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NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL R

OF LODGE-POLE PINE

IN THE CENTRAL ROCKY

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THE

NATUR“ L AND ARTICICIAL REGENGRATION OF LODGE?POLE PINE

(PINUS CONTORTA) IN THE CENTRAL ROCKY MOUNT“IN REGION

THESIS *OR DEGREE OF M. FOR.
HUBER COPELAND HIUTON

a,

1917
THESIS
METHODS

An analysis of the present methods followed upon
the Netional Forests in the Centrel Rocky Mountain reg-
ion, for the securing of reproduction of Lodgepole Pine
by natural ind artificial means, and results secured,
both the number of seedlings end the cost of producing
them being considered.

LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION

The observetions and experiments noted throughout
were made upon three National Forests, the Medicine Bow
of southern Wyoming, and the Arapaho and Colorado of
northern Colorado. The Medicine Bow Forest occupies the
higher mountecinous country extending slong and tributary
to the Medicine Bow or Snowy Range. The Arapaho Forest
occupiesithe higher sreas slong the western slope of the
Continental Divide end the various slopes of the tributary
or spur renges adjeacent, or the Vesquez and Williams Fork
Ranges. The Colorzdo Forest occupies in its southern di-
vision, the esstern slope of the Continental Divide; it oc-
cupies in its northern division the several slopes of the
Mummy <nd Medicine Bow Ranges adjacent to, and ubutting
from the Continental Divide.

The locetion ses outlined represents a region most
important considering the commercisl range of the species.
Here Lodgepole Pine furnishes by far the gre.uter pert of
the commercisl timber of the section and makes its best de-

velopment. This region varies from extremely rough and

mountsinous sections to sreas of gentle topography for a

9101414
 

Lodgepole Pine burn, scattered stund of Lodgepole Pine

reproduction coming in satisfactorily.
Near Flattop mountain, Continental Divide, Bstes Perk,

Coloardo National Forest.
mountainous region but yet Lodgepole Pine occupies the en-
tire crests of some ranges xt certzin .ltitudes.

Lodgepole Pine is found in this region at altitudes
verying from 7000 feet to timberline, at 11000 to 11500 feet.
The commercial stands in this region sre usually found at
from 8000 to 9500 feet. The species rarely forms commercial
stands except within on altitudinal belt from 2000 to 2500
feet in widthe The Forests are usually confined to the
mountains while the lower valleys between the ranges are oc-
cupied by me: dows or sagebrush. Some of the valley coun-
try is used for ranching and the production of forege crops.

The ususl soil of this region is a gravelly decom-
posed granite somewhat moist but well drained. The best
developement of the tree is made upon a moist gravelly loam
soil found in the bottoms of the valleys, and at the foot
of the slopes. The majority of the stands however sre found
upon the poorer classes of soil.

The climate of the region is comparatively dry. The
species is rarely found where the average precipitation is
less than 18 inches. The best developed stands sre located |
where the precipitation exceeds 21 inches, altho the emount
of aveilable moisture determines the growth of the tree.

It is likely that the precipitetion over the areas des-
cribed usuzlly exceeds 24 inches. The growing season

is very short, usually not exceeding 3 or 4 months. Frosts
frequently occur throughout the growing season but rerely
affect or influence the development of the tree. Extremes

of temperature ore frequent in this rerion and Lodgepole

35
 

 

Lodgepole Pine and Engelmann Spruce burn. Scottered

stand of Lodgepole Pine coming in satisfactorily.
Near Longs Peak, Esfes Park, and along Continental

Divide, Color.do National rorest.
Pine occasionally endures temperatures of 100°F and -55°R
for short periods.
CLASSIFICATION OF NATU ALAND .ARTIFICISL
REPRODUCTION

 

For the purpose of this thesis, naturel reproduc-
tion is thet reproduction secured either with or without
the assistance of man as he may make use of silvicultural
systems or other egencies to assist nature. In short it
is x11 reproduction secured in which man hes not directly
handled the individual seed or product of the seed.

Artificial regeneretion is considered to consist of
reproduction secured from seed sown directly in the Forest
or in the nursery and later trensplanted to the Forest.

NATURAL REGENERATION

 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE

Lodgepole Pine charscteristically forms dense,
even-aged stends of tall slender trees of narrow crowns.
The species frequently occurs also ss < woodland form
either from poor soil conditions or as a result of a fire
thet destroys the majority of the seed and seed trees so
that only a few trees cre produced and they take on a wood-
_ land form because the large growing space.

HABIT OF GROWTH

 

Lodgepole Pine is one of the smallest pines which
reach commercial size, altho of fairly rapid growth con-
sidering the soil end growing conditions found in its
rangee The tree is usually from 60 to 90 feet in height

4
 

Lodgepole Pine on third quelity soil, stand fuirly open,
yet forest is not only devoid of groung cover but also of re-
production probably due to fact th:t soil is very poor and
that seed is also destroyed by rodents.

Bald Mountain region, Colorado Forest.
altho specimens of 105 and 105 feet in height hsve been noted,
An occasionul tree over 100 feet high ond up to 24 inches in |
diameter has- been noted in this region upon site 1 quality
soil.

For District 2, in which this region is located, three
site classifications ere made. Site 1 is found in the bottoms
of draws and at the foot of mountains adjacent where a gravel-
ly loam soil has accumulated. Here Lodgepole Pine makes its
best development unless crowded out by its more tolerant as-
sociates, Engelmann spruce and balsam fir at the upper end of
its eltitudinal renge end douglis fir at the lower. The srea
occupied by site 1 is compsritively small.

Site 2 consists of the main body of Lodgepole Pine
end is found upon the wide benches end varying slopes of this
region. It occupies all slopes at certain altitudes altho
more uniformly confined to the north and west slopes in abrupt
country. The observations end experiments noted were made upon
site 2 quality soil.

Site 3 consists of those areus elong the exposed tops of
ridges, of areas of shallow soil, end ereas of south and east
slopes, usually very dry and exposed. This site occupies a
very small crea of the timbered section of this region.

