brid ven Nita Bh hee nN a a are os es : fe Y Sree eel pei ‘ viv Re aera ne Linea natn oe Pais Psy) 5 oe ha 3 eh i Berra oy: ' + ni ar prs ae ee > han foie ee eet vie a A ; elie AY re vith i a ils ; a 2 ae Vi Ys Dare is ‘g | ) 2 AP By a —_ Seles mV a i 4 f pee arr i ne asada be eye Pate) peel ' a i fe anh a OS lctdacaeeceg het aE Set ‘LA | Oe cE Soe ane een ae els fe i a nant . i ot a ae ae th ee Li fi Mh Ws es oa i, a ue +H) ae MT See eee Nato naar eh ethos inp ae ty ee es brie i all o I as ae et -) £ Pin wy ee Cn} a Ast ia’ b- ; arf oe re aon iia es ak dN nt “is a Rioters 7h ees io a ae es : a a» ee A y re vs “ Se Tata eg yi pe Aisne ips|% Pied ; oe een Mp i ae ie ar Sens i | ; =f" i rns Me toh) al ee dir tes ass BY ies ae A aw! - il 7 . i oe ee i a ser mint re Sts Y = Mi bel tees a le ial Aa rie a fs) ie ! ay cof a Miege: | yikes i SUE Die gee or Fe hej or 3 MOAT is RI _" ‘ ’ $a oe v4 ay ie J = ay et : a>. b J ‘ isgie i sa ent ere ee eer < | waa rela al by a a ; 7 =_1 es aap py \ es : cpr sale ae POTS <4! vies 4 —_——_ - = ee itm lad mmntiattetitea e el Das are ee ee anne “THESIS 4 THESIS” Lansing, Michisam, May 20, 1919, To The Committee on Advanced Degrees, Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing, Michigan. Gentlemons Inasmich as it has been necessary in a few instances to use illustrations cut from publications for illustrating my thesis, "Important Problems in the Inter-State Transportation of Fruits and Vegetables", I desire to make the following explanation: In every instamce where an illustration has been used in this thesis to clarify tne sane point that it was used to clarify in the Bulletin, I have beon familiar with and actively encaced in the scientific work upon which tne Bulletin is based, The photographs so used were all teken either by myself or uncer my supervisione The original charts were dravm for the purpose of presente ing the data in a more usable form for the investigators studying the work, and were not drawn for the purpose of publication in the Bulletin mentioned, Later, as need becane apparent, Bulletins were issued and these charts made use Ofe wnen I desired to illustrate similar points in this thesis, it seomed advisable to choose them from the original charts wivn tne scientif- ie work of which I was familiar, It vould have been possible to drav etwo new charts from the orisinal data, but this sce::ed useless and wasteful when exactly similar ones based on the identical data were already to be had. P-2= This statement accounts for all except two of the illustrations used, These two were chosen at random from puolications, because they ha:pened to illustrate points that I wisned. In thelr originel place they were used to illustrate points of an entirely differont character. As they also illustrated my points, and as it was vhsicslly impossible to secure other illustrations of my owm.making and which would show my points to botter advantare, I used these. Toward the last of the thesis, I have duly acknowledged the orisi- nal ownership of all of the photosraphs and charts not actually my ovm prop- erty e Irom the above explmation, it will be seen that any illustrations which might be in question are original so far as this thesis is concerned, Trusting that this clarifies any question which may arise in your minds, I an, Very tmly yours, HW5BeL TPORTANT FACTORS TH Win INTHR-ST.TE TRATSPORTATION OF FRUITS AD VEGTABLIS Thesis Presented bv Harold S$. Bird. =a. THESIS IMPORTANT ACTORS DT GE DITOR-STATE TRAISPORTATION OF FRUITS AND VEGTABLES, ~ KN A billion and a quarter pounds of fruits, vestables, meats and dairy products worth one-hundred twenty-five millions of dollars are wasted annually by the people of the United Stated during trans- portation to market.* Does not this help to explain why the frocer charges two dollars for a basket of peaches for which the grower received only one dollar? The greatest part of this loss is paid by the comsumers. The shippers, railroads and dealers pass their bills for this loss to them, as does the grower to a lesser extent. The consumers pay not only for the goods that they receive in good condition, but also for those billion and a quarter pounds of waste for Which they axe mot morally responsible. As conswoors, they have said that this is a problem for the growers, shippers and railroads. But the growers, shippers and railroads have taken advantarre of this indifference and have not done their parts. lather have they boen content to charge propor- tionately more for the coods which they delivered in good condition. The method of paying is such that evidently the consumer has * The railroads of the Ynited States, alone, were asked to pay approximately sixty million dollars in 1917 and one hundred million dollars in 1918 for dwaage to shipments injured in transit. However, this includes shipments of all comnodities, and is not confined to perishables. 94071 chosen to pay rather than to defray the cost of bettering conditions. It is true that during the War the Government did mich to lessen this waste. As one faniliar with some of the results, I may say that the cost already has been returned to the people of the United States many times overe But that is not enough,for the field is scarcely broken. Investigations by unbiased persons mist be carried on in a careful and exhaustive way. In the past, investigations by the railroads have near ly always proved to be prejudiced, as have been also those of srowers, shippers, and dealers. cay a — pone INHERENT NATURE AND CONDITION There are well-defined factors responsible for the waste of perishables in transit. The most important is the condition of the produce when it is put into the cars. There are, of course, all grades of relative perishableness in various kinds of produce. Peaches will not carry in transit as well as apples. Everyone mows this; and most people know that no two cars of peaches will carry the same. In this latter case, the tendency is to lay the difference to the railroads, wiile actually it is more likely to be a difference in the peaches themselves. Did the producer harvest his peaches, or his pears, or his berries at the risht stage of maturity? Were they bruised? Were the orchards or fields infected with some plant disease? Were those Loulsiana potatoes allowed to lie in the hot Southern sum after digging, and were they cut and bruised by negro laborers walking on the sacks when they were