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THESIS

 

 
THESIS

 

 
(G10

An Examination of the Physical Properties
of some
Typical Texas Soils,
With Reference to

Problems in Farm Management.

aaaQoecece

Prepared by
Charles H.Alvord

 

College Station Texas,
 

THESIS
.
us \
“

Plate I,

    

Map showing the
rainfall belts of Texas,

Over 40inches,

Between 30 and 40 inches,
Between 20 and 30 inches,
Between 10 and 20 inches,
Less than 10 inches,

93'766
Total Rainfall by Months,
(35° 30 N.)
Amarillo 102°W. Oklahoma City 98°W. Ft.Smith Ark, 94 W.

  

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Total Rainfall by Months,
(33°N.)

El Paso 105°W. Dallas 97°W, Shreveport: La. 94 W.

 

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Plate II,
Total Rainfall by Months.

Plate Iii.

xR

Nov,

(29°30 'N.)
wit. Clark 100°W, San Antonio 98 W. Houston 95°W.
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Total Rainfall by Months
(Coast Country)
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DEC,

 
Rainfall in Inches by Seasons,

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Plate IV.
 

Plate “V.
Map showing the regions
of Texas as outlined in the notes,
The color scheme shows in a gen-
eral way the various soil areas of the
The rivers, having very sluggish
currents as they near the costal plain
have overflowed a great deal and built
up broad alluvial valleys with soil similar
in texture to that in which they originated,

  
    
  
  
The control of the water supply is one of the most
important problems in farm management, Without question,
crop production is influenced and limited by this factor
more than any one others; in fact; it is the determining
factor that measures the return from investment and labor
in crop production, The control of the water supply
necessitates an understanding of, first; surface conser-
vation and storage; second, the use of water for
irrigation; third, the drainage of surplus water from the
lands fourth, the cultivation of the soil in such manner
as to maintain the maximim amount of moisture beneficial
to plant growth, These problems, for the most part, are
within the scope of the farmer, but in addition to these
there are certain problems such as the organization of
drainage and levee districts for the purpose of preventing
the overflow of the rich bottom lmds adjacent to our
rivers; the drainage of the swamp district and level
prairie lands of the costal plain, and the extensive
reclamation projects in the semi-arid district in the
extreme western portion of the State, The purpose of this
paper is to discuss only those problems relating to the
control ami conservation, or,disposalof the water which
naturally falls ona given farm or in a given locality,

with a special reference to crop production,
That there must be widely different systems of soil
management in East, West and Central Texas, is certainly
evident when we come to consider the great dif ference in
rainfall between the three localities, However, these
aifferences in total annual rainfall are not so important
in forecasting the relative agricultural possibilities of a
country as is the question of the season of the year when
the greatest proportion of the rainfall may be expected,
The regions of the greatest rainfall are found in the
Fastern portion of the State and along the Northern area of
the costal plain, As we proceed westward there is a
gradual decrease in the total rainfall, but a peculiar
condition is here presented, in, that, the farther west we
go; the later in the season comes the maximum precipitation,
In East Texas, the heaviest rainfall is in the winter ard
spring, while in West Texas, the heaviest rainfall occurs
during the late spring and summer months, The rains which
fall in East Texas completely saturates the soil, and the
greater portion of it must be removed before a crop can be
planted, This surplus is collected in the creeks and
rivers, and finds its way somewhat slowly to the Gulf of
Mexico. The rwins of West Texas come with great suddenness,
and unless the soil is in proper condition to receive the
water, it runs quickly into the streams and rushes down
from the high elevations to the low valley lands, where,
with its force impeded, it spreads out over large areas
imidating the country,and bringing ruin and distruction to

many prosperous farms, If the rainfall could be conserved
= 30

on the land where it falls, and made to percalate naturally
through the soil to the underground channels, the probability
of these devastating floods would be decreased, Then, with
proper levees, the rivers could be confined to their banks
and the adjacent lands fully protected, We thus see that the
East Texas farmer has a problem of drainage; the West Texas
farmer has a problem of conservation, and the Central Texas
flarmer, located in the valley lends, has a problem of the
control of flood waters as well as the drainage of the

water that naturally fells on his own land, This levee
construction and, in many instances, the @rainage construct-
ion mjst be accomplished by the assist mce of the State,

The problem is entirely too large to be hmdled by private
enterprises,

Texas may roughly be divided into six regions materially
differing from each other, but so gradually blending from
one to the other that the line of separation cannot be dis-
tinctly drawn, Roughly speaking, the regions would be des-
ignated by the following boundaries:

Bast Texas,bordered on the east by the Sabine river
and on the west by a line drawn from Paris to Corsicana,
and from Corsicana to Houston, |

Central Texas which comprises the territory west of this
as far as a line drawn from Gainsville to San Antonio, and
extending from the Red river on the north to a line drawn
from Houston to San Antonio, on the south,

The coast country which extends from Beaumont on the

east, west to Houston, and south to Brownsville, comprising
~4-

a territory ranging from fifty to seventy-five miles in
width,

The lower plains country,comprising a territory lying
west of Fort Worth and San Antonio,extending as far west
as the southwest corner of Okl moma,

The high plains area, comprising nearly all of the Pane
handle and extending as far south as the Texas & Pacific
RY.

Southwest Texas includes all that vast area south of
San Antonio and west of the costal plain, extending practi-
cally the entire length of the Rio Grande river.