The tree uniformlypr-straight bole which is clear of
limbs from one-half to two-thirds of its height. The major-
ity of mature timber is from 10 to 14 inches in diameter at
breast height and under 85 feet in height. The taper is us-
ually very gradual for trees grown in the usual crowdwd con-
dition but in open grown stands is often rapid, / Eros take

on a woodlend form and the branches extend to the ground.
The crown varies in shepe end in size with the position
of the tree. In a close grown stand the crown is small and
irregular; in open stands it becomes more regulur and often
extemds to the base of the tree.

The ueual stands are from 125 to 175 years of oge elthe
the largest trees are frequently 200 years old. « few may even
reach 250 to 300 years of ugee

The bark is thin, usually less then one-helf inch in
thickness.

The maximum water content of the soil for Lodgepole
Pine is 35% in loam and about one-half that in sand and gravel.
The optimum is usually between 12 and 15 inches, rises to 20%
where decay of needle cover makes the amount of non-aveilable —
water greater. The minimum may fall below 5% without injury
to the tree except in rste of growth.

|  - ROOT SYSTEM

The tree is characterized by the lack of a tep root but
has a well developed lateral root system. A tap root is freq-
uently found in young trees but this fails to develope, usually
because of shallow soil.

TOLER.“NCE

Lodgepole Pine is very intolerant. It is more intol-
erant than Engelmann spruce, balsam fir, blue spruce, dougles
fir and yellow pine with which it is sometimes associated,

It is classed with limber pine «s to intolerance. Lodgepole
Pine altho extremely intolerant has ceratin cheracteristics

of tolerant trees, as it grows in dense stands and frequently

does not clear itself even in stands of greatest density.
The manner of origin of the tree however is distinctly intol-
erant.

Lodgepole Pine often shows remarkable ability to live
for long periods in a suppressed condition beneath trees of
the same species, The question of whether Lodgepole Pine
can recover from suppression is a debatable one. At pres-
ent it is beliaéved that the tree does recover in many cases
but not in every case.

CONE AND SEED PRODUCTION

Lodgepole Pine begins bearing cones very early in the
life of the tree. Trees of five years of age have been
found bezring conese Seed in quanity is not produced however
until the tree is 20 years old, or even older in dense stands.
The cones are asymetrical, due to the non-development of
scales on one side and base, because of lack of light. Cones
are usually produced in fsir quenity every year. It is
beliaved that the tree has a periodicity of heavy seed produc-
tion every 2 or 3 yeirs but this has not heen confirmed.

Just why such a regularity should be assigned trees alone is
unknown and may prove to be a fslse assertion. A bushel

of cones usu:lly yields about one-third of a pound of clean
seede. Cone production is very heavy upon trees grown in the
open altho the trees yearly produced in close gromm stxnds is
greatly in excess of. any possible requirement for naturel re-
production did development take place, Cones ure frequently
produced upon trees growing in very unfevorable conditions

as in ver: expesed end rocky situations. A Lodgepole Pine
was found frowing alone, miles from another of the same species

and exactly at timberline on the Colorado Forest in a tangled
 

Reproduction of all ages which has come in under a douglas

fir stand in which the burned trees are still standing. Stock-
ing is very satisfactory. Stugnetion of growth is not likely
to occur and trees will eventually clean well.

Danner Hill, Colorado National Forest.
mass of dwaried spruce and balsem. The altitude was ap-
proximately 11500 or 11600 feet. Several cones were found
upon the tree which to all appearance were fully developed
and undoubtedly contained fertile seed.
SEED DISSEMINATION

Lodgepole Pine cones open in late August or early
September of the second year. Cones borne at the top of
the tree often open immediately at maturity and release
the seed. The majority of the cones open in the first few
years after ripening or ct least when 10 yesrs of age when
the pedicel dies and no moisture is secured from the tree.
A number of cones on each tree remain closed for a longer
period and some of these open each year afterward. This
characteristic is distinctive for the species altho jack-
pine (Pinus divaricata) acts quite similarly. Seed re-
tained in closed cones of 75 years of age has been found to
be viable. Sealed cones of 75 and 80 years of ake heave
been found ‘attached to the parent tree. Board specimens
from sawmills have been secured in which the cones were found
completely imbedded in the wood.

Quite contrary to the old opinion that cones open
as a result of fire, recent observations and studies show
that cones open normally as a result of drying out assisted
by temeperature chenges, and extremes. Trees of the same age
and in the same stend may show all cones open in one case and
all closed in another. Without the action of fire cones

open in conseaouence of weathering end by the solution of the

resin which holds the scales together; followed by changes
e?
 

Stub Creek ranger station in foreground. Note typical
stand of young Lodgepole Pine(40 to 45 years) in background.
Stand not as thick as usual in this vicinity yet probably too
closely spaced for proper development.

Lower end Glendevey Burn, Colorado National Forest.
in moisture content which cause the scales to bend beck.

The chief value of fire in reference to seed dissemination
is in the removing of resin end releasing the scales, but

it also dries out the scales. Experiments have shown that
fire does not seriously impair the germinative power of seed
unless the cones are thoroughly charred.

Seed is rarely distributed more than 150 to 250 feet
by the wind at the maximum. Seed is frequently found upon
the snow efter es snowstorm followed by a change in temperature
and a heavy wind.

The netural nd uneven process of the opening of
cones has two important results-it means the almost con-
plete consumption of the freed seeds each year by the animal
population of the Forest, but it insures on the other hand
an adequete seed supply wheneveris fire makes reproduction
possible. Seed is distributed primarily by the wind but
&lse by enimals, grevity and weshing.

Because of the manner in which cones are retained
upon the tree, dead tress often serve es seed trees both on
burms und in the unburned forest.