being hauled to or loaded into the cars? Or, again, was the produce dry when loaded? Was it cool? It cannot be expected that peaches packed, handled, and loaded in the heat of a Georgia sun will refrigerate and cool to a satisfactory temperature as rapidly as peadhes handled during the cooler parts of the day. All these factors and many others are vitally importmt,. CONTAINER The selection of a satisfactory container often is neglected with disastrous effect. Take,for example, these data from Governnent reports: "One-fifth car of grapes mashed and worthless"; "One hundred twelve damaged crates of Texas onions in a car containing six hundred PH4— fifty-two crates."In both cases tnsatisfactory packages were responsi- ble. ‘Tnese are not wmusual records. Tne containers, first of all, should be suitable for the particular kind of produce. A larse light-weight hampor is suitable for spinach or Kale, but will not co for peaches. At the sare time, a basket crate (Georgia carrier) is almost ideal for certain classes of peaches, but it would be a ridiculous package for the spinach. Apples may be shipped in solid barrels, but new potatoes require barrels with holes, cut for ventilation; such,for examle, as are illustrated in Figure 1 . Onions carry better in the open fiber-cloth sacks shown in Figure 2 than in burlap sackse Cabbages require ;ood ventilation such as is given by the Norfolk cabbage barrel crate in igure 3 e Generally speaking, open packages assist both ventiiation and refrigeration. The widely~spaced slats of the cantaloupe crates in Figure 4 allow the cool air, as it passes from beneath the false floor up through the load, to absorb the heat. Had these cmtaloupes not been wrapped in paper, the rate of cooling would have been mich more rapid and tneir quality generally more satisfactory on arrival at market, In winter, refrigeration and ventilation are not so important. It then becomes a problem of heating properly. The greater part of our Northern potato crop is moved during weather vhen it is necessary to pro- wide for heating in transit. Itch of the Pacific-orthwestern apple crop is shipped "under heat". Sweet potatoes require peculiar oare in this respect. The United Fruit Comany never moves a car of bananas North Ventilated Barrels Figure 1 - Negrocs loadings a car of new (green) potatoes at Hastings, Ilorida, June, 1918. lotice the holes cut in the staves for ventilation. aoe TEED WANS a Ventilated Sacks Figure 2 - These sacks, made of wod fiber, are woven to permit ventilation. They are quite durable and, with the onions or potatoes showins through from the inside, offer a pleasing appearance. oy -. -*S64B48 ULEYSsPEeyyNOS eu Worzy JUeMeAOM eBeqqed ey} JOJ JOUTeYUOD PsepuL TS e Be peydope ATTeTOFJjO ueeg BLY e4eIO BY] - EF e.My OJeIO PEXeTTyUE,A *szOUH snornful Wo 9013 ‘[e1IazeUT unos jo 4}3ued}s [enbe yo poom io uns 10 suId pouoOsees jo 9q OF Pe4¥g GOOM ‘O]PPIU 9Y4} UL OM} PUB PUS YRS je OM} ‘7B/s Ye 0} S[TeEU PG ‘ P93z¥OS ZUSUIGD XIs UBY sso] JOU YZIM pajleu Ajeindes 9q 03 83¥/8 [[VY dN DNISIVN h (u107 *BUO] -30q pue do} usom seyoul ce pue eprm soyour YZ ‘yorYy YOu! % uvy} sso] jou szUIs NOY "94 SPF UO) SLY IS i YIMOTTINVS A (u10}30q pue SLAAg SLNV Td Zuo] seyoutr 8% 1¢ Pues ePIM do} jo sapis puw wo} “9947 ‘HSVNOS seyour ¥4z ueY Sse] JOU PUL HOIYZ YoU! 3% ueY} sso] JOU s7UIs WYSIT -10q puv dol) ST YTS ‘ADVddvo *yPI3s peey Yous ur om} s[reu faeries anes ok PG P27809 ZUSUIED XIs UBY} 889] JOU YIM 1043930} pareu Ajeindes Zuo] yey my? Ur seyoul Z] puke epIM seyouT 8&7 pue HoIYy? Your 8%, ueYyy sse_ JOU 913UeD peddiys oq 03 sepoIzy pue spue 103 sose1d qi0Ys xIs pue Zuo] seyoU! gl Pue epIM seayoUI %Z Aq 4Ory? Your 8, ueyy sse] 30U SHOWS peey CUTU JO OpEU speoYy e014], SdV4aH *S9YOUI SIGNS SZIL ALIDVdVO *syuoulonsvour oprsuy ‘soyoUu! gfx glx ZI SNOISNAWId ALVYO TAUUVA ADVAAVD (41°J40N) Cantaloupe Crates ligure 4 - Crates of open construction assist both in ventilation and refrigeration. a and three ' ~mly than | those J. “head. Tv .. ‘1. of | cooling. Moving c gen during e ~Rho ee dt .-4 #hn Fay. ™, Aj during the wintor without a messenger to attend to the heating. Oranges, lemons, and many other kinds of shipments mst be protected. The package plays its part in holding all of these at the proper temperature. Sweet potato hampers are lined with heavy paper, Bananas are packed in straw and burlap. Western pears md anples are packed in boxes with a wrapping of paper around each fruit and mother sheet between the applea and the boards of the box, as illustrated in Figure 5 e Fruits wrapped in this way will stand cold temperatures mich better than those not wrapped, Competition between mmufacturers has led to the production of cheap packages of inferior quality and strength. It is inpossible to estimate the proportion of loss and damage in transit due to this one factor. But its enormity is such that the Government, and. the railroads, packa-e-manufacturers, shippers, and growers of the states south of Kontucky and Virginia and east of the Mississippi River, have within the past year held meetings in New York City, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Jacksonville, Memphis, and Chicago to consider it. These meetings have resulted in some rigid but effective regulations, specify- ing Kincs and stxongths of materials; nailing; and size amd character of the packases for each type of perishable produce. They resulate the contents und the loadin:; nethod, making provision for higher tariffs on ghipments not up to the set standard. It is surprising; how important some apparently minor point may bee For exanple: one-half inch difference in the placing of a single nail may decrease the strenrth of a package as mich as fiftcen Lo «wee ¥. <3 *"Pp[TOO wory meyy Buy oe4y -oud jo yeuy st setdde eseyz BZutcdesm Aq peases sesodund Tedtoutud eyy jo eug - ¢ eun3Ty Buyzeergy uUeAeCIg 04 BSdTeYy sedeg SA lddV GaddVYM XOE G3LAIdWOO aaa wa 4 ro 13 per cent. Growers like packases that will "nest" (i.e., set one within another). This accowmts largely for the popularity of hampers and bushel baskets. A box or a crate occupies nearly as much space hen anpty as when full, but ten empty hampers or bushel baskets can be mosted" and occupy little more space than one or two tat are packed with fruit. If it were not for this one advantage, those two pack- ages probably never would have been mmufactured. That they are ume satisfactory as shipping packages