INTERNATI*_.'N U.«>R <’-rNr.-1’KON
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FLOYD W , O W E N

A T h e s is S u b m itte d to th e F acu lty o f M ichigaix S tate
C o lle g e m P a rtia l Fulfollm eo/i fo r
th e D eg ree o f

D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y

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INTERNATIOHAL ORGANIZATION
B Y
Pi 0 3 rd W. Owen

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Michigan
State College in Partial Fulfillment
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Sociology

t

Approved

Hoad of Major Department

Dean of the Graduate School
Michigan State College
19

5 0

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND OP INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
CHAPTER IIINEED OP INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
CHAPTER IV
FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
CHAPTER V
METHODS OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

CONCLUSION

1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
International Organization is a broad and serious
problem, which, touches the welfare and the existence of
every nation and every human being.

It has absorbed the

best minds since the time of Plato, vet has grown gradu­
ally more and more acute.

Many plans for a solution have

been devised and tried but

the horror of the Great War put

the final stamp of failure upon all previous effort.

No

one will deny the Importance of the subject, Its fascin­
ation for those who study it, <^r their determination to
find a solution if possible.

Perhaps there is need for

some form of '’organization5', a term which Webster defines
as follows:
DEFINITION:
Organization: - State or manner
of being organized; organic structure.
’What Is organization but the connection of
parts in and for a whole, so that each part is,
at once, end and m e a n s ? ’ Coleridge.
That which Is organized^ any vitally or
systematically organic
whole; as, a religious
organization.
Webster’s New Int. Dictionary, 1922.
In this study, social organization means any form of
Social structure-.

The expression

11 Internationc.1

Organiza.-

tionn may mean a World State, a Federation of Nations, or
any form and degree of International Government.

It may

also mean any definitely organized aLSSociation or league
of nations,

say for conference, mediation and cooperation,

without the actual power of a super-state or supor-govcrnment,

2
Some definite and permanent form of organization is
implied, however,

- something more than more diplomatic

exchange and procedure between nations *
PURPOSE OF STUDY°

The purpose of this study is to

sketch the important social changes that have occurred to
date,

and to find,

if possible, answers to the following

questions i 1.
2.
3.

Is some form of International Organization
needed?
VJhat are the Forms of International Organ­
ization, their merits, and their implications
for U. S. A.?
'That methods can be devised that may contrib­
ute toward a solution of this international
que s t i on ?

METHOD OF STUDY"

There is an intellectually elite, a

comparatively small number of scholars with varving degrees
of general international knowledge and experience, but with
a sound knowledge of scientific research, inquiring minds
and intellectual integrity.

Mhat fundamental steps have

been taken in this field since the World War, are largely
due to such scholars,

and their work is still holding.

Theological and metaphysical efforts have long since
failed, and if there is a final solution of the interna­
tional problem,

it would appear to be reachable only

through the scientific method.

Man has no greater tool

with which to work.
Science consists in the careful and often
laborious classification of facts, in the
comparison of their relationships and sequences,
and finally of the discovery by aid of the dis­
ciplined imagination, of a brief statement or
formula which in a few words, resumes a wide
range of facts.
Pearson* Karl; Grammar of Science.

3
The physical sciences deal with the structure, function
and relationship of comparatively innert matter such as
minerals, metals and chemicals,
brought great relief to man.

and these sciences have

The behavior,

stress and

strain of materials has been determined, and reduced to
formulae.

Today, man can design a device, and know in ad­

vance that it will carry him beneath the sea, or across
its surface,

or through the air.

The organic sciences such as botany or medicine, deal
with the structure and function of living cells and tissues.
They too have been of great use to man.
in the supply of food and clothing.

They have assisted

Through them, man

has been able to cure and to prevent disease.

Nearly all

human knowledge of physical and organic environment has
been won through the patient and persistent use of scienti­
fic method.
Science is beginning to bring relief in the social
world.

Methods for its application to social problems

have been developed, and have brought reliable results
within reasonable limits of probable error.

A lump o f

coal or a grain of wheat are relatively stationary things,
but let human beings pick up the coal or the wheat and a
moving social phenomena has begun.
factor in their interaction.

The material becomes a

"What they do with it or

in consequence of it, may constitute a flsocial problem'1,
and only a social solution will solve it.

The traditions,

customs and habits of the people concerned must be known;
their interests

and needs must be examined;

and logical

4
conclusions must bo dravm in accord ncc with, tested and
r.cceptod methods .
The international situation is involved with the
dynamic and continuous n stream of* life,T which can neither
bo arrested for examination, nor adequately understood by
a glance at its behavior at any single point of its m o v e ­
ment.

For this reason it seems necessary,

helpful in this problem,
ant factors,

and especially

to view first some of the import­

and the events v/hich have occurred over a

period of time, in the great process of social change*
This preliminary examination, which is made in the second
chapter, will illustrate the social background, and assist
in evaluating our present position and apparent direction.
The result will provide a starting point for a considera­
tion o‘f the actual problem.
There seems to have been a m*rked tendency to assume
that international organization is, or is not, needed;

to

neglect or pass over this fundamental phase of the question
and take a position, for example,
of Nations.

Obviously,

for or against the League

the question of need is primary to

the question of treat:-cnt, and cannot be assumed or
accepted, however apparent, without proof.
Many of the studios examined,

touch this question of

the need, and reveal much useful data, but their treatment
is often subjective, nationalistic, unit
expedient.
view;

t v

, temporary or

Some studies take a purely national point of

others stress the importance of geography, race,

5
law, migration, militarism or tradu; and a few look Tor
some expedient solution.

Each of these subjects is im­

portant and very complex, but at is only an element or a
factor in the whole problem.

Any unitary study may lead

to a pitfall from which there is no egress.
bibliography is appended,

A selected

and the most distinctive works

are given special mention.
International Organization is a world-vide and con­
tinuous concept,

and many factors are involved in ascer­

taining whether or not such an organization Is needed.
In so far as National interests and needs materially
affect other nations,

they become common problems and con­

stitute the factors In the Inquiry,

together with all m a t ­

ters of general international concern.
the possible need of separate nations,

While admitting
it is necessary to

assume a cosmopolitan position and to avoid the national
habit and prejudice which has so often been the stock-intrade of the politician.
The end desired is the welfare of society, hence an
attempt Is made to give the ds ta a sociological interpre­
tation.
... .Before we can derive much wisdon from a
study of the detells of international affairs we
must be clear what we want of International ar­
rangements.,
And to get some notion of what we
must pay for what we want (sav, peace) we must
have some notion of the basic mechanism of human
society, should be able to explain for instance
why we expect anarchy as between nations to work
smoothly when we do not believe that anarchy as
between individuals would work at all...P; 180
Angell, Norman; World Unity; June 1929

6
The third chapter is, therefore, an examination of
the factual.data pertaining to the question of the need
for International Organization.
organization,

Social theory, social

social-economic-political and other Inter­

national phenomena are examined as data and evidence on
the primary problem of the need and Its trend.
Importance of this phase of the problem,
ementary examination heretofore,

Due to the

and its very el­

an effort has been made

to practically exhaust the field by a voluminous assembly
of data from all available sources.

The collection of. the

material has been In process for two years, has been
guided and facilitated by many years of foreign experience
in all parts of the world, and it Is believed that the
data and conclusions of this chapter are a valuable con­
tribution to a solution of the problem.
The fourth chapter is devoted to a description of the
possible forms of International Organization,

and their

respective merits at the present time, together with the
apparent implications for U. S. A. in particular.

The

opinions and judgments of many and varied authorities have
been compiled,

and finally some conclusions are drawn.

Methods of International Organization are dealt with
in the fifth chapter.
social, economic,

A large number of established

and political concepts now pertinent to

International views and behavior,

are first given a crit­

ical examination in the light of present fact, need and
practice.

Fundamentally Important corrective measures

7

are also suggested.

Authoritative and up-to-date

opinion and examples in support of these suggestions have
teen sought, found and appended.

With the correction

of these fundamentally necessary concepts as a basis,
new methods and extensions or alterations of former
methods have been devised and suggested as practical
working plans for a solution of the general problem.
An effort has been made to discover and deal with
every possible method.
In the conclusion will be found a summary of the
study,

together with the findings.

8

PHlAR -I'D A M P E S S I O F :

The history of International

Relations is composed largely of periods of war and peace,
repetitions of conflict, and effort to prevent its recur­
rence.

Fear on the part of one group or nation, and ag­

gression on the part of another,

seem, historically,

to be principal factors In the general causes of war.
Fear on the part of any nation is most unfortunate since
it centers attention and energy upon the problem of de­
fense,

and restricts normal development.

Aggression,

an

outgrowth of old national concepts and once regarded as
legitimate, was even believed to bring the
conquest"

to a nation.

11 honor

of

It has preyed upon mankind, often

disguised by various emotional appelations, such as
’?For Humanity's Sake'1.

Both separately and together, Fear

Aggression have held the world in a tension, built up
hatreds, created colossal armaments,
solution.

and long defied

Every worthy attempt to prevent another World

War will justify the effort.

An example of modern

thought Is expressed by Angell:
The European continent will not be able to
support Its population If its thirty-five states
continue the hates and animosities which mark
their nationalism, unless, that is, they can
achieve some measure of unity, like that achieved
by the forty-eight states of the American contin­
ent.
In calm moments the minority of thinkers
and students admit this.
But the voices of
thirty-five nationalist peoples rise into flam­
ing protest if any move is made to act upon the
evident truth.
Patriotic fanaticisms are likely
still to cause as much misery in Europe as was
caused by the religious fanaticisms which pro­
duced the wars of religion and the Inquisition.
P.
179 Angell, Norman, World Unityj June 1929

9
TRADITION:

Tradition, Custom and Habit have held men

to the established ways of thinking and acting, even when
they may have recognized the need of change.

Tradition

especially has given an emotional content and sanction to
racial belief, national solidarity,, and warfare.

Prom

olden times adjacent peoples were usually traditional
enemies; fighting was the customary method of settling
disputes,

and these habits on the part of the masses have

resisted rational treatment.

Instinctive behavior has

tended to dominate intelligence*

It is hard to get an

i'd^a Into the mind of man, but once there, it is equally
hard to change it.

Lippmann speaks of our mental patterns

as stereotypes:
Each of us lives and works on a small part of
the earths surface, moves in a small circle, and
of these acquaintances knows only a few intimately.
Of any public event that has wide effects we see at
best only a phase and an aspect.
P. 79. We imagine
most things before we experience them.
And these
preconceptions, unless education has made us acutely
aware, govern deeply the whole process of perception.
What matters is the character of the sterotypes, and
the qullibility with which we employ them...But
if our philosophy tells us that each man is only a
small part of the world, that his intelligence
catches at best only phases and aspects in a
coarse net of ideas, then, when we use our ster­
eotypes, wo tend to know that they are only ster­
eotypes, to hold them lightly, to modify them
gladly...P. 90.
Lippmann, W.
Public Opinion. 1927
Nations and Governments are still under the powerful
Influence of conformity to custom:
There are
custom.
Habit
tion to habit,
insisted upon,

many reasons why one abides b^~
is one such factor.
But in addi­
conformity to custom seems to be
consciously or unconsciously Jby a

10
group of others• One hesitates to deviate from
a code of manners.
A pressure to conform is
felt if the prescribed regulation is broken.
Con­
formity is found not only in connection with folk
ways and customs, but social rules are quite
consciously made, as in legislative enactments,
and departure from them is prevented by the force
of police, courts and penal institutions.
P.
130
Ogburn, W. F . , Social Change.
Although conformity to custom has advantages,
also an iron band that checks the

it is

advance of the human race

by delaving tiie acceptance of needed reforms.
Communicatio n: Because Language is the major method of
communication, it has been a leading factor in group
cokesion and unity;

it has likewise been a barrier between

peoples who speak different tongues.

Inability to commun­

icate means lack of understanding which often becomes mis­
understanding,

suspicion and even conflict.

Lack fo ade­

quate communication between groups tends to set up a
polarity;

at best, it begets and maintains an undesirable

indifference to important common interests which would
otherwise draw them together.

Inability to communicate

is a barrier to international harmony and a problem b e ­
cause it practically prevents that face-toface contact
which is so helpful to a meeting of minds'
The average man is not often troubled about
foreigners,
The Englishman eats the oranges grown
by Spaniards, the Frenchman drinks coffee from
Brazil or Jaza; but neither thinks of the foreign
peoples whose labor has produced the food he uses,
for the products of the world are more truly int­
ernational than are the minds of men.
The represent tive of France argues for the
Rhine frontier, the representative of the United
States argues for the i.onroe Doctrine, the rep­
resentative of Great Britain argues for freedom

11

to blockade (each for the special interest of
his own country) P. 2. Tho chief problems of
international politics therefore, arise from an
absence of the international mind in the conduct
of practical
life...There Is no country or people
which is now
able to take a world-view, and co n­
sequently no representatives, even if they wished,
would dare to take action based upon anything but
a more or less enlightened selfishness.
Even national
interests, however, if selfishness were sufficiently
enlightened would compel attention to international
problems.
P.
3. Disease crosses frontiers, disorder
spreads; and impoverishment abroad means smaller
markets and more unemployment at home.
P. 4.
Burns, C. D . , International Politics, 1920
SOCIAL PROBLEMSi

It will be shown that Industriali­

zation, Communication and Transportation have expanded in­
to a world network,
in like manner*
example,

and that

Social Problems have expanded

Old methods aro no longer adequate.

For

the increase and the differentiation of popula­

tion has been considered for a long time, but has now b e ­
come a world problem.

The increasing density of population

within many nations together with the modern problem of
uiaompl0 7 ym.cnt raises many questions that are international,
especially that of new territory.

A dense population

sharpens the rivalry for food and territory,

and magnifies

tho competition for raw materials and markets to the very
point of conflict.

It will be seen that this pressure is

straining the national boundary lines and that some form of
international relief is imperative.

Tho animosities of race

and color, and the millions of blacks and backward peoples
are Imminent problems which rnay break out at any moment.
Adjustment of such large matters takes time, and provisionary
measures should bo made well in advance, rather than after
an Impasse has arrived.

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS:

Heretofore each of these'problems

s u c h Hs-the tariff or finance, has usually been dealt with
singly and from the point of view of each nation.

Each

one of these problems has been so complex as to seem to
warrant this unitary and localized consideration.

In fact,

this method is necessary up to a point, but there is now
an indication that these supposed unitary and localized
problems are only factors of larger, world problems, and
require a world viewpoint.

Commodities and prices seem

to be passing out of national control.

Business enter­

prises of magnitude are no longer confined to national
limits but are being tied in with foreign enterprises in
ways which seem likely to revolutionize many well-established
economic conditions.

There are those who believe that our

major social and economic problems are already out of gov­
ernment control; that they are no longer subject to the
usual checks and supervision of organized society, - that
they are at the point of independent monopolies.

A surprise

Is In store for anyone who investigates this field.

He

will probably discover thrt any unitary, nationalistic or
expedient consideration of any major economic commodity
will neither embrace the whole problem nor provide a satis­
factory solution.

The final problem will prove to be In­

ternational .
INSECURITY:

Only

a few International problems have

been mentioned and briefly sketched, but they suggest the
continuance and increasing pressure of traditional, nat-

13
ionalistic drive for achievement and recognition, backed
by heavy national armaments.

This drive has extended

beyond national boundaries and has become socially and
economically involved in the fabric and life of other
nations.

Of itself, this can be a fortunate phenomenon-

it can mean an extension of opportunity, an expansion of
mutual interests, and a broadening of civilization;

- but

it can also mean, an increase in the likelihood, number
and severity of conflicts*

Each nation has some form of

government - some form of social organization for the social
control of its internal problems.

Within each nation, the

rights of man and of property are protected; roads, health,
labor conditions,

etc. are regualted, and disputes

settled by courts of justice.
for a weak

1!diplomacy '1

are

But outside the nation, save

, its affairs have been exposed to

the anarchy of a ''no-man ’s-land" .

One may even question

the wisdom of acquiring freedom and property, and of build­
ing up a nation without some adequate form of international
security.

So deep-dyed and ancient is m a n ’s dependence u p ­

on social organization,

that a state of International In­

security would seem almost a disgrace, were-it not that
the establishment of world order requires a world
knowledge.

Perhaps man is not a rational being; some one

has said - "not vet'1, which Mr. Lloyd George appears to
confirm:
Suspicions amongst nations exist just as ever,
only more intense; hatreds between races and
peoples, only fiercer; combinations forming every­
where for the next war; great armies drilling; con-

14
ventions and compacts for joint action when the
tocsin sounds; ,..new machinery of destruction and
slaughter being devised and manufactured with
feverish anxiety; every day science being brought
under contribution to discover new methods to de­
stroy human life - in fact, a deep laid and power­
fully concerted plot against civilization, openly
organized in the light of the sun.
And that after
his experience of four or five years ago I Man the
builder, and man the breaker, working side by side
in the same workshop, and apparently on the best
of terms with each other, playing their part in
the eternal round of creation and dissolution, with
characteristic human energy.
P. 28.
Llovd-George; D.L., Where are we going?
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
and his environment.

Man is a composite of his heredity

His attitudes and actions

are a pro­

duct of his instinct and his intelligence, which of course
have been moulded somewhat by tradition, custom and habit,
- by experience.

As the individual grows older, his willing­

ness to approach unknown and uncertain situations is likely to
decrease - he prefers to wear the old shoe.

The average man

has extended the range of his direct contact somewhat by
means of the automobile; he has extended his Indirect con­
tact by means of the printed page, movie and radio; but his
environment is still circumscribed by the local aspect of
affairs.

He has no opportunity for extended world travel,

no time for a detailed study of world affairs, and no back­
ground for the comprehension of the meaning,

Implication

and changing aspect of such concepts as democracy, nation,
nationality,

imperialism,

isolation, race, and sovereignty.

This nlag” In psycho-social behavior has often prevented
society from advancing and accepting needed reform, or
delayed action until some consequential catastrophe has

fallen.

It would therefore appear to he necessary to

find some method of expanding m a n ’s mental horizon so that
he will at least recognize the nature and importance of
International problems:
The effect of emotionalism and popular ex­
citement upon the foreign policy of our own and
other democratic countries, where those who conduct
the foreign relations are Influenced by public
opinion, has often proved to be an obstacle to
the maintenance of peace and friendship; and It
Is likely to be more so in the future as popular
control of foreign policy is extended...P. 18
Garner, J. W . ; American Foreign Policies, 1928
THE LO’GER CLASS:

A major difficulty in a solution of

this problem rests with, the fact that any important action
on the part of a democracy - such as U. S. A. for example must have the consent or backing of a majority of the
citizenship.

The said majority Is usually composed of

the lowest level, Intellectually.

They have the control­

ling vote, but obviously do hot comprehend the need; they
probably do not even sense the situation.

They are not

over-patient or tolerant, but are often dubious

and sus­

picious over what they do not understand, and are not, as
a class, noted for a progressive spirit.

Furthermore,

this

class of voters are probably more easily Influenced by the
leadership of the office-seeking politician who glibly
offers some immediate though minor return for their votes,
rather than by the statesmanlike and qualified leader whose
vision,

judgment and sincerity may over-reach their own.

The more untrained the mind, the more readily
it works out a theory that two things which catch
its attention at the same time are causally con-

16

ne c t e d . . . P . 154
Does Jones 1 opinion, Jones being a weaver in a
textile mill, come from the attitude of his boss,
competition of new immigrants, his w i f e ’s grocery
bills, or the ever present contract with the firm
which is selling him a Ford car and a house and
lot on the installment plan? Without special in­
quiry you cannot tell.
The economic determinist
cannot tell.
P. 183.
Lippmann, W.s
Public Opinion.
Even though the present mature generation of this
class may not be teachable,

it may be that their offspring

can be reached during the more plastic school age, since
primary education,

at least, is fortunately compulsory.

Tho present state of the Press is hardly a helpful in­
fluence :
The competition to win circulation is so keen
among loading newspapers and magazines that a ten­
dency has developed among editors to test rll
” copy1' by the formula:
will this appeal to the
average reader?
Incidentally, I will say that
tho opinion which the average editor privately
holds of the average read er’s tastes and intel­
lect Is. not very flattering. -If it is true, as
foreign observers aver, that our press is char­
acterised by a kind of uniform vulgarity, the
reason Is to be found .just here:
in order to
appeal to all readers, tho editor must seek, not
the best kind of receding matter, but the kind
which will be welcomed by the lowest common
denominator in the community’s literary a.ppetites;
so that actually, in practically all newspaper
offices, events dealing with crime, sex, scandal,
adventure, are valued above mere sociological,
scientific, or political events, however signif­
icant, and an ordinary editor will devote incom­
parably more money and. effort to hounding the
principals In a. sensational divorce case than to
reporting events of national or International Im­
portance.
P. 132.
Mowrer, Paul S.; Our
Foreign Affairs, 1924
THE FIDDLE CLASS:

This class also has the vote, but

while tho members may be tolerably conversant with local

17
and even with national matters, it would appear that as a. class - they have not advanced beyond the most
superficial knowledge of international problems.

They do

possess interest, but it would seem to be "tourist” interest an
among a large percent'go:
It is true that some hundreds of thousands
of Americans travel every summer to Europe, vis­
iting mighty scats of commerce and of power.
Not
more than a handful, however, know how to utilize
tho opportunities thus provided them.
Ignorant
of languages, untrained in obsorvation, unaccus­
tomed to think In terms of national needs and
national psychologies, the majority, unprepared
and unheeding, pass through London .and Paris as
if these were great amusement parks, instead of
great capitals, and form their generalizations
of mighty peoples - if at all - not upon commercial, financial, political or militarv data, but
upon some pleasant street scene, some disagree­
able frontier incident, or upon the quality of
the lodgings into which they may have happened
to stumble.
As for those who do not travel, they
r.re In even worse ca.se, for their personal exper­
ience of the Far Eastern question is apt to have
been limited to the Chinese laundry, or the chopsuey restaurant; renascent Italy is perhaps p e r ­
sonified to them by a banana-peddler, and tho most
that they have noted of the Balkan Imbroglio may
be the low brow and fierce moustaches of the
Greek candy merchant at tho corner... P. 125
Mowrer, Paul S.; Our Foreign Affairs, 1924
Marked and Inexcusable ignorance Is found among "our
bost people5':

A woman graduate of the University of Kansas,

who had written the national advertising of a. large company
for six years,

and who "knew" London and Paris (perhaps

only Bond Street and the Rue do la Paix) blandly asked the
name of the organization that is attracting people to
Gcneval

This Middle Class in U, S. A. present almost as

great a problem as the Lower Class.

They hrve been bet-

18

tor fed, possess a sort of self “Sufficiency, r.nd no littlo
national superiority complex,

They will quite possibly

bo brought to a more considerate attitude by tho present
effort of other nations to check tho enormous export sales
of U. S, A. and the consequent prosperity which this coun­
try has enjoyed.

Education would appear to be tho best

remedy for this class whoso National isolation still loads
them into making gross international errors.

Mowror

offor s an examples
...The reason tho southern planter and the
middlowestorn farmer cannot sell their cotton
and their corn may lie hidden in a political sit­
uation four thousand miles around tho globes yet
the planter and the farmer, if they rely mere iy
on sheir five senses, will blame tho railroads
or the local congressmen, and declare for ab­
stention from European affairs... P. 125
Mowror, Paul
j Cur Foreign Affairs, 1924
THE LEADERS".

Every coordinated group and every great

movement possesses a leader, and would soon break up with­
out one.

At any point .or stage of the international ques­

tion, all hope of improvement rests primarily upon leaders.
The quality and ability of a loader largely predetermines
tho degree of success of any enterprisej likewise,

a poor

state of affairs presupposes incompetent or inadequate
leadership.

A leader dealing with changed conditions

in a democracy, however, cannot advance very far ahead
of his group without losing their support and being
overthrown•
A good many of these special obstacles to
changes arise because society is heterogeneous,
consisting of many classes and groups.
The need

19
of tho
change in tho adaptive culture is
felt by only one class or group, where?s
tho change must vc made by the society as
a whole.
P. 260
Ogburn, W. P.; Social Change.
The best leader is therefore limited by the capacity
and willingness of the group to follow, yet a real leader
may often

reduce or overcome this limiting factor.

It is a

provoking

fact that thoughout history and at least until

1920, international life and relations have never seemed
to receive adequate leadership.

For one reason,

tfte necessary

knowledge was not generally available:
We are all supposed to know, vaguely at least,
what the Superman is.
Taking the term in its best
sense, Supermen were needed (after world war) men who possessed wide vision, with a calm judg­
ment raised above the revengeful passions of the
moment, men loving justice and seeking for justice,
looking beyond the present to the future, seeking
the good of mankind as well as the temporary ad­
vantage of their respective nations; men who were
able to appreciate the workings of those better
forces which alone can bring peace and reconcile­
ment to a distracted world.
Such men did not
appear.
Why should they have appeared? Why should
they have been expected?
There Is no saving more
false than that which declares that the Hour brings
the Man.
The Hour many and many a time has failed
to bring the Man, and never was that truth more
seen than In the last seven wears.
P. 41
Bryce, James; International Relations, 1922
Is solution Impossible;

Is international leadership

impossible; has the leadership been inadequate; or may
there be some subtle factors in the method or phenomena
which science has overlooked and might detect?

This is

the problem,
LEAGUE OF NATIONS:

This league may be justified,

but all the facts need to be examined.

Treaties,

20
alliances and leagues are old in the history of man:
In recently recovered historical materials
there is evidence of arbitration and treaty n e ­
gotiation among the nations of western Asia as
early as 4-000 B, C.
Both opponents of the
League of Nations, who protest against rash
adventures upon new and untried paths, and en­
thusiastic supporters, who hail the League as
opening a new era in international life, ought
to he sobered by the reflection that the problem
of internationa .1 federation is at least 5000
years old.
P. 23
Potter, P. B . ; Introduction
to Study of International Organization, 1922
Any student of international affairs will soon be
amazed at the many-sided nature, and the countless con­
flicting elements in such problems.

The methods proposed

for solution are often equally involved;

the study of al­

most any treaty will reveal these facts.

Above all, the

national leaders and their followers represent every
conceivable combination of personality,
point of view.

experience and

International conferences,

age and other difficulties,
After a few weeks,

due to langu­

are trying beyond words.

some delegates are mentally unable

to face their opponents for more than an hour or so
per day, yet the issue is often so important that
they strain every nerve to hang on toward a decision.
Results are not always obtained, yet conference is
regarded as the basic hope for ultimate peace.
When President Vs/iIs on proposed the League at Paris,
he touched the highest Ideals and hopes of the struggling
world.
hand.

He played a very strong but unfortunately single
In debate with Clemenceau and Lloyd G-eorge, he did

well to implant his Ideal even though he had to accept it

21
in such form as they would allow.

Clemenceau thought that

he too had compromised, for he answered his critics by
saying”

'’What could I do - I had Julius Caesar on one

side of me and Jesus Christ on the other .'1

Although the

individual strength of Wilson won the day in Paris, his
unsocialized personality contributed to his subsequent
failure with the larger group in Washington.

The Senate

seemed to feel that it had been affronted, and politics so
colored the debate that the real issue of International
Organization was overlooked,

at least in this fountry,

This political conflict expanded to leaders throughout
U. S. A, where the real merits of the issue have never
been adequately considered.
The public mind had been horrified by war and was
principally concentrated on the thought of prevention.

In

this country, at least, the idea of the League was there­
fore generally accepted as a measure for this single pur­
pose, and discussion immediately concentrated upon the
question of accepting or rejecting the obligations of the
instrument itself - the Covenant.
needs t#. be emphasized,

It is quite clear,

and

that there had been no previous

discussion or general recognition of the degree to which
national life had expanded to the international plane; the
question of international organization for peace-time coop­
eration had not been considered and was not then within
the purview of public opinion.

The case was urgent; the

patient had been at the point of death;

the doctors wore

22
assembled in Paris; treatment was quickly prescribed with­
out a full diagnosis;

and this situation was repeated in

Washington* where it failed miserably due largely to pro­
fessional quibbling,,
The primary problem for the world is therefore not
the League, but the broad question of whether international
organization is now needed.

If it is needed, then the

possible forms of organization can be examined,
best one chosen, whatever it may be.
nations joined the League,

and the

Nearly all of the

and are still members.

For­

tunately, the world has had ten years of experience with
this i n st itu tio n and it will be thoroughly examined.

23
CHAPTER 11
BACKGROUND OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
Society has not always been
today.

arranged just as it is

Various influences are always at work, and from

time to time important social changes occur.

Social org­

anize,tion has been subject to rearrangement.

Time brings

a succession of new situations, and taken together they
constitute the social background.

Before entering upon a

consideration of any problem, It Is often helpful to view
the steps which have led to it.

Some of the more import­

ant influences which have brought about the present situa­
tion, will therefore be outlined.
SOCI a L CHANGE:

The youth studies history, and is

inclined to accept the nups and downs11 and the revolu­
tions of the past merely as history.

The older genera­

tion may have witnessed many changes,

cither local or

world-wide, and its members enjoy relating their ex­
perience or opinion of this or that event.

But neither

the young nor the old, with few exceptions, comprehend
the great process of Social Evolution,

or recognize

Social Changes as important and often cumulative factors
in an evolutionary process.
Social Change Is a frequent phenomenon; It may
range from local to world-wide events, or from a slow
to a rapid or sudden movement;

and it may meet with any

degree of success or failure.

Every event has an in­

fluence upon the one to follow.

Ideas and inventions

24
follow each other in succession.
Social Change is of great importance in National
and in international problems.

The larger the fiold

in which it may be at work, the more subtle and ob­
scure yet cumulative,

is its influence likely to be.

Only a trained and thoughtful mind can rocognize, observe,
and prepare for its impending effect.

The nation or the

world, unaware and unprepared is suddenly caught in a
tight situation like the World War,

and forced to accept

the consequence however serious it may be.
...This nation grows weaker; that nation
stronger; this territory, once uninhabited, grows
to be an important center of population; new
national feelings appear where careless and selfignorant masses -were once herded together by a
foreign power; the nation yesterday subjected
grows stronger than its subjector; economic and
financial currents are reversed.
Between the
static set of law and the dynamic set of forces
there appears thus a set of conflicts.
At every
point in the world disruptive forces begin to
act.
This may bo said to bo the normal state
of the world considered as a whole.
P „ 44.
De Madariaga, S . ; Disarmament, 1929
EARLY ORGANIZATION!
is not known;

The beginning of organization

it may have started with the family.

was doubtless used before historical time, at least
as an elementary social control.

Its early develop­

ment is best described by the following authorities!
Neither the primitive horde, nor its suc­
cessor the tribe, was in any true sense of the
word a political societyy.
Even the tribal con­
federation was not, strictly speaking, a state.
Political society came into existence when it
became necessary to devise a plan of organization
broad and elastic enough to include men of more
than one cult and of more than one kinship, or,

It

25

as often happened, of personal allegiance to
more than one chieftain.
That necessity con­
fronted practical men when they began to live in
toms.
P. 9.
Giddings, P. H.;
The Responsible State, 1918
The city state of Greece was a small but
highly integrated community which had achieved
a level of civilization and culture and a degree
of social and political consciousness almost
unique in the w o r l d ’s history.
Freed from the
necessity of productive effort through the in­
stitution of slavery, the citizens of Athens
(to take the best typical case of a Greek city
state) were able to devote themselves to the
achievement of a rich and full self-realization.
They perceived that the most perfect development
of personality was possible only in society,
and nowhere have social relationships been so
untrammelled or flowered out so perfectly as in
the golden age of Athenian democracy.... It was out
of this soil and induced by this environment that
the great works of Plato and Aristotle grew.
P. 397.
Barnes, H. E . ; Hist. & Prospects
of the Social Sciences. 1925
Early organization was a trial and error process.
There was confusion between religious and civil authority
with incidents of one exploiting the other.
of national

The need

and even international organization was

recognized by a few of the ancient philosophers such as
Plato and Aristotle but inexperience and arbitrary divis­
ions in society, made these early efforts largely
experimental ; Aristotle examined 160 different state
constitutions.

The Greeks achieved a successful city

organization, but the empire established by Rome rested
on autocratic authority which is now regarded as an
insecure foundation.

Religion was a powerful emotional

force for the cohesion and control of vast groups of
peoples during the Middle Ages,

The independent

26

monarchy, and democratic federal evolution had not
yet arrived.
RELIGIOUS CONTROL:

During the early experimental

state of social organization,
thirteenth century,

especially in the

the struggle "between religious

and civil authority for control, resulted in compara­
tive success for religion.

This was perhaps a natural

result since religion rested upon the powerful influence
of emotion, while a universal acceptance of civil autho­
rity would have required a more rational effort than
the degree of education and thought of the time permitted.
This early power of religion and its final failure as a
"basis of sound social organization marks another im­
portant Social Charge - a stage of Social Evolution which is well attested "by Bryce and Potter:
After the days of Pope Gregory Vll, the
Church of Rome was at least the equal, and some­
times almost the mistress, of the Empire ... P.330
....The high aspirations which had marked the b e ­
ginning of the thirteenth century died away and before
the middle of the fifteenth a decadence had set
in which seemed to threaten all the influences of
Christianity upon national and international life.
P. 13.
Bryce, J a s . ; Holy Roman Emp. 1904
Religion and law were the great forces used
by Rome to bind her peoples into one society. P.
304.
One Church and Faith, one Empire and one
body of neo-classical enlightenment - such was
cosmopolitan Europe in the latter Middle Ages.
Then came the dissolution.
In political power,
in ecclesiastical organization, in dogma and
ritual, one after another, the Church was shaken
from end to end.
P. 305.
Potter, P e B . ;
Intro, to Study of Int, Org, 1922

27
The Reformation,

although it was sometime in crys­

tallizing, finally overcame the dominance which religion
had exercised over social organization.
rational,
needed,

A new, more

and independent, form of organization was

and grew out of the Reformation in tho form of

the Authoritarian or Monarchial state.

This was an

event which is worthy some discussion,
AUTHORITARIAN GOVERNMENT:

The rise of the Mon­

archial form of organization, virtually independent of
religion, marks the next important step.
period the Kings
ority,

During this

and Emperors possessed the final auth­

although many of them still found it convenient

to allege, with Dante,
’’Divine Right” .

that their authority rested upon

This period of Absolute Monarchy in

Europe served to create a unified and more or less ef­
ficient organization within the state.
definite form and became
social, unit.

The nation took

a solidly political,

if not a

To this extent It was a success, but th®

monarchial form was not suited to a rapidly developing
people.

This system was too rigid;

it placed a premium

upon mediocre conformity to the k i n g ’s will,
the initiative of originality and ability.

and curbed
The King

was often ignorant of, or indifferent to, the true needs
of the people and the country.
tional relations as he wished,

He controlled interna­
and often plunged his

people into wars of aggression or defense.

Although

Authoritarian government seems to have been a necessary

28

step, it had to be replaced because of the development
of social and economic life.

Dewey shows that

Authoritarian control restricts the normal social
processes »
...In an autocratically managed society,
it Is often a conscious object to prevent the
development of freedom and responsibility; a
few do the planning and ordering, the others
follow directions a n d are deliberately confined
to narrow and prescribed channels of endeavor.
However much such a scheme may inure to the
prestige and profit of a class, it Is evident
that It limits the development of the subject
class; hardens and confines the opportunities for
learning through experience of the master class,
and in both ways hampers the life of the society
as a whole,
P. 363 Dewey, John;
Democracy & Education, 1916
The era of monarchical absolutism was a n e c ­
essary stage in political evolution in Europe,
Until the national state, through its king, had
succeeded in establishing Its complete independ­
ence of external control, whether papal or Im­
perial, and its complete supremacy over all in­
ternal authorities, civic or feudal, no further
progress toward modern constitutional government
was possible.,„P . 411 Barnes, H« E . ;
Hist. & Prospects of the Soc. Sciences. 1925
DEMOCRACY:
principle

Man has had a long struggle to gain the

of democracy.

There Is often a prolonged

preparation and even occasional trial, of great m o v e ­
ments such as a new form of social organization, before
final adoption.

Democracy Is a case In point; it was

tried by the Greeks, and traces of it have permeated
thought and effort for centuries.

This illustrates

what is meant by the subtle and important nature of
Social Change which could often be better turned to the
service of society if it were more frequently apprehended

29

and studied.

Democracy was necessary to give expression

to the fact that man is a social being:
A democracy is more than a form of govern­
ment; it is primarily a mode of associated living,
of conjoint communicated experience...?.
101
Dewey, John; Democracy & Education, 1916
Montesquieu, Rousseau and others contributed to the
rise of Democracy which is the next step, and which finally
took an early form in the establishment of the British
Parliament.

By an evolutionary process, Democracy was

advanced a little further by the U. S. A. Constitution
wherein the King and his "Divine Right” were completely
thrown off.

The Republic of Franco followed,

and Democ­

racy seems to have now established and justified itself,
yet it has not been a straight course.

Various prob­

lems, including international questions are pressing
for consideration.

Adequate social organization, political,

legal or other typos,

seems to persistently lag behind

the needs of social and eeonomic life.

Democracy was a

long time in coming, but it was needed to permit a normal
development and expansion of society.
Thomas Paine defended the French Revolution.

He

was an outstanding exponent of democracy, and his ’’Rights
of Man” stimulated the American colonists to throw off
their autocratic yoke.
Individualism:

This is a social force which may

arise within any group.

It is a movement contrary or In­

different to the status quo and to the normal course of
events.

It may in the end result in a beneficial change

30
or it may bo destructive in nature.

Individualism

aided in replacing authoritarian government with the
principle of democracy, but in a democracy, however,
it is often a disorganizing or destructive influence.
It may interfere with normal and mutual interaction between
peoples and thus arrest or retard their natural develop­
ment and expansion.

In this sense, individualism may

have a tendency to hold nations apart, and it is, therefore,
a factor to be reckoned with in international questions.
The working of individualism is illustrated by Dewey:
In the medieval period there was a relig­
ious individualism.
The deepest concern of
life was the salvation of the individual soul.
In the later middle ages, this latent individual­
ism found conscious formulation in the nominalistic philosophies, which treated the structure
of knowledge as something built up within the
individual through his own acts, and mental
states.
With the rise of economic and political
individualism after the sixteenth century, and
with the development of protestantism, the times
wore ripe for an emphasis upon the rights and
duties of the individual In achieving knowledge
for himself.
This led to the view that knowl­
edge is won wholly through personal and private
experiences ...P . 341 Dewey, John;
Democracy & Education, 1916
MUTUAL INTEREST:

This is a positive social factor

which tends to destroy Individualism, and which areems
to be slowly winning against it.

Mutual Interest

counteracted the movement that occurred after the estab­
lishment of Democracy.

It multiplies with the development of

social and economic life, yet it does not seem to be
sufficiently recognized.
social organization,

It is a magnetic force In

and would appear to be a valuable

31

principle to utilize in the solution of international
problems.

Minor & Stratton touch upon the force of

:'.utual interest in the advancement of man:
But as the society becomes more stable and
civilized, influences begin to work which materi­
ally improve the condition of mankind.
A spirit
of cooperation and of mutual aid and dependence
takes the place of the former spirit of rapacity;
common interests make men more friendly; suspicion
and distrust give way to mutual confidence; sel­
fish ambition and cupidity yield more or less to
an appreciation of the rights of others; and
violence surrenders dominion to the gentler arts
of reason and peace.
P. 1.
Minor, R. C.; Republic of Nations, 1918
...Great things have been done for humanity
while human nature remained the same.
Our civ­
ilization has been rid of human sacrifice in r e ­
ligion, of private blood vengeance in our civil
life, of piracy upon the high seas, of slavery
in all our leading communities.
Every one of
these social institutions has had the support of
m e n 7s permanent passions, of m e n ’s deep impulses.
To rid the world of these ancient instruments it
has not been necessary to rid the world of men.
Nor have we needed to wait until all sinners have
been changed to saints.
It has been necessary
merely that men should be socially progressive,
inventive, adventurous.
Men have had to cooper­
ate with one another untiringly to change the
old habits of their life.
New ways of justice and
law and order have had to be viewed with hospit­
ality, without a too-tenacious clinging to the
cruder and less effective ways.
P. 250.
Stratton, G, M . ; Soc. Psych of Int. Conduct,
1929
MODERN EDUCATION:

For a long time, Education

had been largely a private matter for the development
of ecclesiastics and "gentlemen of leisure” .