The Hast Texas region is, for the most part, a timber-
ed country with sandy land and a heavy rainfall sufficient
for the growing of any kind of agricultural crops adapted
to this climate, It is somewhat hilly in places, and the
land mist be carefully cultivated or it washes badly. It
produces a luxuriant growth of grasson the valley lands,
and the soil respomds quickly to intensive farming; pro-
Gucing early vegetables and fruit, especially peaches, of
unexcelled quality. On some of the red soil tobacco is
grown which sells in the open market for a price equal to
that of the best Havama filler. The southeastern part of
this region contain great forests of pine with some oak and
hickory, but on account of the level condition of the coun-
try the drainage is very poor. The western edge of this
area is mostly a postoak country with some hickory, and the
sandy land gradually changes from a light or reddish color

to a black, However, there are a great many varieties of
soil in this region, and in some sections there are con-
siderable bddies of clay. The subsoils vary from red to
yellow and brown, and in some inst ances may be called mottzed,
The upland soils were originally sedimentary in character,

but have been so changed by process of weat herngthat the
original types are hardly distinguishable, There are three

or four large rivers that traverse this area which have
alluvial bottom lmds o8 sticky black soil,

Central Texas comprises t he black land belt, the cross
timbers country and the low postoak regions bordering on the
Bast Texas area, The black prairies are, undoubtedly, the
most desirable soils of this State, It was a grass covered,
rolling prairie from 400 to 700 feet higher than the waters
of the gulf; for the most part without timber growth except
along the river bottoms and the creeks, The cross-timbers
country are two long narrow strips of sandy land in Central-
North Texas extending considerable dist mce southward from
the Red river, The soils are somewhat similar to the sandy
postoak lands of East Texas, easy to cultivate, but not very
productive unless heavily fertilized and intensively culti-
vated, The lower postoak area comprising the eastern and
southern portion of the Central Texas region is somewhat
similar to the crosstimbers country,except that the soils
are more finely divided; cont aining more silt and underlaid
by @ more tenacious subsoil. The black land prairie belt
contains the oldest settled portion of the State, and the
largest cities of the State are located in this belt, The

soil contains great stores of plant food and an abundance
of lime, and produces such good crops that the majority of
the pastures have been plowed and nearly all of tre land

is in actual cultivation, The soils are especially adapt-
ed to the growing of corn, cotton, grass, wheat, oats, and
alfalfa, The rainfall in this region varies from thirty to
forty inches, per year, and the temperature is suitable for
the crops mentioned, The oats and wheat are sown in the
fall, and grazed extensively during the winter, On account
of the heavy dews which prevail in the southern part of
this area, during the spring months, the growing of wheat is
somewhat restricted on account of the prevalence of differ-
ent forms of rust. This region is, also, traversed by sev-
eral large rivers which extend out in valleys varying more
or less in width and showing a relatively variable kind of
soil, depending upon their source. The principal rivers of
this region is the Brazos which rises in the red soils of
the northwest portion of the lower plains, and produces a
bottom land varying from red to chocolate vrown,

The cost al plain is a flat, level prairie rising, for
the most part, less than fifty feet above the level of the
ocean, Close to the gulf, we find a narrow strip of coun-
try that is usually sandy, but scattered along the coast
are numerous bays and inlets which are marshy and bordered
by soils that are mostly silt and very finely divided clay,
A few miles back from the coast, we find large bodies of
black clay soil underlaid at varying depths with a clay sub-
soil, which varies from a white to a chocolate brown color,

In places these black clays are mixed with comsiderable
a] =

quantities of sand and organic matter and, iff sufficiently
well drained, they are very productive; being adapted to

the growing of vegetables, and some kinds of fruit, It is
in this area that we find the most extensive orange plant-
ing in the State. Where the land is so level that drainage
is impracticable it is, for the most nart, left in sod for
pasture, or is utilized for the growing of rice. The heavy
clay subsoil prevents the downward seepage of the water, and
makes this soil especially well adapted to the growing of
this crop.

In the western area of this cost al pain, South of the
Brazos river, the rainfall is considerably decreased, and the
black prairie land is developing into one of the best cotton
growing sections of the State, The south vnart of the costal
plain has not a sufficient rainfall for agricultural crops,
and irrigation is necessary, The rivers which cross the .
costal plain spread out into wide valleys, the soils of which
are very finely divided, and are very tenacious and sticky,
When cleared of their extensive forest growth ard put in
cultivation they are esvecially well adapted to the growing

of corn, cotton and sugar cane,

The lower plains region has an elavation of 1000 or more
feet with a mild, relatively dry climate; the rainfall aver-
ages about 25 to 30 inches. per annum, In the southern and
eastern portion of this region it is somewhat rocky and hilly
in character and not suitable for cultdvation except on the

level prairies, or in the river valleys, The rowgh land is
usually found in ranges of hills along the valleys, while the
prairie is out on the broad plateaus at a somewhat higher
elavation, These high, rodling upland soils have be@m de-
rived from the weathering on shale, limestone,and sandstone,
and vary in color from dark choca@late brown to a red. It is
only recently that these soils have been developed, agri-
culturally, but during recent years a very great number of
settlers from the Northern States have been located on
these upland prairie soils, and have been producing abund-
ant crops of corn, cotton, sorghum, milomaize and Kaffir
corn, |

The high plains region is separated from the lower
plains region by the chalky limestone hills, which are
known as the "breaks", The elavation of the high plains
ranges from 2500 to 4000 feet. The climate is cool on
account of this elavation, and the rainf all does not great-
ly exceed 20 inches, per annum, On acount of the elava-
tion and climate this area is not adapted to the growing of
cotton, and where agricultural operations have been attempt-
ed those crops whi ch require a short season of growth and
are more or less drouth resistent, such as milo and the
Kaffirs, have succeeded the best, although alfalfa has bea@m
established on some of the sub-irrigated sections, and wheat
and oats have been grown to some extent, Owing to the
splendid prairie grass, which grows all over this region,
this country has long been used for ranching purposes, and
with the development of such crops as Kaffir and milo, suite

