THE INFLUENCE OF INTUITION PROMINENCE ON ATTENTION TO AND APPRAISAL OF NARRATIVES THAT PLACE MORAL INTUITIONS IN CONFLICT By Brian John Klebig A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Communication—Doctor of Philosophy 2022 ABSTRACT THE INFLUENCE OF INTUITION PROMINENCE ON ATTENTION TO AND APPRAISAL OF NARRATIVES THAT PLACE MORAL INTUITIONS IN CONFLICT By Brian John Klebig The MIME focuses on narratives that feature moral conflict (i.e., instances wherein one moral intuition must be violated to uphold another). The model describes how the comparative potency of narrative cues that exemplify these intuitions can make one more prominent than another. It refers to the relative potency of these narrative cues as comparative narrative intuition exemplar prominence (C-NIEP). According to the MIME, C-NIEP positively affects (increases) attention to more prominent (i.e., superordinate) intuitions and negatively affects (decreases) attention to less prominent (i.e., subordinate) intuitions. The model also distinguishes different degrees of C-NIEP, which it refers to as dominant (wherein the one intuition is so prominent that it blocks out the other) and overriding (where both intuitions are prominent, but one more than another). According to the model, dominant C-NIEP degree strengthens the positive and negative effects of C-NIEP on attention to superordinate and subordinate intuitions. Subsequently, attention to superordinate and subordinate intuitions affects various dimensions of appraisal. The current study presented a heuristic model describing that C-NIEP degree (dominant vs. overriding) moderated the effect of C-NIEP on attention to superordinate and subordinate intuitions (or, their exemplars), and attention subsequently effected narrative appraisal. The model was analyzed in two separate parts. The front half examined the MIME’s prediction that C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree would interact to moderate audience attention to both superordinate and subordinate intuition exemplars. The back half explored the role of attention to superordinate and subordinate intuition exemplars in determining audience story appraisals. Findings provided initial support for assertions that C-NIEP degree moderates C-NIEP’s ability to influence attention as predicted. Patterns indicated that dominant C-NIEP degree increased both the positive effect of C-NIEP on attention to superordinate intuition exemplars and the negative effect of attention to subordinate intuition exemplars. This finding is in line with the predicted model. These results provide first evidence supporting the MIME’s description of how C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree interact to focus or curtail attention to exemplars germane to superordinate or subordinate intuitions in conflict. Consistent with expectations, dominant C- NIEP degree strengthened the positive effect of C-NIEP on gaze proportion (which is associated with the selection mechanism) and on recognition (which is associated with preconscious memory) for the superordinate intuition. Concurrently, in line with expectations, dominant C- NIEP degree strengthened the negative effect of C-NIEP on gaze proportion, such that under conditions of dominant intuition prominence, participants spent less time looking at regions of the screen associated with the subordinate intuition. The result of tests on the back half of the model provided several outcomes in line with predictions, however, the findings generally fail to provide strong support for this part of the model’s predictions. Potential implications of this are detailed in the body of the manuscript. Finally, the direct effects of C-NIEP degree on attention and appraisal were examined. These findings focused mainly on attention. The current findings largely support expectations regarding attention, showing direct effects consistent with C-NIEP degree’s expected influence. After discussing these and other findings of this study, application to theory and the potential social relevance of these outcomes are discussed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincerest thanks is owed to many people, without whose help this dissertation would not have been completed. First and foremost, I want to give my deepest thanks to my advisor, Dr. Ron Tamborini. It has been a genuine honor to work this closely with a man whom I admire so profoundly, and to have received this level of concern and care from an internationally renowned social scientist is truly humbling. Thank you, Ron, for your patience and dedication in this work, as well as for the relationship we have now. Additionally, my sincere thanks to my committee members: Ralf Schmälzle, Gary Bente, and Rabindra Ratan. To have had the opportunity to pursue projects with each of you, from the building and management of a world-class laboratory to participating on a grant from the National Science Foundation, each of them has contributed so much to my development in this field and as an academic. I thank each of you for your mentoring, friendship, and for agreeing to serve on this committee. It has also been a tremendous honor to learn, grow, and research with my cohort of research team members over the years, most particularly Sujay Prabhu, Lindsay Hahn, and Eric Novotny. It is difficult to imagine taking this journey without the support of good friends and brilliant researchers, and I thank you for your support. Finally, nobody has sacrificed more in pursuit of this degree than my wife, Dawn. From the time we left the parish, she has stood by me and supported me through moves, children, long nights, and absent days. This accomplishment belongs to her every bit as much as it does me, and from the bottom of my heart, I thank you for your steadfast love these many years. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ vii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... viii INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................1 THE MODEL OF INTUITIVE MORALITY AND EXEMPLARS ...................................6 THE MIME’S LONG-TERM AND SHORT-TERM COMPONENTS .............................9 NARRATIVE INTUITION EXEMPLAR PROMINENCE (NIEP) AND COMPARATIVE NARRATIVE INTUITION EXEMPLAR PROMINENCE (C-NIEP) ............................................................................................................................11 DOMINANT AND OVERRIDING INTUITIONS...........................................................13 THE MIME AND ATTENTION.......................................................................................16 ATTENTIONAL MECHANISMS ....................................................................................17 Indicators of Attention ...........................................................................................19 Measuring Attention Under Conditions of Dominant Versus Overriding Accessibility ...........................................................................................................20 THE HYPOTHESIZED MODEL......................................................................................22 METHOD ......................................................................................................................................26 OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................26 PARTICIPANTS ...............................................................................................................27 STIMULI ...........................................................................................................................27 The Secular Comic .................................................................................................27 The Religious Comic .............................................................................................32 PROCEDURE ....................................................................................................................35 MEASURES ......................................................................................................................37 RESULTS ......................................................................................................................................43 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ...........................................................................................44 C-NIEP AND C-NIEP DEGREE’S EFFECT ON ATTENTION: H1-H4 ........................45 Effects of C-NIEP and C-NIEP Degree on Superordinate Intuition Exemplars (H1 & H3) ..............................................................................................................47 Effects of C-NIEP and C-NIEP Degree on Subordinate Intuition Exemplars (H2 & H4) ..............................................................................................................51 THE INFLUENCE OF ATTENTION ON AUDIENCE APPRAISAL: H5-12 ...............55 Individual Attention-Measure Predictors of Audience Appraisal: Superordinate Exemplars (H5 – H8) .............................................................................................56 Individual Attention-Measure Predictors of Audience Appraisal: Subordinate Exemplars (H9 – H12) ...........................................................................................58 ANALYSIS OF THE MODEL AS A WHOLE ................................................................60 POST HOC – THE DIRECT EFFECT OF C-NIEP DEGREE ON ATTENTION AND APPRAISAL ......................................................................................................................61 v DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................65 OVERVIEW OF FINDINGS ............................................................................................65 C-NIEP Degree’s Ability to Moderate the Effect of C-NIEP on Attention ..........65 The Influence of Attention to Superordinate or Subordinate Exemplars on Audience Appraisals ..............................................................................................71 The Direct Effect of C-NIEP Degree on Attention and Appraisal ........................75 IMPLICATIONS ...............................................................................................................79 Theoretical Implications ........................................................................................80 Support for the MIME’s assertion that C-NIEP degree moderates C-NIEP’s impact on attention....................................................................80 Support for previous findings that C-NIEP degree influences attention and appraisal. ...................................................................................................83 Response time indicates that C-NIEP degree influences conscious awareness. ..................................................................................................84 Utility of Eye-Tracking for Measuring Attention. ......................................85 Social Implications.................................................................................................86 LIMITATIONS ..................................................................................................................88 FUTURE RESEARCH ......................................................................................................90 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................93 APPENDICES ...............................................................................................................................95 APPENDIX A: SECULAR COMIC STORYBOARD .....................................................96 APPENDIX B: RELIGIOUS COMIC STORYBOARD .................................................100 APPENDIX C: RECOGNITION AND RECALL ITEMS .............................................102 APPENDIX D: STORY EVALUATION ITEMS ...........................................................104 APPENDIX E: SANTA CLARA STRENGTH OF RELIGIOUS FAITH QUESTIONNAIRE .........................................................................................................105 APPENDIX F: MORAL FOUNDATIONS QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................106 APPENDIX G: DEBRIEFING ........................................................................................108 APPENDIX H: CORRELATION MATRICES ..............................................................110 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................114 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of Variables Used in Study ............................................................44 Table 2 Effects of C-NIEP and C-NIEP Degree on Attention to Superordinately Prominent Exemplars ......................................................................................................................................48 Table 3 Effects of C-NIEP and C-NIEP Degree on Attention to Subordinately Prominent Exemplars ......................................................................................................................................52 Table 4 Regressions for the Effect of Attention to Superordinately Prominent Intuition Exemplars on Audience Appraisal.................................................................................................58 Table 5 Regressions for the Effect of Attention to Subordinately Prominent Intuition Exemplars on Audience Appraisal ...................................................................................................................60 Table 6 Fitness Indicators and χ2 for the SEM Analyses of the Entire Model ..............................61 Table 7 Table of Post Hoc T-Tests on Attention and Appraisal Variables ...................................64 Table 8 Secular Comic Sample Correlation Matrix .....................................................................110 Table 9 Religious Comic Sample Correlation Matrix .................................................................112 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 The Effect of Conscious Attention to Superordinate/Subordinate Intuitions on Narrative Appeal ..............................................................................................................................................4 Figure 2 The Model of Intuitive Morality and Exemplars ...............................................................8 Figure 3 A Heuristic Representation of the Tested Models ...........................................................23 Figure 4 Regression Coefficients for H1 and H3, Secular Comic Sample ....................................49 Figure 5 Regression Coefficients for H1 and H3, Religious Comic Sample.................................50 Figure 6 Regression Coefficients for H2 & H4, Secular Comic Sample ......................................53 Figure 7 Regression Coefficients for H2 & H4, Religious Comic Sample ..................................54 viii INTRODUCTION The role of attention in determining media effects has been a focus of media scholars since the infancy of the discipline. Early media effects models considered attention simply as a prerequisite for effects to occur (e.g., Hovland, 1959), with little thought given to explicating the forces that determined attention. However, more recent investigations have given considerable thought to the determinants of attention, and how these determinants shape the outcome of media exposure. One example of this can be seen in the model of intuitive morality and exemplars (MIME, Tamborini, 2011, 2013). According to the MIME, attention to media content is strongly influenced by moral intuitions, which can be simply conceived as innate sensitivities that motivate humans to benefit others. The MIME suggests that content cues in narratives that exemplify moral intuitions can influence audience attention and shape audience response to media. These content cues are called moral exemplars. The current paper tests a model examining previously unexamined MIME logic suggesting that the prominence of moral exemplars in narrative content can direct audience attention to associated exemplars, and thereby shape the appraisal of stories and their characters. The MIME focuses on narratives that feature moral conflict (i.e., instances wherein one moral intuition must be violated to uphold another) and variance in the extent to which morally relevant narrative content cues (i.e., exemplars) make one conflicting intuition more prominent than another. Prominence refers to something that stands out or is made conspicuous. The MIME construes an exemplar as conspicuous or prominent based on the degree to which its features contrast with their surroundings. In this sense, prominence is akin to concepts like perceptual salience (Taylor & Fiske, 1975), which result from the (often unexpected) contrast of items with 1 their environment (e.g., Itti & Koch, 2001; Itti, Koch, & Niebur, 1998; Maljkovic & Nakayama, 1994). Variance in the exemplar prominence of competing intuitions is referred to as comparative narrative intuition-exemplar prominence, or C-NIEP. The model tested here suggests that C-NIEP’s emphasis on different intuitions directs attention toward story content germane to the most prominently exemplified intuitions, which then shapes audience appraisal of the story. In this context, attention can be understood as the dedication of mental resources to a particular stimulus. Specifically, the model predicts that attention to content germane to superordinate intuitions (i.e., those more prominently exemplified) will lead audiences to positively appraise stories that uphold superordinate intuitions. Moreover, this positive appraisal will increase as the superordinate intuition’s comparative exemplar prominence increases. The influence of intuition exemplar prominence and the extent of this exemplar prominence can be explained by the interaction of C-NIEP (superordinate/subordinate intuitions) and C-NIEP degree (dominantly/overridingly salient intuitions), where degree references the level or extent to which exemplars in narrative content emphasize a superordinate intuition. The predicted interaction of C-NIEP (i.e., which intuition exemplars are superordinate and subordinate) and C-NIEP degree (i.e., the extent of superordinance) is based on logic underlying the MIME. According to the MIME, a superordinate intuition’s influence on attention and appraisal will differ depending upon the degree to which the superordinate and subordinate intuitions become salient in the minds of audience members. The MIME distinguishes two degrees of superordinate salience, which it refers to as dominant and overriding. These two degrees are introduced here briefly and discussed in more detail later in the paper. Dominant salience refers to a cognitive state wherein more prominently 2 exemplified intuitions (i.e., superordinate intuitions) are made so salient in the minds of an audience that its members have no conscious awareness of narrative content related to less prominently exemplified intuitions (i.e., subordinate intuitions). By comparison, overriding salience refers to a condition in which superordinate intuitions are made more salient in the minds of members than subordinate intuitions, but content related to the less prominently exemplified subordinate intuitions remain salient at lower levels of conscious awareness. The MIME suggests a previously untested influence of superordinate and subordinate intuitions on appraisal that will be qualitatively different as a function of whether superordinate intuitions are made dominantly versus overridingly salient. This is represented in the model by the interaction of C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree. When exemplar influence renders superordinate intuitions dominantly salient, audience members will ignore and be consciously unaware of story content germane to subordinate intuitions, instead giving full attention to and having conscious awareness of only the superordinate intuition. As a result, audiences for narratives that uphold superordinate intuitions should experience the complete satisfaction of all salient intuitions. The MIME refers to the experience of having all salient intuitions completely satisfied as enjoyment. When exemplar influence makes superordinate intuitions overridingly salient, audience members will pay close attention to and remain consciously aware of story content germane to those superordinate intuitions. However, to a lesser extent, audiences will also pay attention to and remain consciously aware of story content germane to subordinate intuitions. As a result of this attention and conscious awareness, audiences should experience a conflicted appraisal of narratives that uphold the superordinate intuition. The overriding response should be a positive appraisal resulting from the knowledge that the superordinate intuition has been upheld, but this appraisal is mixed with the knowledge that a valued subordinate intuition has been violated. The 3 MIME refers to this overall positive but mixed affective response (from simultaneously experiencing the satisfaction of superordinate and frustration of subordinate intuitions) as appreciation. The goal of the present study is to examine a complex, heuristic model showing how the interaction of C-NIEP (superordinate/subordinate) and C-NIEP degree (dominant or overriding) influences attention to exemplars in narrative content, which then mediates the effect of the interaction on audience appraisals of narratives that uphold superordinate intuitions. The model shown in Figure 1 serves as a heuristic representing the processes examined in the current study. Figure 1 The Effect of Conscious Attention to Superordinate/Subordinate Intuitions on Narrative Appeal Attention to superordinate exemplars Like Character Enjoy Story C-NIEP C-NIEP Degree (Superordinate/S (Dominant / ubordinate) Overriding) Appreciate Trait Story Intuition Salience Attention to subordinate exemplars Although the present study includes an examination of the full model, the operational procedures used here were selected to optimize testing of separate processes represented within the model, and not the model as a whole. In particular, the front part of the heuristic model 4 represents a previously untested moderation wherein C-NIEP degree is expected to influence the effects of C-NIEP on attention to superordinate and subordinate exemplars. As such, examining separate processes represented in different parts of the model is more central to the goals of this study than testing the model in its entirety. Specifically, this study attempts to test two processes that, combined, comprise the entire model. First, it breaks new ground for research concerning the MIME by examining how the interaction between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree influences conscious attention to and awareness of content allied with intuitions made more prominent (i.e., superordinate) or less prominent (i.e., subordinate) in a narrative. Specifically, it tests the prediction that dominantly prominent C-NIEP degree strengthens C-NIEP’s positive effect on attention to superordinately prominent intuition exemplars and its negative effect on attention to subordinately prominent intuition exemplars. Second, it examines how conscious attention to and awareness of superordinate and subordinate intuitions in conflict influences how an audience appraises and responds to a narrative. The model tested here suggests that narrative cues can control and direct audience attention to and away from behaviors that both uphold and violate different moral intuitions. In this manner, writers can shape audience appraisals of character behaviors. In most cases, this leads audiences to appraise moral behaviors positively and immoral behaviors negatively. Undoubtedly, social critics would praise this outcome. However, under some conditions, writers can lead audiences to appraise moral behaviors negatively and immoral behaviors positively. Just as surely, critics would condemn media that had this type of influence. Understanding how writers, either intentionally or unintentionally, can direct and influence audience appraisal of narrative behaviors is an important issue for those concerned not 5 only about how narratives shape audience appraisal of behavior in stories, but also how writers and their stories might shape appraisal of behavior in real-life. The study described below attempts to increase this understanding by testing MIME- based logic describing the influence of intuition prominence on audience appraisal. Discussion begins by introducing the MIME and its description of how (in both the short-term and long- term) intuition prominence in narrative media can influence audience attention to narrative elements associated with superordinate or subordinate intuitions. Following this, discussion considers the role of conscious attention and awareness as mediators in the relationship between intuition prominence and an audience’s appraisal of a narrative. The discussion concludes by describing the model tested in this study. THE MODEL OF INTUITIVE MORALITY AND EXEMPLARS The MIME borrows logic from media theory and moral psychology to present a model of short-term and long-term processes outlining the interaction between media and society and how their interaction influences the development and maintenance of different moral value hierarchies. The long-term component of the model describes a process through which the reciprocal relationship between media producers and media consumers establishes and reinforces a hierarchy of moral intuition accessibility within audiences attuned to a culturally bound media system. As part of this process, media producers craft narratives that position altruistic intuitions in a hierarchy consistent with the prevailing culture’s sensibilities. In concert, audiences select media that aligns with their personal (though culturally inspired) intuitions hierarchy and positively appraise narrative content that reinforces their moral hierarchy. The commercial popularity of content affirming the culturally accepted intuition-hierarchy, in turn, facilitates the production of content consistent with these norms, furthering the reciprocal process. 