SEED GE?MINATION

The germinetion perc -ntage of Lodgeposle “ine is us-
ually high running from 60 to 85 per cent and cveraging
about 80 per cent. Seed has been found to germinate rap-
idly in cones.from 50 to 75 yezrs of agee

REQUIREMENTS FOR NATURAL REPRODUCTION

AS Lodgepole Pine is intolerant of overhead shade,

it will not reproduce Satisfacorily without considerable
9
 

Lodgepole Pine timber before cutting. Note reproduction

in openings at left of picture.

Near Wyocola, Colorado National Forest.
direct light. The seed will often germinate with a very
small amount of light but the young seedling dies without
it. Unless a heavy thinning has been made and the crown
density reduced about one half, the seedlings in the average
stand are few in numbers and very spindling in form.

The most favorable seed bed for Lodgepole Pine is
a mineral soil with plenty of heat and available moisture.
The presence of needles end humus is unfavorable as it dries
out rapidly in the spring before the roots of the seedlings
have reached the mineral soil. Mineral soil is not always .
necessary for germination and proper development of the seedling
as areas upon the Arapaho and Colorado Forests sre ouite
frequently found which sre unburned and which have a heavy
stand of reproduction. This condition is particularly strik-
ing in the Beaver Lake region of the Colorado Forest where
the old slash from lumbering operations had reseeded the areas
both in the skid trails and upon the undisturbed forest floor.
In full sunlight the mineral soil may dry out so rxapidly that
many seedlings are killed by drought. Young stands are us-
ually more dense upon areas lightly shaded by standing dead
timber thun upon exposed sites. This undoubtedly accounts
for the condition of large burns which have not reseeded
altho at is possible th=t the fire may have been so severe
as to entirely consume the supply of seed.

Competition with native vegetation such as huckle-
berries (Vaccinium) and kinnikinnick (Arctostaphylos) often
reduces the amount of reproduction because of the conquest
for light and moisture. Aspen is usually a hindrance to

10
a
MB

2 ve

 

Lodgepole Pine stand in which about 40 per cent of the

Note lack of young growth except

volume has been removed.

Brush piling and burning not completed.

the balsam fir.

Near Wyocola, Colorado National Forest.
reproduction through its more rapid growth when young
trees of the two species sturt upon the same ares. A
light overhead aspen cover msy scmetimes be benificial
by benefiting the soil. Rodents reduce the seed supply
to a certain extent eltho it is likely that more than
emough seed remains were other conditions favorable.

Since light values in mature forests runge from
-12 to .06 in density, using sunlight as a standard, with
an severage of eO8 or .O7, and Lodgepole Pine needs .10
for development it is not to be expected that seedlings.
will be found in these stands. Seedlings are often found
but usually only in moderately open stands in restricted |
groups and in small openings. The seedlings are almost
without exception small, stunted and spindling gn appear-
ence. Full sunlight will result in the best development
provided soil moisture is available and the area is not
exposed to drought.

METHODS OF SECURING NATURAL REGENERATION |

 

WITHOUT THE AGENCY OF FIRE
The cuestion of the proper method of handling

Lodgepole Pine from a standpoint of silvicultural manage-
ment hes long been a debated one. It is certain that with-
out the agency of fire or the assistante: 6f man, the areas
now occupied by Lodgepole Pine would in large measure be
taken over by the more tolerant species such as by Engelmann
spruce and belsam fir at the upper altitudinal ranges and

by Douglas: fir upon the lower. It is likely however that

Lodgepole Pine would continue as a permanent type in a nar-

mee RNR 8. ak Le ast OD the id :
of soil end climate are more fevorable to it then to the
competing species.

A great many silvicultural practices h:ve been at-
tempted and given up in an effort to establish some sys-
tem for Lodgepole Pine whereby the facts of poor market fa-
cilities for small material and the small amount of reproduc-
tion secured, could in some measure be compensated for.

The methods of cutting which have been tried out in
Lo@epole Pine usually aim to increase the yield as well as
to secure reproduction. During the first sales, cutting
followed the practice of selection cuttings and the variation
of the single tree system. Leter square groups of trees
were left in varying proportions of total stands and the re-
mainder cut clean. These remaining groups were lightly th
thinned and as a result the trees were blown down. An-
other system used was the cutting iy strips. The usual
plan was to leave about one-third of the area in seed strips
100 to 150 feet wide. These were left intact, and windfall
reduced to a small emount. This method however required
later some plan of artificial reforestation over the cut
portions over the majority of the area and at the same time
the soil was left unprotected.

The seed tree, seed group, and strip systems did not
consider the watershed protection nor silvicultural and mar-
ket conditions. The present system followed depends large-
ly upon market conditions. In overmature timber, clean
cutting to a certaim diameter is practiced in some places
in which 35 to 60 per cent of the stand is removed. This

is based on the assumption that ample reproduction will be
12
 

secured from the trees left and from the seed scattered from
the tops of trees felled. -In mature stands the system is
the same, but only from 25 to 40 per cent of the trees of
merchantable size are usually removed. The smaller trees
are left for further growth. Reproduction tis not here

the principal object but should be secured in the frequent
small openings. A second cutting is planned in from 20 to
-40 years. A variation of this system is often used for
overmature stands especially where the market demands only
lerge timber. This is followed quite uniformly in all
stands in Colorado and Wyoming. The brush except in aress
where the fire danger is negligible is always piled and
burned, as a protective ,measure. This plays no part in
the securing of reproduction, as far as results to date in
the stands have shown.

RESULTS SECURED
While it is certain that the present plan of man-

agement for the Lodgepole Pine forests is a makeshift prop-
osition, it is beldaved that satisfactory results vill. be
secured from the stxundpoint of watershed protection, from the
standpoint of securing increased growth end sufficient re-
production will be secured. The reproduction secured how-
ever will be of uneven age and the forest will eventually
take on the appearance of an all aged stand. Very little
windfall occurs under the present system and altho the

plan has not been in operation lang enough to determine the
results to be secured, it is the best which can be used and

must necessarily be used until market conditions are such

that the areas can be clear cut and reproduction later
13
secured from the slesh remaining, with or without the agency
of fire, or by some artificial means. Upon the Arapaho
Forest plats were counted within an unburned stxnd in which
one-haff of the timber had been removed,six years ages

Six thousand seedlings per ucre were found of which thirty
five hundred had started since the cutting was made.