able for the production of feed for livestock, it will un-
doubtedly develop into a stock farming country, No trees
are found growing on these high plains, and there are no
rivers cutting across them; although many of the large
rivers of the State have their origin in the dry canyons
through which water flows after every heavy rainfall,
Southwest Texas is similar in many resvects to the
high plains region on acount of the semi-arid condition
of the country. The elavation gradually inéreases,as we
proceed westward, attaining a maximm of 5000 feet in the
vicinity of the Davis mountains, On account of the de-
ficiency in the rainfall,irrigation has been found neces s
ary, and whem practiced,splendid crops of cotton, corn and
vegetables are produced, During recent years artesian
water has been lecated in the eastern part of this region,
and a great deal of land that was formerlly used only as
a cattle range has been turned into productive farms, The
soils of this area represent two distinct types; the fine
sandy loam,running from one to two feet deep and underlaid
by a sandy clay subsoil, These soils are easy to cultivate,
are not puddled by irrigation, and are very productive when
properly cultivated and fertilizea,@ The dark heavy upland
sollses? this region ace very similar to the black prairie
soils, consisting of a black or brown clay ard underlaid by
a brown chocolate or white clay subsoil. These dark soils
are very nroductive when the rainfall is sufficient, and in
the northern portion of this region are utilized for the
growing of corn and cotton, The alluvial rich bottom soils

of this region consisting of a mixture of sand and clay are
-10-

very productive when irrigated artificially or naturally
sub-irrigated, and are adapted to the growing of cotton,
corn, sugar cane and alfalfa, They are not utilized to any
great extent for the sgrowins of vesst dles, except cabbage
and onions,

The brief summary of the regionzas outlined above,indi-
cates the great necessity of the conservation of the natural
water supply of the State, as more than four-fifths of the
area of Texas fails to receive, what may be considered, a
sufficient rainfall, With a view of studying the relation
of various soils to water, a physical examination was made
of the surface and, also, the underlying subsoil of several
of the typical soils gathered from the best agricultural
sections of the State,

There are some different principles of soil physics
with which the farmer should be familiar in order that he
may be proficient in handling the soils of his farm, It isa
matter of common knowledge that there is a large variation
in different soils with respect to the size of the individ-
ual soil grains and, also, with respect to their comparative
weights or specific gravities, The difference in the actual
weight in a given volume of, soil may be caused by the differ-
ence in the specific gravity of the rocks from which the
original sample of soils were weathered, or it may be due
to some other material, vrobably organic matter mixed with
the two soils in varying quantities, The more organic matter
@ soil contains the less will be the weight of a given vol-

ume, or, in other words, the weight of a soil decreases as
its organic matter increases, The apparent weight of a
soil, or the volume weight to which we refer, is the weight
of the soil in its natural condition, and will vary also
with the amount of packing it has received, When a soil has
been plowed and is loose and mellow it weighs much less per
cubic foot than it would have weighed before it was plowed.
In other words, the soil has a real and an apparent weight,
and the apparent weight of the soil in good field condition
is much less than the actual weight,

The well plawed land appears in somewhat the form of a
sponge and the particles being loosely separated from one
another permits of a large amount of water being absorbed
during every rainfall. The retention of this water in the
soil depends on the fineness of the individual particles
and the closeness with which they are compacted, If, how-
ever, the particles are so closely packed. or SEF the water
is in so great supply as to exclude the air from the soil
plant growth will be retarded, In other words, to produce
maximum crops the proper conditions as regard heat, moisture
and air must prevail, Any soil deficient in one of these
essentials will be in crop producing powers, greatly reduced
As stated above, soils are cultivated in order that they may
absorb more rain and retain more moisture, The cultivation
of the soil will necessarily liberate some plant food, but
this is somewhat dependenf upon heat, moisture and air con-
ditions; so ultimately the question of crop production de-
pends primarily upon these three, and in this climate we

have a sufficiency of heat during the long season; so we
 
-12.

may reasonably conclude that crop production will depend
primarily uron the moisture and air conditions of the soil,
Wnen a soil is compacted it tends to lose moisture very
rapidly by evaporation from the surface, and if the surface
is hard there is tendency for the rainfall to run off rapid-
ly without pércalating into the soil, The plowing and cult-
ivating of the soil permits large quantities of water to be
absorbed, and it would seem t hat most of the average soils
Ciutrrl and Wer

in, Texas should be plowed deeply before the season of heavy
rainfall; and should have the best of cultivation in order
that the most profitable use may be made of them as a med-
ium of crop growth,

There is a wide difference between soils with refer-
ence to the rate at which they will allow water to flow
through them, depending upon the size of the soil particles
and their arrangement. Qther things being equal, it is
desirable that a soil should allow water to pass through
it slowly; holding the moisture for the greatest length of
time possible within reach of the crop roots,with a mini-
mim anount “s¢-fercolation and with the least possible amount
of evaporation from the surface, It is a matter of common
knowledge, however, that no waterlogged soil is productive,
and it is also a well known fact that soils that are wet
are cold, The problem which the farmer must solve, is how
he should cultdvate the soil on his own farm so as to re-

tain the maximum amount of moisture available for the plant

without the danger of permitting his soil to become water-

logged; In other words, he mst always have moisture avail-
-13-

able for his crops, but never so much water in the soil as
to exclude the air, The excess above the amount of water
required to surround each individual particle of soil with
a thin film must be dbsposed of by underdrainage, either nate
ural or artificial, “if neither of these are possible then it
would be better to permit the surplus to run from the sur-
face of the soil without entering it, provided, ofcourse,
this surface run-off is so controlled as to prevent the
washing and gullying of the land, It is a commn practice
in East and Southeast Texas to prepare tle land for cotton
or corn by “bedding”® the soil. This practice consists in
turning two furrows together forming a ridge varying from
three to four feet in width, each ridge being separated
from the adjacent one by a narrow, deep furrow, This prac-
tice permits the planting of the seed on the top of the bed,
the soil of which undoubtedly contains, at the time of
planting, a sufficient amoustof moisture to germinate the
seed and produce a healthy growth of the young plants, and
is undoubtedly good practice where abundant rains continue
throughout the growing season, In mmy instances, however,
farmers have moved from the very wet lands of Southeast
Texas to the drier regions of Central or West Texas, and
have attempted the same methods of farming which they prac-
ticed in their former homes with lamentable failures, The
bedding of these lands in West Texas naturally results in
the complete drying of the seed bed, a consequent lack of
germination of seed planted therein, and a resultmt poor

crop. The bedding of the land is advised only where the
-14-

rainfall is excessive and where the soil and subsoil condi-
tioms are such as precludes the possibility of underdrain-
age either natural or artificial,