6 The short-term component of the model combines logic from moral foundations theory (MFT; Haidt and Joseph, 2007) and Exemplification theory (Zillmann, 2002) to describe primal processes that inform subsequent elaborative thoughts and behaviors. Such primal processes constitute what may be considered a “gut reaction” to stimuli, or the reflexive impulse to judge something as good/bad, right/wrong, likable/unlikable, or uncertain. Accordingly, these initial reactions drive mental elaboration and appraisal. Lazarus (1991) posited a variety of primal drivers for behavior, referred to as intuitive motivations, which set specific goals for group welfare in an individual’s mind. In line with this logic, MFT identified five innate moral motivations held in common across members of different cultures, groups, and civilizations. Each moral motivation represents a psychological system by which people intuitively appraise the rightness or wrongness of observed behavior. These altruistic intuitions are drives that motivate humans to act and can be understood as follows: Care is characterized by a desire to help others who are in need, and to mitigate harm. Fairness entails the innate drive to see other individuals dealt with justly, with equality and equity. Ingroup loyalty is a bias toward members of one’s own group over other groups, and to treat those who resemble you with trust while regarding unlike others with suspicion. Respect for authority is the desire to follow benevolent authorities and honor the traditional institutions of one’s group or country. And purity is a drive to pursue social nobility and lifestyle cleanliness while avoiding social contaminants. Figure 2 shows the full model of the MIME which, beginning from the left, details the broad application of the model, outlining a reciprocal relationship between individuals and their environments, in particular media. Beginning with the left of the model, a hierarchy of moral intuitions is salient within a culture. When an individual views media, they note exemplars of 7 these intuitions which render them temporarily more accessible. An appraisal process follows, wherein attention is automatically directed to exemplars and they are intuitively evaluated. This also prompts a reappraisal process by which the individual has an affective response to the media. Because individuals may choose what media they consume, they will choose media that they like, i.e., that which satisfies accessible intuitions. Media producers are motivated to make content that the public will consume and like, so they produce more content reinforcing the social moral hierarchy. Figure 2 The Model of Intuitive Morality and Exemplars Note: The model of intuitive morality and exemplars (MIME). aAffirming media content is defined as content designed with the intention that it will be perceived by target audience members as adhering to their overall moral-domain system, either through automatic appraisal or controlled reappraisal. bDomain salience and exemplar salience only lead to controlled reappraisal when domains are in conflict with each other or when exemplars are difficult to categorize as fitting within a specific domain. cBoth automatic appraisal and controlled reappraisal produce positively valued responses when an individual perceives that content adheres to their overall moral-domain system. 8 The MIME builds on MFT logic to describe how reflexive and reflective processes shaped by media content and these five altruistic intuitions can drive and shape audience appraisals of narratives. Media appraisal depends in part on our reaction to narrative events across these domains. The ease with which different altruistic intuitions are accessible in cognitive processing during narrative exposure determines the extent to which different intuitions will influence appraisal. This ease of accessibility is referred to as an intuition’s salience. THE MIME’S LONG-TERM AND SHORT-TERM COMPONENTS One crucial component of the MIME is the ability of media to influence the salience (i.e., accessibility) of the various intuitions over both the short and long term. The long-term, or chronic accessibility, of an intuition constitutes a trait-like preference for some intuitions over others in the hierarchy. This type of lasting accessibility results from intuitions being consistently reinforced over long periods of time through a variety of media and across many other parts of an individual’s social environment. By comparison, a single exposure to a specific piece of media can have a momentary influence on the relative importance of intuitions exemplified within that context. In other words, contextual features of a narrative can temporarily override the hierarchy and elevate the influence of one intuition over others in appraisal processes. This short-term influence is understood as an increase in an intuition’s temporary accessibility. Logic underlying the MIME’s representation of media’s influence on intuition accessibility comes from Zillmann’s (2002) exemplification theory. Exemplification theory explicates the processes and conditions under which media’s influence on intuition accessibility should occur. 9 Zillmann identifies four media representation features that can be used to emphasize and impact the accessibility of an intuition. The two most used and examined means for emphasizing a moral intuition in narratives are recency and frequency. The accessibility of an intuition in the minds of listeners can be increased by simply featuring intuition exemplars more recently or frequently in a narrative. Beyond this, an exemplar’s concreteness and emotionality can exert an influence on an intuition’s accessibility. Concrete exemplars, which share and manifest observable essential features of the intuition, are more influential than broad, esoteric examples (Zillmann & Brosius, 2000). Likewise, exemplars that are emotionally charged carry greater weight when determining an intuition’s accessibility in an audience member’s mind (Tamborini, 2013). For example, when we see a child fall, hearing the child cry and scream carries greater weight in an observer’s mind than hearing the child say “ouch.” This greater weight temporarily makes harm and care more accessible. Like the MIME, exemplification theory suggests that repeated exposure across a variety of instances and over the long-term can influence trait-level accessibility, resulting in an individual’s moral hierarchy shifting and/or deepening. Along with state-level accessibility, trait accessibility is at play when an individual is appraising the media they view. The chronic accessibility of different moral intuitions serves as an intuition accessibility baseline for individual observers when viewing media. Absent any outside cues from one’s environment or from the narrative itself, the trait-level accessibility of different intuitions will shape an audience member’s appraisal of narrative content. However, the MIME suggests that the influence of an intuition’s trait-level baseline accessibility can sometimes be curtailed, for the short-term, by the immediate impact of cues within a narrative that temporarily elevate the accessibility of other emphasized intuitions. 10 Exceptionally strong media representations may have this impact on almost all audience members, but individual differences among audience members are expected. In this regard, the degree to which trait-level intuitions are chronically accessible should moderate the ability of narrative exemplars to alter state accessibility. In the current study, this would result in a model of moderated, moderated, mediation. Notably, this discussion of trait-level intuition accessibility is included here only for explanatory value. Although some aspects of this influence will be examined and discussed later in this manuscript, the moderating influence of trait-level intuition accessibility on the model as a whole is not tested in the current study. NARRATIVE INTUITION EXEMPLAR PROMINENCE (NIEP) AND COMPARATIVE NARRATIVE INTUITION EXEMPLAR PROMINENCE (C-NIEP) MIME-based logic suggests that moral intuitions become accessible in the minds of audience members when they are signified and made prominent in a narrative by moral exemplars. Skilled storytellers have utilized this technique for millennia, with simple narratives first elevating particular intuitions (or sets of intuitions) that are then upheld in the story’s resolution. This type of simple narrative should produce outcomes that are entirely satisfying for their consumers. Indeed, the MIME suggests that upholding salient intuitions is the central determinant of a story’s appeal. As such, it should be true even for narratives that have an ending that may not be favorable for primary characters. When narrative exemplars make a particular intuition prominent, it is referred to as narrative intuition-exemplar prominence (NIEP; Tamborini, Baldwin et al., 2019). The MIME suggests that NIEP renders prominent intuitions more accessible in the minds of its audience. In simple narratives, where no salient intuitions are in conflict with those made 11 prominent, the audience should experience the full and unconflicted satisfaction of all prominent intuitions. The MIME refers to this experience as enjoyment. Such simple narratives are often associated with children’s literature and storytelling (Tamborini, Aley et al., 2021), although a great deal of media aimed at an adult audience also utilizes these techniques (Tamborini, Olah et al., 2022). Of course, not all stories are so simple. More complex narratives will often portray intuitions in conflict with one another, such that upholding one intuition will mean violating another. In situations where such conflict is central to the story’s plot, exemplars are used to make both upheld and violated intuitions prominent. In such cases, the MIME would predict that positive audience appraisal should result from a story outcome that upholds the intuition made comparatively more prominent. Stories involving conflict between intuitions made prominent are referred to as comparative narrative intuition-exemplar prominence (C-NIEP). In most stories of this type, one intuition is made more prominent than the other by the use of more frequent, recent, concrete or emotional exemplars of that intuition in the narrative. Once again, the MIME suggests that intuitions made more prominent become more accessible in the minds of its audience. This renders the state accessibility of the highlighted intuition greater than its competitor. In many instances of conflict between intuitions, although audiences will be satisfied that the more prominent (i.e., superordinate) intuition was upheld, they will remain conscious of the fact that something they value (i.e., the subordinate intuition) was violated. This results in an overall positive but mixed affective response due to the simultaneous upholding of a superordinate intuition and the violation of a subordinate intuition. This mixed affective response is called appreciation. 12 DOMINANT AND OVERRIDING INTUITIONS A key component of the MIME suggests that when cues in a narrative make an intuition more prominent, the resulting increase in accessibility for audience members will increase attention to representations of that intuition in content. The model clarifies the processes responsible for this by distinguishing critical differences in (a) how prominent conflicting intuitions are made in a story, (b) the degree to which those intuitions become accessible in the minds of audiences, and (c) the attention paid to content signifying intuitions made more/less accessible through prominent exemplification. By distinguishing these concepts, and the processes that connect them, the MIME describes how resulting attention will influence evaluations of narrative content. Although degrees of intuition prominence vary along a continuum, the MIME distinguishes two categories of exemplar prominence in a narrative, which it refers to as dominant and overriding. These two degrees of prominence distinguish how conspicuously an intuition is featured in a narrative (Baldwin, 2022). An intuition that is dominantly prominent is one made so conspicuous that exemplars of other intuitions, though they may be present, cannot compete for the audience’s attention. Conversely, while overridingly prominent intuitions are also more conspicuously featured than other intuitions, they are not so conspicuous that they preclude attention to exemplars of other intuitions. As discussed, Zillmann (2002) described four features that impact how prominently or conspicuously intuitions are featured in narratives, namely frequency, recency, concreteness, and emotionality. Thus, when intuitions are in conflict, these features can be used in two ways: first, they can be used to make different intuitions comparatively more or less prominent (i.e., 13 superordinate or subordinate), and second, they can be used to make superordinate intuitions dominantly or overridingly prominent compared to subordinate intuitions. The MIME uses the same two categories, dominant and overriding, to distinguish degrees of intuition accessibility in the minds of audience members. A dominantly accessible intuition is one that becomes “so highly accessible that it precludes conscious processing of other” intuitions (Tamborini, 2013, p. 55). The model holds that when an intuition is made dominantly accessible in a narrative, people will respond to a story automatically at a preconscious level based solely on content that is related to the dominantly accessible intuition. Predictably, people would be consciously unaware of information related to other intuitions, indicating that they did not attend to this information in the narrative. As such, subsequent evaluation of narrative behaviors, characters that perform those behaviors, and consequences for those characters (a) will be shaped by the extent to which behaviors uphold the dominant intuition, and (b) will be unaffected by the extent to which behaviors uphold the other intuitions. The MIME’s description of how overridingly accessible intuitions influence attention to and evaluations of narrative content is a bit more complex. An overridingly accessible intuition will not preclude the conscious processing of other moral domains. Instead of an automatic response based on processing at a preconscious level, the model predicts a deliberative response based on post-conscious processing. When an intuition is overridingly accessible, narrative content related to that intuition is predicted to reach a level of conscious processing along with content related to other intuitions, indicating that people pay attention to both classes of content. Despite this distributed attention, the greater comparative accessibility of an overriding intuition marginalizes other intuitions during post-conscious processing. As such, subsequent evaluation 14 of narrative behavior, characters, and consequences will be shaped by the extent to which content upholds the overridingly accessible intuition. Although the marginalization of other intuitions can make it seem as though overriding and dominant accessibility have an identical influence on narrative-content evaluation, their impact is in fact qualitatively different. The MIME distinguishes the effect of an overridingly versus dominantly accessible intuition in several ways. First, as already indicated, an overridingly accessible intuition would not preclude the conscious awareness of narrative content related to other intuitions. A dominantly accessible intuition’s influence, however, would preclude this. Second, since an overridingly accessible intuition’s influence on narrative evaluations results from post-conscious deliberation of different intuitions, the effect of an overridingly accessible intuition on narrative evaluations will be systematically altered by the presence or absence of content suggesting that its upholding is in conflict with the adherence of another intuition (i.e., a less accessible intuition must be violated in order to uphold the more accessible intuition). The MIME distinguished these systematic differences in narrative evaluation as enjoyment versus appreciation. Applied here, enjoyment can be understood as the automatic experience of positive affect that occurs when narrative content satisfies all accessible intuitive drives, leaving no need for careful appraisal (Lewis, Tamborini & Weber, 2014). Some narratives, however, depict conflict among accessible intuitions, and resolve this conflict by showing one intuition sacrificed in order to uphold another. Such representations of conflict between accessible intuitions elicits the need for deliberative thought rather than the automatic experience that results in story enjoyment. 15 Appreciation can be understood as a measured experience of positive affect that occurs upon reflection. It does not represent the complete satisfaction of all accessible intuitions. Instead, it occurs when deliberative thought sanctions a narrative’s suggestion of the need to sacrifice one accessible intuition in order to uphold an overridingly accessible intuition. A positive assessment in this instance would require the audience to recognize and acknowledge that one intuition must be violated in order for the other to be upheld. Furthermore, because of this additional process, an audience member is likely to respond slower in instances of story appreciation rather than story enjoyment (Lewis et al., 2014). THE MIME AND ATTENTION The MIME’s short-term components suggest that exposure to media content that exemplifies intuitions can increase the accessibility of those intuitions as well as the exemplars that represent them. Once made accessible, the intuitions will focus subsequent audience attention toward content in the narrative related to the accessible intuitions (e.g., the intuition’s upholding or violation). In the end, the upholding or violating of an intuition will shape appraisal of the narrative and its characters. Essentially, the model suggests that preconscious processes lead people to pay greater attention to content related to accessible intuitions. Greater attention should be afforded to content touching upon intuitions that are chronically accessible to individual audience members, or those made temporarily accessible by media primes. Audience members will subsequently like narratives and narrative characters that uphold those accessible intuitions and dislike those that violate them. Although attention can be seen as a central feature of the logic underlying the MIME, as yet the mediating role of attention is untested. In brief, the processes outlined in the MIME 16 suggest that (a) the prominence of exemplars that epitomize particular intuitions renders those intuitions more accessible which (b) reinforces or elevates the position of those intuitions in the hierarchy of intuition accessibility, thereby (c) focusing audience attention on the representation of those intuitions in content, and (d) prompting positive or negative evaluation based on the upholding or violation of those intuitions. When conditions make an intuition dominantly accessible, evaluations of their upholding in a narrative are automatic and pre-deliberative, resulting in the experience of story enjoyment (i.e., the satisfaction of all conscious intuitions). By comparison, when conditions make an intuition overridingly accessible, evaluations of the same content become deliberative, resulting in the experience of story appreciation (i.e., awareness that while the most accessible intuitions, and thus those most heavily weighted in appraisal, have been satisfied, other less accessible intuitions have been violated). In order to better understand this process, a closer look at how attention has been conceptualized in other literature and in the MIME is warranted. Toward this end, we attempt to describe how attention is represented in the MIME, building upon Chun et al.’s (2011) description of attentional mechanisms and Koch and Tsuchiya’s (2007) distinction of bottom-up attention, top-down attention and conscious awareness. ATTENTIONAL MECHANISMS While definitions of attention are varied, Chun et al. (2011) presented a particularly useful taxonomy rooted in the concept that the brain’s limited capacity makes it impossible for humans to process all information available in an environment. Chun et al. describe attentional mechanisms that govern the selection of, modulation of, and vigilance to information generated either externally (i.e., incoming sensory information) or internally (e.g., information already 17 contained in long-term or working memory). In both cases, selection, modulation, and vigilance mechanisms are said to drive attention toward information that is most relevant to a person’s goals or behavior (Pashler et al. 2001). The selection mechanism biases the dedication of limited processing capacity to an item chosen from among competing items available either externally or internally. Modulation refers to mechanisms biasing the immediate dedication of cognitive resources to the processing of the selected information. Vigilance is similar to modulation, but refers to mechanisms sustaining the dedication of cognitive resources to targeted information over extended periods of time. Consideration of how these attentional mechanisms operate in response to externally or internally generated information has implications for the MIME’s discussion of dominantly and overridingly accessible media content. Chun et al. (2011) suggest that externally generated information affects attention through bottom-up, or stimulus-driven processes. This form of attention can result from features of stimulus cues in a narrative, such as a cue’s perceptual accessibility (e.g., an orienting reflex to media’s formal features), or emotional accessibility (e.g., automatic affect associated with well-learned intuition-related exemplars). Koch and Tsuchiya (2007) refer to bottom-up attention as the transient attraction of dedicated processing capacity to objects with accessible attributes (e.g., motion or color). The automatic nature of these bottom-up processes is applicable to the MIME’s discussion of reflexive appraisal processes driven by attention to salient intuition-related content. By comparison, internally generated information shapes attention through top-down, goal-directed processes. These processes should bias all attentional mechanisms (e.g., selection, modulation, vigilance) toward information linked to values or intuitions that are chronically accessible, or those made temporarily accessible by cues in a narrative. This results in a 18 sustained processing that may only be task-dependent (i.e., attention to a specific object or event), but may also produce conscious awareness which summarizes all information relevant to one’s current environment, and which makes that summary accessible for other detection and goal-motivated uses (Koch & Tsuchiya, 2007). Accordingly, the top-down nature of goal direction may activate both automatic and deliberative processes. These automatic processes would apply directly to the MIME’s discussion of dominantly accessible intuitions (which preclude processing of competing intuitions), while the activation of deliberative processes would apply directly to overridingly accessible intuitions (in which attention to exemplars associated with subordinated intuitions prompts reappraisal of narrative content). Accordingly, attention to a subordinate intuition should vary according to whether a narrative created conditions of dominantly versus overridingly accessible intuitions. In the dominantly accessible situation, attention to the subordinate intuition should be limited to the type of bottom-up attention resulting from transient attraction to stimuli (i.e., only the activation of selection mechanisms). In the case of overridingly accessible intuitions, attention to the subordinate intuition would be represented by the type of top-down attention and conscious awareness associated with modulation and vigilance. Indicators of Attention Generally speaking, we might expect selection mechanisms to produce forms of automatic processing associated with dominantly accessible intuitions, whereas modulation and vigilance mechanisms seem more closely tied to the deliberative processing that occurs when an intuition is overridingly accessible. As indicated previously, mere selection of an item from competing items, while certainly a requisite for conscious awareness and subsequent recall, does not guarantee those outcomes (Levin & Simons, 1997). For example, bright stripes on a 19 character’s tie might direct an audience member’s gaze to that item for a moment, but this alone may have little impact on conscious awareness or later recall (Dehaene et al., 2001). By comparison, the modulation associated with vigilance might have just that effect on awareness and recall. When conditions of overridingly accessible intuitions arise, conscious or preconscious thought—central to the deliberative processes said to govern reappraisal—should require more cognitive resources than those resources needed solely for selection. In this sense, at least some level of modulation should be required for conscious awareness and later recall and, more likely, we would expect the type of extended modulation represented by vigilance to occur. To assess whether awareness has occurred, a participant’s ability to remember an item without prompting (i.e., recall) and identify an item from amongst many (i.e., recognition) from a piece of media may be employed to indicate whether sufficient levels of modulation and vigilance have occurred to produce conscious outcomes, along with the type of awareness the MIME posits as a requisite for reappraisal when intuitions are overridingly accessible. Measuring Attention Under Conditions of Dominant Versus Overriding Accessibility The MIME’s discussion of dominantly and overridingly accessible intuitions distinguishes between processes that occur at different levels of conscious and preconscious awareness. Eye-gaze upon visual cues related to an intuition, without the ability to recall those cues, is used as an indicator of preconscious attention (i.e., attention occurring without conscious awareness). It is directly connected to the selection mechanisms of Chun et al. (2001). By comparison, eye-gaze upon related cues, supplemented by recognition and/or recall of those cues, is used to indicate conscious attention (i.e., attention with conscious awareness) generated through top-down attention processes (e.g., concern that a knife brandished in a scene might 