is illustrated by the two Figures 6 and 7. In these cases, however, had the packages been stowed pro- perly and exactly, the breakase in trmsit would have been greatly reduced, especially if well-made packages had been used. S TOWING Few cf us realize the importance of stowing properly. AS shippers, most of us see our ;oods only as they are placed in the car. "All cars look good when they are loaded" is a common saying among railroad men. 3ut it is very often another and far different story when they are wnloaded. Bulk Shipments In loading bulk shipments, we must first consider vhetner ventilation, rofrigoration, or heat is necessary; or a combination of these. Cabbages, particularly those from Vorthern sections, are often shipped in bulk. They require ‘pod ventilation, and depending upon the territory through which they must pass, may require either Hampers Are Difficult to Load Figure 6 = This car is no worse than one can find almost any day in New York or Chicaso. By actual counts, it has been found that twenty per cent of all hampers loaded on the side are more or less broken on arrival at market. The danace is much less when hampers are loaded on end with alternate pack- ages inverted, ai : 1S F.GE. 25403, Containing 405 baskets’ of cucumbers eriginati at Mt. Olive NC. 6/256 on the ACL. re the bottom tier ushed due ta improper stowing, loose loading, no edad in either bracing or stripping the load, l@ either refrigeration or heat. In ay case, they are usually shipped in refrigerator cars. The cars should be fitted with false floors (illustrated in Figure 8 ), and good boards should be placed across each door opening to keep the cabbaces from rolling out vhen the car is opened. This last seems like a superfluous caution, and it would be, were it not that very occasionally cars are shizped without this boarding, In the wintor, it may be necessary to place a stove in the doorways When this is the case, good bulkheads must be built to hold the cabbages in place in the ends of the car. Figuro 9 _ shows the best construction for such a bulkhead. If the weather is cold enough to require the use of a stove, it is also advisable to lay a tight floor with building paper and boards over the spaced false floor. Bulk potatoes and most root crop shipments do not require as mich care as cabbase, but practically the sane loading methods aoply e Sacked Shipments. Potatoes and onions are usually shipped in sacks, although, so far as llichigm, New York, Pennsylvania, and even Maine potatoes are concerned, bulk shipments are more comnon. All Southern sacked potatocs should be loaded with the sacks standing on end to assist sood ventilation. One hundred powd sacks are the best size. They will so three rows upright alongs each em ee eT eee ow + oe! “One ee eee - UNITED STATES RAILROAD ADMINISTRATION W. G. MCADOO, DIRECTOR GENERAL OF RAILROADS DIVISION OF OPERATION CAR SERVICE SECTION CIRCULAR CS-43 LINING AND FLOOR RACKS IN CARS REFRIGERATOR CARS NOVEMBER 15, 1918. To RAILROADS: The railroads will supply refrigerator cars for perishable or semiperishable shipments to the extent of their ability. A certain percentage of this class of cars belonging to the various roads is already equipped with false floors or floor racks. It is contemplated to eventually equip all of the cars in this manner, but it is not thought that this can be done in time to fully meet present requirements. Therefore, when cars of this type not provided with floor racks are offered for loading perishable or semiperishable commodities, shippers will be privileged to construct and place in cars suitable racks of standard type, in accordance with detailed specifications shown on accompanying print, which denotes construction of a temporary floor rack. The railroads will reimburse shippers for the value of floor racks so placed to the amount of fifty (50) cents per linear foot of the total inside length of car. | : Any lining desired by shippers in refrigerator cars in addition to the floor racks must be placed by them at their own expense and in such manner as not to damage the car or insulation. BOX CARS When railroads are unable to meet the demand for refrigerator cars for above-named shipments, if shippers elect to make use of box cars and if, in their opinion, such cars require lining or floor racks, they | (the shippers) will be given the privilege of equipping the cars with such lining or racks entirely at their own expense. In the interest of promoting shipments and conserving food supply, it is suggested that the lining and racking of box cars, when done, conform to the following standard furnished by the Burcau of Markets, United States Department of Agriculture, which, it is believed, will give the best results: False floors, side and end walls shall be installed providing an unobstructed space for air cirecu- lation down between the car and walls and false end walls, and from there under the false floors to the doorways. This ventilating space must be kept clear of hay, straw, manure, shavings, and everything except the necessary false-floor supports. There shall be a space between the car side walls and the false side walls of not less than four inches at the top and six inches at the bottom. Each doorway shall be tightly boarded not less than twenty-four inches from the floor upward, the boards being nailed to the inside of the door frame to keep out cold winds. For the same reason, it is further requested that shippers make it a practice to use box cars for the shorter hauls, reserving refrigerator cars for loading to the more distant points. Railroads will supply refrigerator cars preferentially, as compared with box cars, for the longer runs. False Floors for Refrigerator Cars Figure 8 - False floors greatly increase the efficiency of refrigerator cars for ventilation, refriger:tion, and heating. . 