In addition to the sresas handled by the Forest Ser-
vice, areas located outside the Forests or upon private
lands within them upon which cutting hss been conducted,
are very interesting. Slashed areas upon which the brush
has not been burned and over which reproduction in varying
numbers has come in, are very frequent. -These conditions
were noted upon all the Forests concerned, A particularly
good example is found upon the Colorado Forest in the vi-
cinity of Beaver Lake. Upon this area all trees of mer-
chantable size had been removed, skid trails made across
it, and tops and brush left as they fell. Here repro-
duction had come in running from 400 tO 500 per secre up to
3000 per ecre and furnishing a stand of as great a density
as is desiged. Little difference was apparent in the num-
ber of secdlings found in the akia trails where the min-
eral soil had been exposed compared with the number found
upon the undisturbed soil. The number of seedlings on
certain areas compared with other areas seemed rether to
be due to the presence of cones either upon the ground or
hanging to the tops of brush. The ground cover is made
up of huckleberries and weeds, which did not seem to have

affected the amount of reproduction in this case. Sev-

eral tops were rolled over and the number of seedlings
14
oNEI been ae

a
 

Typicel burn which h:s not reforested. Note manner in
which e11 limbs unon the trees have been destroyed.

Glendevey butn, Color.do National Forest.
found beneath them was surprising. It was noted that neith-

er directly under the tops nor upon the areas as a whole,

were the seedlings even aged, indicating that fresh seed was

constantly being liberated from the brush and tops as well

as from the standing trees. It appears that if it were

not necessary to burn the brush as a fire protection meas-

ure, that reproduction might well be secured without fire

in practically all clean cut over arees if tops are left.
WITH Tiit AGENCY OF FIRE

Fire hzs not yet been used by the Forest Service
as an aid in securing reproduction upon the National For-
ests except for small experimental sreas. The results
from these experiments are not yet available.

Forest fires have in the past served largely in
the establishing of Lodgepole Pine Forests. Because of
the protection now afforded the National Forests, fire
is unlikely to play any large part in the establishment
of future Lodgepole Pine forests.

Forest fires in reference to the securing of
Lodgepole Pine reproduction, serve five purposes; -

ll. The opening of closed cones, and thus making
a large number of seeds suddenly available.

2. The removal of the herbaceous and serubby
ground cover, thus prewenting competition.

5- The forming of a favorable seed bed, exposing
mineral soil.

4. The renewal of proper conditions of sunlight;

5. The removal for a time of the seed eating ro-

dents, or the population ofsauirrels, chip munks «nd birds.
 

Entire mountsin side covered with reproduction, 40 to 45

years of age. Reproduction largely in stagnant condition be-
cuuse of excessive numbers, Lighter areas are aspen groves
and rocky slopes. High mountain in center is part of upper
Glendevey burn which has not reforestede

Colorado National Forest.
It will be noted theta cut over srea, especially
under present practice, differs from a burned over area
in practically every condition as noted and that optimum
reproduction can rarely teke place in cut over areas.
Arees which hve burned over are almost uniformly stocked
soon after burning, by Lodgepole Pine. This is not the
only tree found in the burns but of the competing species,
Engelmann spruce, balsam fir and Douglas fir, a few seedlings
are usually found. Arees which have not restocked ere
usually “double burns" or "triple burns". Some cases
are found however where reproduction has not come in since
the original fire. This is sometimes due to the severity
of the fire which burns all the seed or may have been due
to soil and moisture conditions following the fire.

RESULTS SECURED

While reproduction is usually secured in large
numbers after fires the conditions are usually not sitis-
factory from the standpoint of density. Because of the
difficulty which Lodgepole Pine hus in clearing itself
of limbs, young trees must be very closely spaced to secure
a first quality stand at maturity. The correct density
is often lacking over large creas and very frequently is
too dense upoy others. Reproduction after fires frequent-
ly runs as high as 55000 per acre. Upon one location,
300000 seedlings were found wpon «sn acre, one year after
the fire. Other counts have shown 175, O00 seedlings
per acre after eight years, and 44,000 seedlings after
twenty two years. This capacity of the tree to live

for long periods under « suppressed condition is often
“ tYo BL haw —
 

Forty year ol@ stand of Lodgepole Pine. Note stagnation
of growth and varying size althe the stand is even aged. Note
persistency of limbs and small trees. Timber will probably
not develope into commercial impottance.

Lower end, Glendevey Burn, Colorado National Forest.
called "smothering back” and results from the checking of
growth because of the density and poor growing conditions.
Counts have been made upon seventy year old stands in which
101,000 “live” trees" and 79,000 desd were found. These
"trees" could be pulled up like weeds and the stand will
probably never develops into merchantability. The right
density of course for Lodgepole Pine is that at which the
lower branches become suppressed and die while small, but
without overcrowding of the trees and the consequent de-
erease in rate of growth. Eight thousand seedlings per
acre have been considered as required to produce clean

stems «t maturity. It has been shown however that altho
this stocking would securs natural pruning that this would
be done at a sacrifice to diameter growth. Experiments
have been carried on to determone the proper density and it
is likely that the number will be in the vicinity of one
thousand per acre, sinee the uses to which Lodgepole Pine
are put to do not require absolutely clear m:terial.

In the reconnaissance work, “normal” stocking is often con-
sidered to be one thousand seedlings evenly distributed

and in planting results, five hundred or more seedlings per
acre are considered setisfectory. Even with a stand of

one thousand seedlings per acre, it is certsxin that the prop-
er gbacdng through the rotation will not be secured. Thih-
nings must be given the stunds if proper development is

to be secured in most cceses. While these thick stends have
@ good appearance, it is easy to see whet the resalt will

be in fifty years unless thinnings are madée The proper

‘
stocking for Lodgepole Pine should be something like the
17
 

 

Burn which hus reseeded completely. Unburned pole tim-
ber in background. Seedlings have come in so thick that stag-
nation of growth has resulted. Note persistency of limbs and
suppressed condition of trees. Stand 30 vears of age.

