn it is
sown as late as sy. -Ovever, sovine snrould texe place as
soon as possiole after the sprins plovine. Car3 mist 02 teen
to plant the Tields nt dircferect periods so treet cultivesion
and harvestirs will not be too crowded.
2mount to sow.

The rete of rice sown oer rere veries witn soil conditions
end methods of seeding. It varies from 1 to 23 bushels, out
2 oushels of seed is plenty to the acre.
I'ethods of seedire.

Yor germination, some farmers let on just enough water
to saturate tre vround inmedistely after sowing end rerrowire

end at once darn: off any survolus water. This is to insure the

germination of tre seed. Other farmers sow and trust to there

{M
@)
oe
ds
e

being sufficient moisture in the vround to perminst? the

ny + 5 ry ; vv rN Vy re cy ‘ + “ 4 7 : |
-lls igs sometires urneertein ena rarely produces the nes" results,

wd
2S. ese

 
-54-—4
A few others sprout the seed before vlantines by placing bars
of rice in weter. Tris is sure to result in feilure if the
soil is very ary shen tne seod is sown. In geouan the fermers
practice the lest metiod to stre evtort, but t*eir seedines is

7

different rrom tha nethoad menticned rnvove., Trey snrout the
seed and heve the 1l:nd covered with water ana tren do the
plantins. nis essures tne rormination of the seed and tre
seedlines heve s revid prowth. oOrillineg nes been practiced
some in China, out we do not have the drills the frrmers hve
in the United otetes. The drilling method is more effective
than otner metnods becsuse the seed ill be more equally dis-
tributed snd the quantity of seed used to the acre will be
exact. The seeds will be planted at a uniform depth and the
enrth packed over them by the drill roller. Broadcast sowing
of rice is the method which hes been used in some locnlities
and tris is used for transplanting when an even strnd cennot
be oovteined, Tris method is not the best for the geed is
never scattered with uniformity. ‘tome grains remain on the
surface and others sare buried too deep. Kroadcasted seed
does not germinate «ith any uniformity, the stend varies
~reatly, maturity is not uniform, end quality or rice in poor
condition. ffter sowing, the next tnine to consider is the
applying of weter for irrigation, In most sectio’s the waster
Strands in the V“ields just sfter tre plentine, out grent cere
must be taken in applying water, for if water is left on the

land too long, it is lixely to cnuse the seed to rot. The

irrigation water sould be apvlied when the voung plants have
reached a neient of 6 to 8 incnes.

The common practice in rice vrowing in centrel and south
Crine is to have tne soil carefully prepared and hishly fer-
tilized. * specinl seed bed should be prepered. Before sowing
the plat must hsve one to two inches of water, sowint the seed
in tne weter. Tne metrod is usunlly by broadcasting. If a
farmer wants to reise ten acres of rice, he must heve on acre
of land for the svecinal seed hed and sow at a rate of from 7

to 190 bushels. After one month of srowth the seedling grows

3

out of the water to aoout tne heicht of foot, the seedlinrs
pre pulled out enrofully s‘ithout breaxing the roots and then
set out in the senerel fields.

Harvesting snd thrashing.

hice siouild oe harvested wren it ripens end it ern be cut
with grein binder end handled in the ssme way as other prain
crops. ‘ut in China it is cut with a «mife entirely by hand
labor. Yne threshing metrod consists of a roller drawn by
“orses or mules tramping over it. The yield is anout 30 to
40 bushels to tne secre thougn rice sometimes yields as high
as 50 or more.

Uses and importance.

“or centuries rice has veen the "staff of life" to the
people of Asia and it is one of the most importnrnt starcny
foods of tre world. In China, rice is the chief food of the
people erd is supvolemented witn seed grains of millet, sorghun,
soy beans, and wheat. ‘the by-products of rice are hulls which

are of Little value and the bren wnich is considered to be of

some value as stock food. the straw is not palatable and ig
~56<
of very little vnlue to stocr, but it is good bedding.

Insects and disenses.

 

MV

Cnly a few insects attacx the rice plant. The one caus-
ing greatest injury is the water veevil. “hile in the lervel
Steve it destroys tne roots and later the edults feed on the
leaves. fhe 1ost .rectiesl neans of controlling tne rice
weevil is to eruse the temvorary witndrasal of water and tre
drying out of the land. itinkx bug, fall ermy-worm, stalk bdorer,
etc., are all tne vi0st destructive irsects of the rice crop.

The best menns of controlling tnese iusects are es follows:

(1) Plow fields in the frall previous to planting tine to kill
pests in the soil. (2) Drain fields ana dry out the land to
prevent dampre by root maggots. (3) Flood the fields innediate-
ly in case of catersillar or worm attacks unon lenves. (4) eep
weeds down around the fields,

Blast, blight, and rotten neck are comron diseases. last
attacks tne noie in which the rice nead is forming, causing the
head to fail to fill or to break off. “ut there are no spec-
ifie means of control being recomrended yet. “ice smut some-
times does daniage. It ern be controlled by tne following means:

4ot water treatment: Soak tne seed for 10 to 15 minutes in
water Kept at a tenperature of from 132° Rr. to 133 3. The seed
should be dried at once arter the treatment.

fOrmelin treatment: Thoroughly moisten tne seed »ith a
solution made dy mixing 1 pound of formalin to every 45 gallons
of water. The grain mey oe soaked. The most importsent is to

get every xernel wet .ith tne solution ard tnen dry out for
~57~
planting.
Copper-sulfate trerntment: Timerse tne seed for one or
two minutes in the solution by dissolving one pound of copper
sulfate in 4 gallons of wator, Try tne grein end tnen sow,

Improvenent of rice crop.

 

 

Stand and yield can be greatly improved by using lare,
well-developed seed. Such seed crn be mechanically selected
by using feneines mill or sore other methods for clernine rnd
ereijiing. It is a very ixnvortent fector to give careful seed
selection before sowing. The ndaptability of 2 variety of
rice to the revion in wrich it is to be grown snould always
Ne considered. ‘“unality sna productiveness enrnot be obtained
from a variety when it is erovwn under conditions that sare not
favoranle to its best develoonent. If is »est to prow the
nome-grown seed W..icn is vest ndspted to locrl conditions. :
large sowing of new varicties snovld nov to uade until those
characters mre «<rnown. ‘Te new variety srould oe tested out
in 2 seed plet snd iv it is found to de better veriety suowine
good quality seni vrodictiveness it will t' en oe sown in the
geanersl field, “ome-gro in seed, however, if carefully select-
ed and well praded, generally yields better then the seed of
the snre veriety from a distent locality. ‘The selection should
be mede at the time of ripenine and from the plants that are
rerown und2r ordinsry field corditions. Tre earliest and best
heads should be selected and threshned by themselves. Tre seed

Obtrined from then should be sowm apart from the main crop

and the seed bed should: be well »reprred. The seed fron tnis
plat mr. use for the next plentine. T3 vest cerds shoild be

selected from tris polst nnd used for next year seed plet so

4

ct
a)

at & vermanent improverent of the rice crop cen d3 ootrined
by tr.is prectice year efter yerr. f hatter method for improv-
ing tne cueality and yield of rice crop would oe to test ard
select strains which have been develoved from individual heeds,
This is too mucn work for individual farmers. “reeding is elso
an inportsnt fector for irprovines the rice crop, dut tris srould
be left to tne arriculturrl esperiment station. Te method of
oreeding, of cours3, is inportent for the improvement of this
crop, out for tre present time seed selection is the most im-
portant thing for the Cuinese farmers to do. It is not necess-
ary to introduce new varieties from foreien countries, but to

improve tne home-grovnm variety ov head selection,
-~59—=
COTLOU

Ganernl distribution snd production,

 

Cotton is srown in ell sectiors in centrel and south
Chins, et cresent even as far as the north provinces of Chihli
and the southern vart of '-1xden. “owever, the chief area of

production is in central Chinn, especially in the Yenretze Vallsy.

“ome of tne leading cotton producine provinces are *¢nhwei, Che-

ta

c<iang, ‘onan, Hupen, shensi, Snensi, end Szechwen. This is
rather tne climatic linitecion, bscruse in these sections the
Cclinate is hot ena tne srovwiuy seeson is longer and we also
find some provinces of ““wanetuneg and Yunnan producing con-
Sideraole cotton too. In the north, the provinces of Shrantune,
Chinli, and the soutnern vart of Vuxcden, trougn a considerable
amount of cotton has been produced tne quality is not so good
as that is produced in the cotton belt of centrel China. China
hes produced a large amount of cotton and it was reported in
1918 that cotton production wes at least 2,500,000 bales of

500 pounds. China renxs next to India and the United States
and is already the tnird largest cotton producer in the world.
The acreage of cotton growing is incresesiney enormously every
yeer in Crina, due to the fact of the great demand of home
mills and foreign market. In recent years some new varieties
have been introduced to China and they have snown ereater pro-
duction and vetter cunlity than those grown in China. Yor

this reason 1 me, sey thet the cotton crop mignt be doubled

on the same acreage as now xrown by proper attention to the use

of good seed and careful metnods of culture, but Chinn is still
-650—
increasing her acreave of cotton «rowing, so in the neer
suture she may be the lergest cotton producer in the world.

Varieties.

 

LO Svecial name being given to different varieties of
the cotton in China, "China”™ is the universal term used by
the farmers for different varieties of the cotton crop,
However, some varietics have been named as Srinese Cotton,
“oreign Cotton, and fmerienn Cotton. The term "Chinese
Cotton” means that tris variety has been rrovn in Chinn for
centuries and has been known as Chinese cotton. ‘the plants
xnown as Chinese cotton srew small, much branched, besring
smell bolls, and the branches being rather slender. It is
nlso less vroductive and the lint is short. The term "foreign"
cotton refers to the cotton varieties wnich have been intro-
duced into Chins from foreign countries and they are much
different from varieties of Chinese cotton. "American"
cotton means varieties of cotton introduced from America.
They are now growing in verious sections in Crine. These
are the three groups of varieties of cotton grown in China
now, but the Amertean cotton varieties have been shown to
be more productive then the home varieties and the fsrmers
are growine more Americen cotton tnan the Chinese because
the ..merican cotton gives greater production and therefore
the farmers make more profit. There are many varieties of
Chinese cotton but there is no classification as in the

United States. However, there is no one best variety of

cotton for all conditions becnuse production is modified by
factors sucn eas leneth of growing senson, soil tyve, and
roisgture supely, vrnicrn nes resulted in tre developvrnent of

e

verieties verticulerly rdeoted to more or less Local con-
ditions. “ome vnrieties ere esvecially fitted to certain
conditions of soil end clinate nnd usuelly ere not profit-

sole when vrowm in new loenlities.

fdaptation of soil and climete.

 

 

The vest soil for cotton is a medium grade of loan
because heavy soil «roduces Large vegetnxtive growth but a
small amount of lint, while tne lignt soil produces sinll
yield. The oest cotton produced in Cnins is in the Yungtze
Valley where tie soils are composed nostly of alluvinl de-
posits weshed from upland and deposited by overflow waters.

In fact, cotton may be srown on any type of soil well supplied
with orgenic matter, but not .itn equal success.

Climate is the rost important factor in cotton growing.
The length of vsrowing season, tempersture, sunshine, and the
amount and distridution of reinfall ere all imvortant factors
to the normal srowth and fruiting of cotton. It taxes about
190 to 200 dsys from planting to harvesting for the full devel-
opment of cotton. It has been claimed that the longer the
growing season the better the production vill be because good
yields are ususlly produced in sections where the srowing
Season is more tnan 2CO deys. “Vieh tenperaturs snd hot
Sunshine during tne period of plent growth are most desir-
able, but they should be decreased when the plants sre fruit-

ing. f& well crepered seed bed with eouable distribution of
-6]—
rainfell in spring is the most importent for cotton growing
because tiis will insure the weritation. Just efter plant-
ing frequent srowers nrve cesiradle, and resvier rrinfall
Ssnould come in July ond fusust evenly distrivouted.

fertilizers, menures, and rotation.

 

 

.O Gormergial fertilizers have been used so far seceus
there sr? none on srle on the market. sometimes veran car
hes been used as a fartilizer, out not ton srernt extent.
The maintenance of fertility of tre soil is accomplished ody
epolying earth comnosts. Tnis not only adds tne elements
for plant food, out also organic matter to the soil. Tze
tervrers collects veretable wastes end other organic metter
Weieh my 92 used to maintnin tne soil fertility. Tris is
why Chinese frrmers heve cultivated for forty centuries
land Wnien is still nroductive under eultivation. hotrtion
hes been orneticed too, Decruse trey found out that cortin-
uous cropriry results in voor production. ‘ut in cotton
sectious, tuey ao not euploy = proper erop rotation becruse
in tnese sections tne land velue is ,irh and the frermers try
in every wy to sroduce a crop which will »rins them more
profit. 50 the *row rice one year and cotton tre rext yerr.
In tris esse trey envply rore menures and esrth composts to
the soil to grow these crops. ‘owever, tre rotetion of
legumes should oe used »recause the cotton crop needs more
nitrogen and, therefore, the leeuminous crops should be used
in rotation es a ensh crop or a cover crop of legume should

be -rown after the cotton is harvested, if possiole.
Netnod of culture,

Time of plowing: d@nhe «reperstio

. a

p>

wa] ‘ * ~ . = 5 A
Or tne gseea Hed is Erne
. - + Pear > se " “5 mo ye wep yes rr a : - 9 ‘
most imeortent feeveor in cotson growing. ine dsrd mey be rlow-

ed in tne fell or svring, bot fell pglovin-g is desireosle beceuse

-
ctr
b
fs
ot
~

25 tne soil to sbsorod ena hold a Large quantity of
weter durine «inter time end pives the organic natter beirg
wlovwed under sufficient tine to be trensforrmed into humus.
Yall plowing also eon reke the plant fooa eveilevle in the
soil snd tne soil conditions ern ove risde rood through chemical
ang oiolovicel process. I is preferavle to plow li-nt soil
in sorine seni disc oefore pleitineg.

verth of plowing: Whe depth of :.lowing decends on the
cheracter of soil snd time of ploving. in generral, hervy or
clay soil me, ve plowed deever then the Llivnt anc sendy soil
and also fall slo ing snould be »lowed aeeper tnan tne sprins
clowing. Tne land s:ould oe Jlowed at least & inches beceuse
of the deep root system of tnis crop. Disking snd herrowing
is necessary for a firm seed bed.

Time of planting: The time of planting varies in sections
of the country. In southern provinces it is planted early,
wiile in the northern orovinces it is planted lete in spring.
jowevor, tee best time to plant is just as soon as the soil
becomes worn.

Nate of plenting: dfhis varies with tne size of the seed
and varieties. ‘nout one bushel to the acre is planty. The
seed should be good in quality and heavy becruse it will

geriinate better »xnd gpives sood yield. In order to ret @ food
~5 3a
stend a little nore seed snould be used end then it enn ove

thinned out for desirable growth.

ct

Le@tnod Of plantine: In China tne metnod of planting

3

ne process

is dropping the seed in furrow oy nand in tills. T
of plantines requires at least three men, one msxing the furrow,
One dropzine the seed, and the otner doing tre coverin=s. This
is rather slow ena modern mecnines sould oe used in the future
for nandling a big ecresarve,. “re distance between rows varies
with fertility of soil and varieties of cotton and soil. In
general, the richer the soil the greater the distance. On

rich soils, well su»oplied with moisture, the plents prow

large and recquire more space than on poor soil because of
outward growtn of long branches. Chinese cotton is usually
plented a little thicxer tran in the case of fmerican
varicties. Vhis is because the Chinese cotton varieties frow
srell olents and do not require so much space as Americen
varieties. If tne fertility of soil is increased, the dis-
tance between pisnts in rows should be slso increased because
this will give tne wlants better crowth end good production
will be obtained,

Cultivation: j‘snen tre young plants apperr, the first
hoeing snould be done so as to cneck the weed growth. ‘*re-
quent cultivation is necessary for tnis cro¢e end wien the
plents »row about one foot high from the ground a ridge is
formed, the croxr hoed frequently, to xeep weeds down,

Harvesting.

rearvesting is done by picking by hand, no machinery being
~64-—=
used whetever. "owever, our labor is creap and the cost of
production of this crop is no greater than in the cese of
Other cultivated crops. ‘ffter harvesting the ginring end
baling sill texe slace and tre cotton is then ready for market.

Insects and disenses,

 

The most destructive insect enemies of cotton are voll-
weevil, boll-worm, and leaf-worm. There vre some otner insects

such as lesf-louss, red s ide2r, cut-orm, etc., but trey sre

’
not so imvortant.

Cotton Soll-veevil: Tis insect has four stages in its
life sistory. It is in the lerva stare that boll-weevil does
its prentest dnusage, gre meens of control is to destroy
cotton steal¢es enrly in the fall by up-rooting, erd vurning,
oy cutting and plowine under, end by -sturing. Tis is done
to cut off tre food sucely of tne weevils end starve trem.

It is also imvortant to destroy weevils in vib:rnetine places
Such as fence corners, etc., and the best way is to set nll
the rubbish and trash around the fields and ourned. Planting
early varieties, planting early, and frecuent and snallow
cultivation ere all good means or control.

Boll-worm: Tre boll-worm also hes four stages in its
life cycle. ‘hen hatched, the young caterpillars or larvee
feed on lenves and later attacn bolls or bore into buds.

They do grent demese and sometimes eat all the contents of a
boll before lesving it. Tne best means to control the boll-

worm are throucn esrly vlanting in spring, plenting early

maturing vnrieties, early, frequent, mend thorough cultivstion.
65
Cotcton lesf-worm: Tnis insect feeis on cotton entirely
and has dore a lot of dimnsve to tris crop. In the caterpillar
Stage it eats the leaves and destroys the plents. ‘owever,
Cuis insect is noc so herd to control ard tne best way is to
dust srsenice::1 poison over the top of the cotton plents when
there is any sign of damnrve snowing.

Diseases,

 

There has oveen a v-rest loss to cotton production by the
disenses of cotton every yerr. There rre many diseases of
cotton crop, but the most destructive and injurious diseases
are .oot-rot, .oot-xnot, fnthracnose, snd *osaic diseases.

VT course, there are some ore diseases doing more or less
esmnge to the cotton, but t*ey are not so irnortnnt vrs these
four rrentioned svove and so only these four disenses are soins
to be Giscussed,

=oot-rot: This is most injurious in heavy soils and is
caused by Tunpus wrich lives and sprerds in soils. Te best
wey to control tris diserss is to plow deeo in the fall and
to have the air circulate freely throusn the soils durinys thet
period.

nootexcnot: Tris is a .2ast in liect soils. tne "Krot"
is oroduced b,° the worrs and destroys t:
menns to control this is to have lend orepsred oy early fall
plowing and also to heav2 a prover crop rotn:ion.

inthracnose: This diseese is szrno:-m eas ooll-rot and is

d by a mold-lixe perrsitic fungus. It is spread b; in-

©
&
0
©

sects and sometimes it may be spreed oy wind. To control
-66-<
this disease the safe wey is to plent seed fiea fror disease,
Pell plowing end proper rotetion ere effective in preventing
tris disesse,

“oseic disesese: Tris diserse is often «nown ss yellow
lesf-nliont snd black-rust. It does prent demarse on soil,
esprcieally on lend that lacks organic matter. The poorer
tne land the rore drinsee will be enused oy tris diserse,. The
safest wn; to control tris diserse is to «sve tre soil in vood
condition well suvvlied ith orgrnice metter, witn «00d dreirrga,
and s better cropdire system in vce.
ie orovement.

ane provler. or prine ir.,orteance in the cotton industry 4

Cf

the pPresont tine is to ijcreese tre production of ecotton rer
acre. In the pest tne croduction of cotton ver acre in OCzine
is fer less than et present. nis is due more or less to
ostter verieties of cotton rather tren the methods of culti-
vetion. ince the Amerienn veriesties of cotton were intro-
duced to China, the production is increasine every yenr. 1t is
the genernl opinion thant tne cotton crop mignt be doubled on
tie seme acresre as now srown by proper attention to the use
of good seed and careful method of cvltivation. For the imr-
provement and development of cotton production, Chins should
introdice tne b2st varieties from other lends and incresse
the verieties wrich have elresiyv veen proven their edeaptani-
lity to tne different sections of the country and also snould
practice improvenent of the varieties vy seed seleccion and

breeding. Vetter cronoing system and systems of fertiliza-~

tion snould elso oa euployed,
-67=

The cherncter of soil snd method of culture is of the
greatest importance ror tre success in cotton production, but
Still trer: is vrent o: ortunity of inproving tris industry
On ell lsanas, »o9t1 gooa snd poor. nis is probaoly the ir-
portence of good se3d to be plrnted. It is too cormonly a
practice for ferrars to true envy seed trey evn secure revard-
less of wnetner it is edavted to their scil or climatic con-
ditions, or .hether it hes been ored up to a hish standard of
vrodictiveness. ine Chinese farmers ves seed taken at randor:
from public gins, avout wich tney know nothing other then
thet it was produced somewhere in that locality. T' e use of
good seed nnd its production by a reeulnr system of selection
mre juch as irvortent fecetors in the production of the crop
©s proper cultivetion. Only seed of xnown variety, selected
oecnuse of its desirsole cuelities, and adsptability to locnl
conditions, should oe planted. Tre selection of sood seed has
long been neglected by the farmers in China. It is not because
they think thst tne worx of selection is too much trouble, hut
because Of Inck of knowledge. ‘he custom is for farmers to
select seed efter harvest. They do not vrectice field selec-
tion end for this revson do not xnow the character and havit
of erowth of the plent. ne vary first thing the Crinese frrmers
should unierstand is to practice the field selection of seed.
This metnod is simple in apnlication nnd inerypensive. Every
farmer hes a method of cultive tion which he vursues with little
veriation ench vear and, therefore, every farmer snould use

in the same way a definite metiod of seed selection, carefully
~68—=
followed ench year. The ferner snovuld foliow a definite prin-
ciple of selection. ‘Some plants mature eerly, some Ister, some
branch low and some high, some have large bolls, and others hrve
small bolls, some neve long lint, and others have srort lint,
etc. Tnese verintions furnish the meens of improvement by
selec‘ion,

Atter selecting, only tne seed from those plants which
possess tne aesireule features in the grent>st degree snould
be increesed. I5 is safe to sny that the seed salected from
tne :.ost prolific individual wili in slmost every csse give
proveny heving a tendency to produce nore. “ut it is not
so easy to improve ° variety to caesirsvle verfection in every
feature ovecsuse it «ill complicate the process so it is
usually desireble to select mainly for one object at a time,
If attemptins to increase tne length of its cuality much
attention snould be given to tnese points and continuous
selection snould be made until it is up to the standere of
variety and to tne idesl character in the mind of the grower.