As the

common school developed and became compulsory, Edu­
cation took on a rather rigid and disciplinary aspect
tending to conform youth to the accepted doctrines,

32
and to retard social advance.

Education was authoritarian;

it was imposed by those in control; it was often confined
largely to a long period of service under the name of
apprenticeship.

Any school curriculum which extended

heyond the "three R »S" was frowned upon and thought of
as 11spoiling the child".

This was naturally a check

upon the development of society.
But modern democracy paved the way for a great change
in education.
panded;

The school and the university were ex­

all knowledge including the new and practical

sciences was introduced, and made easily available.

Edu­

cation became general, and the theory of disciplined con­
formity was replaced gradually by a desire to aid the
development and growth of normal faculties.

This released

initiative, stimulated interest, investigation and re­
search.

New knowledge and new ideas came rapidly as a

natural product.

Modern education released man from his

former bondage, but it also increased the complexity of
his environment.

It has increased the rate of social

change to an amazing extent, and is an important step
in the background of the present world situation
...The individualistic th.eory(of the 18th
century) receded into the background.
The state
furnished not only the instrumentalities of
public education but also its goal.
When the
actual practice was such that the school
system, from the elementary grades through
the university faculties, supplied the patriotic
citizen and soldier and the future state offic­
ial and administrator and furnished the means
for military, industrial, and political de­
fense and expansion, it was impossible for
theory not to emphasize the aim of social

33

efficiency. And with the Immense importance
attached to the nationalistic state, surround­
ed by other competing and more or lose hos­
tile states, it was equally impossible to
interpret social efficiency in terms of a
vague cosmopolitan humanitarianism.
Since
the maintenance of a particular national
sovereignty required subordination of in­
dividuals to the superior interests of the
state both in military defense and in strug­
gles for international supremacy in com­
merce, social efficiency was understood to
imply a like subordination.
The educational
process was taken to be one of disciplinary
training rather than of personal development.
... P.
109.
Dewey,
John;
Democracy & Education, 1916
SCIENCE AND INVENTION i
education paved the way for

The rise of democracy and
the great development of science

and invention.

Darwin exercised a strong influence upon

modern science.

His studies and discoveries encouraged

other students and pointed the way to the present accumula­
tion of orderly knowledge of both inorganic and organic
phenomena.

Knowing structure, function and relationship,

man has changed the old into the new and effected combin­
ations which constitute the long list of remarkable util­
ities which he enjoys today.

Materials for food, clothing

and housing are highly developed.

Electricity and other

forms of energy lengthen the day, speed communication

and

transportation, reduce labor, and Increase the exchange
of social and economic life.

Science and invention have

brought man a control over nature, which has enabled him
to dominate and expand his environment.

As a result,

this

is another social change which has set up new conditions
that do not appear, as yet, to be generally recognized.

34

Science and invention have contributed materially to
the present extended relationships within the nation
and throughout the world.
The traditional perspectives of history
are so filled with the figures of a passing
show that the obscure but enduring elements
excape attention.
There are two things more
important than all others to the human race,
work and thought; the d a y !s labor and the
inquiring mind.
Until our own time these two
never met - or never met to know their common
task which is the amelioration and enlighten­
ment of life itself.
Their meeting, in the
inventions and discoveries of the scientific
age, has caused the greatest of all revolu­
tions in history.
P. 24.
Shotwell, J. T.;
War as an Instrument of Nat. Pol,, 1929
Dr. Livingstone,

a profound scholar in Plato, believes

that were Plato among us today, he would praise our Social
Means, but be shocked at our disregard of Social Ends,
and the danger of repercussion.

There would seem to be

pressing need for the organization of Social Means to
Social Ends, especially in the international field.
NATIONAL COMMUNICATION:

The Social Changes enumerat­

ed, especially science and invention, made possible the
great growth of Communication which first occurred within
the nation.

More than any other factor, it tied the parts

of a nation together into a social unit; it favored a
submergence of local differences and tended to lift thought
to the level of the common interest.

An example of the

rapid development of national communication is shown
by the following data:

35
United States Postal Service.
(millions)
Year
No. pieces mail handled in U, S. A.
1890
1893
1898
1903
1908
1913
Year
1895
1900
1905
1910
1915
1920

4,005
5,022
6,214
8,887
13,304
18,567

P.

No. of telephones in U. S. A.
339,500
1,355,900
4,126,900
7,635,400
10,523,500
13,329,400
P.
Dept., Commerce, Stat. Abst. 1929

NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION:

351

361

On the heels of communication, great

railroads, and later thousands of motor cars, tied the
nation into an economic unit.

The figures for any of the

principal nations tell much the same story:
Railway Mileage Operated in U. S* A.
Year
Operated
1850
9,021
1860
30,626
1870
52,922
1880
93,262
1890
156,404
1900
192,556
1910
240,831
1920
259,941
P.

395

Registration of motor vehicles in U. S. A.
Year
Total
(thousands)
1900
8
1905
78
1910
468
1915
2,446
1920
9,232
1925
19,937
P.
385

36
Railroads; Freight, Tonnage in U , S. A.
Year
Tons of revenue freight carried
(thousands)
1891-1895
692,446
1901
1,089,226
1906
1,631,374
1911
1,781,638
1916
2,347,396
1920
2,427,622
P.
405
Dept. Commerce; Stat. Abst. 1929
See Int. Stat. Year Book of League of Nations for
Statistics of other nations.
NATIONAL INDUSTRIALIZATION:

The next great Change is

the enormous transfer of manufacture to machinofacture known
as Industrialization.

This phenomena multiplied the num­

ber and kind of commodities, and so reduced costs that
luxuries became '’necessities” .

Industrialization, with

some national variance, has occurred in each important
nation;
ized,

Japan, India and now China are being industrial­
As a result,

the commodities and the life of each

nation have tended to assume a uniformity of habit and
pattern which never existed before.

The original hand pro­

duction has been greatly exceeded by the use of power,
shown below:
Manufactures, Value of products in millions of
dollars in U. S. A . :
Year
Factories & hand & neighborhood
industri es
$1,019
1849
1,886
1859
3,386
1869
5,370
1879
9,372
1889
13,000
1899
Factories, excluding hand and neighborhood Indus­
tries and establishments with products valued at less
than $500, in U. S. A.;
in millions of dollars:
1899
$11,407
1904
14,794
1909
20,672
1914
24,217
P.
785
U. S. A. Dept. Commerce; Stat. Abst. 1929

as

37

Power - Annual Supply of Energy from Mineral
Fuels and Water Power in U. S. A * :
Year
Grand total fuels & water power*
Trillions of Brit, thermal units.
1876-1880
1,857
1886-1890
4,221
1896-1900
6,690
1906-1910
13,867
1916-1920
20,648
P.
367
U. S. A. Dept. Commerce; Stat. Ahst, 1929

38

THE RODERN NATION"

These events have contributed to

the development of ”The nation1’ as a remarkably power­
ful social,

economic and political unit, and it is most

important to note at this point that the Nation is the
largest area which has been subjected to a real and
complete social organization.
The Nation, with all of its attributes, represents
the foundation of every international question.

It has

risen to a position of such great importance in the life
of mankind, that it calls for special consideration.

The

various phases of social life have a local community set­
ting, but nearly all of them are now tied in some manner to
national organizations.

Commercial activities, .which were

once confined largely to local districts, have come to be
mere links In chains which bind the nation into a unit.
Corporations, which provided public utilities in particular
sections have been gradually merged with others, and many
of those larger units have now been brought under the con­
trol of holding companies on a national scale.

There are

convenient political divisions, each with its own local
government, but even these are grouped finally under the
national government.

Communication and transportation

facilities form a nerve and blood system for the whole
nation.

The people have come to think and act as factors

In a national life, and to set themselves apart as a co­
herent national group.

These facts, the remarks of North,

and the following items summarize the Important status of

39

the nation today:
....The policy of developing within
the State those resources that would en­
able it to maintain itself in time of
war was a sound policy under the circum­
stances fo the period.
And the policy of
developing a variety of National industries
through the protective tariffs in modern
times has had the support of many thinkers
and statesmen.
While carrying along many
abuses of special privilege to certain groups
within the Nation, the very general use of
the policy by most modern states at some
period is evidence that at a certain stage
of national development the policy has been
a valuable factor in promoting the strength
of the National life.
That the later de­
velopment of International relations should
seem to render many features of the policy
obsolete does not detract from its earlier
va luo ... In fact, it constitutes the chief
bond of modern society and is an effective
substitute for the autocratic authority of
earlier days,
P. 272 North, L . L .;
Social Differentiation.
1927
The Nation has been the principal unit of social
and economic organization, as is revealed by the
following:
5)

il

li

51

makes of clothes.
toilet preparations.
11
11
brands of drugs and medicines.
11
51
makes of household equipment.
il
U
types of business equipment.
11
(1
makes of automobiles and equipment.
11
11
books, periodicals, movie and
radio programs.
flags,
schools, money, elections,
ional la- is.
societies, lodges, conventions, chain stores,
branch offices, etc.
National parks, seasonal playgrounds, and touring
data.
Free movement of persons and property; absence of
barriers.

40

NATIONALISM;

The great development and solidarity of

the nation as described above, creates in its people a col­
lection of attitudes and corresponding behavior which is
expressed by the term nationalism.
for national coherence,

It is a powerful force

and is manifested by overt behavior

concerning national patriotism, militarism, tariff pro­
tection, imperialism, historical shrines, holidays,
everything of national character and interest.

and

Nationalism

represents the culture of a people; it is a product of
their background;

it is usually proportionate to the sol­

idarity of their nation,

although it is not necessarily

dependent upon the continued possession of a nation or of
original allegiance*
up to a point,

While nationalism is of great value

It can be, and usually is, a serious bar ­

rier to necessary and desirable international relationships.
It tends to hold nations apart; it sets up rivalry, oppo­
sition and conflict,

even where common interests should

draw them together.

All of the cumulative experience of a

people finds an expression in their nationalism, which
thus becomes an Imposing force to reckon with whenever an
international problem Is approached.

Many irrational ex­

tremes are worshipped upon the altar of antionalism.

It

is only desired here to briefly establish Its nature and
importance, but special reference should be made in passing
to a profound discussion of the nation, nationalism,

and

nationality by Professor Carlton J. H. Hayes in his work,
”Essays on Nationalism” .

41

The Sentiment of Nationality is that feeling
or group of feelings which makes an aggregate of
men conscious of ties^ not being wholly either
politic? 1 or religious, which unite them in a
community which is, either actually or potentially,
a Nation.
P. 118 Bryce, Jas; Int. Relations, 1922
Nationality may be taken to mean a certain
spiritual unity observable among a group of people,
usually arising from a greater or lesser degree of
racial unity and from community of language, art,
religion, economic interests, and ethical ideals,
although at times it Is manifested b y groups not
very clearly possessing any of these bases for their
apparent spiritual unity....P.
51. We may therefore
take the State system of 164-8-1918, with Its implica­
tions for the institution of national Statehood and
international relations as the f oundation for the
study of modern international organization.
P.
58.
Potter, P. B . , Introduction to
Study of International Organization. 1922
U. S. A. and ISOLATION:

An attitude of isolation may

be Influenced by various factors but it is often a b y ­
product of extreme nationalism.
and appreciated

U. S. A. is respected

by the world as a great benefactor, but

the charge of Isolation is laid especially at the door of
her people, and

through them

to their representatives In

Washington.

is said that

we act alone as a nation,

It

and refuse to join the cooperative effort of the other'
nations.

This is largely a fact and due to our background;

it will be discussed later,

and need only be established

here as a national attribute.

This is well described by

Lippmann in his nPublic Opinion” .

Tv/o views

are submitted

here :
The difficulty, however, of maintaining an
enlightened public opinion with respect to inter­
national matters is very great and it has been in­
creased in this country by the lack of general in­
terest, at least until recently, in foreign affairs.

42

This good-natured, indifference, except in grave
emergencies, our geographical position, the extent
of the country and the wide range of domestic
opportunity, have developed a sense of selfsufficiency.
We have only begun to think inter­
nationally, and we find the attitude of the public
mind to be still illadjusted to the magnitude of
our financial power and to the international inter­
ests which we have suddenly accumulated as the re­
sult of the World War.
P. 251 Hughes, Chas. E. ;
The Pathway of Peace,
1925
The North American Republic*s habit of im­
agining herself as pursuing in happy contrast to
other wicked peoples a simple and peaceful life
with no desire for acquiring territory, no wish to
interfere in the affairs of others in the world
but not of the world, of suggesting to the lesser
tribes to follow her high principles, is not only
more than a little exasperation to the foreigner
but it is actually dangerous to herself, as a false
chart would be to a navigator in difficult waters.
P. 75.
Fox, Sir Frank; Mastery of the Pacific,
NATIONAL ARMAMENT:

1928.

Another, and a very important,

attribute of the solidarity of national organization, is
Armament.

The urge for self-preservation, the desire for

free action, and the emotional feeling of nationality
have long conspired in utilizing and in advancing science
to enforce the will of one nation against that of another.
It is important to note that the early Knight, the duelist,
and the nation have long sanctioned and even honored the
murderous use of arms 'under justifiable ’’conditions"',
while the n conditions'1 are onl ' recently being adequately
reviewed with respect to nations.

The persistent assump­

tion that each nation is practically independent of
others,

and has the right to make war at will is a ,1hang-

over" theory which seems to be a colossal fallacy when
compared with the present interdependence of nations and

43

the use of law within' the organization of the nation it­
self.

It raises the question of why lav; is limited to

the internal organization of each nation, and becomes a
paramount issue in international life, apart from the
questions of cost.and misery.
Navies maintained as a permanent force go
back to the eighteenth century, when Prance,
Spain, and England kept small fleets ready for emer­
gencies, but tfie cost of building and equipping war ­
ships was in tjaoso days light indeed when compared
with our own diays. Immense armies came later, and
are the creation of the French Revolutionary epoch,
which introdifqed compulsory military service, or,
rather, developed it on a far greater scale, for
the obligation to serve in war had existed in most
countries, as in England, for Instance, from prim­
itive times.'.".P.
210
Bryce, Jas.j Int. Relations, 1922
NATIONAL IMMIGRATION:

Since U. S. A. was settled com­

paratively recently, it might be supposed that its popula­
tion is still relatively free from conditions of conges­
tion and unemployment which prevail In older nations.
There arc those who believe that U. S. A. is self-sufficient
and justified in continuing its policy of comparative Iso­
lation.

As a partial answer, which will suffice for the

moment, it should be stated that the great change of In­
dustrialization had such profound success in U. S. A.
that the enormous opportunities for labor and for land
settlement brought unprecedented Immigration.

More than

31,000,000 came in a sixty year period, with the result
that considerable unemployment now occurs, and that life in
U. S.. A. cannot be regarded as totally differentiated from
that in other nations.

U. S. A. cannot be segregated; It Is

a nation ampng nations,

and has similar problems - they

may vary in degree but not essentially in kind.
Immigration to U, S. A.
Period of . Numbbr
Census
Increase over preccdyear- '
year
ing census - pcr cent
2, 5/11,060
1860
35.6
1851-136Q
1861-1870
2,377,279
22.6
1870
2,812,191
30.1
1871-1880
1880
1890
1881-1890
25.5
5-246,613
20.7
1891-1900
1900
3,687,564
8,795,386
21.0
1910
1901-1910.
1911-1920
14.9
5,735,811
1920
Total - 31,165,904
Dept;. Commerce, Stat. Abst. 1929 P. 2 & 93
FOREiGU TRADE'

Originally rood and clothing were

largely produced whereuscd,

and foreign trade was a slow

and somewhat casual enterprise, often interrupted by war.
But the grpat development of the nation, plus the change
to industrialization, multiplied production and consump­
tion to a point where a world-wide search for raw
materials and markets became imperative to the welfare of
the loading nations.

Foreign trade has now become a vital

necessity if wheels are to turn, and employment is to hold.
And this is the position today:

Economic life has ex­

panded beyond national boundaries and carried a measure
of social and political influence to other lands:
Economically it (the new Western civilization)
required over more markets and ever more raw mater­
ials (Western Civilization issuing from the Indus­
trial Revolution )% the more industrialization pro­
ceeded, the more necessary became the opening up
of now markets and now sources of raw material,
' P. 10 Woolf, L. S .i
Imperialism and Civilization, 1928
In 1913 the United Kingdom imports wore valued
at L768,734,739, and the exports at L634,820,326
exclusive of bullion.
Tbo result shows that in

45

1913 the United Kingdom imported goods worth, about
124 million pounds more than the value of exports.
But this only indicates another peculiarity of the
United Kingdom^ for ,in the same year, there was
the following additional income accruing:
Interest on foreign investments
L200,000,000
Freights, services of ships, etc
130,000,000
Insurance, Banking, Commissions*1
30,000,000
L3B0,000,000
Therefore it was* possible not onlv to pay for the
extra, value of Imports, but there was a Balance of
L236,000,000 to bo spent or sr.vod in the United
Kingdom,
Switzerland also has a large International
trade, and Interest, because she has hardly any raw
material*
P. 85.
Burns,
Foreign Trade.
The following table shows the groat increase in the
value of Foreign Tro.de for thirty loading nations, from
1913 to 1927 in millions of dollars:
Country
U. S. A.
United Kingdom
Germany
France
Canada
India
Japan
Italy
Argentine
Belgium
Australia
China
Br 11 i sh Mai ay a (G )
Dutch E. Indies
Switzerland
Sweden
Br azil
Denmark
Union of S. Africa
Spain
Cub a
Egypt
Mexico
New Zealand
Roumania
Norway
Chile
Finland

1913
4,223
5,764
4,966
2,953
1,051
1,383
670
1,170
1,007
1,597
755
710
399
456
624
446
643
379
520
426
304
291
246
206
244
247
270
174

1927
8,926
8,776
5,788
4,237
2,362
2,062
1,901
1,853
1,799
1,544
1,473
1,333
1,159
1,013
868
859
818
801
790
725
578
471
460
441
4-32
430
335
320

increase
4,703
3,012
822
1,284
1,311
679
1,231
683
792
53
718
623
760
557
244
413
175
422
270
299
274
180
214
235
188
183 .
65
146

46

Greece
Colombia

57
246
189
61
220
159
Totals3V ,797
62,800
25,003
P. 129, Int. Statistical Year Book,
1928. League of1 Nations.
(Affected somewhat by changes in price levels.)

INTERDEPENDENCE OP NATIONS i

Prom Foreign Trade tables

and from population records, it is possible to work out an
easily understandable measure of the degree of economic
interdependence for each nation by families.

The population

of any nation is divided by throe to approximate the number
of families.

The quotient is then used as a divisor for

the total foreign trade of the nation.

Assuming three

persons to a family, the average amount of interdependence
per family in dollars for 1913 and 1927 was approximately
os follo ws”
Annual value of total Foreign trade per family of three,
Country
1913
1927
% Increase
U. S. A.
|131.25
#224.46
71
Unit, Kingdom
403.08
576,84
43
Germany
250.68
273.69
9 Retarded by
Franco
212.34
310.02
46
war.
Canada
425.61
739.68
73
Japan
37.65
93.06
147
Italy
94.86
136.26
43
U. of S. Africa
246,69
307.77
24
Argentina
383.13
506.88
32
Differences in price level affect the above somewhat,
but the figures illustrate the increase In interdependence.
It Is obvious that the above turnover has some importance
to nearly every family,

and that It is especially vital to

those whoso living Is directly concerned.

There Is also

the fcact that a percentage of Imports always represents raw
material, food, medicine, and other commodities upon which

47

the life of a people depends,

It would appear necessary

to accept and to safeguard this important condition of in­
terdependence between the nations.

Authorities recognize

the s i tuati o n :
The total foreign investments in Canada, in
1913, are stated to have amounted to about two
billion five hundred million dollars,
In 1927,
they amounted to over five billion two hundred
million dollars.
In 1913, the portion of the in­
vestments in Canada coming from the United States
was less than five hundred million dollars and in
1927 was nearly three billion dollars.
It
appears, however, that in recent years there have
been large re-purchases by Canadians of Canadian
securities amounting to what has been called a
repatriation of Canadian enterprises,
Canadians
have been largely increasing their investments in
foreign countries.
It is estimated !t>»at in 1927
their investments in the United States amounted
to nearly seven hundred million dollars.,
P. 32
Hughes, Chas, E ,; Our Relations to the
Nations of the Western Hemisphere, 1928
,...Five-sixths of the human race were in­
volved in the Great War, which brought men to
fight one another in regions where civilized
armies had never contended before, in West Africa,
in East Africa, in Siberia and Turkestan, on the
shores of the Baikal and the Caspian, in the isles
of the Western Pacific, while ships of war wore
fighting on all the oceans from- the White Sea to
the Falkland Isles.
As this unity was apparent
in war, so it is apparent now the war has ended.
Everything that effects industry and commerce in
one country affects it in every other, and affects
it instantaneously, so widespread and so swift
have communications become.
Electricity is the
most potent of the unifying forces for the pur­
poses of knowledge and the interchange f thought,
as steam began to be for commerce a century ago.
This is a fact which has 11come to stay*’. The
human race, whatever the differences between its
branches, is now a unit for economic purposes,
and as economics have now become a chief basis
of politics, it is a unit for the purposes of in­
ternational diplomacy.
Wo see the germs of pol­
itical strife in the claims made to the enjoyment

48

of such sources of natural wealth, wherever they
are found, as coal and oil.
P. 257
Brvee, Jas.^ Int. Relations, 1922
At the moment of writing these lines, I hap­
pen to be living in Paris, which is one, but only
one, of the great modern centers of civilization.
I am wearing a suit of clothes, made in France,
from Australian or Canadian wool, spun in England.
My shoes, also made in France, arc of hides, prob­
ably from the Argentine, treated in England.
My
hat is of Italian felt.
My handkerchief, of Dutch
or Russian flax, spun In Dublin ; my shirt of
American cotton spun in Franco.
The raw silk of
m y necktie came, doubtless, from Italy or Japan.
I have a Swiss watch on my wrist, and the gold of
the ring which is on my finger was mined, maybe,
in Alaska or South Africa.
I have just break­
fasted on North African fruit, bread mixed per­
haps of French and American wheat, and Brazilian
coffee, sweetened with sugar which may be French,
or may have been brought from Cuba, or from
Cz echo-Slovakia..
The room in which I am sitting
has a Turkish carpet, and is heated by English
coal In a French stove.
My typewriter is American,
m y dosk-pad Italian, my scissors German,
my pen­
knife Swiss, my pencil Czocho-Slovak.
My little
whetstone, bought In France, was quarried in Ark­
ansas,
My papcrknifo, of African ebony, was inlaid
with bits of silver by fuzzy-haired, black artisans
of Mauretania.
I am writing with a German pen,
upon coarse paper, made probably of Finnish or Nor­
wegian wood-pulp, and I expect to use a telephone
in a moment, the receiver of which is German-made
and whose wires are of American copper, insulated
with rubber from South America or the Straits
Settlements.
P. 259.
Mowrcr, Paul S.;
Our Foreign Affairs, 1924
The following table gives some Idea of how the Foreign
Trade of one nation is divided among many nations,

and how

noticably inturdependent they are with respect to both
buying and selling.

49
Shr.ro of* U.

S. A. in Imports and. Exports

Countries.
Country
Argentina
Aus tra.lia,
Belgium
Brazil
Cana.de,.
Chile
China.
Cub a.
C z e cho slo va.ki a.
Denman k
Prance
Germany
India, Brit.
Italy
Japan
Malaya, Brit.
Mexico
New Zea,land
Netherlands
" n E. Ind.
Nor v/ay
Poland
Sweden
Sw i t z er 1 and
Union S. Africa.
Unit. Kingdom &
Irish Free Sta.te
Venezuela

Table 3.
Imports from U.S.
% of total imports
1913
1923 1927
14.7
20.9 24. *7
13.4
18.9
25.3
9.2
11.2
11.1
15.7
22.3 28.7
64.9
67.3 64.9
16.7
26.7 29.7
6.0
16.1
16.3
56.3
68.5
62.1
-------- 7.0
6.8
10.2
12.5
15.1
10.7
14.8 13.3
15.9
19.1 14.7
8.2
■2.5
5.4
14.4
19.4
26.8
25.8
16.8
30.9
3.6
1.5
3.2
47.9
74.7
67.2
16.1 18.1
9.7
12.7
10.5
11.3
8.7
2.1
5.5
13.7
16.7
7.1
---15.3 12.9
12.7
16.5
9.0
8.8
6.3
8.0
12.9 16.0
9.5
18.4
38.5

20.0
47.6

of Loading

Exports to U.S.

% of tota.1 exports
1913
4.7
3.4
3.0
32.2
39.0
21.3
9.0
80.0
---------

1.1
6.1
7.1
9.0
10.7
29.2
12.1
75.8
----

4.3
2.2
7.7
_ — —

-

4.2
9.9
1.9

17.2
52.3

9.4
28 *7

1923
11.6
8.5
9.0
41.4
41.8
46.6
17.1
87.2
4.41.8
8.0
7.8
9.7
13.7
41,8
40.8
83.0
7.3
5.3
10.0
13.6
0.6
11.2
11.3
5.3 .

1927
9.1
6.5
9.1
46.2
39.8
32.7
13.2
79. 3
5.0
0.7
6.5
7.6
11.3
10.5
41.9
43.9
66.6
5.8
3.4
15.7
10.7
0.8
10.9
10.5
3.3

10.0
26.9

8.6
23.6

The relative gain of‘ the United States In interna tionOf 25 countries for
al trade is indieat e d by Table 3.
which data, m e a.vailable for both 1913 and 1927, twentyone took a larger proportion of their imports from the
United Sts„tes in the la.tter yean and seventeen sent a
langer shane of their exports to this country...P. 4
Dept, of Commerce; Trade Inf.
Bulletin #602, 1929
EXTENSION OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS:

The Social Interdependence

of nations is another grea.t Change which involves such problems
a.s health, Labor, crime and many others.

These matters

have been dea.lt with by the organization within each nation,
but this method appears to be no longer adequate;

50

many social problems have become international, and their
solution calls for international .action:
All national problems, such as the drug traf­
fic, health conditions, commerce and tariff, are
becoming international, bec.ausc.the world is being
made smaller by fast transportation and communi­
cation, and the problems of one are becoming the
problems of all, Prof. A. Zlmmern said.
Lansing State Journal, 2-22-30
It is well to remember that every postman
is in a. sense an international official since he
is c.arrying out, for part of his duties, rules
laid down by the Universal Postal Union.
P. 149
Another natural sphere for international action
is protection from epidemic diseases...The early
attempt of each nation by quarantine to segregate
itself w as proved a failure, both because it put
obstacles In the way of commerce, and because no
State acting alone hod enough information as to
where and when the epidemic disease existed.
The
States were compelled to take joint action and a
convention was signed In 1903.
...International
sanitary councils were set up to supervise certain
Eastern trade routes.
P. 150.
Burns, C. D . ;
International Politics
DIPLOMACY:

Of course the ability of individual dip­

lomats varies, but the national institution of Diplomacy
Is one element in social organization which Is practically
unchanged since the 13th century.

The diplomat to each

foreign country was usually selected b y his King, given
precise instructions, and expected to obtain certain ends
for his own nation.

While superficially conforming to a highly

traditional court etiquette, the diplomat has often been
a 11listening post'1 and a perpetrator of intrigue.
too often the sharp tool

Hewas

of his own nation, rather than

an

international statesman.
Today, it seems clear that, while traditional Diplomacy
may have improved and may still be useful,

it is grossly

51

inadequate to the multitude of problems that have arisen in
the increase of international interdependence.

The former

type of diplomatic negotiation will not solve present
problems.

It

s no longer a (uestion of one nation making

a diplomatic adjustment with another nation.
touch all nations.
Is required.

All problems

Prolonged* worId-wide and expert research

Only impersonal and competent bodies can o' tain

results* and hold the respect and confidence of the family
of nations.

The secret treaty* entente*

and alliance

arouse suspicion in a shrinking and Interdependent world.
Where relationship ha,s become universal and continuous*
the localized and expedient methods of Diplomacy cannot
succeed..

The following statements are evidence of this

fact:
TTntll the actual declaration of war in 1914
the British House of Commons was without full know­
ledge of how fan Great Britain was pledged to Franco
In the event of a Gorman a.ttack.
The French people
were In utter Ignorance of the correspondence upon
wan preparations between Poincare and the Russian
Wan Minister,
The Germans knew nothing of the In­
tentions of the Emperor or the war party which ruled
in the background.
P. 466
Sept. 1929
Gibbs* Sir Philip;
Readers Digest*
International government is still so rudimentary
as to leave to individual nations almost entirely
the business of defining and obtaining satisfaction
for their rights.
P. 405.
Potter* P. B . ;
Intro, to Study of Int. Organization. 1922
...The normal wleldcrs of armaments arc not
the soldiers* but the diplomats.
The gun that does
not shoot is more eloquent than the gun that has
to shoot and above all tha ■ the g'v_ whic"1, ha.s slot,
P . 57 .
Do Madar 1 age, * S * Di s armamen t * 1929

52

German s1honorn demanded annexation of Belgium.
Japanese ’’honor” demanded that Japan should predom­
inate in Eastern Asia, etc. P. 34.
Dickinson, G. Lj
International Anarchy, 1926
Alliances between strong Powers excite and
prolong jealousies, rivalries, and suspicions among
other States.
Though they rnay purport to bo purely
defensive, no one can tell what secret provisions
contemplating encroachment upon others they may
contain....P . 237 Bryce, Jas.j
International Relations, 1922
The whole diplomatic system, Foreign Offices,
ambassadors, consuls, conferences, and their
products* and treaties, is dominated by the antique
conception that a common interest will be attained
most easily b y a conflict of opposite interests.
This is the hypothesis of foreign, as contrasted
with international policy.
P.
130.
Burns, C. D .; Interna. Politics
CLIMAX OF WORLD WAR"

All the great Changes in the

nature of .social organization which have been described
would seem to be -stages in the process of social evolu­
tion*

T h e %-V culmination in the world catastrophe of 191#

does not prove that organization is a failure, but it does
Clearly show that the form of organization was inadequate
to the need,

Every available device was utilized by

nearly all of the leading nations in frantic efforts to
forestall, even to delay, the World War, but it is m°et
important to note that all the efforts wore local, spas^
medic, disorganized* and distrusted because there was no
truly international organization?

leadership or method.

A burning building is seldom saved unless a previously
organized and well-led fire department takes charge,

The

World War repudiates the probability of local wars between
the leading nations? it is proof of their vital intordo-

53

pendence;

It teaches a severe lesson in the necessity of

adequate leadership and organization wherever social in­
teraction develops!

and it raises the pressing question

of why organization is still confined within the national
boundaries, when life is so definitely international
It is now conceded that the recent terrible
was cost above two hundred and fifty billion
dollars.1 §250,000,000,000.
This vast sum if piled one dollar upon an­
other would reach over 394,560 miles above the
base; which is the distance from the earth to the
moon and two-thirds of the distance back to earth
again.
P.
13. L. of N. News, #91, Vol. VI.
This war has been a continuous revelation of
the inability of formal agreements to modify the
actualities of historic evolution.
P. 323.
Powers, H. H . ; America among the Nations 1921
. . . .Nov/, as never before, men are being impelled by
their experience to think of a new set of rules for
the Society of States.
Nature has given them a.
fresh and more insistent command, 11live rationally
or perish ]u P.
148
Morrow, Dwight W . ; The Society of Free States, 1919
Public affairs today differ from the affairs of
a generation ago in three main respects: theirscale,
their complexity and the pace at which they move...
There had never before 1914 been a world war.
In fact
the belief that war w cis a force which could still be
localized was one of the causes which led to the out­
break of hostilities in 1914.
Today by the Covenant
of the League of Nations, under which over 50 states
have pledged themselves both to go to war and to
abstain from war in certain contingencies, war has
been d c l o c a l l z e d , P r i v a t e w a r 1 as it has now come
to bo called, has been curtailed, if not wholly
a b o l i s h e d . P . 16.
Zimmorn, Alfred;
Learning and Leadership.
...General Smuts said he had studied the docu­
ments on the negotiations between the governments of
the world during the last fortnight of July, 1914,
with the object of finding out 11where the screw was
loose.n He came to the conclusion the fault was

54

that there was then no machinery to deal.with dis­
putes between nations*
Detroit Free Press; 11-17-28
LAG OF ORGANIZATION:

It seems that the need of or­

ganization must bo widely experienced before action will
result.

Even then* there Is the momentum of former

methods to be overcome.
may reta.rd needed change.

Tradition* custom and ignorance
We succumb to a traditional

desire* bodily feeling* or habit contrary to our reason.
Nationalism is traditional; national organization is the
custom; national diplomacy backed by armament is a habit;
and although intelligent Inquiry* and even bodily feeling*
may point to a now neod* a long Interval may precede a
response.

The size and status of the group* ignorance and

fear* lack of leadership,
delay or 11lag11.

and other factors may also effect

Furthermore private business usually has

better attention than public business* which may be the
chief reason why social and economic life have extended
far beyond the control of any social organization.
International tra.de is an inter change of ser­
vices and products between groups of producers and
consumers* end not an interchange between peoples
organized politically* still loss an interchange
between States.
P. 83.
Burns* C. D . ;
International Politics.
Action has moved faster than thought in those
le.st few years* and practice is ahead of the pro­
grammes.
This la.g in the development of theory has
had a curious effect on political discussion.
P.265.
Lippmann* W. ; Causes of Political Indifference;
Atlantic Monthly, Fob. 1927.
There arc* therefore* a great many instances
where the ma.terial culture changes first and the
other social changes which it causes follow later.

55

In some crises these lags may be so brief as to be
insignificant, but in a great many cases the lags
causing maladjustments may bo so long as to be
socially very significant.
The extent of the lag
and the severity of the maladjustment should be
measured in each instance.
The groat size of mater­
ial culture today, its rapidity of change, and its
significance as a. source of other changes in society
make the material culture in modern society play a
most important part.
P. 279.
Ogburn, W. P.|
Social Charge. 1922
...So long as the national governments
strive by international cooperation to satisfy tho
legitimate interests involved, the development of
world trade, world science, - world organization in
short - can only stimulate and strengthen the system
of national States and the fa.bric of international
rclr.tions among them.
Let the nationa.1 governments
manifest an obstinate a.tta,chmont to extreme national­
ism however, and attempt to ignore the facts, arrest
the march of political evolution, and shut their eyes
to the realLitics of world life today, and the
world*s life will simply pass by on its own course.
P.
300.
Potter, P. B . ; Introduction to
Study of International Organization, 1922
INADEQUACY OF NATIONALISM:

It is not denied that

certain socia.l, economic and politica.l problems arc def­
initely nationa.1 matters requiring nationa.1 treatment, but
it is clean that many of those problems have now passed
outside tho nationa.1 sphere and constitute- a complex and
inter-related class of matters with which national methods
alone can no longer cope.

Noptional institutions are not

equipped to handle matters that in their very nature arc in­
ternational, and no single nation should expect to dominate
in matters which affect all nations; furthermore,
such fields as Health,

and In

the single nation Is no longer able

to accomplish results for itself without the organized
cooperation of others.

56

Up to the World War, at least, tho nation had b e ­
come solidly entrenched, and was the largest group under
complete social organization.

It is generally accepted

that the well-established nation is a necessity, and that
it is an essential part of the foundation of any ultimate
organization.

All the facts clearly indicate, however,

that the nation alone is inadequate to the present world
need; that it is not the final or end concept of social
organization;

and that any contention that the nation Is,

or can be made, final for international requirements,
a fallacy.

Is

An investigation of international authority

supports this statement.

The judgments .of three scholars are

appended:
....The world has reached such a degree of Inter­
dependence that decisions taken in any one country
may bring about grave and even tragic consequences
In other lands.
Nothing but the sluggish pace of
m e n ’s mental evolution can justify the citizen’s
of a particular nation In considering themselves
as privileged exclusively to control a government
whose activities react on other countries with
almost as much effect, if not with more, than in their
own.... P.
Vlll.
DeMadariaga, S.; Disarmament, 1929
....The volume and complexity of the commercial
transactions which bind States together compel
constant adjustments.
Governments may try to
erect barriers, cutting off one State from another,
but no barrier is strong enough to prevent entirely
the Interchange of scientific or religious thought
or the interchange of commercial products.
P.
80.
Morrow, Dwight W . ;
The Society of Free States, 1919.
...International organization is not merely a
reform to be accomplished in the future but Is a
phase of the actual historical development of the
world, and is entitled to attention as a part of
present political reality on a par with national,

57

state, o p provincial, and local or municipal govern­
ment.
P. 357.
Peace must be attained indirectly,
and international organization may be regarded as
th.e~ means to tbe end.
P.
360.
Potter, P. B. I
Introduction to Study of Int. Org. 1922.

CHAPTER III
HEED OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
WORLD INTERWOVEN:

Today, the affairs of the world

are like a loose fabric in which each thread represents a
nation or a people ; if any thread be pulled, it affects all
of the other threads.

And the difficulty is that the

nations hesitate to recognize this international fabric.
Each nation has tried to deal with the others separately,
which does not solve the problem but does seriously comp­
licate it.

Over 1700 treaties are known to be in force,

-

but no one knows the total number or nature of secret
treaties, ententes or alliances.
It is true that much cooperative work has been done
for various groups of nations by many private and public
commissions and administrative bodies, but these hav e -usually been temporary,
of all nations,

limited in scope, not Inclusive

and not subject to the coordinating and

technical assistance,
international body.

supervision or check of any impersonal
The delegates have been ‘'nationally

instructed1' and often without experience or proper leader­
ship.

Frequently,

there has been no organisation to carry

out their decisions,

and in case of inability to agree they

have had to break up, with no provision for further effort.
...A vast skein of commercial treaties, most
of which have been made between two countries but
many of which are multinational, has attempted to
regularize international trade, giving the mer­
chants of one nation the right to trade in another
nation, subject to the protection of its laws.
These treaties have begun to enbody principles of
economic internationalism, the extension of which
eventually may lead to a unified world.
p. 121.
Buell, R. L . ; Int. Relations, 1925

59
These facts, and all that has been said before,

lead

to the hypothesis that there is an imperative need for some
form of International Social Organizaticm.

A properly con­

stituted and permanently established, impersonal public
body or bodies for the impartial consideration,

coordina­

tion and treatment of purely international matters appears
to be needed.

The rights of all nations and peoples would

of course be respected, and the form of organization would
be for their benefit.

,
:

History may shed some light upon this problem.
haps social theory will offer some evidence.

Per­

There may be

analogous cases where interaction between colonies or states
has developed mutual social, economic or defense interests,
and brought them into one organization.

Geographical and

other conditions may exert an influence upon the situation.
Any investigation as to whether international organization
is needed,

is complicated by the fact that relations between

nations occur in many ways.

These activities touch at many

points, and some of them appear to conflict, while others
seem to be mutual interests.

All of them may contain some

mutual features that could be developed if an organization
for this purpose were available.

Fifty subjects covering

a wide range of activities, have been selected as factors
In the problem, therefore, and the nature of each will be
examined for any evidence it may furnish as to whether a
real need exists for some form of International organiza­
tion.

These factors have been grouped and will be discussed

according to the following list:

60
FACTORS EXAMINED FOR EVIDENCE OF NEED
HISTORIC FACTORS:

Social Theory
Civilization
N. American Colonies
Great Britain
India
Italy
Canada
Germany
Switzerland
Australia
South Africa
Pan-American Union
British Commonwealth of Nations
China
Creation of League of Nations
U. S. of Europe
Society is not static

GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS

World Geography
Territory Distribution

SOCIAL FACTORS:

Race and Color
Population
Citizenship
Backward Peoples
Health
Labor Influences
Isolation
Crime
Law and Politics
International Communication
Language
Education
Science5 Lit., Art and Philosophy

ECONOMIC FACTORS

Patents and Copyrights
’
W orld Transportation
Raw Materials
World Markets
Tariffs
Economy and Efficiency
Finance
Business Organization

SECURITY FACTORS

Services of tho League of Nations
tt
M
Conformity to the
n
Kellogg Pact
Neutrality
War and Security
Modern War

GENERAL FACTORS:

SUMMARY:

Leadership
Complexity
Mutual Intcres
Social Ends

62
HISTORIC FACTORS
SOCIAL THEORY:

However and whence cr human organiza­

tion may have commenced, the most ancient writings reveal
that it has long been recognized and used as a necessity.
Even hordes and tribes were semi-organized, as were also
the Egyptians.
hundred laws.

