AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TURKEY’ S FOREIGN
TRADE AND TRADE POLICIES IN AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTS

BY
I s m a i l H. S e n e r

A THESIS
S u b m itte d to tiie School of G ra d u a te S t u d i e s of M ichigan
S t a t e C o l l e g e o f A g r i c u l t u r e and A p p l i e d S c i e n c e
i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e - r e q u ir e m e n ts
f o r t h e d e g r e e of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
D e p a r t m e n t o f E c o n o m ic s
1948

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The w r i t e r w i s h e s t o e x p r e s s h i s s i n c e r e apprecia-*t i o n t o t h e members o f h i s a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e f o r t h e i r
e n c o u r a g e m e n t and v e r y h e l p f u l g u i d a n c e i n p r e p a r a t i o n
of t h i s s t u d y .

He i s p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l t o P r o f e s s o r

D r . L a w r e n c e W. W i t t , A g r i c u l t u r a l E c o n o m i s t , who g ave
g e n e r o u r s l y of h i s tim e i n r e a d i n g t h e e n t i r e m a n u s c r i p t
and rna.de many v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t i o n s and c r i t i c i s m s .

In

.

a d d i t i o n he was v e r y k i n d and p a t i e n t i n c o r r e c t i n g s e v e r a l
e r r o r s and r e p h r a s i n g

several sentences.

He i s a l s o v e r y g r a t e f u l t o P r o f e s s o r C l i f f o r d M.
H a r d i n o f E c o n o m ic s D e p a r t m e n t f o r h i s g r a c i o u s h e l p f u l ­
ness .
The w r i t e r w a n t s t o t h a n k P r o f e s s o r K a d r i B i l g e m r e
an d P r o f e s s o r D r. S a i t T. T e k e l o o f t h e I n s t i t u t e of
A g r i c u l t u r e of A nkara, Turkey f o r t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n in
se c u rin g c u rre n t d a ta used in t h i s stu d y .
R e c o g n i t i o n o f h e l p f u l n e s s i s due a l s o f o r t h e
fa c ilitie s

g r a n t e d b y t h e l i b r a r i e s of M i c h i g a n S t a t e

C o l l e g e , U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e , The
L i b r a r y of C o n g r e s s , New York C i t y P u b l i c L i b r a r y , and

b y t h e O f f i c e of F o r e i g n A g r i c u l t u r a l R e l a t i o n s .
F i n a l l y he w i s h e s t o e x p r e s s h i s d e ep g r a t i t u d e
t o t h e T u r k i s h Gov ern m ent f o r making i t p o s s i b l e f o r . him
t o c a r r y on h i s g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s i n t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n .
The w r i t e r a s s u m e s , of c o u r s e , f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r any e r r o r s and s h o r t c o m i n g s t h a t may b e p r e s e n t i n
t h i s study,
I s m a i l H. S e n e r

INTRODUCTION

T h i s s t u d y h a s two o b j e c t i v e s .

The f i r s t ,

t o exam­

i n e t h e p l a c e and t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e
f o r e i g n t r a d e of Turkey.

The s e c o n d , t o s t u d y a n d a n a l y z e

Turkey’ s f o r e i g n t r a d e p o l i c i e s in r e l a t i o n to i t s

ag ri­

cu ltu re.
The p e r i o d w h i c h i s e m p h a s i z e d i n t h i s
f r o m 19 2 3 t o 1947 i n c l u s i v e .

survey i s

T h is ' p e r i o d was s e l e c t e d

b e ca u se the R e p u b lic a n reg im e was e s t a b l i s h e d in Turkey
i n 1 9 2 3 , a n d th e p o l i c i e s of t h e new g o v e r n m e n t w e r e e n ­
t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e o f t h e f o r m e r Ottoman E m p i r e .
S i n c e many A m e r i c a n s a r e u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e c o u n t r y ,
a b r i e f s u r v e y of T u r k e y ' s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ( s u c h a s l o c a ­
t i o n , a r e a and p o p u l a t i o n , t o p o g r a p h y and c l i m a t e )

and

eco n o m ic r e s o u r c e s ( s u c h a s m i n i n g , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , i n d u s ­
t r y and a g r i c u l t u r e )
to p ics,

i s undertaken.

In an aly zin g th e se

e m p h a s i s i s g i v e n t h o s e p o i n t s w h i c h seem t o h a v e

most s i g n i f i c a n c e i n r e g a r d to t h e

c o u n try 's fo re ig n tra d e .

Because a g r i c u l t u r e i s t h e b a s i s of th e c o u n t r y 's
economy a s w e l l a s f o r e i g n t r a d e , two s e p a r a t e c h a p t e r s
a r e d e v o te d to tM .s s u b j e c t - o n e d e a l i n g w i t h the g e n e r a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of T u r k i s h a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e
w ith a g r i c u lt u r a l p ro d u c tio n .

second d e a lin g

In the fo rm er, a t t e n t i o n

i s g i v e n t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e economy
of t h e c o u n tr y , a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s , la n d t e n u r e , and farm

p ractices.

A b r i e f summary o f t h e r e c e n t s o c i a l a n d c u l ­

t u r a l changes i n th e p e asa n ts*

life

is s ls o included.

The r e a s o n i s t h a t t h e s e p e a s a n t s p r o d u c e t h e p r o d u c t s
w h i c h go i n t o f o r e i g n t r a d e c h a n n e l s .

I n t h e c h a p t e r on

a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n em phasis i s p l a c e d on the e x t e n t
o f p r o d u c t i o n and t r e n d s o f p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c t s i n t h e
country.

I n a d d i t i o n an e f f o r t i s made t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

p l a c e o f T u r k e y i n w o r l d a g r i c u l t u r e by p a r t i c u l a r c r o p s .
A f t e r t h i s b a c k g r o u n d on T u r k e y ’ s economy a n d a g r i
c u l t u r e , Turkey’ s f o r e ig n t r a d e
i s exam ined.

in a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c ts

I n d e a l i n g w i t h t h i s p a r t , t h e b a l a n c e of

f o r e i g n t r a d e of T u r k e y , e x p o r t and i m p o r t t r a d e , and
t h e p l a c e of a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e c o u n t r y ’ s f o r e i g n t r a d e
.by p r i n c i p a l

com m odities a r e g iv e n c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

Fur­

t h e r m o r e , d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r a d e by c o n t i n e n t and b y l e a d ­
i n g c o u n t r i e s i s e x a m in e d .
I n t h e f i n a l p a r t of t h e

survey c o n s i d e r a ti o n i s

given to Turkey’ s fo re ig n t r a d e p o l i c i e s in r e l a t i o n to
ag ricu ltu re.

I n exam ining t h e s e p o l i c i e s , T u rk e y ’ s g en ­

e r a l e co n om ic p o l i c y i s u n d e r t a k e n f i r s t .

H o w ev e r,

more p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s i s g i v e n t o p o l i c i e s i n t e n d e d
t o r e g u l a t e p r o d u c t i o n a nd f o r e i g n t r a d e .

The l a t t e r i n ­

c lu d e s e x p o rt and im p o rt m ea su re s, c u r r e n c y c o n t r o l s ,
c l e a r i n g s y s t e m o f t r a d e and r e c i p r o c a l t r a d e a g r e e m e n t s .
Since the country i s

developing r a p i d l y ,

a b rief

a n a l y s i s o f i t s p r o b a b l e f o r e i g n t r a d e d e v e l o p m e n t s and
p o l i c i e s i s u n d e r t a k e n i n c h a p t e r XVI.
I n o r d e r t o i n t e g r a t e t h e f i n d i n g s and t o g i v e t h e
r e a d e r a q.u ick g r a s p of t h e s t u d y summary a n d c o n c l u s i o n s
a re p la c e d i n the s e c t i o n f o llo w in g the f i n a l c h a p t e r of
part I I I .

'

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I n t r o d u c t io n
PART ONE
THE BASIS OF TURKEY'S EXPORT TRADE
I.

The G en eral C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f T u rk ey 's
A g r ic u lt u r a l R e so u r c e s
L o c a tio n
A rea
P o p u la t io n
Topography
C lim a te

II.

T u rk ey 's Econom ic R e so u r c e s

1

10
10
11
13

G en eral F e a tu r e s of T u rk ey 's A g r ic u lt u r e
Land Tenure
Farm P r a c t i c e s
A g r ic u lt u r a l C r e d it
S o c i a l and C u lt u r a l D evelop m en ts

IV .

1

1
3
4
5
6

M ining
T r a n s p o r ta tio n
I n d u s tr y
III.

■

A g r ic u lt u r a l P r o d u c tio n
C e r e a ls
Crops f o r I n d u s t r i a l U se
Legum inous Crops
F r u it s and N u ts
L iv e s t o c k

19
£0
£4
£5
£6
3£
3£
35
46
47
56

PART TWO

V.
V I.

TURKEY'S FOREIGN TRADE IN AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTS

6£

The B a la n c e o f F o r e ig n Trade

64

E x p o rt Trade o f Turkey

70

P age
The P la c e o f A g r ic u lt u r e i n E xp ort Trade
Im p o rta n t A g r i c u lt u r a l E x p o r ts
V II.

Im port Trade o f Turkey

89

The P la c e o f A g r i c u lt u r a l P r o d u c ts i n
Im port Trade
Im p o rta n t A g r i c u lt u r a l Im p orts
V III.

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T u rk ish Trade

71
7E

90
91

■

96

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Trade by L ead in g
C o u n tr ie s

98

PART THREE

IX .

TURKEY’S FOREIGN TRADE POLICIES IN RELATION
TO AGRICULTURE

112

G en eral Econom ic P o l i c i e s o f Turkey

.112

P r io r t o 1923
A f t e r 1923
X.

P r o d u c tio n M easures
P r o d u c tio n A id s
P r o d u c tio n R e s t r i c t i o n s

X I.

E xp ort M easu res
Q u a lity C o n tr o ls
E xp ort R e s t r i c t i o n s
O ther M easures

X II.

Im port M easu res
Im port D u tie s
Im port Q uotas and L ic e n s in g
Im port M o n o p o lies
W ar-tim e C o n tr o l o f Im p o rts
S a n it a r y R e s t r i c t i o n s

X III.

The Exchange C o n tr o l M easu res
C urrency D e v a lu a tio n

XIV.

O ther M easu res R e g u la tin g Trade
C le a r in g S ystem
Premium S y stem

. 1 1 2
116
121
121
12 8
131
131
133
135
136
136
144
147
149
149
151
154
158
15 8
166

Page
XV.

R e c ip r o c a l Trade A greem ent w ith th e
U n ite d S t a t e s
T a r i f f C o n c e s s io n s g r a n te d
T a r if f C o n c e s s io n s g r a n te d
U n ite d S t a t e s

XVI.
X V II.

by Turkey
byth e

169
171
172

F a t u r e P r o s p e c t s of T urkey’ s F o r e ig n
Trade

175

Summary and C o n c lu s io n s

182

S e l e c t e d B ib lio g r a p h y

190

Appendix

LIST OF TABLES
P age
I.
II.
III.
IV .
V.
V I.
V II.

The B a la n c e o f F o r e ig n Trade o f Turkey

65

V alu e o f A g r i c u lt u r a l P r o d u c ts and P e r c e n ta g e
o f T o ta l E x p o rt of Turkey

73

V alu e o f T u rk ish Im p o rts o f A g r i c u lt u r a l
P r o d u c ts Compared w ith T o ta l Im p o rts

92

P e r c e n ta g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T u r k e y 's F o r e ig n
Trade by C o n tin e n ts

97

P e r c e n ta g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T u r k e y 's E x p o rt
Trade by L ea d in g C o u n tr ie s

99

P e r c e n ta g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T u r k e y 's Im port
Trade by L ea d in g C o u n tr ie s

100

T u rk ish Im port D u t ie s on A g r i c u lt u r a l Com­
m o d it ie s

141

APPENDIX TABLES
Page
1.

The U n it s cf T u rk ish M easu res i n term s o f
A m erican U n it s

i

2.

Y e a r ly A verage o f L ir a i n term s o f D o lla r

ii

5.

V alue o f P r i n c ip a l E x p o r ts o f Turkey
(P a r t 1)

iii

4.

V alu e o f P r i n c i p a l E x p o r ts o f Turkey
(P a r t 2)

iv

5.

Volume o f P r i n c ip a l E x p o r ts o f Turkey
(P a r t 1)

v

6.

Volume o f P r i n c i p a l E x p o r ts of Turkey
(P a r t 2)

vi

7.

V alue o f T u rk ey’ s Trade w ith P r i n c i p a l
C o u n tr ie s

8.

V alu e o f P r i n c i p a l A g r i c u lt u r a l Im p o rts
o f Turkey

9.

Volume o f P r i n c i p a l A g r i c u lt u r a l Im p o rts
o f Turkey

10.

V alu e o f M anufactured Im p orts o f Turkey

11.

T urkey’ s E x p o r ts of T obacco t o P r i n c i p a l
C o u n tr ie s

12.

Number o f L iv e s t o c k i n Turkey

13.

A creage and P r o d u c tio n o f P i e l d Crops i n
Turkey

14.

Numbers and P r o d u c tio n o f P r i n c i p a l E r u t t
T rees

15.

The B a la n c e o f Trade o f th e Ottoman Empire

v ii
v iii
ix
x
xi
x ii
x iii
x iv
xv

PART OME
THE BASIS OF TURKEY'S
EXPORT TRADE

CHAPTER I
THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TURKEY’ S
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
The b a s i s and th e

s t r u c t u r e o f e a c h n a t i o n ’ s economy

and f o r e i g n t r a d e t e n d to be d e ter m in e d by i t s n a t u r a l
r e s o u r c e s , su ch a s l o c a t i o n , a r e a and p o p u la t io n , p h y s i c a l
n a tu re , s o i l ,

c l i m a t e , and th e r e l a t i v e abundance or s c a r ­

c i t y o f la n d , l a b o r , arid c a p i t a l .

A b r i e f , d e s c r i p t io n

of t h e s e f a c t o r s a s th e y a re in Turkey i s n e c e s s a r y a t t h i s
p o in t a s a background f o r l a t e r d i s c u s s i o n s .
L o c a tio n
The T u rk ish R e p u b lic i s s i t u a t e d a t th e m e e tin g
p o in t o f Europe and A s ia , s t r e t c h i n g from t h e 3 6 th t o 42nd
d e g r e e s o f N orth L a tit u d e and from th e 2 6 th t o 4 4 th d e g r e e s
o f E a s t L o n g itu d e .

I t i s made up o f two p a r t s , Turkey i n

A s ia ( A n a t o l i a ) , and Turkey in Europe (T h r a c e ).

H ow ever,

o n ly a sm a ll p o r t i o n , 3 .1 p e r c e n t o f th e c o u n t r y ’ s t o t a l
a r e a , i s l o c a t e d i n E u rop e.

B etw een t h e s e two p a r t s t h e r e

a r e th e S t r a i t s o f B o sp h o r u s, w h ich l i n k s t h e B la c k S ea
w ith th e in la n d S e a o f Marmara, and th e D a r d a n e lle s w h ich
c o n n e c ts th e Marmara S ea w it h t h e M ed iterran ean .'*’

It

sh o u ld be k e p t I n mind t h a t t h e s e s t r a i t s a r e o f im p o rta n ce
b e c a u se th e y s e r v e an im p o r ta n t p a r t i n th e n a t i o n a l and

■^See map f o l lo w in g p age 3 .

2

in te r n a tio n a l tr a d e a s w e ll a s p o l i t i c a l l i f e

of T urkey.

For c e n t u r i e s , th e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f th e w o r ld ’ s g r e a t h ig h ­
w ays o f tr a d e and commerce h a v e b e e n w i t h i n th e T u rk ish
E m pire.

Throughout h i s t o r y , b ig and im p o r ta n t pow ers h ave

so u g h t t o c o n t r o l th e s t r a i t s and h ave u n d erta k en numerous
d ip lo m a t ic and m i l i t a r y cam p aign s a g a i n s t T urkey, a s w e l l
as a g a in s t each o th e r .

In s p i t e o f a l l th e s e c o n f l i c t s ,

T urkey s a f e l y g u a rd ed th e s t r a i t s and s u c c e s s f u l l y d e fe n d ­
ed them e a c h t i m e ,
T urkey, f o r i t s

s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n , i s c ia lle d "a

b r id g e b etw een A sia and E u rop e" , or "b etw een E a s t and W est" ,
" th e c r o s s r o a d s of th e w o r ld " , "a k ey t o th e E a s t" 2 , and
now adays, i s

c o n s id e r e d a b a r p r o t e c t i n g th e B r i t i s h L i f e -

L in e and th e A m erican i n t e r e s t s i n th e N ear E a s te r n Coun­
tr ie s .

N ap oleon a p p r e c ia t e d t h i s , a lth o u g h he o v e r s t a t e d

i t , when he d e c la r e d i n 1807 t h a t "He who c o n t r o l s C on stan ­
t i n o p l e r u l e s th e w orld ." ®
T hroughout h i s t o r y , T urkey’ s c o n v e n ie n t l o c a t i o n
e n a b le d h e r t o tr a d e s u c c e s s f u l l y w it h th e r e s t o f th e w o r ld ,
e v en un der a p oor t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy s te m , and a t t h e same
2

Tobim, C h e s te r M. T u rk ey. Key t o th e E a s t , G. P .
Putnam ’ s S o n s . New Y o rk , p . 4 3 .
® B ess, D em aree, "Up To Our N eck s i n T urkey", The
S a tu r d a y E v e n in g P o s t , (J a n u a ry 2 5 , 1 9 4 7 ) , p . 9 7 .

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- K rai, L e P a v s d e K a m a l A ta tiirk • {Editions w. Hiaumulter, Vicnne-L.eipzi«).

time a tta ch ed to her a s t r a t e g ic p o l i t i c a l im portance which
tempted the fo r e ig n powers to p e n e tr a te and dominate the
cou n try.

For c e n tu r ie s , Turkey*s com m ercially p r o f it a b le

lo c a t io n , t h e r e f o r e , has been an economic a s s e t , as w e ll
as a p o l i t i c a l l i a b i l i t y , fo r the n a tio n .
At p r esen t Turkey i s bordered by Greece and B u lgaria
on the w est; by S y ria and Iraq on th e south; and by Iran
and the U .S .S .R . on th e e a s t .

The s e a s bathing Turkey*s

c o a s ts a re the Black Sea in th e n o r th , th e Aegean in the
w e st, and th e M editerranean in th e so u th .

Marmara i s an

in lan d sea between the D ard an elles and th e Bosphorus.

These

four se a s p rovid e Turkey w ith a c o a st lin e of 4 ,1 0 8 m ile s .
Area
Turkey h as a land area of 896,1854 square m ile s ,
which i s about o n e-te n th o f the s iz e of th e U nited S t a t e s ,
or f i v e tim es la r g e r than the s t a t e of M ichigan.

Its

la r g e s iz e i s a p p recia ted on ly when one r e a liz e d th a t i t
i s la r g e r than any country in Europe, e x c e p t S o v ie t R u ssia .
Turkey i s even la r g e r than a l l the o th er Balkan c o u n tr ie s
combined (B u lg a ria , G reece, Rumania, Y u g o sla v ia , and A lb an ia )•

4Lakes and m arshes n o t in clu d ed .
5

These f i v e Balkan c o u n tr ie s have a t o t a l area of
890,876 square m ile s . (F ig u res com piled from th e World
Almanac. 1946, New York W orld-Telegram, pp. 377-385TT

4

As i t has "been s t a t e d b e fo r e , on ly 3 .1 percent o f i t s land
area i s in Europe.

As f a r a s area i s concerned, t h i s s e c ­

t io n i s r a th e r i n s ig n if ic a n t , but i t i s ex trem ely im portant
from commercial and s t r a t e g ic sta n d p o in ts.

Indeed, i t con­

t a in s two o f the cou n try’ s most im portant c i t i e s , Ista n b u l
and E d irn e, and ca u se s the land-encom passed s t r a i t s to be
com p letely w ith in the b oundaries o f Turkey.
P op u la tio n
The p o p u la tio n o f Turkey h as in d ic a te d a stea d y
growth, in c r e a sin g from 1 3 .6 m illio n in 1927 to 1 6 .1 m illio n
in 1935, and from 1 7 .8 m illio n in 1940 to 1 8 .9 m illio n in
19456 .

D esp ite t h i s ra p id growth, th e d e n s ity of i t s popu­

la t io n i s o n ly 63 per square m ile , compared w ith 48 in th e
U. S . and 93 in M ich igan .7
In p o p u la tio n Turkey i s la r g e r than each of the n eig h ­
boring s t a t e s , w ith the e x c e p tio n o f R u ssia ; but a s fa r as
the d e n s ity of p o p u la tio n i s concerned, i t i s the most
t h in ly p op u lated country in Europe, ex cep t R u ssia .

However,

because of a remarkably h igh b ir t h r a t e (27 per 1 ,0 0 0 which

^Unless o th erw ise in d ic a te d , th e s t a t i s t i c a l data
on Turkey are taken from Annuaire S t a t l s t i q u e s . O ffic e Cen­
t r a l de S t a t is t iq u e , Republique Turque, Ankara.
7
In 1945 u. S . had an estim a ted p o p u la tio n o f 140
m illio n and Michigan 5 .5 m illio n .

5

i s one o f th e h ig h e s t in the w orld) and d ecr ea sin g in fa n t
m o r t a lit y , Turkey*s p o p u la tio n i s in c r e a sin g a t a fa v o ra b le
r a te compared w ith oth er c o u n tr ie s .

In another quarter o f

a cen tu ry , i t may exceed tw enty f i v e m illio n .
The g r e a te r p o r tio n o f th e in h a b ita n ts are s e t t l e d
on th e north c o a s t and on the borders of th e Aegean and
Marmara S ea s.

About 75 p ercen t o f th e p o p u la tio n i s r u r a l,

l i v i n g p rim a rily in sm all v i l l a g e s ; and the rem aining 25
p ercen t i s urban.
in h a b ita n ts .

There are 10 c i t i e s w ith more than 50,000

Of t h e s e , Ista n b u l i s th e l a r g e s t , w ith a

p op u lation o f 850,000 in 1945.

Other,

c i t i e s in order o f

importance a re the c a p it a l o f Turkey, Ankara, 228,000;
Izm ir (Smyrna) 200,000; Adana, 8 0 ,0 0 0 .

About 98 p ercen t

of the p o p u la tio n are T urkish, the rem aining 2 p ercen t are
m o stly Jews, Armenians, and G reeks.
A d m in istr a tiv e ly , th e country i s d iv id ed in to 6 3
d is tr ic ts .
Topography
T op ograp h ically, Turkey i s m ountainous.

Turkey in

A sia i s formed o f a s e r ie s o f p la te a u s a t a lt it u d e s va ry in g
from 6,000 f e e t in th e e a s t to 2,600 f e e t in C entral Ana­
to lia .

'These’ ta b le la n d s are bordered by mountain ch a in s

running from e a s t to w e st along the Black Sea c o a s t, in th e
n orth,an d alon g the M editerranean in th e so u th .

The w estern

©

p art o f Turkey c o n s is t s of m asses o f mountain ra n g es running
p erp en d icu la rly to the Aegean c o a s t , which i s furrowed by
narrow v a l l e y s , forming p e n in su la s and is l a n d s .

The e a s t ­

ern s e c t io n o f the country i s bordered by very high moun­
t a in s which r i s e to 1 5,700 f e e t above se a l e v e l a t A rarat.
The rough, m ountainous ch aracter o f a la r g e p a rt of th e coun­
tr y has produced innumerable r iv e r s which d ig t h e ir way
out and meander through the deep v a lle y s u n t il th ey reach
th e c o a s t.

A ll t h e s e r iv e r s are w ild in w in ter and e a r ly

sp r in g , and s lu g g is h in summer.
se a .

Many f a i l to reach the

K izilirm a k i s one o f th e la r g e s t o f Turkish r iv e r s

being about 550 m ile s in le n g th , but i f i t were s t r a ig h t
i t would be no more than 1E5 m ile s lo n g .

There i s no n a v ig ­

able r iv e r i n Turkey, but in many c a se s th e r iv e r s h elp
by adding f e r t i l i t y to the s o i l .
There are s e v e r a l la k e s .

Aake Van i s the la r g e s t

(1 ,4 7 5 sq . m ile s) w ith w aters too s a lt y fo r organ ic l i f e .
The second la r g e s t la k e i s S a lt Lake, the w ater of which
i s s a l t i e r than any oth er la k e in th e w orld, in clu d in g
the Dead Sea in P a le s t in e .

F ollow in g ev a p o ra tio n in the

summer, a bed o f s a l t ranging from 24 to 30 in ch es in th ic k ­
n ess i s exposed and g a th e red .
Clim ate
There are a few c o u n tr ie s in the world th a t have a
g r e a te r v a r ie t y of s o i l s and c lim a te s than Turkey but n ot
many.

Turkey i s very probably more d iv e r s if ie d in t h i s

7

r e s p e c t than any oth er cou n try in the w orld.

In f a c t , i t

i s c a lle d "Asia Minor", f o r i t has a l l the s o i l s and c lim a t­
i c c h a r a c t e r is t ic s of the co n tin en t o f A sia as a w h ole.
The c lim a te o f Turkey in Europe has been lik en ed to
th a t o f o th e r p a r ts o f c o n tin e n ta l Europe; th e c lim a te
o f the w estern and southern c o a s ta l r e g io n s w ith th a t of
southern C a lifo r n ia ; the c lim a te o f C entral A n a to lia w ith
th a t of C entral A sia and the R ussian step p es; the c lim a te
o f e a ste r n Turkey w ith th a t of Montana and Wyoming.
The Black Sea re g io n has a moderate c lim a te , w ith
an annual tem perature averagin g 58 d eg rees F ah ren h eit;
74 p ercen t h um id ity, 1 -2 days snow co v ered , 40 to 80 in c h e s
r a i n f a l l w ith a maximum o f 175 in ch es in th e n o rth ea stern
9
corn er, which p ro v id es a c lim a te fo r t e a and h i l l - r i c e
grow ing.

The c lim a te p r e v a ilin g in t h i s r e g io n i s b e s t fo r

the growing o f h a z e ln u ts , f r u i t s , and to b a cco .
Along the Aegean and M editerranean c o a s t s , the sum­
mers are h o t, d ry , and r a i n l e s s , y e t very p le a sa n t; w in te r s
very m ild and r a in y w ith an annual average tem perature of
65 d egrees F ah ren h eit; 65 p ercen t h u m id ity, no snow, 20 to
40 in ch es o f p r e c ip it a t io n .

The c lim a te i s much warmer in

th e so u th ea stern corner of th e M editerranean, the tem pera­
tu re averagin g 68 d eg rees F ahren heit and the p r e c ip it a t io n
ft

Data on clim a te com piled and con verted from th e Bul­
l e t i n s o f the C en tral Weather Bureau o f Turkey.
^Since t h is s e c tio n o f country r e c e iv e s enough ra in
during th e growing se a so n , r ic e i s grown on h i l l s w ithout
a r t if ic i a l ir r ig a tio n .

8

41 in c h e s , th u s p ro v id in g a su b tr o p ic a l c lim a te .

Because

o f the c lim a t ic c o n d itio n s p r e v a ilin g on the M editerranean
c o a s t, experim ents have been made w ith c o f f e e , j u t e , and
rubber t r e e s .

The l a t t e r two have a lrea d y g iv e n good r e s u lt s

and have been in trod u ced in to th e cou n try’ s a g r ic u ltu r e .
The Aegean r e g io n i s s u it a b le fo r the growing of c o tto n ,
to b a cco , g ra p es, o l i v e s and f i g s .
Turkey’ s c o a s ta l a r e a s p la y a v e r y im portant r o le
in the ex p o rt tra d e of the c o u n tr y .

In f a c t , more than

h a lf of the v a lu e of Turkish exp ort products i s produced in the
c o a s ta l area.

For exam ple, in 1938, 84 m illio n xu rk ish

l i r a s (65 m illio n d o lla r s ) ou t o f th e t o t a l v a lu e o f e x p o r ts ,
(145 m illio n ) i s accounted f o r by s i x o f the p rod u cts of
the c o a s ta l d i s t r i c t s ---- to b a cco , h a z e ln u ts , s e e d le s s
r a i s i n s , d ried f i g s , c o t t o n , and o l i v e o i l s .
In the e a s te r n

p a rt th e w in te r s are v ery lo n g and

the summers v e r y sh o r t, w ith an annual tem perature averag­
in g 40 d egrees F ah ren h eit; 64 p ercen t h u m id ity, 90-120
days snow covered , 21 in c h e s p r e c ip it a t io n .
The c lim a te of

the C entral P la tea u i s s u b je c t to

wide v a r ia tio n s because o f the f a c t th a t i t i s e n c ir c le d
by mountains which cut o f f much of the p o s s ib le r a i n f a l l .
In summer t h is p la te a u i s very dry w ith an average hum idity
of 20 p e r c e n t, h o t and burnt up, and in w in te r very c o ld ,
snow covered, w ith a y e a r ly average tem perature of 53

9

d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e it; 1 0 -1 2 in c h e s p r e c i p i t a t i o n , and 50
p e r c e n t h u m id ity .

T h is a r e a i s e x c e l l e n t f o r c e r e a l p r o ­

d u c tio n and a l s o g i v e s a s u p e r io r q u a l i t y to the w ool
o f A ngora g o a t s (m o h a ir ).
G e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , i n th e c o a s t a l a r e a s t h e suiim ers
a re lo n g e r th a n i n th e C e n tr a l P la t e a u s and th e E a s te r n
H ig h la n d s , bu t th r o u g h o u t th e la n d t h e h o t t e s t m onths of
the y e a r are J u ly and A u g u s t.

The c lim a t e i s v e r y m ild in

th e c o a s t a l a r e a end s e v e r e on th e c e n t r a l p la t e a u and t h e
E a ste r n H ig h la n d s .

G radual ch a n g e s i n c lim a t e o c cu r a s

one g o e s from th e c o a s t t o th e i n t e r i o r , w ith th e r a i n f a l l
d e c r e a s in g and th e a v e r a g e an n u al te m p e r a tu r e f a l l i n g a c - .
c o r d in g ly .

L e a v in g th e ^ la c k >,ea r e g io n o u t o f c o n s id e r a ­

t i o n , Turkey h a s a b a r e ly a d e q u a te an n u al p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
w ith r a in s f a l l i n g m o s tly i n th e w in te r m o n th s.
From t h i s e x p la n a t io n th u s f a r i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t
Turkey p r e s e n t s a lm o st a l l k in d s o f c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s .
The m o u n ta in s and s e a s b o r d e r in g th e c o u n tr y a r e t h e p r i n ­
c i p a l f a c t o r s w h ich c r e a t e su ch a d i v e r s i f i e d c lim a t e i n
th e c o u n tr y .

10

CHAPTER I I
TURKEY’ S ECONOMIC RESOURCES
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g a b r i e f summary o f T u r k e y ' s e c o n ­
omic r e s o u r c e s , o t h e r t h a n a g r i c u l t u r e , se em s n e c e s s a r y a s
a complem entary b a c k g r o u n d .

In t h i s s e c tio n a b r i e f d is - ,

c u s s io n w i l l be g iv e n t o T u r k e y 's m in e r a l r e s o u r c e s , t r a n s ­
p o r t a t i o n a nd i n d u s t r i e s w h i c h d o , i n one way o r a n o t h e r ,
a f f e c t the c o u n t r y 's f o r e i g n t r a d e in a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s .
M ining
Turkey p o s s e s s e s v a s t m in e r a l d e p o s i t s , b u t few
h ave b e e n e x p l o i t e d on a c o m m e r c i a l s c a l e .

Because o f the

l a c k of t r a n s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s most o f t h e m ines rem ain un­
developed.
th e country,

In o rd e r to ex plore f o r m ineral re s o u rc e s in
t h e T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t f i r s t f o r m e d an i n s t i t u t e

o f m i n i n g , and t h e n a b a n k , n a m e l y , " E t i Bank" w h i c h u n d e r ­
t o o k t h e f i n a n c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f T u r k i s h m i n e s and e l e c ­
t r i c power.

The p r i n c i p a l m i n e s of T u r k e y p r o d u c e c o a l ,

c h ro m e , c o p p e r , l i g n i t e , b o r a x , z i n c , e m e r y , m a n g a n e s e ,
iron, s ilv e r-le a d ,
There are a l s o

and t h e r e a r e v e r y l a r g e s a l t r e s o u r c e s .

some g o l d , m a r b l e , and m e e r s c h a u m .

D iscov­

ery o f o i l has been r e p o r te d but d e t a i l s a re not a b a i l a b l e .
Among t h e m i n e s , chrome p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e ,

a nd T u r ­

k e y i s one o f t h e l e a d i n g c o u n t r i e s i n t h e w o r l d i n t h e
p r o d u c t i o n and e x p o r t t r a d e o f chro m e.

With t h e g r a d u a l

e x t e n s i o n of t h e r a i l w a y s y s t e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e i m p o r t ­
a n t c o p p e r r e g i o n o f E r g a n i , and u n d e r t h e i m p e t u s o f t h e

11

s e c o n d 5 ~ y e a r i n d u s t r i a l p l a n o f 1 9 5 7 , more a c t i v e e x p l o i t ­
a ti o n of m ineral re s o u rc e s has taken p la c e .
T ransp ortatio n
In g e n e ra l Turkey’ s t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s are
very poor.

A l t h o u g h t h e r a i l r o a d p o l i c i e s of new T u r k e y

a r e e x p r e s s e d b y th e m o t t o ,

’’A lw ays more r a i l r o a d s f o r t h e

c o u n t r y ” , t h e e x i s t i n g l i n e s s t i l l f a l l f a r - s h o r t of t h e
country’ s needs.

There a r e o n ly 4 ,6 2 5 m i l e s of r a i l r o a d

l i n e i n T u r k e y o r a b o u t 1 . 5 f e e t p e r p e r s o n co m p a red w i t h
9 f e e t in the U nited S t a t e s ,

a nd 6 f e e t i n Germany.

The s t a t e owns a n d o p e r a t e s 4 , 2 7 4 o u t o f 4 , 6 2 5 m i l e s
an d t h e r e m a i n i n g 250 m i l e s a r e owned b y p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s .
B e fo re t h e R e p u b lic a n reg im e th e r a i l r o a d s i n Turkey were
a l l c o n s t r u c t e d by b i g f o r e i g n p o w e r s .

T h e ir m a jo r aim i n

b u i l d i n g r a i l r o a d s i n T u r k e y was n o t d e s i g n e d t o u n i f y
d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y , b u t t o b u i l d an o v e r l a n d
r o u t e t o I n d i a and t h u s t o c o n n e c t i t w i t h E u r o p e .

Most

of th e f o r e i g n com panies c o n tin u e d t h e i r o p e r a t i o n u n t i l
t h e e n t i r e r a i l r o a d s y s t e m was a c q u i r e d by t h e Gov ern ment
i n 1957.
Turkey h a s a few a l l - w e a t h e r r o a d s , t o o .

There a r e

a b o u t 16,768 m i l e s of s u rf a c e d r o a d s , i n c l u d i n g 1 0,56 2
m i l e s o f w a t e r - b o u n d macadam r o a d and 5 , 2 5 4 m i l e s o f i m p r o v e d
e a r t h , s a n d , c l a y , and g r a v e l r o a d .

C onsiderably l e s s a t ­

t e n t i o n h a s b een p a i d by t h e gov ern m e n t t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

12

and m aintenance o f roads than to the development of the
r a ilw a y s.
One im portant reason fo r th e la c k of tr a n sp o r ta tio n
i s the g eo g ra p h ica l f a c t o r .

The m ountains p revented the

co n str u c tio n of adequate highw ays, because i t was too ex­
p en siv e to undertake b u ild in g roads over such t e r r a in .
One American ex p ert in h is re p o r t about Turkey’ s
economy d escrib ed the tr a n sp o r ta tio n s it u a t io n by s t a t in g
th a t "w ithin the p o l i t i c a l boundaries o f Turkey are a hun­
dred ’l i t t l e Turkeys’ each eco n o m ica lly is o la t e d from the
r e s t and u s u a lly producing a f r a c t io n a l p a rt - o n e -th ir d to
o n e-ten th of i t s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s .

O bviously the stren g th

o f Turkey cannot approach th e sum of i t s p a r ts u n t il th ey
can be added together."^®
C onsiderable e f f o r t s have been made by the government
to improve and exten d the cou n try’ s sh ip p in g p o s it io n .

A fte r

Turkey’ s r ig h t o f cabotage was acknowledged by th e Lausanne
T reaty in 1923, th e merchant marine in crea sed r a p id ly from
3 2 ,9 0 2 to n s in 1923 to 165,000 in 1945; and w ith the pur­
chase of 20 more sh ip s in 1946 and 1947 th e tonnage reached
about 250,0 0 0 .
There are f i v e p r in c ip a l p o r t s , namely, I s ta n b u l,

Thornburg, Max W., Turkey: "Aid fo r •'What?*’
F ortune, O ctober, 1947, p . 106.

155

Izm ir (Smyrna), M ersin, Iskenderan, and Samsun.1^
bul i s the most im portant p o rt in Turkey.

Ista n ­

In 1939 i t handled

about 76 p ercen t o f a l l im ports and 35 p ercen t o f a l l ex­
p o r ts .

Izm ir, th e second most im portant p o r t, accounted

fo r 7 p ercen t of a l l im ports and 30 p ercen t of a l l e x p o r ts.
Samsun, th e most im portant p o rt on th e Black Sea i s good
fo r anchorage, but i s exposed and i s about a m ile from th e
town.

There i s o n ly one sa fe.h a rb o r in t h i s s e c t io n of

the co u n try , namely S in ob , but i t has not much v a lu e from
commercial sta n d p o in t.

Two new p o r ts have been under con­

s tr u c tio n on th e Black S ea , one a t Trabzon, and the o th er
at Zonguldak.
In d u stry
The p r im itiv e economic and p o l i t i c a l system o f the
Ottoman Empire and th e v a r io u s c a p it u la tio n s and c o n c e ssio n s
to fo r e ig n e r s p aralyzed Turkish independence in r e s p e c t to
custom p o l i c i e s , which g r a d u a lly reduced Turkey to a so r t
of in te r n a tio n a l c o l o n y .^

B efore the in d u s t r ia l r e v o lu tio n

in Europe, Turkey had an in d u str y s u f f i c i e n t to m eet the
n a tio n * s requirem ents and even c a r r ie d on an ex p o rt tr a d e .
Turkey did not keep pace w ith the te c h n ic a l p ro g re ss of
w estern Etirope during th e 19th c e n tu r y .

See map.
*2See Chapter IX.

Home in d u str y

14

g ra d u a lly d eclin e d s in c e th e dom estic and p rim a rily handi­
c r a f t in d u stry was not a b le to compete w ith th a t o f fo r e ig n
p ro d u cts.

Thus Turkey was reduced to a country producing
13
p rim a rily a g r ic u ltu r a l p ro d u cts.
As soon as the Ottoman Empire became th e R epublic
o f Turkey in 1923, one o f th e f i r s t o b je c t iv e s o f th e new
government was the in d u s t r ia liz a t io n of th e cou n try.

The

new regime d ecla red i t s p h ilo so p h y by s t a t in g th a t "Economic
freedom i s the b a s is o f p o l i t i c a l independence."
With t h i s economic p h ilo so p h y th e Turkish govern­
ment f i r s t d ecid ed to se p a r a te the dom estic economy from
domination by fo r e ig n economic in flu e n c e .

The ex p e r ie n c e s

of the o ld regim e had convinced th e government th a t c o n c e ssio n s
to fo r e ig n e r s had not been a s a fe gu ide f o r th e development
o f the cou n try’ s economy.
Turkey cou ld n o t s t a r t an in d u s t r ia l program immedi­
a t e ly a f t e r th e i n s t a l l a t i o n of the R ep u b lic.

As a m atter

o f f a c t , th e esta b lish m en t o f a n a tio n a l in d u stry in a coun­
tr y which had become an open market to a l l f o r e ig n coun­
t r i e s could on ly be r e a liz e d by a p o lic y p rovid in g adequate
p r o te c tio n .

But Turkey was not au th orized by the term s of

th e Lausanne T reaty to in c r e a se h er t a r i f f r a t e s u n t il 1929.
Therefore,- n a tio n a l in d u str y was stim u la ted by l e g i s l a t i o n
13
R epublic of Turkey, M in istry of I n t e r io r , Turkey
on th e way o f i n d u s t r ia l iz a t io n . Ankara, 1937. pp. 5 -9 .

15

known a s "The Law f o r the Encouragement of In d u stry ” en­
acted in 1927.

According to the p r o v is io n s o f t h i s law ,

in d u s t r ia l firm s having 1500 or more man-days work per
year were exempt from a l l k in d s o f s t a t e and m unicipal
ta x es.

They a ls o enjoyed f u l l exem ption from import d u tie s

fo r fo r e ig n m a te r ia ls n ece ssa r y to such f a c t o r i e s ,

Firms

in te n d in g to en te r in d u str y were gran ted 10 h e c ta r e s (2 4 .7
acres) o f f r e e la n d , and a ls o f r e e tr a n sp o r ta tio n of equip­
ment, m achinery, and o th er m a te r ia ls to he used in the con­
s tr u c tio n o f p la n t s .

Furtherm ore, a l l government d ep art­

ments were o b lig e d to buy t h e ir requirem ents from dom estic
so u r c e s, even though th e p r ic e o f d o m e s tic a lly produced
goods was a s much a s 10 p ercen t h ig h er than th a t o f a sim i­
la r imported p ro d u ct.
D esp ite th e se g r e a t encouragem ents of p r iv a te e n te r ­
p r is e , up to 1933, in d u stry made very slow p r o g r e ss.

T his

was due p a r t ly t o the la c k o f p r iv a te c a p i t a l , i n e f f i c i e n t
in d u s t r ia l o r g a n iz a tio n , la c k o f s k i l l e d e n g in e e r s , and
p a r tly because of th e d ep ressed b u sin e ss c o n d itio n s in the
world during 1 9 2 9 -* 3 3 .

T h erefore, in 1933 th e s t a t e decided

to tak e an a c t iv e p a rt in the in d u s t r ia liz a t io n o f th e coun­
try .
The F ir s t 5-Year plan was announced by the government
in June, 1934.

The rea so n s advanced fo r a program o f in d u s­

t r i a l i z a t i o n m ainly ce n ter ed upon th e c o n sid e r a tio n o f en­
a b lin g the country to meet i t s own req u irem en ts.

This id ea

16

o f d e v e l o p i n g t h e i n d u s t r y of t h e c o u n t r y f o u n d f u r t h e r e n ­
c o u r a g e m e n t i n t h e d e p r e s s i o n y e a r s a s a wa y t o f i n d means
o f employm en t f o r t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e by u s i n g them i n t h e
newly i n a u g u r a t e d i n d u s t r i e s .
The F i r s t 5 - Y e a r p l a n a c c o m p l i s h e d much i n t h e p r o ­
d u c t i o n o f c o n s u m e r ’ s goods'.

Almost a l l t h e i n d u s t r i a l

d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n n e d u n d e r t h i s p r o g r a m was c o m p l e t e d b y 1 9 3 9 .
They c o n s i s t e d o f t h o s e i n d u s t r i e s f o r w h ic h r a w m a t e r i a l s
w e re f o u n d o r c o u l d be p r o d u c e d w i t h i n t h e c o u n t r y .
i n d u s t r i e s wore t e x t i l e s
cellu lo se
silk ),

( c o t t o n , w o o l e n , hemo, and s i l k ) ,

(paper, cardboard, c e llu lo s e ,

th e ceram ic i n d u s t r y

lea th e r tan n eries,
in d u stry (iron,

and a r t i f i c i a l ,

( g l a s s , b o t t l e s , and p o r c e l a i n ) ,

sh o e f a c t o r i e s ,

coal,

These

sem i-coke,

a t t a r of r o s e s , th e m ining

copper,

chrom e, s u l p h u r ,

e t c . ) , and b a s i c c h e m i c a l s .
P r o g r e s s - on t h e S e c o n d 5 - Y e a r p l a n ,
1 9 3 7 , was i n t e r r u p t e d by " o r l d "Aar I I .

inaugurated in

The war i n t e r f e r e d

w i t h s u p p l i e s of m a c h i n e r y and e q u i p m e n t f o r m e r l y o b t a i n e d
i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , n o t a b l y Germany.

T h i s p l a n was d e s i g n e d

t o g i v e T u r k e y t h e b a c k b o n e o f a n e c o n o m i c s y s t e m ----heavy i n d u s t r y .

The Second 5 - Y e a r p l a n c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e

developm ent of e l e c t r i c power, s t e e l , and chem ical i n ­
d u s t r i e s , food p r e s e r v a t i o n ,

and p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s , m i n e r a l

d e v e l o p m e n t , and m e r c h a n t m a r i n e .
t h e i r o n end s t e e l f a c t o r y ,

Of t h e s e p r o j e c t s o n l y

th e f i r s t g e s t u r e of genuine

17

econ om ic p ow er, and the f i r s t r e a l g u a r a n te e o f econ om ic
in d e p e n d e n c e , had begun p r o d u c tio n by S ep tem b er, 1 9 3 9 .
The p l a n t s f o r t h e m an u factu re o f s u l f u r i c a c i d , c a u s t i c
so d a , and c h l o r i n e , h o w ev e r, rem ained u n f in is h e d .

D e s p it e

advanced c o n s t r u c t io n , th e p r o p o se d s y n t h e t i c g a s o l i n e and
s y n t h e t i c n it r o g e n p l a n t s w ere abandoned.
The S econ d 5 -Y ea r i n d u s t r i a l p l a n , o f w h ic h , a s
i n d ic a t e d a b o v e , a s m a ll p a r t was co m p leted b e f o r e 1 9 4 0 ,
had t o b e p o stp o n e d b e c a u s e o f th e w a r .

A f t e r r e e x a m in a tio n

and w ith some m o d i f i c a t i o n s , th e program g o t under way a g a in
in 1947 and i s e x p e c te d t o be f i n i s h e d by 1 9 5 2 .
To a s s i s t i n t h e c o m p le tio n and o p e r a tio n o f t h e s e
i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s two b a n k s , n am ely, E t i Bank and Sumer
Bank w ere e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e g o v ern m en t.

The Et-i Bank was

form ed f o r th e p u rp o se o f e x p l o i t i n g and d e v e lo p in g th e m in e r ­
a l r e s o u r c e s and e l e c t r i c a l pow er f a c i l i t i e s o f T u rk ey.
The Sumer Bank i s r e s p o n s ib l e f o r th e c o n t r o l and d e v e lo p ­
ment o f a l l th e i n d u s t r i e s o t h e r th a n m in in g and e l e c t r i c
pow er.
A t t h i s p o in t th e q u e s t io n may b e a s k e d , "What w as
th e c o n d it io n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d u s t r i e s ? "
t h a t a g r ic u l t u r e w as n e g l e c t e d .

I t m igh t be s a id

No d e f i n i t e a t t e n t i o n was

g iv e n b y th e governm ent t o c o n v e r t in g a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c ts
i n t o p r o c e s s e d fo o d m a t e r i a l s .

The o n ly o u ts ta n d in g a c h ie v e ­

m en ts a r e t h e su g a r r e f i n e r i e s , t e a p r o c e s s in g f a c t o r y , and

18

some b e e r and w in e f a c t o r i e s .

B e fo r e th e R e p u b lic th e r e was

n o t a s i n g l e su g a r f a c t o r y i n th e c o u n t r y .
f i r s t su gar r e f i n e r y w as b u i l t .

2

-

In 1905 th e

A fte r th a t d a te , th r ee

more w ere e r e c t e d i n d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s o f t h e c o u n tr y .
W ith t h i s background k n ow led ge o f a g r i c u l t u r a l and
econ om ic r e s o u r c e s i t

i s a p p r o p r ia t e to a n a ly z e th e g e n e r a l

f e a t u r e s o f T u rk ey’ s a g r i c u l t u r e .

19

CHAPTER I I I
GENERAL FEATURES OF TURKEY’ S AGRICULTURE
Turkey i s p r e d o m in a n tly an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o u n tr y .
H ow ever, t h i s d o e s n o t mean t h a t m ost o f th e c o u n t r y ’ s
la n d i s u se d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s .

Even i f

i t w ere

t r u e , su ch a s i t u a t i o n a lo n e w ould n o t p r o v e t h a t a g r i c u l ­
tu r e i s th e dom inant b ran ch o f economy i n a c o u n tr y .
One way o f i l l u s t r a t i n g th e im p o rta n ce o f a g r i c u l ­
t u r e in a c o u n tr y ’ s economy i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e th e p e r c e n ta g e
o f th e p o p u la t io n g a i n f u l l y e n g a g e d i n fa r m in g .

D e s p it e

c o n s id e r a b le e f f o r t s h a v in g b een made by th e R e p u b lic a n
governm ent to i n d u s t r i a l i z e th e c o u n tr y , th e r e h a s n o t b een
any im p o rta n t s h i f t o f p o p u la t io n fro m a g r i c u l t u r e .
p r e s e n t a b o u t 75 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la t io n i s

At

engaged o r

d ep en d en t upon a g r i c u l t u r e .
The seco n d m ethod o f sh ow ing t h a t Turkey i s predom­
i n a n t l y a g r i c u l t u r a l i s to c o n s id e r t h e sh a r e o f a g r i c u l ­
t u r e in th e n a t i o n a l economy and f o r e i g n t r a d e .

In 1942

a g r ic u l t u r e c o n s i s t e d o f 5 8 . 314 p e r c e n t o f th e n a t io n a l
in co m e, w h ile d u r in g prew ar y e a r s 80 t o 87 p e r c e n t (b y v a lu e )
o f T urkey’ s t o t a l e x p o r t s w ere a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s .^ 5

G e lir i,

^•4 T. C. I s t a t i s t i k G en el M udurlugu, T u rk ly e M i l l l
( N a t io n a l incom e o f Turkey) A nkara, 1 9 4 7 , p . 1 4 .
^5S e e T ab le H o n p a g e

73

20

C o n sid e r in g t h e s e f a c t s , i t i s e v id e n t t h a t a g r i c u l ­
tu re i s

th e fo u n d a t io n o f th e n a t i o n a l econom y o f T urkey,

as w e ll as th e b a s is o f i t s e x p o r ts .
As f a r a s la n d a v a i l a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r e i s c o n c e r n e d ,
Turkey i s t h e o n ly c o u n tr y in E u ro p e, e x c e p t R u s s ia , where
th e r e i s an abundance o f la n d .

Y et u n t i l 1934 ab ou t 1 5 .3

p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l a r e a o f th e c o u n tr y w as c u l t i v a t e d .
T h is p r o p o r tio n r o s e t o 1 8 .4 p e r c e n t ( 1 6 .6 p e r c e n t i n / f i e l d
c r o p s , 1 .8 p e r c e n t in h o r t i c u l t u r a l c r o p s ) i n 1 9 4 4 , t h a t i s ,
an in c r e a s e o f 20 p e r c e n t i n . 10 y e a r s .

P a s t u r e s and meadows

count f o r 5 0 .2 p e r c e n t , f o r e s t s 1 5 . 3 , and th e r e m a in in g 1 6 .1
p e r c e n t c o n s i s t s o f m o u n ta in s, w a s te la n d , l a k e s and m a r sh e s.
There i s room f o r much f u r t h e r e x p a n s io n o f a r a b le la n d .
I n f a c t , much o f th e la n d r e c o r d e d a s p a s t u r e s and meadows
i s a v a ila b le f o r a g r ic u ltu r a l u s e s .
Land Tenure
The f a c t t h a t 2 ,8 7 0 ,0 0 0 -1-6 farm f a m i l i e s c u l t i v a t e d
1 4 ,2 8 6 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s 17 ( 3 4 .2 m i l l i o n a c r e s )

i n 1944 i n d i c a t e s

t h a t t h e s i z e o f farm u n i t s i s r a t h e r s m a ll, a v e r a g in g a b o u t
50 d e k a r s18 ( 1 2 .3 a c r e s ) .

H ow ever, i f we in c lu d e th e la n d

16

T h is f i g u r e c a l c u l a t e d on t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t e a c h
farm f a m ily u n i t c o n s i s t s o f 5 p e r s o n s and 75 p e r c e n t o f th e
p o p u la t io n a r e en g a g ed i n fa r m in g .
17
One h e c t a r e i s 2 .4 7 a c r e s .
1 8 0ne d ek ar i s 0 .2 4 7 a c r e .

(S ee A p p en d ix , T ab le I )

21

used f o r p a s t u r e ,
acres).

t h e s i z e w i l l be 161 d e k a r s ( a b o u t 40

C onsidering only c u lt i v a t e d la n d , a c ro ss s e c tio n

o f T u r k e y shows a g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e s i z e of f a r m u n i t s
from w est t o e a s t , b u t c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s i n i n d i v i d u a l
h old in g s.
fig s,

I n t h e ' w e s t e r n p a r t o f T u r k e y wh e re g r a p e s , o l i v e s ,

to b a c c o , and c o t t o n a r e l a r g e l y p ro d u ce d , t h e av erag e

f a r m u n i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y u n d e r 30 d e k a r s i n s i z e .

The a v e r ­

age h o l d i n g p e r f a m i l y i s h i g h e s t i n t h e C e n t r a l P l a t e a u ,
a m o u n t i n g t o 100 d e k a r s .
income l e v e l i s h i g h .
i s s t i l l v e ry low .

But t h i s d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e

In f a c t , th e t e c h n i c a l l e v e l of farm ing

B e c a u s e of an a c u t e s h o r t a g e o f c a p i t a l ,

t h e r e i s a w i d e u s e o f wooden p l o w s , wooden r a k e s ,
h a n d -m a d e i m p l e m e n t s .
a n im a l . s .

and o t h e r

Oxen a r e commonly e m p lo y e d a s d r a f t

Lack of p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s a l s o a n o t h e r f a c t o r which

f o r c e s t h e u s e o f an e x t e n s i v e t y p e o f f a n n i n g i n t h i s a r e a .
I n t h e e a s t t h e r e a r e l a r g e c a t t l e and s h e e p r a n g e s
b u t o n ly a sm all a r e a i n c ro p s .

I n th e s o u th t h e s i z e of

t h e a v e r a g e f a r m u n i t i s a r o u n d 50 d e k a r s and up t o 100 i n
t h e d i s t r i c t s w h e r e c o t t o n i s gro w n .

I n th e Black Sea a r e a

the s iz e of h o ld in g s i s the sm a lle st in th e co u n try , averag in g
4 to 6 dekars.
T h e r e a r e t h r e e i m p o r t a n t t y p e s of l a n d o w n e r s h i p
i n Turkey.

D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e Ottoman E m p i r e some

l a n d s w e r e g r a n t e d t o t h e Moslem c h u r c h .
l a r g e a c r e a g e s o f l a n d owned by s t a t e .
i n d iv i d u a l ow nership.

There a re a ls o
The t h i r d t y p e i s

The l a n d b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s t a t e o r

22

m oslem church i s g e n e r a ly l e a s e d i n sm a ll h o ld in g s hy
p e a sa n ts.

A f t e r e i g h t y e a r s o f c o n tin u o u s o p e r a t io n , th e y

may a c q u ir e t i t l e

t o th e la n d th e y have w orked.

t h i s la n d , h o w ev er, i s

Some o f

o p e r a te d by t h e church o r s t a t e .

F or e x a m p le, a t p r e s e n t a b o u t 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s o f la n d
(a b o u t 3 7 0 ,0 0 0 a c r e s )
o p e r a te d fa r m s .

i s p la n te d t o c e r e a l s i n 13 s t a t e

T h e ir m ain o b j e c t i v e i s t o r a i s e im proved

se e d f o r f r e e d i s t r i b u t i o n to f a im e r s , and a l s o t o demon­
s t r a t e th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f modern m eth ods o f fa r m in g .
B e s id e s t h e s e , t h e r e i s t h e common la n d owned b y e a c h v i l l a g e ,
w h ich i s u sed m o s tly f o r p a s t u r e .

L arge h o l d i n g s , 5 ,0 0 0 to

1 0 ,0 0 0 d ek a rs and i n some c a s e s ev en 3 0 ,0 0 0 to 5 0 ,0 0 0 d e k a r s ,
are l a r g e l y t o b e fou n d i n t h e so u th w here l a r g e - s c a l e
p r o d u c tio n o f s i n g l e c r o p s su ch a s c o t t o n i s

c o n c e n tr a t e d .

The la n d o w n ers h a v in g l a r g e e s t a t e s a r e u s u a l l y a b s e n t e e s
and o p e r a te i n one o f two s y s t e m s .

The la n d i s d iv id e d

i n t o sm a ll h o ld in g s o p e r a te d by p e a s a n t s who pay a c e r t a i n
p r o p o r tio n o f t h e i r p r o d u c tio n a s r e n t t o th e la n d lo r d ;

th e

seco n d from i s h i r i n g o f an a g e n t who o r g a n iz e s p r o d u c tio n
and m a r k e tin g w ith th e h e lp o f h ir e d l a b o r e r s .

I t sh o u ld

be k e p t i n mind t h a t n o t a l l o f th e p e a s a n t s l i v i n g i n v i l l ­
a g e s own or ev en r e n t th e la n d th e y w ork .

I t i s e s t im a t e d

t h a t 1 2 8 ,0 0 0 farm f a m i l i e s have no la n d , w h il e a b o u t 8 7 2 ,0 0 0
19
own v e r y s n a i l p l o t s .
The l a n d l e s s p e a s a a t s work m a in ly

■^Turkey’ s A g r i c u lt u r a l Land Law", F o r e ig n A g r i c u lt u r e ,
U .S .D .A ., Septem ber 1 9 4 5 , p . 1 4 3 .