2 Box cars that may be lined by shippers will be furnished with a board on either side of uniform ‘dimensions (24 inches by 30 inches) with lettering of suitable size, reading as follows: RETURN TO (Insert name of shipper.) AT ee ee ee ee ee ee ee te ee ee et ee ee ee ee te ee eH ee ee re ee we emu eee (Name of station.) Leen e een eee ee ce eee ne cee eee eee eee conn eceeeeeeee RAILROAD (Name.) UNITED STATES RAILROAD ADMINISTRATION These boards will be furnished by the railroads. Lined box cars so boarded will be returned free, with lining, to point of origin of load, and should be waybilled to such point, consigned to party or firm whose name the board bears. They may be loaded all or a part of the way on return trip with any suitable freight. They must not be loaded out of direct line, and care should be exercised to avoid damage to lining in loading or unloading. ~ Jt must be understood that cars thus lined and boarded are subject to demurrage, either while awalting loading or unloading. The foregoing conditions are to apply from November 15 to April 1. Railroads on which the appa- ratus was originally placed in cars will reimburse shippers for the value of any racks or lining not returned to them within three months from the last-named date, but not exceeding fifty dollars ($50) per car. After April 1 shippers will be required to remove from cars any lining or racks which belong to them. Failing to remove such equipment, the work of removal will be performed by the railroads, but the latter will not be responsible to owners for the material or its value after removal. | W. C. KENDALL, Manager, Car Service Section. OF DOORS, TEMPORARY FLOOR RACKS FOR REFRIGERATOR CARS. Temporary Bulkheads Figure 9 = Good bulkheads are necessary to hold bulk ship-= ments in place in the ends of the car. ‘The braces should be of 4"x4" pieces. Correct Loading for Southern New (Green) Sacked Potatoes Figure 10 = With part of the sacks standing upright and an alley-way down the center, there is opportmity for good ventilation. This loading is the samc from end to end of the care Note that this is a stock car. 21. 4% naks an he fic “~ GQour, ‘ches "@e _OS8S m the Pab=— al side of the car from end to end, and two layers of sacks flat on top, as illustrated in Figure 10 . Cr, better still, is one solid layer of sacks standin, worit.t on the floor and mother on a deck. Under either refriyveration or ventilation, decked loads give the best results but are more expensive and harder to load. Mature potatocs, as well as onions, do not require as mich ventilation as new (green) potatoes, but during the summer and early fall, air circulation is important. lature potatoes and onions are practically never shipped wnder refrigeration, and shipments are not confined to any one type of car. It is impracticable to load them as heavily in warm weather as in cool. "Under heat", in winter the main care should be to preserve the original warmth of the load. It is customary to load cars of mature potatoes varying in weight from thirty-six thousand to about fifty-two thousand pounds with the sacks laid on the side. If a heater is to be placed between the doors, the sacks are usually loaded lengthwise of the car and corded up in such a way as to keep the doorway clear. Without heat ers, the usual practice is to load through the doorway . if this is done, the sacks in the doorway should be spaced so that there are twelve inches or more between them and the doors. ‘Then if the door cracks are properly papered over, there is comparatively little dm- ger of cold winds causing freezing, especially in well-constructed Carse - 4 ke . % . “ od . : a : “e sg. ~ Ba - "s, * o™ Los . Crated and Boxed Shipvmeants Crated and boxed shipments of porishable produce are loaded practically the samo, whether for ventilation, refrigeration, or heat. Yor long hauls, in wnusually hot weather or with particularly delicate shipments, the height of the load should be decreased. As with all perishable-produce shipments, false floors are important. In loading, the first thought is to so place the packases that they will not shift either lengthwise or sidewise. Even a few inches of surplus space is a starting point for shifting and chucking. All boxes should be loaded in rows, package tightly against package, from end to end of the car. Any surplus space mst be taken up by bracing, such for exanple as is illustrated in Fiscure 11 , or loss is sure to follow. “igure 12 shows a poorly-braced car of Georgia peaches which has traveled only fifty miles on its eight-hundred-mile joumey to market, After looking at this, it-seems incredible that Georgia peach shippers believe the three dollars they save by not providing suitable bracing is soing to recompense them for the damage this car will show on arrival on the piers in New York City. In one sense, we may say that breakase in transit is due to rough treatment by the railroads. But upon reflection we know that the railroad officials mst be doing all in their power to prevent careless handling, for it costs the railroads heavily in the form of repair bills for damaged cars and in claims. The humm element in the switching crew is the one at fault. As we think of it, however, are the men in ‘new 8 Diagram No. 100 OF CAR, HEIGHT F C ] m7 A 8 A A A A —T Hel. i _ S15 = , . c |. , : = | All TAll | iL be]. CAR. PAL [ | | | ee 5 SPACE BETWEEW LOAD, |-—— HEIGHT OF LOAD,» _ Figure No. 1 Figure No. 2 GATES FOR CENTER BRACING ON CARLOAD SHIPMENTS OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Specifications: Uprights (A and B) 2 x 4 inches ‘or 1 x 4 inches. Horizontal Strips (C) Not less than 2 x 2 inches. Braces (D) 2 x 4 inches. — To prepare for bracing: Make two gates (see Figure No. 1); uprights (A and B) to be in center of each row; horizontal strips (C) to be nailed to uprights (A and B) with 4 inch surface facing the uprights. Place gates against both ends of load with even surface of uprights towards packages. Use braces (D) between the gates at top, bottom and center, toe-nailing securely to horizontal strips (C). Braces (D) should be long enough to hold load in each end of car securely and thus prevent shifting. No nails should be driven into car floor, walls or ceiling. Figure No. 2 shows brace assembled. Two uprights (B) extend to ceiling of car to prevent buckling of brace. Bracing to fale “> Surclus Space froin nd to End of Car Figure 11 = sven a few inches of surnlus Hace is a startin: ~ — point for snifting aon? chuckin>; ard consequentvl:; bresha_c in transite aula 4a. 7/b- 19/8 - Peaolte. _—— 3 arr — Nos Poorly-Braced Car of Georgia Peaches Figure 12 — These crates have started to shift, although the shipment is scarcely more than started on its long journey to market. Bracing,such as is illustrated in Figure 11, should have been used. P=10— the switching crew in the railroad yards less negligible of their duty when they "hamer" a string of cars into place than we are when we permit a shipment to start without providing