In selection, the transmitting power of the individual
is also a factor of importsnce in improvement of the plants.
It is importent to test individuals that have veen selected
to meke certain thet they vossess in the highest degree the
desired aualities of yield and length of lint, etc. It is
also important to determine whether tne plants possess the
faculty of trans:itting this quality to crogeny. “electing
should bse tested in seed plats to find out whether the

guelities ana cneracters for .cicn tne parent plants were
\
-09—=
selected are trensritted becruss some strains are prenotent
and hive tne power of transnittine the curmlities to ell, wile
Otners lacc« in precvotency ana freil. Yhe test srould be isoleted
for tre cotton plants are noinelly cross-fertilized. Insects
carry tne pollen frori one olent to snother and cross-fertiliz-
ation meyvy destroy some of tho aeSirable cnarscters sought.

Care and method of selection should be ta::en into consider-
ation if good results are to ve ootsined. It hes been shown
thas seed produced by olrants crown on good soil under best con-
ditions produces in its tum the best and most vigorous seed,
“or this renson, the salection field srould be planted on food
soil, out it would be wrone policy to select seed from rich
andi hesevy soil for all soil types. This means the selection
ouvht to be mede in a field of the same kind of soil on which
the crop is to ba ranerally cultiveted, The mein object of
Selection is to secure the best plants which are most produc-
tive, esrly in meturing, with sood length of lint, and revine
tne largest, best formed, and most rumerous bolls. 2?roductive-
ness is th2 wost imoortent fretor of iriprovement by seed
Selection. fre varieties of cotton are not esdnagtable to nll
corditions so olenting the adeoted variaties is of tre most
importance in cotton growing. Whe new varieties snould not
be planted in geenersl fields wnless trey are sell xnown to
be adaptea to local conditions. tome-grown seed is best
ada ted to local conditions, out the varieties of Cnirese
cotton are less productive, so it “ould be a vood policy to

}

increese the varieties of fmorierpn cotton which have bean
~7OW
grovm in sections wnere they have been more or less edapted.
It is from these varieties thet the selection srould de mnda,
The csirs’S selection exn ve made in the genernl field. Tre
fields must have rood cultivation, snd sood soil so that the

om
é

lants enmoxe treir best growts for selection. “2lection

3

Should be meds before tre first picking. Uniformly meturirneg
plants, with lons fiber, are selected for pvroductivenesss.

This snould ve done every yerr end tren. vetter yield nnd
‘uality of cotton will ve onbtrined. T:e varieties of cotton
xrown in Chine are smell, of poor quality, too s: ort lint, snd

low in yie JSurine recent years, frericnn cotton verieties

+4
feu

neve veon intioduced to soe erteaent in Chink.

eirner production, ».etter quelity, good length of lint. Trere

VL. s

are new varieties wich rmre new to loesl econditions of sections
in Cnine, but trey mice vooa sroutn seccorainy to elirnretice con-
de

ditions. re clitvete of the cotrpn Delt in Chine is nearly

1 - z

tne seme #5 thes in tne ‘zmited states rrna so trere is no resson

CG
_

why the Americe:n cotton veristies ernnot oe vro.n successfully
in Chinn. it would be vetter. to test nev varieties bverore
olantine tre ceverrl Fields. Vnrriety tests have heen carried
out by the eericulturel e periment stetions of cotton rroving
vrovinces end sreds reve been adistrixvuted to the ferners with

mition

O

joforration ena curvzestions in regard to culture. Att
to t is work nes been siven by overy station, especielly tre
agzricultursl evperiment station in Pecxing. ‘Yrom this station

seed’ era uistitontod fros. a2. reke suygpostions for increasing

production of cotton, Coins should introduce varieties of worth
-7l1-
and adaptxtion, nanpted to loc: 1 conditions. T:rese should ne
improved by, selection,

recadiny Ls an im,ortvant Yecevor in i:ersving eotton pro-=
duction, vut tris eon rerdaly oe gone oy tre Chinese fermers
N2cause they reve rie xnowladyes of suc. «org, Wis word’ rust
92 done by toe peo le of t1e ev-rigilturel exnerirniont stetion.
troedizs and sclection must so toretaer is eevomplishihg the
improvem mt of cotton in Cninea.

SrOunineg ena Poartilictescion systers ueve rob been worxe
erfectively oy Csinese farmers. They continue to sro. tro
seme crop on the lend every yveor with only e srell anount of
memuure., Chinese fermers have been xnown for treir clesn eul-

Civetion of mrny croyv they -row, nut they xnow very little

hs

end tre use of minerel fertilizers, for

o

290at croppins systen
the bess production of tre cron and the oenefit to tre soil,
yotcer systorws of cronnine end Tertiliastion must be nrecticed.
[Im corelusion, seaa solection, oreeaging, srovine early meturing
verioties, nnd practisines proper systems of crop.eine sna for-

tiligecion russ be utilized if Crins is to be tie isrgest rro-

ducer of cotti2n in tre world,
~72~
COnnN

Cenersl distribution,

 

vorn is srovm extensively in #1l ssetions in Chins, per-
ticularly in certreal end north China. It is ore of the steple
crops in the three pnrovirices of Iinnehurin. Vhis cror is best
edevted to central and +orth Shinn. In li rnehurin it is best
adapted in the rrovine? of ‘ucden end southern pert of “irin
end does not do veil norta of tnose sections on necount of
Climatic conditions. Corn is 7rovwn in rll seesions of the
republic becsuse it produces 10% only rrein for humsn food,
out stelxs for the feedins of live stocz.,

Adaptation to clinete and soil.

 

corn is a temperate zore plent and has ea wide rene of
srowtn. wourire the srowirg serson it requires a kirsh temver-
ature, bright, but not too intense sinsrine, end a heavy reine
fall. It not only requires warn days, out comparatively warn
nights es well. Cne effect of cool nirhts even when the deys
sre worm is to deley rivening. ‘The best soils for corn are
well-dreined, fortile loams which contein ea lnrge smount of
veretedle metter. Corn is - hervy feeder, likewise 2 heavy
producer, end to »roduce Inree yields it is necessnry to ean
the soil ine bkisrh state of fertility by the freacuent sdiition
of barnyard or green manures snd the use of l3cumes in cron
roteasion. Jt is xnovn that the climate fevornole to corn is
determined not so much by the smount es by tre distribution
of sunsnine, rneinfeall, etc. ‘reat fluctuations retard srowth.

‘or this reason the averere temrerature, reinfall, and sunshine
-73-=
sre not safe puides unless tne fluctur tions of these frctors
during tne erowing senson er. imown,

Lengta of ¢rrowing seeson,.

heen

4

vOrn a@iffars rom most ecrovs in beaines abla to edjust
itself to tne -rowing sa7son. ‘tn Some nortnern revions the
varieties will mature in 60 to 90 drys while veristies in
the south mey teze “CO divs. Trere rre scre Inree corn
growing regions with a srowing seeson of more tiinn 200 days,
out it does not aiscerpr treet corn has ba:en avle in an; resion
to utilize to rdventarce A Longer ecrowin perioa. In order to
evoid killing by frost in regions of relatively short seasons
it is preferanle to grow verieties wnich recuire a scort period
for meturing. <All other fectors beins equal and favorable, it
mev be safe to say that the ability of corn to yield will in-
crease with tne leneth of -yrowing season uo to somewhat near
200 deys. The most inmvortent point in considering high pro-
ducing varieties for a particuler locality is that tne srowing
season nearly coincides with the inast probeole frost of sprirg
end the first probeole frost of frll. It is edviseble to rrow
a veriety maturing 3 or 4 weexs esrlier than the vrowing season

given between the nverave date of the last «xillineg frost in

«D

Spring and the eaverasze date of the first cilling frost in frll.
Sunsnine and warm nights.
the funetion of sunlight is to furnish the necessery

energy for tne various sectivities of plant growth, lo plint

life is p rfected except throuch the influence of radiation

from the sun, Corn not only requires warm deys, out compara-
-74-
tively warn Girsnts as wall. It ig velieved tnat corn maxes
no growtn at nisnt especielly if it is cold, and slso thet
One effect of cool nignt, evan ween the dys are warm, is to
aela,y ripening,
nainfell,.

It i3s imvortent that plenty of reinfell during tre srow-
ine s2eson of Juns, July and August oceurs., ‘The reinfall
scould be well distri»uteda from lay to September with about
12 inches in the first and 20 inches in the second season,
vith sufficient rsinfell, proverly distriouted, it is probable
tneat the yield of corm would ve increased 50 to 100 percent.
sowever, the climatic conditions, sich as reinfall and its
distribution, are beyond human control, therefore farm practice
must Make the vest use of reinfell es it comes.

Varieties.

 

Yellow corn is tne only inoorteant variety grown in all
sections in Crins, There is no specisl neane given to different
varieties in China as in the United itsetes. fll are called
"corn", Jhite corn is not vrown very extensively. flint and
sweet corn are not xnown to Crinese fnrmers. There ere many
types of yellow corn verying in size, shape, length, end color.
Cropzing systems, menures, end fertilizers.

In China, no definite system of crop ing is precticed by
the farmers. In some sections the farmers have followed a
system of rotntion, but on small ferms usually definite rotntion
is practiced. The common crop:ine system used in China is corn,

followed by beans end then wheat or millet, but somotimnes corn

and beans are prown on tne sie lend with altarstion of thas.
-7o-

two crops in hills. ‘“oOwever

With sections of tne country.
ii rotation with whert, ceans
eotton belt it is in rotation

crocs, end in rice sections it

rice, oeens,

fartiiiger ennlied to tre corn

eid iS sorefimes used es fer
nut the enief source 2° forbili

ith composts.
Vetices of culture.

Preparation of scec

plowing to sm asetn of 7 inehes
for e vvod seed ved for corn.

yields resulting

eerly springs, 9s

Cilernt to nore tnan of set tne

ture is retnined, tne seed ved

are larevely controlled «i:en lena is
plowed land snould ve allowed to go

tne cropyvin:

and otnver cereels.

System veries

In whest regions, 16 Ls used
Millet, end sorghum. In tie
vith cotton, beans, sn other

is ©& cron in rote sion with

“orm jmenure is tne only

‘

sield in Chins. toy %eAnn

Filizer to grow this cron,

ty is barnyard manure née
Sell plowinse or early spring
Or Lore is the test berirnineg
"reuusntly the grin in cron

plowins in the frll or
suffi-

plowing, iois-

settles fiimly, :nd insects

ploijed in the fell. fall

through the winter in the

roush, thet is, as turned. In tris shepe it catches and holds
snow and avsorbs rain. 45 soon as in condition to he worxed,
fitting with disc, herrow, or gpring tootn should begin in

the snring. nerly sprive plowing should be followed by roller
and herrow. lt is usual to plant corn after sod, acpliying
menure before plowins. ne eerly plowins eives time for the

tnorouyh incorpore sion of sod

Ana

manure «ith tre soil. Corn
~76-
planted on lend preverod Isate in tre sprizvys is much more
lievle to ingury from drourht, insects, end weeds. / sood
seed oed for corn snould be well settled +5 the bottom of the

furrow slice witn surface Sreely worned.

 

ricer, scil deep :lovine is nost, rrovided
it is done in the fall nna hence does not rerdaer the soil
too loose snd dry. tne plowing should not 02a :t the seme
depth from year to veer, es by such 2 practice the soil is
not mixed well and « hera surfece is laft at the vottom of
the furrow where the horses welk and the plow dracs. t
little suosoil turned to the surface occasionally allows
the elements to act uvon it, liveratines plant food, end as
it vecomes mingled with surface soil nnd veretaole growth,
tne soil depth will be increased. Vo accomolish these de-
Sired results, it is well to plow ». little deeper eacn year
for severrl successive «Llowines and then for one season sive
2 plowing af avout helf the depth of the deepest vlowing.
Time of plentineg.

Tee time of olenting varies with sections of the country,
but it hes bsen snown by experience that corn planted early
most sften gives the vest result and vest yield. Cccasione
ally later plantings yield best, vut trey are exceptions.
Corn must be planted in most reyions rns soon as the ground is
sufficiently warm in order tnrat it mey metcrre before errly
fall frost. tne most Pavoravle time to plant corn varies with

the latitude, altitude, soil, end drainaze conditions and lo-
-77~

ation of the lend. In wuth and central vhine planting is
earlier tran tnat in north China. In soutrern !:uxden the
averngse ranrve of tne nest period for planting is from the lest
Weex of fpril to tus first pert of Lay, weile in nortnern
sections tre corn planting is evout from two to four weeks
later. tse planting in irin and r@ilungkiang is from middle
of May to the end of that month and some sections even later
than thet. “owvever, the plnnting time is left to the farmers
wno znow tne local conditions vest.
netnod of planting.

The method of corn plenting is much the same es keolinng.
The seed is dropped by hand in nills with four or five kernels
ina nill. It texes at leust tnree men to pl»nt one row of
corn at a time end thant is too slow en process. In order to do a
better and auicxer job the modern plrnter should oe used.

Depth of plrnting.

Corn mey 02 planted from 1 to 4 inches deep. Ine stiff,
neavy soil, or in cley soil conteining plenty of moisture sat
plsnting time, 1 inch is surficiently deep, out if it is light,
Open, dry soil, 2 or 3 inckes is a satisfactory depth.
uate of plenting.

The proner rate of plenting corn will depend largely upon
the fertility of tre soil and tne purpose for which it is rrowm,.
Tn China, it is grown for seed corm only, end tne distance be-
tween two nills is n»vout 15 inches and from 28 to 32 inches

apart in rows. “or vrain from 4 to 5 quarts per acre is

sufficient,
~768 =

Cultivation,

 

}—4
oO

D

4

The principeal reasoyns Tor ¢ ltivetineg tne corn during tre

early steres of vrowtn are to cill the weeds end conserve mois-
cure, Corn vrowing re-ulires a lirre smount of weter and the
anount orf rein fall during the growing senson is closely corre-
lated witn the vield. “rile it is rot possible to cortrol tne

emount of rainfall during the rrowing senason, it is possibvdle

pm lerge part of that wiien falls eesrl, in tne serson

to sav

D

for the use of the vlazts whan their needs for weter frre »rerte-

necess:ry to xeep the surface soil nro-

ct
f+
GG
)

est. To do tnis, i
xen up into fine articles, to form ep muleh wrich will prevent
the water tnet is in the lover soil from reacnineg the surfsce

and beire lost by evrnoration. ‘eedas nre undesiranvle in a corn
field Decause they not only use up the water that snould be left
for the use of corn, but they also use up the plrent food. ‘“here-
fore, one oneration may serve to cill tne weeds, and also to re-
estnadlisn the earth mulcn to vorevent evavoration of wetter,

There are avout 2 or 3 cultivations or hoeings for tis crop in
Coins. whe first hoeing is when the plints are 3 or 4 inches
high or more rnd at the seme time the thin ing vrocess taxes
place as there will be only one plrnt left to grow in a hill.

The second hoeing texes place two weeks later. Tren a V-sreped
plow is used to form tne riage with the soil around the plents.
There mey be one more hoeins if too meny weeds grow in the

field. -owever, the number of cultivation necessesry will dervend
upon the season and tne condition of the ivrnd. whe cultivation

Should be often enougn to xeep tne veesds down and maintsin con-
-79-
Stently 2 loose soil ruler till the corn bes ettrined its
erowth,. Tr? rrecueney of cultivesion vill larrely devend
upon the neture cf the soil, s nunoer ov ..eeds wrecent, end
the smount of reinfell., Tuailtivetion shovwldad 432 s-rllow so
as not to nrune the feeairs roots.
jJearvesting ond storinz.

The hervestineg tezes place at soon as the cor rerches
its maturity. It is cut it» sickle ov krand and then oounda
into bundles. It is nusxed by hand. ‘or storage the vrnrin
he clay floor to dry wna tren stored in the

is sprend on ¢

yrnin room.

so jJastrictive insects of corn sre cut-worms, wire-
worms, oer-worm, cninch pups, ete. “re First two ninds of in-
sacts ean 92 controllea », enrl, fell or winter plowing, ilste
planting in sorine, early end frequent cultivetion, end rote-
tion. ‘Yhe worst insects of t:is crop are tre corn borers.
The corm 9orer hes crused re rrert deal of trosble to try
ers, esvecially i1 cvurope, alt curn it res racecvtly ° cerrod
in tne “nited »tetes. vJiserses of tne roots, stelxs, sna errs
of corn crusa scrent losses erch yeer., The oo28 tetood for the
control of these diserses is to saexleuet aisease-free seed errs.

~~
>:

This selection g:0nld 902 mede in tre field netfore the first

C8

sillinge frost. s%elect noruelly matured ears from wormal stclks.

Hi
bw 4

after veins s:lectea in tne fleld, srould %e so

1
re)

seed errs

we

9

handled and stored that they will dry uniformly and thoroughly.

- ~

Leter in the winter tines thes? errs ceaild 02 selected t.rvnin.
other umdesirarle

La
f25
ct
O
Ald
Ww
WD
tu
et
5
ct
.
O
te
¢ 4
CD
he
C9
&
O
a

Diseer

Ve yey oA EN OT Ln “n°” rata KB v ca; ila 4 y Bec!
Crarcae Yves We whet : eMLVe tL}, pi. Ll Qa 0° Po .

eech year, 70 trentreant of tre seed is erfective. The vest
wey $0 Tisht this diseese ic to cut out and ourn all infected
plents oocfore the srut-bells rerch tret sterze of develomiont
A> Velen tre .xin oresaxs ond Trees tre spores.

ce

YT.
US@Se

 

G2
ke
a’
C2
>
ae
rs
2
@
tJ
f+
C2
bh
9)

Corn is used enierly es nunsn foo
ne of tre ste.le fFoocs of tre poor reorple. soratines it is
used to Feed iive ctoce, _erticelerly hors, .ut rot co ex-
res in tne enited Jtetes.

Tne stelks of tre corm provide an importent rougnege for
esttle in China. ‘vYney ere cho.oed into smell pieces es fecd
for the cnttle. ‘Tomeatimes tre stelk is used ns fuel when
there is olernty on the ferm and therefore the stelx oF tris

cron is just es valueadle es its rain.

Vetrods of improvenent for yield nnd cuality.

 

This crop hes produced poor quality end low yield in
Chine end therefore it must be improved to produce the best
end bivsgest yield, Trere re at least trres ways to incrense

the corn production, (1) Py improving soil conditions, (2)

Setter culture, and (3) Tetter seed.
-~Sl]—

 

Improvement in conaition of soil.

 

he nefurelly :roductive soils contain ell the mineral

,
dlerents and oryesie matter necoss ry, and nve sur Lied vith
surficiont neturel reinfell. Cf courece co.e cautions produce
gs hilen yleld of corn “inen tray heve a favoreble climetie eon-
Gition, vut rost of tie sectioras tyoush they heve an ideal

soil, do not nroduce so mucn as trey ournt to due to tre fect

croperl; distrivuted. Corn needs 2 lerge

Ou
‘oo
wa
Oo 4
ft
Ww

y Of nitrogen ean to mece use of fertility fur-
riched through the deceying of corrse orgnnic matter such as
manure or sod lend. fhe ideral corn soil is well-drained, well
supoliod with oreenic mettor, and rich in evelilenle nitroren,

re

nates, snd »otrsh salts. “The princinal cpuse of the low

phos
croduction is lrex of svailavle fertility in the soil which
snould be treated proverly with menure end commercial fertili-
zers. It is true tnat «rorer ettention to seed selection and
metnod of cultivation of corn -ill srestly incrense the avernare
production per nacre for ell lends now aevoted to corn growing.
The plowing end cultivatines of :oor lend is es expensive es

tne plowing and cultivetine of fertile soil. Corn growing
Should not be attemoted on poor lend until it is brourrt into

a fertile condition oy srowinz Lrguninous crops, the ronlice-
tion of menura und fertilizers. ‘The farmers rust know field
eonditions end meke = study of the soil in determining \hether
or not it is profitenle to vrow this crop. Soil weshing, nilly

land, too hrd soil, subsoil too loose, and lack of organic

metter ars feetors which decrease trofits in corn growing.
=B2=
It is 2 cuegstion wret:ier or not it is profitsvle to mnke an
avplicen scion of comercial fertilizers to tne soil in China.
& SOil lackine in fartility cen, of course, be made to pro-
duce a cood cron if tre requisite amount of nitrorven, votrssi-
um, snd pnosohorus mnd orgenic metter be sdded pnd the soil
be kept in good condition, but the srowins of corn on ea land
is usually sttended with very Little or no profit, rnd, wnless
continued, tne applicention oF comercial fertilizers does not
permanently improve tre soil. ‘ovever, an apvlie: tion of cor-
mercial fertilisers mey ecruse tre soil to produce? one good crop
of lesuries end tee roots and folinve of tis croo will usuelly
benefit tne paysiecrl cordition and the rertility of the soil
sufficiently to mize other ;ood crops possivle Witnout eddition-
el apolicntion of fertilizers. Cr tne ten elements necess»ry
to plent «rowth, nitrogen, sotassium, and phospnorus are the
ones wrose applicetion to soils produce the greatest increase
in productivity. ‘Soils comnosed almost wholly of snnd sre
often deficient in rll of these tnree elements. ‘Coils con-
teining ruch voretrnle matter nre not deficient in nitrogen
pnd usuelly contein sufficient phospnorus bout ususlly lack in
eotessium. Cleyv soils mey contein sufficient »votassium and
pnos,norus sand oe deficient in nitroren. Suen soils nre made
more nig*ly productive by growing leruminous crops. litrogen
can be added to tne soils vy epulying sodium nitrate, dricd
blood, terkerve, etc., o1tb this element enn be more cheaply
Obtained from the eir oy growins end plowiny under lepumes.
Potassium can be suvolied in tne form of votessium chloride

Or potessium sulphate. Yrosvhorus can be supelied by an
~-6Z—
appliestion of ground roce priosnnete or ground »one. If soil
is ecid phospnste or of such = neture thet tra eprvoliertion of
one or a few elerents et a smell cost will cpuse it to produce
good corn crops, these elements snould be enslied, but if tre
eapplicacion is too vreat,corn rro'ving snould ne suspended un-
til tne soil is permanently enriched by anolying leree quanti-
ties of barnyard manure or oy continued growing and «lowing
under or leguminous crors.

Improvement in metnod of cultivation.

 

 

Practical corn growers or farmers will understand the im-
possioility of civins svecifie directions rerarding the best
metnod of olenting «nd cultivation which would be epplicnble
to -ny considoradle portion of the country. lethods that
produce the best results in some sections hsve friled to pro-
duce good results in others. ‘his is because tne soil ana
Climatic conditiovs ere so different in tre aifferent provinces,
In general, ceronor seed Ded vrenrretion and frenuent snellow
cultivation to control weeds may oe advised.

Improvement in cunmlity of seed vlanted.