20 harm a liked narrative character). Quicker response times associated with accurate recognition/recall is used to indicate greater intuition accessibility. With specific regard to situations in which an intuition is made dominantly accessible, the MIME predicts that people will attend to, process, and respond automatically, at a level of conscious or preconscious awareness, to intuition-related content. In this case, respondents should show observably greater visual attention to and successful identification of intuition- related content compared to content related to other intuitions. These responses should be identifiable in measures of eye-gaze and cued recognition respectively. Moreover, we should also expect respondents to score higher on unprompted-recall measures of intuition-related content than unrelated content. Notably, the MIME holds that information is processed automatically when an intuition is dominantly accessible. However, unlike preconscious attention generated by selection mechanisms that occur without a given task, the goal-relevant nature of this information would afford sufficient top-down amplification to reach consciousness in post-processing. If information is responded to automatically, at a level of preconscious awareness, the higher scores on unprompted recall predicted here suggest that this information would have gained sufficient top-down attentional amplification in post-processing to move to consciousness. At the same time, the model predicts that people will be consciously unaware of unrelated content (i.e., information related to subordinated intuitions). As such, although respondents may or may not attend to unrelated content visually (i.e., dedicate the limited processing capacity of selection mechanisms), if they do attend visually (when represented visually), eye-gaze upon unrelated content should be more short-lived than gaze upon content related to dominantly accessible intuitions. Moreover, respondents should score lower, or near 21 zero, on both cued recognition tests and/or unprompted recall tests designed to measure successful identification of this content. With regard to situations in which an intuition is overridingly accessible, the MIME predicts that conscious deliberation will govern how people attend to, process, and respond to content that is both related to, and unrelated to, the overriding intuition. In this case, for both superordinate and subordinate intuitions, we should expect respondents to show equally high levels of visual attention to and successful identification of intuition-related content. These responses should be identifiable in measures of eye-gaze, cued recognition, and unprompted recall tests. Notably, however, under conditions of overriding accessibility, scores for both superordinate and subordinate intuitions on all three of these measures should be higher than scores on corresponding measures for unrelated intuitions. THE HYPOTHESIZED MODEL The discussion above provides logic for a set of relationships that are examined in this study. These relationships, as seen in Figure 3, represent a process of moderated, moderated mediation suggested by the MIME in which C-NIEP degree (dominant or overriding intuition exemplar prominence), moderated by trait intuition salience, moderates the influence of C-NIEP (superordinate or subordinate prominence) on conscious attention to exemplars which, in turn, mediates C-NIEP’s influence on appraisal outcomes (i.e., character liking and story enjoyment or appreciation) as well as response time. 22 Figure 3 A Heuristic Representation of the Tested Models Attention to superordinate Character exemplars Liking Enjoyment C-NIEP C-NIEP Degree (Superordinate / (Dominant / Subordinate) Overriding) Appreciation Trait Intuition Salience Attention to subordinate Response exemplars Time The figure suggests a testable model. However, in the present study the figure also serves as a heuristic describing two focal and previously untested features of the MIME, which are separately represented in the front and back half of the model. Although the model itself will be tested, secondary analyses are added to separately examine these focal and previously untested parts of the model. For the front part of the model, the dichotomous nature of C-NIEP and C- NIEP degree, and the manner in which they interact to affect attention, suggest the value of using ANOVA procedures for testing this portion of the model. For the back half of the model, the continuous nature of the attention and outcome variables (the three appraisal variables and response time) suggests the value of using regressions. The model begins with two paths denoting the effect C-NIEP (i.e., the use of exemplars to make one intuition’s prominence superordinate and another’s subordinate) on conscious 23 attention to intuition-related content. The first path (H1) represents the proposition that an intuition’s superordinate prominence will increase conscious attention to story content germane to that intuition. The second path (H2) represents the proposition that an intuition’s superordinate prominence will decrease conscious attention to content germane to this intuition. As stated previously, the subordination of an intuition can impede conscious attention, and at extreme levels preclude conscious attention altogether, allocating only preconscious attention to intuition- related cues. The next part of the model shows two paths denoting that C-NIEP degree (i.e., dominant or overriding prominence) will moderate the effect of intuition emphasis on conscious attention to both emphasized and de-emphasized intuitions. In order to understand the effect indicated by these paths, it is important to realize that dominant accessibility is arbitrarily represented as higher than overriding accessibility, despite being qualitatively different. The first path (H3) represents the proposition that C-NIEP degree will moderate the influence of an intuition’s superordinate prominence on conscious attention to germane content. More specifically, the positive sign for H3 predicts that the positive effect of an intuition’s superordinate prominence on conscious attention to germane content will be stronger under conditions of dominant prominence as opposed to overriding prominence. Similarly, the second path (H4) represents the proposition that degree of prominence will moderate the influence of an intuition’s superordinate prominence on conscious attention to germane content. Notably, here the positive moderation of H4 indicates that the negative effect of an intuition’s superordinate prominence on conscious attention to germane content would be strengthened by dominant versus overriding prominence. The back half of the model continues with paths connecting conscious attention (to content germane to institutions whose prominence is made both superordinate and subordinate) 24 with four outcome measures (i.e., like for main story character, story enjoyment, story appreciation, and response time). The model makes specific predictions about how conscious attention to exemplars of intuitions made superordinate and subordinate affects each of the four outcomes. In the main, the manner in which conscious attention to superordinate and subordinate intuitions affect the four related outcomes is inverted. Two sets of paths are shown, one set representing how the four outcome variables are affected by conscious attention to content germane to institutions of superordinate prominence, the other representing how they are affected by conscious attention to content germane to institutions of superordinate prominence. As the model shows, conscious attention to cues epitomizing superordinate intuitions is predicted to: increase liking for the main character in the story (H5), increase story enjoyment (H6), decrease story appreciation (H7), and decrease the average reaction times (i.e., quicken responses) required to recognize intuition-relevant words (H8). Conversely, conscious attention to content epitomizing subordinated institutions should: decrease liking for the main character (H9), decrease story enjoyment (H10), increase story appreciation (H11), and increase the composite average reaction times (i.e., slow responses) to recognize intuition-relevant words (H12). 25 METHOD OVERVIEW An experiment was designed to examine how C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree interact to influence audience attention and subsequent audience appraisal of narratives containing two intuitions in conflict. The experiment was conducted using video comics to create different versions of the narratives. In a 2 (C-NIEP) x 2 (C-NIEP degree) between-subjects factorial design, C-NIEP was manipulated in a video comic to vary whether each intuition was made superordinately or subordinately prominent, and C-NIEP degree was manipulated to vary whether the superordinate intuition was made dominantly or overridingly prominent. To minimize effects due to the unique nature of the story used in the experiment, two different video comics (one referred to as the secular story and the religious story) were used in this study. The two intuitions represented in the C-NIEP manipulations for the secular story are fairness versus respect for authority. For the religious story the two intuitions are care versus ingroup loyalty. Separate samples were exposed to the secular and religious stories. Participants were randomly exposed to the four different versions of each story. The comic video viewed by participants features conflict between two intuitions. In each case, the protagonist is confronted with a choice to uphold the one intuition at the expense of violating the other. In all versions, the protagonist eventually chooses to uphold the intuition manipulated to make its prominence superordinate. At critical points in the story, eye tracking data was collected to determine whether participants were looking at regions of the screen associated with exemplars of the superordinate or subordinate intuition. 26 Following the video, participants responded to a questionnaire measuring their ability to remember specific elements of the comic and gauging their liking of the story and protagonist. All elements of the experiment were reviewed and approved by the IRB. PARTICIPANTS 254 students from a large Midwestern university took part in the study. All participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions per video (Video 1: Fairness/Authority & Dominant/Overriding; Video 2: Care/Loyalty & Dominant/Overriding). Partial course credit was offered to students who participated in this study. Following an inspection of the data, 27 participants were removed due to equipment issues. Four cases were removed when subjects participated twice, however their original scores were retained. This resulted in a final N of 223. STIMULI Two original video comics (secular and religious) were created specifically for this study, both of which manipulated C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree, elevating one of two moral intuitions to either dominant or overriding prominence. The decision to use two different graphic novels was made to provide repeated tests the hypothesized model and control for potential confounding variables within the narratives themselves. The Secular Comic The secular comic, entitled “Recovery Team Alpha,” was created using elements of various issues of the online comic Stand Still. Stay Silent (https://sssscomic.com/) along with a recorded custom voiceover to help control for potential differences in the reading speed and ability of participants. 27 The story followed a group of explorers through a post-apocalyptic world. The story’s protagonist, Red, faces a moral dilemma wherein she must decide whether to testify against a teammate, Carl, who has violated the group’s directive. The panels on each page of the story had text bubbles containing the words of each character in the story. The words in these text bubbles served as a main, but not sole, source for the manipulations of C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree. C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree were also varied in story narration that was heard (but not shown on screen) during the introductory pages and final page. The C-NIEP induction varies the motivation for Red testifying by manipulating the prominence placed on the fairness or respect for authority intuitions. Fairness is made superordinately prominent in one condition of C-NIEP while respect for authority is made superordinately prominent in the other. In both conditions, Red ultimately testifies against her teammate to uphold the intuition made superordinately prominent. C-NIEP was varied within the narrative predominantly by way of frequency and recency, as the superordinate intuition receives repeated exemplars in the narrative. One example can be seen in a conversation Red has with headquarters. When respect for authority is made superordinate, Red is told, “Every member of your team must remain dedicated to obeying its orders.” When fairness is made superordinate, she is told, “Every member of your team must remain dedicated to ensuring everyone is equal.” In another example, Carl’s actions are pointed to as inconsistent with this value. He is referred to as a “cheat” in the fairness superordinate condition, and a “lawbreaker” in the authority superordinate condition. Exemplars of these intuitions are featured frequently throughout the narrative. 28 The C-NIEP degree induction varied the extent to which the superordinate intuition was made prominent (dominantly or overridingly) by manipulating the frequency, concreteness, and emotionality placed on the intuition made superordinate. Examples of these different manipulation forms can be seen when Red seeks advice from other teammates regarding whether she should testify against Carl. We begin with frequency. As already stated, to manipulate C-NIEP (i.e., whether an intuition was made superordinate or subordinate) the frequency of exemplars was varied such that there were more exemplars of the superordinate than the subordinate intuition. To manipulate C-NIEP degree, the frequency of the subordinate intuition exemplars was varied. Notably, there were multiple exemplars of the superordinate intuition in both the dominantly and overridingly prominent condition. By contrast, the frequency of subordinately prominent condition exemplars was varied so that while the overridingly prominent condition contained multiple exemplars of the subordinately prominent intuition, the dominantly prominent condition contained none (i.e., zero). As such, while there were always (i.e., in both the dominantly and overridingly prominent conditions) more exemplars of the superordinate intuition than the subordinate intuition, the degree of difference varied. The dominantly prominent condition compared multiple exemplars of the superordinate intuition to zero exemplars of the subordinate intuition. By contrast, the overridingly prominent condition compared multiple exemplars of the superordinate intuition to multiple (but fewer) exemplars of the subordinate intuition. Concreteness was varied visually. In each dominantly prominent statement, critical words, exemplars of the superordinate intuition, and moral imperatives were rendered conspicuous by making the font for relevant text distinct from other text. The standard text font was bolded, the color changed to red, and the size increased slightly by two font size units. In 29 the overridingly prominent condition, the same words and phrases were presented in standard font. Critical words in the present study refer specifically to words in the narrative text that draw comparisons related to an intuition’s role in C-NIEP or C-NIEP type. This would include statements indicating that one intuition was more or less important than another (i.e., superordinate or subordinate) or statements indicating that a superordinate intuition was either dominant or overriding. Description and examples of morally imperative words will be discussed below. An example of a critical word manipulations can be seen when Tank and Edge are talking about how the superordinate (i.e., dominant or overriding) intuition is compared to the other (fairness over authority or authority over fairness in different conditions). Concrete visual cues are varied when Edge says, “Seems pretty clear cut,” in the dominantly prominent condition or, “it’s not so clear cut” in the overridingly prominent condition, with words bolded, increased by two font sizes, and printed in red. Similarly, an example of varying the concreteness of exemplars (of superordinate intuitions) can be seen when headquarters (in the fairness condition) tells Red, “We need your testimony against Carl. Our mission is to build a nation that’s fair for everyone.” The same example can be seen in the authority condition where the phrase made distinct is “of laws.” Emotionality was manipulated in two ways. This includes (a) the use of morally imperative words (i.e., words inherently emotional by their imperative nature), and (b) using verbal tone emphasizing the urgency of upholding the superordinate intuition. To manipulate C- NIEP type, both features were applied to superordinate intuition exemplars in the dominantly prominent condition and removed from those exemplars in the overridingly prominent condition. Morally imperative words were used to describe the importance of upholding the superordinate 30 intuition (or its exemplars) to make the superordinate intuition dominantly prominent. Moral imperatives stand as injunctions for what is right. For example, a teammate acknowledges the need (i.e., moral imperative) for Red to pursue truth (in the fairness condition) or to pursue order (in the authority condition) by saying, “It will be terrible, but Red has to make that sacrifice.” Use of the moral imperative “has” distinguishes the emotional urgency of the Red's need to uphold the superordinate intuition. Vocal tone (i.e., pitch and loudness elevated above the tone used with other narration) was also used to make the superordinate intuition dominantly prominent. To suggest the emotional urgency of upholding the superordinate intuition (or its exemplars), the narrator applied these tonal cues to critical words, exemplars of superordinate intuition, moral imperatives, or when expressing consensus. In the above example of critical words, the narrator elevated his vocal pitch and loudness when saying, “You have to make a sacrifice for the team.” Similarly, in other examples above, the narrator applied these vocal cues to “has” (the moral imperative) to distinguish the emotional urgency of the Red's need to uphold the superordinate intuition, and to the moral exemplar stating, “Our mission is to build a nation that’s fair for everyone.” Finally, these vocal cues were also applied to text indicating consensus. Text signaling consensus was unique to the dominantly prominent condition. Consensus statements indicated that all other teammates were unanimous in their belief that the superordinate intuition’s importance was superior, and actions needed to be taken to uphold this intuition. The addition of vocal cues to consensus statements expressed again the emotional urgency of this need and helped establish the superordinate intuition as dominantly prominent in this condition. For example, when teammates in the dominant condition make statements such as, “To be blunt, 31 everyone out here thinks you need to testify,” the narrator would raise his vocal pitch and loudness when saying “everyone.” The full text of the comic is available in Appendix A. The Religious Comic The religious comic, entitled “The Righteous Watchman,” was created using images from two separate but similar sources: The Action Bible (Cariello & Mauss, 2010) and The Kingstone Bible (Pearl et al., 2011) along with a custom voiceover by a narrator who told the story. Unlike the secular comic (with one small exception), the religious comic did not have text bubbles with words spoken by characters. The story was told almost in its entirety by the narrator in voiceover. This narrative purported to be a parable from the (fictional) apocryphal Book of Jerusalem. In this parable, Carus, a centurion who is in charge of distributing food during a famine, is presented with a dilemma concerning which one of three groups should be helped first: some self-important nobles, his family members, or some poor people in dire need. The C-NIEP induction varied the motivation and outcome for Carus by manipulating the prominence placed on the care or loyalty intuitions. Care is made superordinately prominent in one condition of C-NIEP while loyalty is made superordinately prominent in the other (the self- important nobles are not central to the intuition conflict faced by Carus). In both conditions, Carus upholds the intuition made superordinately prominent. C-NIEP was again varied within the narrative predominantly by way of employing frequency and recency, as well as using statements directly establishing the hierarchy of the featured intuitions. As is the case with the previous comic, the superordinate intuition receives frequent exemplars in the narrative. One example can be seen in the description of the story, which in the care condition reads, “An especially striking story of compassion comes from the 32 Book of Jerusalem, which is one of the most highly regarded pieces of Apocryphal literature.” In the loyalty condition, the phrase reads, “An especially striking story of loyalty comes from the Book of Jerusalem, which is one of the most highly regarded pieces of Apocryphal literature.” Exemplars of these intuitions are featured frequently throughout the narrative. Additionally, the importance of upholding the superordinate intuition over the subordinate intuition is directly established with statements to that effect. For example, in the care condition the third sentence is, “Many of these stories highlight how important it is to show care for those in need, even if it comes at a slight cost to family or friends or even to oneself.” In the loyalty condition, the sentence reads, “Many of these stories highlight how important it is to be loyal to your close friends and family, even if it sometimes comes at a slight cost to others in need or even to oneself.” The C-NIEP degree induction varies the extent to which the superordinate intuition is made prominent (dominantly or overridingly) by manipulating emotionality as well as a combination of concreteness and frequency. As was the case in the previous video, emotionality was manipulated in two ways. This includes (a) using verbal tone emphasizing the urgency of upholding the superordinate intuition and (b) varying source of the story between a strongly emotionally charged source in the dominant condition (i.e., Jesus) and a weakly emotionally charged source in the overriding condition (i.e., St. Jerome). As before, the superordinate intuition was made dominantly prominent by using vocal tone to associate emotional urgency with need to uphold the superordinate intuition. Tonal cues were applied to critical words, exemplars of the superordinate intuition, and moral imperatives, though notably there was no variation of consensus in the religious story. One example shows the application of vocal tone to both exemplars of the superordinate intuition and a moral 33 imperative. Here, in the dominantly prominent condition for care, the narrator elevates his vocal pitch and loudness at italicized spots when saying, “But Carus had great compassion for those in need and would never add to their suffering.” While the use of emotional features to manipulate C-NIEP degree in the secular comic were mainly applied to morally imperative words, the manipulation of emotional features in the religious comic came mostly from the association of two different sources (one high and one low on emotional appeal) with exemplars of the dominantly versus overridingly prominent story conditions. In the dominant condition, Jesus was identified as the source of the story on several occasions, while St. Jerome was similarly identified as the source of the story in the overriding condition. Jesus was expected to carry significantly greater emotional weight, especially amongst a predominantly Christian population. An example of this induction can be seen in text where exemplars of the superordinate intuition are associated with Jesus in the dominantly prominent condition and with St. Jerome in the overridingly prominent condition. In the following example (where care is the superordinate condition) the narrator in the dominant condition says, “In sharing this parable with us, Jesus shows us the importance of caring for others.” In the overriding condition, the narrator says, “In sharing this parable with us, St. Jerome shows us the importance of caring for others.” The religious story contains several similar instances where exemplars of the superordinate intuition are associated with Jesus (in the dominantly prominent condition) or St. Jerome (in the overridingly prominent condition). Concreteness was varied by including a small picture of either Jesus (in the dominantly prominent condition) or St. Jerome (in the overridingly prominent condition) in the corner of each page of the comic. As already stated, the concept of Jesus is expected to carry greater 34 emotional weight than St. Jerome, and associating Jesus with the superordinately prominent intuition is expected to increase the prominence of that intuition. In addition to stating (at several points in the narrative) that the story was told by either Jesus or St. Jerome, the emotional weight of Jesus was associated with the superordinately prominent intuition by placing his image (a concrete iconic image) on each page of the story (frequency) to associate the image with text that, on each page, contained exemplars of the superordinate intuition and moral imperatives speaking to the need to uphold that intuition. Notably, it might be expected that Christians would respond more strongly to this induction. As mentioned below in the procedure, information concerning participants’ religious faith and the strength of that faith were collected to account for this. The full text of the comic is available in Appendix B. Both comics may be viewed in their entirety at the OSF repository: https://osf.io/yexgz/?view_only=5ca6e7e2add144b389fe9974bf0eea66. PROCEDURE Prior to taking part in an experiment, participants completed a survey measuring their religious beliefs. Responses were collected for use as a covariate to control for religiosity’s potential influence on the effect of the C-NIEP degree manipulation, particularly for the religious comic. For the experiment, participants entered a controlled laboratory at a pre-reserved time where they were seated at a computer with an eye-tracking camera and signed a consent form. The participants then viewed a cover story stating that the study is being conducted in conjunction with a comic book company that is developing after-school programs for middle- school students. 