The Code of Hammurabi numbers some three
Plato said:

Tell me, then, does our newly-organized state
contain any kind of knowledge, residing in any sec­
tion of the citizens, which takes measures, not in
behalf of the state as a whole, devising in what
manner its internal and foreign relations may besii
be regulated? P.140. Plato; The Republic;
Davies & Vaughan translation.
Aristotle,

Cicero, Seneca and Justinian were profound

students of social organization, as were also Bodin, Mash-,
iavelli and Montesquieu.

Others could be mentioned.

None

have denied the need; all have rather been concerned with
origin or method.

Social Organization appears to have

been used since the history of man is known, and the rela­
tions between nations call for consideration, as shown by
GIddings-:
If, then society is to endure, individual
growth Is subject to imperative limitations.
It
must be a function of inhibitions no less than
of spontaneous actions.
Natural justice pre­
scribes the limitations.
The individual has a
moral right, confirmed in natural rights, to de ­
velop on equal terms with fellow individuals.
All
have equal, but only equal rights to life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness.
In like manner, if civilized human society is
to survive and civilized man is to continue his car­
eer of-progressive achievement, the growth of commun­
ities must proceed within the limitations set by
natural justice.
Nations may not equally develop.
Probably they never will or can.
But they must d e ­
velop on equal terms.
No more than individuals may

63
they grow by murder, theft, or fraud.
They have
equal hut not unequal natural right to utilize the
resources of the earth, to- trade, to navigate the
seas.
Only on this basis of natural justice can
an enduring peace be established.
P. 67.
Gdddings, F. H.; The Responsible State, 1918.
According to social theory, social interaction should be
subject to some form of organization.
CIVILIZATION:

An uncivilized society is one which

lacks order primarily; it is a disorganized group.

If

It was desired to civilize such a group, order would be
the first necessity.

Organization is the method of estab­

lishing order, and would therefore appear to be a funda­
mental requirement of civilization.
of the degree of civilization,
anization.

In fact one measure

is the quality of its org­

But organization is a rational process,-

something which has to be thought out, created and built
up.

If "anarchy" in international affairs is to be replaced

by a civilized condition,

it follows that an international

social organization is needed*

History does not report

any civilized people or any degree of civilization, except
such as rest upon a definite social organization.

This is

so integral with daily life that one forgets Its import­
ance:

There is the municipal organization of our towns,

which attends to health, water,
police,

sewage, lights,

streets,

courts, etc.; there is the county organization,

also the state and federal organizations.
have proved to be necessary,

Since these

it is strange that interna­

tional life should remain disorganized in an interacting
world.

6;3A
Contributions to Humanity:
Some societies there
have been and are which will forever be remembered
among men for their contributions to that supreme
form of social organization - the state... Such
were Athens and Rome.
Athens the creator of dem­
ocracy, Rome of administration.
Such are England
and the United States, the creators of these great
federal forms which conserve local liberties, while
establishing efficient central power.
P. 543.
G-iddings, P. H»; Descriptive & Historical
Sociology.
While no case parallels the present problem
of international organization, history provides a
number of analogous situations with similar conditions,
and these reveal a uniform tendency for interests to
reach out, and for a successful organization to follow.
Each will be discussed in historical order:
AMERICAN COLONIES:
American colonies;

One example Is the thirteen

Each colony had its own charter and

came to be like a small, isolated nation.
directly with the mother country,

Each traded

and there was no such

communication or transportation between the colonies
as now exists between the present nations.

Outside

the small ports and the habitations which lay along
the coastal rivers,

the whole country was heavily

wooded, Infested by Indians and wild animals, and
such roads as existed were often Impassable.

Coastal

transportation was meagre, and travel beyond the local
community was not customary.
sional traveller would say:
sir.'!

For a long period, an occa­
"I am from Fairfax County,

The county marked the boundary of Interest.

Finally,

64
gontributions to Humanity:
Some societies
there r t a ^ b e e n and are which will forever be remem­
bered among^m'ejQ. for their contributions to that
supreme form of^sbo4.^1 organization - the state.
Such were Athens and RDme.
Athens the creator of
democracy, Rome of adminislTra^ion.
Such are E n g ­
land and the United States, the^er^ators of these
great- federal forms which conserve
liberties,
while establishing efficient central power'^^JP. 543
G-iddings, F. H.; Descriptive & Hist. Sociology^
One would hear the expression:

"T am a Virginian, Sir.”

That the American colonists spoke the same language was
of little importance because few of them from different
colonies ever met.
than we know

Far less was known of other colonies

now of other nations.

As the colonies developed,

interaction grew, and

common resentment was felt against British taxation.
Here were problems which no single colony could solve;
mutual interests and interdependence were recognized by
such leaders as Hamilton, who sought an "international1*
organization; and history records the traditional lag
of the people in the years of struggle between the
preliminary Confederation and the final Constitution of
U. S. A.

The "international" organization of the Thirteen

Colonies brought great success, however, to the Colonists
and their successors.

The plan has proven to be thor­

oughly practical, and it is

most important to note that

the millions of people of almost every race and language,
who finally came to this

nation, have been a^le to peace­

ably cooperate in much closer proximity than would be nec­
essary at first under an organization of the various
nations,

This seems to be ample proof that the people of

65
the more advanced nations, at least, can interact peace­
ably if the sources of their opposition can be replaced
by an adequate and general organization.
If the present forty-eight states of U. S. A. were
entirely separate nations, the oppositions and conflicts
over the forty-eight separate systems of armament, law,
health,

labor, money, immigration, communication, trans­

port,would seriously restrict every phase of life.
To transport a person or a commodity from New York to San
Francisco would involve the delay, formality and expense
of crossing ten national frontiers.

The high quality and

low price of such articles as a Ford automobile, would be
impossible because tariffs would restrict its sale and
prevent the present methods of economic production and
distribution.

Some forty-eight wars might destroy the

entire population.
Now it happens that the above condition is a fact
except for a narrow margin:

The forty-eight states are

separate nations in nearly all respects.
own laws and organization;
purely inter-state,

Each has its

only a few items such a s

and foreign matters, have - for mutual

benefit - been intrusted to an organization in Washington,
- a sort of '’international organization" for the benefit
of these forty-eight "nations."

Keen competition pre­

vails but injustice and war-fare are prevented by this
Vhshington organization.

For example, Florida and Cali­

fornia compete in oranges for Chicago; if the railroads

were to discriminate in favor of either, the Inter-state
Commerce

Commission of Washington would prevent i t .

Thus

fair competition is permitted but warfare does not develop,
because the Washington organization has facilities for keep­
ing all interaction under social control.

This delicate

adjustment between freedom and control has given the peo­
ple of U. S. A. an efficiency and a breadth of opportunity
which has never been duplicated.

Furthermore, in the

face of competition between the people of Florida and
California, each has a certain brotherly feeling for the
other, and all share an interest in the general welfare
of all of the forty-eight "nations."

Each citizen has

come to feel more an "American11 than a Californian or a
New Yorker, and not one would tolerate the thought of
eliminating the National organization.

Several authorities

support these statements:
The forty-eight States of the American Union
may be seen in possession of a genuine though
limited political autonomy. r' It was- enough that
they should, undertake not to establish between
each other tariff barriers, different rates of
transport, different currencies, for them to live
in peace with each other, and for them jointly to
realize the maximum of prosperity.
The Federal
States of Brazil, the Swiss Cantons and the German
States are other cases in point.
P. '428.
Delaisi, F. Political Myths & Eco. Realities.
A real integration has undoubtedly occurred in
American history.
In the decade before 1789 most
men it seems felt that their State and their commun­
ity were real, but that the confederation of States
■was unreal.
The idea of their State, its flag, its
most conspicuous leaders, or whatever it was that
represented Massachusetts, or Virginia, were genuine
symbols.
That is to say they were fed by actual
experiences from childhood, occupation, residence,
and the like.
The span of mens experience had rarely
traversed the imaginative boundaries of their States'...

67

They needed a common defense.
They needed a financial
and a economic regime as extensive as the Confedera­
tion.
But as long as the pseudo-environment of the
State encompassed them* the State symbols exhausted
their political interest.
An interstate idea like
the Confederation, represented a powerless abstrac­
tion. ..Thus to most men of the time the question of
whether the capital should be in Virginia or in
Philadelphia was of enormous importance because they
were locally minded.
To Hamilton this question was
of no enotionai consequence; what he wanted was the
assumption of the State debts because they would fur­
ther nationalize the proposed union.
So he gladly
traded the site of the capital for tw o necessary
votes from men who represented the Potomac district.
To Hamilton the union was a symbol that represented
all his interests and his whole experience; to White
and Lee from the Potomac, the symbol of their province
was the highest political entity they served, and they
served it though they hated to pay the price.
They
agreed, says Jefferson, to change their votes, ’White
with a revulsion of stomach almost convulsive’. In
the crystallizing of a common will, there is always
an Alexander Hamilton at work.
P. 217.
•Lippmann, W . ; Public Opinion.
...*A selfish habitude of thinking and reason­
ing, ’ wrote one who styled himself Yorick, in the
New York Packet, ’leads us into a fatal error the
moment we begin to talk of the interests of America*
The fact is, by the interests of America we mean only
the interests of that State to which property or
accident has attached u s . ’ ’Of the affairs of
Georgia,’ Madison confessed in 1786, ’I know as little
as those of Kamskatska.’ ...When the other New Eng­
land States closed their ports to British shipping,
Connecticut hastened to profit at their expense by
throwing her ports wide open... P. 6
...In undisguised alarm, Washington wrote:
’There are combustibles in every State which a spark
might set fire to...I fee l...infinitely more than I
can express to you, for the disorders which have
arisen in these S t a t e s . R i g h t l y or wrongly, men of
tho upper classes believed that the foundations of
society were threatened and that the State governments
would fall a prey to the radical and unpropertied
elements, unless a stronger Federal Government were
created...P . 23.
For many years Virginia and Maryland had been at
loggerheads over the navigation of the Potomac River
and Chesapeake Bay...P. 26.
Johnson, Allen;
nion & Democracy, 1915.
This and the following analogies are intended to

68
show that peoples have a tendency to expand their inter­
ests; that a corresponding extension of Social organiza­
tion in some form, though difficult to achieve, has been
customary, practical and beneficial; and that when oppo­
sition can be removed or brought under control, differ­
ences of race and language among advanced peoples, are
not serious barriers to cooperation.
Gi-'h.h’ Bhl-'fAIiT..

It is a significant fact that it was

often the ambitions of ruling houses that brought on war®
of aggression, rather

than the peoples themselves who are

comparatively peaceable; cooperation is more natural than
conflict; but once in a war, protracted hatreds are set
up which may interrupt the normal growth of intercourse
between peoples for long periods.

But exploitation can

only delay the more natural process of cooperation.

For

generations the English, Scots, Welch and Irish fought
each other when in fact their greatest interests were
growing more and more mutual.

It is not necessary to go

into the details, but it is important to note that in
time their greater mutual interests rose above their
lesser local differences, and they became and have r e ­
mained the United Kingdom.

Since then there has been no

civil war save the local religious disturbance In Ireland.
And these peoples, united under one general organization,
then became ’’British", presented a united front to the
world, and by closer cooperation among themselves, they
have become one of the greatest and most advanced nations

69
of the earth.

This achievement of organization, occur­

ring when distance was in effect great due to very slow
communication, shows the need and possibility of replac­
ing opposition by cooperative organization where mutual
interest prevails.
INDIA:

India is a large unit of territory, and its

great population reaches far back into history.

It is

socially divided into some 2500 "water-tightM religious
castes, hence it is not a real nation.

For years it

has provided the w o r l d fs example of a people, contiguous
yet disorganized, and therefore isolated, ignorant, poor
and continually suffering from the consequence of internal
opposition and conflict.

The British super-imposed as

much organization as was possible, and the resulting
measure of safety,

sanitation,

education and communica­

tion is saving millions from famine, disease and death*
This gradual improvement of conditions is now bringing
the Indian people to recognize the benefit of organiza­
tion and to desire the status of a nation.

Obviously

the only hope for this vast and divided people, lies in
organization for the welfare of both their internal and
external relations.

The feeble efforts of Ghandi, Nehru

and others are early tendencies in this direction.
ITALY:

The separate Italian states were small and

comparatively unimportant•

Their energies were depleted

in conflicts with one another and in attempted defense
against Napoleon and Austria.

Traditional feeling and

70
the local leaders held them apart, but the leadership of
Gavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini who m o g n i z e d - the need of
a united Italy, finally achieved a unity of organization^
and the Italian-nation was born in 1860.

This enlarged

organization has increased the status of the Italian
people,

and there is no voice among them for a return to

the former condition.
CANADA:

When the struggle for the control of Canada

culminated in the success of Wolfe at the Battle of Quebec,
the British had to deal with the large French population.
The bitterness of the French defeat enhanced the social
distance caused by their tradition,

custom and language.

The severity of the problem has hardly been appreciated.
But the proverbial British respect for the customs, lan­
guage and good qualities of other peoples, together with
their talent for organization,

encouraged all of the

Canadian population to cooperate for their mutual inter­
ests.

Today,

Canada stands as a fine example of one

people and one organization.

The Frenchand English share

in mutual respect, cooperation and leadership.

Adequate

social organization for the benefit of all, is undoubtedly
the basic reason for the peace and prosperity of these
two peoples who now cooperate as "Canadians."
GERNANY:

The rulers of the various German states

had been ultra-conservative,

and the life of the people

had been largely provincial, but contact between the
states began to increase and such barriers as tariffs b e ­

71

gan to be felt.

Industry advanced but trade was restricted,

and in 1820 the states established a Confederation which
permitted free trade.

This mutual organization opened

communication and transportation between the states;

it

yielded new sources of material, expanded markets, and
brought the people of the various states together in such
a way as to constitute the nucleus of the final constitution
which created the German nation in 1871.

It was unques­

tionably the cooperative influence of this organization
that submerged petty local differences, and permitted
the development of the great Power to which the World has
turned for scientific and industrial achievement in many
fie lds»
An expansion under organization appears to free a
people and multiply opportunity to the advantage of all.

And it may well be surmised that had international organ­
ization existed in 1914, the German authorities would
never have driven their people into the terrible World
War,
SWITZERLAND:

This country offers one of the best

examples of the need, the difficulty, and the success of
social organization.

Composed of French, German and

Italian people, each with a long tradition and history
behind them, and held within the vortex and influence of
France, Germany and Italy, the final grouping and unifi­
cation of twenty-two cantons under one successful and u n i ­
versally respected organization is a tribute to the

72
intelligent cooperation of the Swiss people.
AUSTRALIA:

Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria,

South Australia, Western Australia, Northern Territory
and Tasmania were originally created as separate colonies
Ly Royal Charter.

With their growth in population, and

having local government, great rivalry arose and per­
sisted between them.

For example the railways of each

colony seem to have been purposely built according to a
different gauge from those used in the other colonies.
These colonies were under the British government, hence
warfare between them was prevented.

Their mutual depend­

ence was greatly enhanced by the distant location of their
continent, yet it was not until 1900 that the pressure of
mutual interest succeeded in bringing them all into a
cooperative organization known as the Commonwealth of
Australia.

The success of the enterprise was recently

attested by the selection and the building of the city
of Canberra as the capital.
SOUTH AFRICA:

The Dutch and the British were both

firmly established In South Africa.

There was a wide

difference in the history, habit and purpose of the two
peoples, probably a wider difference than that which ex­
isted in Canada.
territory,

The situation was complicated by a vast

several states of uncertain status, and the

native problem.

Legal authority came into the hands of

the British, but their effort at development and organi­
zation was repeatedly thwarted by the Dutch class known

73
as Boers,
The safety and welfare of both Europeans and natives
demanded a stable organization which was finally accom­
plished by the British forces.

Under this control, a cer­

tain freedom to develop was accorded the Boers, especially
with respect to their language r,Afrikaan"; normal inter­
action was renewed, and differences were so rapidly com­
posed that by 1910 the states voluntarily united as the
Union of South Africa.

As a further indication of the

good feeling between the Dutch and English, which their
cooperation brought about under the new organization,

it

may be stated that Gen. Botha, a recent enemy of the
British, was chosen by the British governor to be the
first prime minister.
PAN-AMERICA:

Here is a closer analogy in the form

of some twenty independent nations forming a large por­
tion of the Western Hemisphere.

Many of these nations,

which constitute Latin-America, are relatively small and
have been exposed to the influence and exploitation of
large and powerful nations.

They have also been subject

to local revolution and to conflicts among themselves,
regardless of many mutual interests.
development,

Peace

for normal

and cooperation in the solution of common

problems, has clearly been aided by the organization of
the Pan-American Union,

The inclusion of U. S. A. has

been a strong influence of course, but not

a controlling

factor in the affairs of the Union as the record of its
proceedings will show.

74

‘Since_ the. members are so-called sovereign states, it
was doubtless wise as well as necessary at the beginning
that this Union should have been a comparatively simple
form of organization.

After a number of previous efforts,

the present Union was consumated in 1910, and it provides
a permanent foundation for the necessary functions of
conference, mediation and arbitration.

It has not always

brought a final settlement of difficulties, but It is
new;

it has, however, held war in check and settled a

number of problems.

No doubt the Monroe Doctrine has

been a factor in restraining outside governments, but it
is the Pan American Union that has maintained gond re­
lations among its members.
BRITISH COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS:

What is sometimes

called the break-up of the British Empire, should be m en ­
tioned since it might be supposed to contradict the other
evidence in favor of organization.

A sharp distinction

exists and must be kept in mind, between local or nat­
ional organization within the state or nation, and the
general or international organization of states or nat­
ions.

Although the British Dominions had a measure of

local government,

they had always been subject to the mother

country.
As the Dominions developed in strength and importance,
they attained the status of nations and sought the com­
plete

control of their local affairs.

tributions

Their brave con ­

to the winning of the World War demonstrated

75

their stability, and in 1926 the Mother country awarded
them autonomy.

Each achieved the desired control of its

local government, but all, including the United Kingdom,
remain in one organization under the King, whi©h is known
as the British Commonwealth of Nations, the affairs of
which are directed by the annual conference of the pre­
miers.

Each nation is also a member of the League of

Nations.

The advanced British people, therefore, fully

accept and practice the principle of organization.

The

dual obligations to the Commonwealth and to the League
involve fine distinctions but are not expected to conflict.
CHINA:

Until recently, these ancient and honorable

people were ostensibly under an old authoritarian form of
organization which subjected them to comparative isolation,
and held them back in the evolution of the nations.

Their

present struggle, however, to throw off extraterritorial­
ity and to establish a modern national organization is
interesting evidence in~,support of our earlier discus­
sion.

They appear to recognize that a sound national

organization is not only needed for internal affairs,
but that it is also fundamental to participation in in­
ternational affairs.

This opinion is supported by state­

ments of their educated nationals, and by the fact that
China has had experience as a member of the League of
Nations.

They recently issued a proclamation demanding

that the powers abandon their extraterritoriality.
LEAGUE OF NATIONS:

When President Wilson proposed

76
the League of Nations at the close of the World War, the
general idea was accepted with tremendous enthusiasm thr­
oughout the world.

The people were war weary, and wanted

some method to prevent its recurrence.

The League

appeared to offer a solution of the international prob­
lems which might lead to war.

Its use as a basis for

peaceful cooperation between nations had not been gener­
ally recognized or considered.
accepted,

But it was welcomed and

largely as a great hope for the world.

This

broad fact of almost universal acceptance of the League,
is of itself, good testimony that some form of interna­
tional organization was believed to be needed.
The further, and more important, fact that the League
has now retained its existence and continued to function
for ten years, would appear to be most valuable evidence
of the actual need for such an institution.

The question

of the services rendered by the League will be considered
later; it is only desired at this point to show that its
acceptance and continuance indicate that some type of in­
ternational organization was called for after the World
War.

The League was the first modern attempt to expand

or extend social organization throughout the world.
On September 7, during the Tenth Session
of the Assembly of the League of Nations on the
t e n t h 'anniversary of the First Assembly^ the
cornerstone of the new League Secretariat was
laid.
With a silver trowel M. Gustavo Guerrero,
President of the Assembly, made the ceremonial
gesture as five workmen laid the cornerstone in
which was imbedded a lead casket containing two
copies of the League Covenant, one in French and

77
one in English, coins from forty countries, and
a description of the ceremonies.
On the sunny hillside of Ariana Park, looking
down upon the blue lake and across toward Ivlt.
Blanc, more than 2,000 people watched the impres­
sive sealing up of records and the beginning of a
permanent home for the League of Nations which
lias accomplished its first decade...P* 12
L. of N. News; Sept. 1929
UNITED STATES OF EUROPE:

Another indication of the

need to expand organization beyond the national boundary
is the proposal for a United States of Europe which was
developed by Count Kalergi and sponsored by M. Briand in
1929.

The idea of this proposal seems to be based upon

the realization that the great success of U. S, A. is
largely due to the federation of its forty-eight states
into a powerful social and economic unit, and that some
similar union of European nations might bring similar
results.

The details are immaterial here, but the pro­

posal is being carefully considered throughout Europe,
and shows a definite trend toward the social organization
of areas which were previously disorganized.
This completes the evidence of analogous situations.
Fourteen cases have been cited, all of which conform to
the sociological principle that .groups normally tend to
interact with each other, and will do so in so far as
the various barriers permit.

These illustrations also

show that the tendency toward cooperation is stronger
than the tendency toward conflict.

It follows that some

form of International organization is necessary if this
normal extension of social interaction is to be kept under

78

social control.

We now pass to a consideration of more

concrete factors in the general problem.
SOCIETY IS NOT STATIC:

Public affairs are usually

in the hands of the older members of society; they often
grow conservative, arbitrary, and even lethargic with
time; they are in power and are inclined to maintain the
f

status quo.

They do not desire Change, and as long as
I
they remain in power, there is unlikely to be any con­
spicuous change.
development.

This is one reason for the lag in social

There are always the radicals calling for

"reforms", but they can seldom effect them unless they
step into power.
Society is never static, however; change is inevi­
table; one regime prepares the way or calls for another.
What may have been entirely satisfactory for one period,
is totally inadequate for another.

If the national or­

ganization assisted by national diplomacy was sufficient
in the past, it does not follow that it will be sufficient
for the future;
negative.

in fact, probability is in favor of the

It would, therefore,

seem advisable to look

for a change, to expect, and to prepare for an expansion
of organization that would be in keeping with the gen­
eral tendency.

Morrow finds the principle applicable to

the modern state;
As the world has grown older the general ten­
dency has been for the different units which we
call States to amalgamate, with the result that
the number of the units becomes smaller and the
size of a single unit larger.
This tendency to

79
amalgamation naturally results from increasing con
tact between two units.**
Such a process of a m a l ­
gamation went on in Prance five hundred years ago,
such a process brought England and Scotland and
Wales together, such a process made Texas a part
of the U nited States, such a process made a united
Italy...
P. 3.
Morrow, Dwight W . ;
The Society of Free States, 1919

80
GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS
WORLD GEOGRAPHY:

Originally, certain geographi cal fact­

ors suehas oceans, mountain ranges and deserts were
almost complete social barriers.

Only

adventurers at­

tempted to cross them, and this has been an important
reason for the differentiation in peoples.

Climate, soil

and altitude have also affected this differentiation. The
Geographical Determinists have attempted to explain hist­
ory by this metho d ; Huntington is conspicuous among them.
Geography does exert a definite influence; a people will
cling to a fertile valley; another group will settle
around a mineral deposit; and herdsmen will seek the
grassy slopes.

Deposits of coal and copper, oil, and

iron, or perhaps of gold, have to be mined where they lay.
Man is not the helpless victim of geography, however.
He is a dynamic and social creature, and he has accumu­
lated a culture with which he is more and more able to
control or surmount geographical conditions.
...The directly determining factors of cul­
tural phenomena are not nature which gives or
w i t h h o l d s ' m a t e r i a l s b u t the general state of
knowledge and technology and advancement of the
group; in short, historical or cultural Influ­
ences.
P. 182. Kroober, A. L . ;
Anthropology, 1923
Man now crosses the ocean, builds a road over or through
the mountain, and meets a cold climate with artificial heat.
Today he knows the whole world, and his daily habits in­
volve the use of commodities from many quarters of the
globe.

Man "wants what he wants",

and he has it, -

f

81

wherever it may lay.

Economic life and transportation

are now organized to deliver his orders, no matter where
he lives.

His habits are organized and established with

this expectation.
Geography is therefore no longer a barrier; it is,
however, a cause of interdependence throughout the world.
Coffee might be grown in Canada under glass at a cost of
say ten dollars per pound, but it is better for Canadians
to obtain it from Brazil or Java, and they do so.

In­

stead of geographical barriers, we may speak of geograph­
ical interdependence, and this is of increasing import­
ance, especially with respect to oil, radium, helium and
other essential materials.

Geographical conditions bring

about such extensive foreign ramifications of national
interest, that they appear to call for international
organization for regulation and protection.

Mowrer, the

well-known foreign correspondent describes the range of
U. S. A. interests which geography has influenced, and
his remarks are adeptable to many other nations:
The first thing to be understood is that the
United States today has interests literally every­
where; in the Far East and the Near East, schools
and missions; in North and Central America, the
Caribbean and the Pacific, vital political preoc­
cupations; in South America, the maintenance cf the
Monroe and Pan-American Doctrines; in Africa, a
special concern with the independence and territor­
ial integrity of the Republic of Liberia; in Europe
- ancestral home of our civilization and of our own
forefathers - close cultural ties and the necessity
of working together, in the cause of world-order,
with the great European powers whose influence pre­
dominates over most of the world today. We have
marine guards in Pekin and Constantinople, and a
fleet in the Near East, and we had until recently

82

an army on the Rhine.
We are acquiring Pacific and
Atlantic submarine cables.
Our naval radio stations
encircle the globe, and a great American corporation
is rapidly extending the scope of our commercial
radio communications.
Our merchant ships sail the
seven seas.
As the equal of Britain in naval power,
and as being second only to Britain in merchant
marine, we cannot affect to ignore any question in­
volving the w o r l d fs great seaways, ports, and nav­
igable rivers.
Our raw products are sent out to all
manufacturing countries.
Vtfe are exporting billions
of dollars in the form of foreign investmentsOur
banks are everywhere establishing branches... P. 307
Mowrer, Paul S.; Our Foreign Affairs, 1924
Economic Nationalism is a term applied to the theory
that all essential commodities, especially for a war of
defense, should be produced within the nation regardless
of cost.

This is an example of a nationalistic view of

international problems.

Large sums have been invested and

wasted upon this theory, often to the profit of its local
advocates.
loss.

The plan has been tried, frequently at great

It is a temporary and expedient attempt to defy

natural geographical conditions, and is contrary to im­
portant sociological principles which find advantage and
strength in interaction between peoples.

The theory is

descredited by no less an authority than Lord Bryce:
...There is visible in Australia, and, in­
deed, in some other countries, a sentiment, assum­
ing the guise of patriotic self-reliance, that the
country should be self-sufficing, able to provide
herself v/ith everything she needs which climatic
conditions do not absolutely forbid her to produce,
even if in so doing she incurs heavy economic loss.
This is a strange and futile resistance to those
laws of geography and natural development which have
given special opportunities to particular regions
and peoples...
P. 87
Bryce, James;
International Relations, 1922
Finally, geography is no longer a safe barrier between

83
na.-t_i.ons: on the contrary,

it means interdependence, and is

at the botton of many disputes.

It may locate a tense sit­

uation of serious social consequence in almost any part of
the world and yet many nations may be involved.

It would

therefore appear that nothing short of international organ­
ization can cope with problems of a geographical nature.
TERRITORY DISTRIBUTION:

The social consequence of

territory distribution, is so broad that it might be worthy
a complete study.

History reports the trans fens of ter­

ritory throughout

the past, but it does not attempt to

picture fully all

that it meant to the

peoples involved.

The life of man is dependent upon territory or land.

He

has maintained a ceaseless struggle for its possession.
The mind turns to many of the great wars, and especially
to the death grip along
War.

Land, and what

the several fronts during the World

it means, is the primary bone of con­

tention between the nations;
constant dispute;

it

is the

basis of almost

it is the reason for millions of money

in armament; and it defies the plans for peace.

Every

conceivable scheme - conquest, purchase, intrigue, inter­
vention and war,

- all have been used to gain land.

If

there were some method of settlement, many other world
problems would be automatically settled.

The following

authorities indicate the complexity of this problem:
On December 17, 1914, Egypt was formally de­
clared by the British Government to be a protect­
orate.
The problem however is not solved.
P. 74
The whole subject
is full of ooscurity, for ingen­
eral the practice
of governments is empirical,

b4
and not based upon any clearly conceived princi­
ples.
It is an example of the small amount of
political thought and imagination so far devoted
to international affairs.
P. 77. Burns, C. D.;
International Politics.
The outstanding political issue at the Kyoto
Conference was that of Manchuria.
It Is the most
difficult and the most serious international prob­
lem in the Par East.
Manchuria is a great, wealthy,
fertile region - equal in area to Prance and Germ­
any combined - in which there meet the conflicting
aims and policies of three states, China, Russia,
and Japan.
P. 17.
Blakeslee, Geo. H.;
Oriental Affairs in the Light of the Kyoto
Conf.; For. Pol. Assn., 1929
During the past two or three years one of the
major problems in Latin American international r e ­
lations has been the settlement of long-standing
boundary and territorial disputes.
Recently some
have been successful adjusted, notably the TacnaArica controversy, but there still remains, a long
list of unreconciled boundary claims, the pressing
of which by either party to a dispute may lead at
any time to armed encounters.
Such conflicts
actually have occurred recently in the Chaco, dis­
puted by Bolivia and Paraguay, and in the Motagua
valley, disputed by Guatemala and Honduras, and the
possibility of further friction in these two sections
has not yet been removed.
For. P01. Assn.;
Unsettled Boundary Disputes in Latin Am., 3-5-30
No part of Europe, except, of course, Russia,
has fallen since the end of- the war into a state of
poverty and misery so pitiable as has Austria, and
especially the once proud imperial city of Vienna.
The severe terms of the Treaty of St. Germain,
treating her with her greatly reduced resources as
liable for a very large part of the sum due for rep­
arations and indemnities by the old monarchy, piled
on her a load of debt so far exceeding her capacity
to pay that the currency sank to less than one per
cent of its former value, and the starving populati6n of the towns (especially of Vienna)has been
kept alive by charitable gifts from Great Britain
and America...P. 48 Bryce, Jas; Int. Relations, 1922
But many factors are involved:
backward peoples;

There are advanced and

there are wide variations in value and

productivity; there are different degrees of population

bb
density and need; there is also national solidarity,
habit,

ownership, investment,

of constant change.

and finally the principle

Obviously, no nationalistic, unitary

or temporary solution will work here.

In the first place,

any change in the status of any territory will apparently
enhance or retract the rights or opportunities of every
nation to some extent, hence the problem seems to be u n i ­
versal.

Secondly, no single nation or particular group of

nations could be allowed complete authority.

Thirdly, no

international orgaization could be given complete author­
ity, owing to the acknowledged right and ownership held by
various nations.

Lippmann analyses "ovmership":

Almost nothing that goes by the name of
Historic Rights or Historic Wrongs can be called
a truly objective view of the past.
Take for
example the Franco-German debate about AlsaceLorraine.
It all depends on the original date
you select.
If you start with the Rauraci and
Sequani, the lands are historically part of
Ancient Gaul.
If you prefer Henry I, they are
historically a German territory; if you take 1273
they belong to the House of Austria; if you take
1648 and the Peace of Westphalia, most of them are
French; if you take Louis XIV and the year 1688
they are almost all French^
If you are using the
argument from history you are fairly certain to
select those dates in the past which support your
view of what should be done now.
Arguments about
'races’ and nationalities often betray the same
arbitrary view of time.
P. 144.
Lippmann, W . ;
Public Opinion
Fourthly,

the problem is continuous, requiring fre­

quent or gradual adjustment.

The only alternative seems

to be that of conference, mediation and cooperation b e ­
tween the nations concerned, under the leadership of a
permanent international body composed of delegates from

86
all of the nations.

A scientific consideration of the

social implications involved in each proposal would p r o b ­
ably minimize any disturbance,
justment or assimilation.

and smooth the way to a d ­

87

SOCIAL FACTORS
RACE AND COLOR:

We speak of "pride

of race1', and

usually refer, of course, to our own so-called race.

All

men belong to groups, and they have a tendency to stand
apart from other groups.

Each group desires to establish

and to advertise some point of superiority,

- of desirable

differentiation from other groups whether the claim be sound
or not.

Race and Color are easily detected, and have pro­

vided the most convenient and universal basis for claims of
differentiation.

This fact has long fostered the rivalry,

opposition, conflict and hatred between peoples.

Every race

has laid almost every weakness and fault at the door of
other races.
groups,

Nations have long been thought of as racial

as seen in the words English race, French race,

Anglo-Saxon, or Latin race.

This usage has tended to hold

peoples apart, and has contributed toward many wars.

It

still has an important- effect upon international relations.
The peoples of the world are sometimes classed as the
white, yellow brown,

and black races.

This division is

based largely on color, and color is known to be merely a
matter of pigment.

Color itself affects only the skin, and

is therefore seen to be an unimportant distinction, except
as it may be a cause of prejudice.

The structure of whites,

mongols and negroids varies only slightly, and this is u n ­
important since there are known to be greater variations
among the individuals of one race than there are between
the means of races.

88
It had been supposed that the whites were also d i ­
visible by race, especially into the Nordic, Alpine and
Mediterranean types in Europe but investigation has ex plod­
ed this idea.

Sir Haider Mackinder has shown how the

Nomadic whites have merged in Europe and finally settled
in various favorable geographical areas.
developed the same fact.

History has

The Franks and the Latins are

united in the French together with a people from the North.
The English are a mixture of many early groups, and are In
no sense a race.

The yellows, browns and blacks are also

a mixed people ; there are people with all stages of color
among them, and the great numbers of mulattoes and eurasians show that miscegenation occurs on a large scale.

It

can be said, therefore, that there are no pure races, and
this important fact is attested by the following students
of the subject:
It is generally agreed by the scholars of
the world that such a thing as a pure race does
not exist...P. 98
Duncan, H. G . ;
Race & Population Problems, 1929
...The differences found among European
peoples are not correlated with race, or at least
have not been shown to be so correlated, but, on
the other hand, are highly correlated with culture
divisions.
Thus the results of the tests tend to
disprove the cultural importance of race traits,
p. 102.
Wallis, W. D . ; An Introduction
to Sociology, 1928
...A pure race is the Holy Grail of physical
anthropologists.
We are all mongrels.
America is
no more mongrel and no more In danger of becoming
so than, say, Italy, Spain^ England, France, or
any other modern people.
Successive inundations
of invaders have *corrupted1 their blood and mod­
ified their population types; and the process still
goes on, less noisily perhaps, but no less surely...

89
P. 314.

Todd, A. J. ; Theories of
Social Progress, 1926

Race and Color have been generally supposed to mark
both physical and mental difference.

An offspring was

expected to carry the traits of personality as well as a
physical resemblance to the ancestor.

But the fact of

race is biological; heredity can involve only structure;
a human being may physically resemble his forebears and
he does inherit a brain, but all knowledge and behavior
must be acquired after birth, and is determined largely
by the group in which the individual chances to find h i m­
self.

Heconforms to the customs and the attitudes of the

group,

in so far as his structure peimits.

We face there­

fore an important distinction between heredity and environ­
ment.

We see that the claim of "race" is largely a fallacy

especially with respect to behavior, send that behavior is
an acquired culture pattern.
This means that there is no sound justification for
the differentiation or opposition of peoples solely on the
ground of race.

Such claims are apparently the result

of ignorance and emotion, and should be abandoned, espec­
ially as it has been discovered that the mental possibili­
ties of the socalled races are a pproximately the same.
now follows that National differences are

It

not innate in the

structure of the citizens of the various nations, but that
they are largely a social product of group culture,
arity,

supposed interest and prestige.

solid­

90
The writer has participated in many conferences com­
posed of delegates from more than fifty nations, where al­
most every '‘race and color1' were included.

Loyalty to sup­

posed national interest was often observed, but it was al­
ways social in character.

He has never been able to detect,

even between whites and blacks, the slightest difference in
social behavior which could ^e attributed to fundamental
or “racial*1 difference.

Quite recently, the Maoris of New

Zealand were one of the most fierce and dangerous, native
races, yet the writer has seen four of them function as
able and respected members of the New Zealand Parliament.
Many East India men are Oxford graduates, and hold respon­
sible positions in the government of India.
The fact that socalled race is comparatively unimport­
ant, and that peoples can and do interact principally on a
basis of social and group interest is supported by North,
Gault and Hankins, who are here quoted; further evidence is
supplied by the remarkable

cooperation of many peoples in

U. S. A., as shown by the appended table.
Further evidence of the small part played by
mental differences of race in determining culture
is supplied in abundance by the European situation.
It is now recognized that the European population
is made up of three distinct elements which are
inextricably mixed in most of the Nationalities.
And yet in both French and German for example, we
find that all the different racial elements are
equally representative of the culture of their
Nationality; National lines, that is, culture and
political boundaries, do’.not follow at all the
racial lines.
P. 141
North, C. C.
Social Differentiation.
Recent Developments in psychology.

Racial

91
differences create a barrier to social unity...So
far as reliable studies have gone it appears safe
to say that inter-racial obstacles are not of an
intellectual nature - in any proper sense of the
word.
What racial differencia do exist, without
doubt, are in respect to physical appearance...
P. 140. Under the influence of common environment,
interest, language and religion these heterogeneous
races may, by a process of fusion, become one homo ­
geneous race.
P. 142.
Gault, H. H.
Social Psychology.
When therefore onethinks of those groups who
have swept across the pages of European history in
either prehistoric or historic times he must con­
ceive them as being already more or less heterogen­
eous.
The acquisition of the very cultural equip­
ment which enabled them to migrate and conquer was
largely due in large part to those contacts which,
while facilitating a diffusion of culture, would
also involve a crossing of strains.
P. 271.
It appears to us that since the first work of
Francis Galton the steady accumulation of evidence
favors the view that social stratification in a
democratic society is explained more fully by the
variations in inherent qualities than by any other
factor.
From the same home, from the same social
class, from the same racial elements, Individuals
rise or fall to all levels of the social system.
P. 369.
Hankins, F.H. Racial Basis of
Civilization, 1926
United States 1920 Census returns show about
one-third of white population that year was of
foreign white stock.
German
7,250,000
Aust. Hungary
4,400,000
Irish
4,100,000
Russian
3,800,000
British
3,000,000
” Can.
1,700,000
French
"
850,000
36,300,OO0
p. 97
Fox, Sir Frank, Mastery of the Pacific, 1928
It may now be said that supposed racial barriers are
largely social barriers which are changeable by education.
International cooperation is therefore possible, and an
organization for this purpose would appear to be advisable
as a means toward the elimination of injurious,

”boxed-up“

92

national claims based on race and color antipathies.
POPULATION:

With the close of the World War, popula­

tion problems appear to have grown in importance, and many
of them have become international in character.
of Versailles,

The Treaty

in attempting to adjust some of the import­

ant population questions, set up a number of new nations,
reinstated old ones, and shifted boundaries in ways which
were bound to disturb the habits and feelings of large
groups of people.

In some cases these changes were to be

gradual and prolonged; future plebiscites were considered;
occasionally the ultimate result was subject to various
conditions.

This whole situation constitutes a group of

population problems which can scarcely be handled by the
peoples concerned or by occasional conference*
nations are more or less affected,
or politically.

All the

socially, economically

Nothing short of a permanent international

organization would appear to be adequate to the require­
ment, as the situation involves serious potential danger of
conflict.
The settlement of the World War left a number of pop­
ulation groups unattached to the organization of any nation.
These are known as Minorities and their ultimate status Is
often uncertain.

They require continuous supervision and

protection from covetous national governments.

Minorities

are not usually directly responsible for their predicament,
and a sense of justice, together with International peace,
suggest the assistance of an international organization.