 

 

This is the most imvortant factor of inc:reasine corn pro-
duction. It proves that tne veristies of corn hrve 2 great
difference in maturity, in amount of production, and in fo1n
of stealxs, esrs, and kernels of the different varieties. In
some sections tne yield of corn is avout 30 bushels ver acre
while in otners frequently from 75 or more bushels ar2 obtrined.
™he secret o°7 good yields consists in erusins erch stelx in

4

the field to oroduce 9 rood ear. tivery strlx grown from e

-_
-S4-
well-develoved kernel from ea rood ear ras its recuisite asrount
of sonca in the row. Just es trere is the cossibility of s
very erent increrse in the cuentity of corn rroluced per acre,
so there is tre possiv:lity of ©» vary great improvenent ina
tre cuplity. “when the sclection cf sera coin. is made tne most

5

important cnerectors of stel:t, esr, end xrernel must be con-
ijdered first, so thet «© vood crop of corn will b?2 obtsined.
otelis.
Stel. ereet in eireunterencs nesr the frounad end taper-
ing eraduslly to tre tessel, witn surfliciont foliere of vivor-

Ous spoerrance, free from disesse pnd nerriny s pood esr or

eers rt a convenient seiett is » desirsole steli from wrick to

select seed, “Zhe reivht at wuien tne eer is dorne 15 a noint
of consideranle invortance, and tre seed selection with rever-
ence to tnis point is poverned by tne locrlity. fe desirable

heiznt of ear is just velov from tre midule of the stelk,

while in the field selecting ears one must also have in
mind the type of err towrnrd wnich ne is striving. It is good
plan to reserve for commonrison an eer that cones nenrest tne
ideal ear, but it must be remembd3red thrat tne ideal esr will
rot be found decause no enr is in ell res»vects perfect. The
lendin: qualities that will recorr-ena the ear of © veriety
Suitaonle to r.ost venersl ourposes ere high percentsge of
sheiled corn to cob, soundness of enrs and cernels, hirgn
nutritive velue of the xernel, uniformity in size sna Mape

of ears, purity in color of grein and cob,
~65—

The percentere of sv celled corn of rood cuelity is the
most imcortant cierescter tie err ein possess, because after
the vroductiveness of the stela it must influence the feeiirs
velue of mp crov,. he provnortion of grain to con is influenced
by the Length nnd solidity of sxernels in proportion to size
and composition of cob filling out ant butts and tips, spece
oetween the rows of kernels, uniformity in shape and srrenge-
went of xernels. Yhe grent weischt of errin is proportion to

weicnt of coo is hierly desirrnle. This does not rern an

f

eer with too smell coo hres more yieldins quality, out a lsrge

{

con With nrovortionslly inreer «cermels and less svace detween
tne rows of xernels vould ove * ‘rest improvenent to the corn
and vould not reduce its rien yercenteare of rrein. Teither
can eers witn erooneu or jirvegzuler rows, which rroduce ill-
Snapea Kernels, nave es hich = percenterze of eprein os streircht
rowed errs navius tne xzernels univorm in size, save, “na +rrenre-
ment. It is cesireole thae se variety snould neva srre distine-
tive cherecter of enrs end nxernels thet heve tre possibility
to .roduce » » 00d type of righ producing veriety. So it is not
aavissole for a breeder to sz2lect for charecter threat is suoject
to some objection. If is necessery thet the veriety chould
have cylindricel esrs, because this is tne type thet vest rer-
mits of ea nign percentage of grein and uniform size nnd shape
of the zernels.
Nernels.

Tne selection of seed enrs vavinge very lone xernels is the

best mesns of vroducitic = corn with a hien rercernterve of rrain,

out in selectins for lowe kernols auelity must not bo over-
-56=
looxed becnuse frequently the aunlity of kernels is woor on

4

ears heaviness loneest nernels. The de

al 1, am “> ye ow
$c smaped xernels are troce

oP

of good leanvth, weieh geredunally broeden “rom tne vase or roint

of the ettechment on thea cob to the ern, thus Lleavine the

“Ff spece unoccupied, ‘re veriaety salected to »vrow denands

~

ty

lec

Y

unon the conditions of tne locnlity. If the grovins serson is
snort, es rly meturines verieties snould oe olented. ‘to it is

sefs to grow loe:l veristies thet are scest adapted to the soil
and clinstic conditions. "

-~

s2Lection of seed eorn.

 

 

ne great sdventers of selecting seed corn in tne field
oefore tne crop is harvested lies in the fact thet mnrture corn
is secured nnd thst a study of the olant on which the esr grew
end of its euvironnent enn be mede. ield selection and sroper
storiny usunlly incresse tne yield of corn. The importence or
field selection is to make na vossible szlection of esrs from
the esrliest meturine end best developed stnlxs. ‘hen carried
on through vn nunder of ve rs of this selection, this .ill ro-
sult in setcine 92 strein esvr2cinlly adepted to the ioenrlity.
?ecnus2 of the varied climstic conditions existing in differ-
ent carts of tre country tris selection is very imoortent.
The best plen to follow this field selection is to welk throurn

Y

the field with a saecx tind over the shoulders, or csrrying e

J

basxet, pluecsine tose enrs wuich mre consiaered desireole,

~
lt

hature errs born? on virsorous nlents erowins wiaer uverege con-
ditions, which ere enrried et the right heient about the conter
of the stal«x or fust below, «nd with tips sliehtly droo ive

3 9

‘ a ' +. 7 we ™ -~ . 7 Ce - mee, _ . "s ~~. ‘ ve ™- rn 4e $ ™ “y
should oe selected, tnen .rovearly gtored.  Sarther selection
-657—

for uniformity and comcosition evn be made trroeurhn the winter.

~to-ro.r-test,

 

wars Of corm very greatly i1 Size, sheave, weient, end obrer
eer erarscters, “res also very in :;roductiveness. I vould
be a ¢reat corvewienece to tne frivsors if trey could oy She
a--erronce of en err ectizrtes wit’ sone decree of secureey its
ability to wield. is, sovever, tas 16% dean Pound sossiyle
With tna yreasent cwmowletge of tre relntion of esr eurrectears to
yield. VJne err to roy test is tre onl, +etrod of viczins out

Curve Ls Lie tr.2

OG
=

tne misn yieladins ears. Tris te:-t consist
relretive productiveness of a rnumoer or enrs of corm when nlentea

oO’ Siace, sn err or e@ vert of «n err to row, ars for such

e,

C3)
p-«
OO
MO

tects mey o8 well selected while ripenins in the fiela in oder
thet the conditions of srovtn mey be noted, and only euch enrs
chosen as give somo ressois for bellevirg thet their excellence
mney bs due to somet ine otrer tren favorable environnent. This
test ray ve carried out in tne corner of the field. The soil
snould o9 viniform in ferstility, end tne rows snould run at

rignt enzgles in order thet ell the rows will be sire. The rows
for convenience may be made 50 hills lone, Plant row No. 1
witoa corn from err vo. 1, row 70. 2 from esr ia. 2, urtil a

row oO hills tons is pluntea From each err thet is to ve tested.
Pois met-cd consists in vl»atirs OO hills or rore in narked rows
properly checxed fror enchr of 100 or more carefully selected
eers, to: ears neinrs sr.etled Llergthwise, snd helt of tne errs
reserved, she adnptetion snd vieldins soility of tne errs

. 4 = s “ s - ' ry ~ =~ 8, ~ — wy - 2 r “NON? * -7
ar2 found in tris test. ere rarnent esrs from severe l of the

~~ 4 _ 3 7 aa s. "2° -, 7 ae . i. ~ v ns 7 # eo - 5 _F
i who Na S f Lelagers fy ‘2 ws ik 220 uf,2 tee bak ¥ sor 1:
-“56—

be e

pleat sid runlticlied for cenersl distrioucien,.

 

enouryn tre seed corn hes voin selected Tro: tre field
end stored sronerly yet no one inovs tran it will prow. ‘So

it is very imvortent to heve tee g-ervninetion test of erch err

&

}

of coin to be slantea. “rere is 2x snyine “Lest, don't puess"

becuse ervuerlence hes srown thet it is impossinle to surely

abe

”

distinguich, by outward nv.earnnce, oetveen ears of socd fer-
rine sion snd ears of tow vitrlity. <“e only scecurseve metnod
is testias in the serpinetor,

enere are tyo common mand sirmle metrocs of m.xing separ-
ate esr tests. nose are o7 reens of the Saw-dust Zor pnd
nes Doll.

the sew-aus% Box torster: Construct 2 squrers box 2 ft.
Ny « ft., 2 inreres deevo, OC2rt »viece of ww ite elotn to fit
end marx off in center ith heavy lerd cencil ea sgquere 20"
hy 2O", divide into 1900 scunreg 2" by 2", Nunosr uover
sguere 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, end 10 at the top ena Loft
Side row l, il, 21, 41, 41, o1, 61, 71, S61, 91. Pince ove
isen of sawdust moistened in wim weter Li: bottom of tne box,

peex tfirrly end srooth evenly. !oisten merxed cloth sna sorend

over snaw-dust on 0x,

ct

Pumber errs to ve tested end nlace wrere trey will be cn-
disturbed, eke six kernels from eer negin ing nenr butt end
furnines esr slivstly as enen ear tedineg Ist nerr tip. Flirec

xermels in squsre wimoiered to corresnond vith esr, »erm fece

up, tivs toward tre votcom of box. ‘hen sll squares sve filled,

cover “with moistened eclotn 22" oer 22". A third eloth ehonld b.-

os
~§9-

rm

ovenly T4e.%3et after 7 deys mnt roisten if neacesserz., Then
tne test is reea, to read, roll Dees Usrer clotr, remove sew-

dust ena ernretuLl: rer.iwve eLlLoth over ‘:arnels, "arnels from

J

a

goou errs snoila snow vigorous sproit end root develonrent.

vrrow Or waten produces weer: ynrvouts or

Az

'
C7

O

-ermels weich fil ¢

4.

7 awe an, «PS & QA Hs . - .. na
,ol; tee es rs uo Vit for ge2d ena tre enrs

+;
Sa

rolay sprcuts, cane

v

correroording to their mu.bpers snould 99 Giserrded.
Ae urns Doll fester.

Cut clotna ito strics five feet lore eud ten inches in
Width. Jisect Lengtnwise with heavy pencil line. ‘erinning
enout lo inehes from end draw ll cross lines at right engl2s
to center line, 5 inches spert. Jumoer sprces from one to ten
on uener side of ‘ine snd 11 to 20 on lower side. Select end
number ears to be tested. Deamren cloth and lrxy out smoothly
On tevle. <erove o rornels from different earts of tke enr
“O. Ll end vince gam side up in space No. 1l, tiv cointins in
seme direction, vroeceed witn each enr in lixe meinner.  Jhen
spaces vere filled, roll ernrefully so es not to displace kernols
and tie roll esround canter with string. Plrce each roll cs
finisned in nucitot, cover with luxewsrm weter for several
hours. Drein and cover ton vith demp cloth, sna then place
in werm room. ifter severnl deys mois ten with wern weter., Cn
the 7th dey test is usually ro-dy to rera. Yo resd tre test,
unroll cloth carefully on teole and study «zernels in ench saupre.
Discard ell esr; corsvesvojiding to saqueres showing cesda xernels

Woich produce weex or moldy sprouts. i 3eve for plentinue enrs
With kernels s-.

Conelusion,

 

my

tmere er

uu

production:

3. <yoper

4, ~“roper

Do. .roper

five -reeterss controlle sles fFeetors in

fo Locrlity.
SOLl,

ne oreinnee,

),. Lerumes.in rotersion,

“we @vAileole pnosuhate,.

“ - 2
S.ed selection,

CO }r

i. telect mature corn in field from tealthy stalxs
Be. Ifor2 on racks in woll ventilated volace.

GC. £Vvoid soloctin-

stanrenines3,

toestirg.
é, Yast six nernels from encn err,

ts - e

le iseerrdi diseesed ond

WARK Vert ie jins

eers showin hich degree of

enrs

oe

Ce. Plant only strone nealthy eer as snown by test.

vplentins snd cultivetion.
te Lrepare zood seona ded.
SH, -lant ereae goed.

CG. vlent esrily.

D. -revent weed growth,
Se Cultivetse snrellow,
Origin and gererrl] distribution.

 

The soy been is e plant of arciint caulftivecion in Chines

and has oe3n ore of tre steple ecrovs in ecintr:1] and north
Cuine, cearticolnrly in tee thre. ersterm provinces of - enc uria.
It is generally oclieved that this crop wns orizineted in Chins
and tnen it wes introduced to Indie, Jaren, and some otter coun-
tries in the east. ne soy bern hes been well distrinuted over

° |
oll sections in the sapuolie or Cliina. It is a cron g-ro.n with
corn toreatner in slternete nills and sometimes it is serown slone
in tre field. Tris is the riost imcorteant crov in lanchurin and
it is srom only for seed production.

201l rena climatic sanntrtions.

 

Tee s0y7 bern witil grow on all .clas:es of ordinary well-
areirned soils. They succeed on send, silt, and ecley, but the
best results are ootsiined on loans. C1 account of their re-
Sistence to tie drours:t and sent, soy veans may he srown on
sendy soils end the soils truat ere somewsat ecid, vut they dao
oest on soils well siu:-lied with Line snd nre well sudseoted
corn soils.

4]

30, beans are ada.ted to es wide re:ve of tne clinete,

doing vrell from centrrl Chine end fer nort:. in zenchuria. Wris

crop is urrticulerly ednaoted in north Chins, esvecieally in the
three enstern vrovinces. ‘they will witsstand 2» creat derl of
moisture in tne soil, put .ill not thrive where w ter strrds
On the lend for 2 considerevle time. On the other rend, tec

~

soy been is cecidecly droutn resistent.
WY o

Varieties.

 

‘hers aro a frent nunoer of verieties of soy oernns grown
li Cringe, o43 they ere divided only iato three classes rccord-

we a me ee es ~ . . — We a -. ° L 4a, -
eliow, sreen, sna olrex. sre yellow is furtrer

ef

ins to color,
Sundivided into the Cniniman or hound Colden “ern, the Peaimei
Or rite ~yexro.u, so nenad Lrom the wiiteness of the hilum or
searmerceins the point of ettrchment to the pod, snd the “sicri
or “lack Tavel, so c:lled from tone derz broim hilum. “he green

1

pean, «icn is the seme as tre yellow one in snane nnd size

,
out aiftferont in color, hers t.o sub-vrarieties, tne one heving
@ creen skin and yollow interior, mnd the other veins preen
both insiage end out. Yhe olece detn or eitou hes three suh-
verieties, the vewotou or lsree dleca Deen, heaving black sxcin
end green interior, tre ~isro-"utou or small olack bern, tre

inside of weicn is yellow, end vien- utou or flst olrcK dern

witr yellow inside, wvrere is also ® great numoer of subv-species
differe: tiated from each otner oy come minute peculiarity.
These verieties sre nll best ndsroted in tre three provinces of

Nanchurin, ac well a. otrer vorrts of Chine.

Yertilizers, manures, end rotrtion.

 

The soy benn is en irportant factor in the wroduction of
rrofiteol? crops beeruse it ern grow on any soil, help to solve
the problem of protein feed of people snd live stock, end also

to mainterin emevon incresse the nitrogen suo ly on the

ferm. “re oest results of crops e:n ne eecured or following
SOy besn rotetion.,. [0 oy srowirs soy verpns, not only is it

possiole to srow » velusole leguninous crop to be used as Feed
for etock, out, id airect contrast to ron-leguminous crops

of suell grein as wrest, ots, mna oarley, che srowiny of then
is e Girect Derefit to tre soils. In Unine only nenures end
earth conzvosts rre ueed rnd vr Lliea to soils “i sen they era
neeaead,. ina sorlienvion of Fortilizer to the soy vern crop

On either fartils or hierly fortile o 41d is usuelly not very
profiteole. out o2 poor lend, good returns “11ll nesrly elweys
follow n» lisnt =» lier tion of 100 to 150 pounds ver acre of
ecid phospnate, or a light dressins of 5 or o loads ver scre
of stnanle menure. ren soy benns follow corn, nas is frequent-
ly the case, they seldom recuire direct application of fer-
tilizers. tend in condition to produce good corn will usually
sive eood yields of soy beans. ‘he xpolicetion of the nitro-

eenous fertilizer is not necesssry as soy venns like other

legumes essimilnate tre free nitrosen of the sir, but phoschorus

ord potnssiun are reauired in adundence. In case tha pvnotesh
cannot be ontrined, the rasid onosehnate mey de used lone to

pood sdvantage. it is acvisevle to work conmercirl fertilizer
Well into tne soils slaitine end good results are ususlly
Onotsined oy sp Llyins quite suvvicient Line to tre soils to jin-

crease the yield of soy erns.

w

The soy nern raz de comoinada advantereously in meny systar

--

ly ndrpted to svort rotrsion

a
a

of crons rotacvion. II is especia
tering either en entire senason or 2 wert of se sesson following
sore grain crops. <cinece soy veens ern zive more yield of seed

production and the cash velue of tne seed is Frent co it is

2

SUF Picient to encovra.2 srowins the beans ac one of the min

C
”

erops. men tra weole sesson is trus devoted to so7v verns
%., 77 4 7 p ~- * . - + 7 a a : ¥ we “ye Tey yan - ° o
they mney tec<e any in » rotetion system vwrere eorn era ot:.er

grein e:n 08 used. Yre smell ¢erains mey follow soy berns ena

+

‘ter a crop of soy

HH

tne soil requires out little rrevearnrtion a

Jonns. sOy Venn cron -enerelly is crown bdetveon tvo small

. _— 5 4 43 Y- - yO a az ‘ . 4. 2 . -, «< -, oy .
erein crons, sugh es wneet end rice. * rotstion cf corn, so

Noens, wrest, ena millet is »recticed in sore sxetions., Jor

e 5 rn e e =; . < 2 eo. .* -...8 4 e : es ~ 4 Ts .
bimes Lt Ls used in rotetion with rice, cotto:, millet, sorshun,
end Some obeer ceranls. oOwever, sov 9eens used in sort rote-

‘ in. - . a . “4 -—_- . se? oo ~ ~~ s = oN 1 “. * an ~ . we
bLOWU Wier Smnaell rein “usuvelly gives the vest results,

t-
a
©
©
a
+
“
b-- e
O
a
e

 

2n@ orocess OF Lioculstion 2s nov «xrovn co Ceivase Lerpors
becruse trey en -rov tis cro, any field of sneir ferm in exvy
section of the country. sis is 22eruse true soil nes elrenay

Neon nesurell, inocul: sod. “or ona ne. countsy soy oerns snrouls

ba Snoroup: Ly Lluoeule tea sitn t elr oroper nitroven fTixins Dac-

terin. Jmenever tne crop ie grown in tre Yield for tio First

‘ey

ONO
CeSS&é: Je

Circa, srtificinl inoculstion of sor. «ind ususlly is no

-- "49

207 o3ans Will mere an isditferent growth in most soils unless
the bacteria ere »vresent in the soil. ‘Tne Iscx of inocule a on

‘$ed bv a vele or greenish yellow color or

plents. 229 soy veepns will give good results, ~“owever, on

9fcterien ere not srosent, oueo in

by

—_
C@
c
O
oad
js
C2

Ld)

v
<j
"5
ct

-~
ct
uD

at ._. ‘ + “ 7 -- 4 & “e _w ‘ | - N ‘yoy $ vv roy te Lr > 7 4- s + am ~
such esse tne vibroven is tezen directly Trom tee soil. Jor-
46 = 4. . ~ —_ : iL :_ Og ° raed n > aX % oe 7A Ye, - . ' +. * 4, ” . “ ao
Cbunesely netcuresel inoeuls tion occurs thrournout the seetions

— 7 - - : wor . ree vy - % ~ es . ar, ’ » aa : in Grad . tay 4 Y. ~~ x Yi
of Chint wWwnere tre soy nang serow @row extousively. “sor s nai.

country it is edvise2le to inoculet> t.e soil Tor srovines tris
ray GLon,. Toor evo Gree vesSeoas cf jroe@auls cien, Crs of
tre sirplest oeirs- o bho pure cultures rateod, is 1s Doeeus.e
Of enna of eppliertion, reeay eveilsoility cf t+ realieovle cil-
tures, OClintuetires of ex ves OF Lncroductne 82 ward eva olen
aGiser ses, era tra vrove er Poctiveness, tee sures culture i.

tre wore cisebticevle wey of svvificselly Leoculetiys © field,

v <7. boas / ie Free, a to ys yin t .y Soy OE By oy ven
Ln or CUl e G ad vill tes Jom Ve vl aay) wit eS 28 ere tod e) LO" ? nC 9 orl
sever, ma (elly-lise suvste ca in liguid or i soil or muck,

che treetment of seed with tre sure cilfture is so simole thet
no one s'.ould ~~ :sitete to use it vor ferr of diffieulties ox

waste of tine. first tne jJelly-lixe mass is »roxen uo in

4
t

1 te ~ oe . we -8 aye - 7 de 5 \ 2 oy, “ on -™ . . ye
tre vOtcvle vy strisxins tre vottle evrinst tre celr of tre none,

riste quentity of wrter ena

ah .
. oy “sy
wl. te ba

7
~1G

riiy thorownly, rincives out the bottle vith the water.

1

7 ans . wee ea . ‘ . a dg ’ - ‘ = 7 7 -—45! ~ ‘ Aju rf
becteris are on tne curtfsees of tre gelly-like suvstenes m4

3 mqayte 4. 2 me ° 47, - ala oot 4 7 ~ mY : ~ oO . Aw ey
Oo Gur. To rie it thorouehly «ith weter. “Une smount of wet

,
‘
-

\-

used gcnould »b2 enouch to reisten tre seed, varyine of course

. e ~~ . D ms vA oe. vy “ , ye ~
ure and size of tne seed. Canerelly iienrly a

tr
ot
>)
ctr
,
CO
rs
*

Yinile tre culture over tve sead

w)
fH.

wn . a = . 4 aaa a) ‘
nt of weter LS 2|anouren, :

srootn floor ov sore cind end riz tne seed well. Tf it

O
iS
“4

is too roist, sllow to ary ine shedz7 vlsce. Joints necessrry

to observe in using tre culture sara: Do not xeep too long,

zeep im a cool, moist place, Do not neat the meterisl, l.uve
a vood suspension oafore sacins tne seed, Lir seod t oroughly
L : 9

Do not try to sov when foo moist rnd do rot exposes to sunlirnt.
-Yo<

 

e9Qn . _. . - . rt . o7 cf : . a - yo 4 + s a eet — * cs - = _
ne inoeuletesn gull vs oula oo secured Troms. wall inocuLeteda
Ls - ~7e ye _ »-4 - “ “ me! > ’ ~ . VU oe
Tiole, end .reveraely; from smone tre roots of crone of Boy veers
Of oravious yoarrs. Ure soil sroiled ve veesgea throurh a sana

abe

- - . - ; . — . q 5 We . , vO I cy ’ ‘yo 4 “1. + at + ;
screon nefore usire, to reove roots rnd stones. This soil mg

A

Fortilizer scttrcinent or sovn brosacest

be ££) Lied throurn the
Over tra field and hrrvo ed ine Pht socliertion of 200 vournd
of coil is sufvici2znt to inoculet? one acre. “ne soil shonld

a

po vrotected “ron the sin ell the time s

|

nee brivynt sunlisnt

*

leeessful if

C3
CQ

neean

(Q

in,;uros the oreteria. 2 soil metrod hs

7 oe. ’ . 4 ene . Ww, Lan
tne yroeuls4ed soil @rn Ye Seanread,

 

nis netrod nny 8 usea wien it is roc convenient to secure
lergea quentities of soil. rom ove to one nnd e relf ounees

: YS cre oN Dae ay s yer “3 nt? . . _— det ove
le Gissolve2a in 2 wuert of websr ana thon

©
Hy
CO
mw
by
Ie
ct
Ky
ce
}
cS
©

Sprinkled over » dusnpel of seac wWiicn res seen sprera out on

is snoveled over so txet tre slue

QQ:

x srootn floor, “n2 see

solution will cone in co’ trcet vite eee n seed. &£000bF 9 Guar

0

of fine soil thet nes deen secured froma soy neen field vwnere
the roots head en poundence of nodules is sprinkled over tne
seed, Tnis metnod elso has been very successful. However,
the pure culture metrod is beirs Llarvely usec aque to the erase
of securing tne cilture nnd simplicity of mpplicetion,. Jitr-
out inoculation, the soy beans crnnot secure nitroven from

the air and cennot mere their best development. Veitner ern
it progice its srover vencficial effect in inprovinge tne Yor-

Cility of t-e soil. ‘snerefore, inoculstion of soy xen cron
ls very inportrnb if 13 is rew to thre soil.