23

on la r g e h o ld in g s as a g r ic u ltu r a l la b o r e r s and r e c e iv e
t h e ir rem uneration sometimes in kind and sometimes in money.
P easan ts having sm all h o ld in g s work fo r wages on th e land
o f t h e ir r ic h e r n eig h b o rs, or c u lt iv a t e t h e ir own, or they
work in o th e r in d u s t r ie s , such as m ining and r a ilr o a d const^ruction, during the w in te r and e a r ly s p r in g .
In v ie w o f t h i s u n eq u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f la n d among
th e fa rm e rs t h e T u rk ish govern m ent p a s s e d l e g i s l a t i o n known
a s "The Law P r o v id in g Land f o r D‘a im ers" on June 1 1 , 1 9 4 5 .
The s t a t e d p rim ary o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s la w a r e :

(1 ) t o p r o ­

v id e la n d t o l a n d l e s s p e r s o n s and t o t h o s e h a v in g h o ld in g s
to o s m a ll t o su p p o rt t h e i r f a m i l i e s :
s t a t u s o f th e a g r i c u l t u r a l w o rk ers;

t h u s t o r a i s e th e
(2 ) t o in s u r e t h e con ­

t in u o u s c u l t i v a t i o n o f th e c o u n tr y ’ s la n d ;

(3 ) t o b r in g

u n c u lt iv a t e d a r e a s i n t o p r o d u c tio n and th u s i n c r e a s e th e
a g r i c u l t u r a l o u tp u t o f Turkey;

(4) t o c r e a t e a new e r a i n

o w n ersh ip o f la n d among a l a r g e body o f th e p o p u la t io n .
A c co r d in g to t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n , fa rm a ra re c l a s s i f i e d a s t o
s i z e i n t o th r e e g r o u p s , s m a ll, medium, and l a r g e .

S m a ll

farm s c o n s i s t of 500 d e k a r s o f la n d o r l e s s i n s i z e ; medium,
t h o s e o f 501 t o 5 ,0 0 0 d e k a r s; and l a r g e , t h o s e c o m p r isin g
more th a n 5 ,0 0 0 d e k a r s .

L arge farm s a r e n o t t o b e owned by

i n d i v i d u a l s b u t by th e s t a t e .

When la n d i s d i s t r i b u t e d ,

A g r i c u lt u r a l Bank ta k e s a m ortgage on th e p r o p e r ty w h ich i s
t o be r e p a id by t h o s e r e c e i v i n g t h e la n d in tw e n ty an n u al
p a y m en ts, w ith o u t i n t e r e s t , b e g in n in g i n Janu ary o f th e
s i x t h y e a r a f t e r th e in d e b te d n e s s c o n t r a c t i s e x e c u t e d .

An

24
}

im p o r ta n t p r o v i s i o n i s on e w h ich s t i p u l a t e s t h e d e d u c tio n
o f 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e r e m a in in g i n s t a l l m e n t s from th e d e b t o r ’ s
o b l i g a t i o n f o r each o f h i s c h ild r e n when th e y rea c h p rim ary
sch o o l age.

A s p e c i a l fu n d i s a u t h o r iz e d , fro m w h ich th e

A g r ic u lt u r a l Bank w i l l f u r n is h c r e d i t to p u r c h a s e r s f o r
b u i l d i n g s , a g r i c u l t u r a l e q u ip m en t, and im provem ents f o r i n su r in g th e y e a r l y c u l t i v a t i o n o f th e s o i l .

SO

Farm P r a c t i c e s
F e r tiliz e r

(com m ercial and m anure) i s u se d e x t e n s i v e ­

l y on farm s l o c a t e d in

th e

c o a s t a l d i s t r i c t s , b u t seld om

in th e C e n tr a l P la t e a u

and E a s te r n H ig h la n d s .

The c o ld w in ­

t e r p r e v a i l i n g i n t h e s e a r e a s and th e la c k o f f u e l f o r c e
fa rm e rs t o u s e t h e i r manure a s s u b s t i t u t e f o r f u e l .

There

i s no d e f i n i t e crop r o t a t i o n i n any p a r t o f th e c o u n tr y .
With th e e x c e p t io n o f th e c e n t r a l and s o u th e r n r e ­
g io n and w e s te r n v a l l e y s , Turkey i s n o t a d a p te d t o t h e e x ­
t e n s i v e u se o f l a r g e a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h in e r y , such as t r a c ­
t o r s and c o m b in e s.

As

t i o n o f th e c o u n tr y i s

was p o in t e d o u t e a r l i e r , a la r g e p o r ­
m o u n ta in o u s.

F u rth e rm o re , la n d i s

d iv id e d by o w n ersh ip i n t o sm a ll o p e r a tin g u n i t s .

In th e

w e ll- d r a in e d v a l l e y s th e la n d i s d iv id e d i n t o s m a ll u n i t s o f
5 t o 10 d e k a r s .

Each f aim er h a s a number o f t h e s e sm a ll

u n i t s s c a t t e r e d th r o u g h o u t th e c u l t i v a t e d a r e a .

20I b i d .V PP. 1 4 2 - 4 4 .

A ll th e se

25

f a c t o r s l i m i t th e u se of a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h in e r y .

H ow ever,

on th e c o t t o n farm s a g r i c u l t u r a l m a ch in es are w id e ly u s e d .
In 1 9 4 0 t h e r e were 1066 t r a c t o r s , 7,496 g r a in d r i l l s , 1 3 ,8 9 7
h a r v e s t e r s , and 4 5 0 ,8 9 2 p lo w s o f a l l k in d s i n the c o u n tr y .
A g r ic u lt u r a l C r e d it
As f a r a s a g r i c u l t u r a l c r e d i t i s c o n c e r n e d , c o n s id e r a b le 'e f f o r t s have b een u n d erta k en by th e

sta te .

In 1937

t h e r e w ere 591 c r e d i t c o o p e r a t iv e s w it h a m em bership o f
2 2 3 ,r_ 6 7 2 .

By 1945 th e number o f c r e d i t c o o p e r a t iv e s r o s e

t o 617 w ith b r a n c h e s s c a t t e r e d i n 5 , 7 4 9 . v i l l a g e s , and w ith
a m em bership c o n t r a c t o f 2 2 5 ,0 6 9 .

T h ese a g r i c u l t u r a l c r e d i t

c o o p e r a t iv e s a r e back ed and c o n t r o l l e d by a so u n d ly e s t a b ­
l i s h e d s t a t e A g r i c u lt u r a l Bank.

T h is ban k , w h ich w as form ed

in 1 8 9 9 , a id s fa r m e r s th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y , and g r a n t s l a r g e
lo a n s f o r p r o d u c tio n and im provem ent p u r p o s e s .
g u a r a n te e s a f i x e d p r i c e f o r w h e a t.

I t a ls o

A lth o u g h th e c o o p e r a ­

t i v e movement f i r s t s t a r t e d i n 1 8 6 3 i n T u r k e y ,2^* t h a t i s ,
19 y e a r s l a t e r th an t h a t o r i g i n a l l y known a s "R ochdale c o ­
o p e r a tiv e " e s t a b l i s h e d i n E n glan d i n 1 8 4 4 , t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l
c o o p e r a t iv e s had n o t b een a b l e to advance i n th e c o u n tr y b e ­
c a u se o f th e la c k o f e d u c a tio n o f th e p e a s a n t .
i t is

Of c o u r se

s t i l l backward compared w ith th e o th e r n a t io n s o f

E u ro p e.

The aim o f governm ent p o l i c y i s t o expand th e a g r i V

c u l t u r a l c r e d i t and m a rk etin g c o o p e r a t iv e s among th e f a r m e r s .

2^The M in is t r y o f I n t e r i o r , The D evelopm ent o f N a t io n a l
Banking i n T urkey, A nkara, 1 9 3 8 . p . 2 2 .

26

I n 1937 p r o d u c tio n and s a l e s c o o p e r a t iv e s were e s t a b l i s h e d ,
w h ich a r e c o n t r o l l e d by th e M in is t r y o f Commerce, b u t backed
by th e S t a t e A g r ic u lt u r a l Bank.

T hese o r g a n iz a t io n s a r e ,

a s s u g g e s te d by t h e i r nam es, c o o p e r a t i v e s w h ich s e l l a t w h o le ­
s a l e th e p r o d u c ts o f p r o d u c e r s .

The p r o d u c tio n and s a l e s

c o o p e r a t iv e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d around t h e s e o r g a n iz a t io n s :
F ig and R a is in League o f Smyrna, H a ze ln u t L eague o f G iresum ,
C o tto n League o f Adana, P i s t a c h i o L eague o f G a z ia n te p , and
I s t a n b u l F r e sh F r u it and V e g e ta b le L e a g u e .

T hese o r g a n iz a ­

t i o n s p la y a v e r y im p o r ta n t r o l e i n th e c o u n t r y ’ s e x p o r t
tr a d e o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p r o d u c t s .

About 40 p e r c e n t o f

th e f i g s and r a i s i n s , 50 p e r c e n t o f th e h a z e ln u t s and 70
p e r c e n t o f th e p i s t a c h i o s e x p o r te d a r e h a n d le d by t h e s e
o r g a n is a tio n s .
S o c i a l and C u ltu r a l D evelop m en ts
At t h i s s t a g e a b r i e f summary o f r e c e n t s o c i a l and c u l ­
t u r a l ch a n g es i n th e p e a s a n t ’ s l i f e

i s a p p r o p r ia t e .

The

r e a s o n i s t h a t th e y p rod u ce th e p r o d u c ts w h ich go i n t o f o r e i g n
tr a d e c h a n n e ls and i t

i s th ro u g h th e s a l e o f t h e s e p r o d u c ts

t h a t Turkey s e c u r e s exch an ge t o buy i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t s ,
la r g e ly c a p ita l good s.

& stu d y o f t h e f o r e i g n t r a d e and

tr a d e p o l i c i e s o f a c o u n tr y w ith o u t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
g e n e r a l background o f i t s

s o c i a l p ro b lem s u n d o u b te d ly i s

in c o m p le te .
L ook in g back t o th e p e r io d o f th e Ottoman Empire i t

27

i s s e e n t h a t th e T u rk ish p e a s a n t s l i v e d v i r t u a l l y a s s e r f s
and s l a v e s in t h e i r hom eland .

,J-he in t r o d u c t io n o f t h e c u l ­

t u r a l , e d u c a t io n a l and s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n ts, w hich had been
t a k in g p la c e i n Europe f o l lo w in g t h e F ren ch and I n d u s t r i a l
R e v o lu t io n s , was n e g l e c t e d and a v o id e d i n Turkey b y th e S u l­
ta n s.

They f o llo w e d a p o l i c y w h ich w as in the m ain, h e d o n is ­

t i c and s e l f i s h .

To m a in ta in t h e i r s u l t a n a t e th e l a t e r

s u l t a n s t r i e d t o i s o l a t e th e n a t io n from t h e r e s t o f th e
w o r ld .

Few s t u d e n t s w ere g iv e n p e r m is s io n t o s t u d y abroad

'

f o r f e a r t h a t t h e y m igh t t r y t o in t r o d u c e new id e a s and awak­
en th e n a t i o n ,

so t h a t i t m igh t e v e n t u a l l y r e v o l t a g a in s t

th e s u l t a n h i m s e l f .

In o r d e r to d is c o u r a g e th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f

t h e new d e v e lo p m e n ts in to , t h e c o u n tr y , t h e s u l t a n s , u se d
th e ir r e lig io u s a u th o r ity .

Thus t h e T u rk ish p e a s a n t , who

a t t h a t tim e composed a b o u t 95 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la t io n ,
liv e d a l i f e

dom inated by t h e a n c ie n t cu sto m s and t r a d i t i o n s

w h ich w ere outmoded e ls e w h e r e .
T h is s i t u a t i o n p r e v a i l e d u n t i l th e r i s e o f Kemal A ta tu r k and th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e new r e p u b lic a n r e g im e i n
1923.

R e a liz in g th e im p o rta n ce o f a g r i c u l t u r e to th e p e a s ­

a n t s who fo u g h t f o r f i v e m ore y e a r s f o l l o w i n g World War 1 ,
in th e War o f T u rk ish In d ep en d en ce a g a i n s t a l l i e d N a t io n s ,
Kemal A ta tu r k , le a d e r and f i r s t p r e s i d e n t o f th e c o u n tr y ,
d e c la r e d when th e R e p u b lic was fo u n d ed "The p e a s a n t s a r e th e
m a s te r s o f ou r c o u n tr y ."

By t h i s s ta te m e n t he d id n o t i n ­

te n d t o i n d i c a t e a c l a s s d is c r im in a t io n w i t h i n th e c o u n tr y ,

28

b u t i t was an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t governm ent p o l i c i e s w ere t o
be d e s ig n e d t o p r o v id e a b e t t e r l i f e

f o r th e m a j o r it y o f

th e p e o p l e , r a t h e r th an a m in o r it y a s i t had b een under
th© Ottoman regim e .
A f t e r th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e T u rk ish R e p u b lic on
Septem ber 2 9 , 1 9 2 3 , th e C a lip h a te was a b o lis h e d i n 1 9 2 4 ,
and a l l m oslem s c h o o l s , c o n v e n ts and c a n o n ic a l c o u r t s were
r e p la c e d by modern s c h o o l s and c o u r t s .

The p e a s a n t was

f r e e d o f t i t h e s and o f some o t h e r t a x e s .

Thus o c c u r r e d

t h e rem oval o f th e ham pering r e l i g i o u s i n f l u e n c e s , f o llo w e d
by th e a b o lish m e n t o f th e "Fez" and v e i l , and th e n t h e adop­
t i o n of th e S w it z e r la n d c i v i l c o d e , L a t in a lp h a b e t s , Wes­
t e r n num bers, G eo rg ia n c a le n d a r , and th e l i n g u i s t i c r efo rm a ­
t i o n , t h a t i s , r e p la c e m a n t o f A ra b ia n and P e r s ia n w o r d s ,
w hich w ere common among th e e d u c a te d p e o p l e , by T u r k ish .
The T u rk ish woman who u se d to l i v e a s a p r is o n e r a t home,
and under th e v e i l and o u t e r garm ent on th e s t r e e t , w as
g iv e n r i g h t s e q u a l w ith man.

She can now go t o s c h o o l , e n t e r

any p r o f e s s i o n s h e l i k e s , work in any govern m ent o f f i c e s ,
and h a s th e r i g h t to v o t e and be a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n th e
Grand N a t io n a l A sse m b ly , and a c a n d id a te f o r an y m u n ic ip a l
o ffic e .
T h ese s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l ch a n g es in Turkey a r e
summed by an A m erican a u th o r: i n M s book t i t l e d
o f C o n t in e n ta l Europe" i n w h ich h e s t a t e s :

"Governm ents

" th e r e i s no

more s t r i k i n g c h a p te r i n th e h i s t o r y o f p o l i t i c s th a n t h a t
o f t h e t r a n s fo r m a tio n o f Turkey in our own tim e from a

29

q u a s i - f e d e r a l r e g i m e , b a s e d on t h e m i l i t a r y o c c u p a t i o n
of conquered t e r r i t o r y ,

t o a m o dern s t a t e ” .

22

The new e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m i s r e a c h i n g a s t e a d i l y
i n c r e a s in g p r o p o r t io n of Turkey’ s p o p u la tio n .

I n 1924

t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f e d u c a t e d p e o p l e was a b o u t 5 p e r c e n t .
A f t e r t h e a d o p t i o n o f L a t i n c h a r a c t e r s on November 1 ,
1 9 2 8 , t h i s f i g u r e r o s e and w a s 16 p e r c e n t by 1 9 3 5 .

I t is

e s t i m a t e d t h a t i t - r e a c h e d and e x c e e d e d 40 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 4 5 .
D e s p i t e g r e a t e f f o r t s made by t h e g o v e r n m e n t , t h e
m a j o r i t y of t h e P e a s a n t s w h o , l i v e i n s m a l l v i l l a g e s a r e
still

illite rate .

T h i s i s one o f t h e g r e a t e s t o b s t a c l e s

to p r o p e r development i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r e of t h e c o u n t r y .
I n 1940 T u r k i s h f a r m f a m i l i e s l i v e d i n 3 4 , 0 2 4 v i l l a g e s ,
which 26,221 each had a p o p u l a t i o n o f l e s s th a n 500.
9 , 1 9 8 o f t h e v i l l a g e s had s c h o o l s .

of

Only

In view of t h i s - f a c t ,

a law e n a c t e d i n 1940 p r o v i d e s t h a t f i f t e e n - y e a r o l d f a r m
g irls

and b o y s who h a v e a l r e a d y c o m p l e t e d t h e f i v e y e a r s ’

c o u r s e a t a v i l l a g e s c h o o l be s e n t t o v i l l a g e i n s t i t u t e s
f o r f i v e more y e a r s t o s t u d y s u c h t h i n g s a s a p p l i e d m o dern
m ethods of f a rm in g , h a n d i c r a f t ,

and n u r s i n g .

I n 1945 t h e r e

w e r e o v e r 1 5 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s and a n a v e r a g e o f 3 , 0 0 0 a r e t h u s
b e i n g g r a d u a t e d e a c h y e a r f r o m 21 i n s t i t u t e s .

The G o v e r n ­

ment P l a n i s t h a t by 1950 e v e r y v i l l a g e w i l l h a v e i t s

own

S h o t w e l l , l a m e s 'f.
G o v e r n m e n ts of C o n t i n e n t a l
E u r o p e , New Y o r k , 1 9 4 6 , p . 3 1 .

30

s c h o o l w i t h a t r a i n e d t e a c h e r t o e d u c a t e f a r m c h i l d r e n and
t a k e an a c t i v e a n d i n t i m a t e p a r t i n i m o r o v i n g f a r m l i f e

in

the c o u n tr y .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e V i l l a g e I n s t i t u t e s . , by a law e n ­
a c t e d i n 1 9 4 3 t h e Mi&ifetry of A g r i c u l t u r e w a s a u t h o r i z e d
to e s t a b l i s h

t e c h n ic a l a g r i c u l t u r a l s c h o o ls wherever i t

deemed n e c e s s a r y .

By t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n , f a r m b o y s who g r a d u a t e

from p rim a ry s c h o o l a r e s e n t t o t h e s e s c h o o l s f o r t h r e e
y e a r s ’ study of e i t h e r p r a c t i c a l h o r t i c u l t u r e o r g e n e ra l
ag ricu ltu re.

Boys t r a i n e d a t t h e s e s c h o o l s a r e t o b e f u r ­

nished w ith a l l

t h e modern a g r i c u l t u r a l e q u i p m e n t , a m odel

f a r m h o u s e and l a n d t o f a r m .

T h e s e t r a i n e d young f a r m e r s ,

when t h e y go b a c k t o t h e i r v i l l a g e s , a r e t o f o l l o w modern
fa rm in g methods s u i t a b l e t o t h e i r d i s t r i c t s u n d e r t h e a d v ic e
o f c o u n t y a g e n t s , so a s t o be g u i d e s t o t h e b e t t e r m e n t of
th eir v illag es.

At p r e s e n t t h e r e a r e s e v e n t e c h n i c a l a g r i ­

c u l t u r a l s c h o o l s i n t h e c o u n t r y , two f o r h o r t i c u l t u r e and
fiv e for general a g ric u ltu re .
B e s i d e s t h e s e s c h o o l s , t h e r e a r e two s c h o o l s f o r
a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e r y , f o u r a g r i c u l t u r a l h i g h s c h o o l s , and
an I n s t i t u t e

o f A g r i c u l t u r e ( U n i v e r s i t y ) w h ic h c o n s i s t s of

five fa c u ltie s

( s c h o o l s ) , nam ely, a g r i c u l t u r e , v e t e r i n a r y

m e d ic in e , f o r e s t r y , a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d u s t r y , and n a t u r a l s c i e n c e .

^ R e p u b l i c o f T u r k e y , M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n , E d u c a t i o n
i n T u rk e y , A n k a ra , 1946, p p. 3 , 4 , 15.

31

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e a r e a number o f a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p e r i m e n t
s t a ti o n s , n u r s e r ie s , s t a t e farm s, stu d -farm s for h o rse s,
c a t t l e and s h e e p , p e s t a n d p l a n t c o n t r o l s t a t i o n s , and so
f o r t h , o p e ra ted throughout the c o u n try .

T hes e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s

a r e u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e t o
h e l p i n one way o r a n o t h e r t o i m p r o v e f a r m e d u c a t i o n and
p r a c t i c e s i n Turkey.

32

CHAPTER IV
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
C e r e a ls
S in c e Turkey p o s s e s s e s a v a r i e t y o f c lim a t e s and
s o i l s , many k in d s and ty p e s of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c ts a r e
grown i n th e c o u n tr y .

Among th e c r o p s , c e r e a l p r o d u c tio n

i s b y f a r th e m ost im p o r ta n t a g r i c u l t u r a l e n t e r p r i s e i n
T urkey, from b o th an econom ic and s o c i a l s t a n d p o in t .
88 p e r c e n t o f th e la n d under f i e l d

About

c r o p s i s p la n te d to c e r e a l s .

C e r e a l p r o d u c tio n em p loys a la r g e p o r t io n o f th e p o p u la t io n ,
and b r e a d and o t h e r c e r e a l p r o d u c ts c o n s t i t u t e an im p o r ta n t
e le m en t in th e c o u n t r y 's d i e t .

In 1943 c e r e a l s p r o v id e d

33 p e r c e n t o f th e n a t i o n a l incom e and 59 p e r c e n t o f th e
a g r i c u l t u r a l incom e o f 'fur k e y .
W heat;
Among a l l th e p r o d u c ts c u l t i v a t e d i n Turkey w h eat
h o ld s a le a d in g p o s i t i o n i n r e s p e c t t o b o th a c r e a g e and
p r o d u c t io n .

The a r e a sown t o w h ea t in c r e a s e d from an a v e r ­

age o f 2 ,8 4 1 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s i n 1 9 2 6 -3 0 t o 3 ,6 2 3 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s
in 1 9 3 5 -3 9 .

I n 1941 i t r e a c h e d 4 ,3 9 4 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s .

For

th e same p e r io d s p r o d u c tio n w a s 2 ,1 5 0 ,0 0 0 , and 3 ,7 0 8 ,0 0 0
to n s r e s p e c t i v e l y , w h ile i n 1941 i t in c r e a s e d t o 4 ,3 9 4 ,0 0 0
24
to n s.
I n a c r e a g e , o v e r 50 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l a r e a under
fie ld

c r o p s c o n s i s t s o f w h e a t.

2 4 The to n r e f e r r e d to i s th e m e t r ic t o n , e q u a l to
2 ,2 0 4 p o u n d s, s e e a p p e n d ix , T ab le I .

33

A t th e same tim e y i e l d s p er h e c t a r e a l s o showed an
in c r e a s e from 760 kg t o 1023 k ilo g r a m s (o r from 11 to 15
b u s h e ls t o th e a c r e ) .
The r a p id e x p a n s io n o f w heat p r o d u c tio n in Turkey
was b ro u g h t a b o u t by v a r io u s govern m en tal m e a s u r e s .

F ir s t,

h ig h t a r i f f s im posed on w heat i n 1929 d is c o u r a g e d im p o r ts.
S e d o n d ly , e x t e n s io n o f r a il r o a d c o n s t r u c t io n t o th e w h eat
a r e a s en co u ra g ed d o m e stic p r o d u c tio n .

T h ir d , governm ent

a id w as g iv e n t o f a im e r s th ro u g h lo w c o s t p r o d u c tio n c r e d i t ,
f r e e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c e r t i f i e d s e e d s , and modern a g r i c u l t u r a l
eq u ip m en t; and m ost im p o r ta n t, th e p u r c h a se o f w heat by
th e S t a t e A g r i c u lt u r a l Bank a t a p r i c e w e l l i n e x c e s s o f
w orld q u o t a t io n s .

T hese f a c t o r s a l l c o n t r ib u t e d to th e i n ­

c r e a s e in w heat p r o d u c tio n to su ch an e x t e n t t h a t Turkey
h a s changed from a w h e a t-im p o r tin g t o a w h e a t-e x p o r tin g coun­
try .
Wheat i s grown in a lm o st a l l p a r t s o f T u rk ey, b u t
th e p r i n c i p a l p r o d u cin g c e n t e r i s the C e n tr a l P la t e a u .
About 3 5 -4 0 p e r c e n t o f the c o u n t r y ’ s w h eat i s p rod u ced in
t h i s r e g io n .
B a r le y :
Of c e r e a l c r o p s , b a r l e y i s se c o n d to w h e a t, u t i l i z i n g
ab ou t 26 p e r c e n t o f t h e sown la n d .

T u rk ish b a r l e y , b e c a u se

o f i t s h ig h d e g r e e o f g e r m in a tio n , h a s a go o d m arket in
Europe and i s w e l l a d a p ted f o r th e m an u factu re o f m a lt u sed

34

i n th e brew in g in d u s t r y .
The p r o d u c tio n o f b a r le y a l s o showed a c o n s id e r a b le
in c r e a s e .

In 1 9 2 6 -3 0 th e a v e r a g e p r o d u c tio n w as 1 ,2 4 0 ,0 0 0

to n s from 1 ,3 9 8 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s .

By 1 9 3 5 -3 9 p r o d u c tio n r o s e

t o 2 ,0 7 5 ,0 0 0 t o n s produ ced from 1 ,8 5 5 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s .

In

1940 b o th a c r e a g e and p r o d u c tio n r e a c h e d an a l l - t i m e h ig h , —
2 ,0 9 2 ,0 0 0 t o n s from 2 ,2 4 9 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s .

S in c e t h e n , h o w ev er,

th e tr e n d h a s tu rn ed downward b e c a u se o f th e h ig h demand
f o r and p r i c e o f w h ea t.
B a r le y i s a l s o grown everyw h ere in T urkey.

But th e

p r i n c i p a l p r o d u cin g c e n t e r s a r e C e n tr a l P la t e a u and W estern
A n a t o lia .
C orn:
T u rk ey’ s B la ck S ea r e g io n p r o v id e s f a v o r a b le c o n d i­
t i o n s f o r co rn g r o w in g .

The tr e n d in co rn p r o d u c tio n h a s

showed a c o n s id e r a b le in c r e a s e i n l a t e y e a r s .

P r o d u c tio n

in c r e a s e d from 4 4 6 ,0 0 0 t o n s from 3 4 1 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s i n 1 9 2 6 30 to 5 8 7 ,0 0 0 t o n s from 4 4 8 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s i n 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 .
A l l th e p r o d u c tio n i s consumed d o m e s t id a lly .
O ther C e r e a ls :
B e s id e s t h e s e c e r e a l c r o p s , r y e , o a t s , m i l l e t , r i c e ,
and ca n a ry s e e d a l s o a r e p rod u ced i n Turkey i n c o n s id e r a b le
am ounts.

The annual a v e r a g e o f a l l t h e s e c r o p s f o r th e p e r io d

1 9 3 5 -9 was 9 3 4 ,0 0 0 t o n s p rod u ced from 9 8 5 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s .

35

B u t, as f a r a s e x p o r t tr a d e i s c o n c e r n e d , th e m o st im p o rta n t
i s canary se e d .

Turkey i s one of th e le a d in g c o u n t r i e s

w hich p rod u ce t h i s c r o p .

I n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 th e a v e r a g e y e a r ly p ro ­

d u c tio n w as 1 5 ,2 6 3 to n s p rod u ced fro m 2 2 ,5 0 0 h e c t a r e s .
th an 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e crop w as e x p o r t e d ,
one o f th e "best f e e d s f o r c h ic k e n s .

More

^ t i s known a s

B ut w ith th e o u tb r e a k

o f World War I I , p r o d u c tio n d e c r e a s e d so d r a s t i c a l l y t h a t
in 1945 t h e ca n a ry s e e d o u tp u t w as o n ly 222 t o n s .
Crops f o r I n d u s t r i a l U se
Of th e s o - c a l l e d i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s , th e m ost im p o r t­
a n t a r e t o b a c c o , c o t t o n , su g a r b e e t s , opium , se sa m e , a n i s e ,
f l a x , and hemp.

I n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 th e a r e a c o v e r e d by i n d u s t r i a l

p l a n t s w as 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s , w h ich w as 7 .6 p e r c e n t o f th e
t o t a l la n d u n d er f i e l d c r o p s .
T o b a cco :
Among th e i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s , no dou bt th e m ost im p o r t­
a n t in r e s p e c t to e x p o r t tr a d e i s t o b a c c o .
1 7 th c e n tu r y to b a c c o was unknown i n T u rk ey.

P r io r t o th e
I t was f i r s t

b ro u g h t t o Turkey from th e U n ite d S t a t e s by way o f I n d ia
in 1610.

B u t, f o r a b o u t 80 y e a r s no p r o d u c tio n o f to b a c c o

to o k p l a c e , b e c a u se i t s con su m p tion i n any fo rm w as p r o h ib it e d
end v i o l a t i o n o f th e la w was p u n is h a b le by d e a th .

25M in is t e r e de l ’ i n t e r i e u r , La T u rc u ie C on tem p orain e,
A nkara, 1 9 3 5 , p . 9 4 .

36

As f o r e i g n tr a d e becam e an im p o r ta n t f a c t o r in th e
c o u n tr y * s economy th e p r o h i b i t i o n w as rem oved by th e O tto ­
man Government i n 1690 w h ich s u b s t it u t e d a t a x on to b a c c o
f o r rev en u e p u r p o s e s .
A s c u l t i v a t i o n c o n t in u e d , th e p r o d u c t a c q u ir e d e n ­
t i r e l y new q u a l i t i e s so d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e of th e A m eri­
can p r o d u ct t h a t a d i s t i n c t ty p e d e v e lo p e d .

As to b a c c o

grew in im p o rta n ce i n th e e x p o r t tr a d e o f ■‘•‘u r k e y , th e G overn­
ment f e a r e d i t s s u c c e s s f u l t r a n s p la n t a t io n to c o u n t r ie s
p o s s e s s in g a s i m i l a r c li m a t e , w hich w ould d e p r iv e th e cou n ­
t r y o f one o f i t s m ost im p o r ta n t a s s e t s .

T h e r e fo r e , th e

e x p o r t a t io n o f to b a c c o s e e d w as s t r i c t l y p r o h i b it e d .

De­

s p i t e th e p r o h i b i t i o n , a t v a r io u s t im e s se e d was sm uggled
o u t o f t h e c o u n tr y and t r a n s p la n t e d t o S ou th A m erica , th e
P h i l i p p i n e s , and th e U n ite d S t a t e s .

Even i n one i n s t a n c e ,

th e p r o m o ter s i n ^ ou th A m erica went so f a r a s t o t r a n s p o r t
l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f s o i l from t h e Samsun p r o d u c in g d i s t r i c t
in o r d e r t h a t th e s e e d l i n g m ig h t h ave a s t a r t in n a t i v e
c o n d itio n s .

But i n e v e r y c a s e such e f f o r t s p ro v ed f r u i t ­

l e s s , f o r the c o m b in a tio n o f T u rk ish c lim a t e and s o i l con ­
d i t i o n s c o u ld n o t be d u p lic a t e d i n o th e r c o u n t r i e s .

N ever­

t h e l e s s , t e s t s s t i l l are g o in g on i n th e m ountanous s e c t i o n s
o f w e s te r n N orth C a r o lin a .
T here a r e th r e e p r i n c i p a l to b a c c o r e g io n s i n T urkey!
The B la ck S e a r e g io n grow s th e m ost fam ous t y p e s o f t o b a c c o ,
w ith sm a ll l e a v e s , l i g h t r e d i n c o l o r , sw e e t and v e r y f r a g -

37

r a n t.

The p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c in g c e n te r in t h i s a r e a i s th e

d i s t r i c t o f S am su n .26

The Marmara S e a r e g i o n , w here l i g h t

r e d t y p e s are grown m a in ly f o r p l a n t in g p u r p o s e s .

The

A egean S e a r e g io n where th e b e s t v a r i e t i e s a r e p rod u ced in
and around Iz m ir {Smyrna) h a v in g a l i g h t r e d c o l o r , w it h
e x c e l l e n t f l a v o r and f i n e arom a.

T hese t h r e e r e g io n s p r o ­

duce a lm o s t a l l th e e x p o r ta b le to b a c c o o f T urkey.
S o u t h e a s te r n T u rk ey, p a r t i c u l a r l y th e d i s t r i c t o f
G a z ia n te b , p r o d u c e s v e r y s t r o n g , h ig h n i c o t i n e c o n te n t t o ­
bacco.
it

T iiis ty p e i s e x p o r te d t o th e A ra b ia n S t a t e s , w h ere

i s smoked i n w a te r p i p e s .
The a v e ra g e p r o d u c t io n o f to b a c c o in 1 9 2 6 -3 0 was

5 0 ,2 5 0 t o n s ( 1 1 0 .5 m i l l i o n l b s . ) .

I t d e c r e a s e d t o 3 4 ,0 0 0

to n s i n 1 9 3 1 -3 5 b e c a u se o f t h e w o r ld econ om ic d e p r e s s i o n .
I n th e f o l l o w i n g 5 -y e a r p e r io d , 1 9 3 6 - 4 0 , p r o d u c tio n in c r e a s e d
t o an a v e r a g e o f 6 7 ,3 0 0 t o n s from 8 3 ,4 0 0 h e c t a r e s , w h il e
i t dropped to 5 7 ,9 0 0 to n s from 7 9 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s i n 1 9 4 1 -4 5 .
P r o d u c tio n , under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f th e S t a t e T obacco
M onopoly, i s c a r r ie d on by sm a ll p r o d u c e r s , num bering 1 3 5 ,0 0 0 ,
w it h an a v e r a g e a c r e a g e o f 6 .2 d e k a r s ( 1 .5 2 acrew ) p e r
grow er i n 1 9 3 6 - 4 0 .27

D u rin g th e same p e r io d th e to b a c c o

y i e l d a v e ra g e d 809 kg p e r h e c t a r e (7 2 5 l b s . t o t h e a c r e ) ,

£6«S ee map.
27

F ig u r e s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e q u a r t e r ly b u l l e t i n o f
th e Banque C e n tr a le de l a R ep u b liq u e d e T u r q u ie , N o. 6 0 .
A nkara, 1 9 4 7 , p . 1 3 8 .

38

a s com pared w ith 908 kg i n the U n ite d S t a t e s f o r th e same
28
p e r io d .
H ow ever, c o n s id e r in g l e a v e s , T u rk ish to b a c c o i s
much s m a lle r th a n t h a t o fa n y A m erican t o b a c c o .

I t i s ex­

tr e m e ly til i n , more th a n 1 ,0 0 0 d r ie d l e a v e s w e ig h in g o n ly
500 gram s.
I n to b a c c o p r o d u c tio n Turkey ranR s t h i r d i n Europe
and s e v e n th i n th e w o rld a f t e r th e U n ite d S t a t e s , I n d i a ,
C h in a , R u s s ia , G r e e c e , and B r a z i l .

H ow ever, i t s y e a r l y

p r o d u c tio n o f 6 7 ,0 0 0 to n s i s n e g l i g i b l e a lo n g s id e th e U n ite d
S t a t e s 1 6 5 0 ,0 0 0 t o n s or I n d ia n s 5 5 5 ,0 0 0 .29

T u rk ey’ s S h are

in w o r ld to b a c c o p r o d u c tio n i s o n ly 3 p e r c e n t , bu t i t s
v a lu e and im p o r ta n c e i n w orld tr a d e i s much g r e a t e r .
C o tto n :
Of th e i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s c o t t o n p r o d u c tio n i s a n o th e r
im p o r ta n t a g r i c u l t u r a l e n t e r p r i s e i n T u rk ey.
c e n t o f th e t i l l a b l e

About 3 p e r ­

la n d , or 44 p e r c e n t o f th e amount o f

la n d under i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s , i s p la n t e d t o c o t t o n .

Its.

in t r o d u c t io n t o th e c o u n t r y ’ s a g r ic u l t u r e g o e s b ack to th e
1850’ s .

The A m erican C i v i l War in 1 8 6 1 -6 5 g a v e t o T urk ey,

a s w e l l a s E g y p t, a g r e a t o p p o r tu n it y t o expand th e c o t t o n

^ U n l e s s o t h e r w is e m e n tio n e d , a l l th e f i g u r e s on t h e
U n ite d S t a t e s w ere c o m p ile d or c a l c u l a t e d fro m th e A g r ic u l­
t u r a l S t a t i s t i c s . I T .S .0 .A ., W ash in gton , 1 9 4 6 .
T h is com p arison and t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e b a sed upon
d a ta ta k e n fro m th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Y earbook o f A g r i c u lt u r a l
S t a t i s t i c s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f A g r i c u l t u r e , Rome, 1 9 4 0 .

39

in d u s t r y .

30

D u rin g t h a t war E uropean n a t i o n s , n o t a b ly

G reat B r i t a i n , c o u ld n o t im p o r t c o t t o n from th e U n ite d
S ta te s.

A t t h a t tim e E n g la n d , in o rd er t o m eet i t s n e e d s

f o r i t s g ro w in g t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , tu r n e d t o E g y p t and Tur­
key.

'I'hus th e g r e a t demand f o r c o t t o n r e s u l t e d i n a t e n ­

f o ld in c r e a s e in th e a rea p la n te d .

C o tto n p r o d u c t io n ,

h o w ev er, d e c li n e d f o l l o w i n g th e end o f th e A m erican C i v i l
War, and c o n tin u e d f u r t h e r t o d e c r e a s e a s a r e s u l t o f many
T u rk ish W ars, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f t h e World War I , and th e War
o f T u rk ish In d e p e n d e n c e .

A f t e r t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e

R e p u b lic a n r e g im e i n 1 9 2 3 , t h e new Government made many
a tte m p ts t o expand and im prove c o t t o n p r o d u c tio n in th e
c o u n tr y .

Three c o t t o n e x p e r im e n ta l s t a t i o n s w ere s e t up

t o i n v e s t i g a t e th e m ost s u i t a b l e ty p e s o f s e e d s .

A m erican

v a r i e t i e s o f A c a la and C le v e la n d have b e e n in t r o d u c e d .
T h ese v a r i e t i e s a r e q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y .
As a r e s u l t o f c o n tin u o u s en cou ragem en t and d i r e c t
h e lp by th e governm ent and t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f th e d o m e s tic
t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , a l a r g e in c r e a s e in c o t t o n p r o d u c tio n
was b r o u g h t a b o u t.

F or e x a m p le, f o r t h e p e r io d 1 9 2 4 -1 9 2 8

ab ou t 1 8 ,0 0 0 t o n s was p rod u ced a n n u a lly on 4 0 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s .
By 1 9 2 9 -1 9 3 3 t h e a v e r a g e crop had in c r e a s e d t o 4 5 ,0 0 0 t o n s
from 1 9 9 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r s , show ing a y i e l d o f 225 kg t o th e h e c t a r e .
D u rin g th e p a s t d e c a d e , h o w ev er, b o th p r o d u c tio n and a c r e a g e
in c r e a s e d f u r t h e r th r o u g h govern m ent en co u r a g em en t.

I n th e

3 0 J . R u s s e l l S m ith , I n d u s t r i a l and Com m ercial G eog­
r a p h y , New Y ork, 1 9 4 6 , p . 6 8 9 .

40

5 - y e a r p e r i o d 1935-1939 p r o d u c t i o n r o s e 60,000 t o n s from
868,000 h e c t a r e s ,

show in g a y i e l d o f 223 k g t o t h e h e c t a r e ,

c o m pared to a n a v e r a g e of 251 kg i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r
31
t h e same p e r i o d .
At p r e s e n t s e v e r a l d i s t r i c t s g r o w c o t t o n .

But t h e '

p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c i n g c e n t e r s a r e A da na a n d M e r s i n i n t h e s o u t h
on t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o a s t , an d A y d i n , M a n i s a , and I z m i r
in th e w est.

The s o u t h e r n d i s t r i c t s u p p l i e s a b o u t t w o -

t h i r d s of t h e c o u n t r y ’ s t o t a l c o t t o n p r o d u c t i o n .
A c c o r d i n g t o a s t u d y made by t h e g o v e r n m e n t , t h e r e
are over 1 m i l l i o n h e c ta r e s of la n d s u i t a b l e f o r c o tto n
grow ing, o f which 8 00,000 h e c t a r e s a re l o c a t e d i n t h e d i s ­
t r i c t s of A d a na and M e r s i n i n t h e C i l i c i a n P l a i n s . ® 2

With

more i r r i g a t i o n and w i t h y i e l d a n d v a r i e t y i m p r o v e m e n t s i t
i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t Turkey c o u ld p ro d u c e o v e r 600,000 t o n s
(3 m i l l i o n b a l e s )

a y e a r a n d w o u l d r a n k f o u r t h among t h e

c o tt o n growing n a t i o n s of th e w o rld .
at p resent,

33

In c o tto n production

Turkey r a n k s second t o R u s s ia i n E u ro p e , and

te n t h in the w o rld , a f t e r U nited S t a t e s , I n d ia , R u s s ia ,
C h i n a , E g y p t , B r a z i l , P e r u , A r g e n t i n a , a nd M e x i c o .

H o w ev e r,

^ C a l c u l a t e d from t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a t i s t i c s , U .S.D .A .
W ashington, 1945, p . 70.
®2L a T u r q u i e C o n t e m p o r a i r e , o £ . c i t 1

p . 102.

®®In 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r a n k e d f i r s t w i t h 1 3 . 1
m i l l i o n b a l e s , I n d i a second w i t h 4 .6 ,: R u s s ia t h i r d w ith 3 .4
m i l l i o n , C hina, 2 .7 , Egyut 1 . 9 . ( A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a t i s t i c s ,
U.S.D.A. W a s h ., 1945, p . 7 2 - 7 3 ) .

.41

Turkey’ s sh a re i n the world c o tt o n p ro d u c tio n i s only a
little

over 1 p e r c e n t.

Sugar B e e ts :
T u r k e y h a s s o i l s end c l i m a t e w h i c h c a n b e u s e d f o r
34
t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f b o t h cane, and b e e t s u g a r .
N o .atten tio n

.

was g i v e n t o g r o w i n g them i n t h e c o u n t r y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d
u n d e r t h e . O ttom an E m p i r e .

I t was in 1926, th r e e y e a r s a f ­

t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f th e R e p u b l i c a n G o v e r n m e n t , t h a t
su g a r b e e t s , which have b e e n c u l t i v a t e d i n E u ro p ean c o u n t r i e s
s i n c e 1 8 0 0 , were i n t r o d u c e d i n t o T u r k i s h a g r i c u l t u r e .

Since

th e n sugar b e e t c u l t u r e h a s been s u c c e s s f u l l y p r a c t i c e d i n
Turkey.

A l a r g e home m a r k e t , h i g h t a r i f f , a n d b o u n t i e s t o

growers a re th e p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s

i n b u i l d i n g up t h i s

indus­

t r y in a v e ry s h o r t tim e.
The y e a r l y p r o d u c t i o n o f s u g a r b e e t s w a s 1 0 8 , 0 0 0 t o n s ,
produced from th e use of 13,862 h e c t a r e s f o r th e p e rio d
1 9 2 8 -1 9 3 2 .^

The a v e r a g e c r o p i n c r e a s e d t o 3 9 4 , 0 0 0 t o n s i n

1 9 3 5 - 1 9 3 9 , f r o m 2 5 , 0 0 0 h e c t a r e s , s ha v in g , a y i e l d of 1 5 . 4
to n s to th e h e c t a r e , c o m p a r e d w ith 25.7 to n s i n th e U nited
S ta te s.^

Ho w ever, t h e

su g a r c o n te n t of T u rk ish b e e t s i s

*^At p r e s e n t two c o u n t r i e s i n t h e w o r l d , U n i t e d
S t a t e s a nd T u r k e y , p r o d u c e b o t h b e e t a n d e e n e s u g a r .
25R e p u b l i q u e T u r q u e , M i n i s t e r e de L ’ i n t e r i e u r , L a
T u r q u i e en c h i f f r e , A n k a r a 1 9 3 7 , p . 7 3 .
rZ£

C a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e q u a r t e r l y b u l l e t i n Banque
C e n t r a l de l a T u r q u i e , No. 6 0 , A n k a r a , 1 9 4 7 , p . 7 3.
^ C a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a t i s t i c s , Wash­
in g to n , 1945, p . 87.

42

one o f th e h i g h e s t i n th e w o r ld , r a n g in g from 18 to 22
p e r ce n t.
D e s p it e th e r a p id e x p a n s io n i n b o th a c r e a g e end
o u tp u t o f su gar b e e t s , p r o d u c tio n d o e s n o t s a t i s f y
r e q u ir e m e n ts .

d o m e stic

I n f a c t the amount o f su g a r p r o d u c tio n was

9 6 ,5 8 7 to n s i n 1 9 4 6 .

W ith th e im p o rted s u g a r , p er c a p i t a

co n su m p tion w as o n ly 7 .5 kg in 1 9 4 6 , com pared w it h 55 k g .
in Denmark, 47 i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , 8 .7 i n I t a l y , 4 in
38
Y u g o s la v ia , and 2 in C h in a.
One o f th e r e a s o n s f o r th e
low co n su m p tion i s t h a t th e p r i c e o f su g a r i s v e r y h ig h
b e c a u se o f th e h ig h con su m p tion t a x .

It is s t ill

c o n s id e r e d

as a lu x u r y fo o d i n th e n a t i o n ’ s d i e t .
The Government p la n s t o b u i ld fo u r more r e f i n e r i e s
in th e C i l i c i a n P l a i n s .

T h is a rea i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e

f o r su g a r cane p r o d u c tio n .

H is t o r i c r em a in s show t h a t su g a r

cane was p r o b a b ly b r o u g h t t o t h i s s e c t i o n , from I n d i a , i n
th e n in t h c e n tu r y and p r o c e s s e d i n t o s u g a r .

B ut no p ro d u c ­

t i o n on a l a r g e s c a l e o c cu re d u n t i l th e p r e s e n t tim e .
S in c e p r o d u c tio n c o s t s f o r ca n e su gar a r e g e n e r a l l y
much lo w e r th a n f o r b e e t s u g a r , th e governm ent b e l i e v e s
t h a t t h i s w i l l h e lp t o b r in g the p r i c e o f su g a r down c o n s id ­
e r a b ly , and th u s i n c r e a s e co n su m p tio n .
I t i s e s t im a t e d t h a t a f t e r t h e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f

^ C o n v e r te d from th e R ep ort o f th e F .A . 0 . P r e p a r a to r y
Com m ission on World F ood P r o p o s a ls , W ash in gton , 1 9 4 7 , p . 8 1 .

43

t h e s e f a c t o r i e s T u r k e y 's y e a r l y su g a r o u tp u t (b o th cane
and b e e t ) w i l l r e a c h 1 6 0 ,0 0 0 t o 1 8 0 ,0 0 0 t o n s .

The p r e s e n t

su g a r s u p p ly m e e ts a b o u t 65 p e r c e n t of th e n a t i o n ' s demand.
Sugar b e e t s can be p rod u ced in s e v e r a l p a r t s o f th e
c o u n tr y .

H ow ever, b e c a u se of th e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n d i f f i c u l ­

t i e s t h e p r e s e n t p r o d u cin g a r e a s a r e l o c a t e d o n ly n e a r su g a r
r e fin e r ie s .
The p r o d u c tio n o f su g a r i n Turkey p r o v id e s and im p o r t­
a n t so u r c e o f govern m ent r e v e n u e .

S in c e 1940 o v e r 50 p e r ­

c e n t o f t h e p r i c e p a id by t h e consum er h a s gone t o th e s t a t e
in t h e form o f con su m p tion t a x .
lir a s

I n 1 9 4 4 -4 5 , 8 0 .2 m i l l i o n

(a b o u t 64 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s ) w as c o l l e c t e d i n t a x e s

on s u g a r .

T h is r e p r e s e n t e d 6 . 3 p e r c e n t o f th e n a t i o n a l

revenu e.
The su g a r in d u s tr y i s a govern m ent m o n o p o ly .
o f b e e t s are f i x e d a t the b e g in n in g o f e a ch s e a s o n .

P r ic e s
Each

grow er h a s t o s ig n a c o n t r a c t sh ow ing how much la n d i s to
be c u l t i v a t e d .

S e e d i s p ro d u ced on s t a t e farm s and d i s t r i b u t ­

ed t o g r o w e r s f r e e .

F ig h t in g p e s t s and d i s e a s e s i s c a r r ie d

on by th e m on op oly.
Opium;
Turkey r a n k s a s one o f th e w o r ld 's l e a d in g p r o d u c e r s
o f opium f o r m e d ic a l u s e .
in T urkey.

In a l l p r o b a b i l i t y i t

o r ig i n a t e d

44

P r io r t o 1 9 2 9 ab ou t 500 t o 600 to n s of crude opium w ere
p rod u ced a n n u a lly from 3 0 ,0 0 0 t o 5 0 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s .

In 1925,

h o w ev er, a w o r ld -w id e cam paign t o r e s t r i c t opium p r o d u c tio n
and tr a d e to m e d ic a l u s e s o n ly w a s b e g u n .

K in a l ly an a g r e e ­

m ent t o r e s t r i c t th e p r o d u c tio n o f opium was r e a c h e d by
th e m a j o r it y o f th e L eague o f N a tio n s i n Geneva i n 1 9 3 1 .
T hereupon, th e T u rk ish Government to o k o v e r c o n t r o l o f p r o ­
d u c tio n and tr a d e o f opium i n th e c o u n tr y .

S in c e th e n

b o th a c r e a g e and p r o d u c tio n h a v e d e c r e a s e d d r a s t i c a l l y .

In

1 9 2 9 -3 3 th e an n u al p r o d u c tio n was 382 to n s o f crude opium
and 1 2 ,8 0 7 to n s o f s e e d , p rod u ced fro m th e u s e o f 4 2 ,6 6 9
h e c ta r e s.

By 1 9 3 5 -3 9 th e ann ual a v e r a g e cru d e opium and

se e d w ere 282 and 1 ,1 8 5 t o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , fro m 2 9 ,4 5 2
h e c ta r e s.

S in c e 1940 p r o d u c tio n d e c r e a s e d f u r t h e r t o an

a v e r a g e o f 218 to n s i n 1 9 4 0 - 4 4 , w h ile in 1945 i t w as o n ly
108 t o n s .
The p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c in g c e n t e r s a re A fyon (w h ich
m eans "opium" in T u r k is h ) , Am asya, I z m ir , and M a la ty a .
S esa m e:
Sesam e i s

c u l t i v a t e d l a r g e l y i n th e s o u th e r n and

w e s te r n d i s t r i c t s of th e c o u n tr y .

I t h a s shown a c o n s id e r a b le

in c r e a s e in o u tp u t and y i e l d in r e c e n t y e a r s .

In 1 9 3 5 -3 9

p r o d u c tio n a v e r a g e d 2 8 ,9 0 0 to n s from 6 5 ,3 0 0 h e c t a r e s .
i n c r e a s e d to 4 3 ,4 0 0 t o n s from 7 9 ,8 0 0 h e c t a r e s i n 1 9 4 0 .

It

45

Sesam e i s p rod u ced m a in ly f o r i t s o i l .

I ts o il

cake h a s a good m arket i n N e th e r la n d s , B e lg iu m , an d th e
U n ited S t a t e s , w here i t i s used f o r f e e d in g c h ic k e n s .
I n sesam e p r o d u c t io n Turkey ra n k s f i r s t i n Europe
end f o u r th i n th e w o rld a f t e r C h in a , I n d ia ,/a n d Burma.
A ni s e :
A n is e i s grown f o r use in t h e p r e p a r a tio n o f seme
m e d ic a l p r o d u c ts and i n f l a v o r i n g th e c o u n t r y ’ s m ost popu­
l a r d r in k , c a l l e d " r a k i" .

The ann ual p r o d u c tio n a v e r a g e d

1 m i l l i o n kg fro m 1 ,8 0 0 h e c t a r e s i n the p e r io d 1 9 5 5 - 5 9 .
I t in c r e a s e d to 4 . 5 m i l l i o n kg i n 1 9 4 0 .

Turkey i s

th e l e a d in g c o u n t r ie s i n th e w o r ld p ro d u cin g t h i s

one o f
cro p .

The p r i n c i p a l p r o d u cin g c e n te r i s w e s te r n A n a t o li a .
F la x :
F la x i s c u l t i v a t e d f o r i t s f i b e r and s e e d , th e se d d
b e in g u se d in o i l p r o d u c tio n .

The p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c in g c e n ­

t e r s are K o c a e li, Z on gu ld ak , S in o p , and I s t a n b u l .

In 1 9 3 5 -3 9

th e a v e r a g e y e a r ly p r o d u c tio n w as 3 ,0 7 2 t o n s o f f i b e r and
8 ,8 4 2 t o n s o f s e e d , fro m 1 9 ,4 1 1 h e c t a r e s .
o f th e l o c a l t e x t i l e

The h ig h demand

in d u s t r y , and Government a id and en ­

couragem ent have b ro u g h t about a c o n s id e r a b le i n c r e a s e i n
b o th a c r e a g e and p r o d u c tio n in r e c e n t y e a r s .

In 1940 f l a x

s e e d and f i b e r amounted t o 1 7 ,5 3 3 and 1 1 , 146 t o n s r e s p e c ­
tiv e ly .

A t p r e s e n t ■‘■urkey’ s sh a r e i n w o r ld p r o d u c tio n i s

n e g lig ib le .

46

Hemp:
Hemp i s a n o th e r p la n t grown f o r i t s f i b e r and s e e d .
The p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c in g c e n t e r s a r e I z m ir , K astam onu, Ordu,
and B urdur.

In 1 9 3 5 -3 9 p r o d u c tio n a v e r a g e d 8 ,1 7 0 t o n s o f

f i b e r and 2 ,3 0 5 t o n s o f s e e d , fro m th e u s e o f 1 2 ,1 4 7 h e c t a r e s .
In hemp f i b e r Turkey h o l d s f o u r t h p la c e in Europe
a f t e r R u s s ia , P o la n d , and I t a l y , and e ig h t h i n th e w o r ld .
J u te :
J u te was in tr o d u c e d i n t o T u rk ey’ s a g r i c u l t u r e in th e
1930’ s.

B ut th e r e i s no p r o d u c tio n w o rth m e n tio n in g a s y e t .

P o ta to e s:
P o t a t o e s f o r fo o d a r e grown i n a l l p a r t s o f th e coun­
try .

H ow ever, t h e p r i n c i p a l p r o d u cin g a r e a s are th e B la ck

S e a and Marmara r e g i o n s .

D u ring th e l a s t d ec a d e p o t a t o

p r o d u c tio n h a s in c r e a s e d c o n s id e r a b ly .

The a v e r a g e p ro d u c­

t i o n was 1 8 0 ,7 0 0 t o n s from 5 4 ,7 0 0 h e c t a r e s i n 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 .
I t r e a c h e d 3 1 9 ,0 0 0 t o n s in 1 9 4 0 .
L egum inous Crops
Legumes occu p y a b o u t 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l t i l l a b l e
la n d o f T urkey.

The p r i n c i p a l le g u m e s p rod u ced a r e b e a n s ,

v e t c h e s , c h ic k p e a s , and o th e r p e a s , so y b e a n s , and p e a n u t s .
A fe w o f t h e s e c r o p s e n t e r f o r e i g n tr a d e i n s m a ll am ou n ts.
They p la y an im p o rta n t p a r t in th e n a t i o n a l d i e t .

47

I n 1 9 3 5 -2 9 th e a v e ra g e a r e a under legu m es amounted
t o 3 9 2 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s , o f w hich v e t c h e s o c c u p ie d 1 1 8 ,0 0 0 h e c ­
t a r e s (a b o u t 30 p e r c e n t ) .

S in c e 1939 a c o n s id e r a b le i n c r e a s e

h a s o c c u r r e d in b o th a c r e a g e and p r o d u c tio n o f b ea n s and
p e a s b e c a u s e of a h ig h demand f o r t h e s e p r o d u c ts to f e e d
la r g e num bers o f s o l d i e r s i n th e c o u n tr y .

The t o t a l o u tp u t

o f a l l leg u m es in c r e a s e d from 3 1 8 ,7 0 0 to n s in 1 9 3 5 -3 9
to 3 7 1 ,6 0 0 t o n s i n 1 9 4 1 .39
S o y b ea n s a re a p r o d u c t o f o n ly th e l a s t d ec a d e i n
T u rk ey.

There a r e , h o w ev er, s u i t a b l e grow in g c o n d it io n s

f o r t h i s cro p i n T u rk ey, and i t s p r o d u c tio n i s i n c r e a s i n g
s te a d ily .
F r u i t s and N u ts
Turkey h a s b e e n known a s a p a r a d is e o f h o r t i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u cts.

As in th e c a s e of t o b a c c o , T u rk ish f r u i t s , f r e s h

and d r i e d , h ave a w o r ld -w id e r e p u t a t i o n .
A c c o r d in g t o t h e s c i e n c e o f f r u i t c u l t u r e , a b o u t
110 d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f f r u i t s ,

e d i b l e i n one form or

a n o t h e r , a r e grown to d a y i n d i f f e r e n t z o n e s o f th e w o r ld .

A-

b o u t 65 o u t o f a 110 k in d s , in c lu d in g a lm o st a l l t h e f r u i t s
e n t e r in g w orld tr a d e c h a n n e ls , are p rod u ced i n T u rk ey.

It

i s n o t th e p u rp o se o f t h i s work t o en um erate t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r
v a r ie tie s .

39

H ow ever, f r u i t s w h ich a r e p la y in g an im p o r ta n t

S o y b ea n s and p e a n u ts n o t in c lu d e d .