The bedding of Southeast Texas lands and, also, the
bottom lands,which are very flat and low and subject to
overflow, is absolutely necessary in order that the soil
may be properly ventilated, The air in the soil is essen-
tial to the existence of those forms of life called bacteria:
which assist in making available nitrogen and other elements
of plant food. Generally speaking, the more readily the soil
vermits the air to circulate through it the more favorable
will be the conditions for the formation of plant food,
However, on account of the tendency of the air to dry the
soil, if this movement is carried on to too great an exten$
there is a possibility that the moisture content of the
soil would be reduced below normal, and plant growth would
cease; although the amount of available plant food might be
in excess of the requirements of the plant. The chemical
analysts of the soilsof the semi-arid regions indicate a
great abundance of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in
available form, yet there is only a limited plant growth,
undoubtedly due to a lack of moisture,

It has sometimes bean contended that soil takes moist-
ure from the air, but in reality the amount thus secured is
very small indeed even when the air is thoroughly saturated,
There is a certain ampunt of moisture precipitated from the
air at night in the form of dew, yet, undoubtedly, in a

great mmy instances at least, the moisture thus precipi-
-15-

tated comes from the soil air rather than from the air above
the ground, The frequent stirring of the soil permitting
the air to circulate freely through it undoubtedly has a
tendency to dry tre soil as deeply as it is stirred, and
this method is employed to cover the moist ground below
with a dry layer of earth protecting it from the heat of

the sun and the drying effects of the wind, This covering
of dry earth is called a mulch, The depth to which a milch
should be stirred will vary with the soil and the climatic
conditions, especially the frequency of rainfall. If this
milch is four inches deep and loosely stirred it would un-
doubtedly take up a condiderable amount of rainfall, yet
this water so taken up will be of absolutely no benefit

to the crop unless it sinks below the depth of the mulch ine
to the ground occupied by the roots of the plant, If, on
the other hand, the milch is shallow,a very light rain will
undoubtedly sink through the mulch on tre soil and benefit
the crop. It would appear, therefore, that in West Texas
where tlre rains are infrequent ,but heavy when they do come,
a thick mulch not less than four or five inches should be
maintained, On the other hmd, inoth®p sectionsof the State
where rainfall is frequent the mulch should be more shallow
and the roots of the plant permitted to form nearer the sur-
face of the ground, The depth of this mulch must be deter-
mined to a certain extent by the character of the crop grow -
ing on the soil since the cultivation must not be deep enough

to injure the feeding roots of the plant. In the dry portion
of the State where it is necessary to maintain a deep mulch
a deeper rooting of the plant is obtained by planting the seed
in what is known as a lister furry, varying from two to
four and even six inches below the general level of the
ground, After the plant is established in the soil and has
begun to form its roots the soil is generally plowed toward
the plant, and the cultivation is continued as deep as prac-
ticable,

The frequency of cultivation is of much importance
since the more often the ground is stirred the greater will
be the tendehcy to dry out the soil, So mech depends upon
the character of the soil that no general rule can be applied,
yet, so long as the mulch is maintained the cultivation
should be as infrequent as is possible, It has been observed,
however, that very finely divided soil will not maintain a
satisfactory mulch as long as is found posaible on soils of
@ course sandy texture, There is also a tendency in such
soils, esvecially where alkali is present, to form a crust
between the moist layer below and the mulch above, which
prevents to a certain extent the free movement of the air
through the soil,

There are two general movements of water in the soil,
Under the influence of gravity the water in the soil tends
to move downward until it strikes the impervious layer, or
until it is entirely taken up by surface films surrounding
the soil particles, After the water has been taken up in

this way it tends to move through the soil laterally as well
17a

as vertically to establish an equilibrium of tension between
the various soil films, The distance > which moisture will
rise in opposition to the force of gravity depends upon the
fineness of the division of the soil particles and the close-
ness with which they are packed together. It has been note
iced in many places in dry valleys or on level land adja-
cent to hills that there is a tendency for grass to remain
green even during an excessive drouth, and I have seen very
good crops of Johnson grass hay and alfalfa cut on land

that did not receive twelve inches or rainfall in as many
months, and that without irrigation. The moisture to pro-
duce this plant growth must have been supplied by seepage
from high elavations and the rise of water through the
ground due to capillary action or surface tension, Such
tracts of land are spoken of as subirrigated and are high-
ly esteemed, and considered very valuable, In some instan-
ces, however, where rainfall is abundant these subirrigated
lands cont ain too much moisture and will not produce a prof-
itable crop until they are properly underdrained, The move-
ment of water in soil is retarded to a certain extent by

the tendency of some soils to puddle or run together, This
is particularly noticeable in soils containing an insuffi-
cient quantity of lime or organic matter, or on which water
containing alkali, especially carbonate of soda, is used

for irrigation, When soils are puddled plant growth is
dwarfed, not only becmse the water suvpnly will be insuffi-
cient, but also on account of the exclusion of the air

from the soil. The gradation found in the mechanical
analysis of soils run from a gravel through course,med-
ium, and fine sand to silt and clay, and the greater the
proportion of the siltand clay in the soil the more will

be the tendency of these soils to puddle, esnecially by
tramping or working them when they are wet. A soil contain-
ing a large amount of organic matter may be sticky and wet,
but it cannot easily be puddled unless the mineral particles
of the soil are largely made up of silt and clay,