 

rrevarrtion of seed ved: The vcreparrtion of soil for

tre soy been is sivilser to that for corn or otrer eultiveted

—

OS. Yns Lerd should be rlowe’? esrly, doev, fitted, «ne

cro

Shen harroved et frequea t intervals until vleantine time. Clsy
soil sroild ve clowed in tne Fell end in the early serine

disx7d, and made snootn by the drasc and the packer while on

1

lisnt send; soil or extrenely heavy soils sprine plowine is
preternv»le. on well-dreined clry loeams sna sanay loems, fell

end serine plovines «re ecuelly sctisfectory, so well prepsred

t
oe

a 4 “ mo ~ er
seed beds <eon weea

Q
_—

down Othoervise tney aro Licely to choke
Out tne youn: plents,.

Time of plenting: Soy heans mey 02 sown during s period
~tendines from esrly sorinese antil mid-summer, aavendines lerve-
ly on the Ilptitude and the use to be made of the -rop. They

area ensily injured by the rrost in the syvring. ‘Vhey core

aJ/

7

tnrough tre vrovnd slowly end grow slowly in cool wenther,
~Otring is grined ond freauently much is lost ov plrenting too
early. It is common practice to plr»ant sov »seans nfter corn
plantine is completec, It is believed thet e:rlier planting
than is cormonly practiced would ove ovdetter, proviced tre soil
is rersonaovly warm. i ‘ovever, time of plenting «ill ver; for
different locnlities eni different sersons, depei:ding on the
concitiorns of tre soil end length of vsrowins sesnson. Yor ¢erein
the best tine is apout text corn planting wien the ground hrs

obecome throrougrly werm. vhe plants will tren start quickly
-98~
and make a rapid growth. since the plants grow slowly in cool
weather, there is ordinarily no advantage in planting earlier
than corn. In Manchuria planting from May to the end of June
is usually satisfactory for seed production. Do not plant too
early and too late to be injured by frost.

Depth of planting: Planting soy beans in drills so ag
to allow the cultivation is the most successful method. In
seasons of abundant rainfall, planting in solid drills has
produced good results. The distance and method of planting
will depend upon the use which is to be made of the crop.
However, in China there is no drill being used for planting
this crop and the only methods are by jeans of a seeder and
dropping by hand. When soy beans grow with corn in alternate
hills, it is planted by hand and when growing alone in the
field it is planted with a seeder, Soybeans are grown only
for seed production in China and the distance in rows from
28 to 32 inches apart and with plants every 2 or 3 inches
apart is best.

This crop has been made in good use as hay crop in the
United States and therefore it may be worth while to mention
what the soy bean is grown for and the method of planting.

If intended for hay and green manure, the soy bean
may be planted by drilling in rows of 28 inches apart, using
ordinary grain drill with the cup open the second, sixth, and
tenth, so that they can réceive occasional cultivation. But

if the land is quite free from weeds and there is sufficient

moisture to carry a crop which is to be used for hay, a large
yield and finer quality can be secured by broadcasting or by
-99—
drilling with the grain drill all holes open and drill rows
seven inches apart.

For ensilage and hogeing off: 4 special soy bean attach-
ment should be used or secured for corn planter if soy bean
is to be grown for ensilage and hogging off. This is because
to sow corn and soy bean with even stand and to make a better
crop for hoggsing off. The attachment should consist of a
separate drill and grain box so that it is not necessary to
mix corn and soy beans. For ensilage the best way is to sow
corm and soy beans separately and mix the two as they are
put in the silo.

Rate of seeding.

The quantity of seed to be sown to the acre will necessar-
ily vary somewhat according to the size of the seed and the
purpose for which the crop is grown. “hen soy beans are plant-
ed in rows 28 inches apart for seed, it will require from 2 to
3 pecks of seed per acre. ‘Then sown for hay by drill it will
require from 5 to 7 pecks of seed per acre. If planted by
broadcasting, at least 2 bushels of seed should be used.
Cultivation. }

Under favorable conditions the soy beans germinate in a
few days and cultivation should be begun as soon as the seed-
ing plants appear. One deep cultivation may be given, but
afterwards the cultivation should be shallow. The soy bean
readily responds to the good cultivation and requires about
the same number of cultivations as corn until the plants be-

gin to blossom when they are grown for grain. Usually 2 or
-100~
5 hoeings are being made by the farmers in China and general-
ly a ridge is formed for this crop as for others.

Harvesting.

 

Soy bean for seed: ‘hen the soy bean plant is nearly
matured, the leaf vegins to turn yellow and drops, and before
all the pods are msture, the leaves, except in a few varieties,
have all fallen off. In general, the best time to harvest is
when about three-fourths of the leaves have fallen and most
of the pods have turned color. The plants should not be
allowed to become too ripe because the pods will shatter and
much seed will be lost. The method of harvesting this crop
is cut by hand with sickles and this process usually is done
in the morning, but if large acreage of soy beans is to be
harvested, the modern mowing machine and grain binder should
be used. The soy bean has been grown so extensively in Man-
churia and the new machine for harvesting should be used in
order to handle this crop in good shape.

The soy bean for silage and hay.

It should be cut when well podded several days later
than when cut for hay. One load of soy beans and two loads
of corn will make a good silage when they run through the
ensilage cutter at the same time. For hay, the soy bean
should be harvested between pod formation and full develop-
ment of the seed and before the leaves have turned yellow
and dropped off because at this stage of growth the large
yield and the best quality of hay will be obtained. The hay
is cured in much the seme way as a heavy crop of clover or

alfalfa,
-101-

Threshing.

 

The ordinary grain separator can be adjusted to thrash any
bean successfully, but as equipped for small grains a large per-
centage of cracked beans will result. The chief cause of split
beans is the high speed of the cylinder, which can be reduced
at least one half, but the speed of the fans and the other
parts of the separator should not be changed. The beans may
be threshed with little split if proper adjustmet could be
made to the ordinary grain separator. Special besan separators
of:different sizes are now on the market and these machines
can do clean hulling and split practically none of the beans.
NYherever a consideradle acreare of soy beans or other beans
is grown, such separators are satisfactory. The method of
threshing in China is by means of a stone roller and no
matter how many acres of soy beans are to be tnreshed this old
method is still in use.

Storage of seed.

As soy bean seed spoils rather easily if not properly
handled, care should be exercised in curing and storing. After
the beans are threshed, they should be spread out on a floor
to dry and then they may be stored in bins. The storeroom
should be dry and have a free circulation of air, but most
of the soy bean crop in Manchuria, after threshing, is put
in bags and ready for market, so the farmers do not store
this grain as for the others.
tnemies.

In general it may be :sa#id that very few insects do cuite
-102-
a bit of damage to this crop. Rabbits are most troublesome,
as they are fond of soy bean plants and have been known to
destroy considerable areas. Caterpillars and black blister
beetle also do a little damage, but in conclusion insects
are not serious to the culture of this crop.
Uses and importance.

The soy bean seed has been used for feeding live stock
in China. It contains from 30 to 46 per cent. protein so its
feeding value is very high. In feeding hogs and sheep, it
may be fed whole, but in general it is preferable to grind the
seeds. Soy bean seed mixed with corn or kao-liang and then
sround torether into mash gives best results in feeding live
stock. Soy beans also have been used as a food product in
China. In the United States this crop has been grown more
for animal feed than anything else. Of course it is a new
crop in the United States and the people do not commonly
xnow the value of this crop especially for human food. The
oil of the soy bean is valuable and it can be pressed and
used for other purposes, but the feeding value of the by-pro-
ducts such as soy bean meal or cnxe will be nearly the sme
so far as the percentage of protein is concerned.

Soy bean meal.

Soy bean meal, from which the oil has been removed by
pressure or extraction with solvents, hes become e product of
considerable importance. The oil finds a ready market for a
variety of uses, and the meal or cake left after removal of

oil is sold to stockmen for feed and to farmers for fertilizer.
-~103-

In Nanchuria there are large numbers of soy bean oil manuractur-
ing companies. Aside from large quantities of oil and bean
cakes being used at home, the oil is used as a lard substitute
for human consumption and other manufacturing purposes. The
ceaxces are used for either feeding animals or as fertilizers.
They are 2ll exported to Europe and America. There are two
methods used for obtrining the oil, the one by hydraulic
pressure. used chiefly or .entirely in China, the other by means
of solvents. S8y the first method the beans are erushed into
meel, treated with steam and then subjected to pressure. This
method leeves four to nine per cent. of oil in the cake. In
the second method the beans are crushed and then treeted direct-
ly with a solvent, such as benzine, «which removes the oil. The
solvent is separated from the oil by distillation and used
again. The odor of the solvent can be entirely removed from
the meal, lesving a lizht colored product ith only one per-
cent. of oil and forty-three to forty-five percent. of protein.
Soy bean oil.

The oil is being used extensively by paint manufacturers.
There has been = large quantity of tris oil exported from
China to Europe and the United States. It is used in the
manufacture of paints, varnishes, linoleum, and Map, and is
also being refined for use as a salad oil and lard substitute.
In China it is used for cooking vegetables for food by the
common people. A large quantity of this oil has been exported

from China every year, but the people do not know much of its

use in the western countries. The only thing they know is

that there is a great demand in the foreien markets. The
~104—
greater the demand, the more oil mills will be opened, and
the more the mills, the more demend of soy bean seed. In this
way sOy beans will vecome an irportant crop in Chine, especial-
ly in Manchuria.

Uses for human food,

 

For meny centuries soy beans have been used as human food
by the people of Chins and some other countries in the eest.
The soy bean forms the chief source of protein in diet, supple-
menting rice, which is so extensively used and contains a great
excess of carbohydrates. The people keep little live stock
and eat but little meat. They believe it is the part of econ-
omy to eat vegetables rather than to feed them to live stock
or animals and then eat the animals. Of course the living is
far different between the east and west. It does not mean that
the people do not eat meat nor that they cannot afford to my
for meat for their daily food. This may be true among the
poor, but even the rich still eat more vegetables with or
without meat in cooking because they believe that the vegetable
is a more desirable and valuable food for human beings. The
whole bean is not used to a great extent in China and the
people do not eat the beans in the way the veople do in the
United States, for example, baked beans, etc., but what the
Chinese people eat are the food products which are manufactured
from them.

The principal products are Soy Sauce (Ziang-yu), Bean
Milk (To-chih), and Bean Curd (To-fu).

Soy Sauce: Soy Sauce is a dark brown very salty liquid
~105~=
with an odor and taste siggestive of beef extract. It is used
for a flavoring in cooking. That is why the people in the
United States are so fond of Chinese restaurant dishes because
the characteristic flavor of "Chop Suey” is more or less due
to Soy Sauce, wiich is an essential part of that dish. Many
people think that Soy Sauce is indispensable to an oriental
kitchen and it may be true in a certain point, but not exact-
ly so, because many people in China do not use much Soy Sauce
at all. It is not used at every meal every day. Though it
igs common and is used in large quantities, the food value of
this sauce is only very slight. The people use it for flavor
and taste only when good dishes are to be cooked. There are
two kinds of sauce. One is commercial and the other is home
made. There sre different zgrnades of “oy Sauce. The way of
making is the seme, but the auality is mucn different. Two
parts of soy beans and one of wheat are used in the commercial
manufacture, but the home meade usually uses soy beans only.
The soy beans are cracxed and then soaked in the water with
ea sufficient amount of salt. The soaked beans mixed with salt
are put into a big can with its opening covered and allowed to
ferment. The process is from one to two years long. The homr
process is about one year. The liquid or salty water is boiled.
It is first yellowish brown in color and after it has been
boiled a couple hours or more, some onions and a bag of pepper
and flavorings are added, boiling until it becomes dark brown

in color and of a desirable quality.

S0y bean milk: This has not been used to a great extent but
-106-
it has been used ss a drink instead of milk in the morning.
There are some manufacturing companies in some of the big
cities making tnis milk for drink. The way of making this
milk is to mix finely ground soy beans with about ten parts
of water and heat near the boiling point for fifteen to thirty
minutes. An emulsion is obtained which is remarkably similar
in aopearance and properties to cow's milk. Upon standing
for a while the particles of the mesl will settle and the
liquid enn be poured off. The liquid remaining in the residue
can be separated by pouring the mass into a cloth bag and shak-
ing until the liquid has run out. If allowed to stand quietly
the filtration is extremely slow. The liquid thus obtained
has a yellowish white color, It is sa permanent solution with
fat, protein, and other material. It does not "settle out"
on standing if fermentation is prevented. The composition of
this liquid is about as follows: Protein 3.7%; Fat 2.0%,
Carbohydrates 1.8%, Salt 0.5%.

Bean Curd: This product has been consumed to a large ex-
tent in China. In the cities and towns it is sold every day.
The soy beans are being rouge’ ly ground and then soaked in water
for about ten to twelve hours and crushed between millstones.
The ground material is then boiled with about three times its

bulk of water for about an hour and filtered through cloth.
The filtrate is white and opaque, having somewhat the appear-

anee of milk. This filtrate is then boiled to a high boiling
~107—~
point and add the mother liquor obtained in the manufacture of
salt from sea water, which contains considerable magnesium chlo-
ride. The quality of the curd is dependent on the nmount of
mother liquor. If too much is added, the curd will be too hard
and if too little the curd cannot be pressed in a form which
cen be hnndled by hand. The nmount of mother liauor used is
determined by the appearance of precipitation. ‘Yhen the curd
is formed it then can be drained and pressed. It is palatable
when snilted and fried. Sometimes it is eaten frozen. These
are the tivo kinds of bean curd commonly consumed by the people.
There are so many ways of cooking it either with vegetables,
sea food, fresh or salted, or with meat.

The composition of the products is es follows:

Water Protein Fat N. Free Extract Ash
Fresh To-fu: 89% 5% 3.4% 2.1% 0.5%
Frozen To-fu: 18.7% 48.5% 28.5% 2.6% | 1.7%

Soy bean straw.

 

The strav obtained from threshing the soy bean for seed
is a valuable feed for all kinds of live stock. But in China
it is used mostly for fuel and very little is used for feed of
animals. Of course, this straw cannot be so good as clover or
alfalfa hay, out it is better feed than corn stalks which are
used extensively in China for cattle.

Methods of improvement and the future development of soy bean
production,

Soy beans have been grown in all sections in China, per-

ticularly in Manchuria. The three eastern provinces ate noted

“Or their soy beans which are the chief products and main crops
-108-
grown there. It is a good exsh cropv because the demand is so
great in the market. Soy beans are grown more in the three
provinces because of their best adaptation to soil and climatic
conditions. iarket is also an important factor which encourages
the farmers in those sections to grow more of this crop because
there are many soy bean oil manufacturing companies there. The
demand for soy bean seed is so great and no matter how big pro-
duction is h»rvested, the market is always good and the farmers
can make a big profit. The farmers do not know anything about
what becomes of the soy bean so far as western market is con-
cerned. They only know tne market in China, so the greater the
market demands, the more soy beans they grow. The future devel-
Opment of soy bean production depends largely on the lands in
Iianchuria because there are so many acres of lands in those
provinces which are still uncultivated. The three provinces
of Mukden, cirin, and “eilung-Kiang hrve an area of about
365,000 square miles, equal to that of both Dakotas, linnesota,
Nebraska, and Iowa combined. The soil is fertile and the cul-
tivated acreage possibly is not more than two-thirds of the total
area. Up to this point it is believed that the possibility of
the future soy bean crop in these sections will be great if it
is properly developed and the cultural methods improved. There
are about 18,000,000 people in these sections and the popule-
tion is not so great as compared with any part of China Proper,
but the population is going to be greater and greater as so

many people in central and southern Chine are moving there

every year. This means that soy bean production will be greater

¢
~109-
because as more people move there, more lands will be cultivated.
The bigger the acreage under cultivation, tre bigger the produc-
tion will be. In ?’anchuria some big farms are found of from
one hundred to several thousand acres, but the lands of some
big farms are not all under cultivation. If a farmer owns one
to five hundred acres of land rand re is expert in farming with
some help, he certainly c:n make a profit every year under the
normal conditions. All the farm work is done by hand and more
crops ill be obtained per acre where the farms are smaller.
fll the big farms mostly belong to the rich people and they
know nothing aoout fsrming and have a hard time to hire any
man to farm successfully, and the result is a failure and the
lands are no more cultivated. ‘hat these big farms need now
are scientific farmers who xnow how to manage and to cultivate
those fertile soils to be productive lands, Of course the
labor is cheap, but to cultivate big acreage of farms such as
in Manchuria it certainly will pay to buy modern farm machinery
which is effective nnd economical. The tools, such as plows,
cultivators, drills, planters, binders, and some other ti llage
implements are adaptable to the conditions of those sections.
The gas engine and machines such as tractors and threshing
machines are not suitable to the present conditions because
the gas costs too much and does not pay for its return. NHow-
ever, the thresning machines will be profitable to the farmers
in Manchuria if they grow big acreages of soy beans and wheat.
iorse-power farm implements will be adaptable with the cheap
labor to the conditions in China. ‘Jealthy land owners, of

‘ourse, may have capital to run a big farm by buying modern farm
-110-
machines, but they lack knowledge of ngriculture and even the
men they hire may not know about farming. They may be good
workers, but not good managers. It is the trained men in
agriculture who will be successful. To cultivate that big
area of land in those three provinces it is a matter of all
the farmers who go there to farm and make their home there.
liost of the farmers are not rich and they can hardly afford to
buy any modern farm machine vhich costs too much. S50 the best
way to do is to havs men trained, knowing the dgonditions in
China, wno will design types of farm implements similar to
western plows, drills, planters, cultivators, etc., and sell
them as cheaply as possible. This is one way to help farmers
to do better work and to cultivate more land. The aim of farn-
ing is to raise necessary food products for human consumption
and the future development of Manchurian agriculture is to
cultivate more land for big production of soy bean and other
crops and to help farmers to make better profits. It is not
the matter of few people to buy farm machinery from foreign
countries, but to improve the farm tools and manufacture them
in desirable sand workable types suited to our conditions. In
this way the poor farmers can buy the farm implements cheap
and do the work quickly and effectively. So the big area of
land in Manchuria will be all cultivated and more production
of soy beans and other crops .ill be obtained as a consequence
and every man will have work and food. Since soy beans have

So great a demand in the market, the production in the future

will increase with the increase of acreage of land cultivated,
-lll-~
and the methods of improvement. The soy bean has many varieties
grown in China. One variety in one section yields more bushels
to the acre while another variety yields less in another section.
This, of course, has more to do with varieties as well as soil
and climatic adaptation, but the main trouble is that farmers
lack knowledge in varieties. They are too careless in seed
planting and sometimes several varieties grow mixed in one field
and thus cause an uneven maturity of this crop. Therefore, on
farm practice tne methods of improvement should grow the best
adapted variety to local conditions, nave seed selection, grow
pure strains, and have better culture in preparation of seed
beds and clean cultivetion. The methods of breeding of differ-
ent varieites should be worked out by the government or provin-
Gial improvement station, end this station should have variety
tests and inform the farmers to grow the different varieties
best adapted to their local conditions. The standardization
of soy bean crop is very important, especially for export.
In conclusion, the improvement of culture and seed is to get

the right man to work out the problem of azriculturé in China.
-112-
SORGHUM OR XAO-{LIANG
Origin and general distribution.

The Chinese name for sorghum is Yao-liang. The origin
of this term no one cen say definitely, but literally it means
"tall millet". The term "Xao" means tall and "Liang" means
millet or grain. These two words combined form the term or
rather the name which is a leading variety of sorghum in the
United States.

It i:; a cuestion whether or not the Naoliang crop plant
was Originated in China. It is the belief of the agricultural-
ists in the United States that this crop was originally brought
into China from India. However, it was origniated in the east
and is a new crop in the United States introduced from China.
It is an old crop in China and it received the first cultiva-
tion and was planted along the Tsung Ming Island, near the
mouth of Young-Tze River when the early Chinese settlers
settled there. It is an easily cultivated crop, but it was
not grown very extensively. tater as the people moved north
and they found out it is good for the climatic adaptation as
the growing season is short and it is therefore a profitable
crop in the north. It is most abundantly grown and becomes
highly important as a staple crop on the farms in north China,
especially in the three provinces of Manchuria. This section
is level or a great plain area and the soil is fertile. The
crop grows more in north China because of climatic adaptation,
length of srowing season, soil condition, and moisture of the

soil.
-1135-

In general, tne topography of the Republic is a series
of elevated mountain ranges and plateaus in the central and
western warts, decliziine gradually erstward to a bro:d and
fertile alluvial plain of low elevetion. This plain has such
a gentle gradient as to make part of it sudject at times to
disastrous overflow snd consecuent femine. The Mao-lieng
is grown more or less extensively over most of the eastem
half of the Republic.

In China Proper, they are found from Yunnan, which is
the most soutnern province and adjoins Tibet on the muth
east to Chili in the north and thence south to Shantung and
Cheking. They appenr to be found only rarely or not at all
in the southeastern alluvial provinces from Fukien and
viangsi on the east to Kwangtung Xwangsi on the southwest.
These provinces comprise part of the great rice growing area
of China. In general, the vao-liangs are becoming increasing-
ly important westward in the piedmont areas up to the pro-
hibitive elevations and northward with increased latitude and
shorter sessons.