48

r o l e i n t h e c o u n t r y ’ s e x p o r t tr a d e a r e , in o r d e r o f t h e i r
im p o r ta n c e , f i l b e r t s , r a i s i n s , f i g s ,

o liv e s , p is ta c h io

n u t s , a lm on d s, c h e s t n u t s , w a ln u t s , and o r a n g e s .

O ther

f r u i t s w h ich are p ro d u ced i n c o n s id e r a b le q u a n t i t i e s ,

such

a s a p p l e s , p e a r s , c h e r r i e s , b e r r i e s , q u in c e s , p o m e g r a n a te s,
p lu m s, b a n a n a s , t a n g e r i n e s , and lem on s a re consum ed o n ly
d o m e s tic a lly .

H ow ever, t h i s d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e y w i l l

rem ain f o r e v e r s o .
th a t I s ,

Im provem ents i n m a rk etin g f a c i l i t i e s ,

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n , s t o r a g e , p a c k in g ,

and p a c k a g in g , and above a l l , o r g a n iz a t io n may p e r m it some
o f th e se f r u i t s to e n te r in to in te r n a tio n a l tr a d e .
At p r e s e n t 1 . 8 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l a r e a i s under
h o r tic u ltu r a l c r o p s.

They c o m p r ise f i v e p e r c e n t o f th e

n a t io n a l incom e o r a b o u t 13 p e r c e n t o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l .

40

H a z e ln u t s :
Turkey i s t h e w o r ld ’ s l a r g e s t p r o d u c e r o f h a z e ln u t s
(filb e r ts ).

P r o d u c tio n i s

c o n c e n tr a te d i n t h e e a s t e r n

r e g io n s o f th e -^lack S e a w here c lim a t e and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s
a r e v e r y f a v o r a b le t o i t s g r o w th .

The h a z e ln u t o r ig i n a t e d

i n t h i s r e g i o n and l a t e r was in tr o d u c e d i n t o I t a l y , S p a in ,
and th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
The a r e a under h a z i l n u t s i s e s t im a te d a t a b o u t 1 5 0 ,0 0 0
h e c ta r e s.

Annual p r o d u c tio n a v e r a g e d 6 0 ,3 0 0 t o n s d u rin g th e

5 - y e a r p e r io d 1 9 3 5 -3 9 compared w ith 2 4 ,3 0 0 t o n s i n S p a in ,

4 0 T u rk ive M i l l i G e l i r l . |>£. C i t . , p . 64

49

2 1 ,7 0 0 i n I t a l y and 2 ,2 0 0 to n s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s .

In

o t h e r w o r d s , Turkey p r o d u c e s o v e r h a l f o f th e w o r ld ’ s h a z e l ­
n u ts.

H ow ever, b e c a u s e o f p o o r c a r e and th e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y

t

o f th e b e a r in g isr ee s to w e a th e r c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s i z e of
t h e f i l b e r t crop f l u c t u a t e s w id e ly fro m y e a r t o y e a r .

F or

i n s t a n c e , i n 1938 p r o d u c tio n was 2 6 ,1 0 0 t o n s , w h ile th e f o l ­
lo w in g y e a r i t amounted t o 7 4 ,8 0 0 t o n s .
G ra p es:
G rapes a r e a n o th e r im p o r ta n t ite m i n t h e a g r ic u l t u r e
and e x p o r t tr a d e of T urkey.
th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n t r y .

They a r e grown e x t e n s i v e l y

Here a g a in the s o i l and c l i m a t i c

c o n d i t i o n s a r e th e p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s t h a t e n a b le d Turkey t o
p ro d u ce g r a p e s o f a v e r y d e l i g h t f u l f l a v o r and th e f i n e s t
q u a l i t y in th e w o r ld .
G rapes o ccu p y a b o u t 34 p e r c e n t o f t h e la n d under
t r e e and bush c r o p s , s u r p a s s e s o n ly by o l i v e s .

In 1944 th e

a c r e a g e p la n te d i n v in e y a r d s w as 4 7 3 ,0 0 0 h e c t a r e s .

In

v in e y a r d a r e a Turkey ra n k s t h i r d among th e g r a p e grow in g
n a t i o n s in t h e w o r ld su r p a ss e d o n ly by I t a l y and F r a n c e .
P r o d u c tio n c o n s i s t s o f v a r i e t i e s o f w in e , t a b l e ,
and s e e d l e s s g r a p e s , t h e l a t t e r b e in g th e m ost im p o r ta n t
in t h e c o u n t r y 's e x p o r t t r a d e .

In g e n e r a l , w in e g r a p e s a r e

grown i n th e s h e l t e r e d v a l l e y s o f C e n tr a l P la t e a u , and
around th e Marmara S e a .

The w o r l d ' s f i n e s t t a b l e g r a p e s ,

nam ely R a z a k i, T chavou ch , and M is k e t , a r e p rod u ced i n th e

50

A egean and Marmara r e g i o n s .

S e e d l e s s v a r i e t i e s a r e grown

in t h e A egean r e g i o n , w here t h e y a r e d r ie d f o r

e x p o r t.

A bout 90 p e r c e n t o f r a i s i n p r o d u c tio n o f Turkey t a k e s p la c e
in th e d i s t r i c t s o f Mamisa and I z m ir .
T urkey*s a v e r a g e y e a r ly r a i s i n p r o d u c tio n w as 6 8 ,0 0 0
to n s f o r th e p e r io d o f 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 .

I t ra n k ed secon d in th e w o r ld ,

s u r p a s s e d o n ly by th e U n ite d S t a t e s w ith i t s a v e r a g e o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0
t o n s , and f o llo w e d by A u s t r a l i a .
A t p r e s e n t th e s e e d l e s s y i e l d p e r h e c ta r e i s r a t h e r
lo w , a v e r a g in g 2 .2 t o n s , compared w ith an a v e r a g e o f 1 0 .5
t o n s f o r th e S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a .
In grap e p r o d u c tio n T urkey’ s p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e v e r y
g r ea t,

if

Turkey co u ld move g r a p e s q u ic k ly t o w o r ld mar­

k e t s and new and r e g u la r m a rk ets c o u ld b e d e v e lo p e d , Tur­
k ey m ig h t rank se c o n d t o I t a l y .

In f a c t ,

one o f t h e Ger­

man e c o n o m is ts who was a d i r e c t o r o f th e I . G. F arb en
in d u s t r y and who s t u d ie d th e econom ic p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f Tur­
k ey c h a r a c t e r iz e d th e c o u n tr y by t t a t i n g ,

" I f Turkey d id

n o t p ro d u ce a n y th in g b u t g r a p e s th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of h e r
grap e p r o d u c tio n w ould s u f f i c e t o maKe h er one o f th e w e a l t h i e s t
c o u n t r i e s i n th e w o r ld .
F ig s :
A f t e r I t a l y , Turkey i s th e l a r g e s t p r o d u ce r o f f i g s

41

John P a r k e r , Modern T u rk ey, London, 1 9 4 0 , p . 9 3 .

51

in the w orld.

However, c o n s i d e r i n g t h e Smyrna t y p e of f i g s

w h i c h i s t h e b e s t known and t h e m o st w i d e l y u s e d i n t h e
w o r l d m a r k e t s , T u r k e y r a n k s f i r s t b o t h i n a c r e a g e and p r o ­
du ction.

It

is b e lie v e d th a t f ig s o rig in a te d in A n a to lia,

and fro m t h e r e t h e y s p r e a d t o the o t h e r M e d i te r r a n e a n
c o u n tr ie s and the U nited S t a t e s .
The a r e a u n d e r f i g c u l t u r e i s e s t i m a t e d a t a b o u t
5 0 , 0 0 0 h e c t a r e s w i t h o v e r 4 m i l l i o n t r e e s , 80 p e r c e n t o f
which a r e i n th e Aegean r e g i o n .

P r o d u c t i o n o f Smyrna f i g s

has rem ained p r a c t i c a l l y s t a t i o n a r y in t h e p a s t d e ca d e. '
The a v e r a g e o u t p u t f o r t h e p e r i o d 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 was 5 3 , 5 0 0 t o n s
o f w h i c h a b o u t 1 0 - 1 5 p e r c e n t was consumed, d o m e s t i c a l l y .
The T u r k i s h f i g p r o d u c t i o n i s h e a v i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d
i n t h e d i s t r i c t s o f A y d i n , I z m i r , and I l u g l a vdiere t h e a r e a
p l a n t e d i s e s t i m a t e d a t ab ou t 32,000 h e c t a r e s .
In g e n e r a l T u rk ish f i g s have a h ig h su g a r c o n t e n t ,
a l i g h t and e x t r e m e l y t h i n s k i n and a h e a v y w e i g h t .

The

p r i n c i p a l c o m m e r c i a l v a r i e t i e s a r e S a r i l o p , Uok l o p , and
C engelci ( th e h e n g u e ld j e ) .

F o r commercial p u r p o s e s d r i e d

f i g s are c l a s s i f i e d i n t o f i v e g r a d e s ,

according to t h e i r

q u a l i t y and s i z e .
O lives:
O l i v e s and o l i v e o i l a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t i t e m s i n
the a g r i c u l t u r e and e x p o r t t r a d e of Turkey.

Olive produc-

52

tio n ,

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l M e d ite r r a n e a n c o u n t r i e s , i s

p r a c t i c e d e x t e n s i v e l y on t h e h i l l

s l o p e s o f t h e Marm ara,

Aegean, and M e d ite rra n e a n r e g i o n s .
The o l i v e ' t r e e , i s one o f t h e r a r e t r e e s w h i c h n e e d
no r e p l a c e m e n t .

E ven i f

th e t r e e i s d e s t r o y e d or c u t ,

r o o t s p r o v i d e a t r u n k f o r a new t r e e .

its

T herefore, an o liv e

■tree l a s t s f o r c e n t u r i e s .
The a r e a . u n d e r o l i v e s i s a b o u t 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 h e c t a r e s .
In a d d i t i o n to t h i s ,
w ild o liv e s .

Turkey h a s a b o u t 200,000 h e c t a r e s of

They a r e of some s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n

of o i l .
I n r e c e n t y e a r s p r o d u c t i o n h a s i n c r e a s e d from an
a v e ra g e of 1 5 8 ,0 0 0 to n s i n 1929-34 to 237,000 to n s i n 1 955-39,
t h u s m a k i n g T u r k e y o ne o f t h e w o r l d ' s p r i n c i p a l o l i v e p r o ­
d u c in g n a t i o n s .
Turkey r a n k s t h i r d i n a c r e a g e and f i f t h
of o l iv e s in th e w orld.

in p ro d u c tio n

How ever, g r e a t e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n

made b y t h e G ov e rn m e nt t o b r i n g w i l d t r e e s i n t o p r o d u c t i o n .
F o r t h i s p u r p o s e a l a w was p a s s e d i n 1 9 2 9 .

,J- h i s l a w p r o ­

v i d e s f o r i n d i v i d u a l s t o g r a f t a s many t r e e s a s t h e y w a n t
f o r t h e i r own u s e s .

A fter g ra ftin g

and c e r t a i n o t h e r c a r e s

a r e t a k e n and t h e l a n d f e n c e d , i n d i v i d u a l s a r e g i v e n t h e
r i g h t of ow nership.

Thus i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t i n t h e n e x t

d e c a d e s Turkey w i l l i n c r e a s e h e r sh a re of the w o rld p ro d u c ­
tio n in o liv e s .

53

A lth o u g h th e o l i v e c o n s t i t u t e s an im p o r ta n t elem en t
in th e d i e t o f th e p e o p le i n T urkey, i t s m ain im p o rta n ce
l i e s in th e o i l w h ich i s d e r iv e d from i t .

On th e a v e r a g e ,

T u r k e y 's an n u al p r o d u c tio n o f o l i v e o i l i s

3 6 ,8 0 0 t o n s .

In o l i v e o i l p r o d u c tio n Turkey h o ld s f i f t h
by S p a in , I t a l y , G r e e c e , and P o r t u g a l.

p l a c e , su r p a ss e d

Turkey p r o d u ces

ab ou t 6 p e r c e n t o f th e w o r ld 's o l i v e o i l o u tp u t.
As i t i s in d ic a t e d a b o v e , a lth o u g h o l i v e t r e e s a r e
grown in t h e Marmara, A e g ea n , and M ed ite rr a n e a n r e g i o n s ,
th e h e a v i e s t p r o d u c tio n i s c o n c e n tr a te d i n th e d i s t r i c t s
o f B a l i k e s i r , I z m ir , C an a k k a le, A y d in , and M ugla, a l l on
th e A egean S e a .

T h is

th e o l i v e s , and 8 0 -8 5

s e c t i o n p r o d u c e s a b o u t 75 p e r c e n t o f
p e r c e n t o f th e o l i v e o i l s o f th e

c o u n tr y .
In o l i v e c u l t u r e T u r k e y 's p o s s i b i l i t i e s a re v e r y
g r e a t.

R e a l iz in g t h i s f a c t , a s p e c i a l o r g a n iz a t io n w as

s e t up t o expand and im prove p o r d u c tio n i n th e c o u n tr y .
P is ta c h io n u t s :
Turkey i s th e w o r ld 's l a r g e s t p r o d u ce r of p i s t a c h i o
n u ts.
M arash.

They a r e grown i n t h e d i s t r i c t s o f G a zia n te b and
There a r e o v e r 3 m i l l i o n t r e e s in th e c o u n tr y .

In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s a la r g e a r e a under w i l d p i s t a c h i o
n u ts.

The govern m en t program i s t o g r a f t and b r in g them

i n t o p r o d u c tio n i n a s h o r t t im e .
The p r e s e n t y e a r l y p r o d u c tio n i s a b o u t 8 ,0 0 0 t o n s ,

54

m ost o f w h ich i s e x p o r te d .
C itr u s f r u i t s ;
The. d i f f e r e n t c l i m a t i c c o n d it io n s fo u n d in Turkey
p e r m it th e grow th o f o r a n g e s , t a n g e r i n e s , lem o n s, and g r a p e ­
f r u i t i n t h e c o u n tr y .

P r o d u c tio n o f t h e s e f r u i t s i s con ­

c e n t r a t e d i n th e c o a s t a l a r e a s o f th e M e d ite r r a n e a n , A egean ,
and th e n o r t h e a s t e r n B la ck S ea r e g i o n s .

B ecau se o f a h ig h

f o r e i g n and d o m e stic demand, t h i s branch of a g r ic u l t u r e
i s d e v e lo p in g r a p i d l y .

In 1940 th e r e w ere some 1 . 6 m i l l i o n

o ran ge t r e e s , 4 1 4 ,0 0 0 t a n g e r in e s and 2 5 7 ,0 0 0 lem o n s.

P ro­

d u c tio n i n th e same y e a r amounted to 237 m i l l i o n o r a n g e s ,
63 m i l l i o n t a n g e r in e s and 37 m i l l i o n le m o n s.

Only a sm a ll

p o r t io n o f th e o r a n g e s a r e e x p o r te d .
O ther F r u i t s and N u ts;
W a ln u ts;

A lth o u g h w a ln u ts a r e grown in a lm o st e v e r y

p a r t of T u rk ey, th e crop i s o f s p e c i a l im p o r ta n c e i n t h e
d i s t r i c t s o f K astam onu, M a la ty a , T o k a t, and Z on gu ld ak .
P r o d u c tio n a v e ra g e d 5 6 ,0 0 0 to n s i n 1 9 3 7 -4 1 from 2 .2 m i l l i o n
tr e e s.
A lm onds;

Almonds are c o n c e n tr a te d i n th e A egean ,

Marmara, and s o u th e r n r e g i o n s .

In 1 9 3 7 -4 1 th e a v e r a g e p r o ­

d u c t io n was 1 3 ,0 0 0 t o n s h a r v e s te d from 1 .9 m i.lli.a n t r e e s .
C h e s t n u ts ;

The p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c in g r e g io n s are n e a r

th e Marmara and B la ck S e a .

P r o d u c tio n a v e r a g e d 1 6 ,6 0 0 to n s

55

from 760,000 t r e e s .
A pples:

A pples a r e produced a l l o v e r the c o u n tr y .

Ho w ev er, t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c i n g c e n t e r s a r e Amasya,
N i g d e , M a l a t y a , K a s t a m o n u , an d I z m i t .

During th e p e rio d

1937-41 p r o d u c t i o n a v e r a g e d 96,000 to n s from 6 .4 m i l l i o n
trees.
Pears:
in Turkey,

P e a r growing i s a l s o w id e s p re a d everywhere

However, th e p r i n c i p a l d i s t r i c t s a r e A n k a ra,

M a l a t y a , - T o k a t , Kumushane, a n d K a s ta m o n u .

The a v e r a g e p r o ­

d u c t i o n f o r t h e p e r i o d 1 9 3 7 - 4 1 was 7 2 , 0 0 0 t o n s h a r v e s t e d
from 5 .8 m i l l i o n t r e e s .
A p rico ts:

The p r i n i c p a l a p r i c o t g r o w i n g c e n t e r s

a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e s h e l t e r e d v a l l e y s of C e n t r a l P l a t e a u ,
e s p e c i a l l y in th e d i s t r i c t s o f M alatya, E rzin ca n , K a y se ri,
D iyarbakir,

and G a z i a n t e b .

I n 1937-41 p r o d u c t i o n a v e ra g e d

17,000 to n s from 2 .2 m i l l i o n t r e e s .
Peaches:

Peaches a re produced p r i n c i p a l l y in th e d i s ­

t r i c t s o f B u r s a , D i y a r b a k i r , I z m i r , and o t h e r p l a c e s a l o n g
t h e A e gea n a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n s .

E o r t h e p e r i o d 1 9 3 7-

41 p r o d u c t i o n a v e r a g e d 9 , 9 0 0 t o n s f r o m 8 6 5 , 0 0 0 t r e e s .
C h erries:

C h e r r i e s , b o t h s w e e t and s o u r , a r e grown

everywhere in Turkey.

H o w ev e r, t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c ­

i n g a r e a s a r e t h e Marmara and A e g e a n .

I n 1937-41 p r o d u c tio n

a v e ra g e d 33,400 to n s fro m 2.7 m i l l i o n t r e e s .

56

L ivestock
L i v e s t o c k e n d l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t s a l s o p l a y an im ­
p o r t a n t p a r t i n T u r k e y ’ s eco no m y .

T u r k e y h a s b e e n known

a s a l i v e s t o c k c o u n t r y , s i n c e 50 p e r c e n t of i t s a r e a c o n ­
s i s t s of g r a z i n g l a n d , p a s t u r e s and meadows.

This does n o t

mean t h a t t h e l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y h a s d e v e l o p e d a g r e a t d e a l .
I n g e n e r a l , t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of a n i m a l s i s v e r y l o w ; c a r e ,
f e e d i n g , a n d a n i m a l h o u s i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e v e r y much n e g l e c t ­
ed.

N evertheless,

even under t h e s e v e ry p r i m i t i v e c ir c u m s ta n c e s ,

i n 1943 t h e s h a r e of l i v e s t o c k an d l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t s i n
t h e c o u n t r y ’ s n a t i o n a l income was 1 3 . 5 p e r c e n t , w h i l e i t
41
i s o n e f o u r t h of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l i n c o m e .
To im p r o v e t h e q u a l i t y o f l i v e s t o c k t h e Government
s e t up a number o f s t u d - f a r m s , s t a l l i o n d e p o t s , l i v e s t o c k
b r e e d i n g s t a t i o n s and b r o o d - b u l l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s .

S cien tific

m e a su re s t o d e v e lo p e v e r y s p e c i e s of anim al s e p a r a t e l y
•have b e e n a d o p t e d .

D i f f e r e n t r a c e s were s t u d i e d s e p a r a t e l y ,

f o llo w in g the r e s u l t s of th o se s t u d i e s a d e f i n i t e p l a n f o r
i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y ’ s l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y was a d o p t e d .
Today T u r k e y i s o n t h e way t o a c h i e v i n g t h i s modern a n d
s c i e n t i f i c program .

^ T u r k l j r e M i l l ! G e l i r i , Op. G i t . , p . 6 4.

57

C attle:
C a t t l e a r e r a i s e d c h i e f l y f o r m ilk and m eat produ c­
t i o n , hut also f o r use as d r a f t an im als.
c a t t l e i n 1935 was 6 , 4 8 6 , 0 0 0 .
by 1 9 4 0 .

The number of

I t in c r e a s e d t o 9,759,000

This r a t h e r sudden I n c r e a s e i n c a t t l e numbers

was a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f Gov ern m en t a s s i s t a n c e i n e s t a b l i s h ­
i n g b r e e d i n g c e n t e r s and a p p l y i h g s a n i t a r y m e a s u r e s f o r
t h e p r e v e n t i o n of c o n t a g i o u s d i s e a s e s among a n i m a l s .
I n c a t t l e p o p u l a t i o n T u r k e y h a s a d e n s i t y , of 53
p e r sq u a re m i l e , compared w i t h 2 7 i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s ,
an d 34 i n M i c h i g a n .

Ho w ev er, f r o m t h e p r o d u c t i o n s t a n d ­

p o i n t t h e cows of T u r k e y a r e n o t c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h o s e of
the U n ited S t a t e s .

In f a c t ,

the a v e ra g e m i l k p r o d u c t i o n p e r

cow i n T u r k e y i s a b o u t 1200 l b s . ,

c o m p a r e d w i t h an a v e r a g e

4600 i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o r 5500 i n M i c h i g a n .
I n a d d i t i o n t o cows t h e r e w e re some 9 4 7 , 0 0 0 w a t e r
b u f f a l o s i n 1940.

They a r e u s e d f o r m i l k p r o d u c t i o n a s

w e ll as f o r d r a f t anim als.

In w ater b u ffa lo p o p u la tio n ,

Turkey r d n k s f i r s t i n Europe b u t n i n t h i n t h e w o r ld .
Sheep:
C o n d i t i o n s f o r r a i s i n g s h e e p a r e more s u i t a b l e t h a n
f o r any o t h e r l i v e s t o c k i n T u r k e y .
i s s c a t t e r e d throughout the country,

Although sheep r a i s i n g
i t i s a s p e c i a l t y of

t h e f a r m e r s i n th e r e g i o n s o f the C e n tr a l P l a t e a u s and the
E a s te rn H ighlands.

They a r e grown f o r t h e i r wool an d m e a t .

58

But th e y a l s o f u r n i s h m ilk and s k in .
w id e ly r a i s e d ,
ta ile d .

Two v a r i e t i e s a r e

(1 } horned and l o n g - t a i l e d , and

(2 ) f a t -

The form er i s b e in g r a is e d in th e w e s te r n d i s t r i c t s

where p a s t u r e s a r e .r ic h ,, and t h e l a t t e r i n th e C e n tr a l
and E a s te r n P la t e a u s where th e g r a z in g s e a s o n i s

very sh o r t.

S in c e by n a tu r e sh eep i n t h e l a t t e r r e g i o n s have a h eavy
f a t - t a i l w e ig h in g 3 0 -4 5 p ou n d s, g a in e d d u rin g p a s tu r e se a so n
th e y s u r v iv e th e w in t e r .
The number o f sh eep h a s in c r e a s e d c o n s id e r a b ly .

In

1935 t h e r e w ere 1 3 .6 m i l l i o n sheep i n T urkey, w h er ea s th e
number r o s e t o 2 6 .3 m i l l i o n in 1940 and dropp ed t o 2 3 .4
m illio n in 1945.
I n sh eep p o p u la tio n Turkey r a n k s t h i r d i n Europe
a f t e r R u s s ia and G reat B r i t a i n , and e ig h t h in th e w o r ld .
I n a d d i t io n to th e v a r i e t i e s m en tio n e d ab ove th e r e
are some m e r in o s and k a r a k u l, w h ich w ere in tr o d u c e d i n t o th e
c o u n tr y ’ s l i v e s t o c k in d u s t r y f o l l o w i n g th e e s t a b lis h m e n t
o f the new r e g im e .

The number of m e r in o s in c r e a s e d r a p id ly

a f t e r th e f i r s t i n d u s t r i a l p la n w h ich r e q u ir e d ab ou t 2 ,0 0 0
to n s o f m erin o w ool a n n u a lly .

I n 1940 t h e r e w ere 3 9 ,0 0 0

m erin o s h e e p , and by 1945 th e y r e a c h e d 1 1 6 ,0 0 0 .
M ohair G o a t:
The m ohair g o a t i s a n a t i v e o f T urkey.
v e r y im p o r ta n t r o l e in th e econom ic l i f e
th e C e n tr a l P la t e a u .

I t p la y s a

o f t h e fa r m e r s of

In f a c t i t i s o n ly th r o u g h th e r a i s i n g

o f th e m ohair g o a t t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e to u t i l i z e m ost o f

59

t h e la n d in t h i s r e g i o n .
The m ohair g o a t , or t h e s o - c a l l e d Ankara (Angora)
g o a t i s r a i s e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r i t s w o o l, w hich i s v e r y
f i n e , s o f t and d u r a b le .

T h is p r o d u c tio n was a m onopoly

o f Turkey u n t i l 1 8 6 0 , and t h e r e w ere no g o a t s of t h i s , ty p e
o u t s id e o f A n a t o l i a .
tile

B ut w ith th e d ev elo p m en t of t h e t e x ­

in d u s t r y i n E u ro p e, t h e demand f o r m ohair w ool went

up s o v e r y h ig h t h a t T u rk ish p r o d u c tio n c o u ld n o t m eet th e
r e q u ir e m e n ts .

T h e r e fo r e , d ip lo m a tic p r e s s u r e w as b r o u g h t

t o b e a r on Turkey b y G reat B r i t a i n .

T h is p r e s s u r e f i n a l l y

le d t h e S u lta n t o p r e s e n t a few m ohair g o a t s a s a g i f t t o
th e B r i t i s h Am bassador t o b e s e n t t o S ou th A f r ic a f o r bw eedin g p u r p o s e s .

F o llo w in g th e B r i t i s h ex a m p le, t h e U n ite d

S t a t e s se c u r e d m ohair g o a t s fr o m Turkey i n 1898 and i n t r o ­
duced them i n t o T exas and th e W estern p l a i n s .
In 1935 th e number o f m oh air g o a t s in Turkey w as 3 . 3
m i l l i o n , compared w ith 3 .6 m i l l i o n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
I t in c r e a s e d t o 5 .5 m i l l i o n i n 1940 and dropp ed t o 4 m i l l i o n
in 1945 .

F or th e same y e a r s , th e r e w ere 4 . 3 and 4 . 4 m i l l i o n

g o a t s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
B e s id e s m oh air g o a t s , t h e r e w ere 8 . 5 m i l l i o n common
g o a ts in 19 35.

T h eir number in c r e a s e d to 1 1 .4 m i l l i o n i n

1940 and 1 2 .2 m i l l i o n in 1 9 4 5 .

They a r e r a i s e d f o r t h e i r

m ilk and h a i r , a s w e l l a s f o r m eat and s k i n .
I n conmon g o a t p o p u la t io n , Turkey ra n k s f i r s t in

60

E u ro p e, and t h i r d i n th e World a f t e r I n d ia and C h in a.
H ow ever, a v ig o r o u s cam paign i s underway t o r e p la c e t h e s e
g o a t s w ith more l u c r a t i v e sh eep o r c a t t l e , f o r th e y d e s tr o y
t h e c o u n tr y ’ s f o r e s t s .

T h is cam paign c o n s i s t s p r i n c i p a l l y

o f a h eavy t a x on e a ch g o a t .

I t i s b e l ie v e d t h a t th e com­

mon g o a t p o p u la t io n w i l l d e c r e a s e c o n s id e r a b ly a f t e r t h e s e
m easu res.
H o g s:
S in c e t h e Moslem r e l i g i o n f o r b i d s th e e a t i n g o f p o r k ,
h o g s are n o t im p o rta n t i n T urkey.

H ow ever, t h e y a r e r a i s e d

on s t a t e fa r m s , and by non-M oslem fa r m e r s t o m e e t th e d e­
mand of f o r e i g n e r s l i v i n g in I s t a n b u l and A nkara.

In 1945

t h e r e w ere some 5 ,0 0 0 h o g s in T urkey.
P o u ltr y :
T here i s no o r g a n iz e d p o u lt r y and e g g p r o d u c tio n i n
T urk ey.

T here e x i s t s p r a c t i c a l l y no la r g e f l o c k s .

Each

fa rm er r a i s e s a r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll number o f c h ic k e n s , r a n g in g
from 10 to 1 5 .
m e n tio n in g .

There a r e no in c u b a to r s or h a t c h e r i e s w o r th

The m ethod g e n e r a l l y em ployed i s n a t u r a l b ro o d ­

in g .
In 1940 t h e r e w ere 1 8 .5 m i l l i o n c h ic k e n s and 1 . 3
m i l l i o n tu r k e y s i n T urk ey, o r 67 c h ic k e n s p e r sq u a r e m ile
compared w it h 180 i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and 270 i n M ic h ig a n .
For th e same y e a r egg p r o d u c tio n am ounted t o 9 1 .3 m i l l i o n

61

d o z e n s.
A c e r t a i n a tte m p t h a s been made b y th e Government t o
im prove and d e v e lo p th e p o u lt r y in d u s t r y .

To t h i s e n d , a

m odel p o u l t r y farm was e s t a b l i s h e d i n A nkara.

A lth o u g h

t h i s a c t i v i t y h a s b een g o in g on s in c e 1 9 3 4 , no in f lu e n c e
on th e g e n e r a l p o u l t r y s i t u a t i o n cen b e o b s e r v e d .
S e r ic u ltu r e :
S e r i c u l t u r e p l a y s a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n th e a g r i c u l ­
t u r a l economy o f some d i s t r i c t s .
s u i t a b l e t o t h i s in d u s t r y .

Turkey h a s l a r g e r e s o u r c e s

In f a c t th e r e a r e o v e r 3 m i l l i o n

m u lb erry t r e e s in th e c o u n tr y .

In th e 1 8 5 0 ’ s Turkey w as

one o f t h e l e a d in g c o u n t r ie s i n s e r i c u l t u r e in th e w o r ld .
But l a t e r on t h e in d u s tr y d e c li n e d .
te m p tin g to r e v iv e i t .

The new reg im e i s a t ­

Tor t h i s p u rp o se a number o f s c h o o l s

and e x p e r im e n t s t a t i o n s have been s e t u p .

In 1940 th e t o t a l

p r o d u c tio n w as o v e r 3 ,0 0 0 to n s p rod u ced b y 6 3 ,5 0 0 f a m i l i e s .
O ther L i v e s t o c k :
In 1945 t h e r e w e r e 9 7 7 ,0 0 0 h o r s e s , 8 8 ,0 0 0 m u le s ,
1 0 8 ,0 0 0 c a m e ls , and 1 . 6 m i l l i o n a s s e s .

In a s s p o p u la t io n

Turkey h o ld s second n la e e i n th e w o r ld a f t e r C h in a.

PART TWO
TURKEY’ S FOREIGN TRADE
IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

62

PART TWO
TURKEY’ S FOREIGN TRADE
F o r e ig n t r a d e h a s a lw a y s b e e n a prim e f a c t o r in
T u rk ey’ s econom ic l i f e , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e th e d e m o lit io n o f
h e r l o c a l h a n d ic r a f t i n d u s t r i e s i n th e wake o f th e European
in d u s tr ia l r e v o lu tio n .

A lth o u g h t h e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s o f

Turkey w ere s u i t a b l e f o r i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , Turkey d id n o t
d e v e lo p i n d u s t r i a l l y a t t h e same tim e a s W estern n a t i o n s .
The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s may b e fo u n d in th e c a p i t u l a t i o n s
and c o n c e s s i o n s t o f o r e i g n e r s under th e Ottoman r u le w h ich
w i l l be d is c u s s e d i n P a r t I I I .

I t is

s u f f i c i e n t t o sa y

t h a t Turkey s o u g h t a d v a n ta g e i n f o r e i g n tr a d e p r im a r ily
by p r o d u c in g a g r i c u l t u r a l raw m a t e r i a l s and f o o d s t u f f s .
H i s t o r i c a l l y , •when a c o u n tr y ’ s tr a d e i s b a sed upon
th e e x p o r t a t io n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s , w h ile im p o r tin g
i n d u s t r i a l g o o d s , i t s f o r e i g n tr a d e i s s m a ll compared w ith
the i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s .

T h is i s

tr u e i n th e c a s e o f T urkey.

In f a c t , i n 1935 T u rk ey’ s sh a re i n th e t o t a l e x p o r t s o f
Europe, was 0 .9 p e r c e n t , w h il e i n t h a t o f im p o r ts 0 . 6 p e r c e n t 1
T h is c o n t r a s t s w ith B elg iu m , w h ic h i s about one tw e n ty f i f t h t h e s i z e of Turkey and h a s no n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s e x c e p t
c o a l , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s had a sh are o f 5 .4 p e r c e n t in e x p o r ts
and 5 .2 i n E uropean i m p o r t s .2

T urkey’ s s h a r e i n t o t a l w orld

■'"League o f N a t io n s , E u ro p e’ s t r a d e .
2I b i d . , p . 1 6 .

G eneva, 1 9 4 1 .

p 16.

63

tr a d e i s an i n s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e of a b o u t 0 .3 5 p e r c e n t .
N e v e r t h e le s s , w it h h er p e c u l ia r c lim a t e and s o i l s w h ich
make p o s s i b l e th e p r o d u c tio n o f s p e c i a l i z e d a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t s , Turkey i s im p o r ta n t i n th e w o r ld tr a d e o f a
c o n s id e r a b le v a r i e t y of p r o d u c ts .
In o r d e r t o a n a ly z e p r o p e r ly T urkey’ s f o r e i g n tr a d e
in a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c ts i t i s n e c e s s a r y f i r s t to c o n s id e r
th e s u b j e c t ' o f b a la n c e o f tr a d e of T urkey.

CHAPTER V
THE BALANCE OF FOREIGN TRADE
The tr a d e b a la n c e o f T urkey, on a c c o u n t o f t h e d e­
p lo r a b le econ om ic c o n d it io n s u n der th e
a h e a v y d e f i c i t , f o r a b ou t 80 y e a r s ,

s u l t a n a t e , showed
-^t f i n a l l y r e a c h e d

a b a la n c e i n f a v o r o f th e c o u n t r y , i n 1 9 3 0 , under th e Re­
p u b lic a n r e g im e .

The t a b l e on th e n e x t p age p o r t r a y s th e

d ev elo p m en t o f e x p o r ts and im p o r ts and th e b a la n c e o f f o r e i g n
t r a d e o f Turkey from 1 9 2 3 t o 1 9 4 6 .
In t h i s ta b le i t

i s p o s s i b l e t o s e e m ost o f t h e e f ­

f e c t s o f th e n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l econ om ic h a p p e n in g s.
I n f a c t , i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t from 1923 t o 1 9 2 9 , d u rin g t h e 7 y e a r p e r io d o f th e new r e g im e , th e b a la n c e o f tr a d e was un­
f a v o r a b le t o T urkey.

The b a la n c e o f tr a d e c o n tin u e d t o be

u n fa v o r a b le b e c a u se T u rk ey’ s demand f o r f o r e i g n g o o d s was
v e r y h ig h , s i n c e i t s

econom ic r e s o u r c e s w ere e x h a u s te d and

d e s t r o y e d d u rin g World War I and th e War of T u rk ish In d e p e n d en ce .
The lo w t a r i f f r a t e s and. th e h ig h demand f o r f o r e i g n p r o ­
d u c ts p r e v a i l i n g i n 1 9 2 3 -2 9 h ave b r o u g h t a b o u t a c o n s id e r a b le
i n c r e a s e i n im p o r ts o v e r e x p o r t s .

T h is u n fa v o r a b le b a la n c e
3
o f tr a d e o f Turkey had b e e n c a r r ie d on s i n c e th e 1 8 5 0 ’ s .
I n 1 9 2 9 , h o w ev er, a sh arp in c r e a s e i n im p o r ts r e s u l t e d i n a
d e f i c i t of 101 m i l l i o n l i r a s in t h e b a l a n c e .4

T h is sudden

®See T ab le 15 i n a p p e n d ix , The B a la n ce o f Trade o f th e
Ottoman U m pire.
4 From 1923 t o 1929 one T u rk ish L ir a w as e q u a l t o 50
c e n t s , from 1930 t o 1 9 3 2 , 47 c e n t s , and fro m 1 9 3 4 t o 1 9 4 6 , 80
c e n t s . S in c e 1946 i t h a s b e e n w o r th 35 c e n t s . S e e t a b l e 2
i n a p p e n d ix .

65

T able I :

The B a la n c e of F o r e ig n Trade o f Turkey 1 9 2 3 -1 9 4 6 ,
( i n 1 ,0 0 0 L ir a s )

Year

E x p o r ts

Im p o rts

B a la n ce

1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946

8 4 ,6 5 1
1 5 8 ,8 6 8
1 9 2 ,4 2 8
1 8 6 ,4 2 3
1 5 8 ,4 2 1
1 7 3 ,5 3 7
1 5 5 ,2 1 4
1 5 1 ,4 5 4
1 2 7 ,2 7 5
1 0 1 ,3 0 1
9 6 ,1 6 2
9 2 ,1 4 9
9 5 ,8 6 1
1 1 7 ,7 3 3
1 3 7 ,9 8 4
1 4 4 ,9 4 7
1 2 7 ,3 8 9
1 1 1 ,4 4 6
1 2 3 ,0 8 1
1 6 5 ,0 3 4
2 5 7 ,1 5 2
2 3 2 ,5 3 0
2 1 8 ,9 2 9
4 3 2 ,0 0 0

1 4 4 ,7 8 9
1 9 3 ,6 1 1
2 4 1 ,6 1 9
2 3 4 ,7 0 0
2 1 1 ,3 9 8
2 2 3 ,5 3 2
2 5 6 ,2 9 6
1 4 7 ,5 5 1
1 2 6 ,6 6 0
8 5 ,9 8 4
7 4 ,6 7 6
8 6 ,7 9 0
8 8 ,8 2 3
9 2 ,5 3 1
1 1 4 ,3 7 9
1 4 9 ,8 3 6
1 1 8 ,2 4 9
6 8 ,9 2 3
7 4 ,8 1 5
1 4 7 ,7 1 3
2 0 3 ,0 4 5
1 6 4 ,9 4 4
1 2 6 ,1 6 6
2 2 3 ,9 0 0

- 6 0 ,1 3 8
- 3 4 ,7 4 3
- 4 9 ,1 9 1
- 4 8 ,2 7 7
- 5 2 ,9 7 7
- 4 9 ,9 9 5
- 1 0 1 ,0 8 2
3 ,9 0 3
615
1 5 ,1 7 7
2 1 ,4 8 6
5 ,3 5 9
7 ,0 3 8
2 5 ,2 0 2
2 3 ,5 0 5
- 4 ,8 8 9
9 ,1 4 0
4 2 ,5 2 3
4 8 ,2 6 6
1 7 ,3 2 1
5 4 ,1 0 7
6 7 ,5 8 6
9 2 ,7 6 3
2 0 8 ,1 0 0

S o u r c e : C om piled from A nnuaire S t a t i s t i q u e , O f f ic e
C e n tr a l de S t a t i s t i q u e , R ep u b liq u e Turque, A nkara.
p o s i t i v e b a la n c e r e p r e s e n t s an e x c e s s of m erchan­
d i s e e x p o r t s , a m inus b a la n c e an e x c e s s of im p o r ts .

66

r i s e i n im p o r ts w as b e c a u s e im p o r te r s r e a l i z e d t h a t th e
l o w - t a r i f f p e r io d w ould end i n 1 9 2 9 .

T h e r e fo r e , th e y im­

p o r te d a s la r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f g o o d s a s p o s s i b l e a t th e o ld
lo w r a t e s .

Im p o rts in c r e a s e d t o an a l l - t i m e h ig h w ith a

v a lu e o f 256 m i l l i o n l i r a s , and a s a r e s u l t a v e r y s t r o n g
demand f o r f o r e i g n ex ch a n g e to o k p l a c e .

B ecau se o f the

l a r g e amount o f e x t e r n a l d e b t w h ich w as ta k e n o v er from
th e Ottoman G overnm ent, Turkey w a s d e f i c i e n t in f o r e i g n
exch ange.

T h e r e fo r e , i n o r d e r t o m eet t h i s in c r e a s e d de­

mand th e s t r a i n upon th e l i r a was v e r y g r e a t .

T h is s i t u a t i o n

c r e a te d a v e r y s e v e r e c r i s i s w h ich marked th e b e g in n in g o f
th e p e r io d o f d e p r e s s io n i n th e c o u n tr y .

I t a ls o fo r c e d

th e Government to ta k e s t r i c t m ea su r es o v e r im p o rts and
c u r r e n c y , b e g in n in g i n 1 9 3 0 .
As a r e s u l t o f th e im p o s it io n o f h ig h t a r i f f s upon
im p o r ts and o th e r r e s t r i c t i v e m e a su r e s, t h e r e r e s u l t e d a
tr a d e b a la n c e i n f a v o r o f th e c o u n tr y f o r th e f i r s t tim e i n
a lm o st 80 y e a r s .

T h is f a v o r a b l e b a la n c e w as r e s t o r e d in

1930 and m a in ta in e d u n t i l 1 9 3 8 , b u t was o n ly a c h ie v e d a r t i ­
fic ia lly *

A f t e r 1930 im p o r ts c o n tin u e d t o d e c l i n e due t o

th e im p o s it io n o f h ig h im p o r t d u t i e s and th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
th e q u o ta sy s te m on th e one h an d , and th e w o r ld econ om ic
c r i s i s on t h e o t h e r .
l ir a s in 1933.

The im p o r ts dropped t o 7 4 .6 m i l l i o n

I n 1 9 3 7 , h o w ev er, th e q u o ta sy ste m w as aban­

doned and t h i s c a u se d im p o r ts to r i s e t o 114 m i l l i o n l i r a s ,
o r an i n c r e a s e o f 24 p e r c e n t compared w ith th e p r e v io u s y e a r .

67

F u rth erm o re, on a c c o u n t o f th e im proved c o n d it io n s i n i n ­
t e r n a t i o n a l tr a d e f o l lo w in g 1 9 3 6 , th e Government l i f t e d
some o f th e r e s t r i c t i o n s and f o llo w e d a somewhat more l i b e r ­
a l p o l i c y f o r im p o r ts .
In 1938 im p o r ts in c r e a s e d f u r t h e r and e x c e e d e d e x ­
p o r t s and th u s p u t Turkey a g a in i n an u n fa v o r a b le b a la n c e
o f tra d e.

The f i v e - y e a r i n d u s t r i a l p la n and th e r a i l r o a d

c o n s t r u c t io n p rogram , w h ich r e q u ir e d .th e im p o r tin g o f la r g e
q u a n t i t i e s o f m a ch in ery and ir o n and s t e e l p r o d u c ts was th e
m ain f a c t o r f o r in c r e a s e d im p o r ts i n 1 9 3 8 .

D uring n e x t y e a r

and t h e r e a f t e r Turkey m a in ta in e d a c r e d it - b a la n .c e , m a in ly
b e c a u se of t h e w o r ld c o n f l i c t s w h ic h made im p o r ts o f in d u s ­
t r i a l goods v ery d i f f i c u l t .

In f a c t , i n 1940 im p o r ts d e c r e a s - .

ed s h a r p ly to a v a lu e t h a t w a s an a l l - t i m e lo w i n th e cou n ­
t r y ^ h is to r y .

C o n d itio n s i n 1 9 4 2 -4 4 , h o w ev er, w ere im­

p ro v ed t o some e x t e n t , a s th e u n ite d S t a t e s e x te n d e d L endL e a se a id to Turkey b e g in n in g in 1 9 4 2 .
E x p o r ts a l s o f o llo w e d a tr e n d s i m i la r t o t h a t shown
by im p o r ts .

P r io r to 1 9 3 $ , t h a t i s , under th e low t a r i f f s ,

T u rk ey’ s e x p o r ts moved a t r a th e r h ig h l e v e l s .

They r e a c h e d

1 9 2 .4 m i l l i o n l i r a s i n 1 9 2 5 , w hich was t h e h i g h e s t f i g u r e in
th e p e r io d 1 9 2 3 -4 0 .

D uring th e w o rld econ om ic d e p r e s s io n ,

h o w ev er, th e p r i c e s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l com m od ities i n w o r ld
m a rk ets f e l l o f f s h a r p ly due i n p a r t t o th e g e n e r a l r i s e
o f tr a d e b a r r i e r s , and p a r t l y to th e r e d u c tio n o f consump­
t i o n in im p o r tin g European c o u n t r i e s , w hich had r e s u l t e d

68

from th e d e c r e a s e i n t h e i r p u r c h a s in g power.

Since T urkey’ s

e x p o r t t r a d e i s d e p e n d e n t upon t h e w e s t e r n a nd c e n t r a l
E u r o p e a n m a r k e t s , t h e d e p r e s s e d e c o n o m ic c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l ­
in g i n 1929-1933 caused h e r e x p o r t s t o be d r a s t i c a l l y r e ­
duced.

The v a l u e o f e x p o r t s d r o p p e d f r o m 1 7 3 . 5 m i l l i o n

l i r a s i n 1928 t o 92 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 3 3 .

I n 1935, th e t r e n d i n

e x p o r t s t u r n e d u p , b u t t h e v a l u e was s t i l l v e r y l o w , am ount­
in g o n l y 't o 95.8 m i l l i o n l i r a s .

A f t e r 1936, however, e x ­

p o r t s r e v i v e d a s t h e i n s t a l l m e n t s on e x t e r n a l d e b t w e r e
p a id i n T u rk ish c u rre n c y i n s t e a d of i n f o r e i g n exchange.
This f o r c e d f o r e i g n e r s t o p u rc h a s e T u rk ey ’ s p r o d u c t s f o r
e x p o rt or t o r e i n v e s t t h e i n t e r e s t i n Turkey.

Thus e x p o r t s

c o n tin u e d to r i s e u n t i l 1938.
w i t h t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e w a r i n 1939 t h e t r e n d t u r n e d
downward a g a i n , due p a r t l y t o t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s i n some e x p o r t
a b l e p r o d u c t s w h i c h T u r k e y m i g h t n e e d i n c a s e of i n v o l v e m e n t
i n t h e w a r , and p a r t l y t o a s e v e r e s h o r t a g e o f s h i p p i n g
fac ilitie s.

A f t e r 19 4 1 , h o w e v e r , e x p o r t s b e g a n t o i n c r e a s e

owing t o t h e B r i t i s h P u r c h a s e s o f l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of s u r ­
p l u s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s , namely, t o b a c c o , f i l b e r t s ,
r a i s i n s , and f i g s , w h i c h w e r e a t h i g h p r i c e s i n o r d e r t o k e e p T u r k e y f r o m t r a d i n g w i t h Germany.

A nother f a c t o r con­

t r i b u t i n g t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n e x p o r t s was t h a t s h i p s b r i n g ­
i n g L end-L ease equipm ent t o Turkey p ro v id e d s h i p p i n g space
f o r t h e e x p o r t s o f T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s , a m i n l y chrome o r e ,
t o b a c c o , v a l o n i a , l i c o r i c e r o o t a nd d r i e d f r u i t s , t o t h e

69

U nited S t a t e s .
I n 1946 a t r e m e n d o u s i n c r e a s e i n the v a l u e s of b o t h
e x p o rts and im p o rts took p l a c e .

B u t t h i s d o e s n o t mean

t h a t t h e q u a n t i t i e s i n c r e a s e d g r e a t l y com pared w i t h o t h e r
years.

T h i s a b n o r m a l r i s e of e x p o r t s t o . an a l l - t i m e h i g h

was b r o u g h t a b o u t t h r o u g h t h e d e v a l u a t i o n o f T u r k i s h c u r ­
r e n c y f r o m a n e x c h a n g e r a t e of 1 . 3 t o 1 d o l l a r t o 2 . 8 2 t o
1 d o l l a r by' a Gov ernment d e c r e e d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 7 , 1 9 4 6 ,
(S e e C h a p t e r X I I I ) . I n f a c t ,

i f t h e v a l u e s of e x p o r t s and

i m p o r t s a r e c o n v e r t e d i n t o t h e 19 3 8 p r i c e l e v e l , t h e y w o u ld
b e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a b o u t 153 and 80 m i l l i o n l i r a s i n s t e a d
o f 43 2 and 2 2 3 . 9 m i l l i o n l i r a s .
i n 1946 w i t h t h a t of 1938 i s
traded.

A n o t h e r way t o com pa re t r a d e

to c o n sid er th e

q u a n tities

I n 1 93 8 e x p o r t s amounted t o a b o u t 1 . 5 m i l l i o n t o n s

and i m p o r t s 8 4 4 , 0 0 0 t o n s , w h e r e a s i n 1946 t h e y w e r e 9 0 5 , 0 0 0
and 4 0 3 , 0 0 0 t o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
say t h a t ,

Hence, i t i s c o r r e c t to

d e s p i te the a p p a r e n t l y h ig h v a lu e s o f e x p o r ts and

i m p o r t s i n 1 9 4 6 , t h e r e a l v a l u e was b e lo w t h e f i g u r e s f o r
1938.

CHAPTER VI
EXPORT TRADE OF TURKEY
When th e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s and a g r i c u l t u r a l p ro d u c­
t i o n o f Turkey w ere a n a ly z ed abov.e, i t was p o in te d o u t t h a t ,
- t h e c o u n tr y i s p r e d o m in a n tly a g r i c u l t u r a l , and a lth o u g h de­
term in ed e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n made by the Government t o d e v e lo p
l o c a l i n d u s t r i e s , Turkey i s
d u s tr ia l n eed s.

s t i l l f a r from m e e tin g h e r i n ­

T u rk ey’ s e x p o r t tr a d e c o n s i s t s of a g r i c u l ­

t u r a l end m in e r a l p r o d u c t s , w it h m an u factu red g o o d s th e
m ain ite m s o f im p o r ts .

N e v e r t h e le s s , a t t h i s p o in t a g e n ­

e r a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f T u rk ey’ s e x p o r ts w i l l be h e l p f u l in
s e t t i n g f o r t h more c l e a r l y th e n a tu r e of h e r ad v a n ta g e
i n t r a d e w it h th e r e s t o f the w o r ld .

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

em ployed in c lu d e d a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d itie s, raw m in e r a ls
and m an u factu red g o o d s .

As u sed i n t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

a g r i­

c u l t u r a l c o m m o d itie s a r e t h o s e w h ich in c lu d e a l l p l a n t and
l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c ts .
A d i v i s i o n o f T u rk ish e x p o r ts on th e b a s i s o f t h i s
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n show s t h a t th e p r i n c i p a l e x p o r ts o f Turkey
f a l l w i t h i n th e group c l a s s i f i e d a s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s .
A lth o u g h th e c o u n tr y h a s d e p o s i t s o f many d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f
m in e r a ls , some o f v e r y h ig h q u a l i t y , t h e i r c o n t r ib u t io n to
th e e x p o r t tr a d e i s c o m p a r a tiv e ly s m a ll.

B u t, th e m ost

rem ark ab le f a c t i n T u rk ish e x p o r t tr a d e i s th e a lm o s t com­
p l e t e a b se n c e of m a n u factu red g o o d s .

The o n ly m an u factu red

it e m s in t h e c o u n tr y ’ s e x p o r t tr a d e a r e hand made r u g s and

71

ca rp ets.

F or c e n t u r i e s t h e y have e n jo y e d a w o r ld w ide

r e p u t a t i o n and demand.

However, the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m ach in e -

made r u g s and c a r p e t s i n l a r g e numbers and t h e lo w e r p r i c e s
i n w o r ld m a r k e ts l i m i t e d t h e e x p o r t a t i o n o f T u rk ish hand­
made r u g s .
The s p e c i f i c s t a t i s t i c s f o r th e ab ove s t a t e m e n t s
are a s f o l l o w s :

I n 1 9 5 5 -3 9 a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s .a v e ra g e d

8 4 . 6 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l T u r k is h e x p o r t s by v a l u e , w h i l e
m i n e r a l s a c c o u n te d f a r o n ly 5 p e r c e n t .

The r e m a in in g 1 0 . 4

p e r c e n t c o n s i s t e d of m i s c e l l a n e o u s it e m s o f w hich 3 p e r c e n t
were m an u fa ctu red g o o d s , n am ely, r u g s and c a r p e t s , and
some w o o le n and s i l k e n g o o d s ; f i s h i n g s h a r e d about 0 . 7 p e r c e n t .
The P l a c e o f A g r i c u l t u r e i n E x p o r t Trade
The p r e c e d in g a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s s t r i k i n g l y t h e f a c t
t h a t i n t r a d e w i t h th e r e s t o f t h e w o r ld Turkey’ s a d v a n ta g e
i s b a sed on th e p e c u l i a r g e o g r a p h ic i n f l u e n c e s , m a in ly
c l i m a t e and s o i l , w h ic h make p o s s i b l e th e p r o d u c t i o n o f
s p e c i a l i z e d a g r i c u l t u r a l and anim al p r o d u c t s .

The e x p o r t s

o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s from Turkey c r e a t e the b u lk o f
th e p u r c h a s in g power by w h ic h she can o b t a i n e x ch a n g e t o
buy i n d u s t r i a l g o o d s , c h i e f l y c a p i t a l g o o d s , t o d e v e lo p h e r
in d u str y .
The exch an ge of T u rk ish a g r i c u l t u r a l raw m a t e r i a l s
and fo o d s t u f f s f o r i n d u s t r i a l im p o r ts b e g a n i n t h e 1 8 5 0 ’ s .
P r i o r to t h a t d a t e Turkey, or t h e s o - c a l l e d Ottoman E m pire,

72

was a lm o st s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , h a v in g i t s l o c a l h a n d i c r a f t
i n d u s t r i e s and e x p o r t i n g o n l y a few a g r i c u l t u r a l i t e m s .
But w it h th e i n d u s t r i a l develop m en t o f w e s t e r n n a t i o n s th e
demand f o r e x p o r t s o f T u rk ish a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s i n c r e a s ­
ed c o n s i d e r a b l y .

L i k e w i s e Turkey’ s demand f o r i n d u s t r i a l

im p o r ts i n c r e a s e d a c c o r d i n g l y .
Table I I shows Turkey’ s e x p o r t s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
co m m o d ities i n v a l u e s and p e r c e n t a g e s compared w ith the
t o t a l e x p o r t s from 1925 t o 1 9 4 0 .

T h is t a b l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t

th e v a l u e o f e x p o r t s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s i n c r e a s e d
a s the t o t a l e x p o r t s i n c r e a s e d and v i c e - v e r s a .

I t a lso

i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e p l a c e o f a g r i c u l t u r e i n e x p o r t t r a d e
i s very g rea t.

From 1 9 2 3 -1 9 4 0 a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s a v e r ­

aged 8 2 . 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l e x p o r t s .

I t d e c r e a s e d t o 78

p e r c e n t i n 1 9 2 7 , and i n c r e a s e d t o 8 6 . 3 p e r c e n t by 1 9 3 8 ,
I n 1 9 4 1 , i t r o s e t o an a l l - t i m e h ig h o f 8 9 . 9 p e r c e n t .

In

volum e a s w e l l , a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d itie s p r o v i d e the b u lk
o f t o t a l e x p o r t s , b e i n g about 80 p e r c e n t

in 1958.

Im p o rta n t A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p o r ts
The f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s shows t h a t t h e e x p o r t t r a d e
o f Turkey g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t s o f th e e x p o r t o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
p rod u cts.

However, i n Turkey’ s a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p o r t t r a d e

th e s h a r e s o f t h e v a r i o u s e n t e r p r i s e s a r e n o t t h e same.
Among them f i e l d c r o p s p l a y t h e m o st im p o r ta n t p a r t , con ­
s i s t i n g o f about 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l a g r i c u l t u r a l e x -

73

T ab le I I :

V alue of A g r i c u l t u r a l P r o d u c t s and P e r c e n t a g e
o f T o ta l E x p o r t o f Turkey.

1985-1946.

( V a lu e s i n 1 , 0 0 0 l i r a s )

Year

V a lu e

1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1930
1931
1938
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
3.938
1939
1940
1941
1948
19 43
1944
1945
1946

6 7 ,4 5 8
1 8 9 ,6 3 5
1 5 4 ,3 8 0
1 5 3 ,3 5 1
1 3 0 ,7 0 9
1 4 3 ,8 9 8
1 8 5 ,7 5 6
1 1 9 ,4 5 7
1 0 8 ,6 8 6
8 6 ,1 8 3
7 5 ,8 8 6
7 4 ,0 4 3
8 0 ,5 4 6
1 0 0 ,1 3 9
1 1 9 ,6 7 8
1 8 5 ,1 8 9
1 0 3 ,6 0 8
9 5 ,7 0 9
1 0 8 ,5 7 9
1 4 3 ,6 6 8
1 9 3 ,3 0 5
1 8 9 ,5 9 8
1 9 6 ,3 8 1
3 7 8 ,3 3 8

Source:
A.nkara.

P ercen tage
8 0 .1
8 1 .5
8 0 .4
8 3 .0
8 8 .7
8 3 .0
8 1 .0
7 9 .1
8 5 .5
8 5 .3
7 8 .1
8 0 .4
8 3 .9
8 5 .0
8 6 .5
8 6 .3
8 1 .5
8 5 .9
8 9 .9
8 7 .0
7 6 .0
8 1 .5
8 9 .7
8 6 .8

C a l c u l a t e d from A nnuaire S t a t i s t i q u e s ,

p o rts.

Secon d i n im p o rtan ce come t r e e c r o p s , and th e n

l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t s w hich com prise ab ou t 30 and 20 p e r c e n t
of th e a g r ic u l t u r a l e x p o r ts , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

A b r ie f d is ­

c u s s i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l co m m o d ities w i.ll b e t t e r i n d i c a t e
th e b a s i s cf T u rk ish ad v a n ta g e i n e a c h commodity.
T o b a cco :
Among a l l th e T u r k ish e x p o r t s t o b a c c o i s by f a r t h e
m ost im portant i t e m .