suitable bracing « With produce requiring spaced rows to provide for ven- tilation or refrigeration, wooden strips from side to side of the car should be used to prevent side-shifting. Each crate (or every other crate) should be nailed to one of the strips. A well-stripped car of crated asparasus is illustrated in Figure 13, So simple a matter as placing crates or boxes the wrong way of the car may mean the difference between certain loss and al- most perfect condition. Bushel-Basket Shipments Bushel baskets (this includes the one-half bushel, bushel, and bushel-and-one-half sizes)are one of the most wnsatisfactory of © packages from a shipping stamdpoint. In March 1919, the manufacturers representing approximately ninety per cent of the bushel-basket-making Capacity of the United States met in Liaaphis, Tennessee, and adopted specifications to strengthen this type of package. vYossiblyv with this result accomplished, it will now be possible to secure satisfactorv loadings a Vern ks om : ae jaa i re ES A Well Loaded Car of Crated Asparasus. Figure 13 - Notice that the crates are held firmly in place by strips rumning across the car throughout the load. P-ll- ay Bushel baskets of peaches and other soft fruits should never be inverted. The loading giving the best results is that of resting the baskets of each successive layer on the rims of the baskets below. There are several ways of doing this, the best being that of spacing four (or five) baskets across the end of a Gar, one basket in each corner and two (or three) equidistant bee tween. The second layer should rest on the rins of baskets below and, like the first, should touch the car end wall, The baskets of the succeeding layers and stacks should alternate with these. For long hauls, three layers are as high as is consistent with safety. ror short hauls, four layers are not too high if the baskets are well-made. If more are necessary, a deck such as is illustrated in Figure 14 , should be used. With shipments of exceedingly light-weisht commodities, which are not easily injured by crushing, it is not so harmful to invert part of the baskets. The dove-tail method (alternate- inverted) may then be used and is satisfactory, except that it does not admit of mech ventilation or refrigeration. This metnod is illustrated in rigure 15 , Hamper Shipments Wellemade hampers are satisfactory if the produce is not too heavy and not too easily injured when inverted, The dove-tail method for haapers (illustrated in Figure 16 ) is the only practical one. Loss and damage in transit results when hampers are 4- y ir Pay MO, ry 2 re ae » =~? ahah, some 4 Ae) ~, 1 or ae, ee Ms) Oda, 8 ae 2/92, 4/ OS ied vr Vee hak Oy Sl ah io ea CLA x a) ee Dovetail ( Alternate-Inverted ) Toadine for Byshel Baskets . Figure 15 - This method is practicable only for lisht weirht coumodities such as sninach or kale. It does not permit the best of referigeration and, with soft fruits, thore is considerable cutting and bruising against the covers of the inverted packases. a4 Correct Loading for Hampers Figure 16 = The only way haa,ers vill carry in transit without undue bre:kase is by the dovetail (alternate-inverted) system of loading. —~N i, 3f loaded in any other way. Figure 6 shows an improperly-loaded car of hampers from the South on arrival in Chicago. Climax Baskot Shipments Climax baskets, if well made and loaded, carry quite suc- cessfully. Recent concerted efforts to stmdardize and strengthen the package are bringing good results. During the 1918 shipping season, the Government conducted a campaism to improve the Climax basket loading. This was eagerly seconded by the railroads and good results obtained, particularly with the shivments from the New York and Pennsylvania grape sectionse Particular care mist be taken to completely fill the car floor space with Climax baskets, not only from end to end, but also from side to side. Surplus space from side to side practically al-~ ways leads to loss such as is shown in Figure 17 , amd is more de- structive nan even the railroads realize. Had this car been proper- ly loaded with the last row placed diagonally (as shown in “igures 18 and 19 ), this loss would not have occurred. lost of the larse annual destruction of New York, Pomsylvania, and lMiichifan grapes in trmisit could be eliminated in this way. Shipners are careless in loading their goods, largely be- cause they do not realize the results of carelessness or, in a few cases, because they expect to collect from the railroads for the damace. Under Government control this is bein:; made very difficult, and the inevitable result is that shipments are being made with more care and there is less loss. ‘eoeds Sty} OUT peqstTys Byexseq xEWTTD *ssoT AAvoy Supzeneo sezeyxoud woz 0q ey. UO eTSue ue ye yYySTeM eN4 ButMosyy ©uy UTeI4 eUY Jo LemsS OY UTM ‘petTdnoso ATexyeTdWOD yOu SEM UPd STUY JO OPTS 03 Opts wory Sovds s00TJ eUuy - LT emn2ty BuUyPeoyT 190g 0% ONG POT jo Butysitug epts fe pesney e8ryvesg 2 5 ee as ES " s oe : . , ae oak Et “Te * < Ses 3 Taking Up Surplus Space from Side to Side of Car Figure 18 - this illustrates a single layer showing how, by placing one row diagonally of the car, the surplus space may be occupied. The next figure shows how this diagonal row is built up. At Market Figure 19= The last row that was 1@Aded into this car was placed diasonally as illustrated in Figure 18 . “‘otice the pleasing appearmice presented when the car was opened on the Boston team | trackse P-18. RAILROAD EQUITRENT “ nluch 111-feeling among the produce shippers is due to the short supply of suitable railroad equipment for transporting perish ables. The refrigerator and produce cars are more often than not of poor consttuction or in poor condition. They are built on faulty principles and camot give satisfactory results except wunder extreme— ly favorable conditionse Within the past four years, construction methods have been improved greatly, due almost entirely to the investigations and efforts of the Government Departinent of Agriculture through Dr, lary =. Penn- ington and llr. H. J. Ramsey. In 1916, the Pacific Fruit Express Com pany started building and rebuilding its cars along the improved lines, and that company expects by the fall of 1919 to have all of its fif- teen thousand refrigerator cars in the best condition. The Baltimore and Ohio, Touisville and Nashville, Chicaso and Northwestern Railroads, and others, before