The black land belt of Central Texas is a very sticky
soll when wet and very hard when dry, yet the presence of
large quantities of lime practically vrevents puddling of
the soil, if reasonably well memmaged, On the otter hand,
the soil of Southeast Texas, such as the Houston black
clay, are very easily puddled, and must be handled with
great care, The sandy lands of East Texas, although they
are deficient in organic matter are not injured by plowing
when wet and, in fact, it is almost necessary to stir them
immediately after a shower to vrevent the silting of the
soll,due to the cementing of the fine particles of silt
when beaten by a heavy rain,

The drier lands of West Texas are benefitted by being
vlowed when reasonably moist as they are somewhat coarser
in texture, and if in proper condition when plowed they
settle together very compactly and are in proper condition
to absorb and retain a maximum quantity of the rainfall
which follows, The higher the percent we of organic matter

in the soil the greater will be its water holding capacity,

and for this reason it is advisable to plow ur4c:> such ernne
~19-

as will add organic matter to the soil, In practice, however,
this is not done to any great extent, and the orzanic matter
So necessary aw the soil is relatively low. A noticeable
feature, however, of Texas soils is that they are made up
very largely of fine material, and, undoubtedly, this large
proportion of fine material makes uyp,in a measure,for the
lack of organic matter which is commn in most of our soils,
In a climate as warm as this, especially where moisture is
present, orgemic matter decomposes very rapidly and it is,
therefore fortunate that our soils are relatively fine
rather than coarse in texture, This condition, however,
produces a tendency for these finely divided soils to run
together, or to silt, as we say, after rains, If they con-
tain“ re organic matter, which could be sunplied from crop
growth for this purpose,in regular rotation with standard
crops of the country,they would be more mellow at all times,
could be more easily worked, would retain more moisture, and
would produce larger returns,

The analysés given below shows a deficiency in organic
matter and, also, an excessive amount of fine sand, silt
and clay, These soils were selected to renresent the dom-
inant types in the localities from which they were chosen,
The following analyses were made from a mixture of the soil
to a depth of one foot, the separation of the silt and sand
being “ahtected by the Centrifugal methdd. The organic matter
was determined by igniting a weighed portion of the soil

after having driven off the capillary water and determined

the hygroscopic moisture, This can only be an approximation,
yet it is of value for consideration in conrection with the
study of the size of tle soil particles as shown by the

mechanical analys@s,

Table of Analyses,

Sample from Smith County, near Troupe. A typical san-
ple of the slightly reddish sandy upland soil of East Texsas,

Percent
Organic Matter..cccccceve e024
Gravel. cccccccccccececers 00
Coarse Sand, ...ccccevsvee srace
Medium Sand. ceccccccecer 6.2
Fine Sand. .ccscccevcses Ged
Very Fine Sand and Silt .42.77
CLAY .c cece ccceccvccvcece 13,3

Sample taken from Cherokee County, in the vicinity of
Jacksonville. Brown sandy loam, considered a good type for
general farming; early and fairly productive.

Percent
Organic Matter. .ccccccce 009
Gravel.... @e@ee020eo@eee#e#8@¢e2e@e@@ 3.74
Coarse SAnd. cccveccvecccere 353.56
Medium Sand. cccccccccces 1,64
Fine Sand, .cccccccccesesmtl, 0G
Very Fine Sand, .. ...+e2206.40
SLlIt ccc cere cccccc cccce 0O4,08
CLAY . cccccccccecceccccces 9.00

Sample from Tyler County. <A grey silt loam sample
from the nottheastern part of the county, representing the

poorer class of the heavier soils of the Kast Texas area,
-2le

Percent
Organic Matter,...ccccce 9A
Gravel. ceccccececccececece 3.66
Cogrse Sand.. ee 6@00600089 © 2.80
Medium Sand,....cceceeee 0 D4
Fine DANA. weccccccccsccer 5,5
Very Fine Band... .ccceeeetd.06
Silt. ccccccccccccccccess 42,06
Cla cc ccccsccccccecce cs ce dhe QO

Sample from Hill County. Typical black sandy upland
soil of the Central Texas region,

Percent
Organic Matter...cccceese e780
Gavel. ccccccccccseccecee 200
Co@rse Sand. ....cccvecee e800
Medium Sand....cccoesceereelO
Fine Sand. .... ccccceeee e080
Very Fine Sand, ....eeeeeL7 80
SLlt ..cccccccccccccecces 70
CLAY cc cccccccerccecsccce cme 88

Sample from Willismson County, near Taylor, Texas,
Sample of the very productive soil of the black land
belt of the Central region,

Percent
Omganic Matter...ccccoee 281
Gravel. ccccccccceccceces 00
Co@rse Sard, .ccceccccesee et
Medium Sand... .ccccccceeelt9e7”
Fine Sand, cecccccccvcce e000
Very Fine Sard..... eee ede 87
Silt. cece. co cc cece cc en ce cht gOU
CLAY cc wc ccccccvcccccceeembed

Sample from Bell County Texas, near Temple, Typical
blackland soil, very similar in crop vroducing powers to

the soil of Williamson County,
Percent
Org mic Matter....cccoee eSdl
Gravel... cecccccccecceee 00
Comrse Sand, ..ceccccceee 020
Medium. Sand. cececccccev ere mU
Fi ne SANd. cecccccccc veces, OX
Very Fine Sand.,...ccceeeld.77
SL1t. cc ccccccccccccccce ete
Clay.. occ ccccccccccccee tl eOl