35 Research assistants were then summoned to the computer to make note of the participant’s condition assignment (delivered discretely in code) and calibrate the Eye Tribe desk-mounted foveal tracking device (theeyetribe.com). A large, white X was displayed on the screen and participants were instructed to look at its center. While not a necessary requirement, this step helps to guarantee the highest quality possible from the eye trackers, by starting the participants’ eyes in the center of the screen and maximizing the opportunity for the tracker to get a foveal lock. Participants then viewed a video that, page by page, took them through the two comics with voiceover narration. An image featuring multiple exemplars of both the superordinate and subordinate intuitions is present in each of the videos. While this image was on screen, eye movement was carefully tracked to assess which exemplars were being looked at. Following each of the videos, a recall and recognition task was administered, which asked participants to identify specific elements contained in the critical slides. The responses for recognition were timed. The participants then completed a three-part questionnaire. First, 3 questions were used to ensure participants paid attention to the narrative. Next, appraisals of the story (enjoyment and appreciation) and character liking were collected. Finally, an induction check was utilized wherein participants were asked whether they believed the protagonist had done the right thing, and then responded to an open-ended question asking them to detail why or why not (i.e., why they agreed or did not agree with the protagonist’s decision). Upon completing the first questionnaire they were instructed to summon a research assistant who made note of their condition for the next video, recalibrated the tracking device, 36 and started the second video. The same questionnaire followed the second video, with the addition of the moral foundations questionnaire (MFQ) and a demographic instrument. At the end of the questionnaire, they were debriefed with an instrument which informed them that the comics were deceptive and tested their knowledge of the debriefing to ensure that they understood this before they were dismissed with thanks (Appendix G). MEASURES Data concerning attention revolves around one of the final panels in both the secular and religious comics, which features two groups of people making five statements each affirming the importance of either the superordinate or subordinate intuition. As previously indicated, attention was measured using indicators of gaze and memory. Eye tracking provided two measures of gaze: proportion and fixations. Each of the videos contains an image featuring exemplars related to the superordinate and subordinate intuitions which serve as the critical slide over which gaze is monitored. The image separates the exemplars in such a way that one side of the panel contains only figures representing the superordinate intuition and the other side contains only figures representing the subordinate intuition. The central area of these panels (representing a total of 120 pixels across) was removed to allow a buffer region and account for a neutral central image in the secular condition. Specific regions of interest were marked out to indicate whether the participants were attending to the stimulus. First, proportion was calculated by assessing the amount of time a participant spent looking at exemplars of one intuition or another while the image of interest was on the screen. The Python package PyGaze was used to calibrate and encode data from the eye trackers, and a modified program designed in part for this study extracted the data. This was stored as a raw 37 time score recorded at 60 Hz. The accuracy of the eye tracker has been measured at 0.5◦–1◦ with a spatial resolution of 0.1◦ at a distance of 45-75 cm (Ooms & Krassanakis, 2018). Second, the number of fixations, or exemplar-relevant locations that the eyes linger over on the image of interest, was calculated and summed. To read a word or process an image, eyes focus on a small area. The time that eyes spend collecting visual data on a single stimulus is called a fixation. Fixations indicate that attention is being given to some stimulus to identify (i.e., selection) or collect information (i.e., modulation and vigilance) concerning it. However, eyes seldom remain still, even if focused intently upon a single object. Tiny movements of the fovea scan the object to bring details to the viewer. An eye-tracker notes these tiny differences in the foveal focus, and accordingly gaze points that are grouped in a single area are counted as the eye gathering information on a single stimulus. This combination of foveal focus on a small cluster of points over a sustained time is called a fixation. Long-standing standards concerning fixations were utilized in this study. First, the fixation had to last for a minimum of 100 ms (Salvucci & Goldberg, 2000). Second, the fixation had to remain within an area of 25 pixels (less than half an inch). The duration and location of gaze were examined to determine the amount of visual attention the superordinate and subordinate exemplars received. Visual attention was ultimately scored across two dimensions. First, the amount of time that the fovea focused on the side of the screen representing the superordinate or subordinate intuition (proportion). Second, the number of points on each side of the image at which the eye lingered for 100 ms or longer over a range of fewer than 25 pixels (fixations). As noted previously, gaze alone, even fixations, are insufficient to determine whether modulation and vigilance have triggered conscious awareness, effectively internalizing the 38 information. To examine this, two memory measures, recall and recognition, were employed. This study posited that C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree would influence the accuracy with which a participant recalls and recognizes information present in the stimuli. First, unprompted recall responses were collected. Respondents were shown the same panel that eye tracking data was collected on, but without any text, and asked to recall what the groups of people said. An open-ended item states, “In the space below, please list as many of the words in the panel as you can remember.” Responses were separately tallied counting correct responses for both the superordinate and subordinate intuitions. Second, recognition was gauged by presenting participants with a list of 20 short phrases along with the image of interest. Each list includes 10 phrases from the story’s image of interest (5 superordinate and 5 subordinate) and 10 additional phrases not included anywhere in the narrative. The 10 additional dummy phrases were created to represent the affirmation of egoistic intuitions such as competence, autonomy, safety, and hedonism. The 10 additional phrases were pretested to be equated on dimensions of competence, autonomy, safety, and hedonism with the 5 superordinate and 5 subordinate phrases used in the two comics. The participants were then instructed, “Below is a list of phrases. Some of them are phrases that appeared in the above panel, while others did not appear in the panel. Please mark all phrases that you remember seeing on the panel.” Separate recognition scores were created for the superordinate and subordinate intuitions. Additionally, the time required to identify a word as present on the page was measured in milliseconds and coded as reaction time. Only the first click was utilized for this measure, as this avoided the potential confound of some individuals being more thorough in their attempt to recognize words than others. 39 Note that false negatives for both recall and recognition, although collected and tallied, were not included in the measures of recognition or recall as the conceptual meaning of a false negative for measuring conscious attention to intuitions changes (and thus becomes difficult to interpret) under conditions of dominant and overriding accessibility. The analyzed panels themselves, along with the recognition items, can be found in Appendix C. Following both the secular and religious comics, participants completed the three appraisal measures of character liking, enjoyment, and appreciation of the story. Narrative appraisal was measured using Oliver’s (2010) measure of enjoyment and appreciation. The measure is a six-item instrument scored along a 7-point, Likert-type scale (Strongly agree – Strongly disagree). The enjoyment of story outcome indicates that there was a fulfillment of intuitions, a sense of satisfaction with the narrative, and no conflict at the conclusion. It is identified by three items (“It was fun for me to watch this comic”; “I had a good time watching this comic”; “The comic was entertaining”). The appreciation of story outcome indicates that, while the story achieved a satisfying conclusion, it was not without conflict. It is identified by three items (I found this comic to be very meaningful; I was moved by this comic; The comic was thought provoking). A series of questions concerning liking of the protagonist were asked (“I like Red/the Watchman”; “I would want to be friends with someone like Red/the Watchman”; “I admire Red/the Watchman”; “I think Red/the Watchman is a good person”). These items were scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale (Strongly disagree – Strongly Agree), summed, and averaged to establish a score for character liking. Separate scores were generated for the dominant and overriding intuitions. Subsequent analysis examined whether scores on story enjoyment were significantly higher in the dominant 40 conditions, and scores for story appreciation were significantly higher in the overriding conditions. The story evaluation measures are available in Appendix D. Induction and attention checks were also administered. To check attention, three questions were asked for each narrative concerning basic elements of the story. Additionally, an induction check was administered to gauge whether the manipulation was successful. Respondents answered a bipolar “yes” (1) or “no” (0) item asking, “Did you agree with Red’s/the Watchman’s decision?” followed by an open-ended question asking “Why (or why not)?” This question serves as not only an induction check, but also may provide support for the MIME’s contention that making one intuition more prominent than the other can influence peoples’ judgments about which of two intuitions it is appropriate to uphold. The Moral Foundations Questionnaire (MFQ; Haidt, Graham, & Hersh, 2006) was used to evaluate the trait salience of moral intuitions found in moral foundations theory. Intuition salience was scored over 32 questions (six items per intuition and two controls) on a 7-point Likert scale. The questionnaire itself is divided into two sections, each containing three questions per intuition. The first identifies the relevance of each intuition to an individual’s decision- making process (“When you decide whether something is right or wrong, to what extent are the following considerations relevant to your thinking?”). The second is a series of judgments concerning the degree of rightness or wrongness for moral situations (“Please indicate how much you agree with the following statements.”). Scores for each trait are compiled and averaged to form an overall salience score for that intuition. The MFQ was administered to participants at the end of the questionnaire, and is available in Appendix F. Finally, at an earlier date, participants’ religious beliefs were collected with a two-part survey. First, they were asked a simple demographic question of what religion they identify with. 41 Second, they received the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith questionnaire, which is designed to ascertain the seriousness of an individual’s religious devotion. The 10-item, 4-point (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree) instrument has questions such as, “My religious faith is extremely important to me,” “I pray daily,” and “My relationship with God is extremely important to me.” 42 RESULTS This study examined the influence of C-NIEP and its interaction with C-NIEP degree on attention, and the subsequent influence of attention on audience appraisal. Analyses begin by providing descriptive statistics and then reporting separate analyses examining the front and back halves of the heuristic model suggested by the study’s underlying logic. The front and back halves of the model were analyzed separately because the complex nature of the three-way interaction in the front of the model made the full model testing impractical. The front half of the model (H1 to H4) examines the direct effect of C-NIEP on attention to exemplars made superordinately prominent (H1) and subordinately prominent (H2), and the ability of C-NIEP-degree to moderate this effect (H3 & H4). The back half of the model examines how audience appraisal is influenced by attention to superordinately prominent exemplars (H5 to H8) and subordinately prominent exemplars (H9 to H12). Attention to superordinately prominent exemplars is expected to increase audience appraisals of character liking (H5), and story enjoyment (H6), while reducing story appreciation (H7), and response time (H8). Likewise, attention to subordinately prominent exemplars is expected to decrease audience appraisals of character liking (H9) and story enjoyment (H10), while increasing story appreciation (H11) and response time (H12). With the areas of most interest addressed, the entire model was analyzed for effects as a moderated mediation process. Finally, post hoc analyses were performed to examine the possible direct effects of C-NIEP degree (dominant vs. overriding) on measures of attention and audience appraisal. 43 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Analysis began with an inspection of the descriptive statistics. Table 1 presents means and standard deviations for variables used to mark attention (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) and appraisal (i.e., character liking, enjoyment, appreciation, response time) for both the secular and religious video. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of Variables Used in Study Variables Scale M SD N Total Proportion – Secular Video (S) -1 to 1 -0.05 0.33 140 Total Proportion – Religious Video (R) -1 to 1 -0.35 0.47 137 Fixations to superordinate intuition (S) - 10.74 5.95 138 Fixations to subordinate intuition (S) - 10.40 6.41 138 Fixations to superordinate intuition (R) - 11.20 7.41 127 Fixations to subordinate intuition (R) - 9.92 7.03 127 Recognition of Superordinate (S) 0 to 5 3.32 1.38 223 Recognition of Subordinate (S) 0 to 5 3.20 1.35 223 Recognition of Superordinate (R) 0 to 5 3.50 1.25 223 Recognition of Subordinate (R) 0 to 5 3.38 1.37 223 Recall of Superordinate (S) 0 to 5 1.27 1.04 223 Recall of Subordinate (S) 0 to 5 1.27 1.01 223 Recall of Superordinate (R) 0 to 5 0.93 0.97 223 Recall of Subordinate (R) 0 to 5 0.98 0.94 223 Character Liking (S) 1 to 7 4.40 1.11 223 Character Liking (R) 1 to 7 4.94 1.39 223 Story Enjoyment (S) 1 to 7 3.38 1.60 223 Story Enjoyment (R) 1 to 7 3.85 1.52 223 Story Appreciation (S) 1 to 7 3.13 1.44 223 Story Appreciation (R) 1 to 7 4.30 1.52 223 Response Time (S) - 49.41 78.34 223 Response Time (R) - 30.52 35.68 223 Agreed with Protagonist’s Choice (S) 0 to 1 0.83 .38 223 Agreed with Protagonist’s Choice (R) 0 to 1 0.86 .35 223 It bears noting that across conditions participants generally liked the characters (Secular: M = 4.40, SD = 1.11; Religious: M: = 4.94, SD = 1.39), potentially due to the fact that they always upheld the superordinate intuition. By contrast, the stories themselves were largely 44 middle of the road for enjoyment (Secular: M = 3.38, SD = 1.60; Religious: M = 3.85, SD = 1.52) and appreciation (Secular: M = 3.13, SD = 144; Religious: M = 4.30, SD = 1.52). Additionally, note the high mean of people who believed the protagonist made the correct decision in both comic samples (Secular: M = .83, SD = .38; Religious: M = .86, SD = .35). Descriptive analysis continued by inspecting correlations between variables. Due to the number of variables and the size of the resulting matrix, this data is presented in Appendix H. Note the significant correlations between all three appraisal variables (character liking, enjoyment, appreciation) in both comic samples. In the secular comic sample, correlations between appraisal variables were (a) character liking and enjoyment, r(223) = .47, p <.01; (b) character liking and appreciation, r(223) = .48, p < .01; and (c) enjoyment and appreciation, r(223) = .29, p < .01. In the religious comic sample, correlations between appraisal variables were (a) character liking and enjoyment, r(223) = .53, p < .01; (b) character liking and appreciation, r(223) = .62, p < .01; and (c) enjoyment and appreciation r(223) = .783, p < .01. These results have implications for the upcoming SEM analysis. C-NIEP AND C-NIEP DEGREE’S EFFECT ON ATTENTION: H1-H4 The first half of the model examined the effect of C-NIEP (i.e., superordinately vs. subordinately prominent) on attention, moderated by C-NIEP degree (i.e., dominant vs. overriding). Separating this portion of the model allowed for individual analyses to focus on the relevant questions of interest. These questions asked (1) whether C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree (separately or in combination) affected different indicators of attention to exemplars of superordinately and subordinately prominent intuitions (in the front half of the model), and then (2) whether different indicators of attention (gaze proportion, gaze fixations, recall, and 45 recognition) to exemplars of superordinately and subordinately prominent intuitions subsequently influence audience appraisals (in the back half of the model). To test the first half of the model, a total of four Haye’s PROCESS models (Model 1) were tested. For model testing in PROCESS, C-NIEP was dummy coded for both comics (Secular: Fairness = .5, Authority = -.5; Religious: Care = .5, Loyalty = -.5) as was C-NIEP degree (Dominant = .5, Overriding = -.5). Process is an SPSS plugin which allows for the analysis of more complicated relationships between variables. Process 4.1 is an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and logistic regression plugin. OLS tests model fit by using the smallest possible prediction error that exists between an endogenous variable’s predicted and actual value. The Process 4.1 macro affords the ability to analyze more complicated models, such as the heuristic moderated mediation model. It analyzes the strength of the model by applying and expanding on the Baron and Kenny (1986) method, checking multiple mediation paths, assessing path coefficient strength, and delivering the smallest possible error (Hayes, 2009). The typical assumption with these analyses is homogeneity of variance amongst independent observations. This posed a problem for the dataset, as the observations cannot be taken to be independent. Specifically, a person’s eyes can only be in one location at a time, and the gaze then lingers at that point while the individual selects, modulates, and employs vigilance. When the observations used are time points accurate to 1/30th of a second, they cannot be considered independent of one another as the eyes are unlikely to have moved substantially in a given split second. Because these data points are so strongly dependent upon the prior point, they cannot be taken as independent. The Huber-White correction is a common means of addressing heteroskedasticity due to having time series data. It applies a heteroskedasticity-consistent estimator that imposes no additional assumptions on the structure by calculating average 46 residuals for each condition. Huber-White is considered to be robust against issues of independence often found in time-series data such as that featured in this study, and it is considered to be reliable even when analyzing homoscedastic models (Lee, White, & Granger, 1993). Because two attention variables (proportion and fixations) represent time series data, and because it imposes no additional difficulties on the other data, the Huber-White correction was used in PROCESS analyses involving the attention variables. Effects of C-NIEP and C-NIEP Degree on Superordinate Intuition Exemplars (H1 & H3) H1 and H3 were tested simultaneously in two sets of four Haye’s PROCESS models (model 1) examining the ability of C-NIEP degree (dominant vs. overriding) to moderate the effect of C-NIEP (superordinate vs. subordinate) on the four variables measuring attention to exemplars of the superordinately prominent intuition. The same set of four models was tested separately on participants exposed to the secular and religious comics. The results of these analyses are summarized in Table 2 and Figures 4 and 5. As Table 2 shows, the main effect of C- NIEP on attention was non-significant for all measures of attention in both the secular and religious comic samples. As such, these analyses showed no initial support for H1. However, examination of the interaction effects provided greater insight. 47 Table 2 Effects of C-NIEP and C-NIEP Degree on Attention to Superordinately Prominent Exemplars Main Effects for Main Effects for Main and Interaction Effects of C-NIEP C-NIEP Degree C- NIEP and C-NIEP Degree on Attention Secular Fairness Authority Dominant Overriding M (SE) M (SE) M (SE) M (SE) F (df) ηp2 C-NIEP 0.21 (1, 139) .02 .48 .47 .49 .46 Proportion Degree 1.34 (1, 139) .14 (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) Interaction 4.00 (1, 139) * .42 C-NIEP 0.68 (1, 137) 25.99 9.54 10.42 11.12 A 8.84 B Fixations Degree 4.65 (1, 137) * 178.46 (.75) (.75) (.72) (.78) Interaction 0.01 (1, 137) .22 C-NIEP 0.62 (1, 222) .99 3.63 3.50 3.63 3.49 Recognition Degree 0.68 (1, 222) 1.09 (.12) (.12) (.12) (.12) Interaction 5.10 (1, 222) * 8.17 C-NIEP 0.28 (1, 222) 0.29 1.28 1.21 1.30 1.19 Recall Degree 0.66 (1, 222) 0.68 (.10) (.10) (.10) (.10) Interaction 0.95 (1, 222) 0.97 Religious Care Loyalty Dominant Overriding M (SE) M (SE) M (SE) M (SE) F (df) ηp2 C-NIEP 2.94 (1, 136)+ .16 .36 .29 .31 .34 Proportion Degree 0.37 (1, 136) .02 (.03) (.03) (.03) (.03) Interaction 1.21 (1, 136) .07 C-NIEP 0.42 (1, 126) 1.04 6.66 6.48 6.39 6.74 Fixations Degree 0.16 (1, 126) 3.85 (.65) (.61) (.60) (.66) Interaction 0.10 (1, 126) 2.35 C-NIEP 1.07 (1, 222) 2.07 3.32 3.13 3.23 3.23 Recognition Degree 0.01 (1, 222) .01 (.14) (.13) (.14) (.13) Interaction 0.78 (1, 222) 1.50 C-NIEP 0.82 (1, 222) .54 .59 .69 .66 .63 Recall Degree 0.07 (1, 222) .05 (.08) (.08) (.08) (.07) Interaction 0.01 (1, 222) .01 * p < .05, ** p < .01 Note. Superscripts of different letters represent significant mean differences between conditions within the C-NIEP or C-NIEP degree manipulations. Table 2 shows the interaction between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree was significant in two cases. These included the interaction effect on measures of recognition for participants exposed to the secular comic and on measures of eye-gaze proportion for those exposed to the religious comic. The patterns associated with these interactions can be observed in Figure 4. 48 Figure 4 Regression Coefficients for H1 and H3, Secular Comic Sample Note: The coefficients associated with the interaction between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree appear in the columns under coefficients at dominant and overriding levels. In both cases the coefficients at the dominant level are more positive than coefficients at the overriding level suggesting that C-NIEP degree strengthens the positive impact of C-NIEP on attention to superordinate intuition exemplars. 49 Figure 5 Regression Coefficients for H1 and H3, Religious Comic Sample Note: The coefficients associated with the interaction between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree appear in the columns under coefficients at dominant and overriding levels. In both cases the coefficients at the dominant level are more positive than coefficients at the overriding level suggesting that C-NIEP degree strengthens the positive impact of C-NIEP on attention to superordinate intuition exemplars. Specifically, the findings show the following. First, for participants in the secular comic sample, the significant interaction effect, B = .77, SE = .33, p = .02, shows that C-NIEP degree moderated the effect of C-NIEP on recognition of words related to the superordinate intuition. The pattern found in Figure 4 shows that participants recognized significantly more words associated with the superordinate intuition when C-NIEP degree was dominant than when C- NIEP degree was overriding. This finding was consistent with H3. Second, for participants in the religious comic sample, the significant interaction effect, B = .11, SE = .05, p = .04, shows that C-NIEP degree also moderated the effect of C-NIEP on the proportion of time gaze was directed 50 at words related to the subordinate intuition. The pattern found in Figure 5 shows that participants gazed at the superordinately prominent intuition exemplars for proportionately more time when C-NIEP degree was dominant than when C-NIEP degree was overriding. This finding is in line with H3. No interaction effects were found on other attention measures for participants in the secular or religious comic samples. Effects of C-NIEP and C-NIEP Degree on Subordinate Intuition Exemplars (H2 & H4) H2 and H4 were also tested simultaneously in two sets of four Haye’s PROCESS models (model 1) examining the ability of C-NIEP degree (dominant vs. overriding) to moderate the effect of C-NIEP (superordinate vs. subordinate) on the measures of attention to exemplars of the superordinately prominent intuition. Once again, the same set of four models was tested separately on participants exposed to the secular and religious comics. The results of these analyses are also summarized in Table 3 and Figures 6 and 7. Just like the analyses on H1 and H3, Table 3 shows the main effect of C-NIEP on attention was non-significant for all measures of attention in both the secular and religious comic samples. As such, these analyses also showed no initial support for H2. However, once again, examination of the interaction effects provided greater insight. 