being taken over by the Govemment Railroad Adminis~ tration, issued instructions that all new equipment be constructed ac- cording to these standards and all old equipment rebuilt along the improved lines. Later the Railroad Administration adopted them. There are five goneral types of railroad cars used for trans- porting perishable produce: refrigerator, produce, ventilated-box, box, and stock cars. Refrigerator and produce cars are used for refricera- tion, vontilation, and heating;;. Ventilated box cars are used for ven- tilation only. Box cars are sometimes used for ventilation and some- times for heating. Stock cars om be used only for ventilation. ‘Three of these types of oars are illustrated in Ficures 20, £1, and 22, ® 4 ~O8rN om seu eT -— 35 Labhantly IM fl py Re at /3-Lilt Jt / Refrigerator Cars Figure 20 = Smta Fe Refriserator Dispatch Company refrigerator cars ready for loading. Burl Kine a” Mt ft F , eegpar, JY Af ree lAL yf / ux, a VS 7 Ventilated Box Cars Figure 21 - Sam Antonio and Arkansas pass ventilated box cars. Note the barre. door ad the vatilation opmings. These are extensively used for moving the Texas vegetable crope Pha aa cha Anita he ere eer line shea She “crf eo Vo fs en cee cad yng Led FIF- 31 se 0 SVIST —HA mah, « — Kyo KH Re HL, { Ne 7 N Stock Cars “igure 22 = Atci.ison, Topeka, and Santa Fe stock cars hmdle mich of the Jexas now (greon) potato movement. Stock cars give abundant ventilation but do not protect from rain or sune sw lL 33 Refrigerator Cars Refrigerator cars are primarily for carrying produce at low temperatures, although they are used also to provide ventilation, to protect from cold, or to give combinations of these. They are provided with insulated walls, floors, and ceilings, tight doors, and with compartments for ice. The insulation is the first and most in- portant consideration. Various materials are used more or less suc- cessfully, They mst be strong, effective in keeping out heat, and properly and well a nlied. Not only must. thé walls be insulated, but also the ice-bunker bulkheads, floor, and - most importmt of all - the ceiling, Figure 25 illustrates the method of refrigeration in the Government standard refrigerator cars. The warm air rising from the produce toward the ceilings, passes into the ice-bunkers througn the upper ice-bunker bulkhead ventilation openings; then down between the ice and walls of the ice-bunkers where it is cooled; and thence out through the lower ventilation opening into the space beneath the false floor, The cooled air is then forced up through the load by the differences in temperature taking up the heat as it passes. In this way, the tenperature of the load is gradually reduced. The more rapid the air movement, the quicker is the cooling. At best, this movement is very slow and labored, and it is to assist as mich as possible that basket-bunkers and false floors are so necessarye Ciroulation in a standard Refrigerator Var Equipped with Basket-Ice Bunkers, Solid Insulated Bulkheads, and False Floors (as per Govermnent Specifications.) Figure 23 = iliote the complete and even distribution of cool air throughout the load, | ¢ of PreLl5= 39 The older cars refrigerate in the same way but are not equinped with basket bunkers nor fal se floorse Consequently, the cooling rate igs much slower, for the air cannot pass down around the ice easily nor work out wder the load. Figure 24 illustrates how mich more effective cars equipped with basket bunkers and false floors are than tnose not so equipped. Solid insulated bulkheads and bulkheads of open construction which allow the air currents to "short circuit" are compared in Figure 25 » The open typo does not give sood refrigeration to the load except near the bunkers. You will notice from these figures that the solid tyne gives far better results. An a:ditional advantage is that viren the solid insulated tiyz:e is used, salt may be mixed with © the ice, greatly facilitating the rate of cooling. ‘The effect of this ig illustrated in isure 96. There are several other tes of refriserator cars, the most common of which are the circulating brine types. These depend upon tne circulation of brine from tans containinc salt and ice through pipes to the various parts of the car. However, none of these is roaliy successfule An excoption to this statement should be made in the case of the cars that use a brine-circulating system for meat shipments, but these are impracticable for vegetables. lIimy inventors are at wrk, and in all probability soncone will oventually improve upon the :resent s7ste:ns vaiich are cmdco,at best. gr TEMPERATURE IN TRANSIT— CANTALOUPES Cauiroania Te New Yoar emoav | st oar | 47 Oar 5° OAV oay | THOAY | Bo BAY foo 5 E10 Value of Basket Ice-Buniors and False Floors “igure La = Car A had neither of these inmrovements; Car B ha: them bothe Othervise the cars were identical oxeent for an even heavier load in the latter, Note how mch more rapidls Car B cooled dovm and stayed during the elevon-cay tripe ones are under actual commercial conditions. z 04 POTWTT 04 04 SpUuey UOTIMIEeZTIzer ‘odsy uedo OY UITH “cBeeUATNG e844 OF Zxeu eowds oY ‘aTUy ButTystTTdmoooe uy syetsse ATOZ JOOTJ OHTV} SUL “.2TNOITS FAOUG, OF BOTFIETNIITFS OY 10} k ATunzsoddo ou BT e184, “peeuATn Q PTTOS OU UITM 3BUX COTION - SZ oH ti (dq) Jexyung-eo; AsBUTpIO pReYyXIng uedg UyTm pesedmog (y) ” =: > inzgiwev 40 4070 GN ALWOILG IAN! LIGNVUL M SITEVNGINAd gq | NOILVINGN! & NOILVINENI z2vI6 win piovds viv =. Ct eel WI Pee SSN IEA ENS $A Fa Pp Pi a 8 Lo “ye rT a . \ 7 + eres _. (1 { ‘ NOILV INEM, T7IVds wiv J00e NOILWINSN! GISSVHW . . ‘om ove wootds ‘AVAIHNING " f CZLVINSN NSTANNG LINSVE ; oF FSAT ‘ EB o. bd i 7 : oe ied a” r, tha, al: 4sin . “y exe bun. sd must T Th Or. Mi ses a CRA TALC! oe oo . ! ’ ¥ CARS @ REICED 100 LBS. SALT) CARS @-REICEO} CARS ‘@revceo CA Qs L CA Aazstps say 70| Ay BSS e=Q== CAR A, TOP LAYER AVERAGE : en@=es CAR A, BOTTOM LAYER AVERAGE 3 28 CAR B, TOP LAYER AVERAGE | Qe CARB, BOTTOM LAYER AVERAGE ? mm QUTSIDE AIR FF 6"e aa Pes |) eee ret | See ING 1ST DAY 2ND0 DAY BRO se Pre=Coolins in Transit b: -icans of Salt Ilixed with the Ice Figure 26 = Note how quickly the temperatures in the "pre-cooled in transit" Car (A) fell, as compared with those in the "recular-iced" Oar (B). The temperature of the load in Car A is mich cooler on ar= rival at Chicaso on the second day than those In Car B. This chart gives the te:poratures