Sample from Fayette County, near La Grange, Sample
of the typical postoak soil of the South-Central region,
somewhat rolling in character,

Percent
Organic Matter...ccccecse e882
Gravel, .ccccccceccccceee 00
Coarse Sand. ceccecceccccece Trace
Medium Sand... cccccececeeI%AVe
Fine SAnd.,. wecccccccccce eon
Very Fine Sand, ...eeeee ete lO
SL1t .ccccccccecccccccceet ret
Clay .ccccccccccccccccecetseO4

Sample from De Witt County, near Cuero, Typical sample
of the fine sandy loam, grayish chocolate in color; typical
of the extreme southern vart of the Central Texas area,

Percent
Organic Matter.ccccccces e280
Gravel, cccccccccccccecccr 00
Coarse Sand, ..c.cccceceee. 200
Medium Sand, .ccocccccccsstGdsd
Fine Sand. .cccccccce cece erl.00
Very Fine Sand,....eeee.00el0
SLl1t.. ccccccccccccccccvcvetio
Clay. cccccccccccccece vee teed

Galveston County,near Dickinson, Typical black clay

loam of the Costal plains,
23

Percent
Organic Matter...cccccee 06
Gravel, ..cccccecccccecer 00
Coorse Sand, ...cccssecee 200
Medium Sand, e#eeoeoee@¢ee¢ee@ © 087
Fine Sand, .cccoccccsccvece Uela
Very Fine Sand, ..cccccvcctel
Silt cceccccccccccccsece cd4,nU
Clay cececcvcveccescc ces eG, 9a

Sample from Webb County, in the vicinity of Laredo,
Typical adobe soil of the Rio Grande valley used extensive-
ly for the growing of onions,under irrigation,

Percent
Organie Matter..cccsccee 078
Gravel. ccccccccccccccecs 00
Course Sand... .ccccseceee 200
Medium Sand... ..ccccseees ef
Fine Sand... ceccccccececece ~00
Very Fine Sand....cccvee Ov
Silt. ccc ce ccc ccc cece ce cetos
Clay cc cece ccrcceccccececerdela

Sample from Webb County, from the prairie uplands in
the northern part of the county; typical of large areas in

Southwest Texas,

Percent
Organic Matter..ccrcccee 240
Gravel. .cccccccccccecece e300
Medium Sand, ceccccccccce 20
Fine Sand... cccccccecerce 70
Very Fine Sand. ccceceese Mek
SL1t cc cccccccccccccccece 3.00
CLAY ec cccrccescccccecece 5.46
-24~

An inspection of the tables given above will show a
considerable amount of variation in tre physical condition
of these soils, but it is esnecially noticeable that they
are all very low in sand and relatively high in silt and
clay. This condition has a vital effect upon the moisture
conditions of the soil and the availability of plant food
in the soil, Fertilizer tests made by farmers in various
sections of the State indicate that nearly all Texas soils
are benefitted by the application of phosphoric acid and
nitrogen, while potash has gbven only indifferent result 8, bt
it has bee a very noticeable fact that the best results
with fertilizer has always bee secured on those soils that
were in fairly good tilth and sunplied with the proper
amount of moisture, This fact, taken into condideration
together with the physicial condition of soils of average
character, would indicate to us the desirability of gbving
consideration to the proper methods of handling the soil
mechanicelly before we should attempt the extensive use of
commercial fertilizers, Where a soil is so finely divided,
as are tlre majority of Texas soils, water necessarily enters
them very slowly. This would indicate a great amount of
moisture available for plant use and a resulting benefit
to the plants, if the soil could be prevented from silting
or running together,under these conditions, The rate of
the percolation through these soils was: studied compar-
atively. Tubes eightem inches long and two inches in dia-

meter were uniformly filled with the soils evenly compact-
~25-

ed and water was kept at a constant level over each tube,

As soon as the flow was regular the amount of water running»
through in one hour was measured. Some of the sandier soils,
such as the one from Smith County, permitted a very rapid
flow amounting to sixty cc, per hour, The adobe soil from
Webb County wideted immediately, and the flow of water through
it was absolutely prevented, The average rate of flow was
less than ten cc, ver hour, except those showing the higher
percentage of sand, This condition would justify a question
as to the advi sability attempting to depend exclusively upon
underground drainage to remove the surplus water from such
soils, especially where the rainfall is over forty inches.
per annum, and the country comparatively level as is the
case in wast Texas, the southeast portion of Central Texas,
and the esstern portion of the costal plains, The excess
rainfall mest be removed by surface ditches which are, as

a mile, secured as stated above, by vlowing the land in
narrow beds; leaving a water furrow betwea@m each row.

The season of the year in which it is best to plow
these soils will vary with the location, On soils of the
region of heavy rainfall, in the Eastern portion of the
State, lad plowed in the fall will become very compacted;
so solid through the action of the veating rains ‘of the win-
ter and early spring, and so waterlogged that they are late
in drying out, and remain uniformly too cold for early plant-
ing. If under drainage were possible it is probable that

this condition would not ecaur, but since there is no natural

underdrainage and the advisability of underground drains is

still a debatable question, it would seem advisable to delay
~26-

preparation of the ground for the spring crops until the
winter rains had practically ceased,

In those sections farther west, however, where it is
necessary to conserve every drop of water, the plowing of
the lend early in the fll would be advisable, And on account
of the fact that the lomse soil would dry out rapidly when
exposed to the air it would seem advisable to use some tool
to.compact the subsurface soil, If, however, there is a
possibility of sufficient rain between the time of plowing
and vlanting the same results would be secured through the
natural action of the water as it percolates or seeps dow
into the soil, It isa noticeable fact that the soils far-
ther west are conrser in texture and permit a more rapid
ansorbtion of the rainfall, The writer has examined, soils
in West Texas where tle rainfall was less than twenty inches,
and wherever these soils had been plowed before the rainy
season and thoroughly comvacted they retained a considerable
amount of moisture,where a sufficient mulch had b-en main-
teined, while on soils of similar character that had not
been plowed or cultivated there was absolutely no moisture
perceptible; and, also, on soils that had been plowed, but
not compacted or cultivated, a similar lack of moisture was
noticeable,