93
The Polish Corridor illustrates this situation, as does
also Mr. Lolyd-George1s description of the left bank of
the R h i n e :
We were told the Rhine is the only possible
line of resistance.
Providence meant it to play
that part, and it is only the sinister interfer­
ence of statesmen who love not France that deprives
Frenchmen of this security for peace which a farseeing Nature has provided.
The fact that this in­
volved the subjection to a foreign yoke of millions
of men of German blood, history and sympathies, and
that the incorporation of so large an alien element,
hostile in every fibre to French rule, would be a
constant source of trouble and anxiety to the French
Government, whilst it would not merely provide an
incentive to Germany to renew war but would justify
and dignify the attack by converting it into a war
of liberation - all that had no effect on the
Rhenian school of French politics... P. 106.
Lloyd-George, D . ;
Where Are We Going.
There have been groups of refugees from Armenia and
elsewhere in need of international attention.

It is neces­

sary to negotiate for food, and transportation, and a dom­
icile must be provided, usually within some other nation.
Refugee problems may occur at any time and the necessary
attention required is usually continuous.

This type of

problem, therefore, also calls for the services of a per­
manent international organization, especially that such
matters may be kept out of the control of individual, and
possibly unscrupulous, national governments.
There are a number of small nations whose peoples have
been preyed upon and exploited, both by internal disturb­
ance and by external influence.

Frequently what appears to

be a conflict among themselves, proves to be an incitement
initiated by the intrigue of, or between, more powerful

94
nations, for the possession of some privilege or conces­
sion from members of the weaker group.
are a case in point.

The Palkan nations

When in need of the help of a strong

nation, they have often had to pay dearly for it by con­
cessions or otherwise.

Without a strong, permanent, and

impersonal, international body, such peoples have no means
of safety or justice; they have no adequate forum of m a n ­
kind in which to be heard.
The pressure of unemployment and increasing popula­
tion within certain nations raises the question of migra­
tion which is important to almost every nation from the
viewpoint of either emigration or immigration.

Except on

the least effective, negative side, eugenics as a positive
factor is not encouraging.

Some nations do not desire any

policy of birth control that is not shared to some extent
by others on some definite policy.

Densely populated coun­

tries like Belgium or Japan may dispute the right of Aus ­
tralia or of Canada, for example, to withhold unoccupied
territory from settlement.

An example of present attitude

on this question, is expressed by an Englishman, as follows:
Around the ethics of this ’white Australia'
policy there has been much controversy.
But it
is certain that without that policy... Australia
would be today an Asiatic colony, still nominally
held perhaps, by a small band of white suzerains,
but ripe to fall at any moment into the hands of
its ten million or twenty million Asiatic inhabi­
tants.
Instead of that, Australia is at once the
fortress which the white race has garrisoned
against an Asiatic advance southward.
P. 174
Fox, Sir Frank; Mastery of the Pacific.
What has been a national question, threatens to become in-

9 5

ternational, and once it docs do so, conflict may result
before there is time to evolve a scientific solution and
obtain its acceptance by the public opinion of the world.
The investigation and supervision of such problems are
apparently matters for a permanent, impersonal, interna­
tional body.

World population problems are considered in

a work entitled "Migration" and published by the Interna­
tional Labor Office of Geneva, also in "Danger Spots in
"World Population", a recent volume by Warren S. Thompson.
As a rule, the self-sustaining foreigner is well
treated in other countries, yet there are numerous cases
of discrimination and hardships with such matters as extra
taxation, double taxation, troublesome restrictions, and
surveillance.

As a matter of fairness, and to avoid u n ­

necessary irritation and humiliation, the many necessary
formalities might be agreed upon and supervised by an in ­
ternational organization.

Such a policy has already been

tried by the International Chamber of Commerce:
Summary - The Trade Barriers Committee,
desirous of laws governing the treatment of for­
eigners as uniform and liberal as possible, sug­
gests the conclusion of two international con­
ventions, one to suppress passport visas, except
in certain indispensable cases, and to secure the
right of residence and establishment of foreigners
legally admitted; the other to secure as far as
possible equality of treatment between foreigners
and nationals as to the exercise of their trades,
professions and occupations, and as to the civil
status of foreigners, the status of foreign legal
entities and the fiscal treatment of foreigners...
F. 15.
Int. Eco. Conf.; Final Report Trade
Barriers Com. Int. Cham. Com., 1927. L. of
Nations, - C. E. 1. 51

96
CITIZENSHIP:

Since a consideration of population

problems involves the matter of migration between nations,
the subject of citizenship or naturalization should be ex­
amined.

It is well known that for years people from va r ­

ious nations have decided to seek a home in some new coun­
try.

It has been advocated that the individual or the

family has a right to move from one nation to another es­
pecially if both nations consent, and It is proper for
the immigrant to desire citizenship in his new country.
In fact, his new government may require him to become a
citizen by the legal formality of naturalization.

On the

completion of these papers, the new citizen is placed on
practically the same level as all of his fellows; he has
abandoned his former allegiance and accepted the obliga­
tions of the new citizenship; in return, he is supposed to
receive the same degree of protection from his adopted
country as its native-born citizens enjoy.

But if he then

goes on a visit to his relatives in the former country,
even under the support of a regular passport, he may be
seized, tried and jailed there, on the ground that he is
still a citizen of this former country, and as such, may
not have fulfilled some military or other obligation to
it.

In such event, It appears that his adopted country is

considered to be powerless to protect her citizen.
This Is a serious social situation; a man may be sep­
arated from his family and property, for some time at
least.

It would appear that the mother country should

97
grant only a limited passport to a citizen who is still
under obligation, and that the adopted nation should ascer­
tain the former status-of all applicants.
sis,

In time of cri­

some nations attempt to recall their supposed,

or

former, citizens who may be in other countries, and there
are frequently situation involving deportations.

No doubt

many of these irregular occurrences are justified, but the
laws vary with every nation; the whole practice is asocial,
rough and cloudy; and it would seem that a permanent inter­
national organization could well supervise certain phases
of the matter.

The following extract from a statement by

the United States Department of State roughly indicates
the practice in twelve countries:
CITIZENSHIP:
Status of Naturalized American Citizens
in certain countries with the Governments of which the
United States has not concluded naturalization treaties:While this Government objects to the punishment of nat­
uralized Americans by fines, forced military service, or
Imprisonment for any unperformed military service which ac­
crued after the entry of the naturalized citizen into the
United States, it can give no assurance that any objections
which it makes will result in a remission or release.
This Government can not properly protest against pun­
ishment for any infraction of foreign lav/ committed prior
to the naturalized American’s entry into the United States
Naturalized citizens of the United States who come from
countries with the governments of which the United States
has not concluded naturalization treaties should, before
visiting such countries, consider the advisability of in­
quiring of the appropriate authorities thereof whether they
will be Immune from molestation in such countries under the
military service or other laws.
The Department of State
does not act as intermediary in such inquiries.
The following Information is believed to be correct,
but is not to be considered as official in so far as it
relates to the laws and regulations of a foreign government:
F rance. The Department of State has been advised by the
French Government that American citizens of French origin
who visit France and who, under French military service lav/s,
may be considered as deserters, or as defaulters, will be
dealt with as hereinafter indicated.
A - Deserters... B -

98
Defaulters...
(1) Native-Born American Citizens of French Parentage...
(2) Persons born in France who acquired naturalization as
American citizens before they were declared to be defaulters
(3) Persons born in France who acquired American nationality
after having been declared defaulters...
C - Natives of France who acquire American citizenship
through the Naturalization of a parent.
A.minor son whose
French parents acquire naturalization in the United States
and who is himself naturalized by the same act according
to the American naturalization laws is not considered by
the French authorities to have, lost his French nationality.
American citizens in this category are frequently molested
upon their return to France and are sometimes forced to
complete the usual military service required of French
citizens...
D - Recognition by the French Government of the Naturaliza­
tion abroad of a Frenchman...
Greece. The Greek Government does not recognize a
change of nationality on the part of a former Greek which
was made after January 15, 1914, without the Greek Govern­
m e n t ’s consent.
Consequently a former Greek naturalized af­
ter January 15, 1914, is liable to arrest and forced service
in the Greek Army or Navy upon his return to Greece.
Italy.
Under the Italian military laws the period of
service is 18 months.
Subjects of Italy are, however,
liable for military service from their twentieth year until
December 31 of the year in which they become 39 years of age,
with the exception of officers, concerning whom there are
special provisions of law, and university students, who
may await the termination of their studies...
Dept, of State
Latvia.
It is understood that, under Latvian law,
citizens oT Latvian origin are required to obtain from
the Minister of the Interior permission to renounce their
Latvian citizenship...
Netherlands.
The department Is informed that a sub­
ject of the Netherlands must register in person or by proxy
to take part in the drawing of lots for military service in
January of the year in which he reaches the age of 19, if
on the first of that month either he or his legalrepresenta­
tive resides in Europe...
Persia.
...On the return to Persia of a naturalized
American citizen of Persian origin who did not obtain the
consent of that Government to his naturalization, he is not
permitted to leave...
Poland.
... Persons liable to Polish military service
may acquire foreign citizenship only by obtaining permission
to do so from the Ministry of War; otherwise they continue
to be regarded by the Polish State as Polish citizens and
remain liable to military
service and topunishment for
violation of the military
service law...
Rumania.
All male inhabitants of Rumania, except those
under foreign protection, are liable to military duty between
the ages of 21 and 46...

Spain. ...In the first instance the interested persons
are exempted from performing their military service in Spain
hut if the said naturalization is secured within the period
in which he is leable for military service, the interested
person will always remain obligated to perform his military
service in Spain, and in case of failure to do so will incur
penal responsibility under the same conditions as any Span­
iard who has not lost his nationality...
Switzerland. ...If a Swiss citizen renounces Swiss
allegiance in the manner prescribed by the Swiss law of
June 25, 1903, and his renunciation is accepted, his natural
ization In another country is recognized, but without such
acceptance it is not recognized, and is held to descend
from generation to generation...
Turkey. ...The American naturalization of a Turk would
not be recognized by Turkey unless it consented to such
naturalization.
Yugoslavia. ...All male Yugoslavs, including those
bearers of foreign passports and their sons, who have not
received permission to renounce their original citizenship,
are liable to military service, regardless of age, until
the obligation to serve has been discharged.
Notice to Bearers of Passports.
Dept of State, Jan.
21, 1929
Transit under passport has been somewhat facilitated
by international agreement concluded under the auspices of
the League of Nations at Geneva, June 14, 1929.
BACKWARD PEOPLES:

It is most unfortunate that the

mental pictures of the average man are largely circum­
scribed by his immediate enviroment for it tends to nar­
row his understanding to a mere dot on the map of the
world.

About all he really sees are a few short and rap­

idly fading lines which radiate from his own situation.
If he had a true perspective, his view would shrink his
local affairs to "dot" size in comparison to great world
conditions.

The world traveller, however, if also a stu­

dent of world affairs, will know that Africa is 5000 miles
long; that It has 145,000,000 human beings, mostly black.
He can call to mind the East Indies, teeming with dark

100
people - fifty million of them; and he can see India
2500 miles wide, yet with more than 325 millions of dark
human creatures.

He can call up scenes of the many large

cities of India, and see masses of humanity so thick in
many streets that they are almost elbow to elbow.

He will

see deformity, disease and emaciation, yet a struggle for
life, and will recognize these immense masses as a pressing
world problem.
These backward people have raw materials; they supply
the world with many needs and they buy goods in return.
They are an important factor in potential materials and
markets, hence their stability and welfare cannot be
ignored, for it is difficult to transact business with
illiterate and irresponsible people.

They are also our neigh­

bors, which necessitates some interaction, and we do not
desire the higher standards of education, health and morals
to be ;polluted by a backward people.

Prof. Coupland, head

of the department of Colonial History at Oxford, has lived
among the backward peoples In both Africa and India, and
believes that they present a problem far greater than any
which exist among the advanced peoples.

Woolf states that

they are already knocking at the white m a n ’s door:
The white population of South Africa already
hears the black man knocking at the three entrances
to his house - the economic door at the back, the
political door at the side, and the social door in
front.
The sound Is unpleasant; it is terrifying.
P. 147.
The inclusion within a homogeneous white
population of large numbers of Asiatics or Africans,
or the inclusion within homogeneous Asiatic or
African populations of large numbers of Europeans

101
must, under present conditions lead to a most dan­
gerous situation.
It Invariably entails the eco­
nomic and political subjection of the Asiatics and
Africans.
But the time when such subjection was
acquiesced in has passed, and there will inevitably
result a bitter conflict between the subject and dominant parts of the population.
p. 153.
Imperialism and Civilization.
The social implications of this problem seem to be
world-wide, and of primary importance.

In the opinion of

Lord Lugard who has spent a quarter of a century as an
administrator of backward peoples, they cannot raise them­
selves to a responsible status without aid, yet cannot
acquire a ready-made social organization; they must rather
be gradually assisted toward the achievement of a social
order suitable to their peculiar needs.
fact requires time and patience.

This important

In the meantime, there is

continual danger of trouble among them, and of exploitation
or annexation from the outside.

The interests of all the

advanced nations now involve all of the backward people,
and any suggestion of discrimination will naturally arouse
a dispute.

Conflict of interest must clearly be prevented.

It happens that one method of solution has been under
trial for ten years and Is still in operation.

Several

groups of detached backward peoples have be.en administered
by a group of over fifty nations who, as the League of
Nations,

set up the "Mandates Commission" for this purpose.

This Is not an exonomic or political body, but Is composed
of men who are experts on native questions, and who w e r e ‘
chosen for their experience and ability from several nations.
They have technical assistance, and their judgment has been

102
respected and accepted by all of the nations concerned.

The

working of this international body is endorsed by no less
an international leader than Viscount Cecil:
The Permanent Mandates Commission is meeting
this week at Geneva, just ten years after Germany
surrendered her colonial empire Into other hands.
It will hear reports by British, French,
Belgians and Japanese on how they are administer­
ing former German territories.
It will ask quest­
ions and make "observations", and publish not only
the reports it has heard but also the minutes of
its meetings.
The charter which will guide It is a
single article in the League Covenant In which is
embodied for the first time the principle of colon­
ial trusteeship instead of colonial possession.
How has this system worked during ten years?
Has it fulfilled the hopes of its creators?
Viscount Cecil of Chelwood thinks it has worked
well.
With Woodrow Wilson and General Smuts of South
Africa he was one of the architects of the mandate
system at the Paris Peace Conference.
He argued
against the small nations which clamored for out­
right annexation of Germany's colonies; he and
President Wilson, at least, wanted some better dis­
position made of them.
He has since been Britain's
delegate on the League Council, and has watched the
mandate system In operation.
Today his opinion is
that the mandate system is one of the League's most
satisfactory accomplishments... N. Y. Times; 11-11-28
ELAXTHn

An extensive array of international problems

arises under the general heading of health, especially with
the present network of transportation between all parts of
the world.

In the realm of plant life, bacteria, yeasts,

moulds and fungi which may originate in some remote spot of
the earth,

can be so quickly spread to many other localities

that tremandous losses may and do result.

Great areas of

crops have been ruined, and enormous sums of money have
been expended in attempts to curb the severity of these
attacks.

In U. S. A. the effect of the European corn-

borer and the Mediterranean fly called for the attention of

103
Congress and even required the services of the military
establishment.

Many other plant pests have spread from

one natiem to others, and the danger Is continuous:A couple of potato bugs which, the French
claim, must have stov/ed away in some American
doughboy's baggage, have reproduced their kind so
successfully that the nation is today threatened
with a scourge.
The French Chamber will consider
financing a war on the pest, and the agriculture
department Is preparing a country-wlde campaign
to exterminate them.
Detroit F. P.; 3-25-30
Meditterranean Fruit Fly:
So far as known,
the pest originally came from the Azores, where It
was recorded In 1833, and penetrated Northern Africa.
It has been found in European countries as far
north as Paris, and It attacks all fruits and most
vegetables, with only a few excepted...
It took Congress only half an hour to accept the
urgent appeal of Dr. Marlatt, of the Department of
Agriculture, to make available 04,250,000 cash with
which to combat the invasion - a world record in
speed of legislation.
Lit. Digest; 5-25-29
The diseases of animals are also readily transported
between nations.
destroyed.

Whole herds are wiped out or have to be

The animal is also a medium for carrying dis­

ease and dangerous Insects.

Nothing short of the

closest

kind of inspection and cooperation throughout the world,
can keep the transmission of disease under control.

The

recent effect of transporting parrots Is a case In point.
Dr. J. H. Stokes, Professor of Dermatology
and Syphllology at the School of Medicine, Univ.
of Pennsylvania, and also a member of one of the
League of Nations Health Commissions, died on
February 10 from psittachosis, or the mysterious
'parrot fever'.
It is sadly Ironic that an expert
on skin diseases should fall a victim to this strange
malady which would seem to lie within his own field
of study.
Dr. Stokes' Is one of a number of recent
deaths traced to this obscure disease; the fre­
quency of cases occurring in this country as well
as abroad prompted Surgeon-General Hugh S. Cumming,
himself a member of the League's Health Committee, to

104
issue a public warning against the promiscuous hand­
ling of imported parrots.
League of Nations Assn. News.
Special articles and references upon the nature of this di s­
ease and the many cases of its international transmission
may be found in the Literary Digest, 2-8-30 and 2-22-30.
The world is tied together today so closely that no
man can consider himself entirely safe so long as communi­
cable diseases and epidemics exist.

The personal health

habits of every human being and the sanitation of every
community are nov/ Important to the whole world-.

Food and

all kinds of commodities may be handled by diseased or u n ­
sanitary natives, then shipped to any part of the world.
Considering the amount of travel and the quantities of
goods which move throughout the world, it is an' interesting
question as to hov/ much Illness and disease may have come
from

some foreign country.

Health inspection and quarantine

facilities at National points of entry cannot be fully
effective so long as health measures In any part of the
world remain in a neglected or perfunctory condition.

Some

countries, especially in South America, will not admit a
visitor unless he exhibits a recognized and sealed, statement
from the official health department of his own country to
the effect that he has been recently vaccinated, has had a
thorough physical examination, and is free from disease.
The Red Cross has had a world experience with catas­
trophe and health problems; it publishes a magazine called
"The World's Health" and in the July-Sept., 1929 issue,

105
are found articles entitled "The Porto-Rico Disaster",
"Tropical Diseases",

"Cancer as a World Problem", illus­

trating the truly international importance of such matters.
The very existence of the Red Cross, and the international
nature of its organization, is indicative of the need of
the times.
The World Conference on Narcotic Education, and the
International Narcotic Education Association, having their
headquarters In Los Angeles, have found it necessary to
have International affillations.

All manner of social

problems have a world Influence upon health.

The traffic

in obscene literature, women and children and injurious
drugs are cases in point.

The Inability to enforce the

prohibition of liquor in U. S. A. is partly due to its in­
flux from other countries.

So long as Interaction contin­

ues between the peoples of the world, It would appear that
the health efforts of any one, or of any few, nations can
only fail.

The Health Department of the League of Nations

has tried international cooperation with remarkable success
in many fields.

The results of its world-wide epidemiolog­

ical survey cannot be treated here, but physicians through­
out the world now gladly cooperate with it.

World health

alone, would appear to justify international organization,
since it is a continuous world problem.
LABOR:

It Is now quite generally admitted that the

elevation of the laborer’s status, even though slight, has
been of wide social value.

Labor often represents the

106
greater portion of the cost of the necessities of life; it
is quite as Important as capital, and the conditions which
surround it touch the whole social fabric of the world at
many points.

Good labor conditions are fundamental to the

peace and welfare of society.

It Is worth while to note

that a large organization dealing with world labor prob­
lems, has found it necessary to divide the subject into the
following categories:

Agricultural, children,

compensation,

emigrants, health, hours, inspection, insurance,
unemployment, women, leisure and forced labor.

seamen,
Labor,

therefore seems to be primarily a social problem, or rather
to Involve a number of social problems, the majority of
which have a world significance since labor can be a con­
trolling factor in the rivalry between nations.

Labor can

largely affect the social and economic relationship of the
nations, a fact which John Dewey and other thinkers now
recognize:
...Manufacturing and commerce are no longer
domestic and local, and consequently more or
less incidental, but are world-wide.
They en­
gage the best energies of an Increasingly large
number of persons.
The manufacturer, banker, and
captain of industry have practically displaced a
hereditary landed gentry as the Immediate direct­
ors of social affairs.
The problem of social re­
adjustment is openly industrial, having to do with
the relations of capital and labor... P. 566
Devirey, John; Democracy 8c Education, 1916
The world-wide cooperation of nations in the
progressive advancement of the economic standards
of peoples is a vital problem of enduring peace.
The bringing together of spokesmen of the state,
Capital, and labor - accomplished through the In­
ternational Labor Office - marks a new step for­
ward in the economic organization of the force of
international understanding.
Hodges, Chas.;
For. Policy Assn.

107
The exhaustion or discovery of mineral deposits,

the

creation of state monopolies or of inventions, shortage or
surplus of commodities, unemployment, forced labor, and
wage rates within specific nations are a few of the matters
tied in with labor, which affect the social, economic and
political attitude and behavior of each nation toward the
others.

Any nation with natives or other low labor stand­

ards can utilize this factor against others, unless they
are able and willing to lower their standards proportion­
ately.

With the affairs of the whole world being more

closely compressed, and. in the absence of organization, the
social outlook is darkened.

An investigation of the Inter­

national Labor Office, however, reveals an elaborately
organized system by which they have actually lifted the
social standard of labor in.many parts of the world.

A

recent effort concerns the standard of living:
An International survey of the cost of living
in relation to wages was begun here last week under
the auspices of the international labor office at
Geneva, Switzerland...The survey’s object is to
formulate a "commodity budget", which will repre­
sent, In terms of food, clothing, housing, light,
heat and other necessities, the yearly purchases
of the average automobile worker earning §7 a day
- the minimum wage recently established by the
Ford Company.
This budget then will be "translated" In 17
European cities of 13 different countries, to show
the amount of money necessary in the currency of
each nation to maintain the standard of living
possible with the $7 a day wage in Detroit...
Detroit Free Press; 1-12-30
The subject of labor cannot be closed without refer­
ence to a form of slavery called "forced labor".

It was a

surprise to the writer to discover at an international com-

10 8
mittee meeting in Geneva in 1929, that this practice was
still in force at least among natives in several parts of
Africa.

The delegates from the nations concerned stated

that local laws had been passed against this form of
slavery.

A face-to-face international conference is very

valuable however.

When confronted by evidence that the

practice was being merely "winked at" in spite of the law,
the delegate concerned was tactfully brought to an admis­
sion, and a promise to obtain the enforcement of the law,
under penalty of world publicity.

Perusal of the following

report leads to the conclusion that international organiza­
tion Is the only solution of this problem
Confronted by an Inadequate labor supply,
caused either by the sparsity of population or
the reluctance of workers to enter foreign employ­
ment many colonial governments have made use of
forced labor, either for government or private pur­
poses.
Forced or compulsory labor is defined as
"all work or service which is exacted from any per­
son under the menace of any penalty for its non­
performance and for which the worker does not offer
himself voluntarily".
Compulsory labor takes many
forms.
In perhaps the majority of colonies, govern­
ments utilize such labor for public works and ser­
vices.
In French and Dutch colonies it is exacted
in the form of a labor tax upon native populations.
Under the French prestation tax, natives may be re ­
quired to work for a period ranging from three days
in Algeria to sixteen days in Indo-China.
In prin­
ciple the work is exacted only for local public pur­
poses.
In the Dutch.East Indies the government may
exact labor from natives up to a maximum varying
from thirty to forty days a year.
During 1926 the
government actually exacted labor aggregating more
than 14,000,000 days, or an average of 19.5 days per
worker.
According to the International Labor Office,
"by far the greater part of the compulsory labor
levied from the population of the Dutch East Indies
is unpaid".
For. Pol. Assn.; Forced Labor, 1-8-30

109
ISOLATION:

Association and interaction is the normal

behavior between ind.ividu.als and between groups who have
anything in common.
and development.

It is fundamental to education, growth

It is the medium of exchange.

Nearly

everything we know has in some manner been obtained from
others.

An isolated human being is like a man who Is lost

in the woods; he may shrivel and die or lose his mind.

The

individual who segregates himself from his group becomes
ignorant and queer; the others view him with suspicion,
derision or pity, and he may become an outcast; Sutherland
states that isolation may lead to crime.
This applies also among nations, especially when they
have many Interests in common.

For one to persistently

stand out is decidedly provincial, and likely to be dan­
gerous, especially when others covet its trade or other
possessions; collusion and conspiracy may form against it.
There is some danger everywhere, but there is usually less
in "standing in" with o n e ’s fellows than in holding aloof.
These are elementary yet important social principles.
Is "the way the world works."-

It

And some one always loses,

- usually the outsider.
Furthermore,

a nation which isolates itself, loses

the value which comes from contact with others.

Inter­

action among nations crosses their cultures in ways which
bring sympathy, understanding and friendship.

Interna­

tional organization would appear to provide a logical m e d ­
ium for beneficial contact between the nations.

Immeasur-

110
able value Is already resulting from the face-to-face con­
tacts in the League at Geneva.
Since U. S. A- has long declined to participate offic­
ially in the principal efforts toward international cooper­
ation, some comment may be appropriate:

A tradition can be

a valuable sanction for a custom, but it can also be a
serious detriment.

Social change seems to be inevitable,

and if it has destroyed the basis of a tradition, then the
custom which has issued, needs to be revised.

In other

words, there must be some foundation for a way of thinking
since it largely controls our way of acting, else our
actions are meaningless and may do harm.
When Jefferson (not Washington) established the tradi­
tion that U. S. A. should avoid "entangling alliances", the
nation was new, weak, and fully occupied in putting its own
house in order; it had no spare energy or need for foreign
obligations, but since that condition has obviously
changed, the good advice of Jefferson has lost some of its
force.

The nation is now mature and strong; it needs and

has extensive international contacts which appear to call
for some form of organization.

It may still be well to

avoid "entangling alliances", but any action taken can
hardly rest entirely on the Jefferson tradition.
"Isolation to America,
Is impossible."

either economic or political,

This is the direct and conclusive state­

ment of no less an International leader than Mr. Owen D.
Young, Chairman of the General Electric Co., a world-wide

Ill
business organization, director of many international
commercial, educational and philanthropic enterprises,
head of the last Reparations Committee.

and

When such exten­

sive experience yields such a broad statement, it can be
regarded as conclusive.

Other authoritative opinion, h o w ­

ever, is appended:
Policy is some times based on the conception
that a State should be independent of the need of
food stuffs and materials useful In war...The
preparation for war by economic isolation tends to
produce war by increasing the number of interests
favored by war.
P. 87.
Burns, C. D . ;
Industry & Civilization 1925
Isolated communities are very good illustrations
of the relative influence of invention and diffusion.
The slowness of relatively Isolated cultures to change
has been likened to stagnation.
The growth of cul­
tures In contact with other cultures Is much more
rapid...
P. 89.
Ogburn,w.F. Social Change.
1922
Where through some form of isolation, a group
is shut off from mental contacts with a wider circle
of experiences the minds of the group present a vac­
uity and narrowness, a pettiness and intolerance that
is in striking contrast with the cosmopolitan type of
mind with its sympathetic tolerance of differences of
opinion, its appreciation of all that life in any
form may present... P.' 275.
North,
q.
Social Differentiation.
1927
The United States has a great contribution to
make to world progress and peace.
It has shown much
capacity for ideas but considerable hesitancy about
method.
It has announced, as from afar, the League
of Nations, the Washington Conference, the Renuncia­
tion of War, but has made its own path more difficult
by standing aloof, in semi-isolation, outside...P. 49
Sweetser, Arthur; (An American in the Information
Section, L. of N . ) The Approach to World
Unity, 1930.
...It is only as the Isolation has been broken,
through the development of industry and finance and
the recognition of common interests in this new world
without a frontier, that diplomacy has emerged from
its iron framework and grappled with the problems of
reciprocal rights and duties in all the varied activ-

112
ities of a na t io n ’s life.
P. 29. Shotwell, J. T. ;
War as an Instrument of Nat.
Pol., 1929
If the Japanese, who have definitely abandoned
isolation after a two-hundred y e a r s ’ trial of it, are
able to cooperate without becoming unduly entangled,
without being duped, and without being obliged to do
things against their will, why cannot we?... P. 85
Mowrer, Paul S.; Our Foreign Affairs, 1924
CRIME:

The problem of crime is so colossal that its

study constitutes a branch of science.
struggled against it.

Society has always

Crime has come to be a profession

among cunning characters in the "underworld";

it Is now

highly organized, and is known to be often very profitable.
The great growth of cities enables a man to be both "Dr.
Jekyl and Mr. Hyde".

He can turn a corner and often get

away, or he can quickly lose himself In any crowd.

With a

motor car or plane he can cover many miles at great speed,
and quickly land in another state or nation.

He can reach

a foreign nation, commit a crime and return to his own coun
try In a few hours.

Or he can operate through a series of

confederates who may or may not know that they are "tools".
The differentiation in national tariffs and prohibi­
tions has made smuggling highly profitable.

Many kinds of

International crime are increasing, are perpetrated on a
harge scale for huge profits, and are the most difficult
to solve.

Extradition by treaty between many nations is

provided for but has not solved the problem.
This returning of a fugitive charged with .crime
to the place of his misdeed for trial is called in­
terstate extradition.
International extradition
was probably aided In development by the practical
operation of this clause.
It was more than half a

113
century after It was written in 1787 that England
entered into a treaty of extradition (1842) with the
United States.
This was followed from time to time
by treaties among leading countries.
P. 159
Norton, T. J . ; Constitution of U. S. A.? 1930
The criminal must be caught before he can be extradited.
There are many treaties of this class which Imply good in­
tent but which often fail in execution through the lack of
a permanent International organization to carry them into
effect.

International crime has become so serious that

some countries will' not permit a foreigner to enter unless
he exhibits a satisfactory certificate from the police d e ­
partment of his home district.

The whole problem is a

social menace to the world, as will be seen from the few
incidents which are quoted:
The police of three of Europe's chic capitals
- London, Berlin and Paris - are uniting in a war
of three nations against crime.
Arrangements are now being perfected for an
interchange of detectives between Lord Byng, head
of Scotland Yard; M. Jean Chiappe, French prefect
of police, and Herr Karl Zoorgiebel, head of the
Berlin police, which will make the three police
organizations one unit in the fight against three
classes of criminals - white slave trafficers,
drug smugglers and international crooks.
Hitherto police have been handicapped in cop­
ing with international organizations of criminals,
a coup brought off In one country being usually en­
gineered by criminals known to police in another
capital, but not where the crime takes place.
Detroit Free Press; 3-3-30
Britain's efforts to gain closer cooperation
among nations in the apprehension of International
criminals have met with approval In the United States
and certain South American countries, it was announced
Monday.
The home office said the United States,
Argentina and some other South American countries
had signified willingness to join the movement.
The
step follows the recent announcement of an anti-crime
pact among Britain, France and Germany,
This accord
includes arrangements to exchange police.
Detroit Free Press; 3-25-30

114
When a million dollars In false money is being
seized by the authorities throughout the world every
year, it is obvious that a great deal more than this
is being put into circulation, and a conference has
been going on at Geneva to adopt the convention for
the suppression of counterfeit currency everywhere.
Counterfeiting, "far from fading into oblivion with
the Nick Carter tales", to quote a New York Times
dispatch from Geneva, was represented as a growing
menace by Dr. Vilem Pospisil, of Czechoslovakia,
president of the conference...
The thirty-five nations represented at the
Conference include five non-League countries Ecuador, Brazil, Turkey, Russia, and the United
States...
Literary Digest; 5-11-29
...The exportation of liquor from Canada is
not illegal; but a conspiracy between Canadian ex­
porters and Canadian or American rum-runners to
violate American laws is an act unfriendly to this
country.
The Canadian liquor interests have used
their financial resources to force their government
into aiding and abetting them in it.
Obviously the
situation has potentialities as unpleasant for the
Canadian nation, as for the American border patrol...
Detroit Free Press; 12-23-29
Seven customs officers and an employee of the
customs service marine storage base here (Miami) were
disarmed of revolvers and a machine gun by British
authorities in Bimini before they were allowed to land
a seaplane there today In search of eight rum boats
stolen last night from the storage base.
The theft of boats from the storage base is the
third this year, it was recounted today.
Detroit Free Press; 3-6-30
A short time ago "dope," with a market vaLue of
$2,000,000 was seized in New York on a train about to
start for Chicago.
Later, agents of the federal gov­
ernment found $4,000,000 worth of the stuff on a
Jersey City pier.
And now from Philadelphia comes a
story of a $20,000,000 consignment successfully
smuggled Into that port as a distributing point for
the "domestic" trade...
The discovery of an effective way'to suppress
the trade in dope is one of the pressing matters b e ­
fore the nation.
Detroit Free Press; 12-26-28
LAW AND POLITICS:

Law and Politics are different con­

cepts, but they are often related, and there is a twi­
light zone" in which they may touch, hence they will be

115
discussed together.

Law is a technique of social control;

it is a set of generalized rules based upon custom, belief
and precedent, which can be applied to specific cases.
Politics, however, Is an art of statecraft for use within
the bounds of law, political science and the situation.

A

body of general law is desirable, but in cases for which
there may be no law, some form of political adjustment,
arbitration or compromise becomes the only form of peaceful
settlement.
States and nations have such a complete body of law
that most of their internal disputes can be settled by this
method.

But there is a comparatively small body of interna­

tional law, and what does exist has not been fully coded or
accepted.

As a result, a great many international questions

are still open to dispute; just and peaceful settlements
are therefore seriously endangered.

Furthermore there are

many international questions which involve matters of
national policy and other factors which are not in their
nature justiciable, and may never be subject to legal pro­
cedure .
Thus international questions are only slightly under
the recognized forms of social control; they are still
largely exposed to the danger of serious conflicts.

The

development of a body of law - especially international
law - is an extremely slow process.

This is partly due to

a wide difference in the legal structure and procedure of
the various nations, as described by Potter and by the

116
United States Department of Commerce:
It is nece-ssary to note that Great Britain
and North America are under the English common
law, that Eastern Europe lives under Slavic Law,
and that Asia and Africa possess many indigenous
legal systems of their own.
Added to this is the
fact that even where supposedly common legal systems
exist, the practice of constituent and statutory
lav/ making has so worked upon and made over the
historically received private law as to produce
endless variations among the nations.
P. 307
Potter, P. B. ; Intro, to Study of Int. Org. 1922
...The commercial judges of Buenos Aires, the
Federal capital, are not in agreement with respect
to the interpretation of the corporation laws of
certain States of the United States.
Different
judges have expressed conflicting opinions, and for
that reason it is rather difficult to state definite­
ly whether a corporation organized under the law of
a given State of the United States can acquire a
domicile in Argentina by mere application to the
courts... P. 67.
Trading under the Laws of
Argentina; U. S. Dept, of Commerce.
Experts in World affairs have long agreed that an in­
ternational court is a practical necessity, and that all
justiciable questions between the nations should be brought
under the jurisdiction of such a court as rapidly as pos­
sible toward an increase of social control.
The enactment of rules of international law
to be for a commonwealth of mankind what statutes
are within each State is a comparatively simple
matter.
The process of preparation and enactment
will doubtless take time, because all States must
be consulted, and on some points their divergent
interests (real and supposed) will long delay and
perhaps prevent agreement.
Nevertheless the mat­
ters on which agreement can be secured will be far
more numerous, so a fairly complete international
code may be expected.
P. 174
Bryce, J a s .;
International Relations, 1922
The Hague Courts of Arbitration were all weak, be­
cause the judges had to be selected and assembled after a
dispute had occurred; war might easily break out In the

117
interval.

What Is needed is a permanent court, ready and

obligated to sit at a moment's notice.

To organize, sanc­

tion and maintain such a court requires a permanent organ­
ization among the nations.

The League of Nations has al­

ready established the "Permanent Court of International
Justice" at the Hague as outlined above.

More than fifty

nations support it, and forty-two of them have signed the
"optional clause" by which they accept the jurisdiction of
the court in all justiciable disputes.

Codification Is

also proceeding:
There Is in session at the Hague, as this is
written, a Conference for the Codification of Inter­
national Law, which began on March 13.
It repre­
sents the culmination of some five years of labor,
and offers one of the best possible illustrations of
the careful preparation now possible for International
conferences through the machinery of the League of
Nations
The conference will undertake to codify the law
on three Important subjects:
Nationality, territor­
ial waters, and responsibility of states for damage
done in their territory to the persons or property
of foreigners.
L. of N. News; March 1930
All international disputes divide between law and
politics.

Since the political questions constitute the

larger number, and are the most difficult to adjust, a per­
manent international organization providing for conference,
mediation and arbitration would appear to be greatly needed.
INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION:
changed communication.

Invention has completely

When mail was carried across the

ocean by sailing ships, it required from three to four
months to communicate, and receive a reply, across the
Atlantic.

Now, a few seconds are sufficient for communi-

118
cation between any of the centers of the world.
cables, telegraph wireless,

Telegraph

and radio telephones enable

the most distant persons to converse with almost the same
facility as though they were in the same room.

Mail of all

kinds and. between all countries is now speeded by fast
ships, trains or aeroplanes.

No incident of any conse­

quence can happen in any part of the world without news­
papers being avle to quickly broadcast the details every­
where.

Much Information can be had almost directly in the

home by radio.
into a unit.

Communication has practically tied the world
It has multiplied and magnified our common in­

terests and all forms of relationship between the nations
and their peoples.

The tremendous rate of increase in world

communication shows that national life is expanding to an
international plane and that any change in one nation has
some influence upon every other people.
of growing interdependence and unity.

It is at once proof
In such a close re­

lationship, the safety and cooperation of a world society
would clearly appear to require international social organi­
zation.

For example, one serious problem Is that of inter­

national aviation:

Although organized and used for mutual

and peaceful purposes,

planes can be turned to dangerous

weapons of war overnight, and might be, in the absence of
a proper organization.
The following data and. Mr. Smith's description of the
Associated Press, reveal the great growth of International
communication.

119
Before the Postal Union was formed the inter­
change of postal matter was regulated by treaties
which on© State made with another.
France, fGr in­
stance, handled a large mass of foreign postal matter
in transit and derived a large revenue therefrom.
Under this system the advantages of cheap and quick
international communication received but little
recognition.
Postal rates between two distant parts
of the world varied according to the route by which
the matter was sent, and postal matter missing a
mail by^the route specified for it was held for the
next mail by that route and was not forwarded by
any other route that might give quicker delivery.
Reinsch states that a letter from the United States
to Australia would pay postage of 5 cents, 33 cents,
45 cents, 60 cents, or $1.02 per half-ounce, according
to the route bywhich it was to be sent.
By coopera­
tion and agreement all but a few small countries have c
combined and formed a world-embracing union for the
interchange of postal matter... P. 91.
Morrow, Dwight, W.
The Society of Free States, 1919
Ocean-Gable Telegraph Traffic.
1912
1917
1922
Telegrams
2,845,000
6,451,000
9,603,000
P. 365.

1927
7,449,000

Stat. Abstract of the U.S. 1929; Dept, of Com.