in two cars of Louisiana strawberries. ig, —- iy St. atut layer splashbc -anilhasl . of 1 .sseur «uit te an the bo soor and h with a false | ‘nante tho tan | he ee ~ Pel 6~ 43 Produce Cars Produce cars are constructed the same as refrigerator cars, except that they do not have ice compartments nox false floors. Pieces of ice are sorstimes loaded on top of,or in with ,the load and a slisi:t amount of refrizeration given in this way. But the purpose of a produce car is mainly to keep out the outside heat in hot weather and to retain the heat of tne load in winter, Ventilated Box Cars Ventilated box cars are provided with openings for the outside air to enter. The distinsuisning factors are barred doors in place of tight doors, and openings along the sides and ends, ‘the greater part of the vegetable shipments from the South-Eastern states is ca.ried to market in these cars. Box Cars Yhen it is impossible to secure one of the above types, shipments are sometimes made in ordinary box carse They are used extensively in the winter potato movement from the Chateaugay and Lon; Island sections of New York and the Aroostock section in Maine, and occasionally from points farther west, Stock Cars he open construction of stock cars lends thom to use in ventilating Southern new potato shipments. However, they do not protect acainst sun and rain and have other disadvantares.e Pol T= REFRIGERATION Refrigeration depends largely upon the circulation of cool air from the ice~-bunkers through the load. The different practices are discussed below. Regular Icing Regular icing is the most customary method of refrigeration end consists of keeping ice in the bunkers from the time the car is loaded until it is wmloaded. For some kinds of produce, this is satis- factory, especially when the weather is moderate, the haml short, and the car of the best construction. Taken in conjunction with pre-icing, it is mich more effective. If precooling in transit is also practiced, the coldest terperatures are produced. Pre-Icing In m@my sections the shippers do not yet realize the value of pre-icing. This is the practice of icing cars several hours be~ fore loading. It cools the car, penetrating the insulation so that when the produce is loaded it cools more rapidly. Precooling. Precooling produce before it is loaded is practiced in cer tain sections, It results in lowering the temperatures more rapidly than has been possible in transit wntil recently. Figure 27 illus- trates some results obtained. However, because of the loss of time and 4S Tr OF Period (Averayo) the poars remained PICKTUG in good ccncition for market after picicins One ‘wo Throe four Fiye Six Seven “ight Wo@.. We@its Weeks Wodics Vogizs Wedks webks Tedics (A) Not [precooled. erofooied. (B) (A) Bartlett pears harvested at maturity in the Rogue River Valley (Oreson) and shivp-oed in rerfericorator cars direct to marict as soon as co.viercial practices in use Would perwit. (B) Bartlett pears harvestcd at maturity in the Rogue River Valicy (Oregon) and precooled aiid held in cold stora:e fcur wecl:s beLforo saioing to market. Totice trat this latter practice had the effect of extcndaing the Bartlett car scason about four weelzrs longer than was pos:ible without precoolin:;. In neither case were the po&rs placed in cold storaze afcor withdrawal froa the refericserator cars at rare Effects of Precooling Raspberries for Shipment. rigure 27 - Shipments of Raspberries from Puvallun, Vashincton to Grand Porkxs, North Dakota. Note the beneficial offects of this precooling. vml8= de difficulties in securing proper facilities, this process has not been as successful as many people exmected. Precooling in Trmait With false floors, basket ice-bunkers, solid ice~-bunker -bulkheads,and other improvements, it is now becoming possible to secure nearly the same results while the cars are moving as is possible by precooling. This is accomplished by pre-icing the cars and using large anmowmts of salt during the first few hours in trmsit. The results of this method,as compared with the nrecooling and with regular icing, are show in rigures 28 and 26. While the cooling rate is not quite as rapid as with precoolins, tnis loss is more than recompensed by the saving in time in getting the soods to market. It is necessary to warn that precooling in transit with salt and ice should be done only when solid insulated ice~bunker bulkheads are used, as otherwise, tere is danger of freezing the produce next to tne bulkheads. Initial Icing Only Under favorable conditions, it is often practicable to ice cars only at the time of loacing. This initial icing cools the shipment and the insulation of the car xceps the outside heat from raising the tenperatures unduly. Under any but.. the most favorable conditions, this method is unsatisfactory. VENTILATI ON Ventilation is probably the most importmt factor in trans- TOTAL ICE SUPPLIED 32830 LBS. emDee TOP LAYER, NEXT BUNKER == TOP LAYER, QUARTER LENGTH OF LOAD sues TOP LAYER, HALF LENGTH OF LOAD == BOTTOM LAYER, NEXT BUNKER =@= BOTTOM LAYER) QUARTER LENGTH OF LOAD — mimes BOTTOM LAYER, HALF LENGTH OF LOAD — OuTsiDE Al aaa te } - ‘ram showing cantaloupe temperatures in a car equipped with basket bunkers, insulated bulkheads, and floor racks. Salt in this car as’ shown in the diagram. The car was in transit from Brawley, Cal., to New York, N. Y., June 26 to Jvly A ¥ig. 3.—Diagram showing cantaloupe temperatures in a car equipped with basket bunkers bulkheads, and floor racks. This car was in transit from Brawley, Cal., to New Yor! to July 8, 1917. + - + -- -- es B Pre-Cooling in Transit Figure 28 = These two charts —- A and B = compare two cars of a shipment of Imperial Valley cantaloupe to New York:City. You will see that the temperatures in the "pre-cooled in transit" car (A) are mech more satisfactory than those in the "regular iced" car (B). The only difference in the two cars was that Car A had salt mixed with the ice during the first few hours in transit, while Car B did not, Ate ayy Udy u V rec) ul yp ye ‘BO 9 om Oo} ur ava = oo / s@ -¢XTOU aO[B 901 ot ue UT vd noyeyt yorting perishable goods. Vegetables, particularly, shrink and 48 shrivel rapidly if given too much ventilation, but this is preferable to the development of the fungus and bacterial decays that would come if the produce were kept without a ood supply of air. Ventilation in refrigerator cars is provided usually by opening