The depth to which these soils should be plowed is -xeyy
variable, the proper depth being indicated by the season of
the year, the character of the soil and the rainfall, A
great deal of contmtion has been made in favor of deep

plowing (ten inches), but in the exnerience of the writer
eL7e

there seems to be no justification of such practices, and
on many of the stiffer and more tenacious soils six inches
in depth would be very hard work for three miles pulling a
fourteen inch plow, The ordinary plowing of the land is
usually spoken of in this State as flat breaking, and where
led is cultivated in corn and cotton exclusively this
method of plowing is not considered necessary it being
easier on the teams to bed the land, where the rainfall
would indicate the necessity of this method, or to list it
in the drier sections of the State, The listing is the re-
verse of the bedding system, and the crop is planted in the
furrow between the two ridges. Sometimes when the lmd is
*f1atbroke ‘it is afterwards bedded or listed before planting,
yet, as a rule, this is not a common practice. Considering
the fineness of this soil and its tendency to silt and be-
come very compact the process of bedding or listing may be
considered good economy of farm labor as it permits of the
stirring of the soil with less horse-power than would be re-
quired to produce as deep a seed bed by flat breaking,

A study of the rainffell charts indicates that there is
no section or the State that may be saia to nave an excessive
rainfall, ana tne greater portion or tne agricitural area is
deFicient in rainralt. Consiaerinzt tne 1-ct, atso vs we pro-
ceed westward, tne greater proportion or tne rain comes in tne
later montns of year, we are justiried in concluding tnat tne
problem of conservation of molsture 1s tne most imrortant one

whicn tne tarmer mst solve, The plowing or tne Lana ana
@ 28=

the preparation of the seed bed following m st put the soil in
condition to receive and retain moisture. As indicated above,

the amodnt of moisture retained by soils depends uvon their
physical structure, their mechanical condition, and the amount

of organic matter they contain. The fineness of the particles

in most of the soils examined would indicate large water holding
capacity, and the conservation of this moisture, when ance it is
stored in the soil, must be secured by such cultivation as will
produce a mulch of dry dirt at least three inches in depth. In
the very dry regions of the western portions of the State, it

may be necessary to increase the depth of this mich to four or
five inches; yet if the subsoil has been properly comacted,the
ext reme4deep mulches are not required. In those regions of rain-
fall of 30 inches or less, the soil should never be plowed and
left loose and rough, but should always be harrowed immediately
after plowing, and the mulch thus secured mst be maintained until
the crop is planted, and on intertilled crops, such as corn,Kaffir,
of cotton, the cultivation should maintain the mich until the crop
is hargested. On land cultivated in wheat or oats,ywhere it is ex-
pected that some crop will be planted immediately following the
harvest, it is a good practice to run & double disc harrow immediate-
ly behind the binder to stir the surface of the ground and prevent
evaporation and excessive drying of the soil. If light rains
should follow this loose mich will assist in retardimg run-off

and faciBitate the percolation of the water down into the soil,

It also sometimes happens that the season in which the ground in
waheh Wee waownd can be plowed is very short , and before this work
can be completed, the ground becomes so hard as to make plowing

impracticable. In such csses it will be advisable to go over the
wk )a

unplowed ground with a disc harrow, cutting the surface so as

to form a loose mulch, A large area can be covered in a few

days, and if dry weather should follow, the ground will remain

for a long time in condition suitable for plowing. If rains

shou ld follow t he discing, more water will be absorbed by the

soil t han would be possible if the ground was hard and smooth,

The frequency with which the ground should be stirred to main-
tain this mich will depend upon the character of the soil, and
the rainfall. It has been quite definitely determined that a
mulch is mre easily maintained on a sandy soil than is possible |
on a soil cont aining a high percentage of silt or clay. Consider-
ing the fect, as we proceed westward, that the soils are coarser,
and contain more sand, we find it easier to conserve the limited
rainfall of this area for plant growth than is possible in South-
east Texas, where the soil silts 80 quickly and becomes hard even
vefore dry, and when stirred does not pulverise re adily. In Soue-
thern climates, and especially in the regions of low rainfall, there
is usually a deficiency in the organic matter content of thesoil.
Nearly all upland soils of Texas, and e spdcially those in the
Central and Western regions are deficient in erganic matter, and
their water holding capacity is correspondingly decreased. As
stated above, this is overcome to a certain percent by the fineness
of the soil particles, yet it is undoubtedly true that organic
matter introduced into these soils by application of barnyard
manure, or by the plowing under of stubble, corn and cotton stalks,
or cowpeas, would be of remarkable benefit to them. seks. It is a
practice in some sections to clear the land by burning all the
stubble and stalks. This is unmestionably a bad practice, and

should be discontinued, except where plowing has been necessarily
=-30-

delayed till nearly planting time, wnen, if the stalks were
plowed under, the ground would be left in so loose condition
that a sufficient amount of moisture could not be retained to
germinate the seed placed in the ground. This condition would
undoubtedly occur only in those sections of the State where the
rainfall is less than 30 inches, and it should be avoided there,
if possible, by completing all plowing sufficiently emly before
planting as to permit the ground to become compacted and the or-
ganic matter, to a certain extent, decomrosed and changed into
humus,