Wireless Telegraph Systems.
IWU7 1912
1922
1927
No. of Co's, or systems
5
4
4
5
No. of messages
154,617
285,091 2,365,109
3,777,538
P. 362
Dept. Commerce; Stat. Abst. 1929
Statement showing the weights of United States mails
dispatched to Trans-Atlantic and Trans-Pacific destina­
tions and to Central and South America and the West
Indies during the fiscal years 1920 to 1929, inclusive.
Prior to the year 1923 the weights of parcel post were
not reported separately.
TRANSATLANTIC DESTINATIONS

1920
1921
1922

Letters and
Post Cards
Lb s .
2,635,073
2,840,781
2,791,644

1923
1924
1925
1926

2,811,432
3,368,195
3,384,099
3,340,164

Other Articles
(Including Parcel Post)
Lbs . _____
37,743,374
37,272,791
30,514,143
Prints
13,629,773
15,886,847
16,139,779
16,567,331

120
1927
. 3,496,932
1928 . 3,688,917
1929
3,814,664

17,802,860
18,888,386
19,616,776
TRANSPACIFIC DESTINATIONS

1920
1921
1922

632.857
613,203
571,711

1923
1924
1925 '
1926
1927
1928
1929

583,807
561,135
576,328
628;202
654,020
680,642
805,931

11,410,591
13,443,994
10,912,217
Print s
6,774,014
7,328,500
7,584,052
7,959,512
8,278,503
8,328,650
9,602,579

To Central and South America and the W
1920
1921
1922

648,146
702,569
541,518

1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929

653,537
696,003
768,727
863,062
1 ,029,753
1 ,324,771
1 ,476,764

15,187,395
13,720,160
11,256,630
Prints
5,865,039
6,535,573
6,526,900
7,100,022
8,066,562
9,957,742
10,660,821

Post Office Dept., Div. Int. Postal Service
Washington, 3/29/30
G-rowth of International News:
...Twenty years ago,
the cable tolls of the Associated Press were only about
$140,000 a year and the total amount of incoming cable
approximately a million and a half words a year.
In 1928,
the cable tolls of the Associated Press matter brought
from abroad for use in American papers was nearly $300,000
and the total number of words brought in by cable was
over four millions...
The great increase in the amount of foreign news
brought to the United States by the Associated Press was
much influenced by the Great War.
American newspapers
became much more international in their point of view,
and with the declaration of peace, continued to seek for­
eign news.
Furthermore, the increase of all North American in­
terests in Central and South America has greatly stimu­
lated the demand of United States papers for news from
those countries.
American export trade to South and
Central America was greatly augmented during the war.

121
North. American business and banking interests which gained
a foot-hold in the southern continent during the Great
War period had become thoroughly entrenched, with a re­
sult that North America and South America are mutually
much more interested in one another...
Associated Press news also goes direct, now, to
English language newspapers in China, and the news of
China has become so important to American papers, espec­
ially to papers of the Pacific coast, that The Associated
Press has organized a bureau in Shanghai, as well as
Peiping, and retains a correspondent at Nanking, the new
capital of Nationalist China...
Cooperation is the cornerstone of the Associated
Press.
It is one of the w o r l d s most successful cooper­
ative ventures.
About ten million dollars a year is ex­
pended in the operation of this non-commercial organiza­
tion, out of which no member makes a cent of profit.
Nearly 1300 daily newspapers in the United States are
members of this organization which maintains bureaus in
all the important capitals of the world, and frequently
handles as many as 80,000 words of news daily.
The Associated Press has more than 1700 persons ex­
clusively in its employ in the United States and several
hundred employees scattered throughout the universe.
Its
growth is one of the great romances of cooperation.
In
1893 it had only 63 members, seven years later its m e m ­
bership had grown to 600, and now It has nearly 1300 mem­
bers under the flag of the United States and supplies news
directly to nearly 100 newspapers in South and Central
America and the West Indies...
The news of The Associated Press is printed in a dozen
languages.
The caption MA P lf appears in many countries
outside of the New World, as well.
Shanghai reads Associ­
ated Press dispatches and Madrid gets its nev/s of North
and South America directly through The Associated Press...
Through exchange agreement with Reuters Agency in
England, the Havas Agency in France, the Wolff Agency in
Germany and the leading agencies in other foreign coun­
tries, Mr. Stone made the news of the United States avail­
able to all the rest of the world and In turn placed the
news of foreign agencies at the disposal of American cor­
respondents whom he assigned to the leading foreign cap­
itals .
Foreign agencies, in turn, sent their correspondents
to New York where they located in the headquarters of The
Associated Press and receive every bit of news which Is
collected by the member newspapers of The Associated Press
in the United States and forwarded to New York.
The Associated Press is a give and take organization
Its members are much like the members of a club.
Member­
ship entails upon them the obligation to supply the news
of the territory in which their newspaper is located.
By
this means, its 1300 newspapers are placing their daily

122
output at the disposal of1 the papers belonging to the co­
operative organization.
The Associated Press is not an
agency of opinion.
It is pledged to send only the facts.
It has no political bias and no religious prejudice.
Its
member papers are Democratic, Republican, Socialist and
Independent.
Its members are of various religious beliefs.
This neutral attitude of The Associated Press has
given it an authority in the United States which is u n ­
questioned.
It is free from governmental, commercial and
religious influence.
All of Its members have a voice In
its direction.
They elect directors from among their own
membership, who willingly serve without pay and guide the
policy of the organization...
Frequently In a day's news report of The Associated
Press there appear cable items from as many as 200 differ­
ent places in the world, outside of the United States...
The cooperative organization of the United States has
been copied by The Canadian Press, a powerful agency, which
serves all the leading papers throughout the Dominion of
Canada.
This organization is affiliated with The Associ­
ated Press and works with it very closely.
Rengo, the
leading Japanese news agency, has also fashioned itself
after The Associated Press and cooperates closely with the
American agency..•
In addition to its voluminous wire report, The Assoc­
iated Press also maintains an extensive illustrated feat­
ure service and a news picture service, which supplies
both actual photographs and matrices to member newspapers.
The feature service averages about forty pages of printed
matter weekly...
For example, New York City has more Italian residents
than there are Italians In Rome; California also has a
very large Italian population; so has Chicago; and Buenos
Aires has a tremendous number of Italian residents.
These
colonies must be considered in serving the news needs of
these communities.
Detroit, Chicago and Pittsburgh have
large Polish populations.
New York, Milwaukee, Cincinnati
and St. Louis have great German populations which must be
taken into consideration.
Minnesota and several of the
adjoining agricultural states have large Scandanavian pop­
ulations.
The English and Canadians are so numerous in
the United States that news of the British Empire is as
eagerly followed by the great newspapers of the United
States as It is in London..•
The entire text of the Latest reparations agreement,
30,000 words in all, was brought to the United States by
The Associated Press and used in full by great newspapers
as far west as Salt Lake City..•
In the United States communications are not under
government control.
The telephone and telegraph companies
are competitive.
Consequently there Is keen rivalry b e ­
tween the various organizations, which results in speedy
service.
American cable companies are also keen compet­
itors and work hard to obtain rapid communication.

123
The American communications companies have of recent years
worked on the theory that low tolls produce much greater
business and a better communication system, by keeping
the channels busy all the time.
This method of operating
communication is quite unlike that of many of the European
organizations which apparently prefer high tolls and small
business rather than a great volume of business at a lower
r a t e ...
Official news, the news of the doings of state and
national governments, and the governmental news of coun­
tries abroad, were the chief concern of news agencies when
The Associated Press first came into existence.
But con­
ditions have changed radically in the United States news
field.
Politicians and politics no longer monopolize the
space of newspapers.
Business, agriculture, sports, labor,
amusements - In fact, all activities of the people - are
claiming more and more attention from American papers...
Smith, Chas. S.,
Chief of Foreign Service of
Associated Press, 1929
According to J. L. Jones, Foreign Editor of the United
Press Associations, of New York, this great organization
has met with such an increased demand for Foreign news dur­
ing the past three years that it now serves 1220 papers in
40 countries in 18 languages, having the largest foreign
clientele of any press association.
ume has doubled since

the war.

ceives an average of 5000 words

The foreign news vol­

The United Press now r e ­
per day from Europe, and

sends about 8000 words per day to South America.

The

accuracy, speed and volume of world news is 'miraculous'
The v/orld demands to know about the London Naval Conference,
the New York money market, bond investment and loans abroad,
and conditions in Germany and elsewhere.

Japan and the

Orient have transferred their former primary interest in
European affairs, to the U. S. A. Throughout the world,
English and Japanese news Is now second to U. S. A. news.
Latin America has a wider knowledge of U. S. A. and a

124
greater interest than we possess regarding these southern
republics.

Finally, world interest in Foreign News has

largely changed from ludicrous and bizarre subject matter,
to a demand for objective fact.
LANGUAGE:

We have seen that in the absence of ability

to communicate, peoples are often deprived of the necessary
understanding to permit a peaceable adjustment of disputes;
even if they would cooperate, they cannot do so very
effectively.

In an interacting world, language, therefore,

is of Increasing importance for peace and cooperation.
This is especially true since the advent of the interna­
tional movie, radio, and telephone, and because of the
growth of travel and use of foreign publications.

English

and French are now the recognized international languages,
and many cultivated people from all nations are acquiring
facility with at least one of them.

But this bilingual

ability is not likely to become general until, at least,
the various peoples have more reason to feel a direct in­
terest in other nations than their own.

Dewey points out

that Interest Is a great aid to effort.

We do not seek

contact with those who are regarded as "outside" or opposed
to us, but if we become members of one family in some way,
closer contacts develop.

Thus if the nations were members

of one international organization,

the feeling of shared

interests would be an Impetus toward a most needed shar­
ing of language.

A common organization and common lang­

uage vtfould be mutually supporting; a saner and safer world
fabric might result.

125

When Alsace-Lorraine was returned from Germany to
Frence,

a change from German to French was demanded of

the people concerned by France, and it produced a serious
disturbance as the following statement of an Alsatian
shows: .,.No Alsatian should be obliged to feel
strange or slighted in his own homeland when he
speaks the language of his land.
The use of in­
terpreters is an unworthy presumption which one
might force on a slave people, but which simply
cannot be discussed in relation to a people which
is being ostensibly freed from bondage.
Such a
policy breeds nothing but malaise.
For. Pol. Assn.
Alsace-Lorraine; A Border Problem; 2-19-30
Such a disturbance of the customs of a transferred people
might be ameliorated through the good offices of an inter­
national organization.
An artificial language such as esperanto is theoret­
ically desirable, but has been widely declined on the
ground that it lacks background, and cannot win in compar­
ison with English, for example, which already has the
largest amount of usage, and is supported by the widening
Influence of the English-speaking people.

The following

items show the Importance and trend of language:
...A Boston leather-goods firm had its cata­
logue translated into Spanish, for the South Amer­
ican market, and sent out many copies to Rio de
Janeiro and Sao Paulo, not realizing that the
language spoken in Brazil is Portuguese.
In this
remarkable catalogue, the Item harness "for singlehorse buggy", was rendered "para cavallo soltero
lleno de Insectos", which means, literally "for
lousy bachelor horse",
P. 338.
Mowrer, Paul S.;
Our Foreign Affairs, 1924
...The extent to which the leading languages
of the world is spoken is as follows:

126
Languages
English.
Russian
- German
French
Spanish
Italian
Portuguese
P. 11; Buell, R. L.

Number of People
160,000,000
100 ,000,000
85.000.000
70.000.000
55.000.000
40.000.000
30.000.000
Int. Relations, 1925

...The most interesting thing, particularly
for us, (Institute of Pacific Relations, Kyoto),
was the use of the English language, which was the
official language of the conference and of all the
collaboration that took place between any two del­
egations.
English Is becoming the international
language of the East.
The Chinese and the Japan­
ese delegations communicated in English, almost
none of them speaking the opposite language, and
they almost all spoke English... P. 11.
Howland, Chas. P.;. For. Pol. Assn.;
Common Speech, 12-29
A significance more than ephemeral and local
Is being ascribed by European observers to the
recent appearance of the Berliner Tageblatt, a wellknown German Liberal newspaper, in a complete attire
of Roman-letter type, which to most non-Germans is
the last word in legibility and simplicity beside
the Old Gothic...
The step taken by the Tageblatt shows that
Germans today are willing to remove an obstacle
which made access to German newspapers and German
literary and scientific works unnecessarily diffi­
cult to foreigners.
In this respect, Germany was
cut off from Intimate cultural communion with the
rest of civilization almost as Russia and Turkey
were, along with some of the backward Balkan coun­
tries.
With the Turks launched definitely upon
adoption of the Latin alphabet, and with even
Russia determined to relinquish its Greek-Slavonic
system of writing and print, Germany could not
be far behind.
Detroit Free Press; 10-3-28
EDUCATION: Education has an important influence u p ­
on any people;

It largely determines their attitudes and

behavior throughout life.

The teaching of history and

allied subjects has naturally and admittedly tended to
emphasize the national point of view.

National political

127

opinion may have had some influence in this direction
since education is largely a state function.

To unduly

magnify the nation's virtues, or to appear to do so by
too limited a consideration of the other nations, may have
a tendency to leave upon youth a slightly distorted pic­
ture of the true relationship between nations.

In so far

as this is true, it may have been unintentional, but it has
doubtless contributed, along with the press, to such con­
ditions as the following;
•..Ardent French patriots feel too much time
is given to German; on the other hand, ardent
Alsatian "home-rulers11 feel it is too little.
Furthermore, the schools in the recovered provinces
have the same number of classroom hours as schools
of the same grade throughout France and must pre­
pare their pupils for the same State examinations.
But they must devote much more time to French in­
struction than the primary schools in the interior
of France.
In addition they must give each week
three hours of instruction in German, and - a
requirement which does not obtain anywhere else
In France - four hours of instruction in religion.
The problem Is a difficult one... For. Pol. Assn.,
Alsace-Lorraine; A Border Problem; 2-19-30
...International morality is impaired, however,
not only by a feeble sense of mutual obligation, but
by 'the' still, more Injurious assumption of conflict­
ing interests between nations... This notion is
partly the product of the false patriotic teaching
of our schools and press, which seek to feed our
sense of national unity more upon exclusive than
inclusive sentiments.
Nations are represented as
rivals and competitors in some struggle for power,
or greatness, or prestige, instead of cooperators
in the general advance of civilization... P. 7
Hobson,J.A.Morals of Economic Internationalism,
1920
National knowledge and loyalty are highly desirable,
but it would appear that It may have been over-emphasized
and may have encouraged a degree of ignorance or misin­
formation regarding the world.

Isolation, even attitudes

128
of opposition, might easily result from such a practice,
to the detriment of both international relations and the
nation itself.

It would appear to be an advantage if

educational authorities were to more widely recognize the
present interdependence of the world.

In doing so, they

might inculcate information regarding conditions in other
parts of the world which would come to be of direct value.
Such a policy Is a difficult matter, however, in the ab­
sence of the knowledge and cooperative feeling that would
naturally flow from a definite international organization*.
It appears that education is already beginning to ex­
pand beyond national attitudes.
ally world-wide;

Many subjects are natur­

one U. S. A. citizen has given a two m i l ­

lion dollar library to the League of Nations; text-books
are being revised; research is extending throughout the
world; and schools are accepting students from other
countries.

This seems to indicate a movement toward In­

ternational organization, that is illustrated as follows:
..."Dismal science" was Carlyle's term for
political economy, while he crowded his books with
figures who were the leaders of armies with ban­
ners.
But the authors of a new set of text-books
are presenting the subject as a series of "fairy­
tales", and thus seeking to bring about world
peace by providing this form of history for our
25,000,000 school children.
Emphasis is placed
on "an economic and industrial Interpretation of
the world in place of the age-old story of strife
and bloodshed"...
Lit. Digest; 2-23-29
Yale University is to explore a new vast field
of education with a plentiful purse of $7,500,000,
the aim being no less than to study man and his b e ­
havior, and to coordinate and make more practical
application of the discoveries of all branches of

129
science to the benefit of man and society...
Literary Digest; 3-16-29
Such research seems likely to extend beyond National
boundaries, where the data and facilities of an Interna­
tional organization would at least save much time and
expense.
Examples of Foreign Cooperation:
Geneva School of International Studies.
Students1 International Union, New York.
Sherwood Eddy's Tour, (Group Study)
La Federation Universelle des Associations Chretiennes
d'Etudiants, Geneva.
World Peace Foundation, Poston, Mass.
Institute of International Education, New York.
Belgium Educational Foundation.
Educational Division of the League of Nations Assoc­
iation, New York.
Students' International Union, Geneva
Ecole Internationale De Geneva
Postgraduate Inst, of Int. Studies, Geneva.
League of Nations Int. Institute of Intellectual
Cooperation, Paris.
Universite de Geneve.
Institute J. J. Rousseau, Geneve
Int. Bureau of Education, Geneva
Federation Universitaire Internationale, Bruxelles.
World Union of Women for Int. Concord, Geneva.
English-Speaking Union, New York.
Bureau Int. Humanitaire Zoophile, Geneva.
College Des Ecossais, Montpellier, France
Save the Children Int. Union, Geneva
The World's Alliance of Young Men's Christian Assns.
Women's Int. League for Peace and Freedom, Geneva.
The Boy Scouts Assn., London.
Int. Convention for Prisoners.
SCIENCE, LITERATURE, ART AND PHILOSOPHY:

These

fields assist in developing, recording and measuring the
social values and achievements of man.
social changes.

They mark great

It appears to be possible, through them,

to enrich life, and to make it more worth living.

But it

seems incongruous to try to confine, set off or limit these

130
general fields of thought and activity to any one or to
any few nations; they transcend national boundaries; they
encompass the world, the universe.

These concepts need

recognize no specific country; they apply to all countries;
indeed they may disregard all divisions among men.

The

work of Edison, Shakespeare, Chopin, Kant and numerous
others, is spread over the world regardless of national
boundary.
These facts without seeming to destroy the need or
convenience of separate nations, would appear to reduce
the real importance of such boundaries, and to set up the
necessity of a world viewpoint as more in keeping with
adequate modes of thought and action.

The various politi­

cal subdivisions of a state or nation, however important
they may once have been, tend to become a mere convenience
for administration.

It Is entirely possible, and is worth

consideration, that the nation may, in time, subside in
similar manner If international organization should devel­
op and gradually become effective.

Furthermore, such a

social organization would obviously permit freer coopera­
tion in the peaceful development of all the higher systems
of thought.

Science, literature, art and philosopht are

viewed in this broad manner by many of our best thinkers:
...On the one hand, science, commerce, and
art transcend national boundaries.
They are large­
ly international in quality and method.
They in­
volve interdependencies and cooperation among the
peoples Inhabiting different dountries.
At the same
time, the idea of national sovereignty has never
been as accentuated in politics as It is at the

131
present time.
Each nation lives in a state of
suppressed hostility and incipient war with its
neighbors.
Each is supposed to be the supreme
judge of its own interests, and it is assumed as
a matter of course that each has interests which
are exclusively its own-. To question this is to
question the very idea of national sovereignty
which is assumed to be basic to political practice
and political science.
This contradiction (for it
is nothing less) between the wider sphere of assoc­
iated and mutually helpful social life and the
narrower sphere of exclusive and hence potentially
hostile pursuits and purposes, exacts of educa­
tional theory a clearer conception of the meaning
of ’social1 as a function and test of education
than has yet been attained.
P. 113.
Dewey, John; Democracy & Education, 1916
Thomas Hardy belonged essentially to his
native Dorset, but Dorset could not keep him for
herself.
Nor could England.
Nor could the Anglo
Saxon races.
He was part of the culture of the
world.
It is not indeed the personalities of men like
these, but rather the ideas they inspire and b e ­
queath, that knit the world into oneness...
Gecil, Viscount; American Responsibilities
for Peace, For. Affairs, 4-28.
The Age of Science and Humanity:
The discontenuance of militarism and the diminution of ex­
ploitation setting free boundless energies, giving
opportunity for the growth of knowledge and sympathy,
weakening the force of authority, allow the critical
and Investigative impulses to work themselves out in
discovery, science, Invention and discussion.
The
scientific habit of mind gets the better of mere
faith.
Men wish to know; they are no longer satis­
fied merely to believe... P. 428.
Giddings, F. H.
Descriptive & Historical Sociology 1906
...Science, Learning, Polite Literature, Art in
all its forms, have nothing to do with national dif­
ferences.
Those who follow those pursuits owe as
much to their fellow workers abroad as to those
at home, and are, those especially who devote
themselves to the sciences of nature, which have
least of all to do with the quarrels of men, brought
into profitable cooperation with one another.
Might
noi these learned and scientific classes use their
inxluence to mitigate the asperities of politics
and help the peoples to better understand and
appreciate one another?
P.
135 Bryce, Jas.;
International Relations, 1922

132.
ECONOMIC FACTORS

—

PATENTS AND COPYRIGHTS:
a patent,

---- mrntmrntf

|T

The adequate protection of

trade-raark or copyright throughout the principal

parts of the world where infringement is likely to occur,
is a serious problem to the Inventor or owner.

This field

Is sometimes referred to as "The Protection of Industrial
Property” ,

All laws giving protection are national laws,

and there is some indication that they may be nationally
regarded as revenue producers more than as rightful pro­
tection for the patentees.

Regardless of an international

convention established at Berne,

there is great variance

in the laws enacted b y the different nations.

The writer

has had experience in obtaining and maintaining patents
in many countries.

His own experience,

as well as that of

numerous others, has been almost uniformly unsatisfactory,
- so much so that the desired end has been often defeated.
It may briefly be said that the maintenance of a
patent in a foreign country frequently requires that it
shall be manufactured or "worked” there under a number of
definitely stipulated rules,

and without regard to whether

the nature of the invention or the commercial conditions
will warrant or permit the required conformity.

There is

seldom any elasticity, and there is no international pro­
vision,

say, for what may be a commercial necessity of

"working” portions of the manufacture in different states.
Unless the invention can be operated on a fully national
footing, protection appears to be more or less denied.

In­

ternational trade-mark practice Is even more complicated,

133

and the copyright protection does not appear to be adequate.
The protection of international industrial property
would seem to call urgently for the supervision and h a r ­
monizing influence of an international organization.

The

following items only briefly illustrate the present com­
plexity in this field...Patent laws are another source of dif­
ficulty.
In France, for example, an article has
to be manufactured in the country before it can
be patented, and therefore the foreign manufact­
urer to protect himself, has to put up works in
France.
Burns, C. D . ;
Industry & Civilization
1925
In order to obtain the grant of a patent in
Argentina the application must be made before the
invention has been used there or before sufficient
publicity has been given in books, pamphlets, or
periodicals, either in Argentina or abroad, to
such an extent as to enable one to put the Inven­
tion into practice.
P.
126
Trading under the Laws of Argentina; U. S.
Dept, of Commerce.
Revocation for Nonworking.
The life of a
patent is subject not only to the payment of the
annuities as they fall due, but also to the manu­
facture or working of the Invention for practical
purposes.
A patent may be revoked completely or
partially if the patentee or his attorney does not
put the patent into practice in Czechoslovakia or
if steps are not taken to insure the working of
the invention.
P. 64. U. S. Dept, of Commerce,
Trade Information Bulletin #444
Compulsory Working.
At any time not less than
four years after the date of a patent, any person may
apply to the High Court or to the Supreme Court of
Victoria for an order declaring that the patented
article or process Is not manufactured or carried
on to an adequate extent in the Australian Common­
wealth.
If the court is satisfied that the patented
article or process is manufactured or carried on,
exclusively, or mainly outside the Commonwealth,
then, unless the patentee proves that the article
or process is manufactured or carried on to an ade­
quate extent in the Commonwealth, or gives satis-

134
Factory roc.sons why such, manufacture is not carried
on, the court will make the order to take effect
either immediately or at the expiration of a
reasonable period... Bureau of For. & Domestic
Commerce, Trade Inform.
Bulletin #412
TAXES

WORKINGS

AUSTRALIA
At end of 7th year §37.
BELGIUM
2nd to 20th y e a r s _inclusive;
progressive from §11 to $39.

Within four years from
patent d a t e , annually
thereafter.
Within one year of first
working'In any foreign
country, and annually.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA
2nd to 15th years inclusive;
"Within three years from
progressive from $16 to $66
grant, annually thereafter.
FRANCE
2nd to 15 years inclusive;
Three years from applica­
progressive from 720 to §29.
tion date, and every two
ye ar s.
GERMANY
No working.
2nd to 18th years inclusive ;
progressive from $19 to $302.
GREAT BRITAIN
Within 3 years from grant,
5th to 16th y e a r s (Inclusive;
annually thereafter.
progressive from §34 to $87.
ITALY
2nd to 15th years inclusive;
Within two years from
grant, and every two years.
progressive from §15 to §55.
JUGOSLAVIA
Within three years of
2nd to 15th ye a r s iinclusive;
publication of grant,
progressive from 014 to $42.
annually thereafter.
Whittemore, Hulbert, Whittemore and Belknap;
Patent & Trademark A t t y !s., Detroit.
INTERNATIONAL TRANSPROTATION:

This subject has grown

from a more or less casual and intermittent trade to a
condition of vital necessity for nearly all of the nations.
Railroads, trucks and ships must operate continually b e ­
tween the nations In order to transport persons, mail,
food, medicines, raw materials and other commodities, upon
which the daily existence and the social and industrial

135

fabric of masses of human beings depend.

This type of

transportation is a huge international enterprise In its
very nature, yet is subject to national law and control.
As a result, the enterprise, which may be called the
blood system of the world, has been gradually surrounded
and often handicapped by conflicting national regulations.
There are detailed rules covering design, material, equip­
ment, personnel, inspection, operation,

entry and exit,

cargo classification, wages, prices, hours, loading, de­
murrage, routes, pilotage, quarantine, war service, and
many other matters.

Such rules are necessary, but being

made by nations, they are far from uniform;
duplicate and discriminate;

they conflict,

a carrier must conform when in

the jurisdiction of any nation which may lay along his
route.

Normal competition is often destroyed by national

labor laws, subsidies and other wide differentiation.
Some companies were forced to discontinue by the La Folette
Se ama n’s Law.
An illustration of the increasing importance of in­
ternational shipping is furnished by the following table
which includes

the ships from all nations which may have

touched at any U. S. A. port for a period of years:
United States Passenger Movement at the prin­
cipal, ports from and to foreign countries.
Figures
for immigrants and nonimmigrant aliens cover admis­
sions only.
In addition, there are debarred aliens
among the arrivals who, after being examined, are
found inadmissible and returned to the countries
whence they came.

136
1925
1926
Arrivals
797,674
866,863
Departures
549,813 600,235
P.
104. Stat. Abstract of
1929; Dept, of

1927
1928
916,521 - 931,586
623,296 703,931
the U. S.,
Commerce.

Cargo Tonnage of Water-Borne Imports and ex­
ports.
In thousands of cargo tons of 2,240 pounds.
This and the following tables do not include cargoes
(small In aggregate) carried by ships of less than
100 tons gross capacity.
Total
Imports
Exports
1921
33,057
48,431
1922
44,682
42,502
1923
43,296
49,080
1924
40,899
52,261
1925
43,135
49,666
1926
44,686
68,140
1927
42,183
46,935
1928
45,642
57,035
P. 445.
Stat. Abstract of the U. S.;
1929; Dept, of Commerce.
international shipping is such an important factor
in timp of both peace and war,

that for world economy and

safety, the nations might well improve the conditions by
cooperation under some International body.

The Atlantic

Ice Patrol and other efforts In this direction are already
noticeable•
After seven years of negotiation, Canada
and the United States have reached an agreement
providing for reciprocal exemption from taxation
in the two countries of the income of vessels of
foreign registry operating on the Great Lakes and
connecting streams.
The agreement, reached at a conference between
representatives of the two governments at the
treasury department Involves many millions of
dollars...
Detroit Free Press;
9-27-28
Obstructions to Transportation - Summary A.
Hail Transport - The Committee demands a return
to pre-war facilities for international rail trans­
port, and a general extension thereof.
The principal
subjects considered were the unification of regula­
tions, the classification of goods and standardiza­
tion of rolling stock and equipment, the uniform in-

137

troduction of summer time and the 24 hours time table.
B*
SesL ahd Wateirway Transport - The Committee demands
equalit# of tfeatmenk in irlternatiohal trade for all
vessels of all flags oh all seas and in all ports*
Ibis point is dealt With lihdef flag discrimination*
State shipping and double taxation* as also in con­
nection with onerous regulations of various kinds*
Although to a certain extent a matter of details
the Danube navigation problem is one presenting an
opportunity for early consideration with a view to
readjustment, and the Committee has annexed to its
Resolution a memorandum of detailed suggestions.
C.
Air Transport - The Committee is convinced that
in its initial stages air transport should be freed
from all barriers to its development.
The chief
points considered were uniformity to its develop­
ment.
The chief points considered were uniformity
of air legislation, unification of air postal reg­
ulations, improvement in the conditions of the air
postal service and the simplification and accelera­
tion of customs passport facilities for air travel...
P. 24.
B - 3. Subsidies - Considers the continuance of the
wide-spread practice of subsidizing shipping to be
undesirable as Introducing an uneconomic element into
business and disturbing markets.
P. 25.
Int. Eco. Conf., Pinal Report Trade Barriers
Com. Int. Cham, of Com., 1927, L. of N. C. E. 1.51
RAW MATERIALS:

The sources of a great many commodi­

ties are still determined by geographical conditions.
tain foods,

Cer­

and drugs,also aluminum, helium, manganese,

nickel, potash, radium,

tin, tungsten, oil, rubber, and

numerous other needed Items must be obtained where they
are to be found.

The present control of all raw materials

is still under the various national governments,

and they

have authority to place any restriction upon distribution
or to deny it altogether if they desire.

They have, in

some cases, adopted arbitrary methods of raising prices on
materials which they control;
pendent peoples.

they have also imposed ex-

These discriminations between nations

138

rest upon the theory of national sovereignty, but the;"
involve potential social conflict.

Under the present

arrangement, the acts of one or more nations can precip­
itate war.

The situation Is a growing menace to peace,

especially since some commodities are diminishing while
demand Is Increasing.

It would therefore appear that the

guiding hand of some permanent and competent international
body will be required,

and should be available before the

situation becomes acute.
President Hoover is ably competent to explain this
discrimination,

and his views are supplied here, together

with the opinion of an international economic conference.
A table is also attached showing the sources of 194 drugs
upon which world health Is dependent:

-

The world has often enough seen attempts to
set up private monopolies, but It is not until
recent years that we have seen governments revive
a long-forgotten relic of mediacvallsm and of war­
time expediency by deliberately erecting official
controls of trade in raw materials of which their
nations produce a major portion of the w o r l d ’s
supply, and through these controls arbitrarily fix­
ing prices to all of the hundreds of millions of
other people In the world.
It is this intrusion of
governments Into trading operations on a vast scale
that raises a host of new dangers - the inevitable
aftermath of an^ such efforts by political agencies
to interfere with the normal processes of supply and
demand.
Our experience of the last twelve months
with these controls laas developed a series of fund­
amental questions which we can no longer ignore and
regarding vdiich we must determine upon a national
policy.
These questions concern not only our own
welfare but also the welfare of consumers In fifty
or more nations,
Wc can not solve these by acquiescence or
acceptance, and we will only compound and aggra­
vate them by retaliatory action.
On the other hand,
if wo are able to evolve, the basis for a broad

139

constructive solution I believe we shall also make
an important practical contribution to the promotion
of stable international relationships.
Extent and Character of "Controls":
There are
at present governmentally controlled combinations in
nine raw materials - Egyptian long-staple cotton,
camphor, coffee, iodine, nitrates, potash, mercury,
rubber, and sisal.
At present prices, if we maintain
our present rate of consumption, these commodities
will cost us about §1,200,000,000 for 1926...
Deeply sensible of the necessity for good will
as the foundation of all world commerce, the Depart­
ment of Commerce has been extremely loath to raise
these questions, and has done so only because it felt
the weight of responsibility which we as a Government
must have to our citizens on the one hand and to the
future of wholesome world relations on the other.
For. Combinations to Control Prices of Raw
Materials.
Fundamental Aspects of the
Situation, Hoover,- Herbert, Sec. of Com.
Prohibitions of Importation and Exportation.
(Free Movement of Raw Materials - Export Duties)
Summary The Trade Barriers Committee recommends the
conclusion at the earliest possible moment of an in­
ternational Convention for the abolition of prohibi­
tions of importation and exportation; and urges the
free movement of raw materials.
P. 30
b) Free movement of raw materials:
Whereas the question of raw materials is a
world problem the solution of which must be sought
not
In the p- rticular interest of any one country
but
in the general interest of mankind;
Whereas in the case of many raw materials the
supply will be less and less able to meet the demand;
Whereas once its national demand has been sup­
plied, every country producing raw materials is in
duty bound to place the excess at the disposal of
all other nations;
Whereas obstructions to the free movement of
raw materials are barriers to the progress of human
Industry and calculated to produce International
conflicts;
The Trade Barriers Committee is of opinion
That States should not Impose export duties, nor
restrict production, nor regulate prices.
That it would be better to leave any reasonable
control that might be necessary to private initiative,
but such measures should never by unduly raising the
prices of raw materials, adversely affect the devel-

14.0

opment of the use of such raw materials by industry*
and thus interfere with good international relations;
International ententes for the control of raw
materials ought, in keeping with the responsibility
assumed, to provide necessary supplies to consumers
on terms compatible with the public Interest.
P. 31.
Int. Eco. Conf.; Final Report Trade Barriers
Com., Int. Cham. Com., 1927; League of
Nations, - C. E. 1.51
RAW MATERIALS:

Pharmaceutical supplies only:

DRUG
Aconite Lvs
)
Aconite Root
)
Adonis Vernalis Herb
Alkanet Root
Almond
Aloes Curacao
Angelica Seed
Anise Seed, German
Areca Nut
Arnica Flowers
Arnica Root
Asparagus Root )
Asparagus Seed )
Balsam Copaiba Para
Barberry Bark of Root
Bay Laurel Leaves
Belladonna Leaves )
Belladonna Root
)
Bitter Sweet Leaves
Bitter Sweet Cut Twigs
Bladderwrack Plant
Blessed Thistle Herb
Blue Centaury Flowers
Borage Leaves
Broom Tops
Buchu Leaves
Buckbean Leaves
Buckthorn Bark
Burdock Root
Caj aput
Calabar Beans
Calendula Flowers
C amphor
Cannabis Indiea
Cantharides, Chinese
Cantherides, Russian
Caraway Seed
Cardamon Seed, Decorticated
Cardamon Seed Whole
Cascarilla Bark

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
(France, Switz. Germany &
cultivated In Europe)
Russia/Siberia
SE Europe-Western Asia,
Dutch West Indies.
Western Asia, Morocco
Curacao - Arabia
North. Europe/Lapland
Cultivated in Germany
India
Russia/Siberia
Russia/Siberia
(Germany, cultivated
everywhere.)
Bolivia
Europe / Asia Minor
Mediterranean Region
(Central & Southern Europe
it

tt

it

it

Throughout Europe
tt

tt

Scotland / France
Mediterranean Region
Cultivated in Europe
Italy/Asia Minor
Great Britain/Russia
South Africa
Germany / France
Europe / A s i a
it

u

Isle Boors, Malay Archlp.
West Africa
Italy/Asia Minor
Japan
India
China
Russia
Europe/Siberia
India
India
Bahamas

141

DRUG
Cassia Bark
Celery Seed
Chamomi1 e s , German
Chamomi 1 e s , Roman
Chirita Plant
Cinchona Calisaya )
Cinchona Loxa Pale)
Cinchona Red
Cinnamon, Ceylon
Cinnamon, Saigon
Cloves
Coca Leaves (Cult. & gathered
as soon as mature)
Coculus Indica
Colchicum Root
Colocynth Apples
Colocynth Pulp
Colombo Root
Coltsfoot Leaves
Comfrey Root
Condurango Bark
Conium Seed
Coriander Seed
Couch Grass (Dog Grass)
Cubeb Berries
Dandelion Root
Digitalis Leaves
Ergot
Eucalyptus Leaves
Euphorbia Pilulifera
European Centaury
Eyebright Herb
Fennel Seed
Foenugreek Seed
Frostwort Herb
Galangal
Galega
Garden Celandine
Gentian Root
Ginger, African
Guar ana
Gum Arabic
Gum Asafoetida
Gum Benzoin, Sumatra
Gum Catechu
Gum Gamboge
Bum Guaiac
Gum M^rrh
Gum Senegal Oct. to Dec.
Gum Shellac - Orange, Vdiite

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
China
Europe/Cult, -everywhere
11

tt

1!

1!

tl

tt

Northern India
Peru/Ecuador
it

it

n

it

Ceylon
Ann am
Molucca Islands
Bolivia/Peru
India
Central So. Europe
Italy/Asia Minor
Italy/Asia Minor
East Africa/Mozambique
Russia/Siberia
Europe/Asia
Colombia
Europe/Asia
Asia
Europe/SIberia
Java/Sumatra
Europe
Europe/Wild & Cult.
it

tt

it

Australia (Cult. Calif.)
Australia/Europe & Africa
Europe
it

ii
it

U.S./Canada
China
Europe
tt

it

Sierra Leone, Africa
Br a zi1
Egypt
Turkestan Afganistan
East India (Cult.
Sumatra)
East Indies/Ceylon
Indo China
West Indies/Northern
S. America.
Arabia/East Africa (Aden)
Senegal, Africa
India

142

DRUG
Gum Tragacanth
Hellebore Black
Henbane Leaves
Henna Leaves
Korehound
Hyssop Herb
Ignatia Beans
Insect Flowers
Ipecac, Carthagena
Ipecac, Rio
Jaborand! Leaves
Jalap
Jamaica Dogwood Bark of Root
Johnswort Herb
Juniper Berries
Kino
Kola Huts
Lactucarium
Larkspur Seed
Lavender Flowers
Lemon Balm Leaves & Tops
Licorice Root, Russian
Licorice Root, Spanish
Lily of the Valley
Linden Flowers
Liverwort Leaves
Lovage Leaves
Low Mallow
Logwood
Lungwort Leaves
Lvc op odiurn
I.Ialef ern
Manaca
Marshmallow Flowers
Do.
Leaves
Do.
Root
Matico Leaves
Men thol
Me z er eum Bark
Mugwort Leaves
}''■
u irapuama Root
Musk Root
Hut Gulls
Nutmeg
Nux Vomica
Oil Olive
Opium
Orange Peel Bitter

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
Asia. Minor
Europe
11

Af r i c a/As i a
Europe
n
Phillippines, Cochin,
China
Dalmatia, Persia
Colombia
Brazil
Northern Brazil
Mexico
West Indies
Europe
tt
E. & W. Indies
We s t Afri c a/Cu11 . W .
Indies
S c o 11an d/Ge rmany
Europe
Southern Europe/Cult,
England
'it

51

It

11

in
u

Russia
Spain
Northern Europe
Europe
Northern Europe
Southern
n
Europe
Central America
Europe
TT
1?
Br a zi1
Europe
ii
1!
Mexico to Brazil
Europe/japan
Europe
11

Brazil
Central Asia
Mediterranean Region
Molucca Islands
Cochin, China/East India
Mediterranean
China & Indie.
Asia/Mediterranean Region

143

DRUG
Orange Peel Bitter Shredded
Orris Root
Pansy Herb
Pareira Brava
Parsley Leaves
Parsley Root
”
Seed
Pcllitory Root
Pi chi
Pimento Fruit
Pomogranato Root Bark
Poppy Lea ves
Quebracho Bark
Rhubarb Root
Rosemary Loaves
Rue Herb
Rose Petals Rod
Saffron, Spanish
Sage, Italian, Leaves
Sandalwood
Sanguinaria
Sarsaparilla Honduras
Mexican
Savin, Leafy Tops
Saxifrage Root
Scammony Root, Levant
Quas sia
Sebadilia Seed
Senna Pods
Alexandria Senna Siftings
Senna Tinnev. Leaves
SImaruba Bark of Root
Soap Bark Cut
Southernwood Herb
Spcrmo.ce ti
Squills
Stavesacre Seed
Strophanthus Seed
(Strophanthus Seed)
Summer Savory Leaves
Sundew Herb
Sweet Basil Loaves
Sweet Flag
Sweet M ar jor am
Thyme Loaves
Tonka Beans
Tormentilla

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
Asia/Mediterranean Region
Southern Europe
Europe
Brazil/Peru
Southern Europe
11
n
11

IT

Mediterranean Region
Chile
West Indies
Mediterranean Region
Cult. England/Asia Minor
argentine
China
Me di t err an c an
Southern Europe
ii
ii
asIa Minor/Cult. Europe
'Europe
India
Central America and
Now Mexico
Honduras
Mexico
Europe
n
Southern Europe & Asia
Minor
Jamaica
Southern Europe 8c Asia
Minor, Mexico to
Venezuela.
Egypt/lndia
ii
n
India
Guiana, Brazil
Chi1e/peru
Southern Europe
Mediterranean Region
ii

11

Tropica.l East Africa
Europe
ii
i.si a
Europe
Southern Europe/Asia
Minor
Southern Europe
Guiana
Europe

144

DRUG
Uva Ursi Leaves
Valerian Root
Venice Turpentine
Water Avons
White Bryony Root

COUNTRY OP ORIGIN
Northern Europe
Europe
''
11
Eastern Europe & Asia
Minor

White Agaric
Wood Botony Leaves
Southern Europe
Wormwood Leaves
Europe
Zodoary Root
East India
Taylor, F.-O.; Chief Chemist, Parke, Davis & Co.
April 1930
194 items.
Health is of Importance to the whole world, and
especially where raw materials involve health as shown
above, purely national control can only be a defeatist
policy.