I n t h e f i v e y e a r s ending w i t h 1 9 3 4 ,

annual e x p o r t s w ere v a lu e d a t 2 6 .8 m i l l i o n l i r a s fro m 2 5 ,5 6 4
t o n s and r e p r e s e n t e d . 2 2 . 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y ’ s t o t a l
e x p o r t s , or 28 p e r c e n t cf a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p o r t s .

Tobacco

e x p o r t s i n c r e a s e d from an a v e r a g e o f 3 3 . 1 m i l l i o n l i r a s
i n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 t o 4 8 . 7 m i l l i o n l i r a s i n 1 9 4 0 - 4 4 , s h a r in g 26
p e r c e n t and 28 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l e x p o r t s r e s p e c t i v e l y .
T h is sudden r i s e

i n v a l u e i n th e l a s t f i v e y e a r p e r io d was

due l a r g e l y t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n the p r i c e o f t o b a c c o r r a t h e r
than th e amount e x p o r t e d .

In f a c t f o r t h e same p e r i o d s e x ­

p o r t s i n c r e a s e d s l i g h t l y fro m an a v e r a g e o f 3 4 ,0 0 0 t o n s to
o 5 ,3 0 0 t o n s , or an i n c r e a s e o f 4 p e r c e n t o n l y .

The i n ­

c r e a s e i n p r i c e w a s b ro u g h t a b o u t b y a d r a s t i c d e c l i n e i n
t o b a c c o p r o d u c t i o n i n G reece d u r in g German o c c u p a t i o n .

In

f a c t G reece was th e w o r ld ’ s l a r g e s t e x p o r t e r o f T u rk ish
or s o - c a l l e d o r i e n t a l t o b a c c o and t h e p r i n c i p a l c o m p e t it o r
o f Turkey.

S i n c e 1 9 4 1 , h o w e v e r , Turkey h a s h e l d f i r s t

p l a c e i n t h i s ty p e o f to b a c c o e x p o r t s i n the w o r l d .

Y»

T u r k ish to b a c c o i s s h ip p e d t o n e a r l y a l l w o r ld mar­
k ets.

S i n c e 1687 i t h a s p r e s e r v e d i t s

a l l t h e t o b a c c o s of t h e w o r l d .

s u p e r i o r i t y among

B ecau se i t g i v e s an e x ­

q u i s i t e aroma and an a t t r a c t i v e c o lo r t o c i g a r e t t e s , i t
h a s b een r e g a r d e d a s an a b s o l u t e n e c e s s i t y b y a l l to b a c c o
m a n u fa c tu r in g c o u n t r i e s .

The p r i n c i p a l b u y e r s a r e t h e U n it e d

S t a t e s , Germany, th e u n i t e d Kingdom, I t a l y , E g y p t, and
C z e c h o s lo v a k i a .

These c o u n t r i e s and many o t h e r s 5 im p ort

T u rk ish t o b a c c o m a in ly f o r b l e n d in g p u r p o s e s and n o t f o r th e
p u rp ose o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e s u p p ly t o m eet t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s .
T h e r e f o r e , T u rk ish t o b a c c o , or s o - c a l l e d o r i e n t a l t o b a c c o
produ ced i n Turkey and G reece i s a s p e c i a l p r o d u c t n o t
com p etin g w ith b u t r a t h e r com plem entary to t o b a c c o s p r o ­
duced i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .

F or i n s t a n c e , th e U n ite d S t a t e s

i s the w o r l d ’ s l a r g e s t p r o d u c e r and e x p o r t e r o f t o b a c c o ,
r e a l i z i n g 155 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s a n n u a l l y from an a v e r a g e
e x p o r t o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 t o n s . 5

I t i s a ls o th e l a r g e s t purchaser

of T u rk ish t o b a c c o .
U n it e d S t a t e s t o b a c c o co m p a n ies m a in t a in r e s i d e n t
b u y e r s i n Turkey and p l a y an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n t h e t o b a c c o
market o f t h e c o u n t r y .

The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f T u rk ish b le n d

5See a p p e n d ix , t a b l e 1 1 .
T urkey’ s e x p o r t o f l e a f
tob acco t o p r in c ip a l c o u n t r ie s .
g
F i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t the y e a r s fro m 1936 t o 1 9 3 7 .
V a lu e s a r e ta k e n fr o m th e S t a t i s t i c a l A b s t r a c t o f t h e u n i t e d
S t a t e s , 1 9 4 3 ; w h i l e t h e e x p o r t s a r e fro m t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Yearbook o f A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a t i s t i c s .
1940.

76

c i g a r e t t e s which b eg a n i n 1 9 0 2 h a s b e e n g iv e n on th e r e a s o n
f o r t h e r a p id i n c r e a s e i n c i g a r e t t e consu m ption i n t h e
7
U n it e d S t a t e s .
i n 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 0 5 , the annual consu m ption o f
c i g a r e t t e t o b a c c o i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w as 1 2 . 4 m i l l i o n
p ou n d s.

A fter. 1905 t h e annual co n su m p tion began t o i n ­

c r e a s e , r e a c h i n g 22 m i l l i o n pounds i n 1 9 0 6 -1 9 1 0 ; 1 3 0 .3
m i l l i o n i n 1 9 1 6 - 2 0 ; 2 4 7 .9 m i l l i o n i n 1 9 3 0 , and 7 5 4 .5
m i ll i o n i n 1 9 4 2 .8

There was a s i m i l a r develop m en t i n

t h e u n i t e d Kingdom, Germany, I t a l y , and o t h e r oeoun t r i e s .
T h e r e f o r e , i t seem s q u i t e c e r t a i n t h a t Turkey’ s e x p o r t s
o f t o b a c c o w i l l c o n t in u e t o be t h e m ost im p o r ta n t ite m i n
h e r tr a d e w it h t h e r e s t o f the w o r l d .
In o r d e r t o p r o t e c t the q u a l i t y o f t h e T u rk ish
p r o d u c t and m a in ta in i t s r e p u t a t i o n i n f o r e i g n m a r k e ts , th e
p r o d u c t i o n and m a r k e tin g o f t o b a c c o a r e under o f f i c i a l
su p e rv isio n ,

fh e m anufacttire o f c i g a r e t t e s ana o t h e r t o ­

b a c c o p r o d u c t s i s a l s o under Government m onop oly.

These

s a l e s o f to b a c c o f u r n i s h an a p p r e c i a b l e p a r t o f t h e n a t i o n ­
a l revenue.

In 1 9 3 7 -4 1 r e t u r n s fro m t o b a c c o s a l e s a v e ra g e d

4 3 .4 m i l l i o n l i r a s , or about 9 percen t o f th e t o t a l rev en u e.
H a z e ln u t s (F i l b e r t s )s
Turkey i s the w o r l d ’ s l a r g e s t e x p o r t e r o f f i l b e r t s ,

7

L e la n d James Gordon, American R e l a t i o n s wi th Tur­
key, P h ila d e lp h ia , 1932, p. 86.
S t a t i s t i c a l A b s t r a c t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , Wash­
in g to n , 1943, p . 821.

f o l l o w e d by S p a in and I t a l y .
i s s h ip p e d t o f o r e i g n m a r k e t s .

About 90 p e r c e n t o f the crop
These sh ip m e n ts n o r m a lly

r e p r e s e n t a bou t 9 p e r c e n t o f th e v a l u e o f a l l T u rk ish e x ­
p orts.

H a x e ln u t s rank se co n d t o t o b a c c o .

Though e x p o r t s

v a r y from y e a r t o y e a r a c c o r d in g t o s i z e o f c r o p , th e t r e n d
i n t h e p a s t d e c a d e s h a s b een upward.

Whereas Turkey e x ­

p o r t e d a y e a r l y a v e r a g e o f 1 5 ,7 0 0 t o n s o f s h e l l e d f i l b e r t s
v a lu e d a t 8 . 5 m i l l i o n l i r a s i n the 1 9 3 0 -3 4 p e r i o d , sh e s h i p ­
ped an a v e r a g e o f 2 0 ,6 0 0 t o n s w i t h a v a l u e of 11 m i l l i o n l i r a s
in 1 935-39.

I n th e l a s t 5 - y e a r p e r i o d , 1 9 4 0 - 4 4 , a l t h o u g h

p r o d u c t io n i n c r e a s e d , e x p o r t s d e c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y b e ­
c a u s e o f World War I I , w h ic h r e d u c e d t h e p r u c h a s e s by f i l b e r t „ im p o r tin g n a t i o n s i n Europe and a l s o ch eck ed s h ip m e n ts from
Turkey.

Even under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e v a l u e o f f i l b e r t s

e x p o r te d d u r in g th e war y e a r s was s l i g h t l y h i g h e r th a n t h a t
o f 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 , am oun tin g t o 1 2 . 6 m i l l i o n l i r a s from 1 4 ,5 0 0 t o n s .
T h is i n c r e a s e i n v a l u e was due t o the i n c r e a s e i n p r i c e s .
P r i o r t o World War I I th e p r i n c i p a l m a r k e t s f o r i 'urki s h f i l b e r t s w e re Germany, F r a n c e , C z e c h o s lo v a k i a , th e
U n it e d Kingdom, S w i t z e r l a n d , Sweden, and t h e U n it e d S t a t e s .
I n o r d e r to p r o t e c t t h e q u a l i t y and m a i n t a i n i t s
r e p u t a t i o n i n f o r e i g n m a r k e t s , f i l b e r t e x p o r t s a r e under
th e s t r i c t c o n t r o l o f the M i n i s t e r of Commerce and a c e n ­
t r a l export o r g a n iza tio n .
p r ic e s f o r h a z e ln u ts.

The l a t t e r s e t s minimum e x p o r t

R a is in s :

R a i s i n s have b e e n t h i r d i n im p o r ta n c e i n t h e e x p o r t
g
t r a d e o f the c o u n t r y .
I n some y e a r s t h e y have ran k ed
secon d, ex ceed ed o n ly by to b a cco .

The Turkish r a i s i n i s

produ ced from a s e e d l e s s v a r i e t y of g r a p e s known a s s u l t a n a .
T urkey’ s p r i n c i p a l c o m p e t i t o r s on w orld m a rk ets a r e t h e
U n ite d S t a t e s , A u s t r a l i a , and G r e e c e .

Both th e u n it e d

S t a t e s and A u s t r a l i a b rou gh t s e e d l e s s g r a p e s fro m Turkey
and in t r o d u c e d them i n t o t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r e in th e 1 8 7 0 ’ s .
By 1920 th e U n ite d S t a t e s had b ecom e-th e l a r g e s t p r o d u ce r
and e x p o r t e r o f r a i s i n s i n the w o r ld .
D uring th e 1 9 5 0 -3 4 p e r io d t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e o f r a i s i n
e x p o r t s was nine m i l l i o n l i r a s from 4 3 ,8 0 0 t o n s , r e p r e s e n t ­
i n g 8 . 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a l u e of t h e c o u n t r y ’ s t o t a l e x p o r t s .
D uring t h e f o l l o w i n g f i v e y e a r s ended w ith 1 9 3 9 , h o w ev er,
e x p o r ts in c r e a se d s u b s t a n t i a ll y , a v era g in g 9 .3 m i l l i o n l i r a s
from 6 0 ,0 0 0 t o n s , p l a c i n g Turkey i n th e f i r s t rank a s the
w o r ld ’ s l a r g e s t e x p o r t e r a g a i n s t u n i t e d S t a t e s e x p o r t s of
5 6 ,2 5 0 t o n s f o r t i i e same p e r i o d .

In 1 9 4 0 - 4 4 , b e c a u s e o f

t h e w a r , e x p o r t s from Turkey d e c r e a s e d d r a s t i c a l l y t o an
a v e r a g e amount o f 2 3 ,0 0 0 t o n s , w h ile e x p o r t s from t h e
U n it e d S t a t e s a v e r a g e d 7 5 ,0 0 0 t o n s .

®The name ’' r a i s i n ! 1 r e f e r s t o th e d r i e d f r u i t of c e r ­
t a i n v a r i e t i e s of .th e g r a p e v i n e . However, i n f o r e i g n t r a d e
i t r e f e r s to t h e d r i e d s e e d l e s s g r a p e s , w h i l e d r i e d s e e d e d
g r a p e s are e a l l e d c u r r a n t s .

79

The e x p o r t a t i o n of r a i s i n s i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e
Govern m ent w i t h a v i e w t o i m p r o v i n g t h e i r p o s i t i o n on w o r l d
marke t s .
P r i o r t o t h e w a r t h e p r i n c i p a l c u s t o m e r s o f Turkish,
r a i s i n s w e r e Germany, t h e u n i t e d Kingdom, t h e N e t h e r l a n d s ,
B e lg i u m , ' a n d I t a l y .
D ried P i g s :
Turkey i s a l s o th e l a r g e s t e x p o rte r of d r i e d f i g s in
the w o r ld .

Up u n t i l 1900 T u r k i s h f i g s or s o - c a l l e d Smyrna

f i g s w e r e so d i s t i n c t i v e a s t o he e n t i r e l y f r e e f r o m c o m p e ti
tio n .

That s i t u a t i o n le d th e U nited S t a t e s to a tte m p t to

t r a n s p l a n t t h e f i g t r e e t o C a l i f o r n i a where t h e c l i m a t e
and s o i l

c o n d it i o n s a re s i m i l a r t o th o s e of W estern Turkey.

F i r s t e f f o r t s f a i l e d f o r a b o u t £0 y e a r s .

The f a c t w a s t h a t

t h e y d i d not r e a l i z e t h e n e c e s s i t y of c a p r i f i c a t i o n i n p r o d u
ing f i g s . ^

B r i n g i n g i n t h e w i l d c a p r i f i g and f i g w a s p ,

and a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e c a p r i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s i n 1899 m ark e d
t h e b e g i n n i n g of s u c c e s s f u l p r o d u c t i o n of Smyrna f i g s i n
C alifo rn is.

To i n d i c a t e i t s : o r i g i n a n d i t s

q u a lity , the

C a l i f o r n i a fig; i s c a l l e d t h e " C a l i m y r n a ” f i g .

Am erican f i g

■ ^ C a p r i f i c a t i o n i s an a r t i f i c i a l m e t h o d o f p o l l i n a t ­
i n g Smyrna f i g s ( n o t any o t h e r s p e c i e s ) .
O t h e r w i s e , no
p r o d u c t i o n Can b e o b t a i n e d . F r u i t s o f t h e w i l d c a p r i f i g
c o n t a i n i n g t h e f i g wasp ( B l a s t o p h a g a g r o s s o r u m ) a r e h un g
i n t h e o r c h a r d s i n May, an d t h e i n s e c t s upon c o m p l e t i n g
t h e i r l i f e c y c l e go f r o m th e m t o t h e Smyrna f i g s c a r r y i n g
p o lle n g r a i n s , thus a id in g p o l l i n a t i o n .

BO

p r o d u c t io n h a s s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s e d and t o d a y C a l i f o r n i a w it h
her f a n c y p a c k in g and p a c k a g in g i s
o f Turkey i n hi e w orld m a r k e ts .
fig

a fo r m id a b le c o m p e t it o r

N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e Smyrna

i s so u g h t a f t e r th e o u g h o u t t h e w o r ld a s a s u p e r i o r

p r o d u ct in q u a l i t y .
In f i g e x p o r t s Turkey h o l d s f i r s t p l a c e , f o l l o w e d
by I t a l y , G r e e c e , S p a in , and t h e U n ite d S t a t e s .

T urkish

f i g e x p o r t s have i n c r e a s e d from a y e a r l y a v e r a g e o f 8 6 ,5 0 0 .
t o n s i n 1 9 3 0 -3 4 t o 3 2 ,8 0 0 i n 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 .

During th e l a t t e r

p e r io d v a lu e of e x p o r t s a v e r a g e d 4 . 3 m i l l i o n l i r a s ,
in g 3 . 4 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l e x p o r t s .

rep resen t­

A f t e r 1 9 3 9 , h o w ev e r,

e x p o r t s d e c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y , a v e r a g i n g 1 8 ,3 0 0 t o n s i n
1 9 40-44.
P r i o r to 1940 t h e p r i n c i p a l c u sto m e r s o f T u rk ish
f i g s w ere Germany, t h e U n it e d Kingdom, F r a n c e , t h e U n it e d
S t a t e s , B e lg iu m , and C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , i n t h e o r d e r named.
C o tton :
I n th e c h a p te r on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i t was
p o im ted o u t t h a t c o t t o n had become an im p o r t a n t T u rk ish
e x p o r t s i n c e th e Axtorican C i v i l War o f 1 8 6 1 - 6 5 .

I n some

y e a r s sh ip m e n ts r e a c h e d a bou t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 b a l e s , b u t due t o
th e many w a r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y World War I and t h e War of
T u rk ish In d e p e n d e n c e , e x p o r t s had d e c l i n e d by 1 923 t o
4 8 ,0 0 0 b l a e s .

During t h e p e r i o d 1 9 2 4 - 2 8 , h o w ev e r, th e

amount o f c o t t o n e x p o r t e d a v e r a g e d 7 6 ,0 0 0 b a l e s and th e

81

v a lu e 1 1 .6 m i ll i o n l i r a s .

I n th e f o l l o w i n g f i v e y e a r

p e r i o d , 1 9 2 9 - 3 4 , a lt h o u g h a v e r a g e annual e x p o r t s i n c r e a s e d
s l i g h t l y to 7 8 ,8 0 0 h a l e s , the v a l u e s dropped to 7 . 1 m i l l i o n
lir a s.

D uring the 1 9 3 5 -3 9 p e r io d e x p o r t s i n c r e a s e d f u r t h e r

t o an a v e r a g e o f 8 3 ,8 0 0 h a l e s .

D uring t h i s l a t e s t p e r io d

c o t t o n e x p o r t s were v a lu e d a t 7 m i l l i o n l i r a s .
rep re sen ted 5 .6 percent
p o rts.

T h is v a lu e

o f t h e v a l u e o f a l l T u rk ish e x ­

V/ith t h e e x p a n s io n o f d o m e stic t e x t i l e i n d u s t r i e s

a f t e r 1 9 3 7 , t h e t r e n d i n c o t t o n e x p o r t s tu r n e d downward.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , Turkey s t i l l r e m a in s a s th e o n l y c o t t o n - e x p o r t i n g c o u n tr y i n E u rop e.
Turkey r a n k s t e n t h i n th e w o r ld e x p o r t o f c o t t o n , h u t
i t s sh a re cf 8 3 ,8 0 0 h a l e s i s n e g l i g i b l e compared t o t h a t
o f the U n ite d S t a t e s o f o v e r 5 m i l l i o n o r I n d i a 8 . 5 m i l l i o n
b a le s.
P r i o r t o World War I I , th e p r i n c i p a l m a r k e ts f o r Turk­
i s h c o t t o n were Geimany, i t a l y , Hungary, C z e c h o s lo v a k i a ,
and Homania, i n th e o r d e r named.
C e r e a ls:
One o f th e m o s t s t r i k i n g f a c t s i n T u rk ish f o r e i g n
t r a d e under t h e new r e g im e h a s b e e n th e r a p i d t r a n s i t i o n o f
Turkey from a v h e a t - i m p o r t i n g t o a w h e a t - e x p o r t i n g n a t i o n . ^

^ T h is

s t a t e m e n t r e f e r s t o t h e n e t - i m p o r t and e x p o r t .

82

Up u n t i l 1 9 3 0 , w i t h th e e x c e p t i o n o f 1 9 2 7 , i t had b e e n
n e c e s s a r y to im p o rt l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of w h ea t from ab roa d
t o supplem ent home p r o d u c t i o n .

For e x a m p le, i n 1924

w heat im p o r ts amounted to 1 7 3 ,7 0 0 t o n s , w h i l e i n 1934 e x ­
p o r t s w e r e 8 6 ,8 0 0 t o n s .

T h is r a p id change i n w h e a t t r a d e

was due l a r g e l y t o th e Government a i d to wheat g r o w e r s , im­
p ro v ed t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , and a l s o b e c a u s e t h e new t a r i f f a c t
o f 1929 d i s c o u r a g e d im p o r ts and e n c o u r a g e d home p r o d u c t io n
s u f f i c i e n t l y t o p e r m it some e x p o r t a t i o n .
D uring t h e t e n y e a r p e r i o d e n d in g w i t h 1 9 3 9 , e x p o r t s
o f w h eat i n c r e a s e d from an a n n u al a v e r a g e o f 3 4 ,0 0 0 t o n s
i n 1 9 3 0 - 3 4 t o 6 6 ,3 0 0 t o n s i n 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 , t h e r a t i o o f i n c r e a s e
b e in g 95 p e r c e n t .

I n t h i s l a t e s t p e r io d e x p o r t s w e re v a lu e d

a t 3 . 9 m i l l i o n l i r a s r e p r e s e n t i n g 3 . 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a lu e
o f th e c o u n t r y ’ s t o t a l e x p o r t s , and p u t t i n g w heat i n th e
s e v e n t h p l a c e among t h e e x p o r t p r o d u c t s .
B e f o r e th e war I t a l y , Germany, S y r i a , B e lg iu m , and
S w i t z e r l a n d were t h e p r i n c i p a l b u y e r s of T u rk ish w h e a t.
B a r l e y , c a n a r y s e e d , o a t s , and m i l l e t a r e o t h e r c e r e a l
item s e x p o r te d .

I n 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 t h e y had a combined a v e r a g e

v a l u e o f 5 . 8 m i l l i o n l i r a s , 60 p e r c e n t o f w h ich c o n s i s t e d
o f b a r le y .
p o rts.

They r e p r e s e n t e d 4 . 6 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l e x ­

F or t h e same p e r io d le g u m in o u s p r o d u c t s su ch a s b e a n s ,

b e a n s 6 f a l l k i n d s w ere v a l u e d a t 2 . 4 m i l l i o n a n n u a l l y .

83

Opium:
Turkey i s one o f the l e a d i n g c o u n t r i e s i n the e x ­
p o r t of opium f o r m e d i c a l u s e .

B e in g e s p e c i a l l y r i c h i n

m orphine c o n t e n t , T u rk ish opium i s h i g h l y p r i z e d and so u g h t
a f t e r by f o r e i g n b u y e r s .
P r i o r t o 1 9 3 0 , opium p l a y e d an im p o r ta n t p a r t i n
th e c o u n tr y ’ s exp ort tra d e.

I n 1 9 2 5 -2 9 e x p o r t s a v e r a g e d

6 . 9 m i l l i o n l i r a s from 360 t o n s cru d e opium , which r e p ­
r e s e n t e d 4 p e r c e n t o f th e v a l u e o f tbe t o t a l e x p o r t s .
A w o r ld -w id e campaign by t h e League o f N a t i o n s , h o w ever,
t o r e s t r i c t opium t r a d e t o m e d ic a l u s e s , r e d u c e d demand
c o n sid er a b ly .

Thus d u r in g th e 5 - y e a r p e r i o d 1 9 3 0 - 3 4 ,

e x p o r t s a v e ra g e d 267 t o n s , or a r e d u c t i o n o f 26 p e r c e n t
compared w ith th e p r e v i o u s p e r i o d .

I n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 e x p o r t s d e ­

c l i n e d f u r t h e r , a v e r a g i n g 191 t o n s w it h a n a v e ra g e v a l u e
o f 1 . 6 m i l l i o n l i r a s , r e p r e s e n t i n g 0 . 2 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l
ex p o rts.
Opium e x p o r t i s

a Government m on op o ly.

The p r i n c i ­

p a l p u r c h a s e r s o f T u rk ish opium a r e t h e U n it e d S t a t e s ,
Germany, t h e U n ite d Kingdom, F r a n c e , and I t a l y ,

in th e

o r d e r named.
M ohair:
Mohair i s a n o th e r im p o r ta n t i t e m i n T u rk ish ex­
port tra d e.

Up u n t i l the 1 8 6 0 ' s Turkey was the o n l y p r o -

64

d u ce r and e x p o r t e r o f m ohair w ool i n t h e w o r l d .

With

th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e m ohair g o a t i n t o S ou th A f r i c a n
and U n it e d S t a t e s a g r i c u l t u r e , h o w e v e r , Turkey l o s t h e r
m onopoly o v e r t h i s v a l u a b l e commodity i n w o r ld t r a d e .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , b e c a u se o f i t s

s u p e r i o r i t y and a v e r y h i g h

demand by a lm o s t a l l t h e t e x t i l e m a n u fa c tu r in g n a t i o n s , ,
T u rk ish m ohair d o m in a te s i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e .
P r i o r t o 1923 Turkey w as t h e w o r l d ’ s l a r g e s t e x ­
p o r t e r o f m ohair w o o l, f o l l o w e d by S o u th A f r i c a .

The

U n it e d S t a t e s p r o d u c t i o n w a s consumed d o m e s t i c a l l y .

Tur­

k ey h a s m a in t a in e d t h i s l e a d t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , w i t h
t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e y e a r s 1 9 2 4 -2 7 i n c l u s i v e and 1 9 2 9 - 3 1
i n c l u s i v e , when S o u th A f r i c a g a i n e d the f o r e m o s t p o s i t i o n
in th is

e x p o r t t r a d e , s h i p p i n g p r i m a r i l y to G reat B r i t a i n .

P r e s e n t l y t h e m ohair g o a t p o p u l a t i o n o f ^ o u th A f r i c a h a s
d e c l i n e d d r a s t i c a l l y , w h i l e t h a t o f Turkey h a s i n c r e a s e d
co n sid er a b ly .
During the f i v e y e a r s e n d in g w i t h 1929 annual e x p o r t s
a v e r a g e d 3 , 6 3 2 t o n s w ith a v a l u e o f 5 . 6 m i l l i o n l i r a s , r e p r e ­
se n tin g 3 .3 p e r ce n t o f th e v a lu e o f th e t o t a l e x p o r ts .
S i n c e 1 9 3 0 , h o w ev e r, e x p o r t s h a v e i n c r e a s e d b u t s l i g h t l y
from an a v e r a g e o f 4 ,1 6 0 t o n s i n 1 9 3 0 - 3 4 w it h a v a l u e o f
2 .4 m i l l i o n l i r a s , t o 4 ,8 6 0 t o n s i n 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 .

In t h i s

l a t e s t p e r io d t h e v a l u e o f sh ip m e n ts a v e r a g e d 5 . 2 m i l l i o n
lir a s,

s h a r in g 4 . 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l e x p o r t s .

D uring

World War I I t h e r e h a v e been, p r a c t i c a l l y no change i n

85

volume o f e x p o r t s .

The v a l u e , h ow ever, h a s i n c r e a s e d

co n sid er a b ly .
The c h i e f b u y e r s o f T u rk ish m ohair w o o l p r i o r t o
1940 were Germany, R u s s i a , the U n ite d Kingdom, F r a n c e , and
S w it z e r l a n d i n t h e o r d e r named.

The U n it e d S t a t e s u s e d t o

buy l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of m ohair w o o l from Turkey, b u t w i t h
th e a d o p tio n of t h e Sm oot-H awley T a r i f f . A c t o f 1 9 3 0 ,
w hich imposed h i g h t a r i f f ,

on m ohair w ool (34tf p er l b . ) ,

im p o r ts from Turkey d e c r e a s e d d r a s t i c a l l y .
L iv esto ck p r o d u c ts:
B e s i d e s m ohair t h e o t h e r l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t s e x ­
p o r t e d from Turkey a r e w o o l , s k i n s , e g g s , l i v e a n im a ls ,
s a u s a g e c a s i n g s and s i l k .
im p o r ta n t i s w o o l.

Of t h e s e p r o d u c t s t h e m o st

I n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 e x p o r t s a v e r a g e d 7 , 6 3 4 t o n s

unwashed and 362 t o n s w ashed.

For t h e same p e r i o d the

v a l u e was 4 . 7 m i l l i o n l i r a s s h a r in g 3 . 7 p e r c e n t o f th e
t o t a l ex p o rts.
Turkey i s the l a r g e s t w o o l-e x p or t i n g c o u n tr y i n
E u ro p e.

I t h o l d s n i n t h p l a c e among the w o o l - e x p o r t i n g

n a t i o n s o f the w o r l d .

However, i t s e x p o r t s o f 7 , 6 3 4 to n s

a r e n e g l i g i b l e compared w it h A u s t r a l i a ’ s 3 3 0 ,0 0 0 , A rgen­
t i n a ' s 1 1 5 ,0 0 0 , or New Z e a la n d ’ s and S o u th A f r i c a ' s over
1 0 0 ,0 0 0 t o n s e a c h .
A lth o u g h t h e r e a r e s u b s t a n t i a l q u a n t i t i e s o f s h i p -

86

merits o f s k i n s , l i v e

a n i m a l s and e g g s , t h e s e c o m m o d i t i e s

a r e n o t p e c u l i a r t o T u r k e y and t h e r e i s n o a d v a n t a g e e n ­
joyed i n t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n .

I n 1935-39 t h e s e t h r e e e x ­

p o r t i t e m s h a d a c o m b in e d a v e r a g e v a l u e o f 7 . 9 m i l l i o n
lira s.

W hile t h i s f i g u r e i s r a t h e r h i g h , t h e w r i t e r b e ­

l i e v e s t h a t as th e l i v i n g s t a n d a r d o f the n a t i o n i n c r e a s e s
and t h e home i n d u s t r i e s a r e d e v e l o p e d , e x p o r t s of s u c h
item s w ill d e c lin e .

I n f a c t , a c c o r d i n g t o a s t u d y egg

c o n s u m p t i o n i n . c i t i e s -.in T u r k e y was 126, p e e r p e r s o n a n d
1P

f o r m e a t o n l y 20 k g . i n 1 9 4 3 , & co m p a red w i t h 310 e g g s
13
and 83 k g . of m e a t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
Among t h e l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t s s a u s a g e c a s i n g s h a v e
b e e n one of t h e i m p o r t a n t , i t e m s o f T u r k i s h e x p o r t t r a d e
since the

" f r a n k f u r t e r ” o r s o - c a l l e d ’' h o t d o g ” , g a i n e d a

w i d e s p r e a d and i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a r i t y i n the. U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
Germany and C z e c h o s l o v a k i a .

In 1935-39 e x p o r t of sau sag e

c a s i n g s was v a l u e d a t 1 . 5 m i l l i o n l i r a s .
Other E x p o r ts :
O ther im p o rta n t a g r i c u l t u r a l p ro d u c ts e x p o rte d
from Turkey a r e P i s t a c h i o n u t s , i n w hich Turkey h o l d s
f i r s t place in the w orld, w alnuts, c h e s tn u ts , o liv e o i l s ,
alm onds, o r a n g e s , a p p l e s , and sesame.

I n 1935-39 t h e s e

h a d a co m bin ed a v e r a g e v a l u e o f a b o u t 4 m i l l i o n l i r a s of

1 2T u r k i y e

liilll

G e liri,

op.

c i t . . pp. 101, 177.

■ ^ S h e p h e r d , G e o f f r e y , M a r k e t i n g Farm P r o d u c t s , Ames,
1946, p . 15.

87

w h ich o l i v e o i l s and w a ln u t s a c c o u n te d f o r 70 p e r c e n t .
There are sane o t h e r p r o d u c t s w h ich m ight b e c o n s i d ­
e r e d a s a g r i c u l t u r a l , s u c h a s l i c o r i c e r o o t , valonaa. and
gums,

Thus f a r Turkey i s

usual p rod u cts.

th e l a r g e s t e x p o r t e r o f t h e s e un­

Of t h e s e p r o d u c t s , l i c o r i c e r o o t i s u sed

as a f l a v o r i n g f o r chewing and smoking, t o b a c c o , s o f t d r in k s
and i n th e m a n u factu re o f c o n f e c t i o n s .

Turkey s u p p l i e s

abou t 75 p e r c e n t of th e w orld* s r e q u ir e m e n t s .

The U n ite d

S t a t e s i s the p r i n c i p a l custom er f o r T u rk ish l i c o r i c e and
i t p l a y s a v e r y im p o r ta n t r o l e i n the Au r k i s h m arket by
m a in ta in in g r e s id e n t b u y er s.

As i n th e c a s e , o f o t h e r

p r o d u c t s i n w h ich Turkey e n j o y s a n a t u r a l a d v a n t a g e , a t ­
te m p ts have b een made to i n t r o d u c e t h e p la n t

i n t o U n it e d

S t a t e s a g r i c u l t u r e , but e f f o r t s have n o t bean s u c c e s s f u l
as y e t .
V a lo n ia i s a p r o d u c t o f t h e a c o r n s of an oak
tree,

**£uercus valonia** w h ich i s p e c u l i a r t o T urkey.

It

i s u sed i n t a n n in g a s p e c i a l g r a d e o f l i g h t - c o l o r e d
le a th e r .

B e f o r e the d e v e lo p m e n t o f the German c h e m ic a l

dye i n d u s t r y , Turkey had e n j o y e d a n a t u r a l m onopoly on
w o r ld m a r k e ts b y e x p o r t i n g v a l o n i a and o t h e r n a t u r a l d y e y ie ld in g ite m s.

But s i n c e 19£0 e x p o r t s of t h e s e p r o d u c t s

have d e c l i n e d d r a s t i c a l l y a s c h e m ic a l d y e s were d e v e lo p e d .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e demand f o r T u rk ish v a l o n i a i s s t i l l v e r y
h ig h .

In th e p e r io d 1 9 3 5 -5 9 a n n u al e x p o r t s w ere v a lu e d

a t £ .4 m illio n l i r a s .

P r i o r t o 1940 t h e p r i n c i p a l v a l o n i a

88

im p o r t in g c o u n t r i e s w e r e Germany, t h e u n i t e d S t a t e s , the
U n it e d Kingdom, E g y p t, F r a n c e , I t a l y , and th e N e t h e r la n d s
i n th e o r d e r named.

89

CHAPTER V II
IMPORT TRADE OF TURKEY
S i n c e Turkey i s p r e d o m in a n tly an a g r i c u l t u r a l
cou n try, i t s

im p o r ts h ave b e e n l i m i t e d m a in ly to i n d u s t r i a l

g o o d s , nam ely, i r o n and s t e e l p r o d u c t s , m a c h in e r y , motor
v e h i c l e s , r a il w a y e q u ip m e n t , c h e m i c a l s , and c o t t o n and
w o o le n p i e c e g o o d s .

These i t e m s n o r m a lly a c c o u n t f o r

o v e r 90 p e r c e n t o f th e

t o t a l T u rk ish im p o r ts by v a l u e .

P r i o r to 1929 t e x t i l e s c o n s t i t u t e d the m a jo r p o r t i o n o f
th e t o t a l

im p o r t s .

From 1923 t o 1927 im p o r ts o f t e x t i l e s

a v e r a g e d 79 m i l l i o n l i r a s r e p r e s e n t i n g 50 p e r c e n t o f th e
v a l u e of a l l i m p o r t s .

With the e x p a n s io n o f l o c a l t e x ­

t i l e m i l l s im p o r ts had d e c l i n e d s h a r p l y b y 1 9 4 0 .

Thus,

f o r t h e f i v e y e a r s e n d in g w it h 1939 v a l u e s a v e r a g e d 26
m i l l i o n l i r a s o r a d e c r e a s e o f 68 p e r c e n t compared w i t h
the p e r io d 1 9 2 3 - 2 7 .

In t h i s l a t e s t p e r io d t e x t i l e s r e p r e ­

s e n t e d 20 p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l i m p o r t s .
D u ring 1 9 2 3 -2 7 a n n u a l im p o r ts o f m a c h in e r y , i r o n
and s t e e l and o t h e r m e t a l l i c p r o d u c t s were v a lu e d a t 6 . 8
m i l l i o n l i r a s r e p r e s e n t i n g o n l y 4 . 5 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l
im p o r ts.

W ith .th e b e g in n in g o f T u rk ey*s i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n

im p o r ts o f su ch i t e m s i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y .

Thus i n

1 9 3 5 -3 9 im p o r ts o f t h e s e p r o d u c t s a v e ra g e d 3 9 . 3 m i l l i o n
l i r a s r e p r e s e n t i n g 31 p e r c e n t o f a l l im p o r t s .

90

The P l a c e o f A g r i c u l t u r a l P r o d u c t s i n Im port Trade
The p r e c e d i n g summary i n d i c a t e s s t r i k i n g l y the
f a c t t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s a r e of l i t t l e
im p o r ta n c e in T u rk ish im p o r t t r a d e .

present

P r i o r to the new

r e g i m e , h o w e v e r , i t had b e e n n e c e s s a r y t o buy l a r g e
q u a n t i t i e s o f farm p r o d u c t s , n em ely w h e a t , w h eat f l o u r ,
r ic e ,

c o r n , s u g a r , and p o t a t o e s , from a b r o a d t o s u p p l e ­

ment d o m e s tic p r o d u c t i o n .
t i l 1929.

T h is s i t u a t i o n c o n t in u e d un­

A f t e r t h a t the r a p i d d e v e lo p m e n ts and improve

m en ts cf t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h o s e c r o p s and t h e t a r i f f s
and g ov ern m en t b o u n t i e s e l i m i n a t e d th e n e c e s s i t y f o r
t h e i r im p o r ta tio n .

Even now, Turkey h a s become an e x ­

p o r t e r o f some o f t h e s e c r o p s .
T a b le I I I shows T u r k e y 's im p o r ts o f a g r i c u l t u r a l
c o m m o d itie s i n v a l u e s and p e r c e n t a g e s compared w it h
t h e t o t a l im p o r ts fro m 1923 t o 1 9 4 0 .
r e v e a l e d by t h i s t a b l e i s

The s t r i k i n g t h in g

t h a t p r i o r t o 1929 a g r i c u l ­

t u r a l p r o d u c t s o c c u p ie d an im p o r ta n t p l a c e i n t h e coun­
t r y ' s im p ort t r a d e .

For e x a m p le , i n 1 9 2 3 - 2 7 t h e v a lu e

o f a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d itie s a v e r a g e d 4 1 . 5 m i l l i o n l i r a s
r e p r e s e n t i n g 2 0 . 1 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l i m p o r t s .

But

th e a d o p t io n o f h ig h t a r i f f s i n 1929 on t h e one hand,
and the e x p a n s i o n of the home p r o d u c t i o n on th e o t h e r
h ave b r o u g h t a b o u t a d r a s t i c d e c l i n e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l

im p o r ts a f t e r 1 9 2 9 .

Thus, i n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 the v a l u e of farm

p r o d u c t s im p orted d e c l i n e d t o 9 . 1 m i l l i o n l i r a s a n n u a l­
l y c o n s t i t u t i n g 8 . 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l im p o r t s .
. Im p o rta n t A g r i c u l t u r a l Im ports.
At p r e s e n t t h e p r i n c i p a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s im­
p orted are t e a , c o f f e e , rubber, h id e s , c o c o a ,
and le m o n s.

sugar,

At t h i s p o i n t a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e -

p r i n c i p a l c o m m o d itie s im p o rted seem s n e c e s s a r y .
C o ffee:
There i s no c o f f e e p r o d u c t io n i n Turkey, s o t h a t
a l l the c o f f e e consumed m ust be im p o r t e d .

A lth o u g h

f o r some y e a r s e x p e r im e n t s have b e e n c o n d u c te d i>n t h e
M e d ite rr a n e a n c o a s t around A n t a ly a , up t o t h e p r e s e n t
tim e th e a t t e m p t s have n o t b e e n f r u i t f u l .

I n 1 9 3 5 -3 9

c o f f e e im p o r ts a v e r a g e d 5 ,2 7 9 t o n s w i t h a v a l u e o f 1 . 6
m illio n l i r a s r e p r e se n tin g 1 7 .5 p ercen t o f th e t o t a l
a g r ic u lt u r a l im p o r ts.

The o n l y s u p p l i e r w as B r a z i l .

Tea:
Tea i s a n o t h e r im p o r ta n t i t e m i n T u rk ish a g r i c u l ­
t u r a l im p o r t s .
fu tu re.

However, su c h im p o r ts may d e c l i n e i n th e

E x p e r im e n ts i n t e a grow ing w ere s t a r t e d f o l l o w i n g

t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e new r e g im e , and were a c c e l e r a t e d
in 1938.
tea.

At p r e s e n t 2500 h e c t a r e s o f la n d a r e p l a n t e d t o

R eq u ir e m e n ts of th e c o u n t r y a r e a b o u t 1 ,0 0 0 t o n s o f

92

T able I I I :

V alue o f T u rk ish Im p o rts of A g r i c u l t u r a l
P r o d u c t s Compared w i t h T o ta l I m p o r t s , 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 4 0 .
(V a lu e s i n 1 , 0 0 0 l i r a s )

Year

V alue

1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946

3 4 ,6 0 9
4 7 ,7 3 8
5 4 ,6 3 5
3 6 ,3 2 3
3 4 ,0 9 9
4 4 ,6 1 2
5 0 ,4 8 5
2 4 ,0 9 2
1 4 ,6 9 2
9 ,4 6 3
7 ,7 0 5
5 ,9 4 3
5 ,4 0 4 .
1 0 ,1 2 3
9 ,3 0 3
1 1 ,3 0 1
9 ,4 7 3
6 ,7 4 2
6 ,7 9 4
1 2 ,6 3 4
1 5 ,1 9 1
8 ,5 7 9
8 ,3 9 1
2 1 ,2 2 7

Sources:
Ankara.

P ercen tage
2 4 .0
2 4 .7
2 2 .7
1 5 .5
1 6 .1
2 0 .0
1 9 .7
1 6 .4
1 1 .7
1 1 .1
1 0 .4
. 6 .9
6 .1
1 1 .0
8 .1
7 .9
8 .0
9 .9
9 .0
8 .6
7 .4
4 .2
6 .6
1 0 .4

C a l c u l a t e d from A nnuaire S t a t i s t ! q u e s ,

93

d r i e d t e a a n n u a l l y , and i t i s

e s t i m a t e d t h a t th e a d d i t i o n

o f 500 h e c t a r e s t o t h e e x i s t i n g a r e a w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t
t o p r o d u ce t h a t

q u a n t i t y , t h u s making t h e c o u n tr y

se lf-

s u ffic ie n t .
In 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 im p o r ts o f t e a a v e r a g e d 9 3 6 ,0 0 0 k g s .
w i t h a v a lu e o f 7 7 2 ,0 0 0 l i r a s s h a r in g 8 . 5 p e r c e n t o f th e
t o t a l a g r i c u l t u r a l im p o r t s .

The p r i n c i p a l s u p p l i e r s are

I n d i a , N e t h e r l a n d s , and the u n i t e d Kingdom.
Crude Nubber:
Im p o rts of cru d e ru b b er h a v e shown
c l i n e d u r in g th e l a s t two d e c a d e s .

e

s t e a d y d e­

For i n s t a n c e , from a

y e a r l y a v e r a g e o f 4 , 1 8 0 , 0 0 0 k g s . i n 1 9 2 5 -2 9 t h e y have d e ­
c l i n e d t o 1 , 2 9 5 , 0 0 0 k g s . i n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 - a d e c r e a s e o f a lm o st
70 p e r c e n t - l a r g e l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i n c r e a s e d im p o r ts of.
m a n u fa ctu red r u b b er p r o d u c t s .

In t h i s l a t e r p e r io d v a lu e s

a v e r a g e d 1 . 6 m i l l i o n l i r a s r e p r e s e n t i n g 17 p e r c e n t o f the
a g r i c u l t u r a l im p o r ts or 1 . 3 p e r c e n t o f a l l i m p o r t s .

With

t h e o u tb r e a k of World War I I , im p o r t s o f ru b b er and r u b b er
p r o d u c t s d e c l i n e d so d r a s t i c a l l y t h a t i n 1942 th e q u a n t i t y
im p o r ted was o n l y 2 6 ,0 0 0 k g s .

On th e o t h e r hand p r i c e s

o f r u b b er and r u b b er p r o d u c t s w ent up beyond a l l e x p e c t a ­
t i o n s (1 t i r e 3 , 0 0 0 d o l l a r s ) .

T h is s i t u a t i o n f o r c e d th e

Government to t a k e m e a s u r e s t o p ro d u ce r u b b e r d o m e s t i c a l l y .
E x p e r im e n ts i n g r o w in g r u b b e r - y i e l d i n g p l a n t s w e r e prompted
in 1943.

Today Turkey i s on th e way t o g r o w in g b o th th e

ru b b er t r e e ( f i c u s e l a s t i c a )
k ok -sagh yz" .

and a p l a n t known a s "Taraxacum

I t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t im p o r ts o f cru de rubb er

94

and r u b b e r p r o d u c t s w i l l b e d e c r e a s e d o r e l i m i n a t e d e n ­
t ir e ly in the f u tu re .

The p r i n c i p a l s u p p l i e r s h a v e b e e n

t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , B r i t i s h M a l a y a , a nd t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ,
th e l a t t e r probably as re e x p o r ts .
H ides:
D e s p ite t h e f a c t t h a t Turkey e x p o r t s l a r g e q u a n t i ­
t i e s o f s k i n s , h id e a re n o t produced in the c o u n try i n
c o n s i d e r a b l e amount.

T h e r e f o r e e a c h y e a r Turkey h a s to

i m p o r t h i d e s i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s t o s u p p l e m e n t home p r o ­
d u ction.

D uring t h e p a s t d ecad e im p o r ts o f h i d e s i n ­

c r e a s e d fr o m a y e a r l y a v e r a g e of 2 , 9 0 0 t o n s i n 1 9 3 0 - 3 4 t o
5,800 to n s in 1935-39.

In th is l a s t fiv e year period

v a l u e s a v e r a g e d 2 . 8 m i l l i o n l i r a s r e p r e s e n t i n g 30 p e r c e n t
o f t h e t o t a l a g r i c u l t u r a l i m p o r t s o r 2 . 4 p e r c e n t of a l l
im ports.

The p r i n c i p a l s u p p l i e r s of h i d e s a r e t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s , Sgypt, P a l e s t i n e , the P h ilip p in e s ,

and I n d i a .

Sugar:
W h ile i n t h e p a s t T u r k e y i m p o r t e d a l l o f i t s ' s u g a r
f r o m a b r o a d , i t h a s now become a p r o d u c e r o f b e e t s u g a r .
Howev-.r, d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t a s y e t t o
meet the n a t i o n ’ s n e e d s.

T h e r e f o r e i t h a s been n e c e s s a r y

t o i m p o r t some s u g a r t o s u p p l e m e n t home p r o d u c t i o n .

In

1 9 5 5 - 3 9 i m p o r t s a v e r a g e d 2 5 , 2 0 0 t o n s w i t h a v a l u e of 1 . 7
m illio n l i r a s ,

t h u s r e p r e s e n t i n g 19 p e r c e n t o f t h e a g r i ­

c u ltu r a l or 1.5 p e rc en t of a l l

im ports.

I t i s an ticip ated

t h a t w ith t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t e f the proposed fo u r sugar
r e f i n e r i e s to h a n d l e c a n e s u g a r , i m p o r t s w i l l he d e c r e a s e d
f u r t h e r o r he e l i m i n a t e d e n t i r e l y .

P r i o r t o 1940 t h e

p r i n c i p a l c o u n t r i e s s u p p l y i n g T u r k e y w i t h s u g a r w e re
C zechoslovakia, - R u ssia ,

the N etherlands-, th e u n ite d

Kingdom, and B e l g i u m , i n t h e o r d e r named..
Lemons
I m p o r t s of le m o n s h a v e a l s o h e n d e c r e a s e d a s t h e
dom estic p r o d u c tio n in c r e a s e d .

F o r exam ple i n 1 9 2 3 - 2 7

im p o rts a v e ra g e d 5,100 t o n s w h ile i n 1935-39,
2 , 8 0 0 a d e c l i n e o f 45 p e r c e n t .
't *

During t h i s l a t e s t p e r i o d
. •'

an n u al im p o rts were v a lu e d a t 318,000 l i r a s ,
3 .4 percent- of th e a g r i c u l t u r a l im n o rts.
p l i e r s a r e I t a l y an d S y r i a .

th e y were

rep resen tin g

P rin cip al

sup­

96

CHAPTER V I I I
DISTRIBUTION OF TURKISH TRADE
I n d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r a d e , T u r k e y i s c o n s i d e r e d one
of t h e m o s t s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d c o u n t r i e s , i n t h e w o r l d .
Owing t o i t s p r o x i m i t y to t h e

s o - c a l l e d " w o rld ’ s workshop”

- E u r o p e - and t o i t s b e i n g s i t u a t e d a t t h e c r o s s r o a d s
of th e w orld i t has been p o s s i b l e fo r Turkey to
r e a d i l y w i t h t h e r e s t of t h e w o r l d .

trade

Europe, exclu d in g

R u s s i a , i s b o t h t h e l a r g e s t i m p o r t e r uf f o o d s t u f f s and
raw m a t e r i a l s and t h e
goods i n the w o r ld .

l a r g e s t e x p o r t e r of m a n u f a c t u r e d
I n 1 9 3 8 , f o r e x a m p le , E u r o p e ’ s s h a r e '

i n w o r l d i m p o r t s a c c o u n t e d f o r 56 p e r c e n t , w h i l e h e r e x ­
p o r t s a m o u n t e d t o 46 p e r c e n t o-f t h e w o r l d e x p o r t s .

In

t h e same y e a r h e r s h a r e i n t h e t o t a l w o r l d t r a d e was 51
p e r c e n t . I n

1 9 3 5 , 45 p e r c e n t of. th e a g g r e g a t e i m p o r t s

o f E u r o p e c o n s i s t e d o f r a w m a t e r i a l s and s e m i - m a n u f a c t u r e d
15
g o o d s , and 28 p e r c e n t o f f o o d s t u f f s .
T h i s i s one of
t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n s f o r t h e t e n d e n c y of t h e b u l k
of T u r k i s h f o r e i g n

t r a d e t o b e c a r r i e d on w i t h E u r o p e a n

n a t i o n s , n o t a b l y Yve s t e r n a n d C e n t r a l E u r o p e .

T his con­

n e c t i o n i s f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e n e d by th e f a c t t h a t Turkey
i s t h e n e a r e s t c o u n t r y p r o d u c i n g l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of a g r i ­
c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s and raw m a t e r i a l s f o r e x p o r t t o t h o s e
m ark ets.

14

E x a m i n a t i o n of t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e , h o w e v e r ,

Europe’ s tr a d e ,

15I b i d . . p . 7.

o£ . c i t . . p . 9 .

97

w i l l g i v e f u r t h e r l i g h t on t h e d i r e c t i o n o f T u r k i s h
f o r e i g n t r a d e b y c o n t i n e n t s i n 1 9 28 and 1 9 3 8 .

T a b l e IV :

P e r c e n t a g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T u r k e y ♦s F o r e i g n
T r a d e by C o n t i n e n t s .
P e r c e n t a g e s h a r e of
im ports

P e r c e n t a g e s h a r e of
exports

1928 _______ 1938______ 1928___________ 1958
Europe
Am ericas

80.5

82.8

74.0

81.3

5.5

11.8

16.0

13.2

R e s t of t h e w o r l d 5 . 0 ______________ 5 . 4 ______ 1 0 . 0 _____________ 5 . 5
100.
Source:

1 0 0 .'

100.

100.

A n n u s ire , S t a t i s t i q u e s , A nkara.

A n a l y s i s . o f T a b l e IV r e v e a l s s t r i k i n g l y t h a t T u r ­
k e y i n h e r f o r e i g n t r a d e i s v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on E u r o p e ,
n o t a b l y t h e y/estern and C e n t r a l E u ro p ean c o u n t r i e s . ■ I n
1928 T u r k e y d i s p o s e d o f 74 p e r c e n t o f h e r t o t a l e x p o r t s
i n European c o u n t r i e s , w h ile th e s e c o u n t r i e s s u p p lie d
8 0 .5 p e rc e n t of T urkish im o o rts.

By 1938 b o t h e x p o r t s t o

and i m p o r t s f r o m E u r o p e c o n t i n u e d t o i n c r e a s e and w e r e
8 1 . 3 - p e r c e n t and 8 3 . 8 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y .

W h ile im­

p o r t s fro m th e Americas i n c r e a s e d from 5 .5 p e r c e n t t o 1 1 . 5 ,
e x p o r t s t o t h e s e c o u n t r i e s d e c r e a s e d f r o m 16 p e r c e n t t o
1 3 .2 p e rc e n t of th e t o t a l e x p o r t s .

The o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s ,

A s ia and A f r i c a , r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y a s m a ll p a r t of T u r k is h
fo reig n trad e ,

c h i e f l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a l s o p r o d u c e r s of

f o o d s t u f f s a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l raw m a t e r i a l s .

98

As l o n g a s T u rk ey’ s t r a d e r e p r e s e n t s an e x c h a n g e
o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s and m i n e r a l o r e s a g a i n s t manu­
f a c t u r e d a r t i c l e s , E u ro p e ’ s s h a r e i n T u rk ish t r a d e w i l l
c o n tin u e t o be the l a r g e s t .

Even when Turkey h a s a c ­

c o m p lis h e d i t s p r o p o s e d i n d u s t r i e s , t h i s w i l l h o t b r i n g
about a d e c l i n e in European p r o d u c t s i n t h e T u rk ish mar­
k e t , b u t , on th e c o n t r a r y , w i l l i n c r e a s e i t .

With the

i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n o f Turkey, i t s l i v i n g sta n d a r d , sh o u ld
i n c r e a s e and a s a r e .s u i t i t s tr a d e w ith Europe and t h e
r e s t o f t h e w o r ld sh o u ld expand.
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Trade by L e a d in g C o u n t r i e s .
P r i o r t o World War I I , th e p r i n c i p a l m a rk ets f o r
T u rk ish p r o d u c t s w e r e Germany, t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , I t a l y ,
th e U n it e d Kingdom, F r a n c e , S o v i e t L u s s i a , &n<i C z e c h o s lo ­
v a k i a , i n th e ord e r named.

T a b le s V and VI i n d i c a t e the

im p o rta n ce o f T u r k is h e x p o r t s t o and im p o r ts from t h e s e
c o u n t r i e s w ith p e r c e n t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n s .

In 1 9 3 0 -3 4 f o r

e x a m p le, T u rk id i e x p o r t s t o t h e s e c o u n t r i e s r e p r e s e n t e d
70 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l e x p o r t s , w h i l e im p o r ts w ere 7 1 . 3
p ercen t of th e t o t a l .

D u ring th e f o l l o w i n g 5 - y e a r p e r i o d ,

1 9 3 5 - 3 9 , b o t h e x p o r t s t o and im p o r ts from th e ab ov e se v e n
c o u n tr ie s in c r e a se d c o n sid er a b ly r e p r e s e n tin g 7 8 .5 p ercen t
and 7 9 . 1 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l s ,

r e sp e c tiv e ly .

However, a s i t

w i l l b e r e a d i l y s e e n from the t a b l e s , t r a d e among t h e s e
c o u n tr ies i s not e q u a lly d is tr ib u te d .

T h erefo re, a b r ie f

d i s c u s s i o n o f th e t r a d e o f Turkey w i t h e a c h c o u n t r y w i l l

T a b l e V:

P e r c e n t a g e D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Turkey* s E x p o r t T r a d e
i n V a l u e , by L e a d i n g C o u n t r i e s , 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 4 6 .

U.S.

Y e a r Germany
9.0
1923
1924 1 2 . 9
1925 . 1 4 . 4
1926 1 2 . 6
1927
■9.59.9
19 28
1929 1 3 . 3
1930 1 3 . 1
1931 1 0 . 7
1932 1 3 . 5
1933 1 9 . 0
1934 5 7 . 3
1935 4 0 . 9
1936 5 1 . 0
1937 ■.36.5
1938 4 2 . 9
1939 3 7 . 3
8.7
1940
1941 2 1 . 8
1942 2 4 . 7
1943 2 3 .7
1944
22.8
1945
0.0
1946
0.0

C z ec h o ­
I t a l y Gr. B r i t . F r a n c e U . S . S . R . s l o v a k i a T o t a l

8 .0 18.0
10.3 22.0
1 3 .2 26.0
12.7
27.2
23.4
15.5
12.3 1 8.2
21.8
9.9
11.7
21.1
10.0 ■ 24.2
11.9
16.1
10.5 1 5.5
10.3 11.2
9.9
10.1
3.7
11.4
5.5
13.9
12.3 1 0 .0
■14.3 1 0 . 0
14.1 16.1
2.3
13.5
3
.1
17.0
1
.8
20.5
24.0
0.1
0.0
45.8
2.8
19.1

Source:

18.5
14.6
8.0
11.4
10.6
7.8
9.6
8.9
8.5
9.8
8.9
5.7
5.4
5.5
7.1
3.4
5.7
10.4
16.2
15.3
10.8
22.1
14.9
17.5

12.3
11.1
12.5
12.1
10.7
8.2
12.6
12.2
9.6
7.7
6.4
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.8
3.3
• 4.4
5.9
0.8
0.3
0.7
0.1
1.3
4.2

A nnuaire S t a t i s t i o u e s , Ankara.

£.0
1 .2
2.5
2.8
3.9
3.7
3.5
5.1
3.7
5.4
4.6
4.0
4.3
5.4
4.7
3.5
3.1
0.7
0.6
0.1
0..0
1 .2
0.0
0.0

0.0.
0.3
. 0.0
0.1
3.5
4.1
2.3
0.8
2.4
3.0
5.8
0.7
3.2
3.4
4 .4
3.4
4.8
4 .2
5.1
5.6
5.0
1.8
0.2
1.1

67.8
72.4
76.6
78.9
76.9
64.2
73.0
72.4
71.1
67.4
66.7
72.2
77.0
81.7
75.7
78.8
79.6
60.1
80.3
66.1
62.5
72.1
60.2
54.7

100

• Table VI:

P e r c e n t a g e D i s t r i b u t i o n of T u r k e y 1s I m p o r t T r a d e i n
V a l u e , by L ea d in g C o u n t r i e s ,

U .S .