The use of leguminous crops, especially cowpeas, for the
purpose of increasing the orgmic matter in the soil, and also
builé€@ing up its nitrogen content, is one of the most importa nt

phases of recent agricultural develoment in the Southwest. The
amount of barnyard mamre which cm be secured is very limited

on account of the fact that cattle and horses are maintained in

open pastures during a large portion of the year, and very little
mamire accumulates in the barns or yards, The "Southwestern Farmer *
is therefore of necessity compelled to resort toe green aanuring

to maintain the owganic contant of wis wil. Another factor which
mst mt os lost siazat of is that in the Southwest there is no grass
which can be used in the same way as timothy or Kentucky blue grass
to resod the land, After a pasture has been plowed and put in culti-
vation, it mst lie idle many ‘ears before it will be resodded., Such
grasses as Jonson grass or Bermda grass, which hata creeping root
stock, cannot be used in rotation, since when once established in the
soil, it is impossible to eradicate them, Im some localities, especia

ly on the black land or in the alluvial bottoms, alfalfa can be grown
-3)-

yet it is 80 difficult to secure a stand of this crop that when

once secured the farmer hesit ates to plow it up until necessity
compels him to do so. For these reasons the cowpea is practically
the only crop that can be used for green manuring, There are

three methods in which it may be useé@: First, it may be planted

in the corn after the last cultivation, Second, it may be planted

in alternate rows with the corn, placing the corn rows about four

and one-half feet apart. Third, it may be grom in rotation with

the crop occupying the soil #8 one entire season, The first method
is unreliable, except in those sections of the State where the raing
fall is 40 inches or more per mnum., The second method has several
advantages, ani may be recomuended as good farm practice, The land
is bedded or listed as the necessity may require and after the corn
is up, the peas are vlanted in single or double rows, midyay between
the corn, The following year the land is bedded on the middles which
gxew the cowpeas, and tue corn is planted on this bed., and the cowvxeas
this season are planted on the ground which grew the row of corn the
previous season, When it is desired to srow cotton, it is impossible
to use goweas, as their climbing nabitse would make tnem a nuisance
dn a cottoa field, In thie case the Spanish peamt would be used,

in place of the cowpea. When cowpeas are grown in regular rotation,
the following has generally been adopted: Plant one-third of the land
in cotton, one-third in corn, and one-third in oats, to be followed by
cowpeas after the oats have been harvested, The land which is planted
in cotton is given clean cultivation and fertilized with ordinary
fertilizer, Xs soon as the cotton crop is removed, bed the land and
prepare it for the corn crop, whicn will follow. Cowpeas can be sown

in the corn at the last cultivation, if desired, and after the corn
has been gathered, hogs and cattle are turned into the
field to feed on the cornstalks and cowpeas, Early in the
fall the land is plowed or disced and sown to winter oats,
As soon as the oats are removed, the land is replowed and
planted to cowpeas, to be followed the succeeding year by
cotton, This will adda large amount of organic matter to
the soil, and greatly increase its water holding cavacity.
On soils as finely divided as the majority of those in the
Cent ral and East Texas regions, the addition of organic
matter will also have a very beneficial effect of producing
better aeration and a consequent increase in productiveness

due to the liberation of more plant food,
Summary and Conclusion,

l.e- The rainfall in all regions of Texas except East
Texas and the eastern part of the coastal plain is deficient,
and care must be exercised to conserve as mich moisture as
is possible for crop production,

2.° <A physical examination of typical upland soils of
the central and eastern portions of the state, as well as
the coast country, shows them to be very finely divided ard
deficient in organic matter,

35.- The productive power of these soils would be in-
creased by the addition of organic matter, which to a cer-
tain extent would prevent silting and increase their water
holding capacity.

4.- The Hast Texas region on account of its heavy

rainfall is adapted to the growing of good pastures and
forage crops, and being supplied with plenty of springs am
running water it is a good stock farming country and should
develop larze dairy interests, In connection with the dairy,
the growing of hogs will be found profitable, and the care-
ful husbanding of the mamure and the growing of leguminous
crops in rotation with corn, other forage crops,and cotton,
should improve the sandy lands of this region,

5.- The black land belt of the central region possesses
,a soil of such texture and productive ca@acity that it is
especially adapted to the growing of hay, corn and cotton,
and in some inst mces alfalfa, By proper rotation this lmd
can be maintained without the use of livistock,and on acount
of the v-«lue of this land for crop production, very little
of it should be devoted to pasture puryposes,

6.- The alluvial valley lands are the most productive
soils of the state when protected from overflow and properly
drained,

7,.- Where drainage is necessary, furrows and open
ditches mist be depended upon to remove the surplus surface
water, as the ladis very level and low, and the soil is
too finely divided to pnermit the rapid vercolation of water
into tiles,

8.- The lower plains region possesses a fertile and pro-
ductive soil, and should develon into a stock farming country,
Srowing @ sreat deal of forage and grain and fattening cattle,
sheep and hogs for the market. The greater portion of this
country should remain in pastures, only those areas fr ee from

rocks and possessing a deep soil suitable for the conservation
-35 4-

of moisture should be plowed,

9.- The high plains region should be left, for the
most part, in cattle and sheep ranges, only suffhcient 1 ad
being plowed to provide the necessary feed stuffs, The
country is too high and too arid for Indian corn and cotton,
but very satisfactory crops of Milo and Kaffir can be pro-
duceé,

10.=- Agricultural operations in the Southwest Texas
region should be confined to those lmds either naturally
subirrigated or susceptible of surface irrigation,

ll.=- Dry farming methods practiced extensively in
Western Nebraska under what is known as the Campbell sys-
tem of soil culture will not be very successful in West
Texas on account of the deficiency of the rainfall in the
winter season,

12,- The agricultural development of East and Central
Texas regions, naturally well watered and possessing a good
climate, is very mch below its normal posaibilities, and
these lmds should be fully occupied and developed before
agricultural operations are pushed extensively into the

very dry regions of West and Southwest Texas,

(Tne end, )
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