Kao-liang is cultivated generally throughout central and
western China, out not so extensively as in other parts of
China, notably the three erstern provinces of l’anchuria. It
does not mean this crop cannot grow and yield well in central
and puthern China, it is too expensive to xrow tris crop there
where Other valuable crops, such as rice can oring more pro-
fit to the farmers, that is, the success of farming depends

on the crops grown with their vest adaptation. In north
-114-
China the growing season is short, reainfell is less, and
usually the drougnt occurs during growing season. Hence
this crop is better adapted there,

Adaptation to soil and climate.

 

Sorghum or kao-liang may be successfully srrovn on soils
of rlmost rny character provided trey are reasonably fertile
and well drained. Cn account of its deep roots, sa permeable
subsoil is desirable. These crops are strong feeders and
excellent drought sisters, wich qualities often cause them
to be grovm on the poorest land of the farm. Yet it is true
of sorghum, as of corn, that the return in crop will usually
be proportionste to the richness of the land. ‘forghum or
xaoliang feeds more deevly than corn and, moreover, it has
greater power to genther food in the soil and subsoil. Good
crops of kaoliang may be grown on land too low in fertility
to produce crops of ccrn. The best soils for sorghum are
free-working, moist, sandy loams, under-laid with a porous
clay subsdil, rich in the elements of phosphoric acid and
potash. Uumus soils are good, but not so good relatively
as for corn. dard clays lying on herder subsoils are cuite
unfit for growing sorghum.

“ao-lisang or sorghums ere adapted to regions having a
warm sumrer climate. The enrliest known varieties will
mature with three months' warm weather. No degree of summer
heat seems too intense for the sorghums, but they are easily
susceptible to injury both in snring and fall vy even light

frosts. So the regions of long, cool summers are of little

velue for sorghum. In general or .ith a few exceptions,
7
-115-
the climatic adaptations of sorghum are nearly identical
with those of corn. lLao-lian’, however, suffers less than
corn from intense heat, insufficient soil moisture, often
romaining fresh and green when corn is comple‘tely destroyed
Or remaining semi-dormant during short periods of extreme
drought and arain growing with the advent of favoreodle weather.
On these accounts, this crop is especially well adsvted to
agriculture in semi-arid regions.
Varieties.

There are three common well known varieties, white, red,
and brown. Cf course there are some other varieites, such as
pink and so on. The farmers call them white if they look
white and red or brown if they snow more red or brown color.
The yields of the different varieties vary a great deal. This
has to do with the climate and fertility of soil conditions.
However, the white and brown varieties generally have grown
bigger and stronger stalks than the red ones. The general
belief of the farmers is that the red varieties are more
adapted to drought resistance and in fact they have smaller
stalks and have lower recuirement of moisture. The farmers
like to grow white and brown varieties under favorable con-
ditions because they yield better and are better for human
food.

Wertilizers, manures, and rotation.

It is customary to grow kao-liang without fertilizers

for it is surface feeder and will respond to judicious fer-

tilization as readily as corn. The character, amount, and

.ethod of application of fertilizers are the ssme es for corn.
-116-
The application of frrm manures is the only means to add to
the fertility of the soil in China because commercial fertil-
izers are not very commonly used by the farmers.

This crop is not very good for rotation with other crops
because crops like wheat or oats, which maxe much of their
growth during the fall or early spring, are most likely to
suffer when grown after kao-liang. But late planted crops
like corn, coOw-peas, soy beans, millet, end sweet clover,
wnich make their grertest growth during the latter part of
the growing season, should follow this crop. Zao-liang,
however, has buen used in rotation with the crops of soy beans,
millet, corn, and otier beans in north China,

Drought resistance and effect on soil.

The peculiar adaptation of the kao-liang to agriculture
in semi-arid regions is well-known. Eut the qualities that
enable this crop to successfully resist dry, hot weather are
not well known, People know that the root systems of sorghum
are less extensive than those:of corn, a crop not particularly
adapted to dry regions also the agriculturalists have observed
that as much water is required to produce a pound of dry matter
in sorghum as in corn. Thus it would seem that the dry climate
is impossible for the growth of sorghum. The most probable
explanation of the peculiar adaptability of this crop to dry,
hot regions is to be found in the high degree of resistance
of the sorghum plants to injury from dry, hot weather and the
ability of the plants to cease growing and become practically

dormant during periods of severe drought, growth being renewal
-117-
without any apparent injury with the coring of rain,

The sorghum or kro-liang is genernlly considered to be
hard on the land. The reasons for this are not very clear.
Possibly this is due to the fact that the kao-liang seems to
concentrate its feeding roots in the upper layers of the soil
to a greater degree than most other crops, which pecularity
probably results in exhausting the surface soil of its avail-
able fertility. Its stubble often breaks up cloddy on account
of the fact that the soil is held together by the matted roots
and the slowness with which kKao-liang stubble decays renders
its immediate effects less apparent than that produced by other
forms of vegetable matter. In fact kao-liang is not more ex-
haustive of fertility than other crops. Pound for pound, it
removes no more plant food, but it does leave the ground in
poor condition. It grows so late in the fall that little,
if any, available water and plant food is Left at the end of
the growing season. The effect is apparent in the next crop,
owing to the fact that low yields of other crops are often
obtained from the ground the following year, but by the second
and third year it has disappeared. The soil is not permanent-
ly injured any more thezn would result from growing an equal
crop of any other prain.

It is now clear that the guceessful adaptrtion of kao-
liang in Wanchuris is due to its drousht resistance and short-
er growin season. It is #lso becoming a steple crop for food

and the stalks for fuel. This crop is easily handled and cheap-

ly cultivated and produces more profit than other crops on the
-118-
same soil.
iethods of culture,

No doubt there is a big difference in sorghum culture
between America and China so far as their meti:iods in cultiva-
tion is concerned, ‘lowever, the crop culture differs some-
what in sections of China, as is the cese in the United States
to some extent, except with regard to the amount of labor en-
gaged. The acreage of lnnd a farmer can handle varies. The
farmers in central and southerm parts usually handle less
acreage than those in the north, because southern farmers have
smaller acreage of land and therefore pay ::ore attention to
the cultivation, The northern farmers have ':ore acres and
more work to do so the cultivation of this crop csnnot be done
so carefully as in the south and central pwerts. However,
Chinese farmers do more cleen cultivation of any crop than
the fmericans so far as their labor is concerned.

Preparation of seed bed.

 

The work necessary to prepare a zood seed bed depends
largely upon the kind and condition of the soil. Light soil
usually requires less work than heavy soil. The seed bed
should be uniform and firm and free from weeds if a good crop
is to be produced.

Time of plowing.

The soil on which the grain is going to be planted should
be plowed in the fall, lay rough and unbroken during the winter,
and manured and plowed in the spring. Fall plowing generally

gives better results on the averace than spring plowing. This

2pends on the amount of moisture in the soil and on the winter
-119-
precipitation. If plowing is done early in the fall before
the weeds have used the available moisture in the soil, and
the winter precipitetion is normal, then fall plowing has a
decided advantege over spring plowing. For best results fall
plowing on old lend should be at a depth of 6 to 7 inches,
Late in the spring shallow plowing is sOmetimes best if mois-~
ture in the surface soil is lacking and the crop is to be
sown immediately after plowing is done,

Time of planting.

 

The time to plant varies with the season, the locality,
and the variety. The grain sorghums are of subtropical origin
and therefore grow vest where témperatures are high. The seeds
will not germinate well nor will the plants make normal growth
in cold soils. ‘hen planted too early, the plants make a slow
growth and weeds are likely to outgrow them, making it difficult
or impossible to keep the crop clean. For the best results
seeding must not be done too early in the spring. A good time
to plant in any given locality is from 10 days to 2 weeks
later than the average date for planting corn there.

Depth of planting.

Sorghum seedlings are not as vigorous as the other cereal
crops. The seeds, therefore, usually should not be planted so
deep. They should be placed in moist soil and covered deep
enough to prevent drying out. As a rule, one or two inches
is about the right depth. On wet heavy soils, one inch is
usually sufficient while on light sandy soils, two inches and

possibly more are necessary fos the vest results.
-~120-
methods of planting.

The seed is sown by hend or by means of a kind of seeder
and is then covered with the soil. It is planted in rows in
hills and the distance betwe2n rows and hills varies with the
fertility and condition of the soil. Usually the rows are
the same distance apart as with corn, but the space between the
nills is closer. “owever, the methods of planting are the seme
as with other cultivated crops.

Rate of seeding.

No one stand or rate will produce the highest yield under
all season conditions. Thick stands yield higher than thin ones
in favorable seasons, but in dry seasons thin stands are best.
To get the stand desired, it is necessary to sow a heavier rate
because all the seed will not germinate under fiold conditions
though it mey have 100 percent. germination in test. In China
there is a common ssying that "money cen buy seed, but not
stands". The general tendency is to plant much too thick, with
the hope that enough will survive to furnish a satisfactory
stand. Eowever it is recomnended thet the rate of planting
should be greater on rich, fertile soils than on poor soils
and where the rainfall is heavy than where the annual precipi-
tation is light. For grain it should be seeded at the rate of
6 to 8 and 4 to 5 pounds per acre. This varies with the season-
al and soil conditions. in Manchuria, the rate of planting is
about 10 to 12 pounds to an acre. This is to insure a pood

stand and is then thinned by the first hoeing.
-121-
Cultivation.

Cultivation should be begun early and repeated frequently
enough to destroy weeds and <eep the surface soil loose. The
cultivation is usually done a few days after the young plants
appear ehove tne ground. The fields are regulrerly hoed and
cultivated, even if tne plants do not make much growth during
that period. In the first hoeing when the shoots are about
2 or 3 inches high and they are thinned to about 13 inches apart
where it is planted in drills, while where planted in hills they
are trinned when the plants are about one foot high and general-
ly one plant is left. The farmers usually give one or two hoe-
ings and then a ridge is formed by a V-shaped plow vith the
plant growing on the ridge nani then cultivation is complete.

Harvesting,

 

Time and metrods of harvesting: The sorghum or kao-liang
should be harvested when it becomes thoroughly ripe. ‘hen
headed in the field, it should oe allowed to stand until the
stem at the base of the head is dry. If headed while the stems
contein moisture, heating will occur if the heads are stored
in piles. LKao-liang is often headed in the field. The heads
are dut from the standing stelks after the grain becomes
thoroughly ripe and stored in ricks until they are thrashed.

In China it is harvested with sickles by hand and topped with
a Knife. The best way to harvest this crop is to use a corn
binder when both grain and fodder are saved. In Manchuria this
crop is harvested during the month of September when the stalks

heve reached vn height of from 8 to 10 feet and the heads have
-li2-
turmed purple caused by the smnrll, dark purple cases which con-
tain the ernin. They are cut down nesr the roots. After they
are cut do.n and made into bundles they are shocked up if they
are not hauled home et once. They may be headed in the shock
in the field or hended after tne whole plants are hauled home.
These heads are spresd out every day in the sun until dry.

Threshing, yields, and storing.

 

 

The process of threshing consists of cuttings off the heads
of the stnlks, sprending them on the solid clay floor, and
threshing them with a stone roller drawn by some domestic ani-
mal, This is completed in about four hours. The grain is
then passed through a winnowing machine or tossed up in the
air and tnus separated from the empty heads which are used for
fuel or in the manufacture of brooms.

The now cleaned brt unhusked grain is put in sacks and is
ready for the merxet to be sold for fodder. To be fit for
human consumption it must still pass throusch the process of
husking, which process consists of placing the grain on a cir-
cular stone floor and passine a circular stone roller over it
which crushes the husks end separates the grain from the husks.

In some sections it yields as hign as 50 bushels, but the
average yield is from 30 to 40 bushels to the acre.

The grain may be stored in bins. It should be free from
foreign material and cracked kernels and should be dry when
stored in lerge auantities or it will heat and spoil. The

storage room should have good ventiletion of air to keep grain

in good condition.
-123-
Uses and importance of ao-liang or sorghum.

The primary use of the kao-lisny crop throughout most of
the regions where it is grovn is for human food end the feed
of the farm animals. This is one of the chief vroducts ond
no doubt is the most valuable crop of I‘anchurie. It is the
most immortent stavle crop to I‘anchurian farmers. The people
live in that nert or section where it is grown and therefore
use it as a staple food, also feeding it to the stock. However,
the chief use of the prain or seed is to manufacture liquor or
is used in distilline soirits or .ine. Chinn is not so dry a
country as the Jnited “tates and so nenrly all of the fiery
Spirits or wines are used thrournout the sections of the Re-
public. A large auantity of this distilled wine hes been used
and so the demand for this grein on the inarcxet is great,

Most of the white varieties of grain are used for human
consumption. It is ground into flour, out of which cekes are
made or tney are simply boiled or cooked in wster and served
in the form of a gruel to the common people.

This is the chief serain feed for the horses, mules, and
some other live stock. The kao-liang seed for feed takes the
same plece that oats do in the United States. For feeding
cattle it is better to grind the seed and feed with alfalfa
or some other feeds containine a considerable percentace of
protein, such as cotton seed menl, crkes, or soy bean cakes,
The seed of sorghum is very rich in carbohydrates or fat forn-

ing materiels, but is low in protein, so it will be profitable

to feed kao-lisang seed with ndditional protein feed for fatten-
-124-
ing cattle. To feed hops this srain is nearly equal to feed-
ing corn menl. This will meke » most econorical grain by
feeding = retion contrinine na smell proportion of some feed
rich in protein. #*or sheep it is practically the same to feed
xao-lisng as snelled corm wnen alfalfa is used as roughace,. It
will make better feed for norses during hot veather or shen
tney are doing hard wore becnuse it is consicered reatner less
heating than corn and is excellent feed to combine with alfalfa
Or other leguminous hey. wowever, it is not advisrerble to feed
this grain alone sll the time. This ereain rancs high as poul-
try food. Yor fattcenine fowls it is about equal to corn and
is much superior for feeding to laying hens. In feeding value
it is only slightly less than shelled corn, but is somewhat
less digestible on account of its hard flinty character. The
stalks of kao-liang are almost as valuable as grain itself to
the people in north Chine. They are the chief supply of fuel.
They are used to cook food, to hent the brick bedstead in winter
time, to boil the water for tea, in fact, are used whenever heat
is needed in trose sections of north Chinn where this crop is
grown so extensively. They are not used as silage or any other
‘feed purposes in China as they are in the United States. Another
important role they play is in the fine fencing meterial they
furnish. jometimes they are used to ovuild pens for pigs and
chickens. they constitute the freme of the roof, uvon which
the clay is smenred. These stalks are also used as supports
for plants in the vegetable gardens, Yhey serve as poles for

beans, cucumbors, and yams. They also lend themselves to bas-

3t and matting maxing. In making the finer quality of baskets
~125-
the outer scin only is used, beins split off by hend and woven
into tne various erticles desired by skilled makers. FY¥or large
coarse baskets, however, the whole stems are texcen wile they
are still fresh, for \.nen once dry they c:nnot be manipulated
very well. There are still several minor uses for the stems
such as fremes of «ites, paper animals, play things for children,
and so on. ven the roots are sot allowed to stay in the ground,
but are gprubbed out and dried for fuel among the poor people.

The kao-liang has been an important crop in north China,
especially in the three provinces of Y’anchuria. The land in
Lanchuria is fertile and a great and level plain. Since the
growing season is snort and the farmers hsve to grow some crop
wnich will be well adspted to that condition, kao-liang is be-
coming the staple crop. It will give yood producion of seed
and at the s-me time the stalks serve as the crief supply of
fuel. ‘ccording to the uses mentioned adove, it will be imposs-
ible for the natives to get slong without this crop. It is one
of the chief farm products in north China and is grown to supply
all of Chinn. The fermers vrow it more becnuse the market de-
mand is great. This is the chief source of grain to feed live
stock and good results will be obtained when other crops grown
in the same section fail. From this point it is safe to say
that the development of the kao-liane crop in the future will
be great. This is because this crop is more adapted in !'snchuria
where there are so many acres of fertile land not being culti-
vated. ‘So in the near future the more land being cultivated

the grester the production will be.
-126-A

The smuts of Mao-linng.

 

 

The smuts are among the 1rost destructive enemies of sor-
ghums. There sre two well known smuts of the sorghum, the grain
or kernel smut, and the head smut. The grain or xernel smut is
eesily distinguished by the fect that only the individual ker-
nels or grains are affected, while the need retains its usual
form and nearly its usual appearance, Lost, if not all of the
xernels in a smutted head, are destroyed. The herd snut is
very different in appearance. The wrole hezd is converted into
a Single large smut mnss, covered by a whitish membrane, wnrich
soon bursts and sets the spofes free. In this smut, therefore,
all trace of the individual grains are tnen lost. It is found
that almost universally where sorghum crops are grown the ker-
nel smut is widely distributed. This results in great losses
of this crop every yesr. The head smut is good to eat. It
tastes good when cooked, but usually the dhildren eat it raw.
It is taken from the strlk in tre field vefore the spores open.
Nowever, it is eaten only by children.

Treatment.

 

Formalin: i.ix 1 pound of formalin vith 30 gallons of
water. ‘Lut seed in sacks and immerse the secks in this solu-
tion for one hour, stirring occasionally. “hen tnke the sacks
out and set them out to dry.

Yot water treatment: Heat 2 lerge tubs of water to anout
123°F, Place the seed to be treated in a clern sack and bring

0
it to svout 133 *. by plunging it into the first tub of water

hented to this tempersture. Then transfer the sacks to the
~126-B

second tub and keep tne seed suomerged for 10 to 15 minutes.
seep the temperrature of the weter in the second tub between
130° and 137°R, It should not be allowed to po above 138° or
below 130°®, ‘The seed should be frequently stirred in order
to x<eeo the temvoer:.ture constant. After it is trented teke it
out and dry for sowing.

The head smut does not occur in abundance, but the farmers
should be careful to xeep the smut away. Some suggestions for
keeping this smut eway ere (1) Get seed free from smut, (2) Xeep
ferm free from smut by using own seed, (3) Treat seed with
formelin or hot-water if not sure that it is free from smut.
methods of improvement.

Though kao-liangs hes been grown in China for meny years
Still it reouires the improvement of its variety because it
lacks uniformity of maturity, purity, and ouslity. ‘5o for its
future development and improvement it requires much rigid
selection for its adaptrtion.

The main purpose of improving kao-linns is to set more
bushels to the acre. This c:'n vde done oy improving seed selec-
tion and better quality of seed planted, also vy better culti-
vation. In the improvement of grain kao-lieng the principal

considerations should be (1) Increased drought resistance,
-127-
(2) Increased earliness, (3) Dwarfness, (4) Greater productive-
ness, (5) Adaptability to maci:ine handling.

Drought resistance: The kKao-lieneg finds its greatest use-
fulness in regions where moistuie is often the controlling fac-
tor in crop production. lMuen good would therefore be accomplish-
ed by increasing its drought resistence espcially in the areas
of lighter rsinfall. The most importent factors are probably
(1) Increased ability to prevent the loss of water by transpira-
tion, (2) Increased development of the root system, and (3) A
possible increase in power to extract water from n dry soil.

Tow to control the transpiration is well known to all, the 5est
way being to xeen the soil in good condition to prevent it. The
Size and cherect>r of root systems are probabl;, strong factors
in drought resistance. The larger the root system is in pro-
portion to the plant, tne larger the sarea of soil from which

it draws moisture in time of drouvht. # deeply rooting plant
may be able to secure water when shallow root systems lie wholly
in dry soil. To extract water from dry soil is now only a
theory and may ».e in the future #® variety having this quality
will be found and crown. It is throuzh selection that the
drought resistance and adaptations for drought evasion will be
obtained. wveeper rooting plants will stand more drought resist-
ance, while dwarfness, earliness, and thin stand are adseptations
and conditions for drought evasion. ‘nen selected for sctual
drought resistance it is important to have the ides in mind to

select those plants which give the best results under dry con-

ditions when they are neither dwarf nor earlier nor more thinly
~128~

planted than their neirhbors. The best selection should be
made in the field becnuse field conditions c:n be seen snd
maturity and form of plants be kno:.n clearly.

Karliness: wne earliness of kao-liang is the most im-
portent factor in the resions where it crows. Because of
shorter growing sesson in the north the earliness of kneo-liang
1S an important quality. / veriety rust be obtained that will
mature oefore the possiole early fell frost. It is also im-
oortant vodecseuzce early varieties m-ke better use of seasonal
rainfall which comes Largely during the early part of the
summer months. ‘nrliness is a mesns of drouzht evasion, not
of resistance. Improvement in earliness has to do with seed
selection of verieties on dry farming regions and selection
should be made in the fields selecting the esrliest heads for
improvement. Xeep up this selection for yesrs until a desir-
able earliness of a variety is obteined which variety is then
adeavted to the local conditions. The effect of earliness in
permittine drourcht evasion is very important. The earlier
plent heaving 2 shorter growing period, not only uses less water,
but uses it earlier in the season. %0 it is irvortant to use
the seasonal rainfall during its carly growth.

Dwarf stature: The dwarf stature is usually desirable in
the kao-liang because it decresses the water reauirement of
the crop to a unit of grain producei. ‘le know the larger the
plant the more water it reanuires and the more it is likely to
lose by transpiration. <A small plant which can produce as

much grain es a lerge plant will thus have renal advantage in
~129—
the dry season. This is not true drought resistance, but
msrely a lower water requirement which permits drought evasion.
It will be possible to select the dwarf stature plant of kao-
liang but the selection should not reduce the ability of yield-
ing vower,

Productiveness: The two most importrent factors of increas-
ing the «ao-lians grain yield are better varieties and better
methods of growing them. Better varieties means to grow the
varieties well adapted to the local conditions so the best
and heaviest yield vill be obtained. This hss to do with the
selection from year to year. Selecting stalks of desirable
dize and habit, bernring large and well-shaped heads, well
loaded sith plump grein. The hends should be well-filled,
filly exccrted, large in proportion ot size of stalz, and sood
weight. Yvhen selecting not the largest head alone, but the
largest possible herd on the smallest stalk is most desirable.
Select the early end desirable varieties and heavy yielders,
well adapted to the local conditions. R®etter methods relate
to proper and even spaciny of stalks in rows and to thorough
cultivation of the growing crop. Rotation and general tillage
to conserve moisture influence crop improvement. Till the
soil so as to absorb the rainfall and to prevent evaporation,
In the fall the land should be plowed and lain roigh and un-
oroken in the winter. The seed bed should be so prepared in
the spring. The first step in planting kao-liang is to have a

proper stand or row space, “no-liang yields best with a stand

of 1 stalk in each 5 or 6 inches, rows of 2 feet apart. The
-130-
rate will vary with varieties. In favorable climate and with
soil conditions a thicker stand is preferable, while in dry

regions a thinner stand should be planted.

 

Adaptability to machine handling.