Ve a r Germany

19 8V

19 24
1925
1926
1927
19 28
1929
1930
1931
1932
1953.
1934
1955
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1945
1944
1945
1946

6.5
9.8
11.5
13.7
14.2
12.5
15.5
18.6
21.4
23.2
25.5
33.8
40.0
45.1'
42.0
47.0
50.4
11.7
11.9
27.7
37.7
30.4
0.6
0.0

7.5
5.8
8.0
3.5
• 5.8
5.8
6.7
4.1
. 3.3
2.6
5.1
4.3
7.0
9.7
15.1
10.5
9.9
10.8
•5.4
4.8 .
2.4
4.6
17.6
31.3

Source:

1923-1946.

CzectioI t a l y G-r. ’ B r i t . F r a n c e U . S . S . I I. S l o v a k i a T o t a l
19.5
21.2
20.0
15.8
12.3
11.8
12.5
13.8
14.6
12.9
11.4
8.5
6.4
2.2
5.3
4.8
8.5
16.3
3.2
3.0
1.7 .
0.3
0.0
5.8

. 17.2
17.7
15.6
14.0
13.6
15.8
12.2
11.2
11.3
12.4
13.5
9.9
9.8
6.6
6.2
11.2 ■
6.3
9.6
18.4
34.6
32.3
29.4
29.4
43.2

9.0
2.1
9.4
3.3
10.8
2.5
9.8
3.6
13.8
3.2
16.8
5.4 •
10.4
6.4
10.5
7.2
10.1
5.7
6.9
8.4
5.2
6.6
4.5
7.4
4.9
4.7
2.5
5.4
1.0
6.2
1.3
3.9
1.9
2.9
2.8
1.4
0.4
0.1
0.1 . 0.6
0.0 .
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.7
0.0

A nnuaire S t a t i s t i q u e s , Ankara.

1.2
3.1
4.2
7.0
■ 6.5
6.1
6.0
5.6
4.7
4.3
4.6
5.4
4.3
3.9
2.6
3.9
1.5
3.6
2.6
2.6
3.9
4.3
0 ;3
1.8

. 62.8
70.3
72.4
67.4
67.6
74.2
69.5
71.0
71.1
70.7
69.9
73.8
77.1
75.6
78.4
82 .6
81.9
56. 2
42.0
73.4
78.0
69.0
48.0
82.0

101

b e t t e r I n d i c a t e t h e n a tu r e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n and d i r e c t i o n
of

T u r k is h t r a d e .

Germany;
The m ost im p o r ta n t d e v e lo p m en t i n T u rk ish f o r e i g n
t r a d e b e tw e en th e two w o r ld w ars was the r i s e o f Ger­
many a s th e l a r g e s t bu yer o f T u rk ish p r o d u c t s , a t t h e
expense o f o th e r c o u n t r ie s ,

.from 1 923 t o 1933 Germany

was T u rk ey’ s se co n d b e s t c u sto m e r .
p la c e

( s e e T able V ) .

I t a l y h e ld f i r s t

German p u r c h a s e s i n 1 9 2 5 -2 9 a v e r ­

aged o n l y 1 4 . 4 p e r c e n t o f a l l T u rk ish e x p o r t s , w h i l e sh e
s u p p l i e d 1 3 . 8 p e r c e n t o f T u rk ish im p o r t s .

Op t o 1933

Germany c o n tin u e d t o o ccu p y secon d p l a c e a s a m arket f o r
Tmrkish e x p o r t s ,

.from 1 933 th r o u g h 1 9 3 9 , h o w ev e r, Turk­

ish-G erm an t r a d e i n c r e a s e d t r e m e n d o u s ly , th e h ig h p o i n t
o f 51 p e r c e n t b e in g r e a c h e d i n 1 9 5 6 .

T u rk ey’ s p o l i c y o f

c a r r y in g on t r a d e by a n e w ly e s t a b l i s h e d s y s t e m o f c l e a r ­
i n g a g r e e m e n ts h a s b e e n l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i n ­
crease in tra d e.

I t s c o u n t e r p a r t i n Germany and Ger­

many’ s p o l i t i c a l advancem ent a l s o f a c i l i t a t e d t h e expan­
sio n .

In th e p e r i o d 1 9 3 5 -3 9 Germany t o o k 4 3 . 1 p e r c e n t

o f Turkey’ s t o t a l e x p o r t s and f u r n i s h e d 45 p e r c e n t o f i t s
im p o r t s .

During t h i s p e r i o d Germany n o t o n l y was th e

b e s t c u sto m e r of T u rk ish a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s by b u y in g
above w o r ld p r i c e s , bu t p u r c h a se d more th a n a l l o t h e r
l e a d i n g c o u n t r i e s com b ined.

E x p o r t s t o Germany i n c r e a s e d

i n b o th volume and t y p e s o f c o m m o d itie s i n v o l v e d .

Pro­

102

d u c t s such a s b a r l e y , e g g s , m o h a ir , w o o l, s k i n s , o l i v e
o il,

e t c . , w h ic h w e re i n s i g n i f i c a n t

i t e m s i n th e e x p o r t s

t o Germany p r i o r to 1 9 3 0 , became v e r y im p o r ta n t a f t e r
1933.

Bor e x a m p le, in 1 9 2 8 , 1 4 . 5 p e r c e n t o f a l l t o b a c c o

e x p o r t s were t a k e n by Germany; by 1938 t o b a c c o e x p o r t s
w ere 37 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l .

B a r le y e x p o r t s t o Germany

i n c r e a s e d from 10 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l i n 1928 t o 49
p e r c e n t i n 1 9 3 8 ; f i l b e r t s from 37 t o 66; r a i s i n s from
42 t o 8 0; f i g s from 14 t o 53; m ohair from 3 t o 46 p e r c e n t .
N e v e r t h e le s s , th e s e r e l a t i v e l y la r g e in c r e a s e s in th e
volum e o f t r a d e o c c u r r e d , a s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , o n l y a t
t h e e x p e n se of o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t r a d i n g w i t h Turkey.
A c t u a l l y th e y d id n o t b r in g a b o u t an abnormal upward
t r e n d i n t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t i e s e x p o r te d from t h e c o u n t r y .
As f o r t h e b a l a n c e o f t r a d e , from 1926 t o 1933 .
i n c l u s i v e t r a d e b etw een t h e two c o u n t r i e s had b e e n un­
f a v o r a b l e , w h i l e d u r in g th e y e a r s 1 9 3 4 - 3 7 i t w as i n f a v o r
o f T urkey.

(S e e A p p en d ix, T ab le 7 ) . E x p o r t s t o Germany

a v e ra g e d 5 1 .8 m i l l i o n l i r a s i n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 compared w i t h
5 1 . 1 m i l l i o n l i r a s w orth o f i m p o r t s .

About 95 p e r c e n t

of ex p o rts c o n siste d of a g r ic u ltu r a l p rod u cts.
from 1 933 t o 1941 t r a d e b e tw e e n Turkey and Germany
was c a r r i e d on by the c m m e r c ia l and c l e a r i n g a g r e e m e n t s .
Ita ly :
P r i o r t o 1 9 3 3 I t a l y o c c u p ie d f i r s t p l a c e among

103

Turkey’ s c u s t o m e r s .

In the 10 y e a r s e n d in g 1938 a v e r a g e

e x p o r ts t o I t a l y r e p r e se n te d £ 1 .8 percent

of t h e t o t a l

e x p o r t s , t h e h i g h p o i n t b e i n g r e a c h e d i n 19£6 when sh e
t o o k £ 7 .6 p e r c e n t o f th e c o u n t r y ’ s t o t a l e x p o r t s ,

du r­

in g th e same p e r i o d I t a l y s u p p l ie d 1 5 . 4 p e r c e n t o f Turk­
i s h im p o r t s .

S i n c e 1 9 3 8 , h ow ever, t h e r e h a s b ee n a

g r a d u a l d e c l i n e In e x p o r t s .

T h is was sh a rp en ed a f t e r

th e League of N a t i o n s econ om ic s a n c t i o n s , i n which Tur­
key p a r t ic ip a t e d , a g a in s t I t a l y f o r in v a sio n of E th io p ia
in 1935-36.

T urkey’ s t r a d e was f u r t h e r a f f e c t e d by th e

im p o rt r e s t r i c t i o n s and ex ch a n g e c o n t r o l m ea su r es she
in tro d u ced t o in c r e a s e her s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . ^ ^

Thus,

f o r i n s t a n c e , f o r th e - e r i o d 1 9 3 5 -3 9 e x p o r t t o I t a l y d e ­
c r e a s e d t o 7 . 8 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l , p u t t i n g I t a l y in
t h i r d p l a c e among T u rk ish c u s t o m e r s .

Whereas f o r t h e

same p e r i o d I t a l y f u r n i s h e d 5 . 4 p e r c e n t o f T u rk ish im­
p o rts.

S i n c e 1 9 8 5 , t r a d e b etw een th e two c o u n t r i e s h a s

b een i n f a v o r o f ■‘•'urkey.

E x p o r ts t o I t a l y a v e r a g e d 9 . 7

m i l l i o n l i r a s i n 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 compared w i t h 4 0 . 9 m i l l i o n i n
1985-89.

About 97 p e r c e n t o f th e e x p o r t s w ere a g r i c u l ­

t u r a l p r o d u c t s , m a in ly t o b a c c o , o l i v e
f i g s , w heat and b a r l e y .

o il,

co tto n , e g g s,

Trade b etw een Turkey and I t a l y

was r e g u l a t e d by the co m m ercial and c l e a r i n g a g r e e m e n t s .

■^Europe’ s t r a d e , o £ . c i t . , p . 4 5 .

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The U n i t e d S t a t e s :
F o r s e v e r a l y e a r s p r i o r t o 1955, the U nited S t a t e s
was T u r k e y ’ s t h i r d c u s t o m e r i n i m p o r t a n c e .

S i n c e t h e n , how'

e v e r , i t h a s ra n k e d second a s a p u r c h a s e r of T u rk ish a g r i ­
cultu ral. p ro d u cts.
free

B e c a u s e of i t s p o l i c y of u s i n g o n l y

e x c h a n g e f o r payment i n i t s f o r e i g n t r a d e r e l a t i o n s ,

th e U n ite d S t a t e s h a s been the p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e of Turk­
i s h f o r e i g n exchange d u rin g re c e n t y e a r s .

In o rd e r to

i n c r e a s e h e r r e s e r v e s 'Turkey e n c o u r a g e s e x p o r t s t o t h e
U nited S t a t e s .
The T u r k i s h a d v a n t a g e i n h e r t r a d e w i t h t h e ' U n i t e d
S t a t e s i s b a s e d on p e c u l i a r g e o g r a p h i c i n f l u e n c e s e n a b l i n g
t h e p r o d u c t i o n of s p e c i a l i z e d a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d a n i m a l
p r o d u c t s w h ic h a r e n e e d e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' .

Trade b e ­

t w e e n t h e two c o u n t r i e s h a s e x p a n d e d s h a r p l y d ur.in g t h e
p e r i o d .1935-39, w i t h l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n b o t h e x p o r t s and
im ports.

In f a c t,

it

i s t h e o n l y c o u n t r y among t h e p r i n ­

c i p a l c u s t o m e r s f o r T u r k i s h a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s whose
t r a d e d i d n o t d e c r e a s e w i t h t h e g r e a t I n c r e a s e i n German
p u r c h a s e s s i n c e 1933 ( se e T a b l e s V a n d - V I ) .

I n 1923-27

e x p o rts to the U nited S t a t e s r e p r e s e n te d 11.9 p e rc e n t of
to ta l

T urkish e x p o r t s , w h ile t h e u n i te d S t a t e s s u p p lie d

5.7 p e r c e n t of T u rk ish i m p o r t s .

In th e p e r i o d 1935-39,

h o w e v e r , b o t h e x p o r t s t o and i m p o r t s f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
i n c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y r e p r e s e n t i n g 1 2 . 4 and 1 0 . 4 p e r c e n t

105

of the t o t a l s r e s p e c t i v e l y .

S i n c e 1924 t h e v a l u e o f e x ­

p o r t s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s a l w a y s e x c e e d e d t h a t of
T u r k e y ’ s i m p o r t s f ro m t h a t c o u n t r y .

However, d u r i n g t h e

p re-w ar y e a rs t h i s excess has heen s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduced,
T u r k e y ’ s irrm'orts f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a v i n g i n c r e a s e d
r e l a t i v e l y more t h a n h e r e x p o r t s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
The i n c r e a s e o f n e a r l y 100 p e r c e n t i n T u r k e y ’ s i m p o r t s
f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e s u l t e d f r o m an i m p r o v e d demand
f o r American

-roducts,

such a s c a r s ,

sewing m a c h in e s ,

e l e c t r i c r e f r i g e r a t o r s , a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e s , and p e t r o l e u m
p r o d u c t s , a n d f r o m t h e e x t e n s i o n of T u r k e y ’ s i n d u s t r i a l i z a ­
t i o n program .
The m a j o r i t e m i n e x p o r t s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s - i s
l e a f t o b a c c o w h i c h i n 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 am o u n ted .to 74 p e r c e n t of
t h e t o t a l e x p o r t s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , o r 35 p e r c e n t of
a l l to b ac co e x p o rts fro m Turkey.
are sausage c a s in g s ,
dressed f u r s ,

Other l e a d i n g p r o d u c t s

crude v a l o n i a , l i c o r i c e r o o t ,

un­

c a n a r y s e e d and chrome o r e , t h e l e t t e r of

w h i c h became an e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i t e m d u r i n g t h e w a r
years.
A r e c i p r o c a l t r a d e ag reem en t was s i g n e d betw een
t h e two c o u n t r i e s on A p r i l 1 , 1 9 3 9 .

I t s d e t a i l s , however,

w i l i be d isc u sse d in a l a t e r c h a p te r.
The U n i t e d Kingdom ;
F o r many y e a r s p r i o r t o World War I I , t h e U n i t e d

-

106

Kingdom t o o k f o u r t h p l a c e b o th a s a s u p p l i e r to and c u s ­
tomer o f Au r k e y .

However, the tr e n d in th e t r a d e b e ­

tw een th e two c o u n t r i e s was downward.

In the u e r io d 1 9 2 3 -

2 9 , when t h e T u rk ish t a r i f f s were lo w , t h e volume o f t r a d e
b e tw een Turkey and th e U n it e d Kingdonrwas r a t h e r l a r g e ,
a lw a y s w i t h a s u b s t a n t i a l amount o f u n f a v o r a b l e b a la n c e
f o r Turkey.

With the i m p o s i t i o n o f h ig h t a r i f f s on

go od s im p o r ted i n t o Turkey and t h e a d o p t i o n o f q u o ta and
b a r t e r s y s te m s a f t e r 1935 b oth e x p o r t s t o .a n d

im p o r ts

from th e U n it e d Kingdom w e re c u r t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a b l y .

In

1 9 2 5 - 2 9 , f o r ex a m p le, e x p o r t s to G reat B r i t a i n a v e r a g e d
9 . 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l T u rk ish e x p o r t s , w h i l e she su p ­
p l i e d 1 4 . 2 ' p e r c e n t o f T u rk ish i m p o r t s .

W hereas, i n 1 9 3 5 -3 9

sh e t o o k o n l y 5 . 4 p e r c e n t of T urkey’ s t o t a l e x p o r t s and
f u r n i s h e d 8 . 0 p e r c e n t o f i t s im p o r t s , t h e r a t i o o f d e ­
c r e a s e b e in g 43 p e r c e n t in e a c h c a s e .

A n o th e r f a c t o r r e -

s p o n i b l e f o r t h e d e c l i n e i n t r a d e b e tw e e n th e two coun­
t r i e s was t h e a d o p tio n by G reat B r i t a i n of t h e p r i n c i p l e
o f i m p e r i a l p r e f e r e n c e , whereby s e v e r a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o ­
d u c t s were g r a n t e d s p e c i a l t a r i f f r e d u c t i o n s when coming
from h e r E m pire.

A f t e r 1 9 3 9 , h o w e v e r , th e t r e n d i n b o t h

e x p o r t s t o and im p o r t s from th e u n i t e d Kingdom tu r n e d
upward due m a in ly t o p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r th a n eco n o m ic
reason s.

In f a c t , th e aim i n b u y in g Au r k i s h p r o d u c t s

above w orld p r i c e s w a s u n d o u b te d ly t o r e p l a c e Germany
a s the m ost im p o r ta n t econ om ic f a c t o r
fo r e ig n trad e.

i n Turkey’ s

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The U n it e d Kingdom’ s p r i n c i p a l im p o r ts fro m Turkey
i n t h e p r e - ^ a r y e a r s c o n s i s t e d o f r a i s i n s , f i g s , and f i l b e r t s .
I n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 t h e s e t h r e e i t e m s t o g e t h e r made up 39 p e r c e n t
o f the t o t a l volum e o f B r i t i s h im p o r ts fro m Turkey.

Other

im p o r ta n t T u r k ish e x p o r t s to t h e ~ U n it e d Kingdom w ere mo­
h a ir , c e r e a ls , o ils e e d ,
and chrome o r e .

o l i v e o i l , v a l o n i a , opium, m e t a l s ,

From 1 9 2 3 t o 1939 i n c l u s i v e , w i t h the

e x c e p t i o n o f two y e a r s (1956 and 1937) t r a d e b e tw e e n t h e
two. c o u n t r i e s had been u n f a v o r a b l e f o r Turkey.
B e f o r e World War I I t r a d e b e tw e e n Turkey and th e
U n it e d Kingdom was r e g u l a t e d , f o r a number o f y e a r s ,
by a s e r i e s o f t r a d e a g r e e m e n ts .

The f i r s t T r e a ty of

Commerce and N a v i g a t i o n o f 1 9 3 0 , w h ich g a v e r e c i p r o c a l
m o s t - f a v o r e d - n a t i o n t r e a t m e n t to both c o u n t r i e s , was
s u c c e e d e d i n June 1 9 3 5 , by a Trade and Payment A greem en t.
T hese a g r e e m e n ts worked b a d l y , ow ing t o the a r r e a r s o f
im p o r ts from t h e U n it e d Kingdom over e x p o r t s t o t h a t
cou n try.

A c l e a r i n g sy s te m w as a c c o r d i n g l y ad op ted i n

Septem ber 1 9 3 6 , but s t i l l t h e r e was l i t t l e

improvement

b e c a u s e a r r e a r s due to U n it e d Kingdom e x p o r t s c o n tin u e d
to i n c r e a s e .

In J u ly 1938 a su p p lem en ta ry agreem ent came

i n t o b e i n g , under w h ic h the T u rk ish Government im posed
q u o ta s f o r B r i t i s h g o o d s im p a rted i n t o t h e c o u n t r y .

How­

e v e r , t h e aim o f b r i n g i n g t h e t r a d e i n t o b a la n c e c o u ld
n o t be a c h i e v e d .

In November 1939 th e q u o t a s f o r normal

t r a d e were c l o s e d i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r th e a d o p t io n o f a

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c o m p le te s y s te m of com pensated t r a d e .

T h is method of

t r a d i n g w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n th e n e x t p a r t o f t h i s work.
France:
Turkey’ s tr a d e w i t h F ran ce h a s shown a g r a d u a l
d e c lin e sin c e 1923.

In 1 9 2 5 -2 9 F r a n c e to o k a y e a r l y

a v e r a g e o f 1 1 . 2 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l e x p o r t s fr o m Turkey
and ranked f o u r t h i n im p o r ta n c e .

A f t e r 1930 the downward

t r e n d i n e x p o r t s t o F ra n ce sh a r p e n e d a s th e e x p o r t s t o
Germany b eg an t o i n c r e a s e .

Thus i n 1 9 3 5 -3 9 e x p o r t s t o

F ran ce were o n l y 3 . 6 p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l , a d e c l i n e of
68 p e r c e n t i n 10 y e a r s , and t h i s p u t F ra n ce i n f i f t h
p l a c e a s a cu sto m er o f T urkish p r o d u c t s .

F rance’ s ex­

p o r t s t o Turkey have f o l l o w e d a s i m i l a r t r e n d .

For ex ­

am ple, Turkish im p o r ts from F ra n ce d e c r e a s e d from an
a v e r a g e of 1 2 . 3 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l i n 1 9 2 5 -2 9 t o 1 . 9
p e r c e n t i n 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 , th e r a t i o o f d e c l i n e b e in g 8 4 p e r c e n t
i n 10 y e a r s , one of th e g r e a t e s t d r o p s Turkey h a s e v e r e x ­
p e r ie n c e d .
There w ere a number o f f a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the
d r a s t i c s h r in k a g e of t r a d e b e tw e e n t h e two c o u n t r i e s i n
th e 1930’ s .

I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , F ra n ce r e s t r i c t e d h e r

im p o r t s , l a r g e l y by m eans o f q u o t a s .

A se c o n d f a c t o r was

th e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f th e h i s t o r i c aim o f F ran ce t o m a i n t a i n
a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t a g r ic u ltu r e .
v e r y h ig h t a r i f f s ,

To t h i s end F ran ce im posed

s t r i c t s a n i t a r y m e a s u r e s , and e v e n p r o ­

h i b i t i o n s t o p r e v e n t im p o r t a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s

109

in to th e c o u n t r y . I n

c o u n t e r a c t i o n Turkey a p p l ie d

s i m i l a r m e a su r e s t o l u x u r y g ood s w hich had l o n g b een
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f French e x p o r t s t o Turkey su ch a s m atured
w i n e s , p e r fu m e r y , f u r s and f i n e t e x t i l e p r o d u c t s .

France’ s

p o l i t i c a l and e co n o m ic t i e s w i t h h e r c o l o n i e s and d om in io n s
w ere among th e o t h e r f a c t o r s l e a d i n g t o a d e c l i n e i n
F r a n c e ’ s s h a r e of. t u r k e y ’ s e x p o r t s .
From 1923 to 1 9 3 9 , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f f i v e
y e a r s , F ra n ce e n jo y e d a f a v o r a b l e b a la n c e o f t r a d e w i t h
Turkey.
P r i o r t o World War I I T urkey’ s e x p o r t s t o F ran ce
were p r i n c i p a l l y d r i e d f r u i t s , c e r e a l s , c o a l , t o b a c c o ,
and m i n e r a l s such a s chrome, z i n c , l e a d and a l l o y s .
Of th e e x p o r t s t o F ra n ce t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s con ­
s i s t e d o f about 70 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l i n 1 9 5 5 - 3 9 .
B e f o r e th e war th e t r a d e b e tw e en Turkey and F ran ce
had been c a r r i e d on by an agreem ent d a te d J u ly 2 9 , 1 9 2 9 .
In January 1 , 1940 a new a greem en t was s i g n e d b y two n a ­
t i o n s a s a su p p lem en ta ry agreem ent t o the T r i p a r t i t e
T r e a ty of Mutual A s s i s t a n c e o f 1959 w hich was s i g n e d by
G reat B r i t a i n , F ra n ce and Turkey.
R u ssia :
S i n c e R u s s ia i s a lm o s t s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t a g r i c u l t u r ­
a l l y , e x p o r t t o t h a t c o u n t r y h a s n o t been o f g r e a t s i z e
1 7U. S . S e n a t e Document, No. 7 0 , World Trade B a r r i e r s
i n R e l a t i o n t o A g r i c u l t u r e , W ashington 1 9 3 3 , p p . 1 0 7 - 1 1 0 ,
369-378.

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compared w i t h t h a t t o t h e w e s t e r n i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , from 1 9 2 3 t o 1940 Kussie. w as a s t e a d y mar­
k e t f o r some T u rk ish p r o d u c t s and c o n s i s t e n t l y s i x t h
i n im p o r ta n c e among T u rk ey’ s c u s t o m e r s .
T u rk ish e x p o r t s to K u s s ia i n c r e a s e d from 3 . 3 p e r ­
c e n t o f t h e t o t a l i n 1 9 2 5 -2 9 to 4 . 5 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 3 0 - 3 4 ,
w h i l e f o r the same p e r i o d s K u s s ia s u p p l i e d 5 . 2 and 5 , 9
p e r c e n t o f a l l T u rk ish im p o r t s .

For t h e p e r i o d 1 9 3 5 - 3 9 ,

h o w e v e r , t h e r e w as a s l i g h t d e c l i n e i n t r a d e b e tw e e n the
two c o u n t r i e s , w i t h e x p o r t s a v e r a g i n g 3 . 8 p e r c e n t and
im p o r ts 4 . 6 p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l s .

From 1 923 t o 1 9 4 0 , w i t h

th e e x c e p t i o n o f 1 9 5 3 , t r a d e b etw een Turkey and R u s s ia
was u n f a v o r a b l e t o Turkey.
t o t h a t c o u n tr y were l i v e
d r ied f r u i t s ,

The p r i n c i p a l T u rk ish e x p o r t s
a n im a ls , m o h a ir , w o o l, o l i v e s ,

and c o t t o n , w h i l e she s u p p l i e d c o t t o n y a r n s

and g o o d s , f e r t i l i z e r s , i r o n , s t e e l , and p e t r o le u m p r o d u c t s .
Trade b e tw e en the two c o u n t r i e s w as r e g u l a t e d by t h e Com­
m e r c i a l and N a v i g a t i o n Agreement o f O ctob er 8 , 1 9 3 7 .
C z e c h o slo v a k ia :
Turkey’ s t r a d e w i t h C z e c h o s lo v a k ia h a s n e v e r b een
o f g r e a t p r o p o r t i o n s , a l t h o u g h i t h a s f l u c t u a t e d from
y e a r to y e a r .

P u r c h a s e s by C z e c h o s lo v a k ia i n 1 9 2 5 -2 9
0

averaged o n ly 2 .0 p e r ce n t o f a l l

T u rk ish e x p o r t s , w h i l e

t h a t c o u n t r y f u r n i s h e d 6 . 0 p e r c e n t of a l l T u r k ish im p o r t s .
During th e 5 - y e a r p e r i o d e n d in g w i t h 1939 e x p o r t s t o

I ll

C z e c h o s lo v a k ia i n c r e a s e d s l i g h t l y to 3 . 2 p e r c e n t o f th e
t o t a l , w h il e im p o r ts from t h a t c o u n tr y d e c r e a s e d to 3 . 8
p ercen t.

From 1923 t o 1 9 3 9 , w it h th e e x c e p t i o n o f fo u r

y e a r s , t h e t r a d e b e tw e e n t h e two c o u n t r i e s was u n fa v o r a b le
t o Turkey.

T u rk ish e x p o r t s t o C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w ere p r i m a r i l y

d r ied f r u i t , v e g e t a b le p r o d u c ts , c e r e a l s , f i s h e s , to b a c co ,
and m o h a ir .
Trade b e tw een Turkey and C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w as r e g u l a t e d
by the agreem en t of May 3 1 , 1 9 3 4 .

PART THREE
TURKEY’S FOREIGN TRADE POLICIES IN RELATION
TO AGRICULTURE

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CHAPTER IX
GENERAL ECONOMIC POLICIES CP TURKEY
B e f o r e World War I T u r k e y was t h e

c e n t e r of t h e

l o o s e l y h e l d Ottoman E m p i r e g o v e r n e d b y t h e S u l t a n .

As .

a r e s u l t o f World War I s u b s t a n t i a l t e r r i t o r i e s w e r e l o s t .
The p r e s e n t d a y b o u n d a r i e s o f T u r k e y w e r e d e f i n e d i n t h e
T r e a t y of L a u s a n n e i n 1 9 2 3 .

N a t i o n a l i s m became an i m p o r t ­

a n t f o r c e i n T u r k e y a f t e r ‘World War I w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g
n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s and p r o g r a m s , c o n t r a s t i n g s h a r p l y w i t h
the p o l i c i e s under the

Ottoman E m p i r e .

P r i o r t o 1923
P r i o r t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e r e p u b l i c a n r e g i m e
i n T u r k e y i n 192 3 t h e r e w ere no r e a l n a t i o n a l

and i n t e r n a ­

t i o n a l p o l i c i e s . . T u r k e y ’ s economy and f o r e i g n t r a d e w ere
a l m o s t e n t i r e l y d o m i n a t e d b y some o f t h e w e s t e r n p o w e r s
u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of ’’c a p i t u l a t i o n s ” ^ .

Many m e a s u r e s ,

n o rm ally c o n sid e re d a s p a r t of the u s u a l s o v e re ig n pow ers,
we. e a l i e n a t e d t o f o r e i g n p o w e rs by v a r i o u s t r e a t i e s o r
cap itu latio n s.
Under t h i s

system , f o r e i g n s u b j e c t s l i v i n g i n th e

Ottoman t e r r i t o r i e s w e r e f r e e t o c a r r y o n b u s i n e s s t h r o u g h -

■^The t e r m i s u s e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e r e g i m e o f e x t e r r i t o r ­
i a l p r i v i l e g e s e n j o y e d b y f o r e i g n e r s i n t h e Ottoman E m p i r e .
^The f i r s t of t h e s e c o n c e s s i o n s o f e x t e r r i t o r i a l
p r i v i l e g e s w a s g r a n t e d t o F r a n c e by t h e T u r k i s h s u l t a n i n
1 5 3 6 . As t h e Ottoman E m p i r e h a d become w e a k , h o w e v e r , c a p i ­
t u l a t i o n s were e x t e n d e d t o t h e o t h e r w e s t e r n n a t i o n s , and
b y 1914 a l m o s t a l l c o u n t r i e s e n j o y e d th em .

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o u t t h e Em pire.

A l l f o r e i g n b u s i n e s s f i r m s w ere f r e e o f

T u rk ish c o n t r o l and exem pted from a l l t a x e s .

They were

s u b j e c t o n l y to t h e la w s o f t h e i r own c o u n t r y , and l i a b l e
to t r i a l o n ly b e fo r e t h e i r c o n su la r c o u r ts .

3

To make

m a t t e r s e v e n more f a v o r a b l e t o t h e m s e l v e s , f o r e i g n e r s ob­
t a i n e d p e r m i s s i o n t o em ploy n o n -T u r k is h s t s f f members i n
t h e i r e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , who a l s o w e r e exempt from T u rk ish
4
t a x e s and c o n t r o l s .
T h is r e s u l t e d i n p r e v e n t i n g many
T urkish c i t i z e n s from g a i n i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n commerce and
in d u str y .

A f u r t h e r d is a d v a n t a g e to T u rk ey’ s e x i s t i n g

sm a ll s c a l e and h a n d i c r a f t i n d u s t r y w a s t h a t the Ottoman
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a g r e e d t o c h a r g e v e r y low d u t i e s on the
g o o d s im p o r ted from w e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s ;

the p o l i c y b e in g

to l e t T u rk ish p e o p l e pay t h e l a v p r i c e s p r o v id e d by t h e
European i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n .

But i n t h i s way t h e y

w ere a b le to u n d e r s e l l T u rk ish g o o d s in t h e T u r k ish m a rk et.
T h is f i n a l l y r e s u l t e d i n th e g r a d u a l i n d u s t r i a l d e c l i n e o f
Turkey and f o r c e d h e r t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n th e p r o d u c t io n
o f a g r i c u l t u r a l raw m a t e r i a l s .
A t t h e same tim e the n a t i o n c o n t r a c t e d an i n c r e a s i n g ­
l y h ea v y f o r e i g n d e b t .
3

John P a r k e r ,

0£.

Erom 1 8 5 4 - 1 9 1 4 t h e r e had been a

c i t ., p.

27.

“^ Even i n many e a s e s , th e T u rk ish c i t i z e n s l e f t f o r the
U n ite d S t a t e s , and a f t e r b ecom in g Am erican c i t i z e n ; t h e y r e ­
tu r n e d t o Turkey and e n jo y e d t h e same p r i v i l e g e s .
(Gordon,
o p . c i t . , p . 302)
^For e x a m p le , a t h r e e p e r c e n t ad v a lo r e m d u ty on im p o r ts
was the o n ly t a x ' o n f o r e i g n t r a d e . W hile e x p o r t s fro m Turkey
w ere c h a rg ed 12 p e r c e n t .
(Frank Edgar B a i l e y , B r i t i s h P o l i c y
and th e T u r k ish r e fo r m movement, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
London, 1 9 4 2 , p . 7 9 ) .

114

trem endous f l o w o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l th r o u g h the mediums o f
d i r e c t l o a n s to b e u s e d in f i n a n c i n g th e Ottoman w a r s ,
o r i n o f f s e t t i n g b u d g et d e f i c i t s .

I n r e t u r n f o r su ch l o a n s

a d d i t i o n a l c o n c e s s i o n s were g r a n t e d .
a b e g in n in g b u t no en d .

So c a p i t u l a t i o n s had

They i n c r e a s e d b o t h i n number and

i n s i z e a s Turkey w as g i v e n more l o a n s .

Thus i n 1914 T urkey’ s

t o t a l f o r e i g n i n d e b t e d n e s s w as 1 5 8 , 6 2 2 , 7 3 4 g o ld T u rk ish
lir a ,

6

7

( a b o u t 698 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s in g o ld ) .

The m ost depend­

a b l e s o u r c e s cf r e v e n u e o f the c o u n t r y had to b e u s e d a s
paym ents on t h e d e b t ; o t h e r w is e t h e y m igh t have b e e n u t i l i z e d
f o r the d ev elo p m en t of th e c o u n t r y ’ s p u b l i c works and econom­
ic resou rces.
One o f the u n f o r t u n a t e r e s u l t s of t h e s e d i r e c t
l o a n s was t h a t i n o r d e r t o meet th e i n t e r e s t paym ents on
t h e e x t e r n a l d e b t T u rk ish c u sto m s r e v e n u e s and l a t e r c u s ­
toms a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p a s s e d i n t o t h e hands of w e s t e r n n a t i o n s .
C o n se q u e n tly t h e y m a in t a in e d p u r e l y n om in a l r a t e s o f du ty
on t h e i m p o r t a t i o n of t i i e i r own g o od s i n t o Turkey.
I n d u s t r ia l lo a n s were c o n sp ic u o u sly a v o id e d .

The

main f a c t o r w h ic h d i s c o u r a g e d f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i s t s from
i n v e s t i n g t h e i r money i n i n d u s t r y w as th e i n s e c u r i t y o f t h e

^Turkey on t h e Way

o£

I n d u s t r ia liz a t io n , o£. c i t .

p. 9.
^One g o l d l i r a was e q u a l t o $ 4 .4 0 g o l d d o l l a r s i n 1 9 1 4 .

115

p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n o f the Ottoman Em pire.
Under th e t r a d i t i o n a l t h e o r y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x ­
change i t would be e x p e c t e d t h a t the p r e s s u r e o f f o r e i g n
d e b t c h a r g e s would e n c o u r a g e the d evelo p m en t of i n t e r n a l
p r o d u ctio n .

Such d id happen i n th e c a s e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l

raw m a t e r i a l s and to a marked d e g r e e .

B u t, b y v i r t u e o f

t h e c a p i t u l a t i o n s , t h e l a c k o f kn ow led ge and t r a i n i n g
o f modern i n d u s t r i a l p r o c e s s e s and f o r v a r io u s p o l i t i c a l
r e a s o n s , t h e r e w as v e r y l i t t l e

developm ent or m o d e r n iz a t io n

o f i n t e r n a l i n d u s t r y f o r d o m e s tic c o n su m o tio n .
As a r e s u l t o f the c a p i t u l a t i o n s , a l l r a i l r o a d s , .
p u b l i c u t i l i t i e s , b a n k s, m in in g c o m p a n ie s, e x p o r t and im­
p o r t t r a d e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , p o r t s , c u sto m s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
e t c . , w ere e n t i r e l y do m in ated by f o r e i g n e r s .
A s t r i k i n g f a c t i n t h e c o u n t r y ’ s econom ic d e v e l o p ­
ment was t h a t t h e Ottoman Bank w h ich w a s fou n d ed b y B r i t i s h
c a p i t a l i s t s i n 1856 became th e S t a t e Bank and th e bank o f
7
i s s u e o f th e E m p ire.
The c h i e f o b j e c t i v e w a s t o a s s i s t
th e t r e a s u r y i n e s t a b l i s h i n g f i n a n c i a l s e c u r i t y , b u t i t s
f u n c t i o n s had b e e n to prom ote E n g l i s h commerce and t o a d ­
va n c e B r i t i s h p o l i t i c a l f a v o r . ®

The c a p i t u l a t i o n s , w h ich

w ere o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d t o g u a r a n t e e f r e e d o m o f t r a d e t o

7

The D evelop m ent o f N a t i o n a l Banking i n T u rk ey, o p . c i t ,
pp. 2 6 - 2 9 .
®Leland James Gordon, 0 £ . c i t . , p . 1 4 3 .

116

f o r e i g n b u s i n e s s men t o h e l p th e d e v e lo p m en t o f t h e economy
o f the Ottoman E m p ire, had g r a d u a l l y d e g e n e r a te d i n t o a
m ach ine t h a t i n r e a l i t y c o l o n i z e d t h e c o u n t r y .

The way

f o r e i g n e r s a c te d i n th e Ottoman Empire was e x p r e s s e d by
P h i l i p M a r sh a ll Brown who s t a t e d , " F o r e ig n e r s m is u s e d t h e i r
im m u n itie s to th e e x t e n t o f p r a c t i s i n g w i t h im p u n ity sm uggl­
i n g , b r i b e r y , and c o r r u p tio n ." ^ -0

In s h o r t , th e consequences

o f t h e c a p i t u l a t i o n s r e s u l t e d o n ly i n econ om ic d ecay and
th e l o s s o f the c o u n t r y ’ s in d e p e n d e n c e , i n s t e a d o f i t s
econ om ic develop m en t a s was o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d .
The c a p i t u l a t i o n s had o n ly one o o s i t i v e e f f e c t .
They h e lp e d sp e e d the a d a p t a t i o n of w e s t e r n p r i n c i p l e s of
J u s t i c e i n r e f o r m in g t h e j u d i c i a l s y s t e m o f New Turkey."^
A f t e r 1923
Up t o the p r e s e n t p o i n t an a t t e m p t h a s been made t o
a n a ly z e t h e h i s t o r i c o r i g i n o f Turkey’ s econ o m ic p o l i c i e s
under the Ottoman E m pire.

As i t i s

se en from t h i s d i s c u s ­

s i o n t h e r e was no econom ic p o l i c y i n s p i r e d from t h e i n t e r e s t s
o f th e n a t i o n , but r a t h e r t h e c o u n tr y was a s o r t o f i n t e r ­
n a tio n a l c o lo n y .
I t w a s a f t e r w in n in g h e r p o l i t i c a l in d e p e n d e n c e by
f o r c e o f arm s, ( f i g h t i n g f i v e more y e a r s f o l l o w i n g t h e World

■ ^ E n c y c lo p e d ia of the S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , V o l . I l l , p . 21-4.
i:LI b i d . , p . 2 1 4 .

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War I )

t h a t Turkey oh J u l y 2 4 ,1 9 2 3 o b t a in e d th e a b o l i t i o n

o f the c a p i t u l a t i o n s b y t h e T r e a ty o f L au san n e.

The econom­

i c p o l i c y o f New Turkey w a s t h e r e f o r e born o f a s t r o n g r e ­
a c t i o n a g a i n s t th e p o l i t i c a l and econ om ic i m p e r i a l i s m o f
v a r io u s f o r e ig n s t a t e s .

The new eco n o m ic p o l i c y o f Turkey

was d e c la r e d by a s l o g a n "Turkey f o r th e Turks", t h a t i s ,
s tr ic tly n a tio n a listic .
d e v e lo p m e n ts i n the

I t was p la n n e d t h a t a l l econom ic

c o u n tr y w e r e t o b e c a r r i e d out o n ly

by th e n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l .

I t w as a l s o b e l i e v e d t h a t " w ith ­

o u t econom ic fr e e d o m t h e r e c o u ld n o t be p o l i t i c a l in d e p e n d ­
e n c e ."
However, t h e econ om ic p o l i c y o f New Turkey c a n n o t be
d e s c r i b e d o n l y th r o u g h th e h i s t o r i c o r i g i n .

By h e r new

econom ic p o l i c y Turkey h a s a t te m p te d t o d e v e lo p a l l b r a n c h e s
of h e r economy a s an i n t e g r a t e d w h o le .

To t h i s end Turkey

f o l l o w e d a p o l i c y which w as s t r i c t l y p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c .
In ord e r t o c a r r y out h e r econom ic d e v e lo p m en t p r o ­
grams Turkey n eeded c a p i t a l u r g e n t l y .

From t h e econ om ic

s t a n d p o in t t h e in v e s t m e n t o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i n Turkey
would be c o n s i d e r e d t h e e a s i e s t way t o a t t a i n t h i s e n d .
But p e o p le remembered t o o w e l l t h a t i t was j u s t such d e b t
t h a t had b r o u g h t a b o u t th e d o w n f a ll o f t h e Ottoman E m pire.
F i n a n c i a l l y s t r o n g c o u n t r i e s s t i l l c o n s i d e r e d Turkey m ere­
l y a so u rc e f o r raw m a t e r i a l s .

They i n v e s t e d c a p i t a l n o t

o n l y upon c e r t a i n e c o n o m ic , b u t a l s o p o l i t i c a l t e r m s ,
w hich Turkey c o u ld n o t a c c e p t e x c e p t by g i v i n g up some of

118

h e r n e w ly won p o l i t i c a l in d e p e n d e n c e .

T h e r e fo r e Turkey

c h o s e t o work m e in ly on a p a y - a s - y o u g o b a s i s , and r e f r a i n ­
ed from u n r e s t r i c t e d f o r e i g n b o r r o w in g .
The n e e d f o r the e x t e n s i o n of p r o t e c t i o n i s t p o l i c i e s
became more a p p a ren t d u rin g th e t h i r t i e s .

P r o b a b ly one

o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s was th e g e n e r a l t r e n d on t h e p a r t
o f the im p o r ta n t f r e e t r a d e c o u n t r i e s t o tu rn tow ard s
p r o tec tio n ism ,

under su ch c o n d i t i o n s many s m a l l e r cou n ­

t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g Turkey, saw no a l t e r n a t i v e b u t t o f o l l o w
su it.

S eco n d ly , c o n sid e r in g Ih r k e y 's s t r a t e g i c m i li t a r y

l o c a t i o n , t h e T u rk ish Government was c o n s t a n t l y i n f e a r
o f war and the p o s s i b i l i t y o f the b l o c k a d in g o f h e r m ost
e s s e n t i a l im p o r ts and e x p o r t s .

The u n s t a b l e p o l i t i c a l and

i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n o f t h i s tim e s u b s t a n t i a t e d the
f e a r o f the T u rk ish n a t i o n o f the p r o b a b i l i t y o f w ar.

For

ex a m p le, by t h e m i d - t h i r t i e s t h e i n v a s i o n of ^ h in a and Man­
c h u r i a by Japan w as w e l l under w ay.

On March 2 2 , 1934 I t a l i a n

Government announced h e r h i s t o r i c a l o b j e c t i v e to r e v i v e
t h e o l d Roman Empire i n the M e d ite r r a n e a n c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d IS
i n g Turkey.
In 1935 E t h i o p i a was o c c u p ie d by I t a l y ,
w h i l e Germany a b r o g a te d th e m i l i t a r y c l a u s e of t h e V e r s a i l l e s
T r e a t y , and a n n e x a te d t h e Ruhr and S a a r .

The im m ediate

e f f e c t s o f t h e s e p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p m e n ts abroad i n c r e a s e d th e
f e e l i n g s o f the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a European War.

F in a lly

12Donald E v e r e t W e b ste r, The Turkey o f A t a t u r k .
P h ila d e lp h ia , 1939, p. 117.

1L9

T u r k e y a s k e d t h e L ea g u e o f N a t i o n f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o f o r t i ­
fy the

tra its.

On J u n e 2 3 , 1936 sh e was g r a n t e d p e r m i s s i o n

t o do s o . ^ 3
Such m i l i t a r y a c t i o n s a b r o a d and t h e i n c r e a s i n g d a n g e r s
of w o r l d c o n f l i c t p r o v i d e d t h e T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t w i t h t h e
m o t i v a t i o n t o t a k e an a c t i v e n a r t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of
t h e c o u n t r y ’ s eco nomy, e s p e c i a l l y , i n v i e w o f t h e l i m i t e d
l o c a l c a p i ta l investm ents.

To t h i s end t h e p o l i c y of

e co no m ic n a t i o n a l i s m , w i t h maximum s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y a s an
u l t i m a t e ; i m , seemed t o be i m p e r a t i v e a s t h e o n l y way f o r
n a tio n al defense.

U n t i l th e ore s e n t tim e em ohasis has

been g iv en t o i n d u s t r i a l dev elo pm en ts, a lth o u g h the g o v e rn ­
m e n t , h a s r e c o g n i z e d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r s p e e d i n g up a g r i c u l ­
t u r a l P r o d u c t i o n by i m p r o v i n g e f f i c i e n c y on a l l s i d e s .

So

f a r such d i r e c t developm ent programs have n o t advanced t o
an a p p r e c i a b l e e x t e n t , b e c a u s e T u r k e y ’ s a g r i c u l t u r a l

policy

was n o t c l e a r l y d e f i n e d end i n a d d i t i o n was n e v e r a d e q u a t e ­
ly financed.
As f a r a s f o r e i g n econom ic p o l i c i e s a r e c o n c e r n e d ;
Turkey has had a t r a d i n g sy s te m w hich was s t r i c t l y
ed.

The t r a d e c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s t o o k many f o r m s .

co n tro ll­
In g en eral,

f r o m 1923 t o 1939 i n c l u s i v e , a l l m e a s u r e s w e r e d e s i g n e d t o
s tim u la te e x p o rts w hile r e s t r i c t i n g im p o rts,

13I b i d . , p . 1 2 0 .

w ith t h e

120

b e g i n n i n g of './orId V.'er I I , h o w e v e r , t h e p o l i c i e s t o o k an
opposite d ir e c tio n ,

th a t i s , to f a c i l i t a t e

im ports w hile

r e s tric tin g exports.
I n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r s a t t e n t i o n w i l l b e g i v e n to
a n a l y z i n g th e p r i n c i p a l t y p e s of m e a s u r e s w h ic h h a v e b e e n
em p lo y ed t o r e g u l a t e t h e f o r e i g n t r a d e o f T u r k e y s i n c e 1 9 2 3 .
C o n t r o l s h a v e been u s e d n o t o n l y i n r e g u l a t i n g t h e a c t u a l
movement o f g o o d s and s e r v i c e s b u t a l s o i n c h a n g i n g ' t h e
c o n d itio n s o f production, w ith in th e country,

xhe m e a s u r e s

a f f e c t i n g i n t e r n a l p r o d u c t i o n w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t .

121

CHATTER X
PRODUCTION l-ZEASTTRSS

T urkey’ s a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c i e s r e l a t i n g to p ro d u c tio n
may be summed up a s f o l l o w ® :
areas,

(1) t o d e v e l o p new p r o d u c i n g

(2) t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i o n to make, t h e c o u n t r y

se lf-su ffic ien t,

(3) t o p r o v i d e e v e r y p e a s a n t f a m i l y w i t h

su ffic ie n t la n d ,'

(4)

to m a i n t a i n f a i r p r i c e s f o r f a r m

p r o d u c t s , and t h e r e b y t o r a i s e l e v e l s of l i v i n g of t h e
peasants. .
The m e a s u r e s t a k e n u n d e r t h e R e p u b l i c a n r e g i m e t o
c a r r y o u t t h e f o r e g o i n g a im s h a v e t a k e n many f o r m s .
t h i s p o i n t , ho w e v er,

At

an. a t t e m p t v a i l b e made t o a n a l y z e

t h o s e m e a s u r e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n a i d s and t h o s e
r e l a t i n g to the p ro d u c tio n r e s t r i c t i o n s .
P r o d u c t i o n Aid.s

14

E x p a n s i o n cf p r o d u c t i o n h a s be.-n a p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e
of t h e T u r k i s h a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c i e s s i n c e 1 9 2 3 .

The m e a s u r e s

em p lo y ed t o e x p a n d p r o d u c t i o n a r e p e r h a p s b e s t v i e w e d t h r o u g h
a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of t y p i c a l exam ples.
Tobacco:
E o r y e a r s t o b a c c o p r o d u c t i o n h a s b e en c a r r i e d o u t

l ^ I n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t i i i s c h a p t e r Z i r a a t K an u n lari
( A g r i c u l t u r a l Laws)ijL M i n i s t r y cf A g r i c u l t u r e , A n k a r a , 1 9 4 0 ,
was an i n v a l u a b l e r e f e r e n c e .
See i t f o r d e t a i l s on i n d i v i d u a l
law s.

122

u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f m on opoly .

The f i r s t t o b a c c o

m o no p oly was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1884 when t h e Ottoman G o v e rn ­
m en t g r a n t e d a c o n c e s s i o n t o a f o r e i g n company, n a m e l y ,
15
" R e g i e c o - i n t e r e s s e e d e s T a b a c s de l f Empire- Ottoman"
The m on o po ly r e g u l a t e d t h e v a r i e t y an d a r e a t h a t e a c h d i s ­
t r i c t m ight p l a n t , and i s s u e d i n d i v i d u a l p e r m its .
f o r e i g n m o n o p o ly ,

The

or s o - c a l l e d R e g i e , was p r i m a r i l y a com­

m ercial o rg an iz atio n w ith but lim ite d

i n t e r e s t i n t h e im ­

p r o v e m e n t and d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r o d u c t i o n .

T h e r e fo r e , the

R e g i e s y s t e m , a f t e r 42 y e a r s o p e r a t i o n w a s c a n c e l l e d i n
f a v o r o f a Government m ono p oly on March 1 , 1 9 2 5 .
The p r e s e n t m on o p o ly h a s f u n c t i o n e d u n d e r s e v e r a l
law s.

The l a t e s t l a w was e n a c t e d on June 1 0 , 1 9 3 8 .

Unde r

t h i s A c t , t h e p a r t i c u l a r a r e a s t o be p l a n t e d , t h e t y p e t o
be g ro w n , and t h e p r o d u c t i o n a nd the m a r k e t i n g o f t o b a c c o
are under o f f i c i a l su p e rv isio n .
t u r e and m onopolies a f t e r

The m i n i s t r i e s of a g r i c u l ­

c o n s u l t a t i o n may a u t h o r i z e i n c r e a s ­

e s o r d e c r e a s e s i n p l a n t i n g i n t h e same d i s t r i c t s .

I t is

p r o h i b i t e d to grow t o b a c c o w i t h i n f i v e m e te r s of a d w e l li n g ,
e nd n o o t h e r p r o d u c t s may be p r o d u c e d i n a t o b a c c o f i e l d .
Local tra d e in l e a f tobacco i s f r e e ,

b u t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of

tobacco o u tsid e i t s

s a l e e lsew h ere i n the

d i s t r i c t an d i t s

c o u n tr y a r e s u b j e c t t o th e c o n t r o l o f t h e m onopoly,

^he

m a n u f a c t u r e o f c i g a r s , c i g a r e t t e s and o t h e r t o b a c c o p r o d u c t s ,

■^La T u r q u i e c o n t e m p o r a i n e , o n . c i _ t . , p . 9 4 .

123

and th e s a l e of t h e s e a r t i c l e s i n Turkey are under th e s t r i c t
c o n t r o l o f t h e m onop oly.
So f a r one m ight g e t t h e im p r e s s io n t h a t such m eas­
u r e s were d i r e c t e d t o d i s c o u r a g e p r o d u c t io n r a t h e r than
to s tim u la te i t .

B u t, s i n c e Turkey i s

on a n e t e x p o r t

b a s i s , and e x p o r t s of to b a c c o p l a y a v e r y im p o rta n t r o l e
in th e

c o u n t r y ’ s economy; a l l t h e s e m ea su res w ere d e s ig n e d

t o p r e t e c t and m a in t a in the r e p u t a t i o n and c o m p e t i t i v e
s t r e n g t h o f T u rk ish to b a c c o in w o r ld m a r k e t s .

In t h i s

c a s e , i t m ig h t be b e t t e r term ed a s " r e g u la t e d s t i m u l a t i o n
o f p r o d u c t i o n ."
As r e g a r d s p r i c e - f i x i n g ;

t h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n the

m onopoly la w a u t h o r i z i n g t h e s t a t e t o p u rc h a se t o b a c c o
from the g r o w e r a t f i x e d p r i c e s ,

^n t h e c o n t r a r y p u r c h a s e s

are made a t c u r r e n t m arket p r i c e s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s th e mono­

p o l y m a n ip u la t e s p r i c e s i n o r d e r to m a in ta in a s u f f i c i e n t
r e t u r n to the p r o d u c e r and t o s e c u r e a s much e x ch a n g e a s
p o s s i b l e fro m t o b a c c o e x p o r t s .

Government may e n t e r t o b a c c o

m arket when n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p o r t u r i c e s .
The m ost r e c e n t m ea su res b y the Government p r o v id e
t h a t t o b a c c o g ro w ers c o n t r i b u t e a premium o f f i v e p e r c e n t
o f t h e i r t o b a c c o s a l e s t o su p p o r t a Tobacco Bank.
Bank i s

The

t o b e s e t up t o i n t e r v e n e i n the m a r k e t, t o p r e ­

v e n t s e v e r e p r i c e d r o p s and t h u s t o p r o t e c t the g r o w e r s .

124

Wheat:
S i n c e wheat o c c u p i e s n e a r l y s i x p e r c e n t of t h e
t o t a l a r e a of the c o u n t r y and a v e r y l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t h e
p o p u l a t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h i t s n r o d u c t i o n and p r i c e ,
Government i n t e r v e n t i o n h a s b e e n e x t e n s i v e .

Government

a id t o wheat p r o d u c t io n i n Turkey t o o k many fo rm s such a s ,
g r a n t o f c r e d i t f a c i l i t i e s , c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e le v a t o r s .^ im - ’
p o r t a t i o n o f farm m a ch in e ry w it h o u t t a r i f f , f r e e . d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n o f c e r t i f i e d s e e d , and th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f wheat
e x p e rim en t s t a t i o n s .

The main f a c t o r i n s t i m u l a t i n g w heat

p r o d u c t io n had b e e n t h e Government p o l i c y o f m a i n t a i n i n g
w heat p r i c e s above w orld m a rk et l e v e l s , p r i o r t o t h e World
War I I .

T h is was a c c o m p lish e d f i r s t th rou gh t h e i m p o s i t i o n

o f h i g h im port d u t i e s i n 1929 and by f i x i n g w heat p r i c e s
above w o r ld m arket a f t e r 1 9 3 2 .
During th e d e p r e s s i o n o f t h e t h i r t i e s ,
p r i c e s of w h eat dropped t o v e r y low l e v e l s .

d o m e s tic
The fa r m e r

was no lo n g e r i n a p o s i t i o n t o pay h i s t a x to th e ^ t a t e
and h i s d e b t t o t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Bank.

I n o r d e r t o m eet

t h i s c r i s i s a la w was p a s s e d on J u l y 3 , 1 9 3 2 , w h ich a u th o r ­
i z e d th e Government t o make d i r e c t p u r c h a s e s and s a l e s o f
wheat th r o u g h t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Bank, a t f i x e d p r i c e s and
th u s t o su p p o r t th e m a r k e t.

T h is la w a l s o a llo w e d th e

Government t o s u f f e r a y e a r l y l o s s of one m i l l i o n l i r a s .
Any p r o f i t s r e a l i z e d were to b e u sed f o r th e c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f g r a i n e l e v a t o r s and w a r e h o u se s i n t h e w h eat a r e a s .

125

The p u r c h a s e and s t o r a g e of l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of
w heat i n 1952 r e q u i r e d the im m ed iate c o n s t r u c t i o n of e l e v a ­
t o r s , and f i n a l l y t h e Law o f June 1 1 , 1933 a u t h o r i z e d th e
Government t o spend t h r e e m i l l i o n l i r a s f o r t h i s p u r p o s e .
The im m ed iate o b j e c t i v e o f t h e A ct o f J u l y 3 , 1932
was d e s i g n e d t o h e l p t h e w heat g r o w er , tout a t th e same tim e
i t w as e x p e c t e d t h a t i t would p r o t e c t consum ers i n urban
a r e a s from s p e c u l a t i v e o r i c e s .

The o t h e r o b j e c t i v e s of

the p u r c h a s e cf w heat a t h i g h - f i x e d p r i c e s w ere t o im prove
the econ om ic s i t u a t i o n o f f a r m e r s , t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i o n o f
w heat and t h u s to b r in g about an e x p o r t a b l e s u r p l u s .
From 1 9 3 2 t o 19 38 the o p e r a t i o n of t h e Law was
c a r r i e d out b y t h e S t a t e A g r i c u l t u r a l Bank.

On J u l y 3 ,

1938 a new A ct w as e n a c t e d , w hich p r o v id e d f o r th e e s t a b ­
l i s h m e n t of t h e O f f i c e of t h e P r o d u c t s o f th e S o i l under
the M i n i s t r y of Commerce.

T h is o f f i c e t o o k o v e r t h e c o n ­

t r o l o f w heat p u r c h a s e s and s a l e s from t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l
Bank.

One o f the p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s a g e n c y i s

t o p r e v e n t p r i c e f l u c t u a t i o n s n o t o n ly i n w h e a t, b u t a l s o
in oth er c e r e a ls .

I t a c c o m p l i s h e s t h i s th rou gh t h e p u r c h a s e ,

s a l e and s t o r a g e o f c e r e a l s when t h e m ark et c o n d i t i o n s
make i t s i n t e r f e r e n c e n e c e s s a r y .

A se c o n d o b j e c t i v e of

t h i s o f f i c e ± s t o im prove t h e f o r e i g n market f o r T u r k is h
w heat th ro u g h s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n and p r i c e c o n t r o l .