51 Table 3 Effects of C-NIEP and C-NIEP Degree on Attention to Subordinately Prominent Exemplars Main Effects for Main Effects for Main and Interaction Effects of C-NIEP C-NIEP Type C- NIEP and C-NIEP Type on Attention Secular Fairness Authority Dominant Overriding M (SE) M (SE) M (SE) M (SE) F (df) ηp2 C-NIEP 0.21 (1, 139) .01 .52 .53 .51 .54 Proportion Degree 1.34 (1, 139) .04 (.02) (.02) (.02) (.02) Interaction 4.00 (1, 139) * .10 C-NIEP 2.17 (1, 137) 78.79 10.21 11.73 11.62 10.31 Fixations Degree 1.62 (1, 137) 58.88 (.73) (.73) (.70) (.76) Interaction 1.22 (1, 137) 44.12 C-NIEP 0.32 (1, 222) .61 2.90 3.01 3.03 2.89 Recognition Degree 0.57 (1, 222) 1.11 (.13) (.13) (.13) (.13) Interaction 0.73 (1, 222) 1.41 C-NIEP 0.26 (1, 222) 0.31 1.34 1.26 1.50 A 1.10 B Recall Degree 7.19 (1, 222)** 8.82 (.11) (.11) (.11) (.11) Interaction 0.79 (1, 222) 0.97 Religious Care Loyalty Dominant Overriding M (SE) M (SE) M (SE) M (SE) F (df) ηp2 C-NIEP 2.94 (1, 136)+ .16 .64 .70 .69 .66 Proportion Degree 0.37 (1, 136) .02 (.03) (.03) (.03) (.03) Interaction 1.21 (1, 136) .07 C-NIEP 1.56 (1, 126) 74.98 13.75 15.30 15.26 13.78 Fixations Degree 1.42 (1, 126) 68.32 (.91) (.85) (.91) (.84) Interaction 1.98 (1, 126) 95.25 C-NIEP 0.01 (1, 222) .01 3.63 3.64 3.49 3.78 Recognition Degree 3.36 (1, 222)+ .4.74 (.12) (.11) (.12) (.11) Interaction 0.52 (1, 222) .74 C-NIEP 0.02 (1, 222) .02 1.27 1.25 1.13 B 1.39 A Recall Degree 3.92 (1, 222) * 3.81 (.10) (.09) (.10) (.09) Interaction 1.95 (1, 222) 1.89 * p < .05, ** p < .01 Note. Superscripts of different letters represent significant mean differences between conditions within the C-NIEP or C-NIEP degree manipulations. As Table 3 shows, for people in the religious comic sample, the interaction between C- NIEP and C-NIEP degree on gaze proportion was significant. Notably, in two other instances, the interaction between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree fell just short of significance. These included the interaction’s effect on measures of gaze fixation for participants in both to the secular and religious comic samples. The patterns associated with all interactions can be observed in Figures 6 and 7. 52 Figure 6 Regression Coefficients for H2 & H4, Secular Comic Sample Note: The coefficients associated with the interaction between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree appear in the columns under coefficients at dominant and overriding levels. In both cases the coefficients at the dominant level are more negative than coefficients at the overriding level suggesting that C-NIEP degree strengthens the negative impact of C-NIEP on attention to superordinate intuition exemplars. 53 Figure 7 Regression Coefficients for H2 and H4, Religious Comic Sample Note: The coefficients associated with the interaction between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree appear in the columns under coefficients at dominant and overriding levels. In both cases the coefficients at the dominant level are more negative than coefficients at the overriding level suggesting that C-NIEP degree strengthens the negative impact of C-NIEP on attention to superordinate intuition exemplars. Specifically, the findings show the following. First, for participants in the religious comic sample, the significant interaction effect, B = -.11, SE = .05, p = .04, shows that C-NIEP degree moderated the effect of C-NIEP on the proportion of time gaze was directed at words related to the subordinate intuition. The pattern found in Figure 6 shows that participants gazed at the subordinately prominent intuition exemplars for proportionately less time when C-NIEP degree was dominant than when C-NIEP degree was overriding. This tendency is in line with H4. Second, the interaction effect on gaze fixations fell just short of significance for participants in 54 both the religious comic sample, B = -3.29, SE = .1.75, p = .06, and the secular comic sample, B = -2.66, SE = 1.55, p = .08. For participants in both comic samples, the patterns found in Figure 7 suggest that participants tended to fixate on subordinately prominent intuition exemplars less often when C-NIEP degree was dominant than when C-NIEP degree was overriding. In both cases, this tendency is in line with H4. No interaction effects were found on other attention measures for participants in the secular or religious comic samples. THE INFLUENCE OF ATTENTION ON AUDIENCE APPRAISAL: H5 – H12 The second half of the model examined the effect of attention to words representing the superordinately and subordinately prominent intuitions on audience appraisal outcomes. The first four paths extend from attention to superordinately prominent exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) to each of the audience appraisal variables (i.e., character liking, enjoyment, appreciation, response time). The next four paths extend from attention to the subordinately prominent exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) to each of the audience appraisal variables (i.e., character liking, enjoyment, appreciation, response time). Because there are multiple predictors for each variable, multiple linear regression was selected as a method of analysis. Once again, heteroskedasticity in the time-series data (i.e., proportion and fixations) was a concern. As such, a robust error estimator (Huber-White, HC0) was employed for every multiple regression (Hayes & Cai, 2007). Each of the 8 hypotheses were tested in two multiple regressions, one for participants in both the secular and religious comic samples. Thus, 16 multiple regressions were conducted. Each analysis regressed one of the four outcome variables (character liking, story enjoyment, story appreciation, response time) on all four of the items measuring attention to superordinately 55 prominent intuition exemplars (i.e., gaze proportion, gaze fixations, word recognition, word recall). As Table 4 shows, none of the overall regression models reached significance. Two models approached significance. In the religious comic sample, the model regressing story appreciation on the four measures of attention to exemplars of the superordinately prominent intuition approached significance, F(4,127) = 2.24, p = .07. In the secular comic sample, the model regressing story appreciation on attention measures of attention to the subordinately prominent intuition approached significance F(4,127) = 4.55, p = .06. Given that the hypothesized model provided separate logics underlying the influence proffered for each of the attention-measure predictors, each of the regression model were inspected to examine the effects observed for individual predictors. The results of these examinations are reported by hypothesis, beginning with hypotheses for the effects of attention to the superordinately prominent exemplars, followed by those for attention to the subordinately prominent exemplars. Findings from two multiple regressions are reported for each hypothesis, one for participants in both the secular and religious comic samples. Individual Attention-Measure Predictors of Audience Appraisal: Superordinate Exemplars (H5 – H8) H5 predicted positive relationships between each of the four items measuring attention to superordinately prominent intuition exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) and character liking. In the secular comic sample, when examining the results for separate attention measures, the effect of recall of words associated with the superordinately prominent intuition on character liking fell just short of significance, B = .19, SE = .10, p = .07. The tendency was in line with H5. No other significant effects were found for the secular comic samples. 56 In the religious comic sample, no effects were found for the effect of attention to the superordinately prominent intuition and the positive relationship to character liking. H6 predicted positive relationships between each of the four items measuring attention to the superordinately prominent exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) and story enjoyment. In the secular comic sample, the separate effect for the influence of recall of words associated with the superordinate intuition on enjoyment was significant, B = .30, SE = .15, p = .05. This result was in line with H6. In the religious comic sample, the effect for the influence of proportion of time spent looking at exemplars of the superordinate intuition on enjoyment approached significance, B = .45, SE = .24, p = .06. This trend was also in line with H6’s prediction. No other effects were found in either the secular or religious comic sample. H7 predicted negative relationships between each of the four items measuring attention to the superordinately prominent exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) and story appreciation (H7). In the secular comic sample, the separate effect for the influence of recall of words associated with the superordinate intuition on appreciation was significant, B = .28, SE = .14, p = .04. However, although significant, the finding is not in the direction of the prediction. In the religious comic sample, an effect for the influence of recognition of words associated with the superordinately prominent intuition on appreciation was significant, B = .21, SE = 1.05, p = .05. An effect for regressing appreciation on proportion approached significance, B = .45, SE = .24, p = .07. Although significant, this finding is not in the direction of the prediction for H7. No other predictors of appreciation were significant in the secular or religious comic samples. 57 H8 predicted negative relationships between each of the four items measuring attention to the superordinate exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) and response time. No predictors of response time were significant in the secular or religious comic samples. The findings for H5 – H8 are summarized in Table 4. Table 4 Regressions for the Effect of Attention to Superordinately Prominent Intuition Exemplars on Audience Appraisal Path 1 Path 2 Path 3 Path 4 Character Liking Enjoyment Appreciation Response Time Secular B SE p B SE p B SE p B SE p Intercept 4.16 0.31 <.001 3.42 0.45 <.001 3.11 0.41 <.001 58.81 19.02 0.002 Proportion -0.29 0.31 0.36 0.04 0.45 0.94 -0.3 0.41 0.46 -4.67 22.52 0.84 Fixations -0.01 0.02 0.53 -0.01 0.02 0.63 -0.01 0.02 0.88 1.01 1.09 0.35 Recognition 0.04 0.08 0.63 -0.01 0.11 0.95 -0.03 0.1 0.79 -5.84 4.24 0.17 Recall 0.19 0.1 0.07 0.3 0.15 0.05 0.28 0.14 0.04 0.9 5.53 0.87 2 2 2 2 R F (df ) p R F (df) p R F (df) p R F (df) p 1.61 1.3 1.33 0.725 0.05 0.18 0.04 0.27 0.2 0.26 0.01 0.58 (4, 133) (4, 133) (4, 133) (4, 222) Religious B SE p B SE p B SE p B SE p Intercept 4.38 0.38 <.001 3.87 0.39 <.001 3.81 0.39 <.001 29.07 8.25 <.001 Proportion 0.25 0.27 0.35 0.45 0.24 0.06 0.45 0.28 0.09 6.83 4.23 0.11 Fixations 0.02 0.02 0.21 -0.01 0.02 0.56 0.01 0.02 0.5 0.25 0.42 0.55 Recognition 0.1 0.1 0.33 0.1 0.1 0.37 0.21 0.11 0.05 0.58 2.06 0.78 Recall 0.14 0.13 0.3 0.17 0.14 0.21 -0.01 0.14 0.99 -1.68 2.68 0.53 R2 F (df ) p R2 F (df) p R2 F (df) p R2 F (df) p 1.63 1.54 2.24 2.24 0.23 0.17 0.05 0.2 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 (4, 122) (4, 122) (4, 122) (4, 122) Individual Attention-Measure Predictors of Audience Appraisal: Subordinate Exemplars (H9 – H12) H9 predicted negative relationships between each of the four items measuring attention to subordinately prominent intuition exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) and character liking (H9). In the secular comic sample, no effects were found for the effect of attention to the subordinately prominent intuition and the negative relationship to character liking. In the religious comic, the separate effect for the influence of recall of words associated 58 with the subordinate intuition on character liking was significant, B = .30, SE = .12, p = .02. While significant, this finding is not in line with the predicted direction in H9. No other predictors from the religious comic sample were significant. H10 predicted negative relationships between each of the four variables for attention to subordinately prominent exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) and story enjoyment. No predictors of enjoyment from either the secular or religious comic samples video were significant. H11 predicted positive relationships between each of the four items measuring attention to subordinately prominent intuition exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) and story appreciation (H11). In the secular comic sample, no effects were found for the effect of attention to the subordinately prominent intuition and the positive relationship to story appreciation. In the religious comic sample, the separate effect for the influence of recall of words associated with the subordinately prominent intuition was significant, B = .23, SE = .12, p = .05. This result is in line with H11. No other predictors of appreciation in the religious comic were significant. H12 predicted positive relationships between each of the four variables for attention to subordinately prominent exemplars (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) and response time. In the secular comic sample, the separate effect for the influence of fixations on the subordinately prominent intuition on response time approached significance, B = 1.61, SE = .86, p = .06. This trend was in line with H12. No other significant effects were found for the secular comic samples. In the religious comic sample, no effects were found for the effect of attention to 59 the subordinately prominent intuition and the positive relationship to response time. The findings for H9 – H12 are summarized in Table 5 Table 5 Regressions for the Effect of Attention to Subordinately Prominent Intuition Exemplars on Audience Appraisal Path 1 Path 2 Path 3 Path 4 Character Liking Enjoyment Appreciation Response Time Secular B SE p B SE p B SE p B SE p Intercept 4.64 0.29 <.001 3.59 0.42 <.001 3.1 0.38 <.001 38.35 19.65 0.05 Proportion -0.24 0.31 0.43 0.08 0.44 0.87 -0.22 0.4 0.58 -7.16 22.05 0.75 Fixations -0.02 0.02 0.12 -0.01 0.02 0.95 -0.01 0.02 0.78 1.61 0.86 0.06 Recognition 0.01 0.08 0.95 0.05 0.11 0.66 0.16 0.1 0.12 0.83 4.19 0.84 Recall 0.02 0.09 0.87 -0.04 0.13 0.78 -0.13 0.12 0.28 -1.78 5.19 0.73 2 2 2 2 R F (df ) p R F (df) P R F (df) p R F (df) p 0.77 0.06 0.82 0.82 0.02 0.55 0.01 0.99 0.02 0.52 0.02 0.52 (4, 133) (4, 133) (4, 133) (4, 133) Religious B SE p B SE P B SE p B SE p Intercept 4.79 0.38 <.001 4.01 0.39 <.001 4.12 0.39 <.001 31.77 7.74 <.001 Proportion 0.07 0.27 0.8 0.36 0.28 0.2 0.36 0.28 0.2 7.28 4.21 0.09 Fixations -0.01 0.02 0.74 -0.01 0.02 0.63 -0.01 0.02 0.76 0.12 0.43 0.78 Recognition 0.01 0.1 0.96 0.01 0.1 0.9 0.01 0.1 0.35 -0.14 1.95 0.94 Recall 0.3 0.12 0.02 0.17 0.14 0.23 0.23 0.12 0.05 0.02 2.81 0.99 R2 F (df ) p R2 F (df) P R2 F (df) P R2 F (df) P 1.56 1.17 2.38 2.38 0.05 0.19 0.04 0.33 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.06 (4, 122) (4, 122) (4, 122) (4, 122) ANALYSIS OF THE MODEL AS A WHOLE As stated earlier, although this study was designed to be tested as two separate models, the overall model nevertheless warranted investigation. Eight structural equation models were generated, one for each of the four attention variables (i.e., proportion, fixations, recognition, recall) across the two comic conditions (secular and religious). Initial analyses of the models revealed that they were not well fitted. Table 6 presents fitness indicators and χ2 for all eight models. None of the models met all the critical thresholds for fitness indicators, namely a CFI and TLI of .95, and a GFI of .90 (Xia 60 & Yang, 2019). Corrective measures correlating error terms did not improve the models to satisfactory levels. Table 6 Fitness Indicators and χ2 for the SEM Analyses of the Entire Model Secular Religious Proportion Fixation Recognition Recall Proportion Fixations Recognition Recall CFI 0.822 0.631 0.795 0.843 0.782 0.697 0.938 0.891 TLI 0.737 0.301 0.59 0.686 0.679 0.357 0.868 0.782 GFI 0.936 0.884 0.917 0.936 0.916 0.879 0.96 0.945 RMR 1.5 2.948 1.337 1.372 0.747 8.666 1.177 1.08 2 χ 68.04 169.755 103.421 79.417 90.333 177.84 42.011 61.703 p <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 0.001 <.001 An examination of the causes for this failure revealed two primary factors. First, as previously indicated, the overall complexity of the model made testing difficult. In short, the sheer number of variables involved in this study provided numerous opportunities for unexpected and random correlations. Second, despite being theoretically distinct concepts, a strong correlation existed between the endogenous variables of character liking, story enjoyment, and story appreciation. These correlations can be seen in the correlations table in Appendix H. As stated in earlier, tests on the entire model were conducted primarily or for exploratory purposes. With these analyses completed, attention was turned to separate analyses examining hypotheses in the front and back halves of the model. POST HOC – THE DIRECT EFFECT OF C-NIEP DEGREE ON ATTENTION AND APPRAISAL Though not part of this study’s central focus, MME-based logic (Tamborini, 2013) suggests that dominant C-NIEP degree should directly increase attention to superordinate intuition exemplars (i.e., measures of proportion, fixations, recognition, recall), and prior 61 research suggests that it should directly alter story appraisals (increasing character liking and story enjoyment, while decreasing story appreciation and response time (Lewis et al., 2013). To determine whether these patterns were observed in the current study, the effect of C- NIEP- degree on exemplar attention and story appraisal, two sets of t-tests were performed (one each for the secular and religious comic samples) on (a) the four items measuring of attention to superordinately prominent intuition exemplars, (b) four items measuring attention to the subordinately prominent intuition exemplars, and (c) four items measuring story appraisal). Given the directional nature of the hypotheses, one-tailed t-tests were performed. Results revealed C-NIEP degree effects on several attention and appraisal variables. Three patterns emerged from the data which, while consistent with MIME predictions, were not hypothesized. First, participants in C-NIEP’s dominant condition paid greater attention to superordinately prominent intuition exemplars than participants in the overriding condition. Second, participants in the dominant condition had more positive appraisals of the narrative. Third, participants in the dominant condition responded faster, indicating greater intuition accessibility. Patterns suggesting that participants in C-NIEP’s dominant condition paid greater attention to the superordinately prominent intuition exemplars can be seen in the results of four analyses. In the secular comic sample, participants in the dominant condition had significantly more fixations on superordinately prominent exemplars than participants in the overriding condition, (MDominant = 11.69, SDDominant = 5.28; MOverriding = 10.17, SDOverriding = 4.43), t(136) = 2.49, p = .007. In the religious comic sample, the same pattern was observed, but fell just short of significance. Here, participants in the dominant condition showed a tendency to fixate on the superordinately prominent intuition’s exemplars more often than those in the overriding 62 condition superordinate (MDominant = 12.17, SDDominant = 7.23; MOverriding = 10.38, SDOverriding = .7.50), t(125) = 1.37, p = .09). Patterns relating to dominant C-NIEP’s ability to increase attention were also observed in recall and recognition measures. In the secular comic sample, participants in the dominant condition recalled significantly more superordinately prominent words than participants in the overriding condition (MDominant = 1.40, SDDominant = 1.08; MOverriding = 1.14, SDOverriding = .99), t(221) = 1.82, p = .04. A similar result for recognition in the secular comic sample fell just short of significance. In this analysis, participants in the dominant condition showed a tendency to recognize more superordinately prominent words than those in the overriding condition (MDominant = 3.44, SDDominant = 1.40; MOverriding = 3.20, SDOverriding = 1.36), t(221) = 1.33, p = .09. Evidence suggesting that participants in the dominant condition had more positive appraisals of the narrative is also observable in two separate analyses from the religious comic sample. The first analysis showed that participants in the dominant condition liked the character significantly more than participants in the overriding condition (MDominant = 5.22, SDDominant = 1.33; MOverriding = 4.69, SDOverriding = 1.41), t(221) = 2.90, p = .002. The second analysis showed a similar pattern. Here, participants in the dominant condition were found to appreciate the narrative significantly more than than in the overriding condition (MDominant = 4.61, SDDominant = 1.50; MOverriding = 4.03, SDOverriding = 1.50), t(221) = 2.85, p = .002. Finally, evidence that participants in C-NIEP’s dominant condition responded faster than those in the overriding condition is apparent in both samples. In the secular comic sample, participants in the dominantly prominent condition responded significantly faster than those in the overridingly prominent condition (MDominant = 38.74, SDDominant = 48.34; MOverriding = 60.19, SDOverriding = 98.97) t(221) = -2.060, p = .02. The same pattern was significant for participants 63 exposed to the religious comic (MDominant = 26.08, SDDominant = 29.01; MOverriding = 34.33, SDOverriding = 40.27), t(221) = -1.73, p = .04. Table 7 reveals a full report of the post hoc t-tests on C-NIEP degree. Table 7 Table of Post Hoc T-Tests on Attention and Appraisal Variables Secular t(df) p Religious t(df) p Proportion 1.07 (138) .14 Proportion -0.78 (135) .22 (Superordinate) (Superordinate) Proportion (Subordinate) -1.07 (138) .14 Proportion (Subordinate) 0.78 (135) .22 Fixations (Superordinate) 2.49 (136) .01 * Fixations (Superordinate) 1.37 (125) .09 + Fixations (Subordinate) 1.19 (136) .12 Fixations (Subordinate) -0.39 (125) .35 Recognition 1.33 (221) .09 + Recognition -1.65 (221) .05 * (Superordinate) (Superordinate) Recognition 0.21 (221) .42 Recognition -0.18 (221) .43 (Subordinate) (Subordinate) Recall (Superordinate) 1.82 (221) .04 * Recall (Superordinate) 0.13 (221) .45 Recall (Subordinate) 1.75 (221) .04 * Recall (Subordinate) -1.88 (221) .03 * Character Liking 0.52 (221) .30 Character Liking 2.90 (221) .01 * Enjoyment 0.89 (221) .19 Enjoyment 1.22 (221) .11 Appreciation 1.12 (221) .13 Appreciation 2.85 (221) .01 * Response time -2.06 (221) .02 * Response time -1.73 (221) .04 * + p < .1, * p < .05, ** p < .01 64 DISCUSSION This study set out to examine attention’s role in the processes that govern audience appraisal of media narratives featuring moral conflict. Specifically, it tested whether the comparative prominence of an intuition’s representation in narrative cues (C-NIEP) influenced an audience’s attention to intuition exemplars. The investigation proffered that the degree of prominence with which an intuition is portrayed in a narrative would impact the amount of attention that audiences would dedicate to a superordinate and subordinate intuitions’ exemplars, thereby shaping the accessibility of those intuitions in the minds of those consuming the narrative. Finally, it sought to understand how attention to superordinate or subordinate exemplars might influence audience appraisals of the narrative, prompting either automatic appraisal and the experience of enjoyment, or conscious reappraisal and the experience of appreciation. The overall model was analyzed in two separate parts. First, it examined the MIME’s prediction that C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree would interact to moderate audience attention to both superordinate and subordinate intuition exemplars. Second, it explored the role of attention to superordinate and subordinate intuition exemplars in determining audience story appraisals. OVERVIEW OF FINDINGS C-NIEP Degree’s Ability to Moderate the Effect of C-NIEP on Attention Although this study set out to examine several relationships represented in a complex- heuristic model, its unique contribution was represented in the model’s front half. For the first time, this investigation tested the MIME’s prediction that C-NIEP degree moderated the effects of C-NIEP on attention to content made either superordinately or subordinately prominent. Specifically, it tested the prediction that dominantly (compared to overridingly) prominent C- 65 NIEP degree would strengthen C-NIEP’s positive effect on attention to superordinately prominent intuition exemplars and its negative effect on attention to subordinately prominent intuition exemplars. The result of tests on the front half of the model contributed to the growing body of research on the MIME. Several interactions between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree proved significant, lending limited support to the assertion that C-NIEP degree moderates C-NIEP’s ability to influence attention (H3). In the secular comic sample, significant interaction effects were found for attention to superordinate intuition exemplars for both measures of gaze proportion and word recognition. The patterns associated with each of these interactions indicated that C-NIEP degree increased the positive effect of C-NIEP on attention to story content that was germane to the superordinately prominent intuition. These findings were both consistent with H3. In line with this, again in the secular comic sample, a significant interaction effect was found for attention to subordinate intuition exemplars for the gaze proportion measure. The pattern associated with this interaction indicated that C-NIEP degree increased the negative effect of C-NIEP on attention to content germane to the subordinately prominent intuition. Once again, this finding was consistent with H4. It does also bear noting that while the effect on other variables was non-significant, the patterns associated with the predicted interactions were generally in the predicted directions. The findings showing that C-NIEP degree alternately increases (for the superordinate intuition) and decreases (for the subordinate intuition) the effect of C-NIEP on attention provides the first evidence supporting the MIME’s description of how C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree can interact to focus or curtail attention to exemplars germane to superordinate or subordinate 66 intuitions in conflict. This can be seen, for example, in the interaction’s influence on gaze proportion (which is associated with the selection mechanism), and its influence on recognition (which is associated with preconscious memory). Seeing C-NIEP degree strengthen the effects of gaze proportion and recognition for the superordinate intuition when participants are in the dominant condition fits well with predictions concerning attention. Namely, proportion is associated with selection, which is an automatic process whereby exemplars are singled out from amongst a group of competing stimuli. Likewise, of the two memory measures, recognition was expected to provide an indication of bottom-up, preconscious memory. Seeing these effects on attention to the superordinate intuition fits well with predictions concerning attention in the dominant condition. Notably, fixations and recall, which did not produce significant results in the interaction, would be more associated with the kind of top-down processing that leads to conscious awareness. Specifically, fixations focus on vigilance and modulation attentional mechanisms which are indicators of top-down processing. Likewise, unprompted recall is an indicator of conscious memory, as it demonstrates that the exemplar was internalized. Both of these are more deliberative processes that could be associated with reappraisal, which is expected when intuitions are overridingly prominent and therefore demand attention and thought. The fact that these automatic mechanisms were found to be associated with the superordinate intuition under conditions of dominant intuition prominence lends credence to the MIME’s assertions concerning automatic appraisal and deliberate reappraisal. This occurs because attention to the superordinate intuition under conditions of dominant intuition prominence precludes the processing of competing moral exemplars. 