Buckhorn region, Coloredo National Forest.
following in this region;-

At ten years- 1000 per acree
At thirty years- 500 per acre.
At ninety years- 500 per secre.

At one hundred and forty years- 250 per acre.

Stands in which the fire tas /been severe enough to
release vast amounts of seed, and has killed the trees and
placed the soil in good condition, usually develope repro-
duction of less density and of better condition than the
more severe burns. This is brought out upon whet is lo-
cally called "Danner Hill" upon the Colorado Forest.

Upon this burn very little of the dry timber has fallen
down. A large amount of reproduction came in after the
fire but not in a heavy or dense stand. As & result, from
1000 to 2000 seedlings per secre were established, during
the first two or three yeass. At the present time as more
dry trees fall and more seed is liberated, the first seed-
lings have sufficient sturt over the later ones so that
the younrer seedlings will die out in the same manner as
in mature stands from lack of sufficient light.
Reproduction does not elweys follow burns nor ere
all barren areas c:.used by "double" or "triple" burns.
Uoon the Glendvey burn upon the Colorado Forest, a large
area of 40000 acres, only an occasional Lodgepole Pine is
now found forty five years after the fire. No other fares
have followed the original one. It is hard to determine
the exact cause of this condition but it is no doubt due to

one or more causes or combination of causes. The trees

were of large size on this burn and while the fire did not
 

Close view of young seedlings which ere growing in an open-

ing near a scattered stand of wood land Lodgepole rine. Seed-
lings growing on moist situation which also supports willows.
Note small puddles of water around trees.

Lower end, Glendevey burn, Colorado National Forest.
consume them, it was probably of sufficient intensity to
burn all needles and cones of the trees located upon the
highsr elevations at least, so thet little seed w::s re-
leased. The soil and moisture conditions may also have
been unsatisfactory following the fire. This burn is lo-
cated along the Medicine Bow range over which the winds
constantly blow down the slope. Along the upper portions
of this burn no reproduction of any kind hss come in, but
farther down toward the valley a purtial stocking took
place and still farther down, heavy sand excessive stock-
ing resulted. The particular causes which made this dif-
ferentiation upon parts of this burn cannot be determined
at this time.

In connection with the portion of the sree which
is partially stocked, it is interesting to note that these
trees commenced to reseed at an early «ge and in this belt
a complete stocking has now been established, with trees of
all ages from one to forty five yecers of age. The older
trees have limbs extending to the ground and the timber
produced will of course be of poor grade. In this partic-
ular place a peculiar phenomenon was noted in relation to
the seed bed upon which Lodgepole Pine usually germinatess
Seedlings of varying ages were found upon an area support-
ing also lichens and mossese In the spring of the year
this area is pertially covered with wuter for a month at
a time end the soil often saturzeted with water for a longer
period. These seedlings were in good condition.

While reproduction comes in best after fires, cases

have been noted where the fire exposed the soil so to wind
14
 

Temoorary camp in foreground. Note absence of cny re-
produetion upon burn in background, and manner in which tops
have been completely burned from trees.

Glendevey burn, Colorado Netional Forest.
end sun that the seedlings after germination often died.
The best conditions are secured when. there is some slight
amount of debris upon the ground which furnishes a little

Shade.

ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION

 

REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESS

The requirements for securing artificial regenera-
tion by means of direct sowing ere practically the same as
those stated under naturel reproduction. In the direct
sowing work, the selection of a site is most important.
Burned over areas without grass cover, or with a scattered
cover of aspen are usually suitable but the question of
exposure to wind and sun is 41lso very important. Success-
ful operations to date have usually been secured upon north
and west slopes as contrasted with south and east slopes.

The requirements for planting cre not severe as
planted stock will grow well at any solace trees have former-
ly grown and 2lso in some places where it is doubtful if
trees were formerly found. The results secured are lxerge-
ly determined by the care used in planting, the class of
stock used and prevailing weather conditions.

METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION

Direct sowing consists of the use of the seed di-
rectly in the sowing operations as contrasted with plant-
ing in which stock grown in forest nurseries from seed
sown or pulled stock secured in the forestis used.

DIRECT SOWING
i BLHODS

on
BROADCAST SOWING
Brosdcsst sowing consists of sc:ttering seed broad-
cast either by hand or by means of some mechanical device
by which the seed is uniformly scattered. The Cyclone
seeder has been quite commonly used and hes the advantage
over hand sowing in that the seed is uniformly distributed.
Seed sown broadcast may be sown either upon the
soil direct, usually in fall, and before or after the soil
has been prepared by some raking process or may be sown
upon soil which has had no preparation. Seed is often
sown upon the snow during early spring.
SLIP AND DIBBLE SOWING
SLip and dibble sowing consists of sowing in hills
at certain distances, small amounts of seed. In the slip
sowing a mattock is inserted «lmost horizontally and seed
inserted. In dibble sowing, a hole is made with a bar or
dibble, seed dropped into it and the hole closed by the foot.
SEED SPOT SOWING
Seed spot sowing consists in sowing ze quenity of
seed in a spot which has been prepared by a hazel hoe or
similar instrument. Regular seed spots consist of holes
made from two to four inches deep and about one foot
squaree Simple seed spots consist: of spots usually from
two to four inches deep in the form of a wedge, und about
five inches square.
CORNPLANTER SOWING

Cornplunter sowing consists of sowing seed with

a specially mede cornplanter worked with one hand and

21
which mekes the hole and drops the seed at points selected
by the operator. The seed is covered by the foot in press-
ing down the soil.
Broadcasting