This principle applies to nickel, radium,

rubber and many other common items which also have their
use In health measures.
WORLD MARKETS:-

The advent of Industrialization in­

creased production, reduced prices and enlarged consump­
tion.

One result of this phenomena is the great expansion

of world trade as revealed by the table on page 45.
The wages and social status of thousands of families
throughout the world are now dependent upon the contin­
ued stability of this trade.

Its increasing importance

to each family is shown by the table on page 46.

As

long as raw m tcrials arc available, this world trade
depends upon markets;
uncertain factor.

the ability to soil Is the most

Markets are affected by all of the

elements that enter into the cost and the price of com­
modities, of course, but more cspecir.lly by competition.

145

Under present conditions, national legislation can
favor the business of one country against that of another;
all of the discriminatory practices which operated In U.
S. A. before the advent of its Inter-state Commerce Com­
mission and Federal Trade Commission, are still open to
the various nations.

Many of these methods are unfair;

they nature.lly set up hatreds and reprisals between the
nations.

They are an alarming menace to peace, owing to

the growth of world trade and the vital necessity of
holding foreign markets.

Within U. S. A., the Inter­

state Commerce Commission has succeeded in keeping inter­
state competition upon an equitable footing for the bene ­
fit of both producers and consumers, and has doubtless
forestalled actual conflicts.

It would therefore seem

th at some international organization is urgently needed
to preserve fair competition and normal social relations
between the nations.
The extent to which unequitable international compe­
tition is developing,
English authority,
Commerce;

is described by Hobson - an eminent

and by the United States Department of

also by a. table showing the severe restrictions

against the automotive industry;

and by the final table

which shows the relative importance of U. S. A. foreign
markets.
A. Dept,

Many publications of the League, and the U. S.
of Commerce,

amplify these statements.

There stands the cluster of antagonisms that
arise through the opposing interests of national
groups of traders, manufacturers, and investors
in foreign countries, relating to the acquisition

146
and enjoyment of favorable access to certain essen­
tial raw materials and a 1 fair share 1 of the export
market.
The tangle of these issues, generalized as
?economic imperialism 1 and involving the closest
union between real politics and economics in the
modern world, is the gravest challenge to the art
modern world, is the gravest challenge to the art
of social government.
P. 23.
It is based upon the
principle that the settlement of a trade dispute,
being a social interest, demands a method of settle­
ment compatible with that principle.
P. 31
Hobson, J. A . , The Conditions of Ind. Peace, 1927
Vi/hat complicated methods must often be used by
American exporters to overcome these impediments may
be seen by the following, written before the war began?
To reach Vancouver, our steel exporters were con­
fronted by a railroad freight rate from Pittsburgh to
Vancouver of $18 per ton, while the English steel m a n ­
ufacturer could reach Vancouver on already established
lines of steamers from Liverpool to Vancouver at §7
per ton. When his steel reached Vancouver the Eng­
lish manufacturer paid one-third less of the prefer­
ential Canadian tariff than the American manufacturer.
P. 45.
it is common knowledge among experts in foreign
trade that certain middlemen have made It a practice
to secure the distributing agency of an American man­
ufacturer and use the knowledge gained thereby to
imitate our goods and secure the secrets of manufact­
ure and business method in order to supply goods of
an inferior quality make in Europe.
In certain quar­
ters this practice has been so marked that they are
known as '’danger points".
The plan is simply to keep
the American agency alive on a fairly active basis,
and use it as a cover for supplying European-made
goods at lower prices.
P. 239
In various markets American manufacturers and
producers must deal with highly effective combina­
tions of foreign buyers.
Thus exporters of lumber
find such combinations in Australia' and on the con­
tinent of Europe.
Cottonseed products are handled
by combinations of buyers in Holland, Denmark, and
Germany; and Austrian cotton-textile manufacturers
have a buying combination to import their raw cot­
ton.
The cooperative Wholesale Society (ltd.), an
astonishingly comprehensive wholesale buying organ­
ization maintained by 1,400 cooperative societies
in Great Britain, has one buyer in New York who
annually purchases millions of dollars 1 worth of
American products.
Four London firms, known as the
Fixing Board, daily set the price of silver for the
world, and American mining companies must sell their

147

silver for either the English or the great Indian
market to one of these four houses.
For years the
copper trade of the world has been ruled by a vast
German metal-buying organization centering in the
Metalbank and Metallurgische Gesellschaft A. G . , of
Frankfort on the Main.
This combination has subsid­
iary and affiliated companies in Germany, England,
France, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Africa, and
Australia, controls copper and lead mines and smel­
ters In the United States, Mexico, and other coun­
tries, and words in agreement with other German
metal-buying concerns.
P. 367.
Selling in
Foreign Marketsj
Dept, of Commerce, 1919
Motor-cars
Country
Trucks & Tractors
Duty or Permit
Austria
n
Quota of only 300 per yr
Czechoslovakia
11
11
n 1000
u
Poland
'
Permit required.
France
”
45% and by weight.
Australia
Chassis
_
40%
”
Any body
$300 each, regardless
of type.
U. S. Dept of Com., Detroit Office, 4-30.
Exports of Leading Commodities (Values in
millions and tenths of millions of dollars.
Re­
exports are not included)
Commodity
(Value - 1928)
Cotton unmanufactured...million lbs.
920.0
Petroleum and products
525.5
Refined o i l s ...million bbls.
464.9
Crude O i l ...... do....
26.8
Automobiles, parts & accessories..
thous ands....
500.2
Machinery.
.....................
497 .2
Industrial.............
226.6
Agricultural & implements...
116.5
Electrical & apparatus.....
89.0
Wheat, including flour ... million bush..
193.7
Wheat, grai n...d o ....
119.9
Packing-house products...million lbs...
187,2
Meat produets...d o . . 7
67.7
Fats and oils...do...
119.4
Lard
do . . .
98.7
Iron & steel mill products..1,000 tons..
179.7
Copper, including ore & manufactures....
million lbs....,
169,8
Tobacco unmanufactured...... do....
154.5
Cotton manufactures, Including yarns,
e t c .....
134.7
Cloth, duck tire f abric.........
million sq. yards.....
79.3

148
Commodity
(Value - 1928
129.3
Fruits ^nd n u t s .......................
108.8
Sawmill products........
Boards 2c timber..million be. ft.
108.0
Coal and coke
million tons......
99.5
Iron & steel advanced manufactures...
82.6
Chemicals (coal tar, medicinal, Indus.)
75.3
Rubber and manufactures.
...........
69.5
Automobile casings...thousands ...
31.1
Leather...................... .........
55. 2
48.4
Barley and m a l t .. .million b u s h ......
Furs and manufactures..............
39.5
Wood manufactures, advanced
37.5
30.9
Paper a d manufactures...............
Oilcake and m e a l .. .million b i s ......
27.2
IIaval stores, gums and resins........
26.4
Pigments, paints and varnishes......
25.6
24.7
Tobacco manufactures.................
24.2
Books and printed m atter.............
Fish. . . ........... . ............... .
20. 8
Photographic g o o d s ...........
20.2
Dairy Products.............
18.5
Rye, including f lo u r ...million bush..
17.6
P. 23.
U.S.;., Dept. Com.; Trade Inf. Bui. #602, 1929
TARIFFS:

In general,

three explanations have been

advanced to justify national tariffs:
1.
tection.

It is argued that " infant industries*’ need pro­
Where the industry is essential to a policy of

economic nationalism in a disorganized world, protection
may be justified, but It is often a high price to pay,
and would be unnecessary If the world possessed an ade­
quate social organization,
2.

Tariffs are advocated for national revenue.

is convenient to tax goods
plan Is not necessary,

It

at ports of entry, but this

and it is not always equitable among

the consumers whose needs and financial status are not
proportionate.

luxury and Income tax would appear to

be a more equitable arrangement.

149

3.

The tariff is used to restrict certain imports

in order that the national employment and standards of
living may be controlled.

This is a sound national argu­

ment in so far as it m a y work.
sult, however:

Several effects may r e ­

If the foreigner cannot sell to us, he

has no medium of exchange with which to buy from us.
And If the tariff is sever, we may have to pay a corres­
pondingly higher price for lower and perhaps inferior
goods.

In this event,

the tariff has benefited a few

producers at the expense of many consumers.

For example,

in U. S. A . , the consumer pays a high price for a suit of
local but inferior wool, whereas the Australian enjoys
his superior wool but is deprived of a motor car from U.
S. A. or obliged to pay an exhorbitant price for It.
Although tariffs have a certain neutralizing effect,
they also cause discrimination both within the nation and
between nations.

They are an outgrowth of political ex­

pediency, extreme nationalism, and a disorganized world.
Above all, they menace the normal and desirable social
interaction in a highly interdependent world.

Sir Clive

Morrison-Bell, M. P. exhibits a large model of Europe
with national tariff walls which show the relative b a r ­
riers between the nations,
national individualism.

and the consequent effect of

It is Impossible to include here

the scores of evidence of Ill-feeling which tariffs are
causing between the nations, but it is surprising to any
investigator.

Twenty thousand lace workers in Calais,

150

whose employment is threatened by new tariffs, paraded in
front of the American consulate; Germany has raised her
wheat tariff against a foreign influx; France and other
countries have almost prohibited the entry of motor cars.
The whole situation disregards natural advantages, threat­
ens every nation,

and seems to call for immediate scien­

tific study and supervision by an international organi­
zation.
The recent tariff consideration in U. S. A. has
brought out the following impressive judgment:

-

More than 1,000 economists representing 179
colleges throughout the country joined in a
letter to President Hoover and the congress today
protesting against enactment of the tariff bill
and asking that It be vetoed If passed...
Dr. Clair Wilcox, associate professor of
economics at Swarthmore college, presented the
statement on behalf of the economists, who In­
cluded Irving Fisher, Yale; Frank W. Taussig,
Harvard; Frank A. Fetter, Princeton; Wesley C.
Mitchell, Columbia; Henry R. Seager, Columbia;
J. Laurence Laughlin, Chicago; Willford I. King,
New York University; M. B. Hammond, Ohio State;
E. M. Patterson, Univ. of Pennsylvania; Emory R.
Johnson, dean of Wharton school, Univ. of Pen­
nsylvania, and H.. S. Person, managing director
Taylor society...
Few people could hope to gain from a change,
the statement said, adding that the vast majority
of the farmers would lose.
American export trade
in general would suffer and unemployment would not
be lessened.
”Finally ," it concluded, "wo could urge our gov­
ernment to consider the bitterness which a policy
of higher tariffs would Inevitably Inject into our
international relations.
Det. Free Press; 5-5-30
ECONOMY AND EFFICIENCY:

Within each nation economy

and effici oncy have received much study.

its results may be

seen in the functioning of a mechanical process, a rail­

151

way system, and. in any large and successful undertaking.
But back of it is always an organization and human coop­
erative effort.

Organization and cooperation are funda­

mental social processes of immeasurable value to society,
and It seems strange that they have been so lrrgcly eonfined within national boundaries.

They seem even more

necessary in the complex, Interdependent relationship
that now exists between the nations.

Each nation has

developed a complete social system of Its own, but when
they meet, they do not harmonize;

there is difference,

opposition and conflict which is very costly to all of
the peoples concerned.
Economically,

there appears to be needed standards of

quality, grade, weight, measure,
cedure.

and of all forms of pro­

Socially, facilities are needed for freer inter­

action and exchange; national cultures will broaden,
pand and profit by greater contact.
likely to be reached, however,

ex­

These ends seem u n ­

except through Interna­

tional organization for cooperation.

Some effort has been

made in this direction by international administrative
bodies as described by Potter;

the International Insti­

tute of Scientific Management has been recently estab­
lished; but much irregularity still applies, and the
following extracts from the report of the International
Economic Conference show a sample of It in Customs
matters;

152

There has appeared in recent years another
device for use in world government, namely the
Int. Administrative Bureau.
We have seen that the
outstanding defect of arbitrary or judicial settle­
ment is that such a process can be applied only
when a dispute has arisen between nations...An in­
stitution is needed to take care now and in the
future of the normal current day by day business
of international relations, the great bulk of which
goes forward without contention, dispute or intcruption.
Simple personal diplomacy cannot perform
this task... Speaking broadly the Bureau does not
affect national policies or international politics,
and its work is done unostentatiously and silently
in the world of business and private affairs* P. 269.
Some International Administrative Bodies:
Int. Geodet Union, 1864
Univ. Telegraph Union, 1865
Lighthouse at Cape Spartel, 1865
Pruth River Commission, 1866
Int. Penitentiary Union.1872
Int. Metrical Union, 1875
Fin. Commission for Turkey, 1878
Union on Railway Frt. Trans, in Europe, 1878
Fin. Commission for Egypt, 1880
Union for Publication of Customs Tariffs, 1880
Union for Protection of Indust. Property, 1880
" of Lit. and Artistic 11
, 1880
Sanitary Coun. for Egypt, 1881
Coun. for Sanitation of the Danube, 1881
Int. Maritime Conf., 1889
Pan-American Union, 1889
Union for suppression of African Slave Trade, 1890
International Sanitary Union, 1892
Fin. Commission for Greece, 1897
Hague Arb. Convention, 1899.
Union for Regulation of African Liquor Traffic, 1899
Coun. for Exploration of the Sea, 1899
Int. Labor Office, 1900
Maritime Customs Board for China, 1901.
Plague Surveillance In China, 1901,
Conf. on Unification of Formulas of Potent Drugs, 1902
Pan-American Sanitary Convention, 1902
International Sugar Union, 1902
International Assn. of Seismology, 1903
International Institute of Agriculture, 1905
Wireless Telegraphic Union, 1906
Pan-American Scientific Congress, 1907
International Office of Public Health, 1907
Central American Union, 1907
Union for Standardization of Electrical Units, 1908
International Opium Commission, 1909

153
International Comm, on Map of the World, 1909
South American Postal Union, 1911
International American High Commission, 1915
P. 271.
Potter, P. B . ;
Intro, to Study of Int. Org. 1922
B.G.The attention of the Trade Barriers Committee
has been called to the health regulations Included
in the customs regulations of certain countries.
These health regulations apply to canned fruits,
canned meats and canned vegetables, as well as many
food-stuffs; they also apply to certain preparations
pertaining to the chemical industry.
The Trade Bar­
riers Committee notes that the application of such
regulations complicates customs formalities, delays
deliveries and even leads to the rejection of goods,
and in consequence hampers international trade.
Moreover the Trade Barriers Committee questions
whether regulations of this kind are not in some
cases merely cleverly disguised protection.
It re­
cords its hope that all such regulations whether
applied to food-stuffs, agricultural or horticul­
tural produce or Industrial products shall become
the subject of well-defined international conven­
tions to remove their objectionable features, and
agreement between the nations so rs to prevent
their becoming the refuge of covert protection. P. 34,
B. 9- The trade Barriers Committee subscribes
to the following recommendation of the British Nat­
ional Committee.
11 The Trade Barriers Committee recommends that
the possibility should be considered of having only
one international customs staff at each frontier, in­
stead of two national staffs as at present, so as to
simplify and reduce the costs of customs Inspection.
This might be done either by an international conven­
tion, or by bilateral agreements.” P. 35
B. 10- Excessive consular fees:
a) Legalization fees should not exceed a moder­
ate sum to be determined after inquiry, and should
not be looked upon as a source of revenue.
The cal­
culation of such fees according to the value of the
goods is to be condemned, as the application of such
a practice is equivalent to the levying of ” ad
valorem” customs duties.
However even with the
adoption of fixed fees,' It Is necessary by means of
a sliding scale to protect shipments of small value
against excessive charges.
P. 35.
...The Trade Barriers Committee recommends:
1)-That at the earliest possible moment all
customs administrations should receive from their
Governments the necessary Instructions to prevent
all arbitrary acts in connection with customs reg­
ulations ;

154

2) That an International convention should be
prepared to regulate and facilitate the passage of
frontiers by news photographers and motion picture
men with their instruments, for instance by the
creation of a distinctive emblem similar to that
used by touring automobiles;
3) That a postal convention be entered into by
all countries to permit the rapid transmission of
documents, photographic films and plates under a
distinctive emblem as above.
P. 36.
■V. International Industrial Ententes - Sum­
maryThe Trade Barriers Committee suggests the
extension of international industrial ententes as a
means of lowering costs, preventing stagnation of In­
dustry, or the formation of private monopolies which
are frequently the result of improvident competition
between producers, and making technically possible,
commercial agreements which tend to bring the nations
closer together morally.
The Committee Insists upon
the necessity of safeguarding the interests of labor,
of commerce and of the public.
It feels that the
present state of Europe indicates tho utility of such
ententes to insure security of employment, and con­
tinuity and regularity In the supply of goods.
P. 37
Int. Sco, Conf., Pinal Report Trade Barriers
Com. ,
Int. Cham. -Com. , 1927, League of
Nations, - C. E. 1.51
111.
Methods of Assessment for the Application
of Ad Valorem Duties - NoteA1though the Information contained in the note
has been very carefully collected and is derived for
the most part from official sources, It is possible
that It contains minor errors and that, moreover,
modifications In the regulations of certain countries
may have been made since tho collation of the data.
The aim of the note is simply to set out the different
methods of application of import duties to which the
system of Imposing ad valorem duties has given use.
P. 20.
(Attached to Tables 1 and 11.)
Int. Eco.
Conf., Geneva, 1927,
L. of N.. - C. E. 1.28.
V. Consular Charges.
...This table Is not complete and, as tho data
which it contains, are derived partly from non-official
sources, it is impossible to -vouch for their accuracy
In every case; further, since tho compilation of those
data, changes may have been made In those very pro­
visions which the table is designed to show...P. 38.
(Attached to table 111) Int. Eco. Con. Geneva,
1927, L. of N., C. E. 1.28

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(1) Only for the following products: (a) essential oils and non-deterpinated, non-specified essences; (b) essential oils and deterpinated essences; (c) synthetic perfumes and con­
stituents of non-specified essences; (d) non-specified alkaloids and their salts, p. 21. Int. Eco. Conf. Geneva 1927, L. of N. C. E. 1.28

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157

3.

C o u n tr y

C O N S U L A R C H A R G E S L E V IE D F O R T H E L E G A L IZ A T IO N O F D O C U M E N T S
R E Q U I R E D B Y T H E C U S T O M S (c o n tin u e d )
Invo ices

C o lo m b ia

3 % o f invo ice v a lu e in C o lo m ­
b ia n d o llars.
1 $ C o l. = $ 0 .9 7 .

Cuba

In v o ic e s below 5 pesos gold
10 c e n ta v .; 5 to 50 pesos gold
50 c e n ta v .; 50 to 200 pesos, 2
pesos; invoices o f 200 pesos or
u p w a rd s , 25 centavos e x tra fo r
each 100 pesos a d d itio n a l o r
fra c tio n th e re o f,
1 peso gold
( = 1 $ ).

C zecho ­
s lo vakia

D o m in ic a n
R e p u b lic

B /L

O th e r D o c u m e n ts

M a n ife s t:
1.50 p er
1000 on to ta l v a lu e o f
cargo.
1 d o llar

F o r im p o rta tio n o f
B r itis h goods ( T r e a ty o f
J u ly 1 9 2 3), $ 3 .65 ; and
h a n d lin g fee o f $ 0.0811.
$1 fo r consignm ent o f goods
b elo w 50 dollars v a lu e ; $3 fo r
5 0 -2 0 0 d ollars v a lu e ; 0.2 5 d o lla r
fo r e v e ry $100 a d d itio n a l.

E s to n ia

Ecuador

C e rtific a te s o f O rig in

$ 1,014 u p to L 1 0 ; fro m
L 1 0 to L 1 0 0 , $2 ,02 8 ;
o ver L 1 0 0 , ^ 2 % .
U p to 100 sucres v a lu e , 2
sucres
( = $ 0 .4 4 ); abo ve 100
sucres, 4 % o f d eclared v a lu e .
A d d itio n a l charge o f 1 % i f th e
in v o ic e is presented a fte r th e
ship has sailed.

F in la n d

4 0 % on % o f th e
consular charges a t ­
tac h in g to th e invo ice.
A d d itio n a l charge o f
1 0 % i f th e d oc u m e n t
is presented a fte r th e
ship has sailed.
$2,028.

F ra n c e

F re e o f charge

G e rm a n y

N o t re q u ire d b u t if le g a liza ­
tio n is d em and ed th e charge is
$ 2 .4 3 3 6 .

G re a t
B r it a in 1

N o special fee.
Sh ou ld this
service be re q u ire d , th e fee w o u ld
be p re s u m a b ly t h a t fo r affixin g
consular sig n a tu re and seal if
re q u ire d to a n y d o c u m e n t n o t
o th erw ise p ro v id e d fo r in th e
ta b le o f consular fees, i.e ., 7s.
6d. ($ 1 ,8 2 5 ).

20
gold
$ 3 ,85 9 )

francs

(=

A n d filin g c o p y ; for
consignm ents n o t exceed­
ing L 2 0 in va lu e 5 / ( = $ 1 .2 2 ); exceeding L 2 0
in va lu e 1 0 /- ( = $ 2 .4 4 )

No special fee.
S hould th is service be
re q u ire d , th e fee w ould
p re s u m a b ly be as in d i­
cated in colum n 2 fo r
invoices.

l. T h e consular fees charged b y th e B ritis h consular officers are th e same w h e th e r th e y re la te to tra d e w ith th e U n ite d K in g d o m
or w ith th e D o m in io n s o r a n y o th e r p a r t ©f th e E m p ire .
A s regards tra d e w ith th e U n ite d K in g d o m , no consular c e rtific a tio n o f d ocum ents appears to be re q u ire d .
fees w o u ld be as in d ic a te d in th e schedule, p. 4 0 . I n t . E co . C o n f. G e n e v a 1927, L . o f N . , C . E ., 1.28.

I f i t w ere, th e

158

FINANCE:

J. Maynard Keynes of the British. Treasury

states that the gold of the world is worth only ten-thou­
sand million dollars, which is a more

11 drop

in the

"bucket” compardd to tho extent of world trade.

He reminds

us that gold is a more symbol of value for credit and occ.-sional adjustment.

This moans that world trade must be

conducted almost entirely by an exchange of goods - we
cannot sell unless wo buy.

In early times goods were

directly traded, but this is rare today, and practically
all trade between nations is based upon an involved
credit,

sometimes called the triangle of exchange.

For

example, Brazil ships coffee to TJ. S. A.; U. S. A. may
send wheat to Europe j and Europe may send fabrics to
Brazil.

In this way each nation is finally paid, but the

sums seldom balance ; they are complicated by ”invisible”
items, fluctuations in currency and other matters.

The

whole financial structure rests upon world credit, and
this is such a highly sensitive form of confidence as to
be subject to all international affairs.

The slightest

disturbance between two nations affects their credit im­
mediately and reacts both upon their own people and upon
those of other nations as well.

When the world war

opened, all credit was suspended instantly by a mora­
torium.
Another factor in world finance is the enormous amount
of public and private foreign loans and Investments.

This

159

fact,

as much, as any other,

ties tlio nations into a unit,

and is illustrated by the following tables which show the
huge sums that U. S. A. has placed in other countries.
Obligations of foreign governments to
All figures in thousands of do 1 1 ar s.
Country
Dec. 31, 1928
Armenia.
17,323
Austria
35,602
Belgium
411,130
174,571
C zechos1ov ak i a
16,071
Estonia
Finland
8,712
4,025,000
France
4,453,000
Great Britain
20,250
Greece
1,932
Hungary
2,027,000
1 1 a.ly
6,635
Latvia
6,262
LI thuania.
302
N i c ar ague.
206,187
Poland
65,661
Rumania
289,073
Rus s ia
62,250
Yugoslavia.
11,327,011
Tot al...
P. 215.
Stat. Abstract U. S., 1929; Dept, of Com.
Tho following is a table showing tho geograph­
ical distribution of loans to Latin American gov­
ernments publicly offered in the United States dur­
ing 1926 and 1927
1926
Issuer
{38,293,000
Argentina
Bolivia.
59,973,950
Brazil
74.330.000
Chile
28,320,250
Colombia
8 ,000,000
Costa Rica.
Cuba
3.300.000
Dominican Ropub.
o ,800,000
Panama
16,000,000
Peru
1.520.000
Salvador
31.671.000
Uruguay
Total. ... . {5T7~,20'87200

1927
{109,352,000
11.885.000
62.280.000
23,383,300
53.200.000
1,800,000
9.000.000
5.000.000
1,500,000
57.960.000

160

President Roosevelt in 1906, made the following
statement:... It is doubtless true that the non-pay­
ment of public debts may be accompanied by such cir­
cumstances of fraud and wrong-rdoing or violation of
treaties as to justify the use of force.
This Gov­
ernment would be glad to see an International con­
sideration of the subject which shall discriminate
between such cases and the simple non-performance of
a contract with a private person, and a. resolution
in favor of reliance upon peaceful means In cases
of the latter class.
P. 64 & 65. Hughes, C. E. ;
Our Relations to the Nations of the Western
Hemisphere, 1928
The people of Great Britain,

Canada and other coun­

tries also invest large sums in other nations; it is est­
imated that Great Britain invests $750,000,000 abroad
annually, and has an income of $ 1
U. S. A. investments alone.

2 0

,0

0 0 , 0 0 0

each year from

Dr. Winkler *s ''investments of

U, S. Qapital in Latin America '1 shows tho extensive in­
terests of the whole world in those countries.

World

stability of currency and credit requires an International
bank In the opinion of financial authorities,

and the n u ­

cleus of such a.n institution has just been set up in
Basic.

Such organizations

are incrceasing social inter­

action between the nations, and point toward a complete
international organization.
BUSINESS ORGANIZATION”

A curious opposition appears

to bo working between politicians and industrialists:
The former, in several nations,

are straining the tariff

to higher levels for revenue and as a protection to cer­
tain classes.

The latter, finding that tariffs h~vc r e ­

duced their foreign sales,

arc establishing or buying

factories in other nations

end oven relating them by

161

huge holding companies whose stock is owned in many n a ­
tions.

In this manner large Industries are surmounting

tariff walls, disregarding national boundaries,
coming world-wide organizations.

and b e ­

Instead of calling for

tariff protection, they often lean toward free trade,
that the product of an efficiently located foreign fac­
tory may freely enter their own and other countries.
A jute consuming plant was moved from Maine to
India, and its product will be imported.

An American

hardware factory has been moved to Germany, and employs
600 men.

It Is said that there are 2000' American fact­

ories abroad.

American shoe, textile,

and other manu­

facturing machinery is being sold abroad in such large
quantities that the export of manufactures is being im­
periled.

Ford tractors are no longer made here, but are

now imported duty free from the Ford factory in Ireland.
This great change Is also seen in Europe and elsewhere.
The price of important commodities is already determined
in a world instead of a national market, and now industry
Itself seems to be locating in the strategic centers of
the world, and becoming truly international in character.
These facts have important social implications.
Bodies of executives, and workers with their families are
being shifted from nation to nation.
around the world.

The world traveller meets them aboard

every train and ship.
three languages.

Officials rush

Their children may speak two or

Objective ability and a world viewpoint

162.

may come to replace emotional nationalism.

There is al­

ready an international society, but its safety appears to
need a corresponding social organization.

This interna­

tional interaction is briefly i l l u s t r a t e d b y the follow­
ing data:
Building of a cooperative refinery in France
by exclusively American Interests, rather than by
an association of all the companies operating in
that country, was indicated by dispatches received
in Wall Street yesterday to the effect that a per­
mit had been requested of the French Government for
the formation of a company by the Standard Oil
Company of New Jersey, the Gulf Oil Company and the
Atlantic Refining Company...
'New York Times; 1-15-30
When the senatorial debaters of the HawleySmoot tariff bill renew their controversy tomorrow,
they will face a serious struggle over an adminis­
trative section which threatens to hamper foreign
expansion of the American automobile industry...
The new section would prohibit the importation
of any goods manufactured abroad by American indus­
tries, would withhold the use of American trademarks
on such goods and would, in effect, wipe out all the
protection of American patents where manufacture of
the articles patented is undertaken abroad.
A host
of protests against the section which has only re­
cently been uncovered, Is expected within the next
few weeks.
Representatives of many of the industries
affected already are preparing to fight the propo­
s a l ’s adoption...
Detroit Free Press; 9-15-29
The holding of concessions in countries where
the government is weak or the administration unde­
veloped, may create a peculiar political situation..*
P. 102.
It is often difficult to say which nation
controls a foreign enterprise; for example the
Huilories de Congo Beige, founded in 1911, affecting
large areas in the Congo basin is controlled by
Lever Bros. (England)
Again, companies change their
domicile to avoid this or that taxation, for example,
the Sennah Rubber Company transferred its offices to
the continent by a vote of the share holders.
P. 103
The Forestal Land Timber and R y s . Company con­
trols the production of quebrocho extract and logs In
Argentina, owns five million acres of land, 200 miles
of railways and some river tugs.
It acquired the

163

New York Tanning Company in 1914, and had entered
some years previously into an alliance with Renner
and Company who controlled nearly all of the extract
factories in Germany, Austria, Russia and France.
In the Forestal Company the distribution of shares
in the hands of various nationalities in 1915 was:
1.325.000 England, 866,000 German, 400,000 French,
386.000 U. S. A., and 86,000 Dutch, besides about
36.000 shares in the hands of other nationalities.
These are of course only slight Indications of the
complexity of modern investment and of the impossi­
bility of distinguishing ’national interest’,...
P. 105.
Burns, C. D . , Industry & Civilization.
The international cartel movement, which has
made remarkable progress since the war, has recently
attracted renewed attention.
Not only have there
been striking developments In the international match
combination - evidenced by its recent luan agreement
with the German government - but the League of Nations
has also instituted Inquiries into the coal and sugar
Industries.
The fact that the new developments are
reaching into the field of consumers’ goods, such as
matches, coal, sugar, rayon, margarine and soap, has
emphasized the public significance of the movement.
...Their revival after the war was however, so
startling in its momentum as to place the movement In
the centre of the discussion which led to the calling
of the World Economic Conference of 1927...
...Gustav Schmollcr estimated the number of
German cartels in 1908 at more than 500, while Pro­
fessor Julius Hirsch places the figure at "more than
2,000” for the year 1926.
...The form of organization likely to succeed in
transferring production to units operating at lowest
costs Is therefore a completely centralized interna­
tional combination, vkhere the national units have b e ­
come subordinate to tho general structure.
...The second general group of combinations r e ­
ferred to above (at present numerically much more
significant than the first group) docs not have as
its central purpose an Increase in efficiency or
lower costs of production.. It exists primarily for
the purpose of controlling tho market in order to
stabilize or to raise prices...
The public aspects of such combinations ore
worthy of serious consideration, and problems arise
which legitimately attract attention of labor groups
as well as of consumers” ...
"As an example - which has many points of special
interest - we might indicate the international copper
cartel which was organized in the United States as

164
Copper Exporters, Inc. on October 12, 1926 under the
Webb-Pomerene Act.
Nearly all of the large American
and foreign producers, are associated with the enter­
prise. . .
The international rayon agreement is a typical
post-war phenomenon - both because of the form of
its structure and because of the nature of its pro­
duct.
Rayon (artificial silk) production increased
from approximately 1,320,000 pounds In 1896 to
265,900,000 pounds In 1927.
The total capitaliza­
tion of the leading rayon concerns in the United
States, England, Italy, Germany and France amounts
at the present time to more than $445,000,000...
...The Match Trust is another typically modern
combination, which has, however, a much greater de­
gree of centralized control than the rayon group,
coupled with an Ingenious scheme of organization,
which in almost all of the countries has given n a ­
tional groups a certain participation in ownership
or management.
The combination grew to Its present
significance during the inflation period when Inter­
ests all over Europe were secured.
The structure
has at its head the Swedish super-holding company,
Kreuger and Toll, which in turn controls the follow­
ing holding companies:
the International Match Corp.,
with approximately one hundred match factories all
over Europe; the Administratie Mij voor Nijverheidswaarden in Amsterdam, which after the manner of In­
vestment trusts has entered a number of other fields
besides the match business; and the Sefor Company of
Stockholm, which has entered the iron ore and banking
business.
The total resources of these concerns
probably exceed $300,000,000...
The conference did not yield to the demands of
those who pressed for the establishment by the League
of a variety of International cartel control.
Its
report points out that this would be too rapid a step
in view of the stage of development of International
law and the prevailing conceptions of national sov­
ereignty, .„
...This higher form, of concentration in manage­
ment, as well as the fact that recent tendencies in
the cartel movement are toward the control of the
market for consumers’ goods, will probably lead to
greater pressure for some form of International
public supervision - If not ultimately control - of
the new International industrial omiership...
...List of international agreements In which
French industries have participated, together with
the year of the establishment of each and the object
for which each was organized.
The official text was
given In Le Temps (Paris), December 23, 1929:

165

Syndicat international des ampoules electriques, 1925
Federation international© du chiffon, 1925
Syndicat international de la colle, 1925
Associa. Internationale des huileries, 1925
Entente Internationale des fabricants de manchons
a incandescence, 1925
International Union of the office appliances trades
association, February 1926.
Cartel europeen des rails Erma, March 11, 1926
Cartel international des tubes, July 30, 1926
Accord international des pneumatiques, Sept. 1, 1926
Cartel europeen de 1 ?aluminium, Sept. 1926
Cartel international des fabricants de materiaux
de rivetage, Sept. 16, 1926
Entente international© de l*acier brut, Sept. 30, 1926
Entente Internationale des laminoirs, Sept, 30, 1926
”
51
si
du for brut, Sept. 30
Entente de la potasse, 1926
Syndicat international du carbure de calcium, Feb. 1927
Cartel international du fil-machine, June 1927.
Federation international© de la sole, Oct. 1927.
Cartel international des trefileries, Nov. 1, 1927
Entente Internationale des fontes, Nov. 1, 1927
Convention Internationale du bismuth, Nov. 1927.
u
11
u de la quinine, Nov. 1927.
"
f1
de 1 *iode, Nov. 1927.
Entente Internationale de ciment, 1927
Association Internationale des teintureries de sole,
1927.
Federation du commerce des articles tresses, 1927.
Cartel international de 1*Industrie du velours et
de la peluche, 1927
Cartel du zinc, May 1, 1928.
Comite international du commerce de gros du cycle
et des accessoiros d ’automobile, May 1928.
Cartel international des boutons metalliques, July 1928
Cartel des Industries de la carbonisation des bois, 1928
Total - 31 international agreements.
For. Pol. Assn.; Int. Ind. Agreements; 2-5-30.

166

SECURITY FACTORS
SERVICES OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS:

The League has been

in operation Lor ten years, and the service it has rendered
during this time will be some indication of v/hat an inter­
national organization can accomplish.

Onl^ a few illustra­

tions can be given here, but the voluminous publications
of tho League are available to anyone.
1.

The Council, being a small body,

meet on a few hours notice,
fifty-four nations,
time of crisis.

is able to

and having the support of

is able to exert extreme pressure in

It prevented a Grcco-Turkish war,

assisted in preserving peace between Paraguay and Bolivia,
and has supervised the major undertakings of the League
in all of Its varied activities.
2.

Tho Assembly provides an open and public forum

where any nation or people who may have a grievance can
be heard,

and insures a measure of equal respect,

and opportunity among nations.
sifting of national opinions,

safety

It provides for the
the levelling of differences,

and final cooperation, due to the great value of face-toface contact and publicity.

It permits the fundamental,

social processes which are so necessary to any achieve­
ment, to function on a large scale between nations, and
thereby curbs., the former isolated and independent nation­
al' behavior wh^ch has so often lead to conflict.

Resolu­

tions by the Assembly constitute a strong influence to­
ward national ratification.

167

3.

The Assembly Committees, being smaller bodies,

examine the details of proposals and reach many tentative
adjustments between the national delegates regarding in­
ternational matters, for final action by the Assembly.
There arc six committees:
financial,

Legal,

technical, disarmament,

social and political. They serve as a liaison

between the Assembly and the Secretariat, International
Labor Office and World Court.
4.

Tho Secretariat is a permanent executive and

technical body of some six hundred persons for the scien­
tific investigation, coordination and

xocution of the

international matters which are under consideration by
the Assembly.

It Is divided into ten sections, and the

personnel of each is well distributed among the nations:
a.

Disarmament:

Nearly all of the necessary nation­

al exchange and preparation toward disarmament, together
with many international conferences for this purpose have
been carried out by this section,
b.

Finance and economics:

This section has amassed

elaborate world data, brought about many intornation

1

economic conferences, established tho Economic Consulta­
tive Committee, is gradually reducing trade barriers,

and

has aided in the financial rehabilitation of several n a ­
tions, notably Austria.
c.

Health:

Conferences and resolutions for the

international restriction of injurious drugs, for the general
improvement of health and sanitary conditions, and cspcc-

168

ially for the establishment of the epidemiological survey,
are only a few achievements of the health section.
d.

Information:

Through this section, detailed in­

formation is available from every portion of the world.
Unprejudiced and accurate data is necessary,

and Is ob­

tained and supplied by this section.
e.

Juridical:

This section has dealt ably with tho

many legal problems involved in any effort of interna­
tional cooperation..
f.

Mandates:

This department has rendered valuable

technical assistance to the difficult administrative
function of the Mandates Commission who have ably conduc­
ted the many mandated peoples since the World War.
g.

Minorities:

The difficult and delicate social

situations in the Saar, Polish Corridor and elsewhere have
been so ably conducted by this section that practically
no conflicts have occurred.
h«

Politics:

From a personal and confidential kn o w ­

ledge of this section, the Yrriter knows that It has suc­
cessfully alleviated many tense situations between var­
ious national governments that were on the verge of conflict.
i.

Social:

The record of this section shows many

achievements in cooperation for the restriction of traffic
in women, children,

and obscene literature, also for the

social amelioration of disturbed peoples throughout the
world.
j.

Transit and Communication:

By means of repeated

169

international conferences,

this section has accomplished

much in the way of reducing national barriers, and in
facilitation standard practices for freer passage between
the nations,
5.
nent,

The International Labor Office is also a perma­

technical and executive body under the Assembly.

It employs over four hundred persons who are well dis­
tributed nationally, and of whom about seventy-five in
1929 were technical experts In labor problems..
0

The I. L.

. functions through the resolutions of an ingenious

annual conference system.
delegates:

Each member-nation sends four

Two represent the government, and the assoc­

iations of employers and of employees, are each repre­
sented by one delegate.

Many improvements in labor con­

ditions have been brought about b y 'resolutions, many of
which have already been ratified by member-states, as
follows:
Ratification
Registered with League of Nations

..354

Conditional or with delayed application
Approved b:y competent national authority

8

362
.
29

Recommended to competent national authority
for approval.................................
Int. Labour Office| August 1929
6

.

World Court:

127

Eleven judges chosen from the lead­

ing jurists of the world and elected by the council and
the Assembly, give their entire time to this court at the
Hague, which is thus available at a moment's notice to
deal with any international juridical question which may

170

have received jurisdiction by the states concerned.
Court may render decisions and advisory opinions.

This
The

general confidence of the world in this Court Is attested
by the fact that forty-two nations have already signed
its

11 optional

Clause” by which they accept its juris­

diction in all juridical disputes between nations.