67 These findings showing C-NIEP degree’s ability to moderate C-NIEP’s effect on attention to the superordinate intuition’s exemplars are echoed in evidence for attention to the subordinate intuition. Here, C-NIEP degree strengthened a negative relationship between C- NIEP and gaze proportion, such that under conditions of dominant intuition prominence, participants spent less time looking at regions of the screen associated with the subordinate intuition. This finding again fits well with the study’s predictions, as gaze proportion is an indicator of the automatic process of selection. In this case, however, the pattern shows gaze directed at exemplars of the subordinate intuition is augmented, as was the case with attention to exemplars of the superordinate intuition. Importantly, this evidence showing that the effect of C- NIEP degree’s interaction with C-NIEP is reversed for intuitions made superordinately and subordinately prominent is consistent with all of the multipart predictions in the MIME. When considered in a practical sense, this finding is even more intriguing: that under conditions of dominant intuition salience, the audience preconsciously avoided initiating attentional mechanisms by not selecting subordinate intuition exemplars. This effect in particular may be of note to future researchers, as avoiding the initiation of the selection mechanism would also prevent subsequent modulation, vigilance, and awareness. Beyond these observations, there is something to be learned from where results were not found, in addition to where they were. It bears noting that results for the interaction were found in the secular comic sample, but not the religious comic sample (despite some trends that approached significance). A recent study by Baldwin (2022) also did not find support in an experiment which attempted to find significance for a direct relationship between C-NIEP and attention, but may shed light on the partial success of the secular comic sample and the failure of 68 the religious comic sample to find support for the initial hypotheses. In Baldwin, attention was (a) measured in a different place and (b) used different indicators of attention. In the religious comic, as in Baldwin, the protagonist has made the decision to uphold the intuition before the attention measure was administered. In the secular comic, the decision is made during the slide. Gantman & Van Bavel (2016) found that accessible intuitions, when unfulfilled or ambiguous, drive greater attention to moral exemplars or, as conceptualized in the present study, elevate their prominence. By extension, once an accessible intuition has been satisfied, its prominence may decrease, accounting for the difference in significance for the interaction between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree in the secular and religious comics. Another point of difference between this experiment and Baldwin which may account for the partial success of this study are the attentional measures utilized. While identical appraisal measures were used in the two studies, attentional measures were more limited in Baldwin. Just as some effects may have been missed in Baldwin due to the attentional measures selected, it would be remiss to assume that a concept as broad as attention was fully explored in this study, and the implementation of further measures to look at attentional mechanisms may reveal more. Beyond their implications for the MIME, the findings related to C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree’s ability to shape audience attention also have strong societal implications. They suggest that media creators can not only elevate particular moral intuitions to prominence in a person’s attentional processing, but also to curtail the processing of other, sometimes competing, intuitions. Although the processes examined in the present study focus on transient effects, the long-term component of the MIME identifies reciprocal processes thought to ensconce effects linked to recurrent intuition-prominence patterns found in content produced for audience groups discernable as morality subcultures. A morality subculture is a group that shares a particular 69 moral intuition hierarchy (Tamborini, 2013; Eden & Tamborini, 2017) and may also share interpretations about how specific objects and behaviors exemplify the upholding or violation of different intuitions. For example, for a group of suburban Christian housewives, respect for authority might be near the top of their intuition hierarchy and providing information to police officers might exemplify that respect, while the same intuition might be much lower on the hierarchy for a group of young, inner-city gang members, who see informing as disloyalty. The MIME posits that the narratives shared within different subculture groups play an important role in the establishment and reinforcement of moral hierarchies, which are fundamental to how people make decisions and appraisals in everyday life, beyond narratives. Such hierarchies may greatly influence a person’s judgment of complex social issues that place moral intuitions and values in conflict with each other by focusing the person’s attention on one intuition and, just as importantly, reducing their attention to others. Concern that social values can be shaped by stories (and the people who tell them) can be traced as far back as the early Greeks, when Plato asked in The Republic, “Then shall we simply allow our children to listen to any story anyone happens to make up, and so receive into their minds ideas often the very opposite of those we shall think they ought to have when they are grown up?” This observation is not merely a perspective of antiquity, but also a core tenet of the MIME’s reciprocal process, wherein media influences the moral hierarchy of audiences. It is well-established, even from the infancy of communication as a discipline, that media influences behavior in everyday life (e.g., Bandura, 1986). The MIME’s relevance, then, extends to how judgments concerning right and wrong are made, and therefore the fundamental operation of society. Effects concerning the influence of moral exemplars have been noted in analyses of newscasts featuring coverage of terrorism, 70 which then impacted the audience’s perception of outgroups (Tamborini, Hofer et al., 2017). The role of the MIME has even been noted in religious messages, where pastors preaching on the same Biblical text nevertheless varied in terms of the intuitions made prominent according to the prevailing norms of their area (Klebig et al., 2021). The evidence suggesting that C-NIEP degree does indeed moderate the prominence of intuitions and affect how they are processed, then, has strong implications for society’s operation. Producers of mass media have significant ability to either elevate or curb the processing of specific intuitions depending on the degree of prominence utilized when those intuitions are featured. This combination of elevating some intuitions while marginalizing others should be a source of careful concern and scrutiny, so that we are aware of those ideas received into our minds, as Plato contemplated. The Influence of Attention to Superordinate or Subordinate Exemplars on Audience Appraisals The back half of the model tested MIME-based predictions that attention to superordinate intuitions would increase character liking and enjoyment, while decreasing appreciation and response time. Conversely, attention to the subordinate intuition would decrease character liking and enjoyment, while increasing appreciation and response time. Although previous research has looked at how attention to superordinate and subordinate intuition exemplars are related to these audience outcomes, the present investigation attempted to replicate some aspects of prior research and extend others. Specifically, while this study replicates the attention measures (i.e., proportion and fixations) and appraisal measures (i.e., character liking, story enjoyment, story appreciation) used in recent research (Tamborini, Baldwin et al, 2020; Baldwin, 2022), it extended that research by adding two new measures and 71 applying previously used measures in new ways. The new measures were two added indicators of attention: word recall and word recognition. These memory measures provide an indication that top-down attentional mechanisms have resulted in (a) preconscious awareness, indicated by recognition or (b) post-conscious awareness, indicated by recall. The new application of previously used measures took several forms. First, while the Baldwin study observed the relationship between attention and appraisal, it did not observe the relationship between C-NIEP degree and attention. Second, as mentioned previously, while Baldwin measured attention after the protagonist decided to uphold or violate the superordinate intuition, the current study measured this association just as and immediately after the protagonist’s decision in the secular condition. In addition, it is also worth noting that the current study tested the relationships between attention and audience appraisal outcomes with two new narratives (the secular science-fiction and religious moral dilemmas), and that this study compared conflict between intuition pairs that had not been examined in previous research (care vs. in-group loyalty and fairness vs respect for authority). These distinctions provide evidence from unique narratives and unique C-NIEP comparisons. Analyses on the back half of this model provide several outcomes in line with predictions; however, the findings generally fail to provide strong support for this part of the model. First, findings examining how attention to the superordinate intuition predicted audience appraisal were mixed, with some coefficients in the expected and unexpected directions. In the secular comic sample, recall of words associated with the superordinate intuition significantly predicted both enjoyment and appreciation, and approached significance in predicting character liking. In the religious comic sample, recognition of words associated with the superordinate 72 intuition significantly predicted appreciation, and proportion’s ability to predict both enjoyment and appreciation fell just short of significance. While these findings seem harmonious at first glance, closer inspection shows they are not all in the direction predicted by the MIME. Specifically, measures of recall (in the secular sample) and both recognition and proportion (in the religious sample) for the subordinately prominent intuition all showed a significant positive relationship with appreciation, when the model predicted that the relationship should be negative. Next, there were limited findings when looking at the influence of attention to the subordinate intuition on audience appraisal. In the religious comic sample, recall predicted both character liking and appreciation, but all other variables failed to achieve significance. Even in this finding, while the effect of recall on appreciation was in the predicted direction, the effect of recall on character liking was not. These unexpected and non-significant findings may have their roots in several causes. One explanation might stem from possible unintended differences in how the protagonist’s decision to uphold the superordinate intuition is rewarded at the end of the secular and religious comics. Whereas the end of the secular story gives no indication about whether the protagonist (Red) is ultimately rewarded or punished for her decision to uphold the superordinately prominent intuition, the religious story rewards the protagonist (Carus) for his decision to uphold the intuition made superordinately prominent. When considering the substantial research supporting affective disposition theory’s (Zillmann & Cantor, 1977) assertion that the reward or punishment a protagonist receives at the end of a story will shape story and character appraisal (Raney, 2006), these differences might explain the unexpected and non-significant findings observed between attention and appraisal. If differences in protagonist outcomes for the secular 73 versus religious stories introduced non-systematic variance in character and story appraisal measures, we should expect this variance to attenuate appraisal’s potential relationships with any predictor, including measures of attention. One possible explanation for the significant but unexpected results considers that both instances where attention to superordinate exemplars predicted appraisal in directions conflicting with the MIME’s prediction had three other things in common: the predictor variable was one of the two memory measures, the predicted variable was story appreciation, and the path coefficient was positive. The patterns observed here might suggest that processes governing the relationship between attention to the superordinate intuition and appraisal differ for dimensions of attention associated with memory versus visual focus. Central to this possibility is the relationship of memory measures to elaboration. As suggested in earlier discussion, recognition and recall are associated with mental elaboration processes which, according to the MIME, are expected to predict appreciation. MIME-based logic reasoned that the increased accessibility of subordinate intuitions would foster elaboration when intuitions were in conflict, and this elaboration would predict decreased appreciation. Indeed, this was the explanation given for the significant positive path observed from recall of the subordinate intuition to appreciation. While this reasoning argued that attention to the superordinate intuition should reduce appreciation, it did not consider that the two memory measures of attention indicated increased elaboration, which should increase appreciation (Eden et al., 2017). Though speculative, the positive paths from recall and recognition of superordinate exemplar words to appreciation might indicate mental elaboration processes associated with preconscious recognition and post-conscious recall, which were the predictors in both 74 unexpected outcomes. If true, this suggests the need to distinguish predicted outcomes expected to result from different indicators of attention. For attentional measures related to visual focus we might expect bottom-up attentional processes that operate automatically, whereas for attentional measures related to memory processes, we might expect the deliberative appraisal that results from conscious awareness. Potentially, changes to the MIME might be necessary to recognize different processes underlying the paths from visual focus and memory indicators of attention to various appraisal outcomes. Specifically, gaze indicators may inherently favor dominant prominence in which appraisal is automatic, and memory indicators may inherently favor overriding prominence in which appraisal is controlled and deliberate. While some indicators in this study support MIME assertions that attention influences audience appraisal, the mixed nature of the findings makes interpretation and application difficult. The observation that increased attention never predicted a negative relationship with appraisal may be good news for content creators, for whom an audience’s attention and positive appraisals are both highly important and, as this research indicates, closely linked. The time content creators spend on retaining an audience’s attention may be rewarded with more positive appraisals. The Direct Effect of C-NIEP Degree on Attention and Appraisal Although no hypotheses were specified for the direct effect of C-NIEP degree on attention and appraisal, examining C-NIEP degree’s direct effect on each of these outcomes adds to previous MIME research. This discussion starts by considering the direct effects on attention and appraisal suggested by the MIME and follows with a description of findings related to these 75 effects. It concludes by examining how these findings complement and add to previous MIME research. Beginning with attention, MIME-based logic and research suggest that C-NIEP degree’s influence on attention should vary such that under conditions of dominant prominence audiences will pay more attention to superordinate intuitions and less attention to subordinate intuitions. It would not be surprising to see evidence of this in the present data, as previous research has demonstrated this association in research showing C-NIEP degree’s influence on visual measures of attention (Baldwin, 2022). Within this expectation, however, there is room for greater consideration of the different attentional measures. For example, unprompted recall (used as an indicator of conscious awareness) might be expected to manifest more under conditions of overriding than dominant prominence, since overriding prominence allows for the processing of subordinate intuition exemplars and thereby encourages conscious reappraisal. MIME logic predicts that dominant intuition prominence focuses attention on exemplars related only to that intuition, precluding processing of exemplars germane to the subordinate intuition. Under these conditions, the need to process information related to a single intuition frees up mental resources and leads to fast responses. Overridingly prominent conditions would parcel attention between multiple intuitions, increasing the mental resources required to separately process information related to exemplars of both the superordinate and subordinate intuitions. The current findings largely support expectations regarding attention, showing direct effects consistent with C-NIEP degree’s expected influence on attention. For example, in the secular comic sample, participants in the dominant condition fixated more on the superordinate intuition, recognized more of the superordinate intuition’s words, and recalled more words 76 associated with the superordinate intuition. These patterns are consistent with expectations about how a dominantly prominent intuition would influence an audience member’s attention to exemplars. An explanation based on underlying mechanisms might suggest that exemplars of the superordinate intuition were first shaped by modulation and vigilance mechanisms (indicated by the effect observed for fixations) and moved from there into conscious awareness (indicated by the effect observed for recall and the tendency for recognition). Support for expectations regarding attention can also be observed in the religious comic sample, where participants in the dominant condition again fixated more on the superordinate intuition, recalled fewer of the subordinate intuition exemplars, and liked the main character more. As before, the number of fixations on exemplars of the superordinately prominent intuition indicates increased vigilance and modulation. Congruently, the negative recall score shows a consequent reduction in the amount of conscious attention directed to the subordinate intuition. Finally, evidence in line with C-NIEP degree’s expected influence on attention can be seen in both the secular and religious comic samples, where participants in the dominant condition responded more quickly than those in the overriding condition. This finding is consistent with MIME predictions that dominant prominence triggers automatic appraisal of the superordinate intuition, a concomitant of heightened intuition accessibility. Notably, not all findings were consistent with expectations. Participants in the secular comic sample’s dominant condition recalled more of the words associated with the subordinate intuition, and participants in the religious comic sample recognized fewer words associated with the superordinate intuition as well as appreciated the story more. With this in mind, support must be considered with caution. 77 The findings regarding appraisal are not as strong as those for attention. Direct effects for C-NIEP degree were noted on character liking and appreciation, but only character liking was in the expected direction. Additionally, both of these effects were only found in the religious comic sample. More detailed discussion of the lack of results on appraisal measures is presented in the previous section, entitled The Influence of Attention to Superordinate or Subordinate Exemplars on Audience Appraisals. As stated there, the weak finding for attention’s effect on appraisal might be accounted for by the consequences that befall the protagonist at the end of the two different stories. While the protagonist was rewarded for his decision to uphold the superordinate intuition in the religious comic, the consequence for the protagonist in the secular narrative was unknown. Given the potential for the reward or punishment a protagonist receives to govern how audiences appraise a story (Zillmann, 2000), it is possible that effects on appraisal from the protagonists’ outcome negated effects from appraisal, resulting in non-significant findings. Although C-NIEP degree’s effect on attention and appraisal has been noted in the past (Baldwin, 2022; Tamborini, Baldwin, et al., 2021), this study lends further credence to those findings. In line with previous research, evidence here suggests that attention is directly influenced by the degree of prominence an intuition has in a narrative. The direct impact of C- NIEP degree on response time also lends further credibility to assertions concerning the automatic nature of appraising the superordinate intuition under conditions of dominant intuition prominence. These findings highlight previous research suggesting that conflict between intuitions in media narratives can prompt audiences to consider the relative importance of these intuitions in real life (e.g., Tamborini, Grady et al., 2021). Moreover, by varying which intuition in the story is made more prominent, C-NIEP (and whether upholding the more prominent intuition is 78 rewarded) may guide these considerations in a manner that encourages audiences to place greater weight on one intuition relative to another. For example, a crime story may choose to only feature a protagonist’s dedication to maintaining order and making sure that people obey the law. Such a narrative could elevate authority to dominant prominence and prompt audiences to overlook the harm caused by the protagonist’s use of forceful action to keep people in line. Alternatively, that narrative could feature prominent exemplars of lawless behavior motivated by poverty and need, while still rendering authority overridingly salient. In this case, while audiences might still pay closer attention to the protagonist’s efforts to uphold the law, this would not preclude attention to exemplars indicating harm caused by his actions. In this case, an audience would likely approve of the hero’s actions but not entirely overlook his lack of compassion and the harm he committed. While both versions of the story place the authority intuition above the care intuition, the narrative in which authority is dominant encourages the audience to place greater relative importance on authority over care than it did when authority was overriding. Notably, we might expect the influence of these processes to be stronger during childhood, when weights associated with one intuition or another are more malleable, and the positions of different intuitions in a person’s hierarchy are more variable (Tamborini, 2013). IMPLICATIONS The findings of this study have theoretical implications for narrative scholars and social implications for both media creators and critics. For narrative scholars, the results provide insight on content features that shape attention and appraisal. For social critics, the implications of these findings for media’s influence on moral hierarchies and the accessibility of particular intuitions are far-reaching. Some of these implications are explored here. 79 Theoretical Implications The MIME predicts that the attentional processes audiences employ when viewing narratives featuring conflict between moral intuitions differ depending upon (a) whether the intuition is superordinate or subordinate and (b) whether the superordinate intuition is dominantly prominent or overridingly prominent. Specifically, it predicts that under conditions of dominant prominence, only exemplars of the superordinate intuition are attended to, while under conditions of overriding prominence, exemplars of the subordinate intuition may also receive attention. It goes further to explain how these attentional processes account for predictions that audiences will enjoy narratives in which a dominantly superordinate intuition is upheld and appreciate narratives in which an overridingly superordinate intuition is upheld. This study set out to inspect these predictions and their accounts by testing narratives that varied the prominence of one intuition over another, as well as the degree of prominence the superordinate intuition would have within the narrative. Some support was found regarding these predictions and accounts that will be of use to communication researchers investigating the MIME. Support for the MIME’s assertion that C-NIEP degree moderates C-NIEP’s impact on attention. The key findings of this study provide initial support for the MIME’s contention that the influence of a superordinately prominent intuition (C-NIEP) on attention is moderated by the degree of that prominence (C-NIEP degree). The MIME goes beyond simply suggesting that more prominence yields more attention, and instead posits a more complex relationship wherein degrees of prominence (i.e., overriding vs. dominant) have differing effects that either focus or curtail attention to exemplars germane to superordinate or subordinate intuitions. This study 80 provides evidence not only that dominant C-NIEP degree increases the effect of C-NIEP on attention to the superordinate intuition, but that it decreases the effect of C-NIEP on attention to the subordinate intuition. Observations concerning the influence of the interaction between C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree on attention were made using several measures of attention that focus on specific processes. C-NIEP degree strengthened the effect of gaze proportion and recognition for the superordinate intuition in the dominant condition. This observation ties the automatic selection process of gaze proportion to the MIME’s predicted automatic appraisal process of a dominantly prominent intuition. Furthermore, it ties the bottom-up, preconscious memory measure of recognition to this more automatic appraisal, rather than the more top-down, deliberative measure of recall. This provides evidence of the MIME’s path connecting exemplar prominence to automatic appraisal, wherein attention is dedicated to the prominent intuition’s exemplars. The finding is bolstered by the gaze proportion measure’s indication that selection of exemplars germane to the subordinate intuition was diminished. Taken together, this study offers some supporting evidence for the MIME’s contention that C-NIEP degree interacts with C-NIEP to affect attention to superordinate and subordinate intuitions differently under conditions of dominant and overriding prominence. We might ask why the findings do not provide more support. Three possibilities come immediately to mind. First, it might be that the MIME is wrong, C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree do not interact to effect attention as predicted, and the partial evidence supporting the model in the present study is nothing more than random error. This interpretation of the present study’s findings is certainly possible, but there is reason to believe it may not be the most plausible explanation. 