Of any of the methods of direct seeding, broadcast-
ing has been the most frequently used end most frequently
incorrectly usede The usual plan of broadcasting is for
the man doing the sowing to take a strip of certcin width
back and forth across the area until the crea is complete-
ly covered. It is sometimes recommended thatone half the
seed be sown in strips one wy acroos the tract and the re-
mainder across the other way. This not only doubles the
expense but is particularly unnecessary when a mechanical
seeder is used and when proper markers are employed.
In broadcusting upon unprepared soil, the actuesl sowing con-
stitutes the only work. The sowing should be done in the
fall that the seed may work into the mineral soil and thst
it may also have absorbed water from the melting snows
and early germination favored. Upon prepared soil seed
is sown after the soil has been raked or harrowed, or muy
be sown first and the harrowing follow. In the mountain
regions .& rage or similar instrament is the only tool
which can be used. The preparation of the soil is near-
ly always prohibitive in cost, for the mountain regions.
Arees which have been tramped by sheep are sometimes used
but it nse been proven that when reproduction by broad-
casting can be secured, that it can be practicslly as
well secured without prepartion of the soil us with it.

Broedcasting may reasonably be expested to be
o9
successful when the soil is loose and moist et the surface,
where some protection is offered <gainst heat and drought
and when rodents can be controlled. In all cases of direct
sowing, poisoning of rodents is slways included as a part
of the sowing operation. seed sown broadcsst often comes
up in groups because of the effect of erosion or rodents
in bunching the seed into pockets. Areas covered with
down timber, some brush end debris, with soil exposed
often afford smitable areas for brosdcast sowing. Modifi-
cations of sowing broadcast are often practiced in which
strips and blocks are sown. the method is best adapted to
quick growing spevies. In broadcast sowing in Lodgepole
pine from two to three pounds of seed per acre are usually
used. The advantzges of the method are that the seed is
ecsiky scattered end that no soil preparation is usually
necessary. The cost of labor is very low but the seed
cost is high. The principal difficulty with broadcast
sowing is that only particular ereas are suited to the method.
RESULTS SECURED

Broadcast sowing has been successful upon several |
Forests in the western stutese Upon the Arapaho Forest
on the Arrow Burn send upon the Williams Fork, the results
have been very gratifying. Germination hss not only taken
place in large numbers but the seedlings have withstood the
Climatic changes. The areas used were perticulerly suitable.
They were rather clean burned but had a light stand of aspen
and very little ground covere These areas hsd an exposure

to the north end west. § Upon the Colorado Forest on the

23
 

 

Broadcasting Lodgepole Pine prior to first snowfall,

Note absence of reproduction over this sree.

Glendevey Burn. Colorado Netional Forest.
slopes of Flattop Mountain very good results have also been
secured where the conditions were similar to those found

upon the Arapaho Forest. The seed often germinates in large
numbers but unless some shade and protection is afforded,

the seedlings continue to die during the first second and third
years, efter sowing and considerable loss always results.

This has been repeatedly borne out by the broadcasting work
upon the Colorado Forest.

In addition toa the general Forest sowing, experimental
plots were sown at different seasons by several methods. In
this experiment seed was sown broadcast at the rate of one
good seed per squsere foot upon an area eighty by eighty feet
souare. The area was later raked after sowing the seed.

This experiment wes located upon the @lendevey Burn, an ares
burned over 45 years ego end upon which no reproduction had come
in. The altitude was 9500 feet. The soil was exposed, some
ground cover present but no&é sufficient to influence results.
The soil is a dry decomposed gravelly granite. Frequent
winds visit the srea during the summer. The region was for-
merly occupied by Lodgepole Pine, Engelmann Spruce, and Bal-
sam Fir.

During the experiment, ane block was sown in the
spring, another in the summer and snother in the fall.
The summer season was # normal one «nd altho rain falls fre-
quently in the summer, the soil dries out very quickly.
Again in 1914 the operation was repexsted for two plots sown
in the spring and summer.

Counts were mede in the spring and fall following.

Results secured the first season were of no value since seed

“A a
uniformly lays over in the ground for one year before ger-
mination at this «altitude. This method in this experiment
proved as adaptable as any direct method tried but the mor-
tality was very excessive.

Germination of the seed took place ufter the seed
had lain in the soil for some time but but the drying winds,
erosion and drought killed large numbers of seedlings.

The experiment definitely proved that no methods of direct
seedlings could be compared with planting results because
of the grec} mortality in seedlings.

In broadcast sowing, from two to three pounds of
seed per acre are used which costs from $2 to $4 per pound.
The total cost of the work varies generally from 34 to 37
per acre. Kight sreas on the Williems Fork Burm upon the
Arapaho Forest, totaling 391.70 acres braddcested on the
snow either in fall or springcost from $4.05 to 39.02 per
acree The average cost wee about $4.50 per aecrée The
amount of seed used varied from 1.50 to 2.40 pounds per «cre. .
This particular srea was a fourteen year old butrn at an al-
titude of from 9000 to 9500 feet, and heving a small amount
of aspen, buck brush und weeds upon ite seven of these areas |
are successful and the eighth is partially so. -

pon Flattop Mountain upon the Colorado Forest
where broadcasting has also been successful, costs were from
37-25 to 317.32 per acre for the small areas sown. From
2-33 to 3-00 pounds of seed per scre were used.
SLIP ARB.DIBBLE SOWING

Slip sowing in which seed is inserted into a slip
26
made horizontally, is not suited to as sm:1ll seed as Lodgepole
Pine. The method is suited perticularly to grassy xureas if the
seed sown can produce strong seedlings. Lodgepole Pine seed
becomes too deeply buried in the soil to allow of germination

or else the seedling is unable to compete with the grass.

Dibble sowing is unsuited to Lodgepole Pine because
of the smallness of the seed and the fact thet the seed is
usually covered too deeply.

The usuul method followed in slip sowing is to line
up a bunch of men in a row across the «rea who are equipped
with mattocks. Eech man sows the seed into a slip as he
makes ite A string of eight or ten men cen conveniently
work togetherdn this ways The first man keeps the lead
and makes the line to which the others work at the proper
distance away. Slips are usually mede with spacing 2 x 4
or 4x 4 feet.