It is

th e o n ly a g e n c y f o r t h e e x p o r t and im p o r t o f c e r e a l s .

How­

e v e r , p r i v a t e f ir m s may e n t e r i n t o f o r e i g n t r a d e i n c e r e a l s

126

w i t h the a p p r o v a l of the O f f i c e .
houses a re i t s

A l l e l e v a t o r s and w are­

p r o p e r t y and u n d e r i t s c o n t r o l .

I t owns

s e v e r a l f l o u r m i l l s and i s a u t h o r i z e d t o e s t a b l i s h b a k e r i e s .
Tea:
Tea i n d u s t r y i s a n o t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g ex am p le of
c o n t i n u o u s Government a i d a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t .

In order to

r e g u l a t e a n d s t i m u l a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t e a a l a w was
e n a c t e d on March 27 , 19 4 0 .
p la n te d only in d i s t r i c t s
A griculture.

U n d e r t h i s Law t e a c a n b e
a u t h o r i z e d by t h e M i n i s t r y of

Any p e r s o n d e s i r i n g t o grow t e a m u s t make an

a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l a g e n t a n d may g e t
p e rm issio n i f h i s land i s

s u i t a b l e to t e a grow ing.

The

A c t p r o v i d e d t h e f r e e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e e d s and f e r t i l i z e r s
to grow ers fo r f i v e y e a r s ;

t h e o p e n i n g of c r e d i t s am o u n t­

i n g t o 40 l i r a s f o r e a c h d e k a r of l a n d p l a n t e d t o t e a .
i n t e r e s t r a t e i s charged f o r th e s e c r e d i t s .

No

Tea p l a n t a ­

t i o n s w e re exem pt f r o m t h e l a n d t a x f o r a p e r i o d o f e i g h t
years.
From t h e d a t e of o b t a i n i n g p e r m i s s i o n t o g row t e a
every a c t i v i t y in c u l t i v a t i o n ,

!

c a r e - t a k i n g and p i c k i n g i s

c l o s e l y s u p e r v i s e d by an o r g a n i z a t i o n s e t up f o r t h i s p u r ­
pose.
The Law a u t h o r i z e d t h e M i n i s t e r of A g r i c u l t u r e t o
b u y g r e e n l e a f a t f i x e d p r i c e s and t o e s t a b l i s h p l a n t s f o r
handling te a .

T h i s t e a i s t u r n e d t o t h e M i n i s t r y o f Monopo-

127

l i e s a t the c o s t p r i c e .
b y t h e M on o po ly.

The s a l e p r i c e o f t e a i s f i x e d

The o f f i c i a l r e a s o n f o r t u r n i n g o v e r a l l

t e a p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Monopoly i s t h a t p r i o r t o t h e d om es­
t i c p r o d u c t i o n , t a r i f f on i m p o r t e d t e a s u p p l i e d a b o u t 1 . 5
m illio n l i r a s revenue a n n u a lly .

I n o r d e r t o make up t h i s

r e v e n u e t e a s a l e s was t a k e n o v e r by t h e m o n o p o l y .
A t t h i s p o i n t one may a s k w hat was t h e o b j e c t i v e of
t h e Law.

A c t u a l l y , t o p u r c h a s e t e a from grow ers a t hig h

p r i c e s and t o

s e l l to consumers a t e x o r b i t a n t p r i c e s

(16

l i r a s a k i l o g r a m , o r 2 . 5 d o l l a r s a p o u n d i n 1946) o f f e r s
no e c o n o m ic g r o u n d .

The m a in o b j e c t i v e o f t h e A c t w a s

s o c i a l o t h e r t h a n econom ic.

I t was d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e

job o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r the p e o p le l i v i n g i n th e d i s t r i c t
16
of R i z e ,
w h e r e h i g h d e n s i t y o f p o p u l a t i o n com bined
w ith poor s o i l s caused la r g e s c a le m ig ra tio n t o th e o th e r
p a r t s of T u r k e y .

I t i s t o o e a r l y y e t t o see w h eth er or

n o t t h e Law w i l l c a u s e a s i z a b l e d r o p i n m i g r a t i o n o r im­
p r o v e s t h e l o n g r u n e c o n o m ic p o s i t i o n o f t h e a r e a .
C o tto n :
By a l a w e n a c t e d on J a n u a r y 2 7 , 1936 t h e M i n i s t r y
o f A g r i c u l t u r e was a u t h o r i z e d t o r e s t r i c t t h e a r e a s i n
w h i c h c e r t a i n v a r i e t i e s of c o t t o n c o u l d b e p r o d u c e d .
grower h a s t o use th e c e r t i f i e d

Each

s e e d s d i s t r i b u t e d f r e e by

^ ® R ize , a d i s t r i c t i n t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e
B l a c k S e a r e g i o n , h a s t h e m o s t s u i t a b l e s o i l and c l i m a t i c
c o n d itio n s f o r t e a grow ing.

128

th e Government.

C o tto n g i n s i n each d i s t r i c t could o n ly

handle the v a r i e t y s p e c i f i e d f o r t h a t a r e a .
The o b j e c t i v e o f t h e A c t w a s t o i m p r o v e and i n c r e a s e
c o t t o n p r o d u c t i o n i n the c o u n t r y a n d a t t h e same t i m e t o
meet th e r e q u i r e m e n ts of f o r e i g n m a r k e ts .
I n o r i c i n g t h e Government s e t t h e maximum s a l e s
p rices.

P r o d u c t i o n and q u a l i t y lia s i m p r o v e d c o n s i d e r a b l y

u n d er t h i s program .
Production R e s t r ic ti o n s
With t h e e x c e p t i o n of opium a n d r i c e no s t r i c t c o n ­
t r o l has been e s t a b l i s h e d over T urkish a g r i c u l t u r e .
fact,

alm ost a l l

In

t h e m e a s u r e s a d o p t e d so f a r h a v e b e e n aim ed

m a i n l y a t g u i d i n g and a s s i s t i n g f a r m e r s i n i m p o r v i n g o r
in creasin g t h e i r p ro duction.
Opium:
F o r more t h a n two d e c a d e s r e s t r i c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n
f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a r k e t i n g o f opium h a v e b e e n i n
e f f e c t from tim e to tim e .

I n g e n e r a l , i n opium p r o d u c t i o n

and t r a d e t h e T u r k i s h Governmeiiment f o l l o w e d t h e recom mend­
a t i o n s made by t h e L e a g u e of N a t i o n s i n 1931 and r e c e n t l y
by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Opium B o a r d .

Opium p r o d u c t i o n i s

r e s t r i c t e d to c e r t a i n s p e c ifie d a re a s in C entral A n a to lia .
H ow eve r, no m e a s u r e s a r e t a k e n t o c o n t r o l a c r e a g e .

Opium

129

buying,

s e l l i n g end e x p o r t i n g a l l a r e c o m p l e t e l y i n t h e

h a n d s o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t.

By b u y i n g a t low p r i c e s t h e Gov­

ernm ent i s c o n t i n u o u s l y d is c o u r a g in g l a r g e

s c a l e opium

production.
R ic e :
R i c e p r o d u c t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s a n o t h e r c a s e of r e s t r i c ­
t i o n b e g i n n i n g on J u n e 1 1 , 1 9 3 6 .

The m a i n o b j e c t i v e o f

t h i s r i c e c o n t r o l a c t was t o f i g h t m a l a r i a and p r o t e c t t h e
p u b l i c h e a l t h by l i m i t i n g p r o d u c t i o n t o c e r t a i n s p e c i f i e d
areas.

U n d e r t h i s Law no one may grow r i c e on a n y l a n d

w h a t s o e v e r u n l e s s he h a s f i r s t o b t a i n e d a l i c e n s e f r o m t h e
R ic e C o n t r o l Board i n h i s d i s t r i c t .

The r i c e p l a n t a t i o n s

m u s t b e 1 - 3 k i l o m e t e r s - d e f e n d i n g up o n t h e t y p e of i r ­
rig atio n ,

c o n tin u o u s or p e r i o d i c a l - from t h e urban a r e a s .

The B o a r d was a u t h o r i z e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t t y o e o f i r r i g a ­
t i o n each p ro d u c e r must f o l lo w .

In c ase of p e r io d ic a l i r r L

g a t i o n t h e B o a rd s e t s up a s c h e d u l e s h o w in g t h e p e r i o d s
d u r i n g w h i c h i r r i g a t i o n c a n be a p p l i e d .
s c h e d u l e was p u n i s h a b l e by

fine or may

V io la tio n of t h i s
r e s u l t in the su s­

pension of h i s r i g h t to r a i s e r i c e .
At f i r s t g l a n c e s u c h m e a s u r e s t a k e n t o f i g h t
m a l a r i a m i g h t seem un w ise i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h r o u g h
t h e m o d er n p r o d u c t i o n m e t h o d s b o t h h i g h

p r o d u c t i o n c a n be

s e c u r e d and a t t h e same t i m e no m a l a r i a w i l l o c c u r .

B ut,

s i n c e i n t r o d u c t i o n of modern m ethods i n r i c e p r o d u c t i o n
r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f c a p i t a l t h e G o v e r n m e n t
f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o u s e t h e m ore a n t i q u a t e d and i n e f f e c t i v e

130

m e t h o d s t o c o n t r o l m a l a r i a a t t h e e x p e n s e of r i c e ,

i t is

p r o b a b l e t h a t a s t h e Gov ern m ent i r r i g a t i o n and r e c l a m a t i o n
p r o g r a m s a r e c o m p l e t e d r e s t r i c t i o n on r i c e p r o d u c t i o n w i l l
be m oderated o r l i f t e d .

131

CHAPTER X I
EXPORT MEASURES

T urkey’ s p o lic ie s
pro d u cts

are

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o b jectiv es

q u a lity

co n tro ls

of

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the

and

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grade
order

to

in te rests
1930.

fix

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fu ll

6,

th e

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of

for

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p ro d u cts,
ex p o rters

au th o rized

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U ev zu atim iz ve T a tb ik a ti (F undam ental r e g u l a ti o n s of o u r
F o r e ig n T r a d e f , by A b d u lh a lik I n d e r e A n k ara, 1 9 4 4 , was an
in v alu ab le re fe re n c e .

132

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to s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n s designed to in s u re uniform w e ig h t,
size,

c o l o r , and q u a l i t y .

D e f i n i t e s t a n d a r d s of q u a l i t y

h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d and no e g g s c o u l d be e x p o r t e d u n ­
l e s s m ark e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e i r g r a d e and q u a l i t y .
c o u l d be e x p o r t e d i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s i z e

E gg s

of c r a t e s c o n ­

t a i n i n g 1 4 4 0 , 7£0 o r 560 e g g s e a c h .
O ther e x p o r t p r o d u c ts m entioned above a r e s u b j e c t to s i m i l a r r e g u l a t i o n s .
Export R e s tr ic tio n s
P r i o r t o World War I I e x p o r t r e s t r i c t i o n s p l a y e d
an i n s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e

in the T u rk ish f o r e i g n t r a d e p o l i c i e s .

The o n l y r e s t r i c t i o n s which p r e v a i l e d d u r i n g t h e l a t e t h i r ­
t i e s w e r e t h o s e c o n c e r n i n g w h e a t and c o t t o n .

By a Law

d a t e d December 1 1 , 1957 w h e a t e x p o r t e r s w e r e r e q u i r e d to
secure a s p e c ia l l ic e n s e .

The o b j e c t i v e of t h i s A c t was

t o m ee t t h e t e r m s of t h e c l e a r i n g

a g r e e m e n t s made b y t h e

T u r k i s h G o ve rnm e n t w i t h s e v e r a l E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s .
w i s e , t h e Law o f March £ ,

1 9 3 9 , which p r o v i d e d t h a t c o t t o n

e x p o r t e r s o b t a i n a p e r m it, was d e sig n e d t o i n s u r e
s u p p l y of c o t t o n f o r
of W orld War I I ,

L ik e­

the l o c a l m i l l s .

su fficien t

W it h t h e b e g i n n i n g

h o w e v e r , t h e Government i n t r o d u c e d s t r i c t

m e a s u r e s t o r e s t r i c t t h e e x p o r t a t i o n of m a n y a a r t i d e s f o r
w h i c h t h e r e would b e g r e a t n e e d i f T u r k e y be ca m e i n v o l v e d
i n t h e War.

Thus, c e r e a l s , w o o l, m o h a ir, c o t t o n , s k i n s ,

s a u s a g e c a s i n g s and s e v e r a l

o lih er a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d i t i e s

could not be e x p o rte d w i t h o u t s e c u r i n g a l i c e n s e , w h ile

134

r e - e x p o r t a t i o n o f a l l f o r e i g n goods was p r o h i b i t e d .

In

o r d e r t o a c h i e v e a c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o v e r e x p o r t s t h e Gov­
ernm ent e s t a b l i s h e d s e v e r a l e x p o r t e r s u n io n s un d er the
M i n i s t r y of commerce.

M e r c h a n t s and c o m m e r c i a l f i r m s

c o u l d n o t a l t e r i n t o e x p o r t t r a d e u n l e s s t h e y become members
of the u n io n s.

A l l e x p o r ts had t o t a k e p l a c e u h d e r th e

s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

The u n i o n s w e r e a l s o

e n g a g e d i n f i n d i n g new o u t l e t s and m a i n t a i n i n g minimum
p r i c e s fo r a g r i c u l t u r a l com m odities.

T h e r e w e r e 14 e x p o r t e r ' s

u n io n s i n Turkey i n 1942.
A nother w ar tim e r e s t r i c t i o n was th e

i m p o s i t i o n of

an ad v a l o r e m d u t y o f t h r e e p e r c e n t on e x p o r t s o f a l l com­
m o d ities.

The d u t y was i n c r e a s e d t o 1 0 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 4 2 .

T h i s t a x , h o w e v e r , was n o t i n t e n d e d t o b r i n g a b o u t f u r ­
t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n on e x p o r t s , b u t r a t h e r t o ' i n c r e a s e f i s c a l
r e v e n u e and t n u s to o f f s e t a p a r t o f t h e b u d g e t a r y d e f i c i t .
In f a c t ,

T u r k e y ’ s a g r i c u l t u r a l e c o n o m ic s y s t e m , w i t h h e r

rela tiv e ly

sparse p o p u latio n l iv i n g in r u r a l a re a s ,

is

n o t a d a p t a b l e t o a s y s t e m of in com e t a x e s on f a r m e r s .
f o r e , e x p o rt ta x e s , being e a s i e r t o c o l l e c t ,

There­

t h a n in co m e

t a x e s , w e r e c o n s i d e r e d t h e b e s t way t o i n c r e a s e r e v e n u e .
N evertheless,

s i n c e t h e d u t y on e x p o r t s i n c r e a s e d t h e c o s t

o f e x p o r t i n g i t s e f f e c t w a s more l i k e l y r e s t r i c t i v e i n
n atu re.

The d u t i e s o n e x p o r t s o f T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s , a f t e r

f i v e y e a r s of o p e r a t i o n , w e r e a b o l i s h e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g
of 1946.

135

O ther M easures
The Law o f J a n u a r y 2 9 , 1956 t o p r o t e c t t h e p l a n t s
f r o m d i s e a s e and p e s t s , w h ic h w i l l h e a n a l y z e d u n d e r im­
p o r t m e a s u r e s was a l s o a p p l i e d to. t h e e x p o r t s of a l l a g r i ­
c u ltu ra l products.
Another aid f o r to T urkish e x p o rte r s , as w e ll as
i m p o r t e r s , was t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a l a w to e x p a n d t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n of commercial a t t a c h e s .
a t e the

In order to f a c i l i t ­

s a l e s o f T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s , and k e p p c l o s e c o n d u c t

w i t h f o r e i g n m a r k e t s t h e n u m b er o f c o u n s e l o r s , a t t a c h e s ,
and c l e r k s w e r e i n c r e a s e d f r o m 18 t o 4 0 .

136

CHAPTER X II
IMPORT MEASURES OE TURKEY
S i n c e 1923 v a r i o u s m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d t o
r e s t r i c t th e i m p o r t a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s i n Tur­
key.

The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e s of t h e s e m e a s u r e s w e r e :

t o p r o t e c t dom estic a g r i c u l t u r e

(2)

(1 )

a d esire fo r a fav o r­

a b l e b a l a n c e o f t r a d e , and

(3) a d e s i r e f o r a maximum

e co n o m ic s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y .

To m ee t t h e s e e n d s , t h e p r i n c i ­

p a l m easures adopted w ere:

Im port d u t i e s ,

im port q u o tas

an d l i c e n s i n g , i m p o r t m o n o p o l i e s , s a n i t a r y r e s t r i c t i o n s ,
exchange e o n t r . l ,

a nd c u r r e n c y d e v a l u a t i o n .
Im port D uties

A lthough a stro n g d r i f t tow ard p r o t e c t i o n i s m began
w ith th e e s ta b lis h m e n t

o f t h e new r e g i m e i n 1 9 2 3 , T u r k e y ,

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e r m s of L a u s a n n e T r e a t y of 1 9 2 3 , h a d no
r i g h t t o i n c r e a s e h e r custom d u t i e s u n t i l A ugust 6 , 1929.
D u r i n g t h i s 6 - y e a r p e r i o d T u r k e y a g r e e d t o im p ose an ad
v a l o r e m d u t y cf 9 p e r c e n t

on a l l i m p o r t s .

As s o o n a s t h i s p e r i o d e n d e d new t a r i f f l e g i s l a t i o n
was e n a c t e d and w e n t i n t o e f f e c t on O c t o b e r 1 , 1 9 2 9 .
T h i s a c t p r o v i d e d s p e c i f i c d u t i e s on t h e w e i g h t o f m e r c h a n ­
d ise im ported.
liste d

Furtherm ore a l l a r t i c l e s n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y

i n t h e s c h e d u l e w e r e s u b j e c t t o an ad v a l o r e m d u t y

o f 40 p e r c e n t .

The a c t . a l s o im po sed a t r a n s a c t i o n t a x o f

6 p e r c e n t on t h e d u t y - p a i d - v a l u e o f c e r t a i n i n d u s t r i a l .

137

goods.

T h i s was i n c r e a s e d t o 10 p e r c e n t i n 1 9 3 3 .

ad d itio n , a l l

In

i m p o r t s w e r e s u b j e c t t o a m u n i c i p a l t a x of

10 p e r c e n t o f t h e i m p o r t d u t y .

Re d uce d r a t e s w e r e a p p l i c ­

a b l e on p r o d u c t s o f c o u n t r i e s h a v i n g c o m m e r c i a l a g r e e m e n t s
w ith Turkey i n c l u d i n g t h e m o s t - f a v o r e d - n o t i o n c l a u s e .
The 1929 t a r i f f a c t w a s i n f o r c e u n t i l December 9 ,
1946 when a l l s p e c i f i c d u t i e s w e r e i n c r e a s e d by 1 5 6 . 6 p e r ­
cent.

T h i s a b n o rm a l r i s e

on a l l d u t i e s was a r e s u l t of

t h e d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e T u r k i s h c u r r e n c y on S e p t e m b e r 7 ,
1946.

In f a c t ,

one of t h e a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t s p e c i f i c d u t i e s

i s t h a t d u r i n g p e r i o d s of r i s i n g p r i c e s s p e c i f i c d u t i e s a r e
a s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n o f p r i c e , w h i l e , when p r i c e s a r e f a l l ­
i n g , t h e p e r c e n t a g e of p r o t e c t i o n b e co m es g r e a t e r ,
o t h e r words., t h e b u r d e n of

in

su ch d u t i e s v a r i e s i n p r o p o r t i o n

t o the v a r i a t i o n i n the p r i c e l e v e l .

18

The e x t r e m e s o c ­

c u r r e d i n t h e c a s e o f T u r k i s h t a r i f f s i n 1 9 3 0 - 3 3 when p r i c e s
w e re v e r y l o w , and a f t e r 1946 when t h e p r i c e s o f i m p o r t e d
g o o d s became v e r y h i g h a s a r e s u l t o f t h e d e v a l u a t i o n o f
the T u rk ish c u r r e n c y .

D u r i n g su c h p e r i o d s many n a t i o n s

make a d j u s t m e n t s i n s p e c i f i c d u t i e s .

T u r k e y d i d n o t make

any r e d u c t i o n i n t a r i f f s d u r i n g t h e w o r l d e c o n o m ic d e ­
p r e s s i o n of 1 9 3 0 - 3 3 .

How ev er, a f t e r p r i c e s i n c r e a s e d i n

1946 a l l s p e c i f i c t a r i f f r a t e s w e r e i n c r e a s e d by 1 5 6 . 6

■*'®Under many c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u c h v a r i a t i o n s h a v e
p o s i t i v e a d v a n t a g e s i n l i m i t i n g t h e d e g r e e of p r i c e c h a n g e .

138

percent.
At f i r s t g la n c e i t a p p e a r s t h a t the r a t e s i n th e
new t a r i f f w e r e g r e a t l y i n e x c e s s o f t h o s e p r e v i o u s l y i n
force.

But i f a l l o w a n c e i s made f o r t h e p r e s e n t d e p r e c i a t e d

v a l u e of t h e p a p e r l i r a i t

i s e s t im a t e d t h a t the a v e rag e

r a t e s a r e e q u a l t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 55 p e r c e n t a d v a l o r e m ,
c o m p a r e d w i t h 25 p e r c e n t o r i o r t o 1 9 4 6 , a n i n c r e a s e of 4 0
p e rc e n t r a t h e r th a n 156.6 p e r c e n t .
From t h e p r e a m b l e o f t h e T u r k i s h t a r i f f h i l l

of

1929 i t w a s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t , a t l e a s t two o b j e c t i v e s w e re
to be a t t a i n e d .

Of t h e s e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t w a s t h e p r o ­

t e c t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t o f d o m e s t i c a g r i c u l t u r e and i n d u s ­
trie s.

I t was d e s i g n e d to s t i m u l a t e the i m p o r t a t i o n of

c a p i t a l g o o d s and t o k e e p o u t l u x u r y i t e m s .

In o th e r words,

T u r k e y w i s h e d to i m p o r t p r i m a r i l y t h o s e c o m m o d i t i e s w h i c h
would a s s i s t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of l o c a l i n d u s t r i e s .

The s e c o n d

o b j e c ti v e was to i n c r e a s e t h e rev e n u e from custom s.

To

t h e s e e n d s , d u t i e s on a g r i c u l t u r a l f o o d s t u f f s w e r e k e p t
a t h ig h l e v e l s to o r o t e c t dom estic p r o d u c t i o n .

L ikew ise,

d u t i e s on c o n s u m p t i o n g o o d s , w e r e a l s o p l a c e d a t h i g h
l e v e l s t o s t i m u l a t e t h e d om estic p r o d u c t i o n o f such i te m s .
T a r i f f s on t h o s e i t e m s w h i c h w e r e n o t p r o d u c e d i n t h e

country,

b u t h a d a r e l a t i v e l y i n e l a s t i c demand, s u c h a s c o f f e e emd

•*-®This i n c r e a s e of 1 5 6 . 6 p e r c e n t i n t a r i f f s i s b a s e d
on t h e p e r c e n t a g e d e c r e a s e i n t h e v a l u e o f t h e p a p e r l i r a
m te rm s of t h e g o l d l i r a s in c e 1929.

139

t e a , were p l a c e d

a t even h ig h erle v e ls fo r revenue p u r­

poses.

c a p i t a l goods,

R a t e s on

and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e q u i p ­

m ent, w hich c o n t r i b u t e d i n d e v e lo p in g l o c a l i n d u s t r i e s ,
were i n s i g n i f i c a n t .

A l l a g r i c u l t u r a l i m p l e m e n t s and s u p ­

p l i e s u s e d i n p r o d u c t i o n were e n t i r e l y e x e m p t f r o m d u t y .
L i k e w i s e , . a n i m a l s t o be u s e d f o r i m p r o v i n g o r p r o p a g a t i n g
t h e b r e e d s w e r e a l s o f r e e of d u t y .
Fro m t h i s a n a l y s i s i t
be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e
a s t h e d u t i e s on
item s;

ap p ears t h a t T u rk ish t a r i f f s can

types:

(1) r e v e n u e t a r i f f s

such

c o f f e e , t e a , c o c a a , s u g a r , and l u x u r y

(2) t h e p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s ,

s u c h a s t h e k ey i n ­

d u s t r y d u t i e s and s a f e g u a r d i n g d u t i e s ;

and

(3 ) t h e p r e ­

f e r e n t i a l t a r i f f s w h ic h w e re l e v i e d a t l o w e r r a t e s ,

such

a s t h o s e on c a p i t a l g o o d s , or on t h o s e g o o d s g i v e n f r e e
entrance,

such a s a g r i c u l t u r a l im p lem en ts.

From t h e s e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s o f T u r k i s h t a r i f f s
i s a p p ro p ria te to p ass t o

it

a b r i e f , a n a l y s i s of the r a t e s

on some s e l e c t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d i t i e s .
A lth o u g h the T u rk is h t a r i f f p o l i c y was s t r i c t l y
p r o t e c t i o n i s t i n c h a r a c te r , a g r i c u l t u r e , w ith the excep­
t i o n o f a f;~w p r o d u c t s , w a s a f f o r d e d l i t t l e

p ro tectio n .

Tliis was b e c a u s e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n w a s e i t h r
s e lf-s u ffie ie n c y or export.

for

T h us m o s t o f t h e d u t i e s on

a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s m ight be c o n s id e r e d n o m in a l.

Never­

t h e l e s s , t h e y w o u l d be s i g n i f i c a n t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t
th e y i n d ic a t e d th e p r o t e c t i o n i s t i n t e n t of the T urkish

140

tariffs.

On p r o d u c t s s u c h a s w h e s t ,

sugar, bananas,

and l e m o n s t a r i f f s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t .
On p r a c t i c a l l y a l l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s p r o d u c e d
in the c o u n try th e r e i s a high t a r i f f .

Some i d e a of t h e

T u r k i s h t a r i f f s may b e g a i n e d q u i c k l y f r o m an i n s p e c t i o n
o f T a b l e V£

T his t a b l e

a l s o r e p r e s e n t s a com parison of

T u r k i s h t a r i f f r a t e s , w h i c h w e r e i n f o r c e f r o m 1929 t o
1946 i n c l u s i v e , w i t h t h o s e i n . f o r c e a t t h e p r e s e n t .
c o n v e r s i o n o f d u t i e s p e r po u nd o r b u s h e l i s

■

A

shown i n t h e

l a s t colu m n o f t h e t a b l e f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e A m e r i c a n
readers.
As shown i n t h i s t a b l e t h e r a t e s e s t a b l i s h e d i n
1929 w ere a l l k e p t a t h i g h l e v e l s .

I n many c a s e s t h e

d u t i e s im p o s ed on some c o m m o d i t i e s w e r e h i g h e r t h a n t h e
n r i c e s p r e v a i l i n g f o r t h o s e c o m m o d i t i e s i n t h e c o u n t r y of
o rig in ,

-^'or ex am p le a v e r y h i g h t a r i f f , 300 l i r a s p e r
20
100 k i l o s (65 c e n t s a p o un d )
was i m p o s e d on p o r k m e a t s .
S i n c e t h e n um ber o f n o n - m o sle m s was v e r y s m a l l ( 3 1 8 , 4 2 1 i n
1 9 3 5 ) , a n d s i n c e t h e r e was p r a c t i c a l l y no h o g p r o d u c t i o n i n
the co u n try ,

it

i s hard to r e a l i z e t h e i r o b j e c t i v e in

l e v y i n g s u c h a h i g h t a r i f f on p o r k .

I t m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d

as a p r o h i b i t i v e t a r i f f r a t h e r th a n p r o t e c t i v e or revenue
raisin g ,

v / it h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f wool a n a h i d e s , t a r i f f s

on a l l o t h e r l i v e s t o c k o r o d u c t s w e re h i g h l y p r o t e c t i v e i n

^ O n e T u r k i s h l i r a was e q u a l t o 48 c e n t s i n 1 9 2 9 .

141

Table V I I :

T u r k i s h I m p o r t D u t i e s on A g r i c u l t u r a l C o m m o d itie s
i n 1929 and 1 9 4 6 .
( D u t i e s a s l i r a s p e r 100 k i l o s )
1929

A n im a l - p r o d u c t s .
Pork m eats
300.0
.Beef
50.0
C he es e
60.0
B utter
108.0
F ats
90.0
H i d e s and s k i n s ( d r i e d ) 4 8 . 0
L eather
150.0
Wool
25.0

1946
_

194-6 t a r i f f i n t e r m s
of d o lla r s

770.0
129.0
154.0
277.0
231.0
123.0
385.0
54.0

$1.22
.20
.25
.44
.3 7
.20
.61
.1 0

Wheat.

6.3

16.2

1.56

Wheat f l o u r
O a t s and. c o r n
Rye
B arley

9.6
4.5
4.0
4 .0

24.4
11.5
1 0 .S
10.3

4.70
1.10
.53
.5 3

R a i s i n s and f i g SS27.5
(dried,

70.6

.12

18.0
30.0
10.0
80.0

46.2
77.0
25.7
205.3

4.40
.12
.04
.33

18.0
23.0
87.5
10.0
150.0
15.0

46.2
32.0
. 24.625.7
385.0
38.5

.07
.13
.36
.04
.6 1
.06

C ereals:

F ru its:

A;np l e s and p e a r s
Oranges
Lemons
Almonds ( s h e l l e d )

per lb .
n
»

b

ti

ti

ft

if

it

»»

It

w

»i

it

If

tt

bushel

n

it

ii

it

n

ti

ii

n

per lb .
a bushel
a lb.
ii

it

it

it

n

it

O ther com m odities.
Sugar
Coffee
Tea
Rubber
Tobac co
C otton

ti

ii

ii

ti

ii

ii

ii

it

n

ii

142

n a tu re .

Because

and m eat

p ro d u cts

of

such

item s

S in ce
cu ltu ral
tiv e
In

of

the

th ere

sin ce

of

th e

d u ty

(6 .3 0

per

100

was

w ere
the

p laced
p ric e s

th e

at
of

to

su lt

of

the

none

of

th ese

ta riff.

q u a n titie s

of

curred

after

fru its

w ere

exported

has been

needed

to

d ates,

im p o rts

th is

crop.

grow er fro m
at

per

a h ig h

100

d u ties
-

in w o rld

on c e r e a l s

im p o rted

fo reig n
lev el

D uty

($ 1 .5 6

on o t h e r

cere a ls

even h ig h e r
m ark ets.

and

sin ce

in. th e

As r e ­

cereal p ro d u cts

1930.

co u n try

th ere

of

lem ons

and v e r y

p rac tic a lly

no

im p o rt

of

was

d o m estic a lly ,
The

lem ons,

th at
and

only

d ates

th an

fru its

m any f r u i t s
th at

a few

bushel

in

T h is com pared w ith a t a r i f f
th e U nited S ta te s .

of

42

a

sm all

p rac tic a lly

fru its
ana

is

oc­
a ll

w ere

Turkey

tro p ical

fru its.

pi

on

k ilo s.

ex cep tio n

co u n try .

im p o rt w ere

of

ag ri­

p articu larly

a bushel)® *^

h ig h le v e ls

The r e a s o n

produced
the

w heat,

produced

the

1929.

from

no

1946.

for

ta riffs

t;ith

on d a i r y

o u tstan d in g

producers

lira s

p ro d u cts

On a l l - f r u i t s
h ig h

the

o r $ 1 .3 7

1 6 .2 0

ex trem ely

h ig h

been

T u rk ish w heat

9,

case

th ese

has

on w h e a t w as k e p t

on D ecem ber

As was

d u ties

G overnm ent h a s b e e n

k ilo s,

in creased

a b u sh el)

been

d o m estic

the

co m p etitio n

w heat

p rac tic a lly

the

the

o ro tect

lira s

have

w h eat-g ro w in g

on b e h a lf
to

high

1989.

en terp rise,

order

e x trem ely

cen ts

per

ac­

143

T h e r e were two r a t e s on l e m o n s , one h i g h and one
lo w .

The low r a t e

(3 l i r a s p e r 100 k i l o s ) w ere a p p l i c a b l e

f o r f i v e an d a h a l f m o n t h s e a c h y e a r - A p r i l 1 5 t h t h r o u g h
September 3 0 t h .

Im ports ta k in g olace d u rin g r e s t of the

y e a r were s u b j e c t t o a h ig h p r o t e c t i v e d u t y , t h a t i s ,
l i r a s p e r 100 k i l o s ,

£5.67'

(about 4 c e n ts a pound).

T a r i f f s on d a t e s and b a n a n a s w e r e k e p t a t o r o h i b i tib e le v e ls,

t h e new r a t e s b e i n g 6 1 . 6 0 and 1 4 3 . 7 3 l i r a s -

p e r 100 k i l o s r e s p e c t i v e l y .
I n o r d e r t o s t i m u l a t e and o r o t e c t d o m e s t i c i n d u s t r y
t h e T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t im p o s ed a d u t y of 18 l i r a s p e r 100
k i l o s , on s u g a r i n 1 9 £ S.

I n a d d i t i o n a c o n s u m p t i o n t a x of

10 o e r c e n t o f t h e v a l u e was a s s e s s e d i n 1 9 3 £ .

Duty on

s u g a r was i n c r e a s e d t o 4 6 . £ 0 l i r a s p e r 100 k i l o s

(7 c e n t s

a r o u n d ) i n 1 9 4 6 , t h u s g i v i n g A i r k e y one o f t h e h i g h e s t
d u t i e s on s u g a r i n t h e w o r l d .

Since th e dom estic p r o d u c tio n

d i d n o t m e e t t h e n e e d s o f t h e n a t i o n a h i g h t a r i f f on im­
p o rte d sugar caused ^ r ic e s to be very h ig h .

Because the

demand f o r s u g a r i s r e l a t i v e l y e l a s t i c a t l e a s t a t h i g h
p r i c e s , an i n c r e a s e i n p r i c e th ro u g h the t a r i f f

and c o n ­

sum ption t a x b ro u g h t a b o u t a l a r g e d e c r e a s e i n su g a r con­
sum ption.

As a c o n s e q u e n c e , T u r k e y s t i l l r e m a i n s one o f

t h e l o w e r s u g a r c on su m ing n a t i o n s i n t h e w o r l d .

22

^ I n 1946 p e r c a p i t a s u g a r c o n s u m p t i o n was 7 . 5
k ilo s.
T h i s c o m pared w i t h 47 k i l o s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
i n 1935-39.

144

S ince
a stic

demand,

h ig h er
lire

per

on t e a

is

one

of

phases

of

in

best

m ent has

5 1 .5 3

above

T u rk ish

d elib erately

n atio n al

w hich

defense

fectiv e

as

tec tiv e

d u rin g

g o v ern m en tal
In v iew

of

take

m ore

m easure.

of

c o n sid erab ly
of

0 .8 2

on

coffee

is

m o d erately

k ilo

(36

per

and

cen ts

a pound)

it

appears

of

co u n try .

ad o p ted

(36

cen ts

am ounted
a package)

p ro h ib itiv e .

law

th e

cig arettes

k ilo

ta riff

w ere

by

th at

n o t w ell
But

a p o licy

Q uotas

high

th e

of

th e

certain
d esig n ed
G overn­

econom ic

se lf-

co n sid eratio n

of

th ey

In f a c t,

to

d esire
of

m easures
o u o tas

d u rin g

d u ties

w ere

m eet

co n cern in g

b alan ce

im port

and L i c e n s i n g

sp ecific

b arriers,

effe c tiv e

a p p licatio n

lira s

c o n sisten t

a fav o rab le

a

in el­

d uty

tobacco

em ergencies

have

per

a t

The

pound)

lira s

a rela tiv e ly

and re v e n u e .

p o lic ie s

the

per

was i n s p i r e d

th e

trad e

purposes.

an aly sis

Im port

A lthough

p laced

d u tie s w ere

in te rests

su fficien cy

w ere

on l e a f

These

th e

have

the' h i g h e s t .

and

From t h e

the

2 .2 5

ta riffs

resp e c tiv e ly .

coffee

d u ties

cen ts

of

lira s

and

revenue

(12

duty

The
3 .8 5

for

k ilo

The

tee

th eir

lev el

h ig h .

to

both

w ere

not

th e

trad e,

req u irem en ts

a fte r
seem ed

econom ic

the
it

ef­

su fficie n tly

in te rn atio n a l
of

q u ite

1930.

of

trad e.

G overnm ent

fe lt

pro­

to

co m p elled
To t h i s

end

to

the

m ost

effectiv e

d e p re ssio n s.a n d

fin a n c ia l

to

be

the

145

c r i e f e s q u o t a s a r e more e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s of r e s t r i c ­
tio n s th an the
tariffs,

im port d u t i e s ;

t h e y a r e more f l e x i b l e t h a n

f o r t h e y may b e e m p l o y e d , o r c h a n g e d m e r e l y by

governm ent d e c r e e .

With t h i s i n m in d new l e g i s l a t i o n w a s

e n a c t e d on F e b r u a r y 23, 1931 g i v i n g t h e G ov e rn m e n t t h e
a u t h o r i t y to r e s t r i c t t h e

i m p o r t o f any com m odity by e s t a b ­

l i s h i n g i m p o r t q u o t a s f o r v a r i o u s a r t i c l e s , by p e r i o d s , and
b y c o u n t r i e s w h e n e v e r s u c h a c t i o n w ; s deemed n e c e s s a r y .
went i n t o e f f e c t f o r

It

t h e f i r s t t i m e on November 1 6 , 1 9 3 1 .

The q u o t a s y s t e m w a s , :" i n e f f e c t ,

a c o r o l l a r y of m e a s u r e s

t a k e n t o p r e s e r v e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e ‘T u r k i s h l i i t a .
With t h e d e c r e e of November 1 6 , 1931 t h e (Sov e m i n e n t
a n n o u n c e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f q u o t a s on a l o n g l i s t

of

m e r c h a n d i s e ' i t e m s f o r t h e m onth o f December of t h a t y e a r .
From. 193E u n t i l 1957 t h e q u o t a l i s t s w e r e i s s u e d e v e r y
t h r e e month's a b o u t 45 d a y s b e f o r e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p e r i o d
to which th e y r e f e r r e d .
The T u r k i s h q u o t a s y s t e m c l a s s i f i e d
in to fo u r groups,
tio n s,

(1) t h o s e f r e e

a l l im ports

of i m p o r t q u o t a r e s t r i c ­

i n c l u d i n g m a c h i n e r y and i m p l e m e n t s , p a c k i n g m a t e r i a l s

u se d i n t h e e x p o r t a t i o n of dom estic p r o d u c t s

(2) t h o s e

f o r which d e f i n i t e m o n th ly im p o rt q u o t a s were o r o v i d e d ,
including sugar, te a ,

coffee,

l e m o n s , c o t t o n , and w o o l e n

g o o d s , and l e a t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e s ;

(3) t h o s e w h ic h c o u l d b e

i m p o r t e d o n l y b y t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e m i n i s t e r of h e a l t h ,

146

in cluding m edicines,

chem icals, e t c . ,

end

(4 ) p r o h i b i t e d

im p o r ts , c h i e f l y a r t i c l e s n o t c o n s id e re d a s prime n e c e s s i ­
t y , t h a t i s , l u x u r y i te m s and a l l t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o ­
d u c ts o t h e r th a n th o s e m entioned above.
The q u o t a s y s t e m d e s c r i b e d a b o v e f e l l

s h o r t in c o n ­

t r o l l i n g i m p o r t s t o t h e e x t e n t d e s i r e d by t h e G o v e r n m e n t .
T h i s became e v i d e n t i n ' 1 9 3 2 , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e e x p o r t
i t e m s d r o p p e d i n t o t a l v a l u e and i m p o r t s h ad n o t b e e n s u f ­
f i c i e n t l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e q u o t a s y s t e m .

A ccordingly,

by a d e c r e e o f November £ 1 , 1 9 3 2 new q u o t a s w e r e i s s u e d
w h i c h f o l l o w e d t h e same g e n e r a l
vious p e r io d s .

system a s th o s e f o r p r e ­

The new f e a t u r e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s d e c r e e

was t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a l i c e n s i n g s y s t e m .

This de­

c re e p r o v i d e d t h a t a l l i m p o r t e r s must f i r s t o b t a i n a l i ­
c e n s e i n o r d e r t o i m p o r t a n y of t h e p r o d u c t s d e s i g n a t e d
in th e l i s t su b je c t to lic e n s in g requirem ents.

I t fixed

q u o t a s on c o t t o n f a b r i c s among t h e c o u n t r i e s o f o r i g i n
in p r o p o r tio n to Turkey’ s e x p o r ts to th o se c o u n t r i e s .

The

d e c r e e a l s o p r o v i d e d t h e a l l o c a t i o n of q u o t a s among v a r i o u s
c o u n trie s exporting r i c e ,

glassw are, paper p ro d u cts,

and

i r o n and s t e e l p r o d u c t s , on t h e b a s i s o f c o m p e n s a t i o n e x ­
p o r ts to those c o u n tr ie s .
I n A p r i l 1933 t h e G o v e r n m e n t a n n o u n c e d new q u o t a s .
T h i s t i m e e m p h a s i s was p l a c e d p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e compensa­
to ry trade f e a tu r e .

The T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s u p o n w h i c h s p e c i a l

e m p h a s i s was g i v e n i n c o m p e n s a t i n g f o r

i m p o r t s w e re f i g s ,

147

o liv es

and

m ohair,

o liv e

v alo n ia,

The

th e

and f o llo w e d
tio n a l

and

S in ce

im proved,

raisin s,

opium ,

n uota

Ju ly 1937.
had

o ils,

a tta r

of

lic e n sin g

the

h azeln u ts,
roses,

sy stem s

co n d itio n s

in

m ore

ana

liv e

was i n

a ll

lite ra l

force

these

p o licy

n u ts,

an im als.

in tern atio n al

G overnm ent l i f t e d

a somewhat

p ista c h io

u n til

trad e

restric tio n s

tow ard

in te rn a ­

trad e.

Im p o rt M o n o p o lies

Perhaps
may m a i n t a i n
In f a c t,
of
ing

p ric e s

q u o tas.
trad e

at

some

a 'lo w e r

Q uotas a r e
to

by p u rc h a sin g

pru sue

may

m ore

a governm ent

of

co n tro l.

m o n o p o listic

ach iev e

a p recise

haphazard.

.lin e

of

on a p r ic e

im p o rtan t

a g ricu ltu ral

form

m ethod by w h ich

a d m in istrativ e

th e

stric tly

The m o s t
th e

is

p o sitiv e

im p o rt m o n o p o lies

p ro te c tio n

p erm it

th e m ost

cost

are

th e

im pos­

’ M o n o p o lies

q u ality

im p o rt m o n o p o lies

com m odities

th an by

co m parative
and

degree,

sugar,

can

ad v an tag e
b a sis.

d ealin g
and

w ith

alco h o l

m o n o p o lies.

S u g ar M onopoly:

By
given

com ole t e

p o rta tio n
to

be

a law

d ated

January

m onopoly

by

th is

19 26

the

on t ! e m a n u f a c t u r e ,

and e x p o r t a t i o n

a tta in e d

25,

of. s u g a r .

leg isla tio n

G overnm ent w as
refin in g ,

The p r im a r y
w ere

to

im ­

o b jectiv es

orom ote

and

to

148

p ro te c t

the

d o m estic

im p o rts.

Under t h i s

surer

surar

of

and

law

p lace

sig n

is
the

to

A lcohol

o p ice

th e

charge

In

syrup,

S tate

to

fix

is

to

the

and

refin ed ,
beverages

p ro d u cts,

also
and

of

in

h is

The.
at

has

to

d istric t

end w hat

au th o rized
p ro fits

e tc .,

b eets

Each g row er

cu ltiv a te d

sugar

reg u late

sw eeten ed

r' r i c e s

season.

be

to

s u g a r m onopoly.

sugar r e f in e r y

im p o rted

alco h o l
19 2 6

it

of

its

the

the
to

sp irito u s

may m o d if y

the

raw m a t e r i a l s ,
in d u stries.

of

m onopoly w as

to

its

to

v ariety

to

fix

d e a le rs.

by

th is

up

on

an o r g a n i z a t i o n

of

P o lish

of

in

the

M o n o p o lies
S ince

beer,
of

law ,

se ll,

and w in e.

th eir

has been

or oduc t s , n o t a b l y f o r

th e

im p o rt

alco h o l

arid m a y c o n t r o l
power

S tate

fu lfill

June

then

1,

term s

took
alco h o l

dep artm en t.

m anu factu re,
liq u o rs,

to

1927.

a lc o h o l m onopoly

q u a n titie s

T his

set

failu re

D epartm ent

ad m in istratio n

au th o rity

f o r . f arm

was g iv e n

co n tro lled

Under

alco h o l

d istillin g

B ecause

co n tract

has been

th e

raw

co n fectio n ary

The m o n o p o ly i s
of

d istille rie s.
of

th e

as

of

and

m o n o p o ly :

The
.19 2.5.

w ith

grow n.

cost

and

gjjow ing

how m uch l a n d

be

im p o rts

rid er t h e

of each

in d u stry ,

such

the. m o n o p o ly

a co n tract

show ing

the

co n ten t,

only

au th o rized

the. b e g i n n i n g

law

beet

p ro d u cts,

n o n -alco h o lic

can ta k e

sugar

m onopoly
and

used

grapes.

to

export

a ll

The m o n o p o ly

m ade f r o m
use

has

by th e

sp ecified
consum ing

in flu en ce

the

m arket

149

secure
the

The p r im a r y

purpose

revenue

the

for

m o n o p o l y wo

tax es,

such a s

tab lish ed

Id
in

be

o b jectiv es

d u ctio n

of

alco h o l

present

tim e

th e

alco h o l

G overnm ent.
m ore

the

of

effe c tiv e

U n ited

y ield in g
has

b eliev ed
a

sy stem

A lth o u g h

d ev elo p m en t

crops

been

was

than

S ta te s.

in clu d ed th e

n o th in g

It

m onopoly w a s

in

done

th e

to

es­

the

co u n try ,

th is

end by

Ev a
was

decree

C o n tro l

of

au th o rized

A p ril
to

(G overnm ent

co n tro lled

jec tiv e s

th e

of

th is

Im port
th e

e sta b lish

of

goods

Turkey

do u b ted ly
ic

also

have

The

im p o rts,

goods.

firm s

Com­

and

to

Under t h i s

h av in g
and

ob­

an

then

Act

im p o rt
only

con­

l i ­

w ith

th e

R e stric tio n s

on i m p o r ts

an im al an d p la n t

sh o u ld

fa c ilita te

in to

of

union.

R e strictio n s

p e sts

M in istry

im p o rte r’ s un io n s,

com m ercial

S an itary

d o m estic

the

im p o r te r s ’ m o n o p o lies).

im p o rted

m erchants and

Im p o rts

1940

sales

only

of

3,

to

p ric e s, and

could

of

law w ere

tro l

consent

to

—

W ar-tim e

cense

pro­

up

m onopoly.

m erce

th at
of

its
of

to

life

in to

p ro tect

from h arm fu l d is e a s e s

b e m en tio n ed .

im p o rtan t

Turkey t o

e ffe c ts

Such r e s t r i c t i o n s
upon

the

co u n try ’s

and

un­
econom ­

life .

The
p ro d u cts

sa n ita ry

are

based

req u irem en ts
on

leg isla tio n

w ith r e g a r d
passed

on

to

a g ric u ltu ra l

January

29,

1936.

150

T h i s A c t e s t a b l i s h e d r e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n t r o l of t h e
i m p o r t and e x p o r t t r a d e i n a l l p l a n t and a n i m a l p r o d u c t s .
It

enforced q u ara n tin e r e g u l a ti o n s in order to prevent the

i n t r o d u c t i o n of c e r t a i n a n i m a l and p l a n t d i s e a s e s and p e s t s
i n th e c o u n t r y .

A l l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s and l i v e a n i m ­

a l s w ere s u b j e c t t o i n s p e c t i o n a n d q u a r a n t i n e a t th e p o r t
of en try .

The i m p o r t a t i o n o f p l a n t and . l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t s

m u s t b e a c c o m p a n i e d . by b o t h s h i p p e r s and i n s p e c t o r ’ s c e r ­
t i f i c a t e s g u a r a n t e e in g freedom from c e r t a i n d i s e a s e s .
exam ple,

lem ons e n t e r i n g

For

t h e c o u n t r y m u s t be f r e e f r o m

C h r y s o m p h a l u s astnidum (The F l o r i d a r e d s c a l e ) ,

and f r o m

c o tt o n y c u sh io n s c a l e , g r a p e s fro m p h y l l o x e r a , c o t t o n from
23
p l a t y e d r a g o s c y p i e l l a an d an th o n o m u s g r a n d i s .
I n o r d e r t o n r e v e n t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of d i s e a s e s
and p e s t s i n t h e c o u n t r y t h e Government s e t up an o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n i n I s t a n b u l , I z m i r , M e r s i n , I s k e n d e r o n , a nd Samsun.
E n t r y of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s i n t o T u r k e y c a n t a k e p l a c e
only through th e s e p o r t s .
The m o s t i m p o r t a n t - r e s t r i c t i o n i s t h a t i f a d i s e a s e
i s o b s e r v e d i n one p a r t of a s h i p m e n t t h e e n t i r e s h i p m e n t
may b e r e t u r n e d .

E x c e p t f o r t h i s t h e r e h a s n o t b e e n amy

e f f o r t to use t h e s e r e g u l a t i o n s a s a d d i t i o n a l i n t e r f e r e n c e s
w i t h t h e i m p o r t of g o o d s .

23

1941.

Bodenheim er, F . S.
pp. 99-101.

T urkiye E n t o m o l o j i s i , Ankara,

151

CHAPTER X III
THE EXCHANGE CONTROL MEASURES
E x c h a n g e c o n t r o l h a s b e e n t h e m ain i n s t r u m e n t f o r
t h e r e g u l a t i o n of f o r e i g n t r a d e of T u r k e y s i n c e 1 9 3 0 .

A ll

o th e r m easu res, such a s im p o rt q u o ta s , im p o rt l i c e n s i n g ,
clearin g ,

and c o m p e n s a t i o n s y s t e m s were c o r o l l a r y m e a s u r e s

ta k e n to s t a b i l i z e the v a lu e of T u rk is h c u r r e n c y .

24

T h e r e W'.re v a r i o u s f a c t o r s w h ic h l e d t h e Government
to ta k e v e r y s t r i c t m e a s u re s o v e r the c o u n t r y ’ s c u r r e n c y .
In the f i r s t p la c e ,

t h e s t r o n g demand f o r f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e

t o p a y f o r t h e h u g e e x c e s s of i m p o r t s o f 101 m i l l i o n l i r a s
i n 1929 h a d b r o u g h t a b o u t a s h a r p d e c l i n e i n t h e v a l u e o f
the ru rk ish l i r a .

A s e c o n d f a c t o r was t h e a d o p t i o n o f a

s t r i c t l y p r o t e c t i o n i s t p o l i c y which r e q u i r e d th e

im porta­

t i o n o f t h o s e g o o d s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e e c o n o m ic l i f e o f t h e
co untry.

S t i l l a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n was a

s t r o n g and e s t a b l i s h e d d e s i r e f o r a f a v o r a b l e b a l a n c e of
t r a d e \vith w hich t o r e d u c e t h e

co un try ’ s f o re ig n d e b t.

F i n a ll y a f u r t h e r f a c to r i n tak in g s t r i c t c o n tro l over
c u r r e n c y in Turkey was t h e r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r d e c l i n e i n
p r i c e s of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s t h a n i n p r i c e s of i n d u s t ­
r i a l goods b e g in n in g in 1929.

24

A ll th ese c o n sid e ra tio n s

Among t h e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s c o n s u l t e d i n p r e p a r i n g
t h i s c h a p t e r , D e c r e e s Nos. 1 - 1 3 r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f
t h e v a l u e o f T u r k i s h c u r r e n c y ; D i s T i c a r e t M e v z u a t i m i z ve
T a t b i k a t i , p p . 2 7 7 - 3 0 7 , by A b d u l h a l i k I n d e r e ; and T u r k i y e
B i s T i c a r e t i , p p . 6 5 - 6 8 , b y Kenan A k m a n la r p r o v e d t o be
invaluable a id .

152

(facto rs)

l e d t h e Government t o p a s s l e g i s l a t i o n known a s

t h e lav; f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e v a l u e o f T u r k i s h c u r ­
rency.

I t was e n a c t e d on F e b r u a r y 25, 1 9 3 0 .
The A c t p r o h i b i t e d

sp ecu latio n

I t provided t h a t f o r e ig n s e c u r i t i e s

in

fo reig n

exchange.

c o u l d n o t be t a k e n o u t

of t h e c o u n t r y u n l e s s p e r m i s s i o n was g i v e n by t h e M i n i s t r y
of F in a n c e .

No f u n d s c o u l d be t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o f o r e i g n c u r ­

r e n c ie s w ith o u t se cu rin g an exchange nerrnit.

The e x c h a n g e

r e q u i r e d t o p a y f o r i m p o r t s c o u l d be s e c u r e d o n l y a f t e r t h e
p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a b i l l o f l a d i n g a nd t h e i n v o i c e .

I n some

c a s e s p e r m i s s i o n was g i v e n a f t e r t h e i m p o r t s a r r i v e d a t
the u o r t .
In o rd e r to c re a te a re s e rv e of f o r e ig n c u rre n c y
f r o m w h ic h t h e de mands o f i m p o r t e r s c o u l d b e m e t , a c e n ­
t r a l p o o l c o n s i s t i n g of i m p o r t a n t n a t i o n a l and f o r e i g n
b a n k s was f o r m e d on March 2 4 , 1 9 3 0 .

The c e n t r a l c o o l was

a l s o i n t e n d e d t o r e g u l a t e t h e demand f o r and s u p p l y o f
f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e by s e l l i n g and b u y i n g f o r e i g n s e c u r i t i e s
on t h e e x c h a n g e m a r k e t , and t h u s t o m i n i m i s e t h e f l u c t u a ­
tio n s

in th e v a lu e of the T urkish l i r a .

The l a w f u r t h e r

p ro v id e d t h a t a l l th e f o r e i g n exchange r e c e i v e d from ab ro a d
i n p a y m e n t f o r T u r k i s h e x p o r t s h ad t o b e s o l d t o t h i s
noibl.

F u rth e rm o re , e x p o r t e r s were f o r b id d e n t o e x te n d

c r e d i t t o f o r e i g n e r s w i t h o u t t h e e x p r e s s ,'> e r m i s s i o n of
the M i n i s t r y o f F in a n c e .

No e x c h a n g e t j o u l d be o b t a i n e d

f o r the i m p o r t a t i o n of n o n - e s s e n t i a l p r o d u c t s which were
l i s t e d i n each quota

erio d .

E s s e n t i a l im o o rts such a s

153

c a p i t a l g o o d s were exem p t f r o m e x c h a n g e r e s t r i c t i o n s .
I n most c a s e s , hcw ever, c e r t a i n i t e m s such a s f e r t i l i z e r ,
a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e s , and s u p p l i e s w e r e g i v e n p r i o r i t y .
The p o o l c a r r i e d ou t

i t s f u n c tio n s u n t i l the e s ­

t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e C e n t r a l Bank of T u r k e y on O c t o b e r 3 ,
1951.

T h e-B ank t o o k o v e r the d u t i e s of t h e p o o l , a n d b e ­

came t h e s o l e f i s c a l a g e n t o f t h e G o v e r n m e n t .

I t was

a u t h o r i z e d t o i s s u e n o t e s , r e g u l a jS e t h e money m a r k e t and
money c i r c u l a t i o n ,

ana t o p r e p a r e , w i t h t h e G o v e r n m e n t ,

the m easu res n e c e s s a r y to s t a b i l i z e th e v a lu e of the l i r a .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o v e m e a s u r e s w h i c h were a l l
d e s i g n e d t o p r o t e c t t h e v a l u e of t h e l i r a t h r o u g h c o n t r o l ­
l i n g th e flo w of exchange f o r t h e p u rp o s e of h av in g a
f a v o r a b l e b a l a n c e of t r a d e , t h e Government t o o k some c o m p l e ­
m entary m easu res.

Of t h e s e m e a s u r e s t h e a d o p t i o n o f t a r i f f s ,

i m p o r t p u o t a s and i m p o r t l i c e n s i n g h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n men­
tioned.

The c l e a r i n g and c o m p e n s a t i o n a g r e e m e n t s w i l l b e

analyzed in th e n e x t s e c tio n .
A doption of th e s e v a rio u s c o n t r o l m easures were
s u c c e s s f u l i n r e d u c i n g t h e volume o f i m p o r t s , a n d m a i n ­
t a i n i n g an a c t i v e b a l a n c e o f t r a d e d u r i n g m o s t of t h e y e a r s
s in c e 1930.

o p

25

See T ab le I ,
T rade o f T u r k e y .

p a g e 6 5 , The B a l a n c e o f f o r e i g n

154

Currency D ev alu atio n
D e v a lu a tio n had been c o n s i s t e n t l y avoided u n t i l
t h e o u t b r e a k o f '.7o r I d Y/ar I I i n 1 9 5 9 ,

I n f a c t , t h e m a in

o b j e c t i v e o f t h e l a w p a s s e d i n 1930 f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f
the v a l u e of the

T u r k i s h c u r r e n c y was t o p r e v e n t t h e l i r a

from b e in g d e p r e c i a t e d .

Ho w ever, one may w o n d e r how T u r ­

key m a in ta in e d th e v a lu e of h e r c u rre n c y a t h ig h l e v e l s
w h i l e many of t h e n a t i o n s d e v a l u a t e d t h e i r
in the t h i r t i e s .

currencies

I n the f i r s t p l a c e , i t w i l l b e remem­

b e r e d from the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n t h a t s p e c u l a t i o n in f o r e i g n
e x c h a n g e was p r o h i b i t e d .