The farm work in China is entirely hand lnbor. Planting,
cultivating, and harvesting are all done by hand. This is
because we do not have the modern farm machines as the farmers
do in this country. ‘jiowever, the farmers can do good work and
clean cultivation just the same. This is because our labor is
cheap. This is effective and can only apply to small acreage
of farms. It is my opinion that in order to grow kao-lieng
on a large scale it would be much better to introduce the mo-
dern farm macrines such as planters, cultivators, and binders
which are workable to the conditions of north Chins, “ith
these machines and our cheap labor we can handle more land and
produce the grain profitably. As to the herder and harvesting
machines, I do not believe they are economical to our conditions.

Conclusion.

 

With the future development of more fertile land in l'm-
churia the production of kao-liang grain will be increased to
a great extent because it is a staple crop well adapted to that
section. It is an important crop to grow for food and feed and
at the same time the stalks will furnish the chief supply of
fuel for the poor people. But the crop growing there lacks
purity and quality, so it should be improved for better seed

production. for the present, it seems to me thnrt we do not

have to talk about the breeding work oecause it is rather
-131-
slow worz, so the first tring for our farmers is to do the
work of selection ith the local verieties being aleady well
ndnpted. This is to select the pure strains and vetter auality
of seed nnd plnant them to incrense the production. The next
step is to introduce some of the workable farm machines which
Will do effective vork but the cost of the machines should be
as low as possible. In this wey our farmers not only en do

better work, but elso c:n handle a larger acreage of lend of

this crop.
-132-~
MILLET
Genernrl distribution and origin.

‘illet is grown extensively in all sections of China,
particularly in the nortnern provinces. It is one of the staple
crops in !enchuria, because it is better adapted to the climetic
and soil conditions to raise the crop for the food stuff of
the native population and also for the great demand of it as
an export. This is one of the five plants sown each year in
e public ceremony by the high officisals 2700 B. C. Nobody
can say definitely where it originated, but it is generally
believed that these plants are all regarded vy the people as
natives of the country.

Varieties.

There are many varieties of millet known in the Ynited
Stetes such as oxtail, Common, German, Italian, “ungarian,
Siberian, and many others. “room-corn or Proso, Japanese
barnyard, and rear millet are also known varieties in this
country. 3ut in China, we do not have those names siven to
the millet ss they have been classified into varieties by the
western apriculturalists. There are three varieties of millet
according to size and character, known to the people as Large,
small, and Glutinous. They are all crown for seed production

and other purposes.

Adaptation to soil and climate.

 

Millet delights in rich, wsnrm, loamy soils and will not

thrive in soils thant are poor and tniin. co for this crop a

fertile, mellow soil is vreferasle. Loams with but little
-133-
clay and not too much sand give the best results. leavy clay
soils require considerable working in order to get them into
proper condition. It re.uires = shorter period of srrowing
season than the other crops, but the gro.ing period must be
hot. ‘These plents not only endure excessive heat and sunlight,
but make very repid frowth if the supply of moisture is not
too limited. sowever, they are very susceptible to cold, par-
ticularly wnen the plants are young. It does gro. well at
nigh altitude or in other locslities where cool weather prevails
during the summer r:ionths. Notwithstanding, tris preference for
worm wenther, millet is grown successfully in north China where
Surmers, thourh short, rere hot. Jillet, as it matures quickly,
can be planted and harvested during the summer months. The
long drys prevailine in the lntitude provide plenty of sunshine
and thus a shorter veriod of time is required for maturing this
crop. ‘illet does best in the localities which have 2. fairly
abundant reinfrll. ‘ome keve referred to the millet as a
drought resistant crop and it does have a low water recuirement,
but it lecks the ability to recover after bein injured by
drought. The millet succeeds in localities subject to drought
nlmost entirely throurh its ability to escape the period of
acute drought on reccount of their snort growing season, but it
is usually one of the first crops to show the effect of n
drought, mainly »ecause of its shallow root system.
Place of millet in the cropping system.

‘There the season is too short to grow other crops, millet

is admirnbly suited to such use because of its short senson of
~134-
growth and the ease and certsinty of obtsining a stand. This
is done in northern lanchuris. The plant is also adapted to
a Wide range both of soil and of climate. Isrge yields are
not obtained either on poor soils or in dry climate, but millet
hes been found to make a heavier yield under such conditions
than most crops.

Potetions and fertilizers,

 

There is no rotation whetever precticed on very small
farms in China, but tney do on the large farms. The reason is
that the small farm can supvcly enough manures to produce a
good crop and because the farmers need the crop production
for their femily consumption, so they have to grow a certain
amount for their own use, »vut the big farms grow the different
crops wnich will be profiteble for market and at the same time
they find out that when a proper rotation is used a better pro-
duction can be obtrined with a certain amount of manure apvolied.
The commercial fertilizers sare not xnown very well to the farm-~
ers. ‘Jhat they epoly to the soil is manure and earth compost,
end sometimes soy bean cakes are used as fertilizers in some
sections. Nillet draws its nourishment largely from the sur-
face soil so the supoly of plant food should be concentrated
on the usper layers of the soil and should be in forms readily
available to the plants. If the surface soil does not already
contain sufficient availeble plant food this should be supplied
in the form of barnyard rmenure or commercinl fertilizers.

Those containing large percentages of nitrogen, pvhosphate,

and potash in readily available forms are most valuable. The

amount of ap licrnvion depends on the natures of the: soil and
~135—=
the judoment of the frrmers.
Method of culture.

The Ilpnd is plowed either in fall or in the spring. In
spring the land snould be well prepared, because it is of
prime importance that the seed bed snould be in condition to
insure prompt verminstion and an even developr..ent of the plants.
spring ploved land is preferable to frll plowed, becnuse the
operation of plowing usually destroys one crops of weeds. sfbout
two weexs before the time for seeding, the plowing «nd discing
will xeep the eround clean. ‘Jhen fall plowing is used for the
seed bed, it should slweys ».e disced before sowing the crop.
£ fine and firm seed bed is very necessary for millet because
of its smell Size of seed.

Time of seeding.

The time of plentine varies in sections end localities.
The length of tine required to reach maturity veries a great
deal, according to the verieties. and the soil end climertic con-
Gitions. However, millet should not be sown until the ground
is warm. This means ordinarily about 2 or 4 weeks after corn
planting.

Liethod of seeding.

There is no vyrain drill or special modern machine for
sowing this crop in China. +t is sown by a kind of seeder,

It is grown in rows and the seeder cen sow ona row at ea time,
This process consists of three operstions and recuires tine
services of three persons, one mnaxing the furrow, one doing

the seeding, and the other covering the seeds.
-~136-
hate of seeding.

The rate of seeding depends on the varicties of the
millet and the ¢ ondition of the soil, but the common practice is
to sow 1/3 to 1/2 bushel which is plenty of seed to the acre.
Time of harvesting and threshing,

This crop is srovn entirely for the seed production in
China, so probably the best time for harvesting is vhen the
seed is in the stiff dourh. It is cut by hand vith a knife and
then bound ur and shocked. ‘‘Yhen threshing it is to be done,
it is hauled to the place where : solid clay floor is ready.

It is threshed on this floor by rollers drawn by horses over
the millet. ‘This taxes rnout 3 hours after wnich the grain
is reedy for the marxet.

Uses.

 

The seed is used for human food in sections where it is
grown so extensively. ‘‘owever, the three varieties, large,
small, and glutinous, have been used for different purposes.
The large variety of millet is used for food and makes a de-
licious porridge, being used as the principal food for a large
population in the north, the small variety is used for both
human and animal food, and the third, or glutinous variety,
is used for making flour ans cakes and for distilling purposes.
The straw of millet is used entirely for the feed of horses and
is the only hsy for animals. It is not grovm and cut for hay,
but is grown for seed and after the seed has been threshed the

straw is used for feed,
-137~
Diseases.

The millet is less subject to destructive plant diseases
than most other crops. There is a little tendency to smut, but
it can be controlled by treating the seed with hot water or
formalin. If hot cater treatment is used, the smutted seed
srould first be floetedad off by throwine it loose into cold
water. The seed should then be placed in = porous bag and
dipped in water at a temperature of 110° to 120°F, to warm
the seed, after wrich it is immersed for 10 minutes in water
at a temperature of 132° or 133°F, The temperature of the
water should be retained during the 10 minutes at not less
then 130°F, After the treetment the seed is dried quickly
to prevent its sprouting.

Tne formelin treatment is much simpler and is vradually
superseding the hot water treetment for smuts. I: consists
in dinping the seed in a solution containing 1 pint of forma-
lin to 30 gallons of water. The seed mey be put in sacks
contsining 4 to 1 bushel each and immersed in a barrel of the
formalin solution for noout 10 minutes. ‘“‘Yhen texen out, the
sacks of wet seed are suspended so that they will drain or
the seed is pl:ced in piles and covered for 2 hcrurs, sfter
which it is dried as rapidly as possible to prevent sprouting.
Shoveling the seed over Crecuently will acccleretes tre irying
process.

Insects.
The chinch bug and army worm are the most destructive in-

sect of the millet. Crenrt dane-e will be done if they are

abundant in a locality. <A successful wey of vrotecting field:
-128-
of millet from chinch bug invasion is vy means of a deep furrow
plowed around the edges of the fields to be protected, running
the land side of tne plow toward the fields. In dry weather
the sides of the furrow thus made can be rendered so steep
and the earth so evenly pulverized that the chinch bugs cannot
crawl out of it. In showery weather the bottom of the furrow
can be smoothed with a shovel, thus making it easier for the
bugs to follow along the bottom than to climb the sides of the
ditches. If holes with perpendicular sides are then dug across
the bottom of the ditch at intervals of 30 to 40 feet, the
chinch bugs will fall into them end can be disposed of easily
by the application of kerosene oil.

The army worm also may be prevented. This is done by the
use Of similar furrows in wnich the czterpillars mary be crushed
by dragging a log back and forth in the furrow. ‘‘Yhen a large
brood of grasshoppers hatches in s locality, they are likely
to do considerable dnmage before they arrive at maturity. The
most effective way of destroying them is by scattering poisoned
bran about the edges of the fields. The grasshopper poison is

made up of the following ingredients:

Bran 25 lbs.

Paris green or white arsenic 1 1b.
Low grade molasses 2 ats.
Oranges or lemons 3
“ater 35 gal.

Iix the bran and white arsenic thoroughly in a tub while dry.
Squeeze the juice of the orange or lemon into the water, chop

the remaining pulp and the peel to fine bits, and :dd them to

the water. Dissolve the molasses in the water and wet the bran
~139~
and poison with the mixture, stirring at the same time, so as
to dampen the mash thoroughly. This bait ehen flavored with
orange or lemon is found to be much more attractive to the grass-
hoppers than thnt prepared without fruit of any kind. The poi-
soned bran should be scatfered at intervals of several days
about the fields in open places where the insects are most abun-
dant, so there will be fresh bran for grasshoppers to feed upon
until their numbers are reduced,

some other insects such as flea beetles, wireworms, corn
root-worm, ete,, are «now to attack the millet but they are
not important,
liethod for improvement.

There are two important points for the improvement of this
crop, one is to improve the method of culture and the other is
to improve the seed quality by selection. The Chinese farmers
have done good work in culture so far as preparing the land in
good condition and keeping it clean from weeds are concerned,
but what I mean here is to improve the method of culture by
doing the work in s scientific way. The f-rmers are too slow
at their work because they do not have the up-to-date tools
to do the farming. So for the future better tools should be
well ecuipped and then better culture vill be obtained. low
the very important step that the Chinese farmers should under-
take is to improve the varieties for yield and quality. First
get a better variety which will be well adapted to the local
conditions and then improve it by head selection. Study the

conditions and select the vest variety and vest herd to run

&® seed plat. Py this method a better yield and quality of
-~140-

seed production will be ovdtnined. It is my impression that
very few farmers in China do the s2lection of seed. They just
plant the seed taxen from genernl grain. They use more seed
for planting to tne acre so thet they can gest the stand for
the crop. In conclusion, I would suggest for the improve-
ment of yield and quality of this crop ae vetter culture with
proper rotation. Grow the home grown seed best adapted to

the local conditions and select seed before harvesting for the
next year's planting. These are all the important points to

be considered.
~141-
Chapter 3.

 

AGRICULTURAL £ND CiOP CONDITIONS IN MANCHURIA, AREA, SOIL,
CLIMATE, CROPS ADAPTED, POSSIULE £LDDITION TO CHINES ROOD
SUPPLY BY PAO? 32 DEVELOPMENT OF MANCHURIA, OUTLINES OF
ORIGINAL #UD RavISeD FIELDS nePRususTiicG MANCHUAIAN FARM

PLAN AS SHOWN BY LAP, ROTATION CHARTS SUPPLEMMNTED WITH NOTES
OW TYP! OF FALLISG, CROPS, «IDS OF LIVE STOCK, DISTANCK FROM
MANET, MARKET CONDITIONS AND PACILITIES, PREVAILING SOIL
TYPES, CODITIC: OF SOIL FENTICITY, PRESENT SYSTHN OF PERTI-
LIZATION , REVISION OF PLAN OF CROPPING AID PERTILIZATION

SYSTS, POSSIBILITINS POR PROFITASLE RETURNS.

ianchuris is part of the epudlic of China. The soil is
rich and land is level. The avricultural and crop conditions
are generally considered good in normel years. It is in this
section that big farms are found, but the crop growing is
different from those sections in China Proser where cotton
and rice form the principal crops, while in ianchuria soy
beens, sorghum, millet, and wheat are the staple crops, though
rice, corn, cotton, and other cereals are raised. This part
of China we call "Tungshanhsing", or the three eastern provinces
of Mukden, Kirin, and Heilungkiang. Lying between latitude
38°43' ana 53°30’ north and longitude 117°50' and 135°2' east,
is bound on the north by Siberia, on the east by Siberia and
Yorea, on the west by Liongolia and China Proper, and on the

south by “Sorea, the Yellow Sea, and the Gulf of Chili.

-anchuria is traversed from south to north by two moun-
~142~
tain ranges, “hingan and Changpai, the one close to the north-
western frontier, and the other near the southeastern boundary.
These renges have penks which are as a rule from 3000 to 6000
feet above the sen level, vhile n few of them are as high as
S000 feet. These ranzes send off spurs toward erch other
Which come close together in the central regions, so that
ltenchuria is composed of high mountain ranges on the northwest
and south east, with an extensive plain lying between them
Opening out towrerds the southwest, embracing the most fertile
lands of ianchurin. The mountainous rerions are rich in tim-
ber end minerals, while through the valleys flow many rivers
Wnich, besides irrigating the regions they cass tnrouch, serve
2s routes for traffic. The larvest of these rivers in the
north are the fsmur, the Sungari, and the Ussuri, while those
in the muth are the Tumen, the Yalu, and the Liao. The Amur
has the largest course of 2,500 miles of which 2,000 are navi-
gable along the frontier line between Il’nanchuria and Siberia.
The most importent rivers draining the interior of Manchuria
are the Sungari, the Fonni, and the Liao. Sungari and Nonni
form one system as they mingle their waters near Petunea, the
latter coming from the northern part of the thingen fange in
the northwest and the frontier from the mountains in the
neighborhood of :tirin. The Sungari after receiving the water
of the Nonni flo .s on through north Manchuria until it empties
itself into the Amur. The river with main and important trib-
utaries is navigable for 1060 miles, The Ziao, which drains

the plains of south lMenchuria, hras its source in the steppes
~143—
of Mongolia, end empties itself into the Gulf of Chili. This
river system is nevigeole for adout 400 miles. These two
river systems noturelly divide the !:nnchuriean plains into
tivo sections, tne nortrern or the ‘ungsri Plains, and the
soutnern or the “Liao Plains.

Tne aren and population are not exactly known because
China has not carried out a proper census, so these can be
given only in estimation. The statistics are also different
from the various authorities. The estimation of eres end
population for this region given in the "Commercial Uandbook
of China” is about 365,000 square miles with a population of
15,C00,000, while esccording to the statistics given by the
Vanenurien Railwey Company in 1916 the whole of I’snchuria hrs
en area of 382,632 scuare miles with a population of 20,000,000.
The acreave of the iInnd under cultivation in l'anchuria is es-
timated by the Manchurian 2ailwey Company at 22,580,250 acres,
consisting of 11,223,800 acres in T‘ukden, 7,594,650 acres
in “irin, and 3,751,800 acres in Amur or Heilungkieng.

The following teble shows the cultivated and uncultivated

area and the cultivated aren per head.

Province Area under frea not under Cultivated area
cultivation. cultivation. per head,

Liukden 11,233,800 A. 3,134,700 A. 938 A.

wirin 7,594,650 " 3,910,050 " 1.347 "

Heilungkieng 3,751,800 " 4,575,600 " 1,503 "

Total 22,580,250 aA. 11,620,350 A. 1.122 A. (fv.)

These uncultivated areas given inthe above can be turned

into farm lands rendily. fccording to the above table evout

two-thirds of the land of lMenchuria is already under cultiva-
Be

-144-
tion. The average cultivated area per hend is 0.938 acres in
Liukden, 1.347 acres in “irin, and 1.503 acres in Yeilungkiang,
and that the whole of enchurie in averare is 1.22 acres. It
constantly enlarges as one goes north, thus showing the resvnec-
tive erriculturel development of the three provinces of Manchuria
™ NVanchuria, texen as a whole, is one of the most sparsely
inhabited psrts in China, being rbout 50 people to the scunre
Mile. wvut when the individuel provinces are taken for consider-
“tion, there is some difference between the density of the pop-
ulation of ercr province. fT ukden has a density of 139 to one
squere mile, ‘Tirin fFrs 59 to one saqunre mile, end eilungkianeg
has only 10 to one square mile. This shows the development
in the vast and the development for the future.

The following table shows the arer, population, and density

of population in each province:

Province Area in Population ropuletion
sq. mi. per sq. mi.
ukden 84,841 11,782,100 139
iirin 95,733 5,625,895 59
Neilungkieang 204,715 1,997,622 10
Total 385,289 19,405,617 50 (Av.)

The following table shows the increase in population from

the year 1906 to 1916:

Province Population Increase Av. Yearly 4 of Av.

1906 1916 increase Yearly
increase

Nukden 8,763,148 11,804,241 3,041,930 304,193 3.47

ririn 3,047,077 5,736,611 2,689,534 268,953 8.82

Neilung- 1,455,657, 2,098,819 643,162 64,216 4.41

kiang

Total 13,265,882 19,639,671 6,347,626 637,462 4.8

In this table it shows that thare are more than six

millicn seople added to the populntion of Manchuria during the
~145-
ten-year veriod, with an avereye yearly increase of 4.8 percent.
The increase of population in !snchuria is so fast because of
its rich soil and the new development of agriculture in m-
churia.
Soil.

The soil is not general so rich in every section of this
region becnuse in som2 sections the soil has been exhsusted by
continuous eroo ing without fertilization. But with tne excep-
tion of soutneastern portions and other mountainous districts,
the soil is generally rich, and especially it is so in the vreat
valley of Sungeri and the Liao Plains. ‘Tre soil in the south-
west where avriculture has been c#rried on for many years, be-
comes poor in fertility due to the fect of continual rexking
nwey of the stubble for fuel, tzrus depriving the soil of or-
ganic matter. The wonderful loaminess of soil in the new
regions further north sare most productive.

The southeastern vortion comprises the whole basin of the
Yalu and Liso-tung Poninsula, being mountrinous and generally
sandy and sterile soil with its mixture of pravel. This is the
most densely populseted vortion of !'ianchuria, every inch of
aaradle lend, even the rill sides nnd the river bed is under
cultivation. seslly there is no room for further development

of agriculture in this section save some districts nlong the

upoer resches of Yalu where there is still left some lend to

q

be cultivated. ‘ine southvestern portion of the entire basin

of tne Lino is level, and is generally well gsuited for arri-

culture, The wnole section is well cultivated, and there is
~146-
still some land left for further exploitation elong the upper
reaches of the river and those adjacent to tiongolia. There are
some rich soils in tris section, but there are also some poor
sandy soils, especially slong the sea coast and low lands, The
central or middle vart of l'anchuria watered by the River Eurka
(Tu-Dan-"iang) and the u-over and middle reaches of the Sungari
is the best sarzricultural section in I'anchuria, The lands around
Changchun, ::irin, and Harbin are exceedingly rich and moreover
there is still plenty of room for further development. The
nortnern s-ction wetered by lower Sungeari, the Yonni, and the
amur, is rich in soil, but it is the most sparsely populated
portion in urnechuria end therefore the possibilities of arri-
cultural development sare egret,
Climate.

The climate is continental and is -reatly affected oy the
proximity of tha great !}ongolian Jesert. The climate is much
different in the vserious sections of this part of China on
account of its big area. In the middle portion of the l'uxden
Province the temperature sometimes rises in summer to 96°R, ,
and fells in winter to 25°F, below zero. The rainfall, includ-
ing snow, is 323", and is spread over 70 days. The changes of
temverature are great and sudden when spring comes, the atmos-
phere in summer is v2ry dry and the hest is greatest toward the
end of Jul;. During the day the tempernture generally ranves
trom 91° tO 96°%., but during the nizht rarely above 75°F, The

heavy reins usually berzin the latter part of July or early in

August.
-147~

The averace annual temperature in the eastern section
of Itukden is just under 45°9F,, and the averase rainfell is
42.27 incres annually. The averace lowest temperature for
January is s:0ut 5.66" and the naveraze highest for July is
89.66. There is egxoout 21.15 inches of rainfell in the months
of July and ‘ugust.

The following teblé shows the temperature and rainfall

at different sersons in the essterm section of liukden Province.

;onths Rainfall and teen Average Averarce
melted snow. Temp. higgest lowgst
(inches) (De-ree 7.) FR, v,
January 0,35 16.66 40.00 ~6.66
february O,09 22-80 47,00 6.00
Maren 1.65 33.88 04,00 16.00
April 1.33 46.03 71.66 28.353
lay 266 56.81 82.335 57,66
June 9.30 55.98 89.33 93.33
July 11.48 66.53 89.66 61.66
August 9.67 67.75 89.66 61.66
September 5.50 62.73 87,00 46.00
October 26738 49.33 78.66 £8.00
November 94 33.22 60.00 9.66
December 252 17.55 39,55 -6.33
Annual 42,27 44,35

The southern section or southwestern section of ‘ukden
has nearly the snme climatic conditions as the enstern, but
there is still some difference in the two sections.

The following table will show the temperature and rain-
fall at different sersons with monthly saverare for five years

from 1910 to 1914,
-148-

i:onths hainfall Temperature
(Inches) (Derrees 7,
January 0.52 24.1
Sebruary QO,31 28.0
woarch 0.96 54.9
April 0.92 47.7
hey 1.25 59.4
June 1.96 67.8
July 6.50 73.6
August 5.60 75.4
Septander D038 67.5
Octover 1.36 56.1
November 1.54 40.8
December 0.33 27.35
Annual 26,58 50.2

The above table gives an averare tempernture for the
whole year of 50.2° ond seesonal temperatures of spring
47.3°, surmer 72.3°, fall 54.8°, and winter 26.4°.