Dibble sowing is usually done in the sume manner
out a dibble or plenting tool used which makes a smsll open-
ing and into which seed is dropped. The spacing is 2 x2,
2x 4, or 4 x 4 feet depending upon the number of seed used.

RESULTS SECURED

These methods have been little used in general
Forest reforestation work in Lodgepole pine.

Slip sowing wus tried out upon the experinent prev-
iously mentioned upon the Glendevey Burn. The spacing used
was 2 x 4 feet, end eig::t good seed per slip sown. No
germinetion took pliuce the first year ind but from 24 to 41

seedlings were found in each of the 80 foot plots in the
26
second year. The seed which did germinate were found to have
been but lightly covered. The plots were located upon an ex-
posed loose soil ond as u result, the seed was covered too deep-
ly. The method is unsuited to the average condition of

burns in this region.

The costs of this method are very small because of the
small amount of seed used but the method is of little value
upon the National Forests.

SEED SPOT SOWING

This method next to broadcasting has been most exten-
sively used in reforestetion work with Lodgepole Pine. In
making the regular seed spots, four to eight men with mattocks
or hezel hoes are usede These men line up one back of the
other but in adjoining rows, the head man keeping the line.
Spots sre msde by loosening the soil 2 to 4 inches ceep or
the competing vegetation is removed and the soil little diss
turbed. The seed spots are usually «bout one foot square
and are sp:ced 4x 4, 5x 5, or 6 x 6 feet cpart. A man
usually follows each group of four men end drops the required
number of seed into each spot. Ten good seed per spot are
usually used as es basis. The seed is covered lightly by
kicking over them, @ small .amount of soil.

In the simple seed spots the general lineup is the
Same Holes ere meade in the form of a wedge and five inches
in depth. The seed is dropred into the hole and covered asin
the regular seed spots.

The method is zdsepted to all areas which can be broad-
casted and to other sreas supporting a heavy stand of grass

and weeds not suited to broadcasting. The soil is exposed
end loosened, and competition with other vegetation reduced.
The method has a further advantage in that less seed per <cre
is used. The cost of the wotk is high. In case good ger-
minetion takes pl:ce end the seedlings live, a number of tgees
develope in the seme spot whic must be thinned out at some
future time. The yNung seedlings are also exposed to the full
effect of wind und sun in the spots. Birds often do consid-
erable robbing of seed in the spots since they can be easily
located.

The everage cost using ten good seed per spot and with
spacing -bout 5 x 5 feet is from $6 to y¥ per acre. An area
of 185 ecres upon the Colorado Forest cost 35.87 per scre in
which .328 pounds of seed per acre wes used. Three areas
upon the Arapsho Forest on the Williams rork, totaling 132.76
ecres, upon which from .75 to 1.07 pounds per acre of seed wes
used, cost from $6.61 to 315.33 per acre.

RESULTS SzCURED

In the experirent upon the Glendevey Burn, spots were
made 4 x 4 feet apurt, 4 inches deep, one foot square and 16
good seed per spot were used. Soil was then placed on the
seed not to exceed one-quarter inch in depth. After the seed
had laid over in the ground for a year, excellent germination
took place. The counts showed from 90 to 240 seedlings per
80 foot plot. The same results were secured here as with the
other methods in that excessive losses occured end the plot
with 240 seedlings Was reduced to 50.live seedlings. The
seed spot urea had however more seedlings at the lust count
than eny of the plots sown to other methods.

Simple seed spots were also made in this experiment,

9a
in which spots 2 x 4 feet, 5 inches squsre,and 5 inches deep
were made. Kight good seed per spot were used. The method
proved of no value since the holes immediately filled with
soil and germination did not take place. &£ few seed which
fell outside the spots or in a spot which did not fill up
with soil, germinatede Themethodis unsuited because of soil
conditions to any «reas in need of reforestation to Lodgepole
Pihe.
The areas of regular sowing upon the Colorsdo and
Arapaho Forests usually showed a good germinetion but the losses
in seedlings in the second and third years were enormous, so
that the possibility of the method being of resl value is cues-
tionable.
CORN PLANTER SOWING
The corn planter has been little used in reforestation
work with Lodgepole Pinée The tool is so arranged that a
certein number of seed are dropped each time. The machine -
is operated with one hand, the hole mede and the seed forced
out with a forward motion. This method is not adapted to
Lodgepole Pine because it is practically impossible not to
cover the seed too deeply and thus retard germination. It
is also difficult to regulate the number of seed dropped be-
cause of their small size. Except for covering the seed the
method has no advantages over broadcasting since competition
with vegetation is not recuced.
RESULTS SECURED.

The method wes not tried out in general Forest work

but plots were sovn by this method in the experirent updén
29
the Glendevey Burne seed on the average of four per spot
were sown 2 x 2 feet apert in holes made by the corn planter.
Counts on the plots a year afterward when germination first
occured showed from two to thirty six seedlings and the next
year the maximum number on any plot w:s 17 seedlings. The seed
which did germinete were found to have been but lightly cov-
ered with soil. The method is not suited to the average con-
ditions upon Lodgepole Pine burns.
PLANTING

Plenting is uniformly being practiced now in the re-
forestation work upon National Forests with Lodgepole Pine
except upon particular ereas which have given good results
from broadcasting or seed spots, and upon which these methods a
are being continued with small acreagese Planting is adap-
ted to,practically any condition found in Lodgepole Pine
burns. The only dis: dvuntage is the cost of the trees and
the high labor cost. It is usually necessary to use a mattock
or similar tool in all the planting operations carried on in
this region because of the rocky soile This adds greatiy
to the cost of the work as contrasted with planting with
planting tools in furrowa. The spacing is now uniformly
8 x 8 feet. The exact application of the men making the holes
or doing the planting varies from area to rea.

RESULTS SECURED

Satisfactory results ere uniformly secured in plent-
ing Lodgepole Pine except under wnusuel conditions. No diff-
iculty has been encountered in securing a survival of from
70 to 85 per cent even upon rocky dry exposed situations.