The v a l u e of t h e l i r a was k e p t

a t t h e r a t e of 47 c e n t s i n 1 9 5 0 .
l i r a was t i e d to

sterlin g

I n A u g u s t of 1 9 5 1 , t h e

a t t h e r a t e of 10.51 l i r a s t o

a p o u n d , t h e e q u i v a l e n t of 4 7 . 2 c e n t s .

When t h e u n i t e d

Kingdom a b a n d o n e d t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d o n S e p t e m b e r 2 1 , 1 9 3 1 ,
t h e T u r k i s h l i r a was t i e d t o t h e f r a n c a t an e x c h a n g e r a t e
of o n e l i r a t o 12 f r a n c s .

Thus i n w o r l d e x c h a n g e m a r k e t s t h e

r a t e o f th e l i r a f l u c t u a t e d w ith the f r a n c .
f r a n c was p e g g e d t o g o l d ,

th e v a r i a t i o n i n exchange r a t e s

was l i m i t e d w i t h i n t h e g o l d p o i n t s .
of t h e f r a n c wer<

S in c e the

I n t h i s way, i f t h e v a l u e

t o i n c r e a s e i n t e r m s of t h e d o l l a r , o r

o th e r c u rr e n c ie s pegged to g o ld , the l i r a
c r e a s e a t t h e same r a t e .

a l s o w o u ld i n ­

T h i s h a p p e n e d i n 19 53 when t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o h i b i t e d t h e e x p o r t a t i o n o f g o l d o f any
kind.

As a r e s u l t

o f t h i s p r o h i b i t i o n on g o l d e x p o r t ,

th e exchange r a t e of th e d o l l a r d e c re a s e d i n term s o f the
f r a n c , and a l s o in te rm s of th e l i r a

t h e new r a t e

155

b eing 6 0.4 c e n ts to the l i r a .

Vixen t h e U n i t e d s t a t e s d e ­

v a l u e d h e r c u r r e n c y f r o m $21 an o u n c e t o y35 an o u n c e ,
o r a d e c r e a s e o f 41 n e r c e n t , on J a n u a r y 3 1 , 1 9 3 4 , t h e e x ­
ch an g e r a t e o f t h e f r a n c end o f t h e l i r a was i n c r e a s e d .
Thus t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e o f t h e T u r k i s h l i r a i n c r e a s e d t o
79 c e n t s i n 1 9 3 4 .

”h e n F r a n c e d e v a l u e d h e r c u r r e n c y i n

S e p t e m b e r o f 1936 t h e l i r a was d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e f r a n c ,
and m a i n t a i n e d a t i t s

previous r a t e

f one l i r a

to about

80 c e n t s u n t i l 1 9 4 0 .

Ho w ever, t h i s s t a b i l i t y i n t h e v a l u e

o f T u r k i s h c u r r e n c y d i d n o t mean t h a t t h e demand a n d s u p ­
p l y c o n d i t i o n s w e r e i n :-n e q u i l i b r i u m .

I t was

rim arily

th e r e s u l t of th e a d o p ti o n o f th e c l e a r i n g sy stem of t r a d e
w h i c h l e s s e n e d t h e u s e o f money t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , the* p o s i t i o n o f t h e l i r a

in the ex­

c h a n g e m a r k e t i m p r o v e d a s t h e C e n t r a l Hank o f T u r k e y i n ­
creased i t s gold r e s e r v e s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s Turkey had b e e n

f a c e d w i t h many d i f f i c u l t i e s when s h e t r a d e d w i t h t h o s e
c o u n t r i e s w h ich r e q u i r e d P aym ents i n f r e e e x c h a n g e .

Thus,

f o r exam ple, i n t r a d i n g w ith th e " n i t e d S t a t e s o r th e U n ited
Kingdom t h e i s s u i n g o f e x c h a n g e p e r m i t s was s u s p e n d e d
u n t i l T u r k e y h a d s u f f i c i e n t amount o f e x c h a n g e a v a i l a b l e .
I n some c a s e s i m p o r t s f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w e r e compen­
s a t e d f o r by e x p o r t s o f T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s .
A f t e r t h e o u t b r e a k o f World War I I ,

i n 1939, Turkey

c o u l d no l o n g e r m a i n t a i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e l i r a w i t h f r e e
exchange c o u n t r i e s .

The v a l u e o f t h e l i r a w a s r e d u c e d

s l i g h t l y f r o m 80 c e n t s t o 76 c e n t s i n A u g u s t o f 1 9 3 9 .

But,

156

s i n c e t h i s r a t e w as s t i l l h ig h Turkey t r a d e d v e r y l i t t l e w ith
f r e e exchange c o u n t r i e s .

R ath er th an d ev alu ate the l i r a

f u r t h e r t h e Government a d o p t e d t h e premium s y s t e m f o r t r a d ­
ing w ith f r e e exchange c o u n t r i e s - n o ta b ly w i t h th e United
S t a t e s and th e G r e a t B r i t a i n .
U n d e r t h i s s y s t e m e x p o r t e r s w e r e g i v e n a prem ium o f
25 p e r c e n t o n e x p o r t s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h i l e i m o o r t e r s
w e r e c h a r g e d 3 8 . 5 p e r c e n t on p u r c h a s e o f d o l l a r e x c h a n g e .
T h u s , f o r U n i t e d S t a t e s i m p o r t e r s t h e p u r c h a s i n g power of
th e d o l l a r i n c r e a s e d from 1 .3 0 l i r a s t o 1 .6 2 5 l i r a s .

Where­

as f o r th e T u rk is h i m p o r te r t h e r a t e of l i r a d e c r e a s e d
f r o m 76 c e n t s t o 55 c e n t s .
The amount o f p r e m iu m s t o b o t h e x p o r t e r s and im­
p o r t e r s was c h a n g e d s e v e r a l t i m e s .
intended to in c re a s e e x p o rts ,

The premium s y s t e m w a s

and w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f

com pensation agreem ents to in c r e a s e im p o rts .

At t h e same

t i m e p r i c e c o n t r o l s w e r e p l a c e d on i m p o r t e d p r o d u c t s .
i t m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d a s a p r i c e

So

s t a b i l i z a t i o n m easure

r a t h e r th a n a n exchange r e g u l a t i n g m easure.
N eith er t h is

system nor o t h e r p r i c e c o n t r o l m easures

worked o u t s u c c e s s f u l l y .

The g e n e r a l p r i c e l e v e l r e a c h e d

a b o u t 450 p e r c e n t i n 1944 and a t t h e e nd o f 1945 i t r e m a i n e d
a t a b o u t 350 p e r c e n t com pare d w i t h 1938 a s 1 0 0 .

Due t o

th e h ig h exchange r a t e of th e l i r a , and h ig h p r i c e s a t
home, e x p o r t s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s a l m o s t s t o p p e d d u r i n g

157

f i r s t h a l f o f 1 9 46 .

U n de r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e T u r k i s h

Go v ern m ent f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o d e v a l u e h e r c u r r e n c y oil
Septem ber 7, 1946.

The new e x c h a n g e ■r a t e w a s f i x e d a t 2 . 8 2

l i r a s to one d o l l a r - t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n b e i n g 41 p e r c e n t .
The i m m e d i a t e e f f e c t o f t h e d e p r e c i a t i o n was a m a r k e d i n ­
c r e a s e i n e x p o r t t r a d e due t o t h e d e c l i n e i n p r i c e s of
T u rk ish p ro d u c ts in term s of f o r e i g n c u r r e n c i e s ; w hile
t h e r e was a s u b s t a n t i a l d r o p i n i m p o r t t r a d e b e c a u s e of
t h e i n c r e a s e i n p r i c e s of i m p o r t e d g o o d s i n t e r m s of
T urkish currenc v i n 1947.
At p r e s e n t T u r k e y i s a member- i n t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
M onetary Fund.

T h u s , T u r k i s h ■e x c h a n g e p o l i c i e s a r e t i e d

t o the p o l i c i e s

s e t by t h e F u n d , w h i c h h a s u n d e r t a k e n t o

p r o m o te e x c h a n g e s t a b i l i t y and t o a v o i d c o m p e t i t i v e e x ­
change d e p r e c i a t i o n .

I t a ls o has a u t h o r i t y to f i x ex­

c h a n g e r a t e s of t h e member c o u n t r i e s , a n d t o a s s i s t i n t h e
r e m o v a l o f f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t hamper w o r l d
trad e.

158

A
CHAPTER X I V
OTHER I33ASURES REGULATING TRADE

C learin g

Perhaps
fo reig n
in

trad e

her

trad e

sy stem

of

one

of

p o licies

was

trie s

during:

the

trie s

t"

clearin g

use

L ooking

im port

was th e

th irtie s.

back

in

in

195.3.

the

19131,26
Th e

p refo ren tia l

treatm en t

high

on p r o d u c t s

ta riffs

The U n i t e d
est

S tates

ta riffs

q uota

sy stem ,

cu ltu ral

tu re,

in

its
and

pro d u cts

by

clearin g

agreem ents

co u n tries.

are

th at

T his

led

many

th irtie s;

G reat

p o licy

B rita in

and in tro d u c e d

O ttow a

agreem ent

of

o th er

H aw ley-S m oot A ct
France

san itary

b eg in n in g

in

87

League of n a tio n s ,
1943, p . 17.

1933 p ro v id e d

Common H e a l t h

im p o rted from

29

n atio n s,

n atio n s.

ad o p ted

in tro d u ced

reg u latio n s

1931.

coun­

aban­

on many a g r i c u l t u r a l

the

coun­

v ario u s.

30

In

2 6 K a r l E r a h d t , The R e c o n s t r u c t i o n
S ta n fo rd U n iv e rsity , 1945, p . 83.

Geneva,

T u rk ish

b y many E u ro p e a n

The c a u s e s

trad e

of

q u o tas

h isto ry .
stric t

of

ad o p ted

among

the

featu re

certain

agreem ents

at

P7

use

w ith

w id ely

tra d itio n al free

d u ties

p roducts

o u tstan d in g

rela tio n sh ip s

trad in g

doned h e r

th e

S ystem

Q u an titativ e

th e
an

and

23
h ig h -

im port

on many

ag ri-

G erm any e v e r y

of

W orld A g r i c u l ­

T rade

C o n tro ls,

g o

L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s , C om m ercial P o l i c y
war P e r io d , Geneva, 1942, p. 71.
29

p o licy ,

Op.

c i t . , Q u an titativ e

L a w r e n c e W. T o w l e ,
H a y e r and B r o t h e r s ,

Trade

in

C o n tro l,

In te rn atio n a l
1947, p. 432.

trad e

the

p.

Injfeer-

13.

ana

com m ercial

159

fo reig n
a

trad e

t r e n s a c t i on was

cen tralized

o rg an izatio n .

c o n tr o l m e a su res w ere
Europe,
land,
and

in clu d in g

G reece,

came
got

d e fin ite ly

to

under way.

tic a lly

for

e c onomi c

B u lg aria,

Thus

an

it

was

how ever,

co u n tries .

ag ric u ltu ra l

S ta te s,
tie s

k ish
joyed

France,

needed

n ish es

of

th e

p ro d u cts

becam e

pro d u cts
and

the

c o u n tries

w orld

of

in

F in ­

Y u g o slav ia,

in te rn atio n a l

trad e

p ro tectio n ism

trad e

f rom i t s n a t u r a l

in

in

th ese

of
to

of- t h e

such

France

co u n tries

th e

32

shrank

dras­

e n d mo-st

e ffe c ts

G reat

T able

the

and

th eir

V on p a g e

on

B rita in

did

on

sm all

the

sam e.

in

m ark ets,
im p o rts

sm all

ag ricu l­

the

gre?t
of

big

ex p o rts
U nited

d iffic u l­

in d u stria l

Turkey

fu r­

co u n tries.

co tto n ,

and

T ur­

fru its

and F r a n c e .
same

of

th eir

K ingdom ,

econom ies.

w ool,

im -o rtin g

League of N atio n s,
1944, pp. 162-172.
See

for

th eir

p o lic ie s

d e c lin es

u n ited

p ay in g

31

32

trad e

burden

sharp

as m o h air,
in

iu

p ro tected

d ev elo p in g

E n gland b e g a n

v a s t em pire.

a great

o th er

a good m a rk e t

Geneva,

of

exchange

D enm ark,

S p ain ,

a new e r a

change

Because

an e x a m p le

how ever,

to

era

and

d iv erted

we.re e x p e r i e n c e d

goods

of

of

ch an n els.

n atio n s,

of

go ld en

end,

a num ber

N orw ay,

c o n tro l

fo reig n

C zech o slo v ak ia,

C o n seq u en tly

The e f f e c t s

tu ral

by

Ita ly ,

the

under the

F u rth erm o re,

ad o p ted

G erm any,

T u rk e y .^

brought

en­

A fter

a rticles

1950,

from , h e r

Thus

T u rk ish

ex p o rts

d o m in io n s

dropped

sh arp ly .

In te rn atio n a l

99.

C urrency E x p e rie n c e ,

160

In th e f a c e of t h i s s i t u a t i o n Turkey chose to seek o t h e r
m arkets f o r h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p o r t s .
I n t h e m e a n ti m e Germany was t o o b u s y t r y i n g t o
f i n d r e m e d i e s f o r u n e m p l o y m e n t , t o s e a r c h new o u t l e t s and
so u rces of sup p ly .

.YJmth’ t h e r i s e

o f H i t l e r i n 19 2 3, G e r ­

many a d o p t e d a n e x t e n s i v e p r o g r a m f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a
t o t a l w ar.

T h i s p r o g r a m r e n u i r e d l a r g e am o un ts of r a w

m a t e r i a l s and f o o d s t u f f s .

C onsequently h e r tra d e p o lic y

was d i r e c t e d f i r s t and f o r e m o s t t o t h e s e e n d s .

In her

new t r a d e p o l i c y Germany n o t o n l y s o u g h t t h o s e c o u n t r i e s
w h ic h w e r e w i l l i n g to

s e l l raw m a t e r i a l s and p u r c h a s e

i n d u s t r i a l g o o d s , b u t a l s o t h o s e whose c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
would n o t be c u t o f f f r o m Germany i n t i m e o f w a r .
the Danubian c o u a t r i e s ,
seemed w e l l

Thus

t h e Balkan S t a t e s i n c l u d i n g Turkey

su ited f o r th is purpose.

In carry in g out her

t r a d e r e l a t i o n s Germany a d o p t e d t h e c l e a r i n g s y s t e m w h i c h
d i d n o t r e q u i r e t h e u s e of f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e .

She a l s o

i n t r o d u c e d s u b s i d i e s f o r i m a o r t s , and i n some c a s e s f o r
exports,

t o expand h e r f o r e i g n t r a d e .

I n t h i s way e x p o r t s

t o Germany w e r e a b l e t o r e c e i v e h i g h e r p r i c e s t h a n t h e
o th e r m arkets.
Su c h an a r r a n g e m e n t w a s welcomed by T u r k e y , s i n c e
i t o f f e r e d an a n s w e r a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y t o h e r e c o n o m i c
problem s.

C o n s e q u e n t l y a n a g r e e m e n t w a s s i g n e d b e t w e e n th e

two c o u n t r i e s i n A u g u s t 1 9 5 3 .

By t h i s a g r e e m e n t Germany

a g r e e d t o g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e b a l a n c e of t r a d e be i n T u r k e y ' s

161

f a v o r a t a m a r g i n o f 30 p e r c e n t .

T his f i t t e d

Turkey’ s

d e b t o r p o s i t i o n s i n c e i n t h i s way s h e w a s a b l e t o p a y
p a r t o f the b o n d e d i n d e b t e d n e s s of th e Ottoman E m p i r e ,
o f w h i c h German b o n d h o l d e r s h e l d a c o n s i d e r a b l e s h a r e .
The f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h t h e c l e a r i n g

system o f t r a d e

p r o v e d so s u c c e s s f u l t h a t i t was a d o p t e d a s a d e f i n i t e
T urkish f o r e i g n t r a d e p o l i c y .

New a g r e e m e n t s w e r e s i g n e d

w i t h 22 E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g I t a l y ,

S o v i e t U n io n ,

C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , B e l g i u m , Sweden, F r a n c e , S w i t z e r l a n d , and
t he N e t h e r l a n d s .

I n a l l t h e s e a g re e m e n ts i t was c l e a r l y

s t i p u l a t e d t h a t an amount e q u i v a l e n t t o 2 0 - 3 5 p e r c e n t o f
t h e v a l u e o f t h e i m p o r t s - f r o m T u rk e y would b e k e p t i n a
s p e c i a l a c c o u n t i n e a c h o f t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , and c: e d i t e d
t o t h e C e n t r a l Bank of T u r k e y , t o b e u s e d or c o n v e r t e d
f r e e l y and w i t h o u t a n y r . s t r i c t ! o n .

This u ro g ram a s s i s t e d

T u r k e y i n mov in g t o w a r d s h e r e s t a b l i s h e d f o r e i g n commerce
p o lic ies, th at i s ,

to f a c i l i t a t e

v a l u e of T u r k i s h c u r r e n c y ,

e x p o rts , to p r o t e c t the

to a t t a i n a f a v o ra b le balance

of t r a d e , t o p a y o f f f o r e i g n d e b t s , to p r o t e c t t h e n a t i o n a l
i n d u s t r i e s and t o

c o n t r o l f o r e i g n t r a d e m ore e f f e c t i v e l y .

Under th e c l e a r i n g system f o r e i g n t r a d e to o k p l a c e
w i t h o u t t h e e x c h a n g e of f o r e i g n c u r r e n c i e s .

Im p o rters in

Turkey p a id i n t o th e c l e a r i n g fu n d , e s t a b l i s h e d i n th e
C e n t r a l Ba nk, f o r t h e g o o d s t h e y i m p o r t e d f r o m , s a y , G e r ­
many.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d when T u r k i s h e x p o r t e r s s o l d c e r ­

t a i n p r o d u c t s t o Germany t h e y w e r e p a i d f r o m t h e c l e a r i n g
fund.

The same t h i n g t o o k p l a c e i n t h e same way i n Germany.

162

I n t h i s f o rm of t r a d e t h e m ov em ents of g o o d s was r e f l e c t e d
by t h e e x c h a n g e r e t e b e t w e e n t h e two c o u n t r i e s .

The

o n l y r e f e r e n c e to e x c h a n g e r a t e was m ade when t h e r e p r e s e n ­
tativ es

o f b o t h c o u n t r i e s s e t up a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

th e ir resp ectiv e c u rren cies.
s e t t i n g up a r e l a t i o n s h i p

The m e t h o d s e m p l o y e d i n

ancl t h u s v a l u i n g t h e i r i m p o r t s

and e x p o r t s , h o w e v e r , v a r i e d i n e a c h a g r e e m e n t s i g n e d w i t h
d iffe re n t co u n tries.

The g e n e r a l f o r m o f p r o c e d u r e was t o

f i x a s p e c i f i c r a t e f o r t h e y e a r and t h e n u s e i t a s a
b a s i s i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v a lu e of t r a d e .

I n some c a s e s

c o n v e r s i o n i n t o n a t i o n a l c u r r e n c y was made by u s i n g a v e r a g e
d a i l y r a t e s i n t h e c o n t r a c t i n g c o u n t r i e s and i n some o t h e r s
by . . s i n g t h e d a i l y e x c h a n g e r a t e
in stan ce,
and

of a t h i r d c o u n try .

S'or

i n c a l c u l a t i n g th e v a l u e of t r a d e b etw een Turkey

i n l a n d t h e d a i l y a v e r a g e r a t e of s t e r l i n g w a s u s e d a s

a basis.
At f i r s t g l a n c e one may n o t f i n d a n y t h i n g w rong
w ith th e c l e a r i n g system of t r a d e .
p ro c e d u re i s n o t so sim ple a s i t

N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e whole

seems.

A t t i m e s when

t h e r e was n o t an a p p r o p r i a t e sum i n t h e c l e a r i n g f u n d e x ­
p o r t e r s h a d t o w a i t f o r s e v e r a l d a y s , w e e k s , and e v e n
m onths b e f o r e t h e y w ere p a i d by the c l e a r i n g o f f i c e .
s i t u a t i o n w a s e v e n more d i f f i c u l t f o r t o u r i s t s .

The

I f there

was n o t e n o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e money i n t h e c l e a r i n g o f f i c e

163

i t w o u ld b e i m p o s s i b l e t o t a k e a t r i p t o a f o r e i g n
33
country.
Turkey e x p e r ie n c e d o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s fro m t h e adop­
t i o n of a c l e a r i n g

system ,

too.

The m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f

them was t h e o c c u r r e n c e of t h e - T u r k i s h b l o c k e d a c c o u n t s
i n many c o n t r a c t i n g
t u r n gave r i s e
p o rters.

c o u n t r i e s , n o t a b l y u-ermany.

This in

t o d e l a y s i n p a y m e n t s t o t h e T u r k i s h ex ­

E x p o rte rs h av in g blocked acco u n ts o f f e r e d c e r ­

t a i n a m o u n t s of money t o

i m p o r t e r s , i f t h e y i m p o r t e d go o d s

e q u a l t o t h e v a l u e of t h e i r b l o c k e d f u n d s , f r o m t h e c o n ­
t r a c t i n g country.

This k in d of p r i v a t e co m p e n sa tio n a r ­

ran g e m en ts te n d e d to i n c r e a s e i m p o r t s fro m t h a t c o u n t r y .
I n o r d e r t o a v o id the d i f f i c u l t i e s

a r i s i n g from

th e s e blocked a c c o u n ts, c le a r i n g a g reem en ts, p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h o s e w i t h Germany, and I t a l y , w e r e s u p p l e m e n t e d by com­
p e n sa tio n agreem ents.

T h i s s y s t e m of t r a d i n g p r o v i d e d t h a t

a p a r t i c u l a r shipment had t o be l i n k e d o r com pensated f o r
by a n e q u a l i m p o r t s h i p m e n t .

The c o m p e n s a t i o n a g r e e m e n t s

s p e c i f i e d t h e t o t a l volum e o f t r a d e a n d t h e c o m m o d i t i e s
w h i c h m i g h t be t r a d e d b e t w e e n t h e
ries.

two c o n t r a c t i n g c o u n t ­

I n t h i s way t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f b l o c k e d a c c o u n t s

33

I t was t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w r i t e r i n
1944* a f t e r c o m p l e t i n g a l l t h e f o i m a l i t i e s f o r g o i n g t o
S w i t z e r l a n d t o b e u n a b l e t o o b t a i n Swifcs c u r r e n c y .
The
r e a s o n f o r t h i s was t h a t i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d S w i s s
im p o r ts from Turkey w ere i n s u f f i c i e n t t o c r e a t e an e x c e s s
of exchange;
t h e r e f o r e , e v e n a s a Govern m en t s t u d e n t h e
was n o t a l l o w e d t o e n t e r S w i t z e r l a n d .

164

was p r e v e n t e d ,

end t h e r e b y e x p o r t e r s w ere e n a b l e d t o g e t

t h e i r f u n d s w i t h o u t und u e d e l a y .
A n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y t h a t T u r k e y e x p e r i e n c e d was t h e
g r e a t ten d en cy to w ard s d iv e r s io n of T u rk ish t r a d e from th e
f r e e exchange c o u n tr i e s .

Because o f the h i g h p r i c e s p a i d

f o r t h e T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s b y Germany i t w a s v e r y d i f f i c u l t f o r
Turkey t o t r a d e w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .

Thus w i t h t h e p a s s ­

ag e of t i m e T u r k e y b ecame more d e p e n d e n t on t h e e v e r e x ­
p a n d i n g German m a r k e t .

I n t h e b e g i n n i n g German e x p o r t s

e r e s o l d a t p r i c e s s u f f i c i e n t l y lo w t o d i s c o u r a g e t h e m e r ­
c h a n t s of o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .

T h en , when t h e T u r k i s h m a r k e t

was c l e a r e d o f c o m p e t i t i o n , Germany t r i e d t o t a k e f u r t h e r
s t e p s t o d i c t a t e t h e p r i c e and t y p e o f p r o d u c t s t o b e im­
p o r t e d an d e x p o r t e d .

How ev er, t h e s e a t t e m p t s w e r e n o t a l ­

ways s u c c e s s f u l .
A n o t h e r f e a t u r e o f t h e c l e a r i n g t r a d e w i t h Germany
w a s f t h a t Germany r e e x p o r t e d some o f t h e T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s
s u c h a s f i g s , r a i s i n s , a n d n u t s f o r f r e e e x c h a n g e and
t h u s s h e became T u r k e y ’ s c o m p e t i t o r w i t h T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s
s o l d d i r e c t l y by T u r k e y .
The c l e a r i n g s y s t e m o f t r a d i n g , w h i c h se em ed a p p r o p ­
r i a t e i n te rm s of s h o r t ru n p r o s p e c t s , h a s s e v e r a l o t h e r
disadvantages.

One o f t h e m a j o r d i f f i c u l t i e s i s

t h a t Tur­

k e y was t i e d c l o s e r and c l o s e r i n t o t h e e c o n o m ic o r b i t of
Germany and l o s t a c o n s i d e r a b l e m e a s u r e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l

165

e con o m ic f r e e d o m .

L a t e r a c t i o n was t a k e n t o r e d u c e t h i s

dependence b u t a t c o n s id e r a b le s h o r t ru n c o s t .

A second

m ajor d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t t r a d e seldom fo llo w s a pu re b i ­
la te ra l basis.

Under f r e e i n t e r n a . t i o n a l t r a d i n g T u rk ey ’ s

c o m p a r a t i v e a d v a n t a g e p r o b a b l y w o u l d p e r m i t s e n d i n g more
g o o d s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h a n sh e p u r c h a s e d , w h i l e sh e
w ould p u r c h a s e more g o o d s , f o r e x a m p l e , f r o m I t a l y t h a n
she s o l d t o I t a . l y ,

C o m p le t e b i l a t e r a l i s m p r o b a b l e w o u l d

r e d u c e e x p o r t s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and i m p o r t s f r o m I t a l y ,
t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e t o t a l volunie o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e and
r e d u c i n g somewhat t h e g e n e r a l w e l f a r e o f t h e T u r k i s h p e o p l e .
W hether p r a c t i c a l problem s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d i n g r e l a ­
t i o n s w i l l p e r m i t th e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of such i d e a l t r a d i n g
r e l a t i o n s may b e q u e s t i o n e d ; n e v e r t h e l e s s e f f o r t s s h o u l d
be made w h e n e v e r f e a s i b l e t o move t o w a r d s t h e g o a l o f p e r ­
m i t t i n g m u l t i l a t e r a l b a l a n c i n g o f a c c o u n t s and i n c r e a s e
i n t h e a g g r e g a t e volume o f t r a d e .

T h e r e s h o u l d be a l s o

m e n tio n ed t h a t th e complex r e g u l a t i o n s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l
c u r r e n c y i n c r e a s e d t h e c o s t s o f i m p o r t i n g and e x p o r t i n g
and h e l p e d to c o n c e n t r a t e t r a d i n g f i r m s i n c i t i e s a c c e s s i b l e
t o t h e C e n t r a l Bank o r t r a d e a u t h o r i t i e s .
D espite th ese shortcom ings in h e r e n t i n th e c le a rin g
s y s t e m o r s o - c a l l e d b i l a t e r a l t r a d e , f r o m 1933 t o 1940 i t
d id a s s i s t in b rin g in g about a tra d e b a la n ce in fa v o r of
Turkey ( s e e T ab le I ) .

As was i n d i c a t e d a b o v e , many o f

t h e c o n t r a c t i n g c o u n t r i e s g u a r a n te e d t o Turkey a s u r p l u s

166

o f f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e , m akin g i t p o s s i b l e f o r h e r t o h a v e
a n e x c e s s o f e x p o r t s o v e r i m p o r t s and p a y o f f h e r f o r e i g n
d ebts.

N e v e r t h e l e s s a f t e r a d o p tin g t h i s system of t r a d ­

ing Turkey’ s f o r e i g n t r a d e h as never reached i t s

previous

le v e l under f r e e tr a d e during the tw e n tie s .
D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 9 3 3 - 3 9 a b o u t 83 p e r c e n t o f t h e
i m p o r t and 80 p e r c e n t of t h e e x p o r t t r a d e o f T u r k e y was
w i t h c o u n t r i e s h a v in g - c l e a r i n g a g r e e m e n t s w i t h T u r k e y .
A f t e r G e r m a n y 's o c c u p a t i o n of A u s t r i a i n March 19 38 and
of C z e c h o s l o v a k i a i n March 1 9 3 9 , f o l l o w e d by I t a l y ’ s i n ­
v a s i o n of A l b a n i a i n A p r i l 1 9 3 9 , T u r k e y d e c i d e d t o d i m i n i s h
her tra d e r e l a t i o n s w ith th e se c o u n tr ie s .

D espite g re a t

e f f o r t s made by Germany i n 1940 t h e a g r e e m e n t was n o t
r e n e w e d b-- T u r k e y .

As a r e s u l t T u r k e y ’ s t r a d e w i t h G e r ­

many d r o p p e d s u d d e n l y f r o m 37 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l e x p o r t s
i n 1939 t o 8 . 7 p e r c e n t

i n 1940, w hile im p o rts d e c r e a s e d

f r o m 51 p e r c e n t t o 1 1 . 7 p e r c e n t f o r t h e

same y e a r s .

Premium S y s t e m
I n t h e s e c t i o n on c u r r e n c y d e v a l u a t i o n i t was p o i n t e d
o u t t h a t i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e e x p o r t s t h e Au r k i s h g o v e r n ­
m e n t b e g i n n i n g i n 1 9 4 0 , a d o p t e d t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n pr em ium
system i n t r a d i n g w i t h f r e e - e x c h a n g e c o u n t r i e s .

A nother

o b j e c t i v e of e m p l o y i n g t h i s s y s t e m was t o l i m i t and r e d u c e
t h e e v e r i n c r e a s i n g German p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e c o u n t r y ’ s
p o l i t i c a l and e c o n o m ic l i f e .

S t i l l a n o t h e r aim was t o p r e ­

167

vent

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trad e

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the

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ly

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it

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th e

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the

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free

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they

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co u n tries

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trad in g .

exchange

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trad e w ith

h ig h

to

h av in g

and

the

th eir

re ­

co u ld

they

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co u ld

co m p etitio n

w ith

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im p o rters
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5 8 .5

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a

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exchange

actu ally

p o rts

prem ium

1942

prem ium s w as
th e

S ta te s
above
from

prem ium

goods was
the

changed
co llected
reduced

o ffic ia l

0 .5 0 - lira

to

from

exchange
0 .4 3

lira

on

168

each

d o lla r).

increased
w ere

from

charged

ex p o rters
ly .

In

nercent

and im p o r te r s
w ords,

rate

1 .8 2

lira s

rate

was 1 .9 3

to

ex p o rters

and

1 .3 0

to

lira

tiie

£5

40 p e r c e n t .

o th er

'e x c h a n g e

of

On N o v e m b e r

d o llar,

th e

in

T urkey

o th er

free-exchange

and

on

lira s

fo reig n

w ith

free

fo reig n

exchange

to

stim u la te

in

her

S ept-m ber
ratio

of

7,
1 .5 0

e ffe c t,

.

was

th e

u n ited

S tates*

rem ain ed

p urchasing

cower

40 p e r c e n t .

ste rlin g
dor

S ta te s

rate

the

w ere

e ffe c tiv e

im p o rters

o ffic ia l

for

resp ectiv e­

th e

Nor th e

;’r e m i u m s

also

ap p lied

area.,

th e

percent

above

the

and

p erio d

to

the

some
1940-1945

w a s 40 p e r c e n t ,

o ffic ia l

exchange

ste rlin g .

was

in d icated ,
not

co u n tries

an

th ereb y

1946 when th e
to

nor

to

to m eet

rem ain ed

d o llar

to

in

was
2 .8 2

a
the

prem ium s

trad e

in te n sify

it

was

a. m e a s u r e ,

sp ecific

c risis

currency.

o p eratio n

d ev alu ated
lira s

of

her

to

co n trary

d ev alu atin g

lira

curb

in ten d ed

On t h e

sy stem

T urkey’ s use

d esig n ed

but w ith o u t

lira

the

by

c o n tro l.

The p r e m iu m

I'n ite d

the

B ritain

ex p o rts

economy,

im p o rters

prem ium s

to

G reat

exchange
exchange

1945

case

to

to

w hile

latt< r

in creased

As w as p r e v i o u s l y
in

in

co u n tries,

- 'r e m iu m on- e x p o r t s

5 .5 5

the

of

p r e m iu m was

48 p e r c e n t

d o lla r.

and th e

th e

48

end

w hile, f o r

b u t,

Turkey

b etw een

40

th is

im p o rters

trade

rate

January

the

co m p en satio n

im -o rts

In

ex p o rters

to

d o lla r,

d o lla r

The

the

export

55 p e r c e n t ,

under

the

1944

to

w ere

for

lira s

15,

to

u n til
from

a

d o lla r.

D uring

th e

th irtie s

ta riff

b arriers,

in

ta riff

in creases

by o t h e r

w hich p a s s e u
rev ised

its

A greem ent

the

many c a s e s

p o sitio n

Act i n

about

a red u ctio n

the

in

in clu d in g

^urkey had
w ith

th e

U n ited

S tates

was

the

d u cts.

S ince

the

U nited

ab le

fo reig n

trad e

w ith

recip ro cal
The

trad e

agreem ent

U nited

1 9 3 9 . 54

on A p r i l
It

is

1,

1939,

s till

in

p a rtially
Trade

only m ajo r
engaged

in to

in

1939

n atio n
b rin g in g

o nly

21

recip ro cal

next

to

Germany t h e

purchaser

of

T u rk ish

S tates
Turkey

d o lla r was f r e e l y
was v .r y

d esire

eager

fin a lly
the

recip ro cal

ana

S tates

S tates.

u n co n d itio n al m o st-fav o red -n atio n
A nkara

ag ain st

R ecip ro cal

en tered

a g re e m e n t b etw een

p ro v id in g

1930,

was th e

in d ic a te d

T his

in

to r a is e

u n ited

j-’. ' c w e v e r , b y

larg est

trad e,
her.

th e

The

a ctiv ely

ta riffs,

As v / a s p r e v i o u s l y

its

was

began

reta lia tio n

co u n tries*

Thus i t

th irtie s

agreem ents

in

in

by p a s sin g

1934.

cu rin g

trad e

n atio n s

Sm oot-B aw ley t a r i f f

w hich

n atio n s

m ost

increase
in

a

co u n tries.
b e n e fits

treatm en t

becam e

exchange­

resu lte d

tw o

ta riff

to

pro­

was

e ffectiv e

end

sig n ed

from

Hay

the
at
5,

effect.

^ R e c r i p r o c e l T rade A greem ent betw een th e U n ite d
S t a t e s cf A m e r i c a a n d T u r k e y , E x e c u t i v e A g r e e m e n t s e r i e s ,
No. 1 6 3 , A, S. G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , W a s h in g to n , 1 9 4 0 .

170

Under
adopt

th e

th is

agreem ent

the

general

p rin c ip le

of

fav o red -n atio n s

treatm en t w ith

ana

of

o th er

form s

trad e

p arties

gran ted

cessio n s

e

co u n try ,

be

g ran ted

sp ecial
S tates

au to m atically

trad e
to

th ird

te rrito rie s

d etach ed

No r e s t r i c t i o n

of

on c o m m o d itie s ,
H ow ever,
tativ e
e stic
also

each

trie s.

If

try
If

at

on

the

o th er

c o u n try

days v ;ritte n

p ro v id e

reached

free

agreem ent
exchange in

the

U nited

S ta te s.

th at

the

amount

of

for

w ould

in
by

to
1923.

any '" a r ty

im pose .q u a n t i ­

to re g u la te

p ro v id ed

to

giv en

th ey

are

th e

the

th at

in

a ll

e sta b lish

be

may t e r m i n a t e

from

a v ailab le

to

o rig in a tin g

w ith in

con­

u n ited

Turkey

im p o sed

d esig n ed

m ust

any

to
put

are

th ird

o th er

in to
of

agreem ent

th ey

coun­

im port

the

p erio d

dom­

re ­
coun­

force.
tw o m o n th s ,

on

th irty

n o tic e .

Under the
to

is

by

th e

E ow ever,

'by t h e

rig h t

proposes

n o tice

of

co n cessio n s w ere g ra n te d .

the

tw o m o n th s b e f o r e

no a g re e m e n t

and

" 'ric e s

p ro d u cts

co u n try

w ritte n

least

and

or

n arty .

accorded

co u ld be

w hich w ere

lik e

eith er

strictio n s,

o th er

ta riff

to

d u tie s,

co n cessio n s

O ttom an E m p ire

reserved

su p p ly

same

th e

uoon w hich

p ro d u ctio n ,

red u ctio n s

Cuba

from

co u n try

custom

ana

any k in d

restric tio n s

ap p lied

th e
th e

to

Thus when e a c h

ta riff

to

agreed

u n c o n d itio n a l m o st-

regard

a.d - v a n t a g . e s m a y b e

its

te rrito rie s

the

co n tro l.

c o n tra ctin g
to

tw o n a t i o n s

free

tu rk ey

undertook

paym ent

F u rth erm o re
exchange

each calen d ar

year

for

to

co n tin u e

com m ercial

th e

w hich

to

agreem ent

im p o rts
p ro v id ed

T u r k e y w o u ld make

cover

im p o rts

from

the

171

U n ite d s t a t e s s h o u ld n o t be l e s s

th en 10.91 p e r c e n t of

T u r k e y ' s t o t a l c o m m e r c i a l i m o o r t s . 35
The a g r e e m e n t a l s o p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e g o o d s w h i c h
e a c h c o u n t r y i m p o r t s f r o m t h e o t h e r s h o u l d n o t be t a x e d
more t h a n d o m e s t i c g o o d s .

A nother im p o rtan t p r o v is io n

of th e agreem ent p ro v id e d t h a t n e i t h e r c o u n tr y ,

in award­

ing c o n t r a c t s to p u rc h a s e n o n - m i l i t a r y s u p p l i e s should
d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r i n f a v o r o f any t h i r d
country.
T ariff

co n cessio n s g ra n te d by Turkey:
T a r i f f c o n c e s s i o n s g r a n t e d by Turkey u n d e r t h e a g r e e ­

ment c o v e r e d 44 i t e m s .

T hese i t e m s c o n s i s t e d l a r g e l y of

m anufactured p r o d u c ts .

T a r i f f r e d u c t i o n s on t h e s e i t e m s

r a n g e d f r o m 5 t o 88 p e r c e n t o f t h e g e n e r a l t a r i f f .

For

e x a m p l e , t h e d u t y w a s r e d u c e d by 88 p e r c e n t on r a d i o p a r t s * .
75 o e r c e n t on r a d i o s , d r i e d o r u n e s , c a n n e d p r u n e s a n d p r u n e
j u i c e s , and canned a s p a r a g u s .

One o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

i t e m s s u p p l i e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o t h e T u r k i s h m a r k e t
has b een m otor v e h ic le s ..
by 60 p e r c e n t .

The d u t y on t h e s e i t e m s was r e d u c e d

On t y p e w r i t e r s ,

c a l c u l a t i n g and r e g i s t e r i n g

m a c h i n e s , and e l e c t r i c r e f r i g e r a t o r s t h e d u t i e s w e r e r e ­
d u c e d by IE p e r c e n t .

D u ty r e d u c t i o n s w ere a l s o made on

i r o n and s t e e l p r o d u c t s , and on sew in g m a c h i n e s , t h e l a t t e r

35

T h i s f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t s t h e s h a r e of t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s i n T urkey’ s t o t a l im p o rts i n 1935-37.

172

l a r g e l y s u p p l i e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,

T hes e r e d u c t i o n s

r a n g e d f r o m 5 t o 20 p e r c e n t .
T a r if f concessions g ran te d by the U nited S t a t e s :
T a r i f f c o n c e s s io n s g r a n t e d t o Turkey u n d e r th e
a g r e e m e n t i n c l u d e d 21 i t e m s w h i c h a c c o u n t e d f o r 9 7 . 5
p e r c e n t of t h e v a l u e o f the A m e r i c a n i m o o r t s f r o m T u r ­
key i n 1957.

The c o n c e s s i o n s were of t h r e e t y p e s :

d u c tio n s in t a r i f f

re­

r a t e s on 12 i t e m s , b i n d i n g o f t h e d u t y

on o n e i t e m , a n d b i n d i n g on t h e f r e e l i s t o f 8 i t e m s .
As was p r e v i o u s l y i n d i c a t e d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
p r o d u c t among t h e Am erican i m ' o r t s fro m T u r k e y i s c i g a r e t t e
le a f tobacco.

D u ty on t h i s p r o d u c t was r e d u c e d f r o m 55

c e n t s t o 30 c e n t s a p o u n d , o r by 1 4 . 3 p e r c e n t .

The r e ­

m a i n i n g 11 i t e m s on w h ic h t a r i f f r e d u c t i o n s were made h a v e
p l a y e d an i n s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e among t h e A m e r i c a n i m p o r t s
from Turkey.
On d r i e d f i g s v a l u e d a t 7 c e n t s o r more a pound
t h e t a r i f f w a s r e d u c e d f r o m 5 c e n t s t o 3 c e n t s a p o un d
o r b y 40 p e r c e n t .

P r a c t i c a l l y a l l A m e r i c a n i m p o r t s of

s u c h f i g s come f r o m T u r k e y and s e l l

a t h ig h e r p r i c e s than

t h e b e t t e r g r a d e of d o m e s t i c f i g s .

N e v erth ele ss the t a r i f f

on f i g s v a l u e d l e s s t h a n 7 c e n t s a p o u n d was k e p t a t t h e
old r a t e , t h a t i s ,

5 c e n t s p e r pound.

The d u t y on s h e l l e d f i l b e r t s w a s r e d u c e d f r o m 10
c e n t s t o 8 c e n t s a p o u n d , a n d on r a i s i n s made f r o m s e e d -

173

l e s s g r a p e s f r o m two t o one and a h a l f c e n t s a p o u n d .
Im p o rts of th e s e p r o d u c t s , though i n sm all q u a n t i t i e s ,
come a l m o s t e n t i r e l y f r o m T u r k e y .
The r a t e on p o p p y s e e d was r e d u c e d f f o m 32 c e n t s t o
16 c e n t s p e r 100 p o u n d s u n d e r t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a g r e e m e n t of
F eb ru ary 1, 1936.

By v i r t u e o f t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l m o s t - f a v -

o r e d - n a t i o n s t r e a t m e n t , t h e r e d u c e d r a t e was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n
the a g re e m e n t.

T h e r e i s no poppy s e e d p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e

U nited S t a t e s .
The a g r e e m e n t a l s o p r o v i d e d f o r t h e b i n d i n g on t h e
f r e e l i s t of e ig h t ite m s.

T h es e w e r e , c r u d e v a l o n i a , c r u d e

l i c o r i c e r o o t , c h ro m e o r e , emery o r e , c r u d e b o r a x , u n d r e s s ­
ed h a r e , m a r t i n s k i n s and s a u s a g e c a s i n g s .
T h i s su m m arize d t h e 16 a r t i c l e s of t h e r e c i p r o c a l
t r a d e a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n T u r k e y a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and
t h e e x c h a n g e n o t e s a t t a c h e d t o it.*"*®
of t h i s agreem ent i t

From t h e a n a l y s i s

a p p e a rs t h a t the U n ite d S t a t e s g r a n t ­

ed f e w e r t a r i f f r e d u c t i o n s t o T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s t h a n w e r e
g r a n t e d by T u r k e y , b u t t h e v a l u e of t o t a l i m p o r t s a f f e c t e d
by s u c h c o n c e s s i o n s was h i g h e r i n t h e c a s e o f A m e r i c a n im­
p o r t s from Turkey.

F o r e x a m p l e , c o m m o d i t i e s on w h i c h t a r ­

i f f r e d u c t i o n s w ere made b y T u r k e y a c c o u n t e d f o r o n l y 41
p e rc e n t of the t o t a l T u rk ish im p o rts from th e U n ite d S t a t e s
in 1937.

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o m m o d i t i e s on w h i c h t a r i f f r e ­

d u c t i o n s w ere made b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a c c o u n t e d f o r 9 7 . 5
U. S . D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e s , T r a d e a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s of A m e r i c a and t h e R e p u b l i c o f T u r k e y , Wash­
i n g t o n , 19 3 9 , P r e s s r e l e a s e n o s . 126 and 1 2 7 , m im e o g r a p h e d .

174

p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l A m e ri c a n i m p o r t s f r o m T u r k e y d u r i n g
t h e same y e a r .

H ow eve r, i t

s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d t h a t l e a f

tobacco alone accounted f o r over t w o - th ir d s o f th e t o t a l
im p o rts from Turkey.
As f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e a g r e e m e n t , t h e b e g i n n i n g
o f World Var I I a b o u t f o u r m o n th s a f t e r t h e e f f e c t i v e d a t e
o f th e ag reem en t meant t h a t the a n t i c i p a t e d e x p a n s io n i n
t r a d e betw een the

two c o u n t r i e s c o u l d n o t b e r e a l i z e d .

As a r e s u l t o f t h e w o r l d c o n f l i c t ,
to each o th e r were d i s t u r b e d .
m a i n l y of two f a c t o r s .

e x p o r t s of b o t h c o u n t r i e s

The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s w e r e

In the f i r s t p l a c e sh ip p in g f a c i l i ­

t i e s were g r e a t l y d i s r u p t e d ,

and s e c o n d l y , b o t h c o u n t r i e s

adopted s t r i c t m easures to c o n t r o l o r r e s t r i c t e x p o r t s .
How ever, c e r t a i n p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e a g r e e m e n t w e r e i m p o r t ­
a n t d u rin g th e war p e r i o d .

These w ere t h e e x em p tio n o f

i m p o r t s f ro m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f r o m c o m p e n s a t i o n r e q u i r e ­
m ents, and the a s s u r a n c e

f r e e exchange f o r paym ents o f

im p o rts from the U n ited S t a t e s .

I n o r d e r t o make su ch

exchange a v a i l a b l e , the T u rk ish governm ent e s t a b l i s h e d a
s p e c i a l a c c o u n t i n t h e C e n t r a l Bank o f T u r k e y .

A ll fo reig n

exchange secu red from th e e x p o r t s t o t h e U n ite d S t a t e s
was d e p o s i t e d i n t h i s a c c o u n t , a n d t h e r e b y i m p o r t s f r o m
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w e r e p a i d r e g u l a r l y a n d w i t h o u t undue
delay.

175

CHAPTER XVI
FUTURE PROSPECTS OF TURKEY’ S FOREIGN TRADE
The p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s a r e p r i m a r i l y d e v o t e d t o t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t s of T u r k e y ’ s f o r e i g n t r a d e i n t h e p a s t ,
the c o u n tr y i s

^ince

d e v e lo p in g r a p i d l y , i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e to

a n aly ze " b r ie f ly i t s p ro b a b le f o r e i g n t r a d e developm ents
and p o l i c i e s i n t h e y e a r s t o come.
\

T u rk ey 's tr a d e p o lic y i n th e p a s t h a s been profound­
l y a f f e c t e d by t h e c h a n g e s i n . t h e t r a d e p o l i c i e s o f o t h e r
c o u n t r i e s a s w e l l a s by t h e g e n e r a l l e v e l o f w o r l d a n d
e s p e c i a l l y E uropean economic c o n d i t i o n s ,
i e r s to tr a d e continue th e s t r u c t u r e

i f prew ar b a r r ­

of T u r k e y ’ s. f o r e i g n

t r a d e i s l i k e l y to s h i f t t o w a r d s a r e d u c t i o n i n i m p o r t s , o f
g o o d s w h ic h c a n be p r o d u c e d i n T u r k e y ;

a r e d u c t i o n i n ex­

p o r t s probably w i l l occur to a l e s s e r e x te n t.

For pur­

p o s e s of t h i s a n a l y s i s o f f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s i t h a s seemed
more u s e f u l t o a s s u m e a r e a s o n a b l y h i g h l e v e l o f w o r l d p r o s p e r i t y and a w i l l i n g n e s s among n a t i o n s t o d i s c u s s and r e d u c e
trade b a rrie rs .

Under t h e s e assu m p tio n s i t

seems q u i t e

l i k e l y t h a t i 'u r k e y w i l l c o o p e r a t e i n r e d u c i n g b a r r i e r s , i n
e x p a n d i n g e x p o r t s and i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f
c a p ita l goods.

V i r t u a l l y none of T u r k e y ’ s p r e s e n t i n d u s ­

t r i e s supply th e dom estic r e q u ir e m e n ts .

T h e r e f o r e , Turkey

w i l l c o n t i n u e e x p o r t i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s w h i l e im­
p o rtin g i n d u s t r i a l goods.

N e v e rth e le ss, i t appears l i k e l y

t h a t T u r k e y 's f o r e i g n t r a d e w i l l expand g r e a t l y .

T his s t a t e -

176

m e n t i s b a s e d on t h e p o s t - w a r e co n o m ic d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s
o f '-Hirkey.
The new e con o m ic d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m o f A i r k e y i n ­
c l u d e s t h e e x p a n s i o n and im p r o v e m e n t o f t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
system ( r a i l r o a d s , highw ays, o o r t s , and m erc h an t m a r i n e ) ,
the developm ent of m in e ral re s o u r c e s ( o i l ,
copper,

co al, sulphur,

iron e t c .) ,

chromimum,

expansion of t e x t i l e

in d u stries,

su g a r r e f i n e r i e s , and food p r o c e s s i n g p l a n t s ,
37
and the d e v e l o p m e n t of b a s i c c h e m i c a l s .
A nother im p o rt­
a n t p r o g r a m of T u r k e y i s

the development o f a g r i c u l t u r e ,

and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e s and f e r t i l i z e r
p lan ts,

a

number o f i r r i g a t i o n

sch em es a r e i n c o n t e m p l a ­

t i o n a s p a r t of a p r o g r a m i n i t i a t e d i n 1 9 3 9 .

S e v e r a l dams

w i l l be c o n s t r u c t e d i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y .

'Ihese

dams w i l l a l s o p r o d u c e e l e c t r i c p o w e r . ' F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e
Government p l a n s t o e q u i p e v e r y f a r m e r w i t h m o d ern a g r i c u l t u r ­
a l im plem ents such a s p low s, d r i l l s ,

c o m b i n e s , r e a p e r s , and

harrow s.
I n o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t t h e s e u r o g r a m s ( a l r e a d y u n d e rw a y )
T u r k e y w o uld r e q u i r e t h e
of c a p i t a l goods as

im p o rta tio n of l a r g e

q u an tities

w e ll a s s k i l l e d e n g i n e e r s from a b ro a d .

The c o m p l e t i o n o f e a c h p r o g r a m would make n e c e s s a r y t h e
i m p o r t a t i o n of new p r o d u c t s t o m e e t t h e new d e m a n d s .

For

<70

As r e p o r te d

I s t a n b u l , March 2 1 ,
new spaper), A nkara,

in

C u m h u riy et

(d aily

new spaper),

1947 and i n U l u s ( a s e m i o f f i c i a l d a i l y
J u l y 5, 1947.

177

exam ple,
w ould

co n stru ctio n - of

increase

m o to rcy cles,
d u ctio n
tric al
etc.

of

power of

w ould

en ab le

hig h er
above

faim ers.

for

a lly

in crease

and

F u rth erm o re,

larg e

num bers
the i r

th e

w ould

of

th eir

incom e

and

incom es

in

e le c ­

of

ag ricu l­

and

purchas­

tra n sp o rta tio n

p r o d u c t s m ore, t i m e l y a t

p ro v id e
in

for

irrig a tio n

d evelopm ent

persons

P ro­

w ashing m ac h in es,
of

faster

e tc.

m arket

pro d u ctio n

in crease

to m arket

m ogrfus

the

rad io s,

pro b ab ly

m o to r v e h i c l e s ,

o ils,

d ev elo p m en t

B etter

farm ers

m en tio n ed

expand

in crease

aiad t h e r e b y

''r ic e s .

jobs

th e

undoubtedly

p ro d u cts,

highw ays

heavy m in eral

pow er w ould

hand,

and

lo co m o tiv es,

refrig e rato rs,

o th er

w ould

for

tubes,

e le c tric

ap p lian ces,

sy stem s

in g

demand

tire s,

On t h e

tu ral

the

railro ad s

m ore

the

tu rn

of

a ll

end

the

b e tte r

co u n try

in crease

and
the

ev en tu ­
d o m estic

demand.

The
Turkey
ment
her

to

m ost
im p o rt

program s.
su p p ly

of

p rob lem i n v o l v e s t h e a b i l i t y

im p o rtan t
e-uipm ent
T urkey

d o llars,

req u ired

has alread y
ste rlin g ,

she a c c u m u late d d u r i n g

the

be

im port

ab le

goods,
tain

to

co n tin u e

Turkey

fo reig n

has

to

e ith e r

lo an s,

to n ,

to b acco ,

filb e rts

m ohair w o o l,

to

spent

and

rease

d ev elo p ­

a larg e

g o ld

In

q u a n titie s
her

part

of

r e s e r v e s w hich

war y e a rs .

larg e

in

th ese

order

of

ex p o rts,

to

ca p ital
or

ob­

or b o th .

As p r e v i o u s l y
are

recent

for

of

p o in ted

o u t,

raisin s,

T u r k e y ’ s m ain

fig s,

p ista c h io

wool, o p i u m , v a l o n i a ,

ex p o rts
n u ts,

and m i n e r a l

co t­
ores,

178

n o tab ly

chroraim uin.

th at

to b acco w i l l

port

item ,

d eclin e
for

o th er

stric t

tbs

m ore

ex p o rts

d o m estic

export

m easures

and g ra d in g ,

to

and

T urkey’ s f a ilu r e
upon

of

to

in

in

bn

th e

co tto n ,

tex tile

free

Germ any

safe

to

say
ex­

m o h e i r w o o l may

in d u strie s

ere

d ev elo p ed ,

w ould a d o p t

p a c k in g , pack ag in g

p ric e s

exchange

resp e c ts

as

is

m ost im p o r ta n t
end

q u a lity ,

reduce

th ese

i t

Turkey p ro b a b le

im prove

also

p ro d u ets,

to

p ro d u cts,

ad v p n tag eo u slv

dependence

th ese

co n tin u e

w hile

as

Of

and

m ark ets.

th at

a m arket

th ereb y

gave

for

It

com pete
was

rise

to

her

e g ric u ltu re l

pro-

p ro d u cts

th u s

du c t s .

Tn r e d u c i n g
in creasin g

p ric e s

ex p o rts

the

p ro d u ctiv ity .
fec tiv e
fru its

in

also

and

im proved,

ap p les,
b erries,

now

‘

appear

lik e ly

to

fru it

p ro d u ctio n .

Turkey a re
as

of

peaches,

p lan ts,

p articu larly

and

in crease.

serve

to

end g r a p e s .

fam ous

Throughout
for

th eir

m ark etin g f a c i l i t i e s

ex p o rts

w ould

fru its

fanning

has

These m ethods

c a n telo n es

also

of

lira

by in c r e a s in g

E urope,

w ould

m ethods

T u rk ish

'-ric e s

Thus

'p e a rs ,

tend

the

reduce

grow n i n

fla v o r.

B etter

of

and

to

fresh

and

ex p o rtab le

d e v alu atio n

a lre a d y b een m en tio n ed .
d ev elo p in g w i l l

of

fresh

fru its ,

c h erries,

w aterm elons
D evelopm ent

can n in g
in crease
V egetable

n o tab ly

w hich
of

u ro d u ctio n

w orld,

d ev elo p ed
tab le

bananas,
are

taste

needed

grapes,
straw ­
in

food p ro c e ssin g

and b e v e ra g e
pro d u ctio n

the

ef­

ex cellen t

are

oranges,

be m ost

estab lish m en ts,

and

ex p o rts

also

has

of

a prom inent

179

f u t u r e in Turkey’ s e x p o rt t r a d e .

I n f a c t , T u rk ey i s one

of t h e f e w c o u n t r i e s a l o h g w i t h I t a l y a n d S p a i n i n E u r o p e ,
t h a t i s a b l e t o m a rk e t p r e - s e a s o n f r e s h v e g e t a b l e s i n the
W estern and C e n t r a l E u ro p ean c o u n t r i e s .

For exam ple,

d e v e l o p m e n t s i n r e f r i g e r a t i o n w o u l d make i t p o s s i b l e t o
ex p and t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e e x p o r t a t i o n of t o m a t o e s ,
eg g plants, peppers,

cucumbers, g re e n b e a n s , p e a s , l e t t u c e ,

end many o t h e r s .
Th'e ab o v e r e m a r k s i n d i c a t e o n l y a f e w o f t h e p o s ­
s i b i l i t i e s f o r expanding T u rk ish e x p o r ts to o b t a i n -fo reig n
exchange.

I n a d d i t i o n T u r k e y may i n c r e a s e h e r a d v a n t a g e i n

foreign trad e

t h r o u g h t h e im pro vem en t of h e r p o u l t r y ,

s i l k production..

I n the p a s t t h e s e i n d u s t r i e s h a v e p l a y e d

an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n the
In a l l

and

country’ s export tra d e .

these f i e l d s , f r u i t ,

vegetable, p o u ltry ,

and s i l k p r o d u c t i o n , o n l y a few y e a r s a r e r e q u i r e d t o o b ­
t a i n good r e s u l t s .

In f a c t , a l l

t h e s e b r a n c h e s of a g r i ­

c u l t u r e have a l r e a d y d e v e lo p e d s u f f i c i e n t l y , r e q u i r i n g
o n l y i m p r o v e m e n t i n m a r k e t i n g f a c i l i t i e s and w e l l e s t a b ­
l i s h e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r e n t e r i n g them i n t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l
tra d e ch an n els, provided tra d e b a r r i e r s abroad a r e n o t
too h ig h .
T u r k e y may s e c u r e l o n g t e r m f o r e i g n l o a n s t o p a y f o r
th e i m p o r t a t i o n of c a p i t a l goods n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s e
development program s.