81 Although findings in support of predictions that C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree interact to effect attention were not found consistently in the data, the three significant interactions observed were all in line with complex patterns predicted for the superordinate and subordinate intuitions. Moreover, the pattern of effects found in other interactions, while clearly not significant, were predominantly in directions predicted by the model. Given this, we might expect that other explanations for the weak findings are more plausible. Second, the model is incomplete and fails to identify critical variables influencing the effect of C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree on attention. For example, it is possible that the model needs to account for familiarity or novelty, which are likely connected to selection and modulation. Dehaene et al. (2001) charted a unique series of activations through regions of the brain when exposing participants to words briefly flashed on a screen. While this sequence largely follows the logic of Chun et al. (2011) which has been used in this study (i.e., selection, modulation, vigilance, preconscious awareness, conscious awareness) they also noted that stimuli that had been previously registered, even at a preconscious level, nevertheless affected the participant’s recognition speed. In short, previous exposure influenced subsequent encoding of the stimuli into conscious awareness (Rolls et al., 1999). While this may represent a step between vigilance and preconscious awareness, other research has noted that novel stimuli can influence the selection mechanism, influencing the entire sequence of attention before it begins (Daffner et al., 1998). In this case, the non-significant findings for analyses in which the patterns observed were in line with the model’s predictions might be understood as effects attenuated by variables not yet included in the model. Third, the model is correct, but the induction used in this study was weak. The strength of inductions in experimental research is always an important concern. It is a particular concern in 82 studies examining media effects, because audiences have so much experience with strong media inductions that creating powerful experimental effects in audiences grown insensitive to media stimuli becomes more difficult. This possibility seems plausible in the present study, which used graphic comic stimuli instead of animated or live action characters. Few would challenge the belief that animated and live action, real-life characters are likely to increase the strength of the inductions found in experimental media stimuli. With this in mind, perhaps it is not surprising that the comic stimuli used in the current study produced weak effects. Indeed, if we should expect stronger outcomes from animated and live action, real life films, these findings might be seen as conservative. In this case, we might consider the initial support for the model found in the current study as encouraging, and evidence suggesting the promise of research in this area. Support for previous findings that C-NIEP degree influences attention and appraisal. Previous research has provided evidence of a direct relationship between C-NIEP degree, attention, and appraisal (e.g., Baldwin, 2022; Tamborini, Baldwin et al., 2021). This study adds additional support for those observations with evidence utilizing more targeted measures of attention. Patterns emerged that were consistent with expectations set forth in the MIME’s description of how a dominantly prominent intuition would influence audience attention to both superordinate and subordinate variables. The significant finding that individuals in the dominant condition had more fixations on the superordinate intuition indicates the presence of the associated attentional processes of modulation and vigilance. Then, the significant result on recall indicates that the intuition was fully attended to and moved into conscious awareness. Simultaneously, in the religious comic participants in the dominant condition had significantly more fixations on superordinate exemplars than in the overriding, and could recall fewer 83 exemplars of the subordinate intuition, indicating that they had not engaged in the attentional processes necessary to produce conscious awareness. These observations have relevance for the MIME’s prediction that automatic appraisal can lead to controlled reappraisal depending on whether the intuition is dominantly or overridingly salient. Though limited, C-NIEP degree also demonstrated some connection to audience appraisal outcomes, though not in line with expectations or previous research. The MIME predicts that story enjoyment results from the automatic, unconflicted satisfaction of moral intuitions (e.g., when the protagonist upholds a dominantly prominent intuition). Accordingly, we would expect story enjoyment to be greater amongst individuals who consumed media that featured dominantly prominent intuitions. Conversely, the controlled, deliberate reappraisal of story appreciation should result from the satisfaction of an overridingly prominent, superordinate intuition, under conditions where the audience is made aware that another social good was violated to accomplish this. Yet, the data shows indications of greater appreciation amongst individuals in the dominant condition. More research is required into the connections between attention and audience appraisal in order to better understand this unusual finding. Response time indicates that C-NIEP degree influences conscious awareness. This study also found support for the MIME’s prediction that dominant intuitions are processed automatically, producing rapid response speeds to questions concerning the superordinate intuition. Response time works well as an indicator of automatic or deliberative processing. When processing occurs at an automatic level, response times are low, as there are no issues to weigh and only a minimal need to dedicate mental resources to the response. Conversely, when processing occurs at a deliberative level the response times are high, as more mental resources are being called upon to consider two intuitions. 84 This study found that individuals in the dominant condition responded more quickly when asked to identify words that were associated in the stimuli with the superordinate condition. This effect was significant across both the secular and religious comic samples, and squares well with the MIME’s prediction concerning intuition prominence. Dominant intuition prominence precludes conscious appraisal of competing intuitions, which leads to automatic appraisal and rapid response speeds. Utility of Eye-Tracking for Measuring Attention Using eye-tracking measures added challenges to this study (a fact that is discussed in the limitations), but also provided opportunities to make observations that otherwise would have been impossible. While this current study also benefited from the addition of recognition and recall measures related to attentional processes, the technology used to measure attention is particularly beneficial because it provided a look at mental operations that take place outside of conscious awareness. By employing eye-trackers, researchers can gain information about preconscious attentional operations that would elude any form of self-report. In this study, eye-tracking was used to provide measures of gaze proportion and fixations, which provided a window into the bottom-up attentional process of selection and more top-down (but still preconscious) mechanism of fixations. These are the processes that drive awareness. which the memory measures can then provide insight into. In short, technology of some sort is required to get a better view of the mechanisms that underlie attentional processes, from selection, to modulation, to vigilance, to awareness. Of the technological methods available to provide a look at the preconscious mechanisms, eye trackers are the most accessible. On a practical note, the particular tracking devices (Eye Tribe desk-mounted foveal trackers) used in this study are no longer in production, making it difficult to find affordable eye- 85 tracking devices for research purposes at the present time. While beyond the scope of this study to recommend alternatives, researchers should take care to note the accuracy of the devices they employ in order to ensure reliable data. Social Implications The findings of this study may suggest to social critics that careful consideration of dominantly prominent intuitions in media is warranted. The processes outlined in the MIME suggest that morality is being taught through media, whether it is deliberate or not. Oftentimes, media are employed for the express purpose of moral instruction, as is the case in children’s literature (Tamborini, Hahn et al., 2017) or religious narratives (Klebig et al., 2020). These deliberate utilizations of media to instruct in morality feature prominent exemplars and concrete illustrations of moral and immoral behavior. However, moral exemplars are not limited to moral narratives. Clifford (2014) makes a case that nearly any object can become a moral exemplar (he used the illustration of the death penalty being an exemplar of harm or authority, depending on the politics of the audience). Moreover, perceptions can be influenced outside of conscious awareness (Bargh & Pietromonaco, 1982). Accordingly, all media has the capability to be a moral teacher, and indeed most media features moral conflict as a central feature (Hopp et al., 2020). MIME-based logic would suggest that morality is taught through media by prominently featuring intuitions in narrative content and making those intuitions more accessible in the minds of audience members (Tamborini, Prabhu et al., 2016). Indeed, the effects have been noted in multiple studies (e.g., Eden, Tamborini et al., 2014). One social implication of the present study that is generally overlooked is a narrative’s ability to sublimate an intuition. The MIME describes processes through which C-NIEP can 86 make one intuition so dominant over another that the violation of the subordinate intuition becomes inconsequential in an audience member’s moral judgment. While this has implications for the appraisal of character behaviors in a story and the outcome of that story, the model suggests more far-reaching social implications over time. For example, if one intuition is regularly sublimated in a media system’s popular narratives, over time we might expect that intuition to become chronically sublimated in its audience members. In other words, it might drop to the bottom of the culture’s moral intuition hierarchy. For example, if stories told within a morality subculture regularly made respect for authority subordinate to other intuitions, we might expect respect for authority to become chronically less accessible to audience members when making moral judgments. The repeated sublimation of respect for authority in narrative content might eventually undermine the importance of this intuition within the culture’s social norms. Effects similar to this concern have already been noted from sources that generally strive for objectivity, such as news. While news media may not intend to instruct in morality, it nevertheless impacts the accessibility of the moral intuitions of its audience. For example, research into news programs covering terrorist attacks revealed that audiences experienced an increase in the accessibility of the obedience to benevolent authority intuition (Tamborini, Hofer et al., 2017; Tamborini, Hahn et al., 2020). On its own, this is certainly cause for concern and scrutiny, but this is particularly true when considered in the light of the present study’s findings that dominantly prominent intuitions preclude the processing of other subordinate intuitions. Enough narratives featuring a particular intuition rendered dominantly prominent could have the effect of rendering that intuition dominantly accessible in the minds of viewers. In a study on the motivations of terrorist organizations, Hahn, Tamborini et al., (2019) speculated that 87 elevating a particular intuition to great enough accessibility would eventually preclude the processing of the care intuition and make a group more likely to commit acts of violence. While terrorism would represent an extreme example of dominantly accessible intuitions preventing the processing of subordinate intuitions, it is possible that smaller scale effects could be noted in the increasingly polarized political landscape (Pew Research Center, 2017). The MIME works well for explaining how this could occur. Certain moral intuitions are elevated to greater levels of accessibility amongst a group, and media produced for that group reflects that morality back, thus strengthening the existing hierarchy and prompting the creation of more material to support it. The longer this goes on, the less attention group members pay to competing intuitions, until by comparison a single intuition is dominantly accessible. The ability of C-NIEP degree to reduce the accessibility of subordinated intuitions should be a source of concern to social critics and anyone interested in the role of media in society. LIMITATIONS The findings of this dissertation should be considered in light of several limitations. First, an issue raised previously as a potential explanation for non-significant findings was the timing of the attention measures. Eye tracking data for the two comic sample videos were collected at different times, which itself represents a potential confound, and the data collected for the religious comic sample produced few significant results. Future researchers should strongly consider the timing of their attention measures, and plan to either record data before the protagonist fulfills the intuition or, preferably, collect attention data at multiple time points in the narrative. Second, the response time measure was successful in identifying automatic appraisal in the dominant prominence conditions, but it was itself limited in scope. Response time data was 88 collected at the first selection made for the recognition measure. Although this decision was made to control as best as possible for factors like reading speed which would have manifested in other variables, it provides only a limited look at potential response time data, and itself is somewhat dependent on issues like reading speed. Confounds such as these would be expected to attenuate the results, which means the significant results of both comic samples in the predicted direction represent a conservative measure of the effect. However, future researchers should employ more response time measures, and consider dedicated response time tasks to reduce error and maximize potential observations. Third, as stated, the consequences befalling the protagonist at the end of the secular and religious comics differed. The protagonist in the religious comic was rewarded for upholding the superordinate intuition while the consequences for the protagonist in the secular narrative were not indicated. Both endings have the potential to affect appraisal. Uncertainty concerning the ultimate outcome for the protagonist in the secular comic sample may have impacted the audience’s appraisal of the story negatively, while the reward for the protagonist in the religious comic sample may have impacted the audience’s appraisal of the story positively (Zillmann, 2002). If so, consequences befalling the protagonist may have outweighed the effects of attention on appraisal, thus preventing this study from observing any effect attention may have had. Finally, although the eye tracking data yielded some significant findings worthy of attention, a sizable number of participants had missing or corrupted eye-tracking data for one or both videos (n = 63). Although this represents a significant portion of the population, eye- tracking data has historically suffered from technical problems that necessitate the loss of subjects (Steinfeld et al., 2016). No systematic reasons existed for technical issues connected with participants, and it is therefore unlikely that any systematic effect may be associated with 89 this loss of subjects. However, the loss of subjects certainly resulted in a reduction in power. This limitation should still be considered in the light of significant findings, as the loss in power would have made significance more difficult to achieve. Eye-tracking is a useful tool for measuring attention, but it is not without problems and researchers should carefully consider both its inclusion and the potential loss of subjects before choosing to utilize it. FUTURE RESEARCH This study’s findings point to several different avenues of expansion for communication researchers to pursue. One avenue involves the need for and benefits of incorporating multiple indicators of attention. The current study’s addition of recall and recognition measures to measures used in previous MIME research shows an advantage to considering additional dimensions of attention and making use of additional tools to measure those dimensions. As previously stated, attention is a broad concept with several different dimensions. All four measures of attention used in this study (proportion, fixations, recognition, and recall) were selected because of their ability to serve as indicators of attentional mechanisms relevant to the MIME’s underlying processes. Proportion and fixations were selected for use in this study due to their relevance in connection with visual focus, which is of inherent interest to scholars studying visual media such as the comics used in this study. Proportion was utilized because of its association with attentional mechanisms related to selection, whereby exemplars are initially singled out from amongst a group of competing stimuli. Fixations were used to examine the mechanisms following selection, namely modulation and vigilance. While both measures provided useful information, they are by no means the only ways to assess automatic attentional mechanisms. Other measures of attention (e.g., biometrics, fMRI) may provide insight not attainable with eye-tracking tools. 90 The inclusion of recognition and recall measures was new to MIME research. Both were added to provide indications that exemplars had been internalized, but were expected to produce information on different aspects of awareness. Recognition was expected to provide an indication of preconscious memory that may be rooted more in dominant rather than overriding C-NIEP degree, as it should be associated with a more automatic processing of the exemplars. Unprompted recall was expected to provide an indication of conscious memory associated more with overriding accessibility, as more deliberate thought was required to internalize it. The addition of these indicators provided evidence affording new insight on how different dimensions of attention might influence appraisal, and by doing so showed the value of examining different dimensions and measures of attention. The choice to use these four measures was made to provide a picture of the underlying attentional mechanisms described in the MIME that was as complete as possible. Instead of simply replicating these measures, future researchers might benefit by considering the specific attentional elements affected by C-NIEP degree (i.e., selection, modulation, vigilance, preconscious awareness, conscious awareness), and by no means limit themselves to only those measures and dimensions of attention explored in this study. A second avenue for expanding MIME research considers the value of broadening the type of narrative conflict examined to also include egoistic intuitions (i.e., competence, autonomy, relatedness, security, hedonism, power; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Schwartz, 1994). This project was limited to considering conflict between altruistic intuitions (i.e., one moral intuition must be violated to uphold another), which is the focus of the MIME. But MIME-based logic is not limited to altruistic intuitions and can be easily applied to conflict between different egoistic intuitions or conflict between different altruistic and egoistic intuitions (Tamborini, 2013). 91 Notably, though experimental MIME research to date has not examined the effect of C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree involving egoistic intuitions, conceptual work in this area has begun to discuss the role of egoistic intuitions in narrative conflict (Tamborini Grady et al., 2021; Tamborini Grizzard et al., 2021) and content analyses have begun to examine their occurrence in popular media (Tamborini, Olah et al., 2022; Hahn, Tamborini et al., 2017; Hahn, Tamborini et al., 2019). Evidence from these investigations showing the frequency with which narrative media involves conflict with egoistic intuitions speaks to the need for research examining how audiences process and respond to narratives in which C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree contain egoistic intuitions. The inclusion of egoistic intuitions in MIME research might help us understand the ability of narrative media to determine whether altruistic or egoistic intuitions have a stronger influence on a person’s judgment of their own behavior and the behavior of others. While not inherently antisocial (they are, in fact, beneficial to survival), egoistic intuitions do not share the self-sacrificing character of prosocial altruistic intuitions. Research has recently examined how simple narratives employ egoistic fulfillment as a reward for altruistic behavior (Tamborini, Aley et al., 2021), but not how conflict between altruistic and egoistic intuitions shape appraisal. Conflict between the need to benefit self and the need to benefit others is a popular topic in media narratives and is certainly worthy of scrutiny. With this in mind, future research should incorporate egoistic intuitions (e.g., competence, autonomy, relatedness, security, hedonism, power; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Schwartz, 1994) with the altruistic intuitions examined in this study (i.e., care, fairness, ingroup loyalty, respect for authority). Finally, a third avenue for expanding MIME research involves the use of MIME-based logic as an explanatory mechanism for events observed in real life. For example, in modern 92 political discourse there is oftentimes seemingly genuine confusion as to how opposing sides could hold the positions they adhere to, even when they seem to be incompatible with other ideals espoused by that group. These seeming contradictions might be explained by logic suggesting that the dominant accessibility of an intuition in the minds of a group can marginalize the import of competing intuitions. This might be a promising and useful avenue of practical research in the future. CONCLUSION The role of morality in everyday life cannot be overstated. It informs behaviors ranging from entertainment choices, to politics, to life and death decisions. The MIME posits that conflict between moral intuitions in narratives plays an important role in determining the moral hierarchies upon which people base their everyday decisions. This study set out to examine a particular component of the MIME: the influence that the interaction of C-NIEP and C-NIEP degree would have on audience attention. In line with predictions, the findings provide some support for the MIME’s contention that C-NIEP degree can increase both the positive effect of C-NIEP on attention to superordinate intuition exemplars and the negative effect of C-NIEP on attention to subordinate intuition exemplars. While questions remain as to why the findings were not stronger, they can be interpreted as a positive first step for research in this area and a sign that efforts to pursue this line of inquiry have promise. Finally, this study adds to a growing body of research by finding further evidence of the direct effect of C-NIEP degree on attention. This was accomplished using novel measures of attention, which were employed to analyze discrete aspects of attentional mechanisms. The findings showed a process wherein exemplars of the subordinate intuition were overlooked in 93 favor of exemplars of the superordinate intuition, which were then dwelt upon and eventually internalized as conscious awareness. Further examinations of these attentional mechanisms will confer on future researchers a better understanding of the preconscious drives that ultimately shape our decisions. 