One area wes planted upon the Glsndevey Burn as a con-
 

Forest Ranger completing the plenting of a transplant

By tamping the soil about the tree.

Colorado National Forest.
trast with the direct sowing operations upon the deteiled
experiment thereée Upon this 80 x 80 foot plot, 425 Prans-
plants were to have been planted but the number wes consider-
ably reduced becuuse of poor trees since it had been neces-
sary to heel in the stock for six weeks prior to planting tt.
The planting was done in the spring and st the count made in
the fall, 64.2 per cent were alive based on the original number
of 425. The planted area had then cost less than the seed
spot area and but little more than the broadcusting. Results
were of course much better in the planted plat. Transplants
can usually be grown for about 36 per thousand in the mountain
nurseries and the ectual planting cost is from 3 4 to 35 per
acre, making the total cost about $10 to $11 per acre, de-
pending upon the size of the operations, the accessibility

of the area, the kind of soil and ground cover, the class of
men available and the cost of stock used. The actual labor
cost of the work,upon an averege spacing of 8 x 8 feet is from
$2.50 to 32.75 per acre in which mattocks cre used.

SUMMARY

NATUR/L REGENERATION

#ire has played an important part upon areas now oc-
cuphed by Lodgepole Pine and it is certuin that without fire
“38 an assésténg agent that large areas in p:rticular now oc-
pied by young stands of Lodgepole Pine would be held by the
more tolerant species, Engelmann spruce, balsem fir, snd ~
douglas fir with which Lodgepole Pine associates.

In cutting Lodgepole Pine timber, the first methods
followed the selection system and variations of the single

31
 

©

Fortyfive year old stand of Lodgepole Pine upon lower

portion of Glendevey Burn. Stub Creek renger station in
middle ground. Sagebrush land in foreground.

Colorado National Forest.
tree method. 4 later practice was to cut clean except for
square groups of trees left, which were lightly thinned.

Clean cutting in strips was elso practiced. The methods did
not consider watershed protection nor silvicultural ond market
conditions. Under the present practice of Forest Service
timber sales, the system followed depends largely upon market
conditions. In mature stands only from 25 to 40 per cent by
volume of the stand is removed and this amount consists of trees
of merchantable size only. Although the plan of cutting does
not aim to secure reproduction, it is believed that a large
number of seedlings will come in in the openings made.

The system is not ideal but will serve to protect the
watersheds and also allow for a second cutting in from 20 tO
40 years as well as to secure reproduction which will be of
unexen age. The amount of windfell resulting from this
system is inconsequential. The small number of cuttings
which have been made along this plan indicate that the mount
of reproduction secured will be satisfactory in amount.

frecs outside the Forests or upon patented lands within
the boundaries, show that satisfactory results in securing re-
production are found where the slesh was not burned but left
in the timber. Reproduction occurs over these areas both in
the old skid trails and upon portions of the areas where the
forest floor remained undisturbed.

Forest fires serve <:s an sid to reproduction by re-
leesing seed, by preparing a suitable germination bed, afford-
ing correct light conditions, and causing the removal of ro-
dents. A heavy stand of reproduction usually follows a fire

in Lodfsepole :ine unless the fire is so severe as to destroy

ZO
 

Lodgepole Pine burn. Scettered stand of Lodgepole

Pine coming in. smaller séedlings cannot of course be seen
Nexr Continental Divide, istes Park. Flattop moun-

tain, Colozado Netional Forest.
all cones -nd seede The chief difficulty often occurs in that
the number of seedlings per acre is so large and the individ-
uals so persisteht that stagnation results and the seedlings f
fail to develope into valuable timber.
ARTIFICIAL REGENER: TION

Direct sowing follows the method of sowing directly
upon the soil which may or may not have received preparation.
The usuel methods consist of bros:dcasting, slip and dibble
sowing, seed spot sowing, and cornplanter sowing.

In broadcasting seed is sown by hand or by the use of
a mechanical seeder upon the exposed soil which may secure
some sort of harrowing either before or after sowing; or bg
sowing upon the snow in fall or spring. The method is only
adaptable to particular sreas and only successful upon cer-
tain locations. Satisfuctory results have been secured
upon but a few Forests and the use of the methoa is now cor-
fined to a few favorable areas. Broadcesting on snow us-
ually costs about 34.50 per acre when seed secured locally
by the Forest Service is usede The cost is slighly higher
when the seed is sown upon the bare groung.

In slip sowing seed is sown in slits made by mattocks
but is unsuited to Lodgepole Pine because of the small size
of the seed. In dibble sowing, «= dibble or planting bar
is similarly used. These methods have been little used in
Forest Service work end are of no practical value. The costs
are very low because of the small amount of seed used.

Next to broadcasting, seed spot sowing has been used

most extensively. Seed spots are made of regular snuare

shapes or in the form of a wedge The system is sdapted to
 

 

 

Forest Service plenting crew using mattocks.

Colorado.
a latger percentage of area than broadcasting but results have
not been entirely satisfectory bec:use of the severe mortality
after heavy germination once points to success. The cost of
the work is usually from $6 to 37 per ccree |

Cornplanter sowing is of little value since the method
cannot be satisfactorily used because of the small size of the
Be6d. It is prsectically impossible to use the planter and to
sow the proper number of seed and zlso to prevent covering the
seed too deeply.

Plisnting is now l:rgely practiced upon most of the re+#
forestation work since the method is a success upon all locations
if correctly done. The cost of stock used ond labor involved
is of course high. Mattocks are largely used because of
rocky soil. The survivel number is usuzlly large running
from 70 to 85 per cent. The total cost per acre using trans-
plant stock is from 310 to 11 per acre where mattocks are used
and large areas planted.

Of the methods used to secure urtificial reproduction,
planting is most desirable and successful. Seed spot sowing
is next of value followed by broadcasting. Corn planter.
slip :nd dibble sowing are of little value for this species.

 
3

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