The climate in north Manchuria or in the provinces of
-irin and UNeilungkiane is much colder than that in lMukden. It
has long, dry, exceedingly severe winters and short, hot and
rather showery summers. Ice closes the rivers to navigation
from the beginiing of November to the end of +pril. The
coldest regions are along the unver course of the Amur in the
Greater hingan l’ountnins, where the temperature in winter
sometines fells to 10°F. below zero. At Uarbin or the central
portion of J:enchuria in ordinary winters the thermometer rare-
ly falls lower than 40°R, below zero, but in en ordinary year
from the first of Decemnoer to the end of Itinrch the maximum
daily temperature averages about 30°F, In summer the thermom-
eter at Harbin seldom resches 100°, and as the at: osphere is
very dry the heat is not very opvressive.

In general tne climatic conditions of Ianchnuria are such

es to confine agricultural operations to seven months of tne
~149~-
year. vith tne excention of the very south of Liao-tung Pa&-
insula, or the extreme eastern and southern sections of !'ukden
>rovince, wnere 2 little winter wheat is groin, the farmers
do not touch their lends till the frost begins to relsx its
presp of the soil toward the middle of March, and they must
take care that crovs of all kinds are harvested before the
end of October or errly in November, for in the latter month
the icy hand of winter ar-ein tightens its hold of the rround.
fs a matter of fact, the surface is still slightly frozen in
herch, when tne lend is broxen un and drilled by plow for the
reception of whest end berley, wnich ere harvested in June.
sut in further north the plowing cenrot be done until the
end of April.

The crovs that are best edapted to I’anchurian soils are
soy beans, Kao-liang, millet, corn, wheat, rice, and other
beans and also some minor crovs of flax, tobacco, and cotton.
Beans.

Large varieties of beans are grown in Ksenchuria, and, to-
gether with their resultants, bern cnrke, and bean oil, they
constitute by far the most valuable item in the export trade
of tne three provinces of lianchuria. The methods of culture
of these beans are nearly the same. In the month of April
they are sown by hand in drills, and the crop is harvested in
septenber. The small green bern Known as Lu-tou matures early
and is hervested in August.

Lu-tou is tne smallest but one of the most importrnt of

the beans of comuerce cultive:2d in "“snenuria. Tre evidermis

is of » dark green color, while the inside is whitish yellow,
~150—

Shading to green, It is somewhat blunt2d rt tre ends and hes
a white scar on the saddle. It is much harcer than the soy
bean and contains very little oil or fat. This bean wren
soeked in water, wroduces excellent sprouts wich are used
in the Chinese restaurant in the lnited States, but is mainly
and universelly used for the manufacture of vermicelli. The
process of the mnanufecture is to have the beans first steeped
for a night in a jer of werm water. The rext morning they
are then ground up between two millstones and the liquid mix-
ture passed through fine sieves to separrete the flour from the
crushed sxins, which are discarded. The filtrate is poured
into jars of weter, the flour sinks to the bottom, and all
floating impurities are removed. The water is poured off,
and the flour packed in fine hempen bags which are hung up
to dry. ‘nen this has been accomplished the bags are removed
end the contents remnin hard messes of white flour, wrich

it requires a consideravle cressure of the kand to brenk up.
when the vermicelli is beine minufactured a little of the
bean flour is placed in a vessel and mixed thoroughly with
water. The boiling water is then poured in and makes it into
a sticky mass and then more flour is added to it until the
dough no longer sticxs to the “ands and arms of the man. A
wooden vessel with s number of round holes in the bottom is
filled with a piece of the dough. Then a man holds the handle

of the vessel in his left hand and veats with his right hand
the dougn, wnich escapes in strings through the holes in the

bottom and fells into boiling water, whence it is immedistely

dravm into e tub of cold weter by another ran armed with a
-151-

pair of sticks. “hen sufficient length of strings hes been
obtained the latter severs them .ith his teeth. The vessel
is constantly being refilled with dough and the men relieve
enchother at the bentine process. ‘‘Ynen the strings are taken
they are then hung over s framework to dry and are afterwards
made up into bundles for market. It enters lergely into the
notive diet throughout the whole of China and will be found in
every merket.

The soy bean is gro.n entirely in 11 sections of Manchuria,
It is only in the last decade that soy beans have figured in
the world trade, and tneir repid rise in importance has been
One of the -.ost remerkabdlé comercirl events of the recent
times. It was the soy bean that intorduced Iinnchuria into the
trade of the world, and it is still the soy bern that makes
Tanchuria fanous. “V“ne soy berns and treir croducts are very
predominant in the lenchurian trede and now they constitute
nearly one-half of the value of the entire exvorts of tne three
provinces. Though the soy been is such an important crop in
Manchuria, the culture has no change in manner of cultivation
or in the method by wich they are prepared for the market. The
soy bean is sown in April, cultivated by hoeinrs when the plants
are bout 8 or 9 inches high and harvested in September, There
are three big varieties of soy bernns grovn in this rerion,
yellow, -reen, and black. They are so called becruse of their
colors. Tough the soy benn is grown in all sections of 'm-

Churia the best and biggest benn fields are found in the nor‘h

of jiukden, and this is because the frrms are senerslly bigrer
-152-

than those in southern sections of '‘ukden and nlso the soil
is richer in fertility. This nas bse2n rroved by the fect
that of 974,000 tons of soy benn shipped down to Deiren dur-
ing 1917, 863,000 toms came from north of ilukden. It is estim-
ated about 108,783,316 vusnels of soy beans produced in ln-
churia end eoout three fourths of tre totel croduction ersort-
od, and of the total export, about 30 percent. is in the form
of beans, and the rest in the form of bean ceke and oil.

The amount of soy bern production by districts of each
province is snovm in tne folloving table:

Provinces Princinal districts. Amount of production
a“? Puskels)

vukden Shenyang, Lisoyand, Feku,
Tailune, Tunefeng, Hsifeng,
Tsinn, ‘rurite, Lisru, Tiehlirg. 02,477,445

Tirin Ningan, Cnenechun, Panshih,

Yusnu, /inhsien, “irin. 33,809,060
neilungciang “eilun, Suinua, Fayen, Eulan. 16,415,487
Totel croduction in bushels 102,701,992

aolieng.

edlians mez ba considersd even more important tren soy
hean because it is used as the staple food of the netive nov-=
ulation end the principal erain for ferm enimals. Zefore soy
veans attained treir present importance, half t*»e totel area

5

of the cultiveted Innd in Venchurie wae devoted to the

aoliang crop, but now the acreare is reduced to abdout 20 to
30 percent., wile the soy bean is cultivated to 50 percent.
of the whole cultiveted area. The annual production of tris

erop is estimated at avout 183,000,000 bushels. Tis egrsin is

not only used ss food for n-tive consumption and elso is used
-153-
to mexe spirits with a production of about 1,965,C00 gallons
or more, vrlued at “10,000,000 gold. t is exported to tre
soutnern provinces and Japan. During the year of 1917 the
total export of kaolinng grain amounted to $5,655,000.
Millet.

This is next important to Znolieng and is used as food for
the native people. It is cultivated throughout Manchuria, but
more largely in north than in south lianchuria. It is sown in
spring in the early pert of ‘pril, cultivated by hoeing, and
nervested in July, or enrly August for the lete varieties. It
is exported to the southern provinces of Cnina and Korea, where
it is used es food. The totel production of this grain is
about 31,000,000 bushels, and the export of it in 1917 valued
at about $2,000,000.

Corn.

Corn is grown in l’anchuria in the same manner or way ss
xeoliang. It is grown extensively in the southern mrt of
nukden and the grain is used for food by the people. It is
sown in April and h:rvested in September. The estimation of
this crop production is about 37,400,000 bushels. This grsin
besides consumed by the native people, is exported to southern
provinces for food suppoly, and the value of export in 1917 was
about *#1,600,000,

Manchuria is en ideal wheat country and both barley and
wheat are grown in considerable cuantities. South ]’enchuria
does not produce so much wheat as north ilenchurie, so the best

wheat fields are found rround Vingan, Petune, end Harbin,
-154-
along the banks of the “ungari River. The whest is sown in
spring and rervested in July. Most of the wheat is spring
wneat and because of the severe winter there is only very
little winter wheat grown in the south of I'ukden. The screnge

of wheat growing is incressinz every yenr and the vossibilities

CD

of asvelop.ent ere great. Tne production of whent is about

60,000,000 busnels per year. The best and hesviest wheat crows
in the velleys of the Sungari and along the luten River, in
wlrin. This wneat averages over 71 pounds to the bushel, hereas
wheat from the other districts sometimes weichs 3 to 5 pounds
less. There are quite a numver of flour mills in Manchuria,
particul: rly in the north such as Enrbin and Changchun, This
erain is exported ecither to the south provinces of Chine or

to foreign merxet. In 1917 the value of export of wheat in
Vorth Venchuria was about °3,275,992,

Darley.

This crop is also cultivated in considerable quantities
in certral and northern Iianchuria, and is used mostly for the
feeding of animnls. It is grown in the same way as wheat with
out very little cnre to the cultivation. The annual production

is about 30,000,000 busnel.

ice.

mL

 

ice growing is not so extersive es the soy bean crop,
but in recent years it his boen v3ry successful wherever the
land is level and water een de Ootsined for irrigation. hice
growing has been daveloped to a great extent in these few

years and the totel production is nov estimated st 1,50G 000
~155-—-
bushels. The cultivetion of rice in tris section is nearly
the snme as in China Proper and the yield is about from 40 to
45 vushels to the acre.

temp, jute, and flax.

 

These finvers have been grown as the importent crops in
nenehuria. ienn is grown in all the three provinces, while
jute is cultiveted only in lNukden and Zirin and flax only in
Feitlunexisng Province. In Veilungziang, hemp plants sre for
the most part cultiveted for seed, from which oil is extracted.

The production of their fiber end seed for 1915 wes as follows:

rrovince Femp Jute Flax seed

(pounds) (pounds) (vounds) (pounds)
l.ukden 31,281,813 12,360,673 11,534,116
virin 6,046,654 2,290,010 20,461, 762
Tellungcxiang 45,257,016 10,710,468 17,410, 054
Tobacco.

This is one of the important products of l’anchuria and the
best crop is raised sround ririn with excellent quality.
Cotton.

Recause of the limitation of climatic adaptetion, cotton
is grown only in the southern part of Ilukden. The principal
districts of cotton growing are Naiping, "nicheng, Liaoyang,
Shenyang, Tiehling, Pennsi, FPaku, Heishan, Peichen, I-isien,
Chinhsien, "wanening, Chinhsi, and Chsoysneg.

O.ine to the nbsence of reliable statistics it is very
hard to give the amount of production of the agricultural
products. But the following table .ill just show the cereals

produced for 1915 by the reports.
-156-

inds : ukden virin Feilungkinne Total
(No. Bue) (No. Eu.) (to. Bu.) (No. Bu.)

racliang 162,052,691 13,264,623 8,174,492 183,491,816
Corn 22,911,696 8,992,419 5,925,211 37,429,326
Millet 12,512,303 6,730,855 11,462,635 30,505,793
S8eans 39,217,693 17,663,030 17,164,111 74,004,834
Small beans 7,015,543 2,119,188 1,492,544 10,627,275
Other beans 1,315,886 609,925 251,140 2,176,951
Barley 3,276,847 7,118,797 17,642,844 28,038 , 488
‘heat 4,702,600 11,334,736 9,263,998 25,301, 334
Oats 995,432 928,350 3,545,612 5,469,394
Rice 6,057,613 1,350,239 7,407,853
Total 299,458,304 70,112,173 74,922,587 404,493,064

The following statistics for the same year 1915 have been
worked out by the South Manchuria Railway Company, for which
the evport of these products as piven in the customs returns

is made the basis of the cenlculation:

vinds South Manchuria Yorth Venchuria Total
Bushels) (Bushels) (Bushels )
Beans 79,109 ,647 29,672,569 108 , 782,216
Cereals 226,570,587 97,707, 098 324,277,685
Total 305,680,234 127,379,667 433,059,901

In the above it will be seen there is 2 preat difference

between these two tables. “ince there are no relia»nle statistics
it is very difficult to say how much reliance can be placed on
these figures. The emount of figures in tre latter is larger
than that former teble by avout 29 million busnels, but it is
steted that millet, keolisng, buckwheat, and other cereals
are ot all included in the first table and, therefore the

two tables in totals may agree with each other. The production
of beans is much different in the figures of these two tables
but in tris esse it is more reasonable to take South Vanchurian

Railwey Comvany's ficure than the other because benns end their
_ ——
-157-
products are mostly exported, and, since that company's figures

are based on the exnort returns it vill be correct in these

4

fivures. In conelusion it is ssf2 to sxy thet the total emount

Ne
—<

of cereals and pulse produced in '’pnchuria must be somewhere
vetween 404,000,000 end 432,000,000 bushels.

wild silx.

 

The wild silk fed on oak lesves, is one of the most im-~
portent industries of south 'snehuria. It hes been developed
to a grent extent in the soith section of Venchuria end it
has now becore one of the imsortnnt industries in that region.
The most prominent districts for wild silk raising are Zaipig

daicheng, Suiyen, and Iwentien, vrile :ntung end Zaiping are
enown es tre lergest centers of lanchurian silk. Large quanti-
ties of silk are exported from Antung to Shentung, other parts
of China and Jepan. ‘There are big numbers of this type of
ferming in iiuxden and really it is only in this s-ction thet
wild silk produced, ,
The following table shows the ao»oroximate number of farns

in tre orincipel districts of luxdens

Districts. Tumber of farms.
Liaoyang 170
Hu-Hsien 1143
Antung 1575
Faicneng 561
Suiyen 770
nwantien 2527
iaiping 0357
“eng -Hwang 663
Tuan-Jen 51
Total 13,617

Since there are no reliable statistics vorked out by the
-158~
government it is imvossible to ascertrin the quantity of
Wild silk cocoons produced in 2 rehuria. It ern trerefore
Only be given by estization on the besis of tre arount of
export ana of home consumption. The production of the co-
coons for recent ye rs nust be vetveen 6 to 7,000,000, 000,
The estimated total production of cocoons for 1910 to 1915

is as follows:

Years Number of thousand
1910 5, 042 , 737
1911 6, 356 , 506
1912 7,059,103
1913 6,299,624
1914 2, 030, 286
1915 8,528,171

stock farming.

 

In general, the enchurian farmers keep lnerge numbers of
norses, mules, cattle, end donxeys, and tris cen ve seen in
treir farming c:sisted by those animals. However, the big
pastoral grounds sre found far nortn where the population is
not dense. efore tne immigration of the Chinese farmers
from tne south, the chief occupation of the people ws the
raising of live stock and in consequence stock frrming was
greatly developed in those days. ‘Yitn the entry of tne farmers
from the south, the rich prstoral country srs converted gradual-
ly into grain fields. 50 at present there is not much pestoral
grounds left in south Manchuria because the population is big
With a density of 133 per squere mile, but in the fer north
in the western orrt of ‘silungxiane Pwvince and on the Iiongol-

lan frontier the people are as yet devoted to the breeding of

live stock. Every farm keeps some pigs and a number of chickens
-159-
and on the vig farms sheep and cattle are raised. Very few
stock ferms are found in south “enchuria and the type of
farming in ‘anchuria in general, we may sey, is mixed of
grein end live stock, #s to the amount of stock reised in
I'anchuria no statistics are aveileble so the figures siven

in the following sare only an estimate:

zinds of stock Humoer of heads
lorses 2,200, 000
ules 560, 000
Cattle 1,837, 000
theep 2,620, 000
Donkeys 510, 000
“ogs 5, 500, 000

‘orestry.

 

Most of the big forests are found in the far north of
Manchuria especially slong the renees of Mhingan and Cnangpai
.ounteins, so the most valuanle forests sare on the north and
east. In south lienchuria afforestetion is needed in many
places. “ills end mountains now bare and barren are capable
of being converted into fine forests to the benefit of the
peonle. The trees in the forests of the far north sre mostly
of the vinus, cuercus, and ssalix fanily. These large pines,
often with na circumference of 12 to 14 feet, have a heisht
of about 100 feet. The following table snows the distribu-
tion of forests snd estimates numbers of trees in Menchuria:

Province Location of large forests.

Located oy Located by Located by io. of trees
I't. renge rivers districts in t'ousand
ukden Sungling Suichung,Chinhsi, 1,000
Vingyuan, [-isien
Tailing aiyuen,ushun 28,800
Ponshuiling ) ieilung,isingxing
Hamaling  ) etc.
Laoling night bank Linxiang,Liu-Ko 14 ,40C

of upner valu 7 inghue
-160~
rrovinee Loenation of forests,

Loested oy Boceted oy Loceted by Ho. of trees
Mt. rer-es rivors. cistricts in trousend
Total forwrrd (j.ukden) 44,200
Lune kang sient benk of “wai-dJon 16 , 200
Shanuling nid. Yalu
Zirin Chanppai- Upper rene xieng 21,400
branches sungari rua-tien,etc.
“Teishan Toner nurka Yenki,Tunhua, 5,400
Chang kweng- etc.
tsnailing nirin, Tonhua, 21,600
etc.
“Tsiso-Charng- Lalin Ao “ucheng, Cheng-
pai show, Pin-“sien,
etc. 30,600
:uxOtehensran Upper Sui- “uichun, Vin- 21,600
f2nno and gon, Tungning,
Tumnen etc.
n@ellung- small Shing- Sulan-H Vuihua, ‘si lun,
Liang an Yudcing,ete. 720,000
Greet Ihine- Aigun, 7ulun,
an Tunxieng, 9,400,000
bungxisneg,ete.
Grand totel for tne three provinces 6,299,000
Lebor.

Probedly not more than two-thirds of the whole erable
land of Manchuria is at present wider cultivation, Partiec-
ulerly the sections of north tanchuria, the vrovinces of
wirin and Heilunexinng sre still waiting for development.
The present colonists are of tremselves unnble to cope with
the lend they neve trxen up, anu lebor is yerrly imported
from the northern provinces of China, especially Shentung
and Chihli to till, sow, and resp. "rom Chefoo, Shantung,

alone more than twenty-five thousend erriculturnsl lseborers

7

come to lirnenhurin every yesr and so back at the end of the
~l161-
year. The provinces of Chihli rlso send a larze number of
laborers but tyey enter and leave by lend so there is no
means at hend to cnow how many le oorers come into l’enchuria,.
It is estimated that no fever than 300,000 lavorers enter
lanchurla evary year, but even tris sntount of laoor does
not seem to be rich eccount when scnattered over ?snehurin.
The farm work has to be done by hend, no farm machinery
veinz used even at the present time. Xorses and cattle sre
used as the means of power to plow, sow, and hnrvest.

Ifethod of farming,

 

The metnod of ferming in Lanchuria is nesrly the seme as
in other mrts of Chine. In ‘‘uxden province the ferniny is
carried on on a small sesle, but big farms are found in the
north and a certain rotation is followed. The fields of millet,
kadling, and wheat will be seen in miles sand the corn planted
nlternstely with soy beans or other beans but not over 28 in-
ches npart, one stalk of corn in 2 place every 16 to 18 inches,
all carefully hoed. The sharp ridre cultivation is generally
prectised all over this part of Chine. ‘“tnimal and human
manure and earth composts are used as fortilizers eppolied to
soil, ne larzre soy bean fields are sean in the central por=
tion sand nortrern sections of “’‘snchuria. ields in this pait
of Chine are Inreer than in Chins Proper, end tre cultivation
is done with cattle and “orses and e lary: rumnber of men work
in gangs of ten, tuventy, :nd soretimes as hich vs thirty to
fifty or sixty, nosing kaolins, corn, millet, end soy demns,

The three yeer rotetion is sracticed on the big frrms generally
-162-

an

£ rotation of millet, bers, smell errin is used, Cn smell

’
farms th2 soy bern nnd corn nre slanted in the seme field ith
alteration of hills in = row and followed by millet and then
Sorghum or some small crein,

“Nanchuria evports lerss quantities of arriculturel pro-
ducts every year to the south. rn provinces and foreign mer-
kets. ‘the soy bvenn products ere famous in the world trade
end heeruse of ricn soil and favorable conditions of tne large

rT

uneultiveted erea in Venchuris, tnere is great possibility for
cevelopmont as n field of erricultural enterprise. ‘7ith three
bie norts of Vewchuoneg, Dairen, and /¢ntung in irnchuria, the
farm products cen be shivved out to any section of Chine and
any oart of tha world end so the frrmers can set a better rrice
on their products.

The princivel erticles crvcorted tnroveh tre maritime

customs »t Lewchwane during tre yeers 1904, 1913, 1915, end

1918 were es follows:

Article 1904 1813 1915 1918 |
(Tons) (Tons) (Tons) Tons )
DSeens 121,825 90,823 134,125 36,677
Pean erke 132,411 281,927 272,401 117,248
Peanoil 4,784 7,531 4,018 480
Castor oil 157 914 405 162
Seed 1,217 1,575 1,061 423
Cereals - 40,544 15,749 15,614
Silk, wild and refuse wo me
825 725 1,067 383
Tobaeco 41 96 38 121
ool 75
Vides 43 251 1”
2ristles 14 123 210 167
“aOliang svirit 457 1,455 1,803 1,611

Skins (furs)vcs.3,584 89,806 74,253
-163-
The principal erticles exnorted fr-m Dairen during the

yeers 1908, 1918, and 1918 are as follows:

Article 1908 1913 1918
(Tons) (Tons) (Tons )
Been crke 210,472 536,966 977,539
"een oil 3,906 58, 714 137,521
Beens 220,377 165,216 371,561
Hemp seed | 16,822 3,860
“aolinng 26,615 58,507
Villet 48,276 7,797
Oesnhe 2,026 2,208 494
Tobacco Leaf 139 837 84
Silk: Cocoons, wild,Lbs.
1,538,800 5,872,667 12,191,733
Kaw, wild , 260,932 1,106,400 1,147,333

The principal articles exnorted tnroush the l’nritime

 

 

0

Customs et intung in 1906, 1915, 1917, and 1918 are as follows:
Article 1908 (Los. )1913 1915 1917 1918
Eean cs:ke30,478,800 72,644,400 100,509,200, 226,336,133 194,100,922
Beans 3,051,600 15,233,200 45,132,400 177,361,066 171,219,600
Bean oil 4, 000 384,133 1,044,400 6,230,000 4,329,066
raoliang 3,959,733 1,677,200 454,800
Corn 1,158,266 2,983,466 5,781,333 12,068,667 15,162,933
Hillet 46,880,200 29,356,800 42,809,200
nadling wine 1,413,066 061,466 269,867 240,133
Tild ray silk 1,066 1,194,266 371,333 296,533
Cocoons,wild 12856 800K 024,400 22,487,600 6,240,267 12,851,866
Yaste silk 432,800 =612,166 974,533 252,000 527,200
Cocoons,

refuse 33, 066 96,933 132 , 933 400 28,400
Pongees 666 11,866 - 22,666 5,867 27,066
Tea 799
Tobacco 76,400 39,200 41,200 37,867 27,867
Yermicelli 42,400 46,533 55,200
lushrooms 69,600 25,600 13,200 6,400 25,600
.odern farm machinery in Fenchuria..

odern egriculturel machinery is being introduced, but the

farmers sre slow to eccept it. ‘estern plows, harrows, cultiva-

tors, planters, grain drills, snd otners are practically unknown,

=

The farmer in i’snchuria usually hes 2 large family and deli

in the efficacy of hand labor, In the pvrosperous districts

eves

of
-164-
big farms usunlly a nuuber of 20 or 40 laborers sre hired to
do the work, Trrctors end plows heve been used by an American
cOmpany in north eneburia where there are many acres of land
under cultivation, ».ut it hes oeen found that the cost is too
great. This is because the rand lnbor with horse power is
cheaver in production than with traction mectinery. So long
as the horse and hand labor ere so compnrativily chernv, the
merxet for modern agricultural machinery vill not be grent.

fericulturesl educetion in i’anchuria.