the ice-hatches, If the car has false floors, the ventilation is more complete, In produce cars, there are usually special ventilators tha‘ can be opened or closed as is thought best. The construction and location of these ventilators vary. Ventilated box cars are usually provided with a small amount of insulation in the walls, but otherwise are the same as box cars except that they have permmently provided ventilators. These are opened or closed according to the instructions of the shipper, or in the absence of such, according to the re;sulations of the railroads. Box cars are often ventilated by fastening the doors partly Opene Some are also provided with small doors at each end which may be opened to give ventilation. Stock cars give abundant ventilation between the boards of the siding without special preparation. They do not protect against rain or the direct rays of the sim ancé are therefore suitable only for potato and root cropse Becaise of the excessive ventilation, there is a tendency for the produce to shrivel rapidly. —- P20- HEATING Heating in transit has not received the consideration in the past that the mnual loss from injury by cold would warrant. The first consideration is car construction, A well insulated car is use ually a good car for heating. Depending upon conditions, different mems of heating are used. Generally speaking, these rely upon some kind of a car heater, burning either oil, charcoal, coal, wood, alcohol; or sometimes they depend on steam, inesv are only temporary, with the exceptions later discussed under “heater cars." Pre-Heating If the weather is moderate, the car well-built, the haul short, and other conditions favorable, shivpers in mmy sections heat the car thoroughly before loadins:;, withdraw the heaters, seal the doors shut, and then send them tnrough,without acditional heating,to their destination. If this is done, particular care is usually necessary to provide additional insulation around the load, and to paper the door and ventilator openings to keep out possible cold winds. In liichigan and New York, the bulk of the potato crop is shipped this way. While the results are often very unsatisfactory, yet with intelligent care, mich can be accomplished. One of the greatest factors of success by this method is false floors. These should be about four inches in the clear, and should be supported by stringers running lengthwise (never crosswise) of the car. These provide for the interchange and the P-2l= . er equalization of temueratures around thre load so that some of the heat that rises from the lading; works around through the air passaces to the space beneath the false floor where the temperature is coldest. The false floor also keeps the lading from direct contact with tho car floor where there is most danger of freezing. Except where ventilation through the load is required, a tight false floor is better for pro- tection from cold than one that is spaced. Layers of straw and building paper between the floor and sides and the lading is usually considered to be of assistance, Local Heating Local heating is used in some sections, notably in the Idaho and Colorado potato country and in the California citrus fruit sec- tions. The greatest amount of freezing damage is along the floor at the doorways and at the ice-bunkers. TO0 overcoie this, local heating is adopted. That ist the practice of placing small heaters in the door- way or in the ice-bunkers, heating the nearby lading mostly by radia~ tion. With this method, the ice-bunker ventilator openings should be papered over amd the car prepared otherwise the same as for pre-heated cars sealed from the point of origin. Oil or charcoal heaters are used for local heating. Often these are taken out after the car has made part of its journey, as the heat will hold for some time thereafter, Heating by Circulation By far, the most reliable way of heating the car is by the circulation of a layer of warm air between tho outside of the car md the lading. This is the customary method for Pacific-—Northwestern | Pa22~ apples and for potatoes from liaine, Wisconsin, :Hinnesota, Washington, 47 the Chateaugay and Long Island Sections of New York, and other dise tricts. A single heater is placed in the car - usually in the doorway = or sometimes in an ice-bunker,. Ventilation openingss must be provided for the heated air to rise to the ceiling amd spread out over the ladimn;, then down through the ice-bunkers or constructed false end Walls; thence under the false floor where heating is needed, and back to the heater againe The openings for this circulation should never be less than four inches in the clear, smd should extend the full width of the car. It is wifortumate that not until the heated air has lost most of its warmth in passing along the ceiling does it cirmlate to the floor and offer amy protection. That, however, is the case, and consequently great care must be taken to make this circulation as free as possible. Some shavings or a few pieces of building paper working down beneath the false floor may almost completely block this circmlation, and the heated air will be ent up at the top of the car as a result. This frequently results in overheating; and destroying the top of the shipment, while at the same time there my be freezing at the floor, This condition is not usually harmful in moderate weather, But during cold weather when it is necessary to fire heavily, the warm air ac- cumlates at the top of the car causing injury. It will be noticed that the circulation method of protection does not depend upon heating the shipment itself. Its purpose is to provide a cushion of warm air between the shipaent mid the car floor and walls. “his permits the lading to retain its original tanperature which is precisely what should be desired. Coal and wood heaters PHid— are usually used with the cirmlation method, altnoush one co { \ occasionally finds charcoal or oil heaters. Wiile the above discussion on heating py circulation ap= plies primarily to refrigerator cars, practically the same cone ditions exist with produce and box cars. These types are not pro= vided with ice-bunkers and all heaters must be placed in the doorway. Tne circulation method of heating is the most satisfactory, esq pecially in box cars, although pre-heating as discussed above is sometimes done in produce oars. False end walls amd false floors mist be provided as illustrated in Figure 29.