Up

to July of 1929, it had rendered the following judgments:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6 .
7.
8 .
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6 .
7.
8 .
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Judgments:
SS Wimbledon, Freedon of Kiel Canal.
The Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions.
Interpretation of Reparation clause in Neuilly
Treaty.
As above.
Mavrommatis Jerusalem Concessions.
German interests in German Upper Silesia.
Case concerning German interests in Polish Silesia.
Case concerning factories at Chorzow Poland.
The Lotus case.
The readaptation of the Mavrommatis concessions.
Interpretations of Judgments re Factory at Chorzow.
Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia.
(schools
and language)
Factory at Chorzow, claim for indemnity.
Advisory Opinions.
Nomination of delegates to Int. Labor Conference.
Agricultural labor and the Int. Labor Org.
n
u and the Int. Labor Org.
(Agr. Production)
Nature of dispute about Nationality decrees.
Dispute between Finland and Russia.
Protection of German settlers in Poland.
Acquisition of Pol. nationality by Germ, settlers.
The Jaworzina Boundary question between Poland
and Czechoslovakia.
The Monastery of St. Naoum and Albanian frontier.
Exchange of Greek and Turkish populations.
Polish postal service in free city of Danzig.
Nature of Councils action in respect to frontier
between Turkey and Iraq.
Competence of Int. Labor Org. to regulate, inci­
dentally, the work of the employer.
Jurisdiction of the European commission of Danube
between Galatz and Braila.
Jurisdiction of Courts of Danzig.
Claims of rail­
way officials.
Interpretation of Grcco-Turkish Agrt. Dec. 1, 1926.
Hudson, M. 0.; The World Court, 1922-29
Revised Edition.

171

One or two nations have resigned from the League but
not upon very important grounds.

It has greatly increased

its membership, which now numbers fifty-four nations.
is new, but is growing In service and strength,

It

end the

general opinion of its members is undeniably in Its favor.
Its provision for the functioning of the normal social
processes of man under favorable conditions seems to be
the primary reason for its success.

Taken altogether,

the services rendered by the League are good evidence
that such an organization is needed.

This is supported

by the following opinions^
Wars are precipitated by motives which the
statesmen responsible for them dare not publicly
avow.
A public discussion would drag these motives
in their nudity into the open where they would die
of exposure to the withering contempt of humanity.
The League by developing the habit amongst nations
of debating their differences in the presence of
the world, and of courting the judgment of the
world upon the merits_of their c .s , is gradually
edging .out war as a settler of quarrels.
This Is
the greatest service it can render mankind...P. 80
Lloyd-George; Whither Are We Going?
The most valuable feature of the League of
Nations as organized in 1919 is felt to be its p r o ­
vision for a continuous series of International con­
ferences.
P. 317.
Potter, P. B . ;
Intro, to Study of Int. Org.
1922
The League stands for a synthesis instead of
a conflict of civilization, for tolerance and co­
operation, for an International society of Inter­
related rather than of warring parts, and for the
adjustment of relations and the settlement of in­
ternational disputes by discussion, compromise and
adjudication... P. 180.
Woolf,
Imperialism and Civilization. 1928
The advantages of the League system over the
old conference system ere manifold.
While under

172

the old system a prolonged diplomatic correspondence
was necessary "before holding a conference, any power
at present may present a proposal to the Council or
the Assembly whereupon it will bo discussed.
Indeed,
in some cases, the initiative comes from the standing
commissions.
Moreover, while the old conference
system was embarrassed by 'the difficulty of getting
preliminary agreement upon the main principles of
the desired convention, this work Is now undertaken
by experts, who submit preliminary drafts to their
governments.
Conferences are no^ called, not by a
single state, but by the Council and are paid for
out of the League budget.
The pressure of the
Council, the Assembly and the Secretariat in secur­
ing the signature end ratification of agreements
also explains the remarkable success of the 11 legis­
lative” activities of the League during the last
five years.
P. 658.
Buell, R. L . ;
International Relations, 1925
...It is a well-known fact, universally ad­
mitted, that the successes which have attended so
many of the efforts of the League of Nations have
been due to the scientific preparation of the prob­
lems themselves by the highly qualified Secretariat,
which shapes up its projects solely with reference
to the points at issue and not for the sake of fur­
thering any one n a t i o n ’s case.
P. 155.
Shotwell, J. T . ; Wan as an Instrument of
National Policy, 1929
Only a great organization like the League
could inspire the necessary confidence and make the
n c c o s s m y demands on sensitive national anthority.
And It Is here that it has scored some of its signa.1
successes.
What Is more, through the goner eh econ­
omic and financiah policy for European reconstruct­
ion which It recommended at the Genoa. Conference and
elsewhere, it laid the foundation for the rehabili­
tation of Europe and pointed the way out of the chaos
of currencies which threatened many countries...
Smuts, Jan Christie n; N. Y. Times Magi 10-28-28
...Almost always before or. outside the
League, international conferences have come to­
gether with very little preparation; h w c rushed
hastily through their work; and adjourned without
any kind of follow-up.
The whole atmosphere has
been one of haste and superficiality...
All that wan seen, even in the early days of
the League, to be ending.
No longer is it neces­
sary to have a result, any kind of result, in a.

m i n u t e ’s time.
Instead, the most difficult subject
may be taken up and followed through, stage by
stage, until at last it Is ripe for final settle­
ment...
P. 20.
Swectser, A . ; (An American in the
Inf. Suction, L. of N . ); The Approach to
World Unity, 1930
"Our office is in no sense an agent of coercion
over nations.
But in every part of the world it has
provided a healthy stimulus to legislative reformthrough an aroused public opinion.
Through its
scientific equipment, its moans of Information and
its impartial spirit, it has won confidence every­
where ."...D r . Thelin, I, L. 0.; Dot. News; 2-3-30
...May we sum up the Le ague’s development by
saying that it has made Genova a great international
center without creating a centralized international
authority In this Swiss city.
Steering a difficult
course between the dangers of the superstate on the
one hand and those of the International anarchy on
the other, the League has, I think, introduced
methods of reasonable international collaboration
which no true patriot would now wish to sec
abandoned.
While it is Impossible to predict, and unwise
to prophesy, I am inclined to expect that the League
next decade will be mainly occupied with a careful
development along lines which are already laid down
or projected.
He who expects sensational movements
is likely to be disappointed.
He who recognized
that vast labor must be expended to change trails
now scarcely blazed into travelled highways of In­
ternational Intercourse, is viewing the future of th
League with sober relism... P. 3. Drummond, Sir
Eric; Sec. Gen.; L. of N. News; Jan. 1930
To produce this world-wide result the Govern­
ments, employers and workers of 50 countries have
cooperated.
They are served by the International
Labor Office with its 400 officials drawn from 36
different nations, who have learnt to work together
to a common end.
The necessity of international
action, if the status and fortunes of the worker
are to be raised to a higher level, has now been so
thoroughly proved that what seemed to many an
Idealistic fantasy ten years ago has today become
a solid and indispensable reality.
P. 4.
Butler, H. B . ; Dep. Dir., Int. Labor Office.
L.
of N. News, Jan. 1930

174

CONFORMITY

It is seldom desirable and rarely pos­

sible for a very few members In a group to Ignore or de­
part from the general policy and behavior of the group as
a body.

To try to do so will often incur antipathy and

even serious opposition.

Society enforces a certain de­

gree of conformity to Its edicts and established customs.
Furthermore,

the racalcitrant is likely to suffer much

inconvenience In pursuing an Isolated or individualistic
policy.
Fifty-four nations,

through their League, are ac­

cumulating a sot of standards of procedure in every
phase of international life, and every nation which ex­
pects to have pleasant relations with others, must
obviously accept and conform, to this growing body of reg­
ulations.

It is widely believed that U. S. A. can con­

tribute materially to the formation of international pro­
cedure, and her persistent refusal to openly cooperate
with this large and widely accepted organization has
not increased her standing among the nations.
she must conform,

Since

It would seem to bo advantageous to

participate in the work.

Perhaps the necessity of con­

formity is not yet adequately appreciated in U. S. A.
but the necessity exists;
A year ago, for the first time, too, the
American government almost asked for a particular
invitation.
The question was a technical one, an
effort of a League Committee to work out a uni­
form system for measuring the tonnage of ships;

175

but certain government officials, who cared very
little for domestic politics but a great deal for
American interests abroad, recognized Immediately
that, if the other nations agreed on a uniform
system, the American captain might be politely in­
vited to tie up till the authorities could get
around to studying what his system actually meant.
Consequently, as a mere act of self-protection,
Information was conveyed that, if formally in­
vited, the United States would attend the Com­
mittee...The precedent of spontaneous advance
welcome of a League invitation points, however,
the evolution of the times.
P.
39.
Sweet^cr,
Arthur; (An American In the Inf. Section,
L. of N . ); The Approach to World Unity, 1930.
...We have none of the Initiative, wo do not
have a part in shaping the agenda, and our repre­
sentatives arrive at a League conference to find a
chairman already chosen by the Council of the
League and preparations advanced to a great extent
by League committees over which our Government has
no control.
And yet we must take part In the con­
ferences, for the simple reason that our o'wn in­
terests demand our representation when certain sub­
jects of international importance are under con­
sideration... We simply cannot afford to sit out
when fifty other governments- are sitting In...
P. 18. Hudson, Manley, 0., Bemis Prof. of
Int. Law, Harvard Law School; Am. Pol.
Sci. Rev., Feb., 1929.
KELLOGG PACT

Although the treaty guaranteeing the

neutrality of Belgium was dubbed n a scrap of paper11, the
calm excuse of Germany for her transgression, is
defense 11 .

11 national

The Kellogg Pact permits war for "national de­

fense11, and there are those who argue that this nullifies
its value since each nation still decides what constitutes
cause for defense.

This is a serious defect, and while

definitions might be attempted, the only ultimate solution
would appear to be adequate protection for each nation by
an international body.

176
The Belgian Treaty and the World War were a severe
lesson,

and the w o r l d has since gained some experience in

the possibility and value of conferonce and cooperation,
hence the Kellogg Pact has a better chance of success.
It has fifty-five signers, most of whom are also members
of the League,

and It is being , widely regarded not as a

mere declaration, but as a legal contract carrying obli­
gations.

If one or more signers commence war, it is felt

that they will have endangered general security, broken
faith with the others, and that a general obligation fol­
io ws to restrain the transgressors.

But

as yet, there is

no agreement or provision for exercising restraint.

There

Is no leadership or organization charged with this duty.
In the light of all social theory and experience,
Kellogg Pact is incomplete.

the

The Covenant of the League

permits war as a last resort, and a Commission is now
closing this gap to harmonize the two instruments, but
there Is no connection between them.
If, therefore, the Kellogg Pact or any agreement b e ­
tween nations is to succeed, It would appear advisable to
have a permanent International organization equipped to
give effect to the intentions.

The following authorities

seem to concur In this statement;
...By that pact with 55 other nations, we sol­
emnly pledged ourselves not only to renounce war
but to seek means for pacific settlement of all in­
ternational differences.
We were sincere when we
signed that pact.
We engaged our national honor
when we ratified It,
And in sincerity and honor

177

two obligations flow from that covenant.
First, the conceptions of military strength of
nations are reduced by that covenant solely to such
strength as is required for defense.
And second,
we must cultivate methodical procedure by which con­
troversies between nations can be settled by pacific
means... Hoover, Herbert, Dot. Free Press, 4-15-30
...Speaking at Oxford on Nov. 10, General Smuts,
former Premier of South Africa, said that If the
United States would take the next logical step to
supplement the Kellogg pact, by
acting with the
League against an aggressor, the Whole problem would
be eliminated...
News Bulletin, For. Pol. Assn.;
11-15-29
...Hitherto League Members feared that the United
States would interfere with an economic boycott im­
posed by League Members against an aggressor state.
But as a result of the anti-w r pact, It will be dif­
ficult for the United States to
oppose such a boycott
in the case of a state which Isa universally recog­
nized aggressor.
And if this country really takes
the pact seriously the American pe.opl"
will come to
realize that war can be genuinely outlawed only after
the establishment of institutions to guarantee the
world against armed marauders and, still more, to
establish processes whereby justice may be progres­
sively realized and all pretext for the use of vio­
lence removed.
P.
10.
Buell, R. L . ;
For. Pol. Asson.; Jan. 1930
...Several times in the course of our study -tc
have emphasized the fact that mere renunciation of
war is not enough to rid the world of it.
There must
bo substitutes for it worked out beforehand in times
of peace, so that when the crises come with their
pressure for rapid action and their uncscapablc de­
mand for decisive measures, there will be alterna­
tives to which both parties already have agreed as
being the suitable method for dealing with them.
Without this provision, as has been said above, more
than once, the act of renunciation is incomplete...
P. 2 54.
Shotwcll, Jas. T.; War as an
Instrument of Nat. Pol.; 1929.
NEUTRALITY;

When two or more parties arc engaged in

settling a difference,

and in the absence of any consti­

tuted authority, police power, agreement or permission,

178

It has long been customary for third parties to maintain
a neutral position*

This has been especially applicable

among nations, but It does not now appear to be an alto­
gether practical or advisable procedure in international
disputes.

The world has become so interdependent that

what appears to be a local conflict immediately involves
the rights and safety of others.
Furthermore,
reasons outlined,

to signers of the Kellogg Pact, for
and to members of the League, the

position of neutrality Is Incompatible with their obliga­
tions.

Neutrality is therefore disappearing as a practi­

cal concept.

The right of national intervention for the

sake of humanity,

is even being questioned.

National

unity is being supplemented by World unity to such an
extent that the national organizations seem to require
the service of a worid organization.

Such authorities as

Hughes, Madariaga and Shotwell recognize this conditions
Treating intervention ”as the attempt of one
or more States, even by use of force, to coerce
another State In its purely State action", it is
evident that there must be special grounds to
justify it.
Such grounds can be found In the re­
quirements of self-defense and in the interest of
humanity... Professor Borchard observes that the
giving of armed protection in such cases of emer­
gency "has by some writers been denominated as in­
tervention and has given rise to much confusion...
P. 81.
Hughes, Chas. E .; Our Relations to
the Nations of the Western Hemisphere, 1928
There are people, particularly in England,
who advocate that the United States should be given
certain guarantees of non-interference with their
trade in time of war*
We have already dealt with
this, in our opinion, dangerous proposition.
It

179

means that League Members would go back on the
present stage of the world which tends towards the
abolition of neutrality.
P. 343.
De Madariaga, Sal.; Disarmament, 1929
...But the time has come to recognize that
the concept of neutrality must now be changed to
fit the conditions of modern warfare... If the
nation whose forces are supplied with arms is in
our opinion an aggressor nation, we become morally,
if not legally, the accomplices in its aggression
by the support rendered through finance and Indus­
try, upon which its chance of victory may depend.
No one has seen this more clearly than Congressman
Burton whose experience in the International Com­
mission on the Export of Armament gives added
authority to his proposal, which calls for a
purely American pronouncement that it Is an estab­
lished policy of the United States not to supply
with arms a nation which goes to war in violation
of its specific pledges... P. 222.
Shotwell, J. T. ;
War as an Instrument of Nat. Pol.; 1929.
WAR AND SECURITY”

History seems to offer a lessons

On any frontier before a social organization Is established,
men carry guns for "self defense", and sometimes use them
for selfish reasons.

There is no cool and impersonal

judge, so the possession of guns always means more or
less shooting, for the parties to a dispute are also the
judges.

The weapons are the only "security".

of fact,

the guns are not a security,

point should be noted.

As a matter

and this important

Even if a man carries two revolv­

ers, while each of the others has only one, he may be
hit first; perhaps in the back; his guns may fail, or the
others may secretly combine and overpower him.

No real

measure of safety will exist until all combine In a
social organization for the benefit of each, and not u n ­
til then will the individuals lay down their guns.

180

The above illustration has always applied to dis­
organized communities, and naturally seems to apply to
the international community.

Armament has failed to bring

security, and real disarmament has failed for the admitted
lack of security.

The reduction of armament reduces ex­

pense, but only reduces or alters the relative danger of
war, and may not accomplish this since complexity is in­
creasing the pressure among nations.

It therefore seems

obvious that the security of international organization
offers the only relief from armament.

The preparation

for war, and the judgment of several students of the
whole problem are outlined in the following data:
The navy, army and air estimates for 19281929 of the five powers represented at the London
Naval Conference are as follows:
Country
Total arms
Increase or Decrease
Expenditures
Since 1925-6
U. S. A.
$772 ,984,000
+ 24#
Great Brit.
550,080,000
- Q%
Prance
357,556,000
-**50#
Italy
221,096,000
+ 1#
Japan
215,876,136
+27#
Russia
+84#
§2,117,592,136
For. Pol. Assn.; Limitation of Land Arm., 4-2-30
...Let friction arise between two
war appear to be in the offing, and
of Public opinion will always favor
Dickinson, G. L . ; International

states, let
great sections
war.
P.
39.
Anarchy

America may conceivably hold her own against
any old world power, either now or later, but she
can never do so against a combination of European
powers.
P. 199.
Powers, H. H.
America Among the Nations. 1921
...Since, in the absence of a well-organized
World-Community, armaments remain indispensable as
instruments of policy, disarmament conferences can

181

never hope to succeed substantially, even though
they may succeed in appearance - and particularly
In the manufactured appearance which is made for
them by the press.
For in effect every delegation
goes to the conference determined to secure an in­
crease in the relative armaments of its own nation,
even though the conference may lead to an all-around
reduction of absolute armaments.
P.
61
Be Madariaga, Sal.; Disarmament, 1929
In short, war which was once a directable in­
strument of policy has now. changed its nature with
the nature of modern society and ceases to be con­
trollable and directable In the hands of statesmen...
P. 36.* Shotwell, J. T . ; War as an
Instrument of Nat. Pol., 1929
. . .We have previously seen that there is no
instinct to fight merely for the sake of fighting,
but that the sole cause of struggle is the thwart­
ing of the drives of one individual by the behavior
of another.
The only way to eliminate war is there­
fore to eliminate aggression... The only power which
can abolish warfare is a concerted control, or
super-government having the power to coerce each
national government to abstain from violating the
rights of other nations... P. 401
Allport, Floyd, H . ; Social Psychology. 1924
...So long as France and Germany desired se­
curity and sought it each by a way which made the
other insecure, their interests were set in conflict.
But when each seeks safety through the League and
the agreements of Locarno, their methods are r e ­
versed; they now seek something in common, and their
desires f o r safety no longer have the old degree of
clash...
P. 212.
Stratton, G. M. ;
Social Psych, of Int. Conduct, 1929
...Peace can be had only by the organization
and operation of an international governmental
system for the definition and enforcement of inter­
national rights such as will render unnecessary the
self-help of Individual nations with-which we are
familiar at the present time.
P. 190.
Potter & West; International Civics, 1927
MODERN WAR:

Science cannot predict future social

movements, but It has shown that change is inevitable.
Another war is possible,

and some believe It to be "reas-

182

onably certain” .

Nationalism is still dominant, and ex­

haustion Is offered as the reason for the present peace.
U. S. A. foreign trade, prosperity, and individualism may
cause her to he the victim of a combination between Europe
and Japan; rivalry In the Pacific may precipitate a world
conflict in the opinion of Sir Prank Pox; the countries
of Europe and of South America may form federations lead­
ing to some conflict between continents; or great combin­
ations may struggle to dominate great areas in Africa or
South America.
Any war is quite sure to involve the world, and the
will to continued existence may be expected to justify
every extreme.

In this machine age, populations and in­

dustries are essential aids to the combatants,

and their

wholesale destruction can now be accomplished by bombs
and gas from the air.

In his recent book ,TZeppelins” ,

the German pilot Lehman describes bombing operation from
silent airships secreted high in the clouds, which have
an almost Invisible operator suspended at the lower end
of a half-mile of cable.

With a telephone, he directs

the hidden ship to the desired position, then with a few
small bombs, he destroys a large objective.
Sir Prank Pox in "Mastery of the Pacific” , proposes
subterranean houses, and fungi or other food to be grown
underground as the only safety against the modern war.
The facts and the following quotations seem to indi-

183

cate that social means are dangerous in the absence of de­
signed social ends which in this case would appear to be
obtainable* only through International organization.
...The frightfulness of modern weapons breeds
that fear of each other which is today the most
fruitful cause of war between arming nations...
P. 25.
Kenworthy & Young; Freedom of the Seas.
...Henceforth progress in the destructiveness
of the apparatus of war has been, and will continue
to be so rapid that a conflict tomorrow would spread
ten times the desolation caused by the Great War of
1914-18.... P. 111.
Lloyd-George;
Whither Are We Going, 1923.
Silent, almost invisible airplanes, capable of
wiping out unsuspecting populations, with sudden
showers of gas and bombs, are being experimented upon
by British, French, German and Russian governments...
The recent rapid development in the strlkingpower of air forces and the possibilities for the
use of gas against civilian populations, are caus­
ing anxiety throughout Europe...
Detroit News; 8-8-28

184
GENERAL FACTORS
LEADERSHIP:

It can be said that no important social

movement, whether small or great, has ever materialized
without adequate leadership.

It can likewise be said

that the consummation and subsequent success of a social
reform is good evidence that a situation existed'which
called for leadership.

The fact, therefore, that such a

leader as Woodrow Wilson succeeded, in the face of much
opposition, in creating the League of Nations,
it still has

and that

the support of nearly every country, appears

to indicate that an international organization was needed,
and may have been needed for some time before its arrival.
Furthermore, the many International problems which
have issued from an interdependent world, may be adjusted
by separate conferences and individually managed by sep­
arate bodies, but they are bound to be related, and they
therefore appear to require the leadership of a permanent
international,

and impersonal body.

For example, the

Assembly of the League is not only an arm of the nations,
but It is also a check upon all International work,

and

provides a central leadership for synthetic purposes.
Some opinions are expressed by the following loaders:
...Efforts at compromise change and reconcile­
ment would sometimes be more acceptable if they came
■from
body which is detached from the executive gov­
ernments of the States represented, because any
States asked to yield and accept a compromise might
be more disposed to do so if the request came from
a body which Is not directly controlled b y the gov­
ernments of the other states.
P. 233.
Bryce, Jas.; Int. Relations, 1922

185

c+ *

’Ours is a country of open frontiers, and we
are eager for general disarmament, in accordance
with tiie protocol of tiie Genova conference of the
League of Nations.’ P. 34.
Premier Grabski, Poland
’No politicians will dare raise an unpopular
issue, however good they believe it to bo.
For in­
stance, the Japanese question cannot be handled h o n ­
estly and conscientiously by a politician on the
CoastJ...P.
36. Young, Owon D.
?...I may not agree with your politics, and you
may not agree with ours.
But America is in a posi­
tion to promote the organization of mankind instead
of remaining isolated’...P. 40.
Masaryk, T. G.
'...The world*s peace is in the hands of the
great powers, and in the organization of peace the
League of Nations has not the participation of such
powers as the United States and Russia.*
P. 41.
Bones, Dr, Eduard.
TIt seems to me the first step to be taken in
establishing permanent peace 'is to separate the
present so-called World Court from the League of
Nations.
If this can be accomplished,
we will then
have laid the foundation for the creation of an in­
dependent, judicial tribunal operating under an
established body of international law.. . ’
P. 104.
Senator Borah.
’The Dawes Plan was worked out by a non­
political, non-partisan group.
That is why it
dared to go to the root of the matter,
to face
the truth, without fear or favor...’
P. 37.
Mr. Lloyd-Georgc.
’Without the participation of some of the
great Powers, and especially the United States, the
League is maimed, and yet it Is doing most useful,
most important work which no other agency would have
done...
P. 142.
Lord Balfour.
’The ultimate international object to strive
for, through whatever difficulties, remains stlllexactly as it was before the war - a World Court
with a League of Nations, a real League behind it...’
P. 27..
Ellis, Havelock.
’I believe that Europe will have real rest and
peace only when there will be formed a kind of Fed­
eration among European countries.
Such a Federation
should leave to each nation its individuality, but i
could establish,
If not a. customs union which would
take a long time to organize, very extensive a r r an g e
ments and agreements for the proper distribution of
raw materials among the various industries....’
P. 28.
Pninlcve, M. Paul.

186

’I believe that the war has not taught the gov­
ernments anything, and unless a miracle occurs, which
we cannot expect, wo are marching with great strides
toward a new war that will surpass in duration and
intensity that of 1914-1918.*
P. 29.
Rolland, M. Romain.
?..,It is necessary for all the exploited that is, the mass of humanity - to make common cause
throughout the world and to reorganize society on
international lines f or the interests of humanity.. • f
P. 30.
Barbusse, M, Henri.
Bernstein, Herman; Road to Peace, 1926
...When the secrecy of diplomacy gives place to
public discussion, questions must be argued on their
merits rather than according to the dictates of a
single will.
To be sure, when a powerful nation
speaks it may force its way in Conference against the
opposition of the rest, but it is not likely to do so
unless it can state Its case in terms of a common
interest.... P. 261.
Shotwell, Jas. T . ;
War as an Instrument of Nat. Policy; 1929
COMPLEXITY:

Society is dynamic phenomena because man

is an investigator, and an adventurer; he seeks new worlds
to conquer.

As a result, the environment In which he lives

and functions,

expands and grows more and more complex.

We have seen that this expansion now surrounds the world,
but it is difficult for a single mind to comprehend the
number and complexity of resulting world problems.
appear to go on with time to Infinity.

They

Nearly everything

we use and every price we pay, are now affected b y world
conditions.
National problems have long been systematized under
national organizations,
this arrangement.

and no sane person would abandon

But the national systems do not harmon­

ize, and are not designed to deal with a mass of complex
and inter-related world problems.

The nation and the

187

world are separate concepts;
points, methods

they require separate view­

and organizations.

ion has no guarantee of security,
other nations,

Furthermore, the nat­
or of fair treatment from

and in case of trouble it has no civilized

appeal or remedy unless an impersonal international organ­
ization exists for this purpose.

Judge Hughes and Prof.

Zimmern, both experienced in World affairs, arc among
those who recognize that national methods are inadequate
to the present complexity:
The tendency Is strikingly shown in the en­
deavor at the present time, in view of the complex­
ities of international relations, to increase the
opportunity for personal contacts through the m e d ­
ium of international conferences.
That is the
whole significance of conferences - that diplomatic
notes will not suffice... P. 258. Hughes, Chas, E.
The Pathway of Peace, 1S25
The enlargement of the scale of public affairs
has been accompanied by another phenomenon which at
first sight might seem incompatible with it - an in­
crease of complexity.•. One symptom of this is the
Increase in the number of European States since the
war.
Another Is the remarkable increase in the nu m­
ber of literary languages.
Still another Is the r e ­
enforcement of the citizen body by the widespread
granting of the suffrage to women.
P. 21. Looking
broadly over the history of the years since the
Armistice it may be said that virtually ever Im­
portant new international development, calling for
measures of practical statesmanship, has been u n ­
satisfactorily dealt with because public opinion
was not given enough time to understand what was
happening or what was required... P. 25.
Zimmern, Alfred; Learning & Leadership, 1928
MUTUAL INTEREST:

A mutual Interest is anything in

which, or because of which, persons or peoples share their
thoughts, Ideas or activities;
mon purpose,

it may arise out of any com­

or out of any exchange in which all parties

188

are interested and from which all derive some benefit.

Between nations, the improvement of a joint river, questions
of health, and facilities for fair and stable trade, are
all mutual interests.

Unfortunately, however, such inter­

ests are often hidden and thwarted, by social distance,
individualism and opposition which emanate largely from
exaggerated nationalism.

It would appear to facilitate

and stabilize the multitude of world activities if some
method could be devised to uncover and emphasize their
mutual nature and Importance.
of common activities

Whenever any collection

are organized into a group or system,

their relationship and mutual dependence becomes more evi­
dent, and a very high degree of cooperation and efficiency
often results.

It would seem therefore that an interna­

tional social organization would improve world conditions
by tying together the many a ctivlties which have a mutual
value but which have had to function on a somewhat loose
and national basis.
To the many mutual interests already cited, a few
others may be added:

The mutual development of the St.

Lawrence River by U. S. A. and Canada,

In connection with

which the following quotation shows an influence of
Nationalism:
...Dealing with what he described as the
,!bogey of American aggression5' raised by oppon­
ents of the waterways plan, he branded as false
and misleading one argument that the United
States cannot be trusted to keep a treaty.

189

” There is no case in history of the U. S.
breaking a treaty obligation that has been rati­
fied by congress” , he said,,. Goforth, W. W. ;
McGill U n i v . ; Det. Free Press; 10-12-28
The automobile industry*s plan to expand
American world trade by the fostering of better
highway transportation throughout the globe was
presented to President Hoover and four members of
the cabinet today... Det. Free Press; 5-3-29
In the same connection, Herbert Hoover, in an
address on October 3, 1919, said:
...Without order in Europe, we will at best
have business depression, unemployment, and all
their train of trouble.
We are forced to interest
ourselves in the affairs of the world if we are to
thrive.
Secretary Mellon has also recently remarked
that the entire war debt which Europe owes us ” is
not worth as much to the American people in dollars
andP ? eSi? aga#ng?°s? r « ? ?
In January 1930, the card catalog of the Detroit Public
Library contained 1633 listings, and the United States
catalog cantained 757 books,
national” .

all under the caption ”Inter­

The League of Nations Association and the Eng­

lish-speaking Union In U. S. A. alone, have grown to a
membership of 20,000 and 19,000 respectively in about eight
years.

The Foreign Policy Association is technical rather

than social, yet its rapid growth is shown by the attached
graph; it reached 11,600 In 1930.

The graph by Potter and

West shows the exceptional growth of world intercourse.
Private international financial, scientific,
and commercial organizations date back to the early
days of modern Europe, not to mention for the moment
the great religious orders and trading companies of
a still earlier period.
P. 289.
To inspect a list
of the private international organizations now
covering the globe is a revelation.

190

Table of Meetings of Private Int. Organizations
Since 1840:
1840-49..... 10
1850-59..... 18
1860-69..... 64
1870-79____139
1880-89____272
1890-99____475
1900-09....985
1910-14. .. .485 (less than .4 years)
P. 291.
Potter, P. B . ; Intro, to Study of Int. Org.

102

100
"i i i :• .i

95

B.

90

C.
D.

85

:E.

80

F.

75

G*
H.

70

War 1d Coal Output
(Millions of t
World Railroads
(Thousands of
Ship Cargoes
(Millions of ons)
Export of Britis
Capital
{Millions of
World Iron Output
(Millions of/tons)
, 8 1 .4
Internet ional
(JBil lions
International Money Ord
(Million*/ of $)
Value of International
capita/trade (in $)
13.27

65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
3.76

13.2

0
1820

1840
I860
1880
"Growth of W or ld intercourse1*-Potter & West, int. Civics,

1900
1800-50-93

Growth of Foreign Policy Association Membership in past 7 years.

3000
3000
7000
5000
5000

3000

2000
1000

1921
1922-23
1924-25
1926-27
1930
1921-22
1923-24
1925-26
1927-28
"10 Years of P.

193

SOCIAL ENDSo

Science and invention have developed

an enormous aggregate of social means which may he used
for either the benefit or the detriment of mankind.

For

example* fire i*s a social means* and the fact that it may
be used for either good or bad social ends is universally
recognized.

We now have social means for international

communication,

transportation,

trade a n d war but the social

ends for which these means are used, do not appear to have
received corresponding consideration, especially in world
affairs, yet attention to social ends is necessary for
any advancement or progress.
It is fundamental to sociology that social inter­
action and group life are normal and necessary to the
growth of society.

Every act, however, between persons

or peoples, has a social significance;

it may invite a

favorable response and encourage further contact, or It
may create opposition and provoke conflict.

Conference,

mediation and cooperation are social processes which lead
to understanding and united effort.

They are necessary

toward desirable social ends, and they are common practice
within all organized groups, but group solidarity tends
to restrict their use between distinct groups.

Organiza­

tion seems to be necessary if these essential processes
are to function efficiently;
disorganized setting.
within each nation;

they do not work well in a

These processes are in daily use

they have also been tried between

nations with encouraging results, but they have not yet

194

becdme the universal practice, perhaps because the nations
have not been members of one organization.
It would appear, therefore,

that an international

social organization would facilitate the normal social
processes between peoples, which are so essential to the
attainment of desirable social ends.

Mumford, Dewey,

Bryce and Hobson contribute to the views which are here
expressed:
. . .-Deliberation and discussion are among
the most important functions in social life In
the controlling of sooietary phenomena, and the
level of social development Is determined by the
extent to which these reflective processes pre­
vail In regulating the nature of.response to
stimuli.., P. 81.
Mumfcrd, E. ;
Origins of Leadership, 1909.
In the broadest sense, social efficiency is
nothing less than that socialization of mind which
is actively concerned In making experiences more
communicable; in breading down the barriers of
social stratification which make individuals im­
pervious to the interests of others.
W h e n social
efficiency is confined to the service rendered by
overt acts, its chief constituent (because its
only guarantee) Is omitted, - intelligent sympathy
or good will.
For sympathy as a desirable quality
is something more than mere feeling; It is a cul-,
tivated Imagination for what men have in common and
a rebellion at whatever unnecessarily divides them...
P.- 141.
Dewey, John; Democracy & Education, 1916'
...A State which seeks its own aims merely, dis­
regarding the rights of others, disowns the obliga­
tions morality imposes, and In wronging others it
wrongs mankind at large, for it hinders that ethical
advance from which, as a branch of mankind. It would
Itself ultimately profit.
P. 201.
Bryce, Ja s.;
International Relations, 1922
A social problem requires a social solution, in
the sense that their must bo common conscicnecness,
and agreed cooperative action in dealing with It.
P.
116.
This social right must always override the
individual power to fix a price, for a price is a

195

thing with a social import; it affects not only the
two parties bargaining, but others.
An equitable
tribunal has, therefore the right to overrule a
price, even though the two parties may have agreed on
it, if it be held injuriously to affect other parties.
P. 121.
Hobson, J. A.; Conditions of
Industrial Peace, 1927
SUMMARY:

The purpose of this chapter has been to

discover whether there is a real need for some form of
international social organization between the nations.
Over fifty subjects which may have a bearing on the ques­
tion ha.vc been examined, and a great many writings on
world affairs have been studied, with the following results:
Social theory shows that social organization has not
only been regarded as essential to society, but also that
its forms and methods have been studied as far back as
records take us.

We find, in fact, that organization has

always been the basis of civilization.
Analogous situations seem to show a consistent ten­
dency for states to overcome their conflicts and to finallv
combine under one organization wherever their common in­
terest and welfare promote it.
entiated peoples,

Even among widely differ­

those enlarged states or nations have b e ­

come efficiently cooperating units, and have enhanced the
status of the participating peoples.
The considerations of world geography, population,
territory, communication and transportation, together with
social,

economic and political problems,

security and

social ends, appear to reveal an interdependent world
fabric of common interests.

And It will be apparent that

196

theso intorosts hoar upon oach other 5 that they arc
sources of dispute^

and that they should neither remain

disorganized, nor subject to the entire will of single
nations.
Each nation is seen to enjoy the benefit and security
of a social organization, but its vital relations with,

end

dependence upon* other nations, are found to be disorgan­
ized and subject to serious conflict*

It is known that

the fundamental social processes of conference, mediation
and cooperation

are necessary to the pea.ee and progress of

any interacting society, and that they require a social
organization in which to function efficiently.
to follow, therefore,

It seems

and to be the judgment of experienced

world a.uthorities, that some form of international social
organization is needed,

and is possible of attainments it

has boon soon, in fact, that one form - the League of
Nations - has existed a.nd rendered good service for ten
years.

As much evidence has been offered, the chapter will

bo closed with a statement from Ambassador Morrow, and
Potter and Wests
...It is idle to think that any force In the
world is strong enough to put the various peoples
of the world permanently back .into separate water­
tight compartments.
One might as well attempt to
undo the scientific developments which have multi­
plied the relationships of mankind.
The question
is no longer open as to whether we shall have re­
lationships with other States.
Each State neces­
sarily belongs to a society of States.
The only
question Is, what kind of rules shall it make to
determine its relationships to the other members
of that Society?
P. 97.
Morrow, Dwight V/. |
The Society of Free States, 1919

197

The day of simple and rigid remedies for the
difficulties among the nations has gone by.
No
single specific cure will do. What the community
of nations needs is a long and gradual development
of international organization made up of all the
elements already existing such as arbitration,
conferences, and bureaus, and culminating in the
application of the federal system as a permanent
way of getting along.
To this final stage all pre­
vious developments have led as logically as prelim­
inary stages ever lead to higher results in social
or political life.
The history of International
relations shows many partial steps to interna­
tional federation and points to world federation
just as unmistakably as the history of Europe
prior to 1914 pointed to the events that took
place in that year.
P. 150 Potter & West!
International Civics, 1927

198
CHAPTER IV
FORMS OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
THE NATION:

The nation has long been the dominant

form of social organization.

A nation may divide or com­

bine with others, but the new units will find their place
in the family of nations.

Any international plan, there­

fore, must first consider the existing nations, regardless
of whether they are to be continued or ultimately abandoned.
They are too strongly entrenched to be disregarded.

Two

other primary facts must be kept in mind:
1.

Each nation has Its own attitude and interest in

world affairs.

As a result it may endeavor to gain its

own ends through its diplomatic system,
with other nations.
all it can get.

and in competition

It has a tendency to want and to take

This is an old and narrow policy; it

fails to

recognize the fact of dependence upon other

nations,

and the consequent importance of their welfare.

This short-sighted policy promotes opposition and can have
no genuine place in any form of international organization.
2.

There is a class of world problems in which the

nations can share a mutual interest, and It Is these mat­
ters that constitute the basis of any contemplated organ­
ization.

The role of the nations Is, therefore, to act

as collaborators,

and to contribute toward the solution

of such mutual problems for their mutual benefit.

This

rather new attitude is fundamental to any plan under the
present dominance of nations.

199
There is a general view that the nation is necessary
as a social unit, hut that in the presence of internation­
al organization,

all nations may gradually lose enough of

their emotional content to permit more objective govern­
ment and more efficient boundary lines.

It Is also appar­

ent that the nations should constitute the immediate fac­
tors in any larger organization, and that their intrinsic
strength and loyal support would be necessary to success.
Chief Justice Hughes voices this view:
The independence and equality of states is
the postulate of International relations.
There
is no path to peace except as the will of peoples
may open it.
The way to peace is through agree­
ment, not through force.
P. 7. Hughes, C. E. ;
The Pathway of Peace, 1925
REGIONAL ORGANIZATION:
forming ententes

Although the older plan of

and alliances to create '’Balance of

Power” situations among groups of nations Is regional,
these organizations have nearly always precipitated ser­
ious wars, and do not appear to lead to any solution.
They have been loose organizations, and for military pur­
poses chiefly.

At present,

the ’’Regional” concept rather

implies a geographical or continental grouping for social
convenience and economic efficiency.

A military value

may be Included, but it Is seldom emphasized.

The

British Empire was, and to a lesser extent is, such a
group although not geographically contiguous.

Cooperation

between the Baltic states, the Balkans, and the Central
American Republics have been small regional efforts, but
the best examples are the Pan-American Union and the pro-

200

posed United States of Europe.
In the Pan-Arnerican Union,

there is a grouping of

the nations of the Western Hemisphere, except for Canada.
The Latin states

are small and subject to European Influ­

ence; their constitutions

are patterned after that of U.

S. A, ; and they have received the protection of the Monroe
Doctrine, while helping to preserve democracy in this h e m ­
isphere.

The Union has been a sectionizing political pro­

cess as a warning to outsiders, rather than a social and
economic measure.

Although useful in these respePts, and

in promoting local peace and arbitration, the Union Itself
has not contributed directly to international life.

It

might even be said that its existence has been something
of a barrier to world comity.

Its degree of organization

is also a problem:
Should there be an American league of
nations?
Such a league was in substance pro­
posed at the Santiago Conference of 1923.
But
the proposal has not been viewed with favor.
The
determination of the Havana Conference that the
Pan American Union should not exercise political
functions would seem to Indicate strong opposition...
P. 112.
Hughes, Chas., E . ; Our Relations to
the Nations of the Western Hemisphere, 1928
The proposal of a United States of Europe Is a regional
plan which seems to be based principally upon social and
economic grounds, and to be highly justified to this ex­
tent.

It might bring to European nations an economic

efficiency and a social unity similar to that among the
states of U. S. A.

If successful, it would doubtless con­

tribute to peace among the member states, and therefore

201

to world peace, but as a social unit it might be too largo
and powerful to be a safe factor in any international
organization.