94 APPENDICES 95 APPENDIX A: SECULAR COMIC STORYBOARD Recovery Team Alpha Fairness & Authority Cell 1: Text: Ninety years ago, planet Earth was decimated by an apocalyptic event – although the particulars are mostly forgotten, human beings were almost rendered extinct. Now, a remnant of the survivors seeks to rebuild a just and orderly society and recover the best of what was lost. Recovery Team Alpha, the first group of recolonists, has come to sift through the rubble and blaze a trail for the return of civilization. Cell 2: Text: The squad works in a remote sector, weeks away from the nearest assistance, support, or supervision. The team is under intense pressure, the furthest bastion of humankind, tasked with restoring the first tiny corner of the planet to the glory it possessed before the fall. Cell 3: Text: Their guiding light has been their fierce dedication to principles and a will to reflect the best of humanity. Cell 4: Text: Day 137. Ruins of the city once known as Amsterdam. Recovery Team Alpha receives troubling news from HQ. It has been discovered that one recolonist, Carl, has failed to report the discovery of old world technology, with a goal of enriching himself above the rest of the group. Red, the squad’s translator, is on the satellite radio with headquarters. RED: I hear what you’re saying. I just don’t want to believe it. HQ: We wouldn’t bring this accusation without cause. By law these discoveries must be reported. It would be unfair otherwise. Now we need your help. Red: Me? What can I do? My job is to translate books. HQ: We need your testimony against Carl. Our mission is to build a nation of laws/that’s fair for everyone. If we fail to deal with this breach, we undermine everything we’ve set out to achieve. RED: If Carl gets convicted…. Will he be thrown off the team? HQ: Yes. 96 RED: There’s no other way? HQ: Why all the questions? Is there something you’re not telling me? RED: I’m here because of Carl! The only reason I was included on Recovery Team Alpha in the first place was because Carl needs the old books we find translated. If I testify against Carl and he gets thrown out, my own career goes up in flames. Not just my career, my life! Cell 5: Text: Red: Oh man… I’m gonna be moving back into my mom’s basement, aren’t I? HQ: We understand what we’re asking is not easy for you. RED: I just don’t know what to do. HQ: Don’t you? Carl’s actions were unfair/illegal. He cheated everyone/broke the rules. He needs to be held accountable. RED: But— HQ: It is not our goal to be your moral compass here, Red. Everyone from the janitorial staff to the generals is talking about this. To be blunt, everyone/not everyone out here thinks you need to testify. RED: Yeah, well, we’re all entitled to an opinion. HQ: And here’s mine: There’s only one way you survive out there, outside the walls, in a wilderness human eyes haven’t seen for centuries. Every member of your team must remain dedicated to obeying its orders/ensuring everyone is equal. RED: I have! HQ: Yes. Unfortunately, testifying against Carl is part of that dedication. That must be your primary concern – that above all else. If you lose your principles, you compromise your chance of surviving. RED: Okay, answer me this: If I testify against Carl, will I have to leave the team, too? HQ: Unfortunately, your position will no longer be necessary. Cell 6: Text: RED: Can I have at least have a day to think about it? HQ: We’ll call tomorrow for your answer. RED: That was HQ. 97 WRENCH: We guessed. They want you to testify against Carl? EDGE: Argh, I knew it! I knew that sneaky twerp was up to something. GIN: One of our own squad… a cheat/lawbreaker? I can hardly believe it. RED: They want me to testify against him. He’ll be off the team. And so will I. GIN: I think we’re all/We’re not all agreed on how you should handle this. Cell 7: Text: WRENCH: You? Why should you have to fall on your sword for something Carl did?/ Your testimony is the only way to do what is necessary - you have to make a sacrifice for the team. RED: It doesn’t seem fair. GIN: No, but remember our history. Our planet was suffering from troubles like these before the pandemic. People’s hearts had grown cold. They didn’t treat each other justly/follow the wise advice of their leaders. Our mission is to start again. If we start on a path that leads to destruction, what’s the point? Cell 8: Text: GIN: Oh, Carl! Why did he get caught up in this? But he needs to make it right. WRENCH: Is it worth sacrificing two people/our principles? We’re a small group as it is. We can’t afford to lose anyone. We’re all/not all agreed on Red’s testifying. GIN: We can’t support each other or humanity by repeating the mistakes of the past. There needs to be a fair hearing/just trial. Red is only being told to tell the truth about Carl. Cell 9: Text: Meanwhile, outside… TANK: We all were promised an equal share/had the same orders in this venture. Carl chose to take more/disobey. EDGE: Seems pretty clear cut/It’s not so clear cut. TANK: When we set out, we all committed to the same principle: Truth/Order. It’s what keeps this expedition going. EDGE: Hrmm. 98 TANK: What? Have you forgotten it was your share he stole/orders he ignored? EDGE: I haven’t forgotten. But Carl’s stupidity could send Red back, too. Pursuing truth/order at Red’s expense isn’t a great feeling. I’m not going to be the one to tell Red to make that sacrifice/It will be terrible, but Red has to make that sacrifice. Cell 10: Red: This is an important situation. But I know what has to be done, and so does everyone else. I have to report Carl. It is the right thing to do. Red: This is an important situation. It’s one of the most difficult decisions I have ever had to make, and not everyone agrees what the best choice would be. But I have to report Carl. It is the right thing to do. 99 APPENDIX B: RELIGIOUS COMIC STORYBOARD Religious Story Outline: (Care and Loyalty) versions (images for both Jesus and St Jerome conditions) Cell 1: (Jesus/ St Jerome) shared many parables over the course of His ministry, and the Bible records for us that there were many more than could be contained in all of its books. As such, parables come to us through the Bible and others through the Apocrypha, but both have been read as the actual teachings of God for thousands of years. Many of these stories highlight how important it is to (show care for those in need/be loyal to your close friends and family), even if it sometimes comes at a slight cost to (family or friends or even to oneself/others in need or even to oneself). Cell 2: An especially striking story of (compassion/ingroup loyalty) comes from the Book of Jerusalem, which is one of the most highly regarded pieces of Apocryphal literature. The Book of Jerusalem is even included in many Bibles, and features many parables contained in the Bible. It is the parable of the Righteous Watchman. In sharing this parable with us, (Jesus/St Jerome) shows us the importance of (caring for/allegiance to) others. The same message is found throughout God’s teachings, where we are taught the value of (supporting those in need/sticking together). Nothing is more noble than (giving aid to others/ingroup loyalty to our kin). (Helping others/Sticking together) makes us a stronger and happier society. Cell 3: In the parable of the Watchman, a soldier named Carus is given responsibility for safeguarding a warehouse that stores the winter food supply for the entire district. Carus is a diligent and honorable soldier whose hard work has helped him rise quickly through the ranks of the Army. His position as the Watchman is an immense honor that brings with it great respect and financial reward. Carus was determined to be the best watchman possible, but the work was more difficult than he imagined. Cell 4: Soon Carus was confronted by the harsh realities of life, when he was given the responsibility of distributing food to the district. Many people waited in line. Cell 5: Among them Carus could see those that were poor and in need, Cell 6: those that were Carus’s family and friends, 100 Cell 7: and those that were among the community’s nobility. Cell 8: One day, some members of the local nobility approached Carus, they asked the watchman to allow the noble households to receive their portion first. “We do not ask for more than our share,” the noblemen said, “just that we are allowed to go first. And for this, we shall reward you handsomely.” Cell 9: But Carus was moved by the sight of (the poor and suffering/his family and friends) in line. (“We are starving and have nothing to eat. Please don’t make us wait any longer”/”You are our kindred and our friend, will you make us wait until others are fed?”) Upon seeing those (in need/ close to him) Carus invited them into the warehouse, and gave them their fair portions. Cell 10: When news of Carus’s refusal to allow the nobility to go first reached his commanding officer, the commander demanded to know who the people were that asked to go before the nobility. “Tell me which people asked to go before the nobility, so I can deal with them. Otherwise, I will have to deal with you.” Cell 11: But Carus (had great compassion for those in need, and would never add to their suffering/was devoted to his people, and would never betray them). So he refused to tell his commander who had entered the warehouse first. (5 SECOND PAUSE IN READING) Cell 12: For this, Carus was discharged from the army, losing the honor and financial reward that he had desired. But when he looked upon the faces of those (in need/close to him) that he had chosen, he found an even greater reward. For when they saw what became of the Watchman, they cherished him even more, and for the rest of his days. Cell 13: And even beyond the reward the Watchman found on earth, (Jesus/St Jerome) tells us that the Watchman will be forever honored by those (in need/close to him), and blessed by God in heaven. 101 APPENDIX C: RECOGNITION AND RECALL ITEMS Religious Comic One of the last panels of the Parable of the Watchman showed two groups of people talking to Carus. Here is the panel. You will see that the spaces that contained the words spoken to Carus have been left blank. We would like you to know if you recall what the people said to Carus. In the space below, please list as many of the phrases from the panel as you can remember. (Open ended text box) Below is a list of phrases. Some of them are phrases that appeared in the above panel, while others did not appear in the panel. Please mark all phrases that you remember seeing on the panel. (Care phrases are marked with **; Ingroup Loyalty phrases are marked with *; Others are unmarked) We need your CHARITY!** Don’t be HEARTLESS. ** Show KINDNESS! ** Be CARING! ** Have SYMPATHY!** Remember our FAMILY TIES! * They are OUTSIDERS! * Don’t BETRAY us. * We must remain TOGETHER. * Be LOYAL to us! * Grant us this LUXURY! We are DEFENSELESS! We do not seek RICHES! Give us this PLEASURE! Don’t be a LOSER! Show us you are ACCOMPLISHED! Are you so DISADVANTAGED? We do not wish to THREATEN! This situation is UNSTABLE! We have no PROTECTION! 102 Secular Comic The last panel of Recovery Team Alpha showed people talking about what Red, one their squad members, should do. Here is the panel. You will see that the spaces that contained the words spoken about Carl have been left blank. We would like you to know if you recall what the people said to Red. In the space below, please list as many of the words in the panel as you can remember. (Open ended text box) Below is a list of words. Some of them are words that appeared in the above panel, while other words did not appear in the panel. Please mark all words that you remember seeing on the panel. (Words marked with ** are the fairness words used by the dominant group in the fairness condition. Words marked with * are the respect for authority words used by the dominant group in the respect for authority condition. Unmarked words are unused. Equality** Accomplished Excitement Law* Defenseless Fair** Unstable Duty* Justice** Luxury Respect* Inept Unprotected Honesty** Government* Pleasure Deceit** Failure Follow the Leader* Loser 103 APPENDIX D: STORY EVALUATION ITEMS (Scored on a 7 point Likert-type scale [strongly disagree, disagree, somewhat disagree, neither agree nor disagree, somewhat agree, agree, strongly agree], with one yes or no question, and one open ended response) 1. It was fun for me to watch this comic. 2. I had a good time watching this comic. 3. The comic was entertaining. 4. I found this comic to be very meaningful. 5. I was moved by this comic. 6. The comic was thought provoking. 7. I like Red/the Watchman 8. I would want to be friends with someone like Red/the Watchman 9. I admire Red/the Watchman 10. I think Red/the Watchman is a good person I agree with Red/the Watchman’s decision (Y/N) Why (or why not)? 104 APPENDIX E: SANTA CLARA STRENGTH OF RELGIOUS FAITH QUESTIONNAIRE (Scored on a 4 point Likert-type scale [strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree]) 1. My religious faith is extremely important to me. 2. I pray daily. 3. I look to my faith as a source of inspiration. 4. I look to my faith as providing meaning and purpose in my life. 5. I consider myself active in my faith or church. 6. My faith is an important part of who I am as a person. 7. My relationship with God is very important to me. 8. I enjoy being around others who share my faith. 9. I look to my faith as a source of comfort. 10. My faith impacts many of my decisions. 105 APPENDIX F: MORAL FOUNDATIONS QUESTIONNAIRE (Scored on a 6-point Likert-type scale [Not at all relevant, Not very relevant, Slightly relevant, Somewhat relevant, Very relevant, Extremely relevant] for the first set of 16, and a similar 6- point Likert-type scale [strongly disagree, disagree, somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, agree, strongly agree] for the second set of 16) When you decide whether something is right or wrong, to what extent are the following considerations relevant to your thinking? 1. Whether or not someone was cruel 2. Whether or not someone was denied his or her rights 3. Whether or not someone showed a lack of loyalty 4. Whether or not someone’s action showed love for his or her country 5. Whether or not someone did something disgusting 6. Whether or not someone suffered emotionally 7. Whether or not someone acted unfairly 8. Whether or not someone did something to betray his or her group 9. Whether or not someone conformed to the traditions of society 10. Whether or not someone violated standards of purity and decency 11. Whether or not someone cared for someone weak or vulnerable 12. Whether or not some people were treated differently than others 13. Whether or not an action caused chaos or disorder 14. Whether or not someone acted in a way that God would approve of 15. Whether or not someone was good at math 16. Whether or not someone showed a lack of respect for authority Please indicate how much you agree with the following statements: 1. One of the worst things a person could do is hurt a defenseless animal. 2. I think it’s morally wrong that rich children inherit a lot of money while poor children inherit nothing 3. It is more important to be a team player than to express oneself. 4. Men and women each have different roles to play in society. 5. People should not do things that are disgusting, even if no one is harmed. 6. It can never be right to kill a human being 7. Justice, fairness and equality are the most important requirements for a society. 8. I am proud of my country’s history. 106 9. If I were a soldier and disagreed with my commanding officer’s orders, I would obey anyway because it is my duty. 10. I would call some acts wrong on the grounds that they are unnatural. 11. Compassion for those who are suffering is the most crucial virtue. 12. When the government makes laws, the number one principle should be ensuring that everyone is treated fairly. 13. People should be loyal to their family members, even whent they have done something wrong. 14. Respect for authority is something that all children need to learn. 15. Chastity is an important and valuable virtue. 16. It is better to do good than to do bad. 107 APPENDIX G: DEBRIEFING Thanks again for participating in our experiment. Below is an account of the study’s goals. We first detail the broad goals of this study and its procedures, and then present specific details of the experiment. Data from this study helps further our understanding of how narratives influence our perception of right and wrong. While the data from this study can have various implications for numerous lines of research, this study is primarily interested in examining how certain moral judgments can become more important than others. There was no comic book agency developing for after school programs. The study you have taken part in includes False Information. To make sure you do not leave this study before these false facts have been corrected, we would like you to read a series of statements identifying different falsehoods that were contained in the story. After each statement, we will ask you to answer questions to make sure you understand the statements. If you do not answer these questions correctly, when you try to advance to the next page, you will be taken back to the same page and will see the word "ISSUE." This means you have answered one or more questions incorrectly. Before you can advance to the next page you will have to correct your answer to each item where the word "ISSUE" appears. Once you have done this you can advance to the next page. Please note that you will not have completed this Research Participation Activity without reading the following description of the purpose of this study and then answering questions showing that you understand the description you have read. The religious comic says that it contains a parable from the Book of Jerusalem. There is NO BOOK OF JERUSALEM. Question: Is there an apocryphal book called the Book of Jerusalem? 1) Yes, there is a highly regarded apocryphal Book of Jerusalem. 2) No, the Book of Jerusalem was made up for this study. The religious comic attributed the telling of the parable of the Watchman to either Jesus or St. Jerome. NEITHER JESUS NOR ST. JEROME IS RECORDED AS HAVING TOLD SUCH A PARABLE. It was made up for this study’s purposes. Question: Did Jesus or St. Jerome tell a parable about a Watchman distributing food? 3) Yes, Jesus or St. Jerome told this parable. 4) No, the Parable of the Watchman was made up for this study. Finally, we hope you will understand why we included false information in our study. The role of the media in determining the importance of various moral features is critical to informing journalistic best practices as well as understanding how our minds process and perceive information. With this in mind, we would ask that you do not discuss this issue with other students in class until they have participated in the study. 108 If you have concerns or questions about this study, please contact the Study Coordinator, Brian Klebig, at 456 Com Arts, East Lansing, MI 48824; klebigbr@msu.edu; or (863) 991-4029. You may also contact the Primary Investigator, Dr. Ronald Tamborini, at 570 Com Arts, East Lansing, MI 48824, tamborin@msu.edu, or (517) 355-0178. If you have any questions or concerns about your role and rights as a research participant, or would like to register a complaint about this particular study, you may contact, anonymously if you wish, the Director of MSU’s Human Research Protection Program, Dr. Peter Vasilenko, at (517) 355-2180, Fax (517) 432-4503, or e-mail irb@msu.edu or regular mail at 202 Olds Hall, MSU, East Lansing, MI 48824. Thanks again for your participation! 109 APPENDIX H: CORRELATION MATRICES Table 8 Secular Comic Sample Correlation Matrices Proportion Fixations Fixations Recognition Recognition Superordinate Subordinate Superordinate Subordinate Fixations r .140* .372** 0.081 0.127 (Superordinate) p 0.037 0.000 0.230 0.058 N 223 223 223 223 Fixations r 0.009 .372** 0.011 0.065 (Subordinate) p 0.898 0.000 0.865 0.336 N 223 223 223 223 Recognition r .159* 0.081 0.011 .271** (Superordinate) p 0.018 0.230 0.865 0.000 N 223 223 223 223 Recognition r 0.011 0.127 0.065 .271** (Subordinate) p 0.868 0.058 0.336 0.000 N 223 223 223 223 Recall r -0.010 -0.026 0.039 .399** .180** (Superordinate) p 0.887 0.697 0.563 0.000 0.007 N 223 223 223 223 223 Recall r 0.039 0.095 0.022 .189** .346** (Subordinate) p 0.567 0.159 0.739 0.005 0.000 N 223 223 223 223 223 Character r -0.069 -0.078 -0.094 0.066 0.030 Liking p 0.306 0.246 0.162 0.324 0.654 N 223 223 223 223 223 Enjoyment r 0.054 -0.020 0.009 0.054 0.007 p 0.424 0.764 0.891 0.422 0.912 N 223 223 223 223 223 Appreciation r 0.004 -0.024 -0.008 0.041 0.042 p 0.957 0.724 0.905 0.546 0.537 N 223 223 223 223 223 Agreed r 0.007 -0.044 -0.066 .148* 0.013 p 0.914 0.518 0.327 0.027 0.843 N 223 223 223 223 223 * p < .05, ** p < .01 110 Table 8 (cont’d) Recall Recall Character Enjoyment Appreciation Agreed Superordinate Subordinate Liking Fixations r -0.026 0.095 -0.078 -0.020 -0.024 -0.044 (Superordinate) p 0.697 0.159 0.246 0.764 0.724 0.518 N 223 223 223 223 223 223 Fixations r 0.039 0.022 -0.094 0.009 -0.008 -0.066 (Subordinate) p 0.563 0.739 0.162 0.891 0.905 0.327 N 223 223 223 223 223 223 Recognition r .399** .189** 0.066 0.054 0.041 .148* (Superordinate) p 0.000 0.005 0.324 0.422 0.546 0.027 N 223 223 223 223 223 223 Recognition r .180** .346** 0.030 0.007 0.042 0.013 (Subordinate) p 0.007 0.000 0.654 0.912 0.537 0.843 N 223 223 223 223 223 223 Recall r 0.107 0.079 0.107 0.116 0.083 (Superordinate) p 0.112 0.238 0.111 0.084 0.218 N 223 223 223 223 223 Recall r 0.107 0.049 0.069 0.008 0.013 (Subordinate) p 0.112 0.470 0.303 0.906 0.841 N 223 223 223 223 223 Character r 0.079 0.049 .467** .476** .285** Liking p 0.238 0.470 0.000 0.000 0.000 N 223 223 223 223 223 Enjoyment r 0.107 0.069 .467** .797** 0.028 p 0.111 0.303 0.000 0.000 0.673 N 223 223 223 223 223 Appreciation r 0.116 0.008 .476** .797** 0.022 p 0.084 0.906 0.000 0.000 0.743 N 223 223 223 223 223 Agreed r 0.083 0.013 .285** 0.028 0.022 p 0.218 0.841 0.000 0.673 0.743 N 223 223 223 223 223 * p < .05, ** p < .01 111 Table 9 Religious Comic Sample Correlation Matrices Proportion Fixations Fixations Recognition Recognition Superordinate Subordinate Superordinate Subordinate Fixations r .140* .372** 0.081 0.127 (Superordinate) p 0.037 0.000 0.230 0.058 N 223 223 223 223 Fixations r 0.009 .372** 0.011 0.065 (Subordinate) p 0.898 0.000 0.865 0.336 N 223 223 223 223 Recognition r .159* 0.081 0.011 .271** (Superordinate) p 0.018 0.230 0.865 0.000 N 223 223 223 223 Recognition r 0.011 0.127 0.065 .271** (Subordinate) p 0.868 0.058 0.336 0.000 N 223 223 223 223 Recall r -0.010 -0.026 0.039 .399** .180** (Superordinate) p 0.887 0.697 0.563 0.000 0.007 N 223 223 223 223 223 Recall r 0.039 0.095 0.022 .189** .346** (Subordinate) p 0.567 0.159 0.739 0.005 0.000 N 223 223 223 223 223 Character r -0.069 -0.078 -0.094 0.066 0.030 Liking p 0.306 0.246 0.162 0.324 0.654 N 223 223 223 223 223 Enjoyment r 0.054 -0.020 0.009 0.054 0.007 p 0.424 0.764 0.891 0.422 0.912 N 223 223 223 223 223 Appreciation r 0.004 -0.024 -0.008 0.041 0.042 p 0.957 0.724 0.905 0.546 0.537 N 223 223 223 223 223 Agreed r 0.007 -0.044 -0.066 .148* 0.013 p 0.914 0.518 0.327 0.027 0.843 N 223 223 223 223 223 * p < .05, ** p < .01 112 Table 9 (cont’d) Recall Recall Character Enjoyment Appreciation Agreed Superordinate Subordinate Liking Fixations r -0.026 0.095 -0.078 -0.020 -0.024 -0.044 (Superordinate) p 0.697 0.159 0.246 0.764 0.724 0.518 N 223 223 223 223 223 223 Fixations r 0.039 0.022 -0.094 0.009 -0.008 -0.066 (Subordinate) p 0.563 0.739 0.162 0.891 0.905 0.327 N 223 223 223 223 223 223 Recognition r .399** .189** 0.066 0.054 0.041 .148* (Superordinate) p 0.000 0.005 0.324 0.422 0.546 0.027 N 223 223 223 223 223 223 Recognition r .180** .346** 0.030 0.007 0.042 0.013 (Subordinate) p 0.007 0.000 0.654 0.912 0.537 0.843 N 223 223 223 223 223 223 Recall r 0.107 0.079 0.107 0.116 0.083 (Superordinate) p 0.112 0.238 0.111 0.084 0.218 N 223 223 223 223 223 Recall r 0.107 0.049 0.069 0.008 0.013 (Subordinate) p 0.112 0.470 0.303 0.906 0.841 N 223 223 223 223 223 Character r 0.079 0.049 .467** .476** .285** Liking p 0.238 0.470 0.000 0.000 0.000 N 223 223 223 223 223 Enjoyment r 0.107 0.069 .467** .797** 0.028 p 0.111 0.303 0.000 0.000 0.673 N 223 223 223 223 223 Appreciation r 0.116 0.008 .476** .797** 0.022 p 0.084 0.906 0.000 0.000 0.743 N 223 223 223 223 223 Agreed r 0.083 0.013 .285** 0.028 0.022 p 0.218 0.841 0.000 0.673 0.743 N 223 223 223 223 223 * p < .05, ** p < .01 113 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