 

 

There ere only few acrricultureal schools in Menchuria at
present. Yery few courses ere given and as a whole the oapri-
cultural educntion is very voor in the three vrovinces. Dur-
ing the last decade tre iuxden provincial government expended
fa considerable smount of money in estsolishine institutions
to foster agriculture end forestry in south lanchuria. Agri-
cultural experiment station, periculturel schools, forest-tree
nurseries, and experiment farms were orgenized. Owing to
various causes, these are now sitner closed or suspended. Af
larpe experiment station «nd azriculturel school were estab-
lished et 'uxden. It possesses adout 250 acres, wes well
equipped with buildings for farm work, and has clsss rooms
and dormitories for quite a number of students. It was also
well stocxed with foreign cattle, sheep, end swine. It
suffered much from having no unified plan of menagement. The

“ukden *orestry Departmant hes about 7OO acres and a number

of young trees erowing there. ‘There is also a government
live stock farm nt Chenan, near Jsoyangho, on the Peking

“ukden Railway, »ossessineg 15,000
 

-165-
acres, which wes well stocxed with foreign horses, cattle,
and sheep. ‘Ther? is a fruit nursery at Zwanpning where
npoles, rerrs, naaches, cherries, plums, grapes, raspberries,

end blackberries ar® nll successfully erown.

The future development of agriculture in ‘’anchuris,

 

 

 

Vanchuria is wrinerily an sgricultureal section of China
and o.es recent econorice development cxiefly to erricultural
procucts. It is rich in great level, fertile plains, adapted
for agriculture on an evtensive system. The totel area of
arsvle land is rougnly estimated at 385,289 square miles, of
which not 1rore then two-thirds are under cultivetion. About
90 percent. of tne cultiveted land is taxen up by soy beans,
wheat, millet, and keoliang, these four being cropped in ro-
tation. Manchuria always has a surplus of food products
whether the yeer is good or bad. This is because she has more
land in proportion to the population in that section end the
soil is rich, end fertile. It produces not only sufficient
food supplies for thnt section alone, but furnishes a large
quantity of food products to her sister provinces, ns well as
to the world.

The following tables will snow the surplus food products
of i‘anchuria in cerenls and deans, exported from the ports of

Newchwang and Dairen (Antung is not included on account of no

available statistics in 1918 and 1919,
Fad

~loo-=

Mxports through port of Newchwang in 1918 sana 19193

Article 1918 1919

(etric tons)  (2etric tons)

Fean cake 106 , 366 200,234
Pean oil 960,800 los. 14,206,400 lbs.
Beans: Bleck 6,206 tons 9,935 tons

Green 5,638 5,634

ned 371 252

"hite 1,180 2,395 —

Yellow 19,877 D1, 905

Cereals: Bearley 1,568

~a0liang 6,563 679

Com 2,960 16,854

Millet 1,928 5,459

“heat 2,881 12,342

sxports through port of Dairen in 1918 and 1919.

Renn cnke:To *oreien countries 791,207 933,287
To Chinese ports 81,596 3,009 , 084
Rean meal 29,937 30,176
Reans--in busnels of 60 lbs.
To foreign countries 11,220,442 20,900,118
To Chinese vorts 1,166,029 969,796
Barley--in bushels of 40 lbs. $1,114 399,039
Corn--in buehels of 58 lbs.
To foreign countries ' 89,117 962,746
To Chinese vorts 326,476 88,550
onest flour-bbls. of 196 lbs.
To foreirn countries 19,418 11,897
To Chinese ports 13, 744 o, 709
"adliang--in tons
To foreign countries 4,564 30, 001
To Chinese borts 67,671 6,883
willet--in tons
To foreign ccuntries 6,404 o7,641
To Chines? vorts 558 271
‘heat--in bushels of 60 lbs. 972,260 1,651,924
Bean Oil--in tons
To foreign countries 122,604 108 , 816
To Chinese ports 183 5, 569

Manchuria needs labor and the proper development of
farming. ‘ore then one-t ird of the uncultivated land can be
turned into ferm land, all the conditions recuired for thrt
ourpose veins trian into considerrtion. ‘Jith all the lends
cultivated in ornchurin it will not only give the »nossible

addition of food sup lies to Chinr, but to the world ss well,
-l67-
because its soy beans and their products hnve alreacy vecome
importent items in the world use. This :.eans thet the more
land cultiveted in !exnchuria tne more soy beens and their
products are exported to meet the world demand.

The future develooment of linnchurian agriculture depends
-larzely on the following considerstions which should ve cerried
out voroperly:

l. Transportation fecilities: This is the first important
factor in the development of egriculture in !‘anchurin because
it is found thet the ::ost prosperous agricultural rezions are
the sections where the transoortntion is convenient. In the
nortrern sections in lisnehuria more lands are ancultiveted and
that snows the respective development in the thres provinces
With the extent of trarsvortation facilities. 350 the improve-
ment of canals and rivers for water transportation is very in-
portant es a means Of cneaply moving the oulxy frei-nt of
grain, and railways and roads srould ve built for the conveni-
ence of transportation. Suilding of good ronds must be cushed
forvard for hruling oroducts to ship-ing points nnd ensble
farmers to market products wnich they could not market with
roads over which tney could not easily transport them. Good
roads increase the value of farmers' marxeteble vroducts and
increese the velue of the land. They also make life more
pleasent on the farm if the meens of communication and trans-
portation with others and outside world are mide better, MThere-
fore the trensvortation freilities must be mede easy for the

future development of asriculture in the far remote regions of

Lanchurin,.
-168-

2. Techniecnl education in avriculture; This is the most
imvortent considereftion for the future development of arri-
culture in the three provinces, Trained men are needed to
carr; out tha policy of avricultural developnent and better
metnoas of ferminz for the future improvemont. 50 the arri-
culturel institutions shoild oe well esteolisied to meet this
demand,

O. Iniigration: The development of :snchurian agriculture
Since the early times hrs seen due to the immigration from the
south to Open the future development in ’'anchuria. lheanchuria
is now lacking in levor and a policy of immigration to colonize
the remote regions should ve warked out by the government by
yranting the lends to farmers with 3 or 5 year term payments
of the land velue. /t the seme time, the government should
pive zood protection to frrmers where trey are farming. In
this ease the more irmigrants enter and settle in Venchuria
the rore lands will be cultivated with tne consequence of a
large vroduction of crops.

4. JAgriculturel orgnnizations: This is essential to vro-
rote tre interest of farming and to encoursa-e the farmers to
improve the methods of cultivation. Tnis kind of organization
has been estnaolisned for 2 numoer of ve:rs in China, but under
the management of non-egriculturel trained men the ‘ork has
not been very successful. in the neer future this orgenization
snould cooperate with the avricultural institutions to work

out the ovetter development of evriculture in -ianchuria, ,
-169-

Oo. Irrigetion: Irriretion is nixeessrry in? enehuria be-

ceuse the rainfell is not well distrivsutead throu: out the months
in wnich crops make their greatest growth end also the drouth
usunlly occurs with e result of failure in crop production,
Irrigeation is prectice le in lIiancruria because there are so
many rivers, esp2cially the Sungeri, the Liao, and others can
irrigate most the aresof the fertile plains along those sections.
The farmers end the rovernment should work in cooperrtion in
the construction of systers of irrigation. ‘ince in rost cases
the water eon be trxen from rivers end streams, crnals should
bd? built. in some erses dems are necessary to raise the level
of the water in the streams from which the water is drawn. In
Other ceses d'ns should be mede to create great storare reser-
voirs in wrich supplies of water are accurulated to be used when
tne crops most need them. “owever, tris should be worked by
the construction ren .hetever the system of irrigetion should be.
There are of course many points to be considored for tre
future davelop..ent of evrisculture in ienchurin and sugrestions
mentioned avove only emohasize tne immediste steps -.nich should
be taxen to cultivate all the Meancnurian lands to produce a
great production of food sup ly.
Farm plan in ti:nehuria,
Thezland around iukden is divided into small fields, in
which fermine is esrriei on in the intensive manner practiced
in the southern provinces, but the *ypical Manchurian farm is
one of from 200 to 300 acres. Practically there is no definite

field vlan in field divisions for es system of crop rotation.
-170~

rhough c<eolianrs, soy benns, millet, corn, and wheat sre from
in rotation, tre farmers reve rot leid out a plan for rrowires
tne crovs. “ne forners grow all these crops on their farns,
but usuelly xaolieneg and soy Deans occupy ea large portion of
tne land with a fow acres of corn, millet, wneat and sore other
crops. The lunds or farms are usuelly about 100 acres square
and tris is becnuse the rovern:ent divides tre lands in such
= unit to sell to the people. ‘fnerefore, if a farm has 300
eeres farm and bought the lends at different times the fsrms
Will bo 1CO gxcres in one piece ard 200 acres in another. Of
course tnrere are some dig farms, such as 1000, 8COO, 5000, or
even more than ten thousand acre ferns, but as a typical
Nanchurien farm we will teke 200, 300, or 5CO acre frrms.
There is no pasture on the farm and all the lands are planted
witn eereal crops. The farmers live in the villages or towns
and 7o to the fielés in the morning and return to their homes
in tre evening so no farm house can ve seen on the farm,

in original and revised farm plan is given on the next
peve. It represents 2 seneral type of farmning. Pigs and
poultry sare reised on the farm and horses end cattle are kept
to do the farm work. ‘in general the ferm is entirely devoted
to cereal crows and live stock is only a side line. The soil
varies from loams to silt and clsey and food crop production
cen be obt\eined und2r normel conditions. ‘orghum, millet, corn,
soy bean and whert are tne main crops in thes: sections but
sometimes these are ». frilure due to drou:rrt during the ferowing

senson, so irrigstion is profitable if the water crn he darrwn
-171-
from rivers. The vig markets ara in the south, such as ] ukden,

newecnan:, sntung,

pnd Deiren, and iid the nortn sucn srs Chengchun,
“aroin, etc. ince the reitlways wero built end tre rivers are
navienble for hundreds of miles the fecilities of merxeting

farm prodicts are «ood, but in the far remote regions far from
Snip ing points the transvorteSion fecilities chould be improved
for future develox ent. ‘Tne distance from various marxets veries
With different directions. ‘owever, tne farmers can sell their
nroducts in loenl markets to the grain denlers end then it is
shipred to tne bog mrrzsats, The lands are now in hieh fertility,

esnocially the naw lerds where no menure or fertilizer hes been

The new plan to revise the fern is shown in the next page
by map in wich the fields eve been divided and system of ro-
tation plen od. Tne farm is divided into three divisions for
Wiich a trree your rotec‘icn tes been planned. f£ccording to
the rotation every year as certain number of scres of wheat,
soy beans, corn, millet, snd so.shum are grown. Vo levumes
such es alfalfe or clover veing planned in the rotetion beceuse
it is poing to be used es a cereal crop farm, and sorghum and
the millet strew and com strlxs will be used for roughsaze, ena
corn sorghum and soy beens for erain feed for torses end cattle.
“he soy besn is the only legume used in the rotation and it mery

be sown after harvesting the soring wheat the ides bein» to grow

od

5

two croyvs in tne seme year. If tre so” been cnn mrture for seed
production, tren it will be ent for seed, if not, it will be

vlowed uncer in tre fell to benefit the soil snd rwext crop.
-172-

“ovever, tris sistom of rotrtion is not vory efficient in
meintetinins the fertility of the lend, so the manures or
commercial fertilizers should de used end earclied mccording to
tre conditions of soils. ost tha lands herve plenty of lime
and if legumes, such ns beens and reas, ero used in rotetion
not mucn ritroean is ueed, out snospnete is the only fertilizer
necessary. Tne rotetion crs to do with the eropping systom
there so tnere is no definite forrnula for fertilizers. In
conclusion, for ravision of plan of tne ferm and fertiliznrtion

systen, tne fermers mist consider financiel returns, possible

fs the result of revision of the crop ing systen.
-17c-

The original farm of 200 acres.

 

fF 100 AL

 

 

 

The following is a revised farm plan of 200 acres with
three field division of 3-year rotation.

 

66 A.

me mm ee nee ee en

=

66 A. 666A. |

1. Wheat followed

1. Soy beans.
by soy beans.

1. Millet, corn
and sorghum.

2. Wheat followed
by soy beans.

2. Millet, corn 2, Noy beans.
and sorghum.

3. Soy beans. 3. .illet, corn

and sorghum.

3. Nheat followed
by soy beans.

 

 

|
!
—

oo

t

—e ow eS See
-

 

 

 

 

TTT Field division.

—— em Field lanes.

ees ee

__ _ Roads.
-174—

The original farm of 500 acres.

 

100 A.

 

 

 

100 A.

 

ree ee a ee

4
-_— eee eee
{

 

 

 

Revised plan of 500 acre farm with 5 fields with 5 year

 

 

 

 

 

rotation.
96 4. Field I. | 100 A. Fiela II.
1. Soy beans. 1. Wheat.
2. Wheat. l2. Sorghum:
3. Sorghum. (3. Beans.
4. Beans. 4. Corn and millet.
Corn and millet. °° Soy beans.
omes tea
100 A. Field IL 96 A. Field IV. | 100 A. Field V.
1. Sorghum. 1. Beans. 1. Corn and millet.
2. Beans. 26 Corn and millet. !2. Soy beans.
3. Corn and millet. 13. Soy beans. (3. Wheat.
4. Soy beans. ‘14, Wheat. 4. Sorghum.
5. Wheat. '5. Sorghum. 5. Beans.
|
|

 

 

 

 

 

 

ae 2 oS “eee

 

See. ee eee oe

Road.

- em ee ee ee

 

Field division lines.

 
 

GIS DESO SE DUT pr cLopeorp ge Tepugyern:
WH ee ad! hed Nd ne wo 4 - Nak L 4 ~ weveawoen 3§ ty 6 8 tb bon ae. ae me daa alk pein a de
OP OfT ote pel tec uw. ID foc Tih topeepter Cs mosses
Nd te NA a. a ee ee fo . Nf we ad a warily ra - - a — ane od badd aie. a Sad wt bh. haba

™~ wT NT etc Ty my m7 7~T ry oN TN Ty RT Rae wr
on Bare L ai ee dad oh L.. aah le Ul: 3 « U _). been. HM . aha wind anion lve

hines is essentielly mn egriculturel country. ‘Che has a

C2

big area of lend and lerge population. Jith favoreole climete
end plenty of lsbor, she produces the biggest production of
erricultural products of sll the nations of the world,

There ara still meny acres of lsnd in nortrern China,
esvecielly in 'Vanchuria, Vongolia, cin-kiang, end Tinet, which
er2 in most vert good for erzriculture and even in China Proper
some sections of the Isnds are uncultiveted. ith the regions
Plone the valleys of Yellow siver, “wai iver, and some other
dig rivers in tne soutnern provinces reclaimed and the border
erovinces colonized, China's crops alone would support double
her present population of 400,000,000, so the production in
the future will be not only sufficient for rer ow consumption,
but for world sug ly as well. There is great possibility of
development es a field of s-ricultursl enterprises in those
Sections, especially the provinces of Yanchurin, Vonrolia, Sin-
xiany, and ribet. Due to tne leck of proper transsorte-ion
facilities and the uneducated frrners there has been 2 r-rent
drawoack in Chinese azriculture. The big ares of land, tne
favoreble climete, and the larve population have been the
same since sncient times, but now the arriculture of other
netions is much in edvance, while China is far behind. There-

fore. the futures development and improvement of Chinese srri-
9 at -

culture must be worzed proporly.
Pr__~or

-176-

maduenation in essriculture is the first important thing in
the development ond improverent of sericulture becruse the drew-
brex of tra Presrynt Chines? nmcriculture is due to the fact thet
the farmers do not ‘reve atuertion and the educeted men do not
Stud; ssricultures. ast Chine nosds hoy is treined men who
are interested in the work of asriculture to cerry out the
policy of nericultursl auevelopment and better 1et:odas of
farrninge for futures imoroverent. In order to have men well-
treined on thes3 lines, srriciltursl scrools should be es-
teblishked by the provincial government.

tne trensportnation frcilities sre big frcetors which affect
tre vresent arriculturel development and conditions in Chine.
very little lend is cultivated in the far remote regions where

tre freilities of transportation are poor. This is so in

b

border vrovineces and some sections in southern provinces.

Tost of the Ilsnds in the bofder provinces ere rich and fertile
and wroduce good crops, but the inadequate transportation
fecilities for mearzxeting s¢riculturel products csuse very little
land being farmed. So the railways and rords should be built
end watorvwe;s should be imoroved for transvortetion. In this
way the frrme:s ern move their grain to the marret and the velue
of szricultural croducts will be increased and the people in

the city cen buy a cheaper food stuff. It is usually found thet
tre orice of tre arvricultursl vroducts is very hich in the
cities or in sections where the populetion is dense, wrile tre
products on the frrm of tne reriote rerions far from marxet sell

very low. Ti: erefore, tne imerovement of transportnrtion frcit*-
-177-
ties would not only kelv the fernmie:s to sell their pwducts
et ea sotter price, but tre people could buy em chesevar food.

x policy of colonization of oorder srovinces sould be
worwed by the government. The lends srould 52 granted to the
lmmigrents for a rumber of SG or 5 yeers terms in vrynent of the
lend velue from tre tine they hnve tnkem it up, and as the
result more lands would be cultivated end more »roduction of
food producte obteined. Cpen boundnry regions for farming
would mersnn decrerse in tre density of population of the
southern vrovinces and incrernse the production of crops and
the value of innds. “ranting Inmnds to the disbsnded soldiers
is enotrer step the sovernment should teke uo to frrm tose
lands in tna north. If tne soldiers sare converted into frrmers,
and srenter efforts directed to tne production of goods than to
their distrinution, the davwn of a new China might be safely
predicted. .oreover, the veople colonized in boundary regions
would not only farm the iends for production of crops, but
vrotect it from invasion from outside as well.

in order to maxe every acre of land yield its right auota
of produce, frimine methods snould be modernized. Tne pres -nt
metrods of arzriculture in most sections deprive the soil of
humus. There is no system of crop rotetion. This condition
is aggravated oy the continuel reking awey of the stubdle Hr
fuel, thus depriving tre soil of organic matter. The scarcity
of animals maxes the vrice of manure prohibitive. The use
of nist soil, rrocured in the cities, and fnarm manure end earth

composts are tre only methods adnarted for xzeeving the soil pro-
-178-

ductive. The necessrry echenves for improvement micht be:

1L. “otstion of crors should be in system, so that nitroren
corsunins erops mey ve succeeded Dy nitrogen-prodicing crops,
mn. devo end strell crops sould alternate.

2e .fimel susbsvdry snould exist, hors, seep, cattle, snd
norses snould 02 breu, in order thet they mny consume the grass
crops of tne feim anc the by-products of the crogs.

o. Shere snould be irmroved retrods of tillsge, this in-

session of tre inadecuate irvlements by rodern

<
©
a)
<j
v
¢ Tr
Gy
tn
~
TT
8)
K
C9

4, :ffore sstation csOlicy is inperetive, in order to creck

GOil erosion rnd driftece, ard the siltine un of the navigebdle

nase are some of the voints wich should be edopted for
imerovenent, out these can come only .ith the complete education
of the ceople. “Government or provincial crop improvement sta-
tions sould be asteblished to distribute the seed to farmers
for its ).:st rsaeptation.

ith tke development of avricultural industries, a demond
for the imorovement of different classes of live s*tocx in China
is necessary. Tnres met»ods of irprovement can ve adopted:

1. Imvroverent within the sre2i. 424 fev ganeretions of
intelligent selection of ivdividurnls for oreeding survoses
would grently im.rove the stock.

2. Ine second ratnod of imnroverment would b2 to introduce
males of improved breeds for mating ith native stock,

3. The trird -.et:oc for invrovernent of nntive stock is to

io

+

S2cure sure bred eiimels of adesirevle vread erd continue to
-179-
mre, Ye First ret oa of solection within native
orecd is suefest, but slow in oriteiny results. Introducing
rodern in,roved breeds will vrin: better results, srovided
only thet rood, neslthy arimsle nt2z scegured rnd intellisent
breeding is preefticed. -ovever, tee post innortrnt ting

is thes men well treined in snimel breeding and feeding are

much needed in Chine to improv2 the quality of lives stock

co)

reicirs es well 3 for the cron production sre great in the
vorder vrovinesas wrere the lends are good for grazing. The
mixed farm of live stoezx end csreal crops is importent in
trese rerions boceruse of maintenance of soil fertility.

It is now questionabdle wheter or not the modern farm
mechinery would 52 ndopted to our conditions. Pecause on
tne avera:e the farmers neve a small ecrearze, except I’anchuria,
.ongolia, Cin-xiang, end Tidet, and the lands sre 2ll divided
into smell fields, in which farnmins: is ecxrried -n in an in-
tensive manner. cowever, in these voraer provinces tre modern
farm machinery ould de edaptsole to overste on the greater
farms but these implements should be used with horse cower
because grs costs too much. Tne farm implements menufactured
in the western countries ere used ard exdapted to their own
conditions in the extensive ws; so those tools mney not be
adeacted to the conditions in China and elso the cost is reseer
high for our fermers to buy them. ‘So the best way to do is
to hnve nan trrined, knowing the conditions in China, ‘ro
Will design tyves of frrm inplemonts similar to the western

plows, drills, planters, cultivators, and other tillsse im-
-~180-~
plements and sell to the farmers es cnerp as vossible,

<

In econelusion, the future development end improvament of
Chinese arriculture denands largely upon (1) Uduestion, (2)
Try 4 at}: vy t ? L v4 R tha norder your] (3) u nw 7 tati
Tre ieration to colovize the norde avions, rensportation,

(4) Improved farmixve methods, end (5) Improved farm implements.
£ ONLY

Coy,

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