The U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s a l r e a d y a d o p t ­

ed t h e Truman D o c t r i n e , a n d t h e M a r s h a l l P l a n .

A ppropria-

180

tio n s m d e under the form er e r e d ir e c te d p r i m e r ily a t
s t r e n g t h e n i n g T u r k e y ’ s n a t i o n a l d e f e n s e b u t a l s o may h av e
some i n d i r e c t e f f e c t s i n i m p r o v i n g t h e n a t i o n a l economy
t h r o u g h e x p e n d i t u r e s on p o r t s , a n d h i g h w a y s .
I f the

a s s u m p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t r a d e p o l i c i e s and

l e v e l o f e m p lo y m en t a r e i n v a l i d ,

then Turkey w i l l b e un able

to f o l l o w t h e e x t e n s i v e program o f m o d e r n iz a tio n and i n d u s t ­
r i a l i z a t i o n which i s o l e n n e d .

Only c e r t a i n p h a s e s w i l l

be a d o p te d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e f o r e i g n exchange a v a i l a b l e .
I n a n y c a s e some s h i f t s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f o r e i g n
trade is in e v ita b le .

T urkish t r a d e a lr e a d y has s h i f t e d

from C e n t r a l E uropean c o u n t r i e s t o W estern E u ropean c o u n t ­
r i e s and e s p e c i a l l y t o th e u n i t e d S t a t e s .

These c o u n t r i e s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a nd G r e a t B r i t a i n , a r e t h e
s o u r c e s f o r much of t h e c a p i t a l g o o d s n e e d e d i n T u r k e y ' s
p r o g r a m of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n .
Now what k i n d o f f o r e i g n t r a d e p o l i c y s h o u l d T u r k e y
f o l l o w t o a c h i e v e h e r e c o n o m ic d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s ?

While

i t i s n o t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s work t o e l a b o r a t e a p o s i t i v e
p o l i c y tow ard i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e o f Turkey, a few rem a rk s
seem a p p r o p r i a t e .

In f a c t i t is

still

d iffic u lt to pre­

d i c t t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e e co no m ic and p o l i t i c a l
t u r e of t h e f u t u r e ; i t

stru c­

i s a ssu m e d h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e n a t i o n s

a l l o v e r t h e w o rld w i l l f o l l o w a p o l i c y which w i l l prom ote

181

n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e a c e .
T h e r e a r e a num ber o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s
d e d i c a t e d t o b r i n g i n g a b o u t p e a c e and s e c u r i t y t o t h e w o r l d .
These a r e :

The U n i t e d N a t i o n s , The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bank f o r

R e c o n s t r u c t i o n and D evelopm ent, I n t e r n a t i o n a l M onetary
F u n d , The I n t e r n a t i o n a l T r a d e O r g a n i z a t i o n , The Food and
A g r i c u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , and t h e Econom ic, S o c i a l and
C u ltu ra l O rganization.
th ese o rg a n iz a tio n s .

Turkey p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a l l of
Thu s T u r k e y ’ s i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic

p o l i c i e s a r e c l o s e l y t i e d up t ' t h e p o l i c i e s s e t by t h e s e
org an izatio n s.

S ta te d b r ie fly :

t h e i r aims a r e to e s t a b ­

l i s h and m a i n t a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n i n e v e r y f i e l d
of p o l i t i c s .

To t h i s e nd t h e y s e t up p r o g r a m s t o d e v e l o p

the econom ies o f backward n a t i o n s , t o prom ote exchange
s t a b i l i t y and o r d e r l y exchange a rra n g e m e n ts , red u c e g o v e rn ­
ment b a r r i e r s t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e , b e t t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n
i n w o r l d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n , a nd f i n a l l y t o i m o r o v e
t h e human r e s o u r c e s t h r o u g h t h e i m p r o v e d h e a l t h , n u t r i t i o n
and e d u c a t i o n .
The g r e a t e r t h e c o o p e r a t i o n among n a t i o n s a c h i e v e d
by t h e s e embryo o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e e x ­
p a n s i o n o f f o r e i g n tra c 'e p o s s i b l e by T u rk is h economic de­
velopm ent.

The f a i l u r e o f t h e s e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a ­

t i o n s w i l l be a blow t o an y p l a n s f o r t h e e x p a n s i o n o f
f o r e i g n t r a d e , and w i l l u n d o u b ted ly r e v i v e th e p o l i c i e s
which e x i s t e d d u r in g th e t h i r t i e s .

18£

CHAPTER X V II

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
T u r k e y i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o u n t r y
w i t h 75 p e r c e n t o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n g a i n f u l l y e n g a g e d i n
a g ric u ltu r a l production.

About 58 p e r c e n t o f the n a t i o n a l

income i s d e r i v e d f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e w h i l e o v e r 85 p e r c e n t of
the

e x p o r t t r a d e i s composed o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s .

'

T u rk ey h a s l a r g e a m o u n t s o f l a n d , b u t o n l y 1 8 . 4
p e r c e n t of i t

i s under c u ltiv a tio n .

Throughout t h e c o u n tr y

the s i z e of farm s i s v e r y sm all a v e ra g in g about f o u r
d e k a r s ( a b o u t one a c r e )

i n t h e S l a c k S e a r e g i o n , 30 d e k a r s

i n t h e Aegean r e g i o n an d a b o u t 100 d e k a r s i n t h e C e n t r a l
P l a t e a u and E a s t e r n H i g h l a n d s .

A lthough s e v e r a l lan d r e ­

f o r m s made i t p o s s i b l e f o r a g r e a t p o r t i o n o f t h e f a r m e r s
t o own t h e i r l a n d , t h e y d i d n o t g r e a t l y im p r o v e t h e i r l e v e l
of l i v i n g .

The r e c e n t l a w p r o v i d i n g s u f f i c i e n t l a n d f o r

every farm er w i l l r e q u i r e y e ars f o r b rin g in g about a b e t ­
term ent in th e f a r m e r s ’ l i f e .

Because o f a l a c k o f c a p i t a l

i n th e a g r i c u l t u r a l d i s t r i c t s , v e r y p r i m i t i v e im plem ents
are used.

Oxen a r e g e n e r a l l y u s e d a s d r a f t a n i m a l s w h i l e

t h e u s e of m a c h i n e r y i n f a r m i n g i s n e g l i g i b l e .
t a t i o n and f e r t i l i z e r a r e r e g u l a r l y
d istric ts.

Crop r o ­

a d o p t e d i n a few f a r m

D e s p i t e g r e a t e f f o r t s ma.de by t h e g o v e r n m e n t

i n r e c e n t y e a r s , f a r m p r a c t i c e s a r e s t i l l f a r fro m modern.
N e v e r t h e l e s s T u r k e y ’ s g r e a t v a r i e t y of c l i m a t e s and f e r t i l e
s o i l s e n a b l e h e r t o p r o d u c e a l m o s t a l l k i n d s and v a r i e t i e s

183

o f p l a n t a nd l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t s .
B esides th e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s the c o u n try has i n numferable m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s .

B ut b e c a u s e o f t r a n s p o r t a ­

t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s , m o s t of t h e s e m i n e s r e m a i n u n d e v e l o p e d .
T u r k e y ’ s i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t h a s b e e n c a r r i e d on
according to d e f i n i t e 5-year p la n s under the su p e rv isio n
of t h e governm ent.

More t h a n 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n d u s t r i e s

a r e owned and o p e r a t e d by t h e S t a t e .

The i n d u s t r y w h i c h

had d e v elo p ed t h e most i s t h a t of t e x t i l e s .
ries

are food p ro c e ssin g p l a n t s ,

Other i n d u s t ­

c e l lu l o s e , ceram ics,

t i m b e r , l e a t h e r , g l a s s , m i n i n g , i r o n and s t e e l .

None of

t h e s e i n d u s t r i e s s a t i s f i e s the n e e d s o f the n a t i o n .
D e s p i t e g r e a t e f f o r t s made by t h e g o v e r n m e n t , T u r k e y
is s t i l l poor in tr a n s p o r ta tio n .

-Lack o f c a p i t a l and t h e

t o p o g r a p h y o f t h e c o u n t r y a r e the m a i n f a c t o r s i n t h e l a c k
o f g oo d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s .
Among t h e c r o p s grown i n T u r k e y , c e r e a l p r o d u c t i o n
i s by f a r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a g r i c u l t u r a l e n t e r p r i s e f r o m
b o t h a n e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l s t a n d p o i n t .

A b o u t 88 p e r c e n t

o f t h e l a n d u n d e r f i e l d c r o p s i s d e v o t e d t o c e r e a l s of
w h i c h w h e a t c o n s i s t s o f more t h a n 50 p e r c e n t .

I n 1942,

c e r e a l s p r o v i d e d 33 p e r c e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l income and
59 p e r c e n t of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l income o f T u r k e y .
L i v e s t o c k i s a l s o v e r y i m p o r t a n t w i t h p a s t u r e and
meadows r e p r e s e n t i n g a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l a r e a .

184

L iv e s to c k and l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c ts c o n s t i t u t e 13 .5 p e r c e n t
of t h e n a t i o n a l i n c o m e .
S in c e Turkey p o s s e s s e s a g r e a t v a r i e t y of c l i m a t e s
and s o i l s , many k i n d s an d v a r i e t i e s of f r u i t s and n u t s
a r e grown i n t h e c o u n t r y .

About 1 . 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l

area i s under f r u i t, t r e e s .

I n 1943 f r u i t and n u t s com­

'" V

p r i s e d f i v e p e r c e n t of the n a t i o n a l income.
T u rk ey 's ad v an tag e in i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e i s based
on t h e p e c u l i a r g e o g r a p h i c f a c t o r s vAich make p o s s i b l e
the p r o d u c t i o n o f s p e c i a l i z e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s .

'The

e x p o r t s of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s f r o m T urkey c r e a t e t h e
b u l k o f t h e p u r c h a s i n g po w e r by w h i c h sh e c a n s e c u r e e x ­
change t o buy i n d u s t r i a l g o o d s, c h i e f l y c a p i t a l g o o d s,
to d e v e l o p h e r i n d u s t r y .

I n 1935-39 a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s

a v e ra g e d 8 4 .6 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l T u rk is h e x p o r t s by v a l u e .
Among t h e p r o d u c t s , by f a r th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n
r e s p e c t t o e x p o r t t r a d e i s t o b a c c o , w h i c h i s so d i s t i n c ­
t i v e a s t o b e a p r o d u c t by i t s e l f .

A l l a t t e m p t s made by

o t h e r c o u n t r i e s to t r a n s p l a n t i t have f a i l e d .

T obacco e x ­

p o r t s c o n s i s t s of a b o u t 28 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l T u r k i s h
e x p o r t by v a l u e .
where i t

I t i s shipped to n e a r ly a l l w orld m arkets

i s used m ainly f o r b le n d in g p u rp o s e s .

O ther p r o ­

d u c ts e x p o rte d from Turkey a r e i n o r d e r of t h e i r im p o rta n c e ,
f i l b e r t s , r a i s i n s , f i g s , c o t t o n , m o h a i r w o o l , o pium ,
cereals,
valonia.

l i v e a n i m a l s , o l i v e s and o l i v e o i l , w o o l , a n d .

185

S in ce Turkey i s p re d o m in a n tly a g r i c u l t u r a l , i t s
im p o r ts have b een l i m i t e d m a in ly t o
nam ely,

i n d u s t r i a l goods,

i r o n an d s t e e l p r o d u c t s , m o t o r v e h i c l e s , m a c h i n e r y ,

c o t t o n and w o o l e n g o o d s , and c h e m i c a l s .

T hes e i t e m s n o r ­

m a l l y a c c o u n t f o r o v e r 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l T u r k i s h
im ports.

I m p o r t s of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s p l a y l i t t l e

im portance in T urkish t r a d e .

The p r i n c i p a l a g r i c u l t u r a l

com m odities im p o rte d a r e t e a ,

c o ff e e , c ru d e , ru b b e r, cocoa,

s u g a r , and X e n o n s , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t a b o u t n i n e p e r c e n t o f
the t o t a l im p o rts.
Owing t o i t s p r o x i m i t y to t h e so c a l l e d ’’W o r l d ’ s
Works hop” - W estern. "Europe - a n d t o i t s b e i n g s i t u a t e d a t
t h e c r o s s r o a d s of t h e w o r l d , i t h a s b e e n made p o s s i b l e
f o r T urkey t o t r a d e r e a d i l y w ith t h e r e s t of the w o rld .
Ho w ev er, i n h e r f o r e i g n t r a d e T u r k e y h a s b e e n v e r y much
d e p e n d e n t on E u r o p e , n o t a b l y t h e W e s t e r n and C e n t r a l
European c o u n t r i e s ,
o f 'Ajr k e y ’ s t o t a l
trie s.

-^ri o r t o World War I I o v e r 80 p e r c e n t

t r a d e was c a r r i e d o n w i t h E u r o p e a n c o u n ­

The p r i n c i p a l b u y e r s o f T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s , w e r e

Germany, U n i t e d S t a t e s , I t a l y , G r e a t B r i t a i n , E r a n c e ,
S o v i e t h u s s i a , and C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , i n t h e o r d e r named.
T r a d e w i t h t h e s e c o u n t r i e s r e p r e s e n t e d o v e r 70 p e r c e n t of
the t o t a l .

Among t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , h o w e v e r , Germany a t

t h a t t i m e p u r c h a s e d more T u r k i s h p r o d u c t s t h a n a l l t h e
o t h e r c o u n t r i e s combined, b u t t h e developm ent o f t h i s
t r a d e brought about c o n s id e r a b le d i s t r u s t in Turkey.

186

T u r k e y ’ s e co n om ic p o l i c y w a s b o r n o f a s t r o n g
r e a c tio n a g a in s t th e con d ition s

, n d e r t h e Ottoman E m p i r e .

By h e r new economic p o l i c y , T u r k e y h a s a t t e m p t e d t o d e v e l o p
a l l b r a n c h e s o f h e r economy a s an i n t e g r a t e d w h o l e .

To

t h i s end,- T u r k e y f o l l o w e d a p o l i c y w h ic h w a s s t r i c t p r o tec tio n istic.

I n c a r r y i n g o u t h e r e c o n o m ic d e v e l o p m e n t

p r o g r a m s , T u r k e y w o r k e d m a i n l y on a p a y - a s - y o u - g o b a s i s
and r e f r a i n e d f r o m f o r e i g n b o r r o w i n g .
Due t o th e l a c k of p r i v a t e c a p i t a l a n d b e c a u s e of
th e e v er i n c r e a s in g danger of w orld c o n f l i c t ab ro ad , th e
T u r k i s h Government t o o k an a c t i v e p a r t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of t h e c o u n t r y ’ s economy.

To t h i s e n d , t h e p o l i c y o f econom

i c n a t i o n a l i s m , w d th maximum s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y a s t h e u l ­
t i m a t e a im , seemed t o be i m p e r a t i v e a s t h e o n l y \ a y f o r
n atio n al defense.

A lthough Turkey h a s in te n d e d t o develop

a l l b r a n c h e s of h e r economy a s an i n t e g r a t e d w h o l e ; up
to the ^ r e s e n t tim e emphasis h a s b een g iv en to i n d u s t r i a l
developm ents.

I n o t h e r w o r d s , T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l e c o n o m ic

p o l i c i e s were d e s i g n e d t o f o s t e r i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ,

al­

t h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r e i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy
As f o r f o r e i g n t r a d e p o l i c i e s ,

Turkey h a s had a

tr a .d e s y s t e m w h i c h was s t r i c t l j r c o n t r o l l e d .
c o n t r o l m e a s u r e t o o k many f o r m s .

The t r a d e

I n g e n e r a l f r o m 1985 t o

1939 i n c l u s i v e , a l l m e a s u r e s we. e d e s i g n e d t o s t i m u l a t e
e x p o rts w hile r e s t r i c t i n g im p o rts.

7 / it h th e b e g i n n i n g o f

T o r l d T a r I I , h o w d v e r , t h e p o l i c i e s t o o k an o p p o s i t e d i r -

187

ectlon,

that

is

to

fac ilita te

im ports

while

restrictin g

exports.

In
a • ajnr

Turkey’ s

trade

im plem ents,
ject

to

•- r o t e c t

to

increase

mein

barrier,

dom estic

in

Im port

to

quotas,
control

the

th irties

were

degree

of

protect
about
the

all

certain

would

not

ta riffs

produced
the

of

have

adopted

in

the

exports

value
ana,

of

even

of

the

by Turkey
The

im ports;

the

main

during

prim ary

thereby

debt.

an u n f a v o r a b le

ob­

a volume
b .lance

of
of

to

to
bring

perm itting

Thus,

c o n sid e ra tio n was no t
rather

nation.

im port m onopolies

more p a r t i c u l a r l y ,

over

though

currency,

cases

to

on t h o s e

Turkish

country’s foreign

lead

charged

in­

a certain

the

but

to

the

m aintain

of

products,

imposed

policies

barriers.
to

sub­

designed

been

standard

m easures
trade

were

dom estically,

living

are

alw ays

were

been

agricultural

o th e rs were

licensing,

industries,

excess

duties

m easures were

stab ility

repaym ent

alm ost
for

an

duties

im port

other

these

local

high

raise

exchange

of

these

of

have

im ported

Government f i s c a l

not

and

jectives

of

duties

exception

mere' e n d i s e

Im port

Thus,

help

the

tariff

.industries w hile

which w e re

t h e y would

all
home

revenue.

revenue.

‘- r o d u c t s

kith

ta r if Is.

consideration

crease

policies

practically

high

to

trade

the

in
demand

im ports
trade

for

which
Tur­

key.

From 1934

w

to

1S4-0 t h e

above m easures

were

supplem ent

188

ed by b i l a t e r a l t r a d e a g r e e m e n t s and c o m p e n s a t i o n
of t r a d e .

A l l t h e s e m e a s u r e s made i t

ystems

alm ost im p o s sib le

f o r T u rk ey to t r a d e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e of c o m p a r a t i v e
advantage,

i t is

t r u e t h a t by a d o p t i n g such m e a s u r e s

T u r k e y a t t a i n e d a f a v o r a b l e b a l a n c e o f t r a d e and t h e r e b y
pai,d o f f h e r f o r e i g n d e b t , b u t i t was a t t h e e x p e n s e of
h s r i n t e r n a t i o n a l freedom .

Thus T u rk ey d i d n o t r e a l i z e

t h a t b y a d o p t i n g t h e c l e a r i n g s y s t e m of t r a d e i t would
l e a d t o German p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e e c o n o m ic and p o l i t i c a l
life

of t h e c o u n t r y .

V.'ith the p a s s a g e o f t i m e T u r k e y was

t i e d c l o s e r and c l o s e r i n t o t h e economic o r b i t of Germany.
•u a t e r a c t i o n s w e r e t a k e n i n 1959 t o r e d u c e t h i s d e p e n d e n c e
b u t a t c o n s i d e r a b l e s h o r t run s a c r i f i c e s t o th e n a t i o n a l
economy.
P r i o r t o ' / o r I d V?ar I I ,

Turkey’ s sole a c tio n i n

making a r e d u c t i o n i n t r a d e b a r r i e r s was h e r e n t e r i n g i n t o
a r e c i p r o c a l t r a d e agreem ent w ith the U nited S t a t e s in
A p r i l , 1959.

how ever, b e c a u se o f the w ar t h e a n t i c i p a t e d

e x p a n s i o n i n t r a d e bwtw een t h e two c o u t r i e s c o u l d n o t
be r e a l i z e d .
I t m u st b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t T u r k e y ’ s p o l i c y o f e x p a n d ­
i n g i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n b r o u g h t a b o u t many l e s s e r d i f f i c u l t i e s
d u rin g th e r e c e n t war t h a n i f
t u r a l n a t i o n a s i n 19 25.

sh e h a d b e e n s o l e l y a n a g r i c u l ­

A t a t i m e when o t h e r , c o u n t r i e s

h a d few g o o d s t o e x p o r t , T u r k e y w a s a b l e t o p r o d u c e a t
l e a s t p a r t of h e r n e c e s s i t i e s .

Thus o v e r t h e p e r i o d we

189

a r e c o n s i d e r i n g , T u r k e y h a s had p o s i t i v e g a i n s and p o s i t i v e
l o s s e s fr o m t e r c o n t r o l s o v e r t r a d e .
Turkey i s i n t e r e s t e d i n a r a p i d r a t e o f i n d u s t r i a l
developm ent.

The r a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t m i l d e p e n d unon

t h e volume an d v a l u e

of e x p o r t s , p r i m a r i l y a g r i c u l t u r a l .

I f o t h e r n a t i o n s p u r c h a s e 'Turkey ’ s g o o d s a l a r g e volume
o f t r a d e w i l l b e p o s s i b l e b o t h i n i m p o r t s and e x p o r t s ; a
s m a l l e r volume of t r a d e w i l l f o r c e 'i 'u r k e y to c o n t r o l im ­
p o r t s and d e v e l o p h e r own r e s o u r c e s a t a s l o w e r r a t e b e ­
c a u s e o f t h e l a c k of c a p i t a l g o o d s i m p o r t s ,

'■‘■'hus t h e

p a t t e r n f o r t h e f u t u r e w i l l d e p e n d on d e v e l o p m e n t s i n
U n i t e d N a t i o n s n e g o t i a t i o n s e s p e c i a l l y a s p r a c t i c e d by
o t n e r p a r t s of Nurope.

They w i l l be r e f l e c t e d i n T u r k e y ’ s

t r a d e p o l i c i e s s in c e Turkey as a sm all t r a d i n g n a t i o n
finds i t

d ifficu lt

t o p u r s u e an i n d e p e n d e n t c o u r s e of a c -

t i on i n t r a d e p o l i c y .

190

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY1

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A l l e n , H e n r y E . , The T u r k i s h T r a n s f o r m a t i o n , The u n i v e r s i t y
of Chicago P r e s s , C h ica g o , 1935.
Emin, Ahmed, T u r k e y i n t h e World War, Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
New H a v e n , 1 9 3 0 .
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H a t ip o g l u , S e v k e t, T urkiyede Z i r a i Buhran, A nkara, 1937.
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J a c k h , E r n e s t , The R i s i n g C r e s c e n t , E a r r a r & R i n e h a r t , I n c . ,
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and T u r k e y 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 4 4 , a t h e s i s , I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y ,
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K r u g e r , K a r l , K e m a l i s t T u r k e y and M i d d l e E a s t , G. A l l e n a n d
Unwin L t d . , L o n d o n , 1 9 3 2 .
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C e n t r a l E u r o p e an •‘•imes P u b l i s h i n g Co. L t d . , Z u r i c h ,
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T u r k e y , O x fo rd u n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , L o n d o n ,

W eb ste r, Donald E.
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Academy o f P o l i t i c a l and S o c i a l S c i e n c e , P h i l a d e l p h i a ,
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191

League of N a tio n s P u b l i c a t i o n s
I n t e r n a t i o n a l T r a d e i n C e r t a i n Raw M a t e r i a l s
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'19 3 8, 1 9 3 9 .
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The T r a d e o f E u r o p e , G e n e v a , 1 9 4 1 .
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Co m m e rcia l P o l i c y i n t h e I n t e r w a r P e r i o d , G e n e v a ,
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.

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I n t e r n a t i o n a l Yearbook of A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a t i s t i c s ,
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U. S . D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e , T r a d e A g re em en t b e t w e e n t h e
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127, A p r i l 8 , 1939.
________ . R e c i p r o c a l T r a d e A g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
8nd T u r k e y , E x e c u t i v e A g r e e m e n t S e r i e s , No. 1 6 3 ,
W ashington, 1939.

19£

U. S . D e p a r t m e n t o f S t a t e , M u t u a l A i d A g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and T u r k e y , E x e c u t i v e A g r e e m e n t
S e r i e s , No. 4 6 5 , W a s h i n g t o n , 194 5 .
U. S . D e p a r t m e n t of Commerce, T u r k e y , B a s i c E conom ic P o s i ­
t i o n and R ecent Changes, I n t e r n a t i o n a l R eferen ce
S e r i e s , V o l . 1 , No. 9 , A p r i l 1 9 4 1 .
U. S . D e p a r t m e n t o f Commerce, E conomic S u r v e y o f t h e C o u n t ­
r i e s B o r d e r i n g t h e E a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , and F r e n c h
T e r r i t o r y i n N o r t h A f r i c a , B u r e a u of F o r e i g n and
D o m e stic Commerce, 1 9 4 1 .
_______ _ .
T r a d e I n f o r m a t i o n B u l l e t i n s , V o l . 9 , No. 9 , S e p t ­
ember, 1945.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Reference S e r i e s ,
n a t i o n a l T r a d e , V o l . I V , No. 7 8 .

O ffice of I n t e r ­

TJ. S. L a b o r D e p a r t m e n t , Law P r o v i d i n g L s.nd f o r F a r m e r s i n
T u r k e y , S e r i a l No. R. 1 78 7 .
(From M o n t h l y L a b o r
R e v ie w , O c t e b e r 1 9 4 5 ) .
G r e a t B r i t a i n , D e p a r t m e n t of O v e r s e a s T r a d e , E conomic and
C o m m e rcia l C o n d i t i o n s i n T u r k e y , i i i s M a j e s t y ’ s '
S t a t i o n a r y O f f i c e , 1924, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930,
1933, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1945.
R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r e s , The B a l k a n S t a t e s ,
V ol. I .
Econom ic, Oxford u n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London,
1936.
________ . S o u t h e a s t e r n E u r o p e , P o l i t i c a l and E c o n o m i c - S u r v e y ,
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , London, 1939.
R e p u b lic of T urkey, M i n i s t r y o f I n t e r i o r , N a t i o n a l Banking
i n Turkey P r e s s D e p a rtm e n t, A n k a ra, 1938.
T u r k e y on t h e way o f I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , A n k a r a ,
1937.
________La T u r q u i e C o n t e m p o r a i n e , A n k a r a , 1 9 3 5 .
________ L a T u r q u i e en C h i f f r e s , A n k a r a , 1 9 3 7 .
. M i n i s t r y o f Custom s and M o n o p o l i e s , Gumruk T a r i f e s i Kanunu ve I t h a l a t umumi T a r i f e s i , A n k a r a , 1 9 4 3 .
. M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e , Z i r a a t K a n u n l a r i , A n k a r a ,
1940.

193

__________.
M inistry of
A nkara, 1946.

education,

Education

in

Turkey,

C en tral O ffice of S t a t i s t i c s , I s t a t i s t i c
Y o ls. 9, 14, 15, A nkara, 1957, 1943, 1946.
________ ______D i s

T icaret Y illik

__________. __T a r l a T . T a h s u l l e r i
__________ . __H e y v e
•

Ista tistig i

__________. __T u r k i y e d e

Is ta tis tig i,
" illi

. __T u r k i y e d e

1946,

Istatik leri .

I s t s t i s t i k l e r i , Ankara,

__ ' H a y v a n l a r

Ankara,

v illig i,

1944.

Ankara,

G e l i r , Ankara,

Saneyi ,

^nkara,

1942.
1947.

1946.

P eriodicals

The N a t i o n a l
Foreigh
________ .
business

G eographic

A griculture,
Septem ber
Seek,

A pril
1945,

A pril

'■ 'o rId D e p o r t , M a r c h
________ .

A pril

8,

__________.

A pril

22,

Fortune,

O ctober

M a g a z i n e , —a y ,

pp.

26,
25,

1947,
pp.

1947,
p.

pp.

221-272.

142-144.

1947,

1947,

1947,

1940,

1945,

pp.
p.

7.

22-23.

pp.
106.

26-27.

117-118.

pp.

583-616.

APPENDIX

Table 1 -

The U n its of Turkish Measures in Terms
o f American U n its.

Length measures
1 meter

•

39.37

in ch es

1 ce n tim eter

=

0 .3937

1 k ilo m eter

=

10 93 .6 yards

M

Area measures
1 Dekar

» 0 .2 4 7

acres

1 H ectare

• 2.47

acres

Volume measures
1 L ite r s

=

61 cubic in ch es

1 cubic m eter

~

1.30 9 cubic yards

*

3 5.3 14 cu bic f e e t

Liquid measures
1 L iter

=

0 .2 6 4

g a llo n

1 L it e r

=

1 .0 5 7

quart

Mass measures
1 kilogram

* 2 .2 0 4 pounds

-

1 m etric ton * 1 .1 0 2 sh ort to n
1 m etric ton - 2204 pounds

3 2.1 5 ounces
•

0.984 lon g ton

ii

Table 2 -

Y ea rly Average o f L ir a i n Terms
o f D o lla r 1

Years

R ates

1923

$ 0.60

1924

0 .5 9

1936

0 .8 0

1925

0 .5 4

1937

0 .8 0

1926

0 .5 2

1938

0 .8 0

1927

0 .5 1

1939

0 .7 8

1928

0 .5 0

1940

0 .7 2

1929

0 .4 8

1941

0 .7 6

1930

0 .4 8

1942

0.77

1931

0 .4 7

1943

0.77

1932

0 .4 7

1944

0 .7 7

1933

0 .6 0

1945

0 .7 7

1934

0 .7 9

1946

0 .3 5

Years
i
1935

Rates
$ 0.80

Compiled from Annuair S t a t i s t l q u e s .
Ankara 1936, 1942, 1946.
^-Yearly average o f s e l l i n g r a t e s of C entral Bank
o f Turkey.

/

I ll

T able 3 -

V a lu e o f P r i n c i p a l E x p o r ts o f Turkey 1 9 2 3 -1 9 4 6 .
( i n 1000 l i r a s )
P art 1

Year Leaf tobacco F i l b e r t s

R a isin s

F ig s

Cotton

Mohair

Wool

1923

20,339

3 ,8 1 5

1 0 ,5 6 2

4,8 66

6,169

3,152

1,111

1924

4 6,354

7,586

18,234

10,040

11,390

5,936

2,274

1925

60,244

14,180

10,999

8,237

14,906

2,748

2,539

1926

67,457

1 1,36 5

1 2,561

6,363

11 ,5 2 5

6,468

2,330

1927

43,837

1 0,365

7,6 0 4

4 ,3 2 4

10,199

6,976

2,339

1928

54,028

10,268

15,229

4 ,8 8 8

10,066

7,415

3 ,9 6 4

1929

40,687

4 ,6 7 8

9,9 3 1

5,353

10,898

4 ,3 0 4

3 ,7 9 5

1930

42,981

1 0 ,2 9 2

9,960

4,159

14,270

2,870

1 ,4 08

1931

28,752

9,272

10,769

5,355

6,321

1,594

1 ,8 1 5

1932

26,940

6,946

1 0,57 4

3 ,612

2,747

1,634

1 ,2 8 4

1933

21,086

7 ,838

6 ,9 0 8

3,717

1 ,2 3 3

2,380

1 ,949

1934

12,729

7 ,193

7 ,2 7 8

2,791

5 ,183

3,778

3 ,477

1935

1 8,676

10 ,21 5

1 0,497

4,459

6,516

2,139

1 ,8 6 8

1936

24,240

13,531

10,199

4,0 2 9

9 ,0 8 3

7,031

5,431

1937

4 3,894

1 0,69 4

5 ,9 4 2

3,246

5,405

5,725

6 ,5 5 1

1938

39,280

1 2 ,4 4 6

1 4,3 29 ^ 5,553

1 0,140

3 ,575

3 ,3 8 2

1939

38,775

8 ,2 6 2

5,701

4,260

4 ,1 9 0

7 ,653

4 ,6 9 4

1940

24,222

7,114

4 ,4 0 4

2,397

8 ,2 9 0

6 ,582

3 ,7 6 9

1941

30,665

9 ,591

9 ,0 1 3

5,4 8 4

4 ,9 1 6

9,76 5

637

1942

4 9 ,7 5 3

1 2 ,8 3 3

12,185

5,162

2,938

9,911

504

1943

98,494

21,001

9 ,1 2 0

3,209

11,611 14,486

164

1944

80,476

16,068

2 9,103

5,630

13,02 0 14,775

96

1945

97,286

18,655

1 9 ,4 8 2

6,582

112

1 ,8 2 8

—

1946

96,034

40,606

3 6,312

17,755

582

2,183

1 ,2 1 6

iv
T ab le 4 -

V a lu e o f P r i n c ip a l jsx p o r ts o f Turkey 1 9 2 3 -1 9 4 6 .
( i n 1000 l i r a s )
P art 2

Year

L ive
Animals

H ides and
sk in s

1923

2,477

1 ,7 2 4

409

1 ,4 2 2

--

1 ,365

4 ,1 8 6

1924

4,6 1 1

2,0 3 4

1,16 0

3,727

—

2,065

6,120

1925

5,068

3,327

1,8 1 1

4 ,8 6 0

—

2,295

7 ,4 5 2

1926

3 ,786

3 ,6 3 8

1 ,3 0 5

4,6 1 4

1,119

1 ,8 6 5

8 ,5 0 0

1927

4 ,3 0 3

3 ,0 8 8

840

5,434

1 ,2 3 5

2,710

4 ,9 0 7

1928

2,686

3 ,1 7 6

1 ,8 8 2

6,040

406

3,050

5,327

1929

4 ,7 6 8

3., 190

1,069

6,528

41

2 ,093

8 ,6 4 8

1930

7,5 4 6

4 ,2 2 4

936

8 ,3 2 4

577

1 ,5 4 6

3,396

1931

8 ,0 0 7

3 ,9 4 4

485

10,357

856

1,2 6 9

2,818

1932

6,357

2 ,0 4 5

518

8 ,0 2 6

1 ,5 5 8

1,48 0

1 ,9 2 0

1933

5,3 0 3

1 ,5 2 2

577

4 ,8 0 6

1 ,0 9 5

1 ,7 9 0

3 ,2 3 8

1934

5,77 6

2,540

1,03 1

2,628

4 ,0 8 1

1 ,3 7 3

361

1935

4 ,433

2,520

1 ,5 9 4

1,3 6 9

2,831

1 ,3 2 3

1*064

1936

3,4 1 6

2,8 7 4

1 ,4 8 5

1 ,6 8 2

1,92 7

1 ,6 2 4

1,5 4 8

1937

2,993

2,245

1 ,2 6 3

695

7 ,885

1 ,520

1 ,6 0 5

1938

2,922

3 ,5 7 5

1,4 1 0

798

5,631

1 ,7 0 0

953

1939

2,444

4,3 1 1

1 ,7 1 0

1 ,6 8 8

1,0 7 3

1,619

2,685

1940

1 ,2 7 4

1 ,8 6 5

546

1,707

3,130

1 ,2 3 3

3,5 6 6

1941

847

9,77 5

1,0 3 7

360

—

1,429

3,2 5 0

1942

3

1 6,693

1,1 1 1

1 ,506

—

1 ,9 7 3

5,827

1943

129

1 5,043

1,3 2 1

360

74

7,025

5,817

1944

70

4,119

1,34 1

56

2,390

3 ,2 4 3

1945

930

1 1,953

2,097

4

1,569

754

5,3 8 8

1946

34,101

1 4,734

3 ,1 2 4

1 ,3 4 4

1 2,115

4 ,0 8 3

6,180

Source:

Sausage
Casings

Eggs

Wheat

A n n u air S t a t i s t i q u e s , A nkara, T urkey.

V alonia

Opium

V

T ab le 5 -

Volume o f P r i n c i p a l E x p o r ts o f Turkey 1 9 2 3 -1 9 4 6
( i n 1000 k ilo g r a m s )
P art 1

Year Leaf tobacco F i l b e r t s

R a is in s

F ig s

Cotton

Mohair

Wool

1923

24,428

8 ,8 1 0

32,999

19,110 9,677

2,625

2,408

1924

2 6,782

8 ,2 6 6

48,38 2

33,43 5 12,519

3,53 5

3,313

1925

3 3,72 3

13,600

23,819

22,095 1 5,940

1,349

2,881

1926

4 1,445

1 3,59 6

29,030

24,917 16,817

4 ,6 0 8

3,767

1927

29,331

15,73 8

1 8,91 4

26,903 1 5,963

4 ,5 3 0

3,410

1928

39,809

14,307

55,596

27,016 14,654

4 ,5 2 2

4 ,6 5 4

1929

3 2,64 6

4 ,5 4 8

47,750

27,583 16,373

3,1 5 1

4 ,3 8 2

1930

3 2,750

1 4,410

39,850

23,809 28,608

3,060

3 ,0 4 2

1931

2 2,212

13,341

30,140

27,206 20,178

2,351

4 ,4 2 2

1932

28,844

1 7,640

4 9,197

25,617

9 ,1 4 2

3 ,9 8 4

3 ,4 6 3

1933

25,932

1 6,028

4 5,639

26,991

3 ,9 5 7

5 ,3 6 2

5,478

1934

18,081

1 7,066

5 4,282

28,796 13,029

6,0 4 2

6 ,3 3 3

1935

21,858

1 9 ,95 8

7 6,423

37,487 14,964

2 ,896

3,920

1936

23,253

22,953

66,051

2 9,136 21,959

7,421

9 ,178

1937

39,690

2 0,663

28,820

24,350 1 1,233

4 ,009 10,783

1938

42,066

22,651

8 2 ,97 3

41,309 25,888

2,938

6,160

1939

43 ,28 4

16,831

38,980

28,633

9,217

7,070

8 ,1 2 9

1940

27,388

17,200

3 0,796

18,956 11*900

4 ,5 5 1

4 ,0 0 4

1941

31,657

1 7,52 8

3 0,082

3 3,084

8 ,1 3 2

4 ,8 7 2

669

1942

4 2,918

1 1,27 5

20,094

1 5,824

2 ,9 4 3

3 ,6 0 8

268

1943

44 ,1 8 2

14,558

1 2,455

3,571

8 ,5 6 9

4 ,3 8 5

149

1944

30,233

11,736

4 1,990

10,199

8 ,2 3 5

3,871

58

1945

3 8 ,0 7 2

13,317

39,880

14,149

646

663

mm mm

1946

28,536

23,255

60,323

24,781

286

1 ,1 8 5

900

vi
T able 6 -

Volume o f P r i n c i p a l E x p o r ts o f Turkey 1 9 2 3 -1 9 4 6 .
( i n 1000 k ilo g r a m s )
P art 2

Year

H ides and
skins

Sausage
C asings

1923

3 ,245

223

1924

3,207

1925

Wheat

V alonia

5 ,2 1 3

—

24,732

358

266

8 ,6 6 1

—

31,632

202

4,4 5 0

260

10,055

—

35,834

266

1926

5,0 8 1

270

9,46 6

1 ,7 7 0

28,377

364

1927

3,907

308

1 1,056

1 ,7 0 3

37,194

268

1928

3 ,3 9 5

370

11,523

39

36,185

313

1929

3,167

306

1 1,16 5

189

36,891

368

1930

4 ,5 8 0

248

1 7 ,8 7 3

364

32,435

272

1931

5,204

208

24,540

1,489

26,489

351

1932

4 ,1 6 2

175

24,753 19 ,018

30,222

240

1933

2,781

1521 _ 17,911 21,376

30,947

430

1934

5,960

205

10,438 8 0,81 6

39,055

42

1935

5,669

231

6,086 64,602

34,214

110

1936

6,194

248

5,774 3 4,203

29,673

197

1937

7,638

330

3 ,0 3 2 108 ,09 2

33,713

194

1938

5,067

247

2 ,910 101,502

34,911

112

1939

5,168

315

6 ,162

23,418

37,672

342

1940

2,640

143

4 ,7 4 4

63,878

22,535

327

1941

9,490

236

766

—

14,559

199

1942

7,036

263

1,73 7

—

17,186

216

1943

5,011

130

212

277

39,911

154

1944

1 ,4 3 2

100

—

200

11,217

8©

1945

3,7 2 9

190

—

6,81.4

4 ,6 5 2

168

1946

6,493

312

704

33,777

23,799

Y8*$

Sou rce:

A n n u alre S t a t i s t i q u e s , A nkara, T u rk ey.

Opium

I

Table 7 Year
19 £3

V a lu e o f T u r k e y ’ s T r a d e 7.1 t h P r i n c i p a l C o u n t r i e s ,

U nited S t a te s
E xports
Im ports
6,- 750

1924 1 6,392
1925 25,472
192 6
1927
192 8
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
193 8
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
194 5
1946

23,750
24.584
27.585
15,387
17,806
12,678
12,093
10,066
9,462
9,653
13,110
19,201
171,769
18,215
15,739
16*, 582
28,122
52,763
55,627
95,952
82,730
Source:

11,059
11,378
19,603
8,166
8,164
10,182
12,151
6,094
4,188
2,267
2,544
3,756
6,182
8,993
17,295
15., 680
11,685
7,447
4,007
7,171
4,887
7,644
22,183
70,131

Germany
E x p o rts Im ports
7
20
27
23
14
22
20
19
13
15
18
34
39
60
50
62
47
9
26
40
61
52

626
551
701
574
708
151
582
838
649
722
223
410
201
042
412
209
504
687
870
757
102
877
— «•»
- -

9
19
27
32
30
31
39
27
27
19
19
29
35
41
48
70
60
8
8
41
76
50

222
114
452
341
005
688
172
380
049
983
043
349
508
742
132
411
140
083
940
022
632
227
776
71

Italy
E x ports Im ports
15,201
34,884
50,274
51,752
37,022
31,616
33,845
32,011
30,752
16,359
12,968
10,307
9 ,4 9 3
. 4,343
7 ,266.
14,562
12,752
17,951
2,853
5,074
4,756
90
130
12,109

28,353
40,984
43,487
37,096
26,054
26,426
32,032
20,591
18,450
11,074
8,450
7,395
5,669
2,026
6,085
7,120
10,023
11,224
2,385

4 ,4 3 3
5,456
482
29
12,980

1923-0 946 ( i n 1000 l i r a s )
G reat B r ita in
E x p o rts Im ports

France
E x p o rts Im ports

15,757
23,282
17,202
21,309
16,839
17,562
14,949
13,521
10,850
9,965
8,594
5,272
5,193
6,356
9,769
4,9 4 2
7,302
11,551
19,979
25,238
27,858
51,398
32,612
75,647

10,504
18,786
24,040
22,645
16,941
18,452
19,618
18,457
12,156
7,820
6,182
2,809
3,040
3,828
5,264
4,758
5,651
6,613
1,027
532
1,789
55
2,981
17,999

25,063
34,278
37,837
33,049
28,757
27,100
31,356
16,530
14,361
10,640
10,068
8,570
8,6 8 2
6,103
.7,129
16,794
7,388
9 ,66 5
18,391
34,662
32,348
29,517
29,427
43,258

13,229
18,302
26,057
23,097
29,173
29,169
26,690
15,499
12,788
7,190
4,903
6,440
4,184
2,335
1,240
1,972
2,236
1,925
337
134
41
44
1

1,68.1

A n n u a ire S t a t i s t i q u e s , A nkara, Turkey

<5
H*

H*

v iii

Table 8:

V a l u e o f P r i n c i p a l A g r i c u l t u r a l I m p o r t s o f T u rk ey
1 9 23-1946
( i n 1 0 00 l i r a s )
C o f f e e Cru de Rubl
Rubber

Year

Sugar

1923
192 4
192 5
192 6
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
194 3
19 44
194 5
194 6

10,964
907
12,799 1 ,1 6 8
13,313 1 ,5 7 3
12,712 1,510
13,403 1,4 1 1
12,697 1,8 2 6
12,106 1,628
9 , 1 7 8 1,2.41
4,8 3 5 1,077
663
3,007
804
1,589
623
424
449
268
843
1,415
868
875
837
4,161
861
1,962
962 1 , 1 9 3
_ — 2,5£.5
--- 1 , 8 3 1
1,598
314
--438
--- 1 , 2 2 2

Tea

Sources:

2,515
3,177
4,976
5,069
4,464
4,537
5,154
3,569
2,474
2,310
1,759
1,541
1,334
1,590
1,998
1,507
1,489
1,070
1,005
361
1,479
1,717
1,910
2,980

1,284
2,143
3,540
3,902
3,600
4,497
5,353
3,325
2,461
1,521
1,571
1,143
1,010
1,210
1,800•
1,899
1,832
824
1,090
1,313
1,045
2,973
1,265
478

1

p
i
H i d e s & S k i n s Lemons Cocoa
1,506
1,857
4,563
3,680
3,185
6,238
4,861
2,886
1,462
739
1,770
1,707
1,692
4,421
3,015
2,430
2,970
1,418
2,558
5,421
5,041
8,080
5,702
16,148

515
426
615
597
381
424
527
537
575
421
266
215
229
354
414
357
238
212
43
150
162
—
—
—

19
24
28
SO
51
80
98
58
74
59
58
55
7
54
53
46
80
52
62
142
146
262
183
358

A n n u a ire S t a t i s t i q u e s , A nkara, 1936, 1942, 1946.

f i g u r e s o b t a i n e d d i r e c t f r o m C e n t r a l O f f i c e of S t a t i s t i c s
of Turkey.
^1923-40 f i g u r e s from (H ayvanlar i s t a t i s t i g i ) , A nkara,
1942, p. 142.

ix

T ab le 9:

Volume o f P r i n c i p a l A g r i c u l t u r a l I m p o r t s o f T u r k e y
1 923-1946
( i n 100 0 k i l o g r a m s )

Year Sugar
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1959
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946

46,689
52,699
67,654
62,971
61,514
63,474
68,588
63,291
44,543
29,336
17,756
3,719
2,187
22,401
11,991
62,097
27,388
9,6 1 5
__
« —

__

Tea
653
■719
906
980
850
1,144
1,022
861
892
754
1,082
674
605
1,153
974
942
1,004
955
1
» —

638
166
356
790

sources:

C o f f e e Crude 'Rubber“4: i d e s & S k in s ^ L e m o n s Cocoa
4
4
5
5
5
D
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
4
3
1
3
3

677
640
200
321
000
097
638
520
363
377
536
770
360
447
120
320
947
857
022
168
244
517
o
652
3 657

382
1,403
1,987
2,094
2,037
2,801
4,106
1,498
1,386
1,119
828
965
881
1,048
1,463
1,576
1,506
677
809
729
398
1,383
643
349

.

3
4
4
4
5
6
7
3
2
1
3
3
3
-6
3
8
7
2
2
4
3
5

994
635
355
049
502
594
104
257
658
586
848
108
128
332
674
111
638
514
671
92l
084
616
ry
006
O
8 272

41
52
59
86
80
129
166
113
216
209
276
300
21
195
165
145
264
148
151
177
186

6,994
5,463
7,052
6,625
4,554
4,299
4,303
4,161
4,127
5,478
4,090
4,143
3,314
2,623
2,957
2,780
2,210
1,941
508
704
501

008

—

>-•23
260

—

i . n n u a l ' t a t i s t i c s , Anka r a , 1 9 5 7 , 1 9 - 2 , 1946

•

^ F ig u r e s o b t a i n e d d i r e c t from C e n tr a l C f l ic e of s t a t i s t i c s
of T urkey.
^1923-40 f i g u r e s f r m L i v e s t o c k s t a t i s t i c
A nkara, 1942, p. 142.

(T urkish)

X

Table 10:

V a l u e of P r i n c i p a l M a n u f a c t u r e d I m p o r t s of T u r k e y
1923-1946
( i n 1000 l i r a s )

Year

C otton goods

Woolen g o o d s

I r o n and S t e e l M a c h i n e r y P e t r o l e u n

19 23

53,895

8,757

7,751

1,336

5,464

1924

63,543

13,457

16,168

5,639

.6 ,1 9 5

1925

74,268

19,482

21,505

7,763

9,294

1926

72,421

20,502

22,235

10,154

8,597

1927

51,005

16,947

22,502

9,488

8,617

1928

52,482

15,258

26,327

10,462

9,075

1929

60,004

18,676

31,764

13,466

9,345

1930

32,264

10,855

20,203

11,690

5,993

1931

33,159

9,065

16,238

10,952

4,041

1932

20,557

5,555

10,429

8,207

3,411

1933

18,833

6,141

9,064

6,710

'3 ,0 0 6

1934

17,167

6,136

18,669

12,916

3,073

19 35

16,950

4,951

16,579

9,243

2,953

1936

16,616

5,848

14,414

12,202

2,999

1937

22,616

7,753

18,292

15,058

4,221

1 93 8

22,465

7,355

28,173

23,013

5,517

1939

16,307

4,800

20,146

19,958

5,394

1940

6,672

2,277

6,024

8,916

10,253

1941

7,025

3,250

7,250

6,645

10,751

1 94 2

222,969

7,213

20,403

14,999

5,528

194 3

9,006

8 ,8 1 8

34,732

21,443

9,767

1944

6,994

6,297

23,071

20,068

13,764

1 94 5

5,869

8,921

9,955

12,670

9,619

1946

8,879

11,867

27,343

32,799

1 4 ,2 0 ^

S & u rce:

A n n u a ir e S t a t i s t i q u e s ,

A nkara,

T urkey.

xi
T a b le

11:

Turkey* s E x p o r t s

of

in v a lu e
(in

1 9 2 5 -1 9 4 6 .

1000 lir a s )

W ether-

11,562 14,905

25,964

1,186

—

2,787

700

1926

10,975 12,273

36,398

456

—

2,014

2,464

1927

11,517

4 ,6 66 -

16,809

377

509

577

215

1928

12,998

6,485

14,986

1,059

7,017

734

4,776

3,1 2 5 10,081

11,798

1,389

3,513

1,094

4,464

1929

•

192 5

CO

Year

•
h>

Germany

T obacco t o P r in c ip a l C o u n tr ie s .

Italy

B e lg iu m C z e c h o s l o v a k i a

la n d s

Egypt

19 30

10,423

8,447

11,383

1,848

1,072

1,586

2,327

1951.

7,610

2,059

9,004

582

3,014

2,465

1,194

1932

8,283

5,231

3,084

969

1,158

2,425

950

1933

5,462

6,927

939

1,053

3,350

453

647

1934

4,738.

4,3 7 1

592

156

60

277

503

1935

6,781

5,796

75

580

1,971

321

750

1936

10,141

8,026

1

570

2,221

2fo1

206

1937

14,921 18,033

984

664

2,003

353

543

1938

14,025 13,596

2,899

■ 388

1,818

889

648

1939

11,829 15,620

2,658

274

1,586

1,196

832

1940

7,528

5,964

3,629

32

462

53

816

1941

9,960 11,010

--

49

172

158

2,564

1942

18,149 15,560

220

92

598

435

7,302

1943

44,660 23,932

143

—

83

56 1 9 , 2 0 4

194 4

44,306

9,138

—

—

21 1 5 , 1 6 8

19 45

63,656

—

1946

49,119

—

Source:

718

518

419

2,008

19,012

2,921

1,910

2,113

18,698 '

Annua i r e S t a t i s t i q u e s , A n k a r a , T urkey

d

x ii

Table IS :

Number of L i v e s t o c k i n T u r k e y , 1 9 5 5 - 1 9 4 5 .
( i n 1000 h e a d , a l l a g e s )

Sheep

M ohair
Go at

Common
Goat

C attle

Horse

Ass

Mule

Camel

1955

13,591

, o05

8,456

7,165

741

1,164

66

97

1956

20,772 4 ,2 9 5

10,727

9,130

1^020

1,569

73

118

1937

21,725 4 ,4 5 9

11,050

9,670

1,050

1,684

77

119

1938

£3,138 4 ,9 4 5

11,329

10,196

964 ' 1 , 4 9 0

71

114

1939

2 5 , ;:21 5 , 3 5 5

11,185

10,302

947

1,387

74

109

1940

26,272 5,501

11,395

10,706

898

1,813.

70

109

1941

25,412 5 ,5 5 4

11,523

11,007

982

1,805

91

111

1942

22,967 4 ,9 7 3

11,430

10,500

987

1,690

86

114

1945

21,105 4 ,3 8 1

11,825

10,089

981

1,621

92

108

1944

22,450 4 ,9 7 5

12,250

10,406

1,067

1,644

82

104

1945

23,786 3,997

12,222

10,658

977

1,618

88

99

Source:

H a y v an la r I s t s t i s t i g i , Ankara, 1942.
A n n u aire S t a t i s t i q u e s , A nkara, 1946.

M

X iii

Trtole 1 5 :

A c r e a g e and P r o d u c t i o n of F i e l d Crops i n T u r k e y ,
1 9 5 5 - 5 9 , a v e r a g e , 1 9 4 0 , 1 9 4 1 . and 1 9 4 2 . •

( A c r e a g e i n 1000 h e c t a r e s , p r o d u c t i o n i n 1000 t o n s )
1935-59
_
1940
H ect.
Prod. H ect.
Prod.

1941
H ect. Prod.

1942
H ect. Prod.

'5$beat

3,623

3,708

4 ,381

4,068

4 , 3 9 4 3 ,483

4,369 2,000

B arley

1,8 5 5

2,075

2 ,092

2,249

2 , 0 5 7 1 ,7 5 8

1,932

902

©arm

448

.587

510

757

502

647

651

360

©&ts

580

568

464

482

490

342

446

163

Bye

258

247

394

328

367

263

349

183

B ice

30

60

26

63

41

56

26

35

O ther C e re a ls

315

259

322

277

342

277

366

.178

legum es

392

319

402

372

423

337

429

249

C c t t 0X1

268

60

325

77

327

64

327

78

79

61

78

71

75

55

78

59

P ctsto es

55

181

68

319

73

275

93

279

Sanger B e e t
3
Opiuea.

29

394

39

550

41

556

29

376

29

282

30

223

30

206

28

151

F lex (fib e r)

19

3

36

11

41

7

33

3

H e x seed

—

9

—

18

—

19

—

6

E©ffi© ( f i b e r )

12

8

12

6

12

10

14

10

Henp s e e d

—

2

—

4

—

4

—

3

S e sa m e

65

29

80

43

67

33 ■

58

20

148
56
181
54
112
©mi<om.s a nd g a r l i c
42
,
1944|t
,
A
n
g
a
r
a
.
t
i
s
t
i
g
i
i
s
t
s
m
a
h
s
u
l
l
e
n
T arl a
Sources:

60

111

^ A n n u a i r e S t a t i s t i q u e s , A n k a r a , 1 9 4 6 , p . 24 1 .
Q u a r t e r l y b u l l e t i n o f C e n t r a l Bank, A n k a r a , 1 9 4 7 , p . 7 3 .
^Thousand of k i l o g r a m s .

T ab le 14:

Numbers e n d P r o d u c t i o n o f P r i n c i p a l P a m i t T r e e s i n
1939-1948
( n u m b e r i n 1000 t r e e s p r o d u c t i o n i n 1000 t o n s )
1939
Nos.
Prod.

N o s.

Apples

6,618

109

6,540

Pears

5,954

90

C herries

4,327

P lu m s
H aseln u ts

1941
Nos. P r o d .

Nos.

82

6,580

83

6 ,7 1 6

86

5,889

62

5,690

59

5 ,8 5 7

64

65

4,412

50

4,480

23

4,761

37

5,103

57

4,233

50

4,369

27

4,512

46

164,578

107

170,484

32 1 7 2 , 3 5 8

67

350

326

350

291

350

383

—

61

—

54

—

71

420 1**95

397

942

'4 15

869

428

951

O lives1
O live o i l
Grapes1

1940
Prod.

37 1 7 2 , 0 4 7

1942
Prod

350
-■-

220
50

2,226

69

2,255

58

2,254

33

2,332

35

P i s t a c h i o n u t s 3,284

10

3,316

7

3,474

2

3,724

4

Almonds

1,903

16

1,902

12

1,941

7

1,953

10

A pricots

2,301

21

2,348

21

2,398

4

2,45 7

31

Oranges2

1,711

367

.1,550

236

1,652

146

1,637

103

Lemons^

205

37

257

37

290

39

307

75

T a n g e r i n e s i2

371

93

415

53

518

57

466

33

W aln u t

Sources:

F r u i t s S t a t i s t i c s , A n k a r a , 1 94 4 .

^ In th o u san d s of h e c t a r e s .
2I n m i l l i o n s o f f r u i t ,

XV

Table 15:

The B a l a n c e of T r a d e of t h e

Ottoman E mpire . 1 8 7 8 - 1 9 1 5 .

( i n 1000 l i r a s

Year

Im ports

E xports

1878
1879
1880
1881
188 2
1885
1884
18 85
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890'
1891
1892
189 5
1894
18 95
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
190 2
1903
190 4
1905
190 6
1907
190 8
5.909
1910
1911
1912
1913

20
19
17
19
20
19
20
20
20
20
19
20
22
24
24
24
24
20
21
23
26
24.
23
24
23.
24
27
31
35
34
31
33
42
45
43
40

88
8
8
11
10
12
12
12
11
13
15
12
15
15
15
13
15
15
14
13
15
14
15
15
17
17
17
19
18
19
18
18
25
31
23
24

Sources:

009
418
847
486
192
578
638
004
703
106
457
042
914
554
467
047
084
583
369
475
621
450
8 42
568
926
396
903
366
539
766
4 32
382
685
009
549
810

)

396
761
497
295
964
390
076
707
289
547
172
836
370
573
262
754
536
428
744
425
591
905
393
562
540
532
004
672
573
213
439
291
396
500
421
302

A nn u aire S t a t i s t i c i u e , Ankara.

D eficit
11
■ 10
6
8
S
7
8
7
o«/
6
4
7
7
8
11
10
8
5
6
10
11
9
8
o
6
o/»
10
11
14
15
12
15
17
13
19
16

513
657
350
191
228
188
562
297
414
559
285
206
544
981
205
293
548
155
635
050
030
545
449
006
386
864
899
694
966
551
993
091
290
508
628
506