The proposed program follows:

Le programme officiel paneuropeen est ainsi
concu:
1. Le mouvemont paneuropeen est un mouvement
de masses, au-dessus des partis, dont le but est
1 Un ifi c a t i o n de 1 ’Europe.
L ’Union Paneuropeenne est 1 *organe actif du
mouvement.
2.
Le but du mouvement paneuropeen est l ’union
de tous les etats europeens qui le veulent et le
peuvent, en une confederation politique et economique,
basee sur la paix et l ’egalite de droits.
3.
Le programme mondial de la Pancurope est la
collaboration amicale avoc les autres continents, dans
le cadre de la Societe des Nations.
4.
L ’Union Paneuropeenne s ’interdit toute immixtion dans les questions de politique Interieure.
5.
L ’Union Paneuropeenne est organises par sec­
tions nationales*
Chaque etat a son Comite national,
avec budget autonome.
Le bureau central de 1 ’Union paneuropeenne, qui
centralise les activites des Comites nationaux, se
trouve a Vienne.
6 . L ’insigne paneuropeen est une croix rouge,
sur soleil d ’or.
Coudenhove-Kalergi, R. N . ; Organe
officiel de 1 ’Union Paneuropeenne.
In so far as regional organizations may be based upon
sound social, geographic and economic grounds, they are
likely to benefit the members,

and if not too powerful,

they might broaden and compose local attitudes in a way
that would facilitate International organization.
they could never be a substitute for a world body.

But
In

fact their comparatively large size and power would
appear to set up a dangerous polarity be tv/con them,

and

to greatly retard or prevent any world understanding.
Furthermore,

the range of social and economic needs of

all peoples embrace the whole world;

they arc not grouped

202
in regional areas.

An examination of the views of author­

ities, shows -that regional organizations are of limited
value, and are even regarded with suspicion in an Inter­
dependent world.

Two typical views are submitted:

Premier Baldwin announced in the house of commons
today that the Anglo-French naval agreement had
been scrapped and that limitation negotiations
’’must begin all over again.” The prime minister’s
announcement followed a bitter attack upon the
agreement by David Lloyd George, Liberal party
leader, in a speech introducing the p a r t y ’s
amendment to the k i n g ’s speech.
Lloyd George said the United States’
suspicion of the negotiations between France
and England had been indicated clearly in
President Goolidge’s Armistice day address...
Det. Free Press; 11-14-28
In the round table discussions the spokesmen of
Japan, of Great Britain, and of all the British
dominions represented in the Conference, stated that
public opinion in their countries would be opposed
to new regional organizations in the Pacific of an
official character and would favor depending wholly
upon the League of Nations for the settlement of In­
ternational disputes.
They recognized, however, the
value of an occasional conference, such as the W ash­
ington Conference of 1921-22, to deal with a partic­
ular situation... P. 22. Blakcslee, Geo., H . ;
Oriental Affairs in the Light of the Kyoto
Conference; For. Pol. Assn., 1929
WORLD STATE:

A world state would necessarily be a

unified world empire in which the ruling authority posses­
sed full and final power.

The procedure would resemble

that of the Roman Empire; it would be a reversion to the
authoritarian form of government;

and even if attainable,

it could never stand in the present complex world of
highly differentiated peoples.

The advanced peoples would

not undertake it, nor remain under such arbitrary control.
It is a visionary concept, and well disposed of by Bryce:

203

These and many other difficulties that stand
in the way of creating a World State with any p r o ­
spect of success would present themselves in
slightly different forms and degree according to
the particular scheme adopted... Any such scheme
must assume a virtue, an intelligence, a civic
spirit, a flexibility and adaptability and capacity
for steady moral and Intellectual progress of
which few signs are now discernible.
Adding
these considerations to the patent fact, already
mentioned, that the most advanced nations would
not sacrifice their present independence in order
to try any such experiment, the notion must be r e ­
garded as a dazzling vision of the far-off possible
future rather than as a remedy for the present
troubles of the world.
P. 245.
Bryce, Jas.j
International Relations, 1922
WORLD FEDERATION:

In a federal organization, the mem­

ber states definitely transfer their individual control of
certain matters, usually those of a joint nature, to the
central body, while retaining control of all local matters.Delegates will be sent by the states to constitute

a cen­

tral body which will possess authority over the transferred
matters, and will decide (”legislate” ) upon all action re­
garding them.

It Is a step toward a closer organization

than a confederation, yet is far removed from a world
state.

A delicate adjustment is sought between local and

federal affairs.
of states.

U. S. A. is an example of a federation

The creation of a federation usually calls

for a womewhat homogeneous people and for a gradual growth
of their association.
The great value of federation rests on the fact that
it removes common and contentious problems from individual
control,

and places them under the federal control.

For

example, no single nation can be sure of its security;

204
protection from attack can only be obtained through the
united power of all nations*
whether to retain control

Hence a nation must docide

and accept its risks, or whether

to exchange its control for the federal protection;
cannot have both*

It

Federation is considered to be the

only genuine protection,
tional organization.

and the ultimate form of interna­

Minor in his "Republic of Nations"

proposes a world federation and submits a draft constitu­
tion alongside the U, S* A. constitution for convenient
comparison.

There Is a marked resemblance*.

The differentiation and the principle of nationalism
are clearly too strong among the present nations to permit
an agreement to federate, at least until they can have had
some years of experience in general cooperation.

Their

peoples are not sufficiently world minded at present to
relinquish the final right of decision upon international
questions.

Recent attempts at cooperation are very en­

couraging, however,

and many authorities believe that they

may lead to international federation.

The acceptance of

the definite jurisdiction of the World Court by forty-two
nations is an important step in this direction.
The establishment of the perfect civil con­
stitution of a single State is dependent upon the
proper regulation of the external relations between
States, and without the solution of the external
problem the internal problem cannot be solved...
Through wars, and the never relaxed preparations
for wars, and the burden of debt and devastation
left by war, separate States will be driven into
unions... But nature, by differences of language
and religion, works to keep men from forming the
Universal State too soon.
As civilization increases,
as men become more and more alike in principles and

205

get more and more of an understanding of one another
and of their differences, the final Federation of
States will he developed.
P. 144 Morrow, Dwight, W. ;
The Society of Free States, 1919
LEAGUES:

When nations find that their activities

are

crossing the paths of each other, or when it is discovered
that they are more or less interdependent

and have many in­

terests in common, some of their leaders may propose joint
effort toward adjustment.

The social processes required

are conference, mediation or arbitration and cooperation.
These processes may function through commissions, but when
continuous effort Is contemplated,

a league may be formed.

A league is a loose organization for the purposes mention­
ed; the delegates may negotiate, but they cannot bind
their nations; final consent remains with the home author­
ities through ratification.

Under a league, therefore,

each nation retains final control of its actions,
not be otherwise obligated by the league.

and can­

It is, however,

a step which may lead to federation.
Until overpowered by Rome, the ancient Greeks util­
ized the league system with a measure of success, as
described b y Hughan and by Potter:
The Peloponnesian League flourished during
the 4th Century B. C., and constituted a defensive
and to some extent an offensive alliance.
All the
cities in the League bound themselves to submit
disputes to arbitration where negotiation failed,
but war was not prohibited as a final resort.
Each
state had one vote regardless of differences in
size, but this nominal equality did not prevent the
acknowledged leadership of Sparta, whose power was
still further increased when the custom arose of
commuting the military service of the smaller states
for money payments... As in other Leagues however,

206
legal equality proved no match for concrete in­
equality.
P. 24. Hugh an, Jesse W. ;
International Government, 1925
The Aetolian and Achaean Leagues succeeded the
earlier efforts at interstate federation, and the
latter reached such a point of development that it
remained until the end of the Mediaeval Period the
highest form of political organization known in the
history of Europe.
A federal foreign policy was
evolved by this League, a federal military organi­
zation was created, a n d a federal executive and
administrative system, including a federal budget,
was instituted.
A common scale of weights and
measures was adopted and likewise a common cur­
rency.
There were present also the elements of
a. federal judiciary.
P. 442.
Potter, P. B . ;
Intro, to Strdy of Int. Org., 1922,
Authoritarian governments do not yield to the cooper­
ative principle of leagues ; democracy is more favorable to
their formation and success because they rest on the
higher plane of mutual respect and interest.

If a league

can be established between differentiated nations, it is
a tremendous step to-'ard adjustment a n d achievement b e ­
cause it brings peoples into face-to face interaction.
When separated, foreign ministers are likely to be suspi­
cious

and scheming, but when brought together for discus­

sion, courtesy and the desire for approbation tend to
create attitudes of conciliation and contribution toward
common purposes.
understanding,

Differences are submerged or eased, while

confidence and friendship grow.

of cooperation brings better results and gives

Continuity
the league

a great advantage over the temporary commission.
THE LEAGUE OP NATIONS:

The structure and the ser­

vices rendered by this existing interantional organization

207

have been described in the previous chapter.
desired to explain its salient features:

It is now

President Wilson

did well to give the League its birth; the world may never
know the obstacles he surmounted.
nesses;

The Covenant has weak­

it had to be a compromise, but the instrument pro­

vides a remedy by amendment, and it has now stood for ten
years

as a basis for true international cooperation.
The League Is not a super-state; on the contrary it

is simply a servant of the nations, and as such its exist­
ence and procedure are subject to the unanimous consent
and support of all member states.

Without this support,

it will die, hence it must go as slowly as the slowest
member nation may wish.

Everywhere, except in U. S. A.,

the League is called the 11Society of Nations1’, and it is
merely a society or club which nations may join or not as
they desire; while members,

they conform to the rules and

pay their dues; they can be expelled for just cause, and
they may also resign.
whatever;

There are no arbitrary impositions

each nation retains its independence.

The primary value of the League Is in its provision
for many meetings between the officials, delegates

and

citizens of many nations, for open publicity, and for per­
manent cooperation b y means of conference.

This conforms

to the most fundamental principles of social science.
The League is not legislative - it passes no laws,
but merely resolutions, and even these are not subject to
the customary majority vote, but they must be unanimous

208

or they fail.

Each of the fifty-four member states is re­

garded as sovereign, a n d each has one vote, hence one veto
from even the smallest nation will over-rule the fifty-three
ayes.

There is no voting by majority save on accepted

minor house rules.

Furthermore, all resolutions are sub­

ject to the ratification of home governments before they
can become effective.
Another value of the League lies in its several im­
personal bodies which are kept impersonal by requiring an
internationally mixed personnel, with freedom from politi­
cal activity.
nothing.

They represent no nation, and they advocate

Except for clerical assistance,

the permanent

personnel are scientists and research experts who deal
with facts and not with policy.

Thus for the first time,

world problems are reduced to objective facts.

On this basis

compromise and adjustment almost Invariably follow. The
Assembly initiates a study, and the resulting data become
the subject-matter for discussion and resolution at Its
next annual meeting.

The Council deals with special

matters and emergencies.
not Impose,

Tt can recommend, but it can­

any national action; its final sanction

rests upon the light of publicity and the ensuing public
opinion.

No authority has been able to discredit the

League upon any ground.
The annual cost of the League does not exceed
$5,000,000, and this is apportioned among the nations
according to their wealth.

With the exception of China

209

who has apologized for an internal condition causing
arrears, the 11dues” of all member states are being promptly
paid, which is good testimony of the League1s success.
Many existing international bodies have been brought Into
the League structure for coordination.

There is highly

organized procedure for promptly restraining war; the ex­
amination and adjustment of those political disputes which
lead to conflict is ably arranged for; and the World Court
is continually available to hear juridical cases.
Each year the League is smoothing the many roads that
join the nations; yet.it remains ready to deal with any
crisis, and has become strong enough to erect great build­
ings in which to carry on Its service to society.

The

delegates to the Assembly number 162 prominent persons
from fifty-four nations.

They are of different type,

manner and dress, yet they work together in one room under
the presidency of one of their number for several weeks
each year.

It Is an inspiring sight, and is good evidence

of the sincere desire and ability of the nations to coop­
erate for the highest social ends.

Buell and Bryce de­

scribe and comment upon the nature of the membership:
At the time of its organization the League
was composed of only 24 states, but the number
grew rapidly until the obligations of the Cov­
enant were finally accepted by a total of 56
states.
Two countries later withdrew from mem­
bership - namely Brazil and Costa Rica.
The
latter country, however, has indicated a desire
to return,. When this happens the League will
embrace 55 states.
The states which do not be­
long to the League are the United States, Soviet
Russia, Turkey, Mexico, Afghanistan, Brazil, Ec-

210
uador, Egypt, Yemen, Muscat, the Hedjaz and the
Nejd.
It Is a mistake to believe that the League
is a purely European concern since 27 members b e ­
long to the Western hemisphere, the Near East and
the Orient. P. 3. Buell, R. L;
For. Pol. Assn.; Jan., 1930
First of all, such a Combination ought to con­
sist of a large number of States, so large that thp>
special interests of each would be overruled by
that which Is the general Interest of all, I. e.,
the maintenance of world peace.
It should in­
clude States so important that they would possess
not only material strength but also a volume of
educated opinion sufficient to constitute a moral
force.
The larger the number of such States enter­
ing the Combination, the stronger would it be.
Some few Independent States have lagged so
far b e ­
hind in the path of civilized and responsible gov­
ernment as to seem hardly fit for admission, but
perhaps It would be better to admit them and. let
them profit by their intercourse with theirelder
brothers... P. 247
Bryce, James;
International Relations, 1922
ANGLO-AMERICAN

If war should break out among the

highly interdependent nations, the whole world would doubt­
less be Involved in a terrible crisis.
of extreme importance,

Peace Is, therefore

and if the League should fail to

maintain it, there Is another feasible plan of control.

It

has long been suggested that the British nations and U. S.
A. together would be able to police the world by pooling
their combined power.

Their background, language and cus­

toms are much the same, and they would work well together.
Britain controls important territory and enormous r e ­
sources In all parts of the world.
the Panama canal,

With the exception of

she controls all of the sea routes of

the world, and owns strategic bases such as Gibraltar,
Suez,

and Singapore.

Her wealth and trained fighting

power exceeds that of any other nation, and she is thor-

211

oughly experienced in all international situations*
U. S. A. is somewhat lacking in foreign experience and
facilities, hut she possesses enormous agricultural and in­
dustrial resources at home and a highly organized man­
power.

By uniting their efforts, these two peoples should

be able- to preserve order and to constitute a sufficiently
stable nucleus for an ultimate world federation if advisable.
The more advanced nations might be admitted gradually as
they qualified and sought an entry.

Many authorities be­

lieve that the formation of such an organization would en­
counter less resistance,

and would progress more rapidly

than the League, once It had been initiated.

Britain and

U. S. A. seem to be the only two nations with the neces­
sary strength and-cooperative ability to create such an
organization.

The opinions of several prominent men are

submitted:
...Britain and America have the more Im­
portant minerals and the metallurgical plants.
Sir Thomas Holland declares that they are ’’the
only two nations which can fight for long on
their own natural resources” ... Bell, E. P.;
Detroit News; 1-7-30
The whole position of both countries (Brit­
ain and U. S. A. ) in respect of sea power in war
has now changed in almost every conceivable cir­
cumstance; and their future interests lie not in
efforts to claim or compete for a command of the
seas in war but in the opposite policy of combin­
ing in command of the seas to secure a new free­
dom of the seas as complete in war as In peace.
P. 25.
Kenworthy & Young, Freedom of the Seas.
... It is the glory of the Anglo-Saxon that he
has discovered the secret of Unity without uniform­
ity, and that secret consists largely in the avoid­
ance of mechanism.
P. 346.
Powers, h *H.;America Among the Nations, 1921

212

It may sound hyperbole to say that the future
of the world hinges on Anglo-American relations.
It is true none the less.
Every thinker in Europe
and Asia knows It and is talking about it...
Kerr, Philip- Sec. to Lloyd George, 1916-21;
”Eng. and America” - Sat. Review, 1-26-29.
Another development among the ”light-skinned”
peoples Is the Pan-Angle movement, which would draw
more closely together the English-speaking peoples
of the world.
Such an association, if carried out,
would be of supreme political Importance.
It would
embrace a combined population of 180,000,000 people
and such Important nations as Great Britain, the
Dominions, and the United States.
An association of
this nature could absolutely command the Seven Seas,
and because of Its great economic resources, it
could dominate the western world... P. 80.
Lord
Balfour recently said, 111 am moved by a feeling,
especially patriotic in its character, for the sub­
group (of nations) which speaks the English language,
and whose laws and institutions are rooted In Brit­
ish history...” Despite past misunderstandings be­
tween the different branches of the English-speaking
peoples, ”they are capable, when they like, of a
mutual comprehension which neither can attain to the
same degree in their relations with other great
nations of the European continent.”
...In May, 1898, Joseph Chamberlain, the British
statesman, made a striking speech, advocating an
Anglo-American alliance...
...The late George Louis Beer advocated a def­
inite alliance between England and the United
States, which, In his opinion, would save China
from disintegration, hasten self-government in
India, and keep the peace in Central and South
America.
On his American tour in 1923, Lloyd
George advocated an ''understanding” that the
United States a n d England "will stand together
for a rational peace.” P. 81.
Buell, R. L . ;
International Relations, 1925
IMPLICATIONS FOR U. S. A.:

It will now be clear that

if U. S. A. should contemplate any new policy toward Inter­
national organization, It would probably be In relation to
the existing League of Nations,

since the other possibil­

ities are too distant for present consideration.

In dis- -

cussing relationship to the League, a brief sketch of the

213
events which, lead to abstension from membership may be
helpful:

During the war, on May 26, 1916, the late Sen­

ator Lodge, speaking before the League to Enforce Peace,
said:

-

The limit of voluntary arbitration has, I
think, been reached.
It has done much.
It has
taken out of the range of arms a large mass of
questions which once were causes, frequently of
war, constantly of reprisals, and by the general
consent of civilized mankind has put them before
a tribunal and had them there decided.
If we have reached the limit of voluntary
arbitration, what Is the next step?
I think the
next step is that which this League proposes and
that is to put force behind international peace,
an International league or agreement, or tribunal,
for peace.
We may not solve It in that way, but if
we cannot solve it in that way it can be solved In
no other... P. 130
Lodhe, Henry C . , The
Senate and the League of Nations, 1925
When the fourteen points were accepted as a basis for
peace, and President Wilson went to Paris, U. S. A. felt a
pride in leadership, and generally shared the enthusiasm
and hope of the world.

Garner and Bernstein write

as fol­

lows :
Apart from Wilson the proposal to organize a
League or Association of Nations, primarily for
the maintenance of the general peace, had the
warm support of the two living ex-Presidents,
Roosevelt and Taft, and of most of the more emin­
ent leaders of the Republican party such as Messrs.
Lodge, Root, Kellogg, Harding, Hughes, Hoover, and
others... P. 184.
Garner, J. W. ; American
Foreign Policies, 1928
I saw President Wilson In the Hotel Crillon,
In Paris, on the day before he returned to America.
I heard him speak to a group of American correspond­
ents about the peace treaty.
He was still Inspired.
He defended his acts and his concessions on that
occasion much more effectively than at any time
after his return to America.
He realized that the
Peace Treaty was not a perfect document, but that it

214
was the best that could have been secured under the
circumstances... P. 19.
Bernstein, Herman;
Road to Peace, 1926
Lodge and other leaders,, therefore, favored the idea of the
League, but Wilson was a democrat with such an Individual­
istic and unsocialized personality,
tors felt themselves affronted.

that republican sena­

Politics took the reins,

and the League was defeated by the senate under the lead­
ership of Lodge who then became widely branded as incon­
sistent.

This and other facts, notably a public debate

between President Lowell of Harvard and Senator Lodge, In­
dicate that a large public opinion favored the League in
principle.

Lodge gives his version of the inconsistency

charge, the debate, and the Senate procedure in his book:
’’The Senate and the League of Nations” , 1925.

Among other

things, he writes:
...The records of the peace conference and of
the conferences of the representatives of the five
great powers were asked for by the Committee and
refused by the Executive... P. 167.
...There was another object which I had very
much at heart, and that was that If we were suc­
cessful In putting on reservations we should create
a situation where, if the acceptance of the treaty
was defeated, the Democratic party, and espec­
ially Mr. W i l s o n ’s friends, should be responsible
for Its defeat, and not the opponents of the
treaty who were trying to pass It in a form safe
for the United States.
P. 164.
In some way the draft of the reservation,
(under Art. X) agreed to by Senator MeCumber and
by me reached President Vtfilson who read it at a
meeting at Salt Lake City on September 23, 1919.
He then said:
’’That is a rejection of the covenant.
That
is an absolute refusal to carry any part of the
same responsibility that the other members of the
League carry.
This ’'Article 10) is the heart of
the covenant.” P. 184

215
...Mr. Wilson was devoured by the desire for
power...P. 212. ....But the Treaty would have been
accepted by the Senate on .the 19th of March, 1920,
If it had not been for Mr. Wilson, and the defeat
of the Treaty with the reservations was owing en­
tirely to his determination to have his own way,
and to dominate the situation... P. 214.
Lodge, Henry C.; The Senate and the
League of Nations; 1925*
The whole book indicates that although the Covenant
needed amendment, the Lodge group loaded it with reserva­
tions until no one wanted it, and politics therefore de­
feated the League.

A great deal of criticism has resulted,

and the following items

are merely a few samples:

Judge John Bassett Moore has pointed out
that the changed attitude of the Senate in late
years has proved an obstacle to the progress of
arbitration and has caused the United States to
lag behind its earlier practice... P. 162
Garner, J. W . ; Am. For. Policies, 1928
The opinion of Viscount Cecil is that America
is more unpopular in Europe than Americans realize.
President Wilson began the League of Nations, but
America now stands aloof.
The same with the World
Court, she was Instrumental In the beginning of
this, but then gracefully walked out.
Cecil, Viscount; American Responsibilities for
Peace, Foreign Affairs, April, 1928
The first and most formidable adversity with
which it (the League) met was the American Senate.
The defection of America was a disaster the ultimate
responsibility for which must be borne by the
American nation.
A free, honest, impartial
opinion is rarely heard on the matter... P. 78.
De Madariaga, Sal.; Disarmament, 1929
Are the new rules of the Society of States
preferable to the present chaotic rules?
Might
it not be well for men to avoid doing anything
now which would make It difficult for them to act
with unbiased minds upon the alternative that then
presents itself?
On this we may learn something from
Benjamin Franklin, the oldest and perhaps the wisest
member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
At
the end of that historic meeting in Philadelphia he

216

said:
” T confess that there are several parts of
this constitution which I do not at present approve,
but i am not sure I shall never approve them:
For
having lived long, I have experienced many Instances
of being obliged, by better information or fuller c on­
sideration, to change opinions even on Important
subjects, which I once phought right, but found to
be otherwise.♦s” In the New York State Convention
called to ratify the Federal Constitution, Alexander
Hamilton said:
”Let a convention be called tomorrow;
let them meet twenty times, nay, twenty thousand
times; they will have the same difficulties to en­
counter, the same clashing Interests to reconcile.”
It will be even so in this casej
P. 194
Morrow, Dwight W . ; The Society of Free
States, 1919
There is still a divided opinion within the country,

and

in the absence of actual measurement, it can only be gen­
erally stated that the negatives appear to include those
persons who have a strong republican party attitude toward
public questions, and an element In whom Nationalism ex­
ceeds their knowledge of the world.

The affirmatives in­

clude the scholars In international affairs, travelled
persons, and many who have had direct experience with for­
eign problems.

There are indications that the

tives are rapidly multiplying.

affirma­

This is observed in the char­

acter and Increase of foreign Interest, travel, news, lec­
tures, and in the growth of various organizations dealing
with international matters.

Three thousand persons from

U. S. A. inspected the League In Geneva last year.
Although recent republican party platforms hrve de­
clared against membership in the League, these declarations
have been softened by assertions for international peace
and cooperation.

The League has never been a real issue,

217

and hac never received a full consideration; it has rather
been allowed to rest in abe 7/ance.

And the U. S. A. govern­

ment has pursued no definite policy regarding it.

The

records show that many communications from the League con­
cerning our cooperation in matters that concern us have
been ignored.

In some cases replies have been sent through

other nations who were members of the League.

In a few

instances, where matters of serious consequence to us have
arisen, we have sent an unofficial observer to be present
In an international conference, but we have seldom con­
tributed to the general cost or participated in the cooper­
ative effort.

The effect of this attitude cannot benefit

our own interest,

and it is only necessary to question any

intelligent foreigner to discover that it has reduced our
prestige abroad.

Chief Justice Hughes has pointed out that

cooperation in specific cases does not obligate the nation
on other matters.

Manley 0. Hudson, Professor of Interna­

tional Law at Harvard, describes and condemns this wavering
policy in ’’America’s Role in the League of Nations” , Amer­
ican Political Science Review, February 1929.
cooperation” cannot be accepted,

therefore,

’’Unofficial

as a satis­

factory relationship.
In remaining outside the League, U. S. A. may avoid
a few of the obligations of membership but she will also
lose- many of the advantages.

She cannot retain full In­

dependence, due to the practical necessity of conforming
to new international procedure which the League is con-

218

tinually establishing.

Conformity without the right of

representation, may become a serious matter.

Her enormous

foreign interests may suffer unfair discrimination or
even confiscation.

In such an event, she is helpless

against the nations grouped within the league; they can
probably exert economic pressure to force her entry If
they desire.
nations,

If, In case of trouble with one or two

she should seek assistance from others, they

might embarrassingly refer her to the League, on the
ground that the League Is now the official International
organ.

Aloofness is also contrary to social laws, and can

only deprive her of valuable international experience,
good will, friendship, and probably considerable commerce.
In her absence, the League is weakened, and the danger of war
is increased.

If war comes, U. S. A. would doubtless be

drawn In through protection of her interests or through
obligations implied in the Kellogg Pact.

If she had no

foreign contacts, possibly she would do well to remain
outside, but with vital world Interests, and since the
League is the only existing world institution for adjust­
ment, it Is difficult to find valid reasons for declining
membership.
Constitutional objections have been suggested, but no
statement on this ground has been found, and the U. S. A.
Supreme Court has rendered no opinion.

The President

and

Senate, however, clearly have the power to make treaties
with other nations; every treaty is also acknowledged to

219
bo an inf ringernont or a limit upon sovereignty.
logg Pact limits the right, if not the power,

The Kel­

to declare

war - an authority vested in Congress by the Constitution.
This Pact and the covenant of the League are both treaties.
Amendment of the Covenant, of the U. S. A. Constitution,
and the method of reservations
necessary.

are all available If found

But in the Senate debate, reservations were

proposed as safeguards rather than upon constitutional
grounds.

Legal authorities consulted mention a ”twilight

zone” In which the constitutional powers of Congress dis­
appear gradually, but they were unable to place the Cov­
enant in this zone.

Without attempting a full legal

analysis, it may be said that an imposing array of Counsel
including Root, Coolidge, Taft, Hughes, Hudson and others
find It possible to adhere to the World Court, and none
have denied our right to accept the Covenant, hence it
would appear that it may be inferred that no insurmount­
able difficulty exists.

This inferrence is supported by

a long opinion of the late Chief Justice Taft, In which
he raises no constitutional objection, but thoroughly
discusses the disputed article X of the Covenant, and
highly endorses it as both safe and effective.

He con­

cludes with the words:
...Article X is one of the great steps for­
ward provided in the League for the securing of
general peace.
P. 133.
Taft, Wm. H., World
Peace Foundation; L. of N. Vol II, 1919
Chief Justice Taft further sweeps aside constitutional
objections by the following legal opinion:

220
But it is said that it is unconstitutional
for our treaty-making power to agree to a limit of
armament.
The Supreme Court in many cases has de­
cided^ that the treaty-making power conferred in the
Constitution is a very broad one, and that it in­
cludes the making of contracts with other nations
on any subject matter usually within the scope of
treaty-making between nations, and that there are
no limitations on it except that a treaty cannot
change our form of government or cede land of one
of our states without its consent.
Now the limi­
tation of armament has been a very frequent subject
matter dealt with in treaties.
Indeed, every one
recognizes that it is a most appropriate subject in
this very treaty of which the League is a part in
respect to the fixing of the armament of Germany.
More than this, we have had a treaty with Great
Brit ain for one hundred years in which we agreed
to limit our armament, and we have religiously kept
it - in 1817 we mutually agreed with Great Britain
not to put a naval armament on the Great Lakes b e ­
tween us and Canada, and that treaty is still in
force*
It would be difficult to imagine a more con­
vincing precedent than this.
In the Clayton-Bulwer
treaty of 1859, concerning the construction of a
canal In Central America from one ocean to the
other, we mutually stipulated not to fortify the
canal when built.
Our power to limit armament in
a treaty is thus indisputable in view of precedent
and judicial authority.
Our duty by joining with
the family of civilized nations in such an agreement,
to put a stop to the awful race in armament, if u n ­
restrained, sure to involve the world again in all
its evils, is equally clear.
P. 126-127.
Taft, Wm. Howard; World Peace Foundation;
League of Nations, Vol. II, 1919
Admitting the possible desirability of some reserva­
tions, it is nevertheless a practical matter for U. S. A.
to join the League outright if she wishes.

If she should

join, the social values would appear to be of great bene­
fit.

It would Immediately sweep away the criticism of

other nations, and enhance her world prestige.

"Uncle

Shylock" would disappear and "Uncle Sam” would return.
Membership would bring much needed international experience
to our statesmen,

soften our extreme nationalism, and

broaden our people by enabling them to participate on more

221

equal terms in the social and economic life of the world.
Our industrial and economic leadership would contribute
toward a more efficient world economy, and might increase
foreign standards of living and consequent buying power.
In return,

this crossing of cultures would doubtless lift

the obvious provincialism and

dollar diplomacy” of our

new country which is now typified by the lev/ values of
divorce, lawlessness,

jazz and the neuvo-riche; it might

raise our social values and expand our philosophy.

We

would gain in the respect, consideration, cooperation and
friendship of the other nations for our foreign interests
and general welfare.

Above all, our seat in the Council

and our share in the work of the Assembly, Secretariat,
Labor Office and World Court, would give the League a
much needed final strength and stability that would not
only increase its value, but would bring us a sense of
security which is now seriously needed.

The principle of

unanimity and the privilege of withdrawal would leave us
full control of our action In case of military or other
crisis.

With conference, mediation and cooperation so

ably provided fori with U. S. A, a powerful participant|
and with the sanction of v/orld public opinion, Chief
Justice Taft and many others have found that a crisis is
most unlikely to arise.

These facts,

together with the

following excellent description of our present awkward
position,

seem to urge our full membership In the League.

...An American representative at Geneva often
feels a certain hesitancy which, if In fact unneces-

222
sary, is nevertheless understandable.
At the outset,
he Is attending a conference wherein his government
has had no voice either in the primary question as
to whether there should be such a meeting or In the
very substantial details as to what should and what
should not be discussed.
During Its course, he rec­
ognizes that he Is a guest, not a full member, at a
meeting-place sustained by the governments of the
other delegates rather than his own and that already
a certain community spirit and atmosphere has grown
up amongst them to which, naturally, he Is a stran­
ger.
He feels a certain hesitancy, for political
reasons, in voting for projects which would add to
the strength or prestige of an agency of which his
government is not a member, and sometimes, as with
Congressman Porter at the Opium Conference or Senator
Burton at the Arms Traffic Conference, he finds him­
self in the still more difficult position of having
to wage a bitter fight against entrusting future work
to that common agency of the other nations which had
convened the very meeting he is attending.
Again he is often loath, as at the World
Economic Conference, to participate in any suggest­
ion involving a further burden to a budget to which
his own government, usually, Is not contributing.
Throughout he hesitates to announce future policy,
for he realizes his present attendance may be but a
single act without organic connection and that, once
the P r e s i d e n t s gavel has fallen, the United States
will disappear and the execution be left to other
hands, with the possibility that all he has fought
for and won may be altered or postponed, as indeed
was threatened In the case of the World Economic Con­
ference when there was no American representative on
hand when the necessary credits were opposed in the
Assembly or proposals of indefinite postponement made
In the Council.
Finally, he has no assurance of sup­
port at home, for, while American representatives have
induced the other nations considerably to alter cer­
tain conventions with the definite thought of securing
American ratification, no single treaty drafted through
the League had been ratified by the Senate until,
amongst half a dozen before that body in the Spring of
1929, the Slavery Convention slipped through.
Little
doubt there would seem that, irrespective of party
lines, American opinion will not wish this situation
to continue but will demand that it be regularized in
order to make American cooperation fully effective
wherever it takes place.
If the present actual cooperation is not and
cannot in the present state of things be complete,
there is the still more important fact that, by
Its own action, the United States has excluded it-

223
self from the world*s two greatest conference
chambers, the Assembly and the Council of the League
on Nations...
That the United States, with all its world-wide
interests, should be wholly unrepresented in meetings
where the most Important statesmen are coming to­
gether from all four corners of t h e globe, that it
has not yet worked out a way at least to interpose
its voice when its own Interests are involved, Is one
of the surprising facts of this new International
center.
P. 41 & on.
Sweetser, Arthurj (An American
In the Information Section, L. of N . ) The
Approach to World Unity, 1930.
The facts seem to show that a position of indifference
to the League is rimipossible, also that a feeble, Intermit­
tent and unofficial attempt to ”listen in” and cooperate
when we choose,

is unsa.tisfactory, undignified and unfair

to the other nations.

There is a growing opinion that our

country should arrange to either get in or get out.
In this connection, our proposed adherence to the World
Court,

and the necessary completion of the Kellogg Pact

may constitute steps tov;ard our full participation in the
International organization of the League, but a stronger
and broader national leadership in our senate would appear
to be required,

since President Hoover and leading coun­

sel clearly appreciate the need:
Such a court - the world court - has been
established at The Hague with the aid of American
jurists.
It has been accepted by ninety per cent
of the civilized people of the earth.
It is estab­
lished and no other court Is practicable.
It has
demonstrated the highest Integrity and capacity,
and the continuance of these qualities Is assured.
It has already settled a great number of con­
troversies.
It is only one, but an Important one
of the six or seven methods of securing pacific
settlements, and thus a contribution to the preven­
tion of war.
Adherence to that court by the United
States has been earnestly recommended by every one

223
self* from the world* s two greatest conference
chambers, the Assembly and the Council of the League
on Nations...
That the United States, with all its world-wide
interests, should be wholly unrepresented in meetings
where the most important statesmen are coming to­
gether from all four corners of t h e globe, that it
has not yet worked out a way at least to- Interpose
its voice when its own interests are involved, Is one
of the surprising facts of this new international
center.
P. 41 & on.
Sweetser, Arthurj (An American
In the Information Section, L. of N . )' The
Approach to World Unity, 1930.
The facts seem to show that a position of indifference
to the League is mmpossible, also that a feeble, Intermit­
tent and unofficial attempt to "listen in” and cooperate
when we choose,

is unsatisfactory, undignified and unfair

to the other nations.

There Is a growing opinion that our

country should arrange to either get In or get out.
In this connection, our proposed adherence to the World
Court,

and the necessary completion of the Kellogg Pact

may constitute steps toward our full participation in the
international organization of the League, but a stronger
and broader national leadership in our senate would appear
to be required,

since President Hoover and leading coun­

sel clearly appreciate the need:
Such a court - the world court - has been
established at The Hague with the aid of American
jurists.
It has been accepted by ninety per cent
of the civilized people of the earth.
It Is estab­
lished and no other court Is practicable.
It has
demonstrated the highest Integrity and capacity,
and the continuance of these qualities Is assured.
It has already settled a great number of con­
troversies.
It is only one, but an Important one
of the six or seven methods of securing pacific
settlements, and thus a contribution to the preven­
tion of war.
Adherence to that court by the United
States has been earnestly recommended by every one

224

of* our presidents and every one of* our secretaries
of state living since Its Inception.
No one can challenge the patriotism of these
ten men, nor the ripe wisdom which is theirs from
having "borne the actual burden of responsibility
for our foreign relations.
They have found no en­
tanglement or limitation of the Independence of the
United States by safeguarded membership in it...
Hoover, Herbert; Det. Free Press, 4-15-30
A Few Leaders who favor American Adherence to
the World Court:
Herbert Hoover
John Grier Hibben
Calvin Coolidge
Silas H. Strawn
William H. Taft
Edward Bok
Mrs. Carrie Chapman
S. 0. Levinson
Catt
Charles Evans Hughes
Newton D. Baker
Henry L. Stimson
Nicholas Murray Butler
Bishop MeConne 13James R. Angell
Judge Florence Allen
Glenn Frank
General Tasker H. Bliss
Thomas W. Lamont
A. Lawrence Lowell
Elihu Root
Robert A. Millikan
Frank B. Kellogg
John Bassett Moore
Mrs. Frank AoVanderlip
Owen D. Young
George W. Wickersham
Mr s . Pr ankl in D .
Roosevelt
Henry P. Fletcher
John W. Davis
P. 4.
League of Nations News: 12-29
...International Conference has meant for us
hardly more than an opportunity to express our
views and ask the rest of the world to agree with
us...
P. 265.
Shotwell, Jas. T .; War as an
Instrument of National Policy, 1929
. .Why has not some arrangement of this char­
acter been worded out before? Let us be honest
with ourselves.
The reason is not because of any
fundamental objection to the structure of the League.
The reason is because of an unfortunate political
controversy which occurred in this country ten years
ago.
The historian of the future will say, I believe
that President Wilson*s greatest success was when he
forced the statesmen at Versailles to accept the cov­
enant of the League of Nations (applause), but his
greatest failure was when he refused to accept the
reservations to that covenant made by the Senate of
the United States,
(Applause) If those reservations
had been accepted, this country would be at Geneva
today.
Those reservations were not accepted and the
marks of that controversy are still upon the face of

the land.
Those marks cannot be removed except by
reinvigorated public opinion...P. 22.
Buell, R. L.
For. Pol. Assn.; 1-4-30
...The efforts which the nations must make in
this direction are too elaborate to be made except
through a general International federations uch as
the League.
The present League will probably be
retained and modified according to need, rather
than abandoned for the creation of an entirely new
league.
The nations of Europe and o f t h e rest of
the world, at all events, seem now disposed t o
attempt to solve all these problems chiefly or
wholly through the League.
That means that if the United States has any
interests to protect in these matters we must act
either inc ompetition with the League, in coopera­
tion with it, or as a partial or complete number
thereof... P. 267.
Potter & West;
International Civics, 1927

CHAPTER V
METHODS OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
Several admirable methods are being tried, but no com­
plete study of the matter has been discovered.
has been made,

An effort

therefore, to Investigate the present con­

ditions, and to devise a complete plan of procedure which
it is hoped may prove

to be a contribution in method.

In

as much as the League of Nations is an established and com­
mendable type of international organization, and since
U. S. A. Is a large and Important non-member, the methods
to be suggested will be directly applicable to a connection
between these two institutions.

It is believed, however,

that these methods are readily adaptable to similar nations
in relation to a similar international organization.
In the first place, the rapid development of interna­
tional life has given importance to some twenty concepts,
and apparently altered their status or meaning from the u n ­
derstanding of the average citizen.

If the true meaning

and importance of a term which may be used by a competent
writer or lecturer is not fully understood by his audience
no progress can be made*

There is evidence that the com­

parative indifference of many citizens is due to this con­
dition, hence these will be examined and corrected.

It is

suggested that the new meanings be explained by writers,
lecturers and teachers as a necessary basis for understand­
ing international relations.

There are also a number of

technical terms, but they do not cause as much difficulty

as do these changed concepts, which it is now proposed to
di s c u s s :
SCIENCE AND RESEARCH:

These terms seem to he under­

stood as confined chiefly to laboratory practice with in­
organic and organic phenomena.

They are not quickly rec­

ognized as equally applicable to the immediate problems of
society, and they are scarcely yet active factors in state
or national government.

Much less is it known that they are

being used exclusively by all departments of the League,
and that international problems are so large, distant and
Involved that any less exact method is hopeless.

It needs

to be known that science and research have been extended to
social problems, and that they are being used by hundreds of
experts in the League organization, even though local prob­
lems may still be dominated by politics.

It is largely the

earlier sciences that have brought about the present com­
plex world;

it Is now the social sciences that are expected

to make it an orderly and safe place In which to live.
Science knows no country.

It is available to all mankind,

and since It deals only with objective fact, it needs to be
looked upon as the proper basis for agreement and coopera­
tion between all nations.

Science, in fact, is the only

footing upon which they can fully agree.

(See Bernard:

"Introduction to Social Psychology" under the subject of
"Publics".) Comte, Bryce and Shotwell are among those who
recognize the International social value of science:
The Positive Philosophy (Sociology) offers

228
th.G only solid basis for that Social Reorganiza­
tion w h i c h must succeed the critical condition in
wh i c h the most civilized nations are now living,
P. 36.
Comte, A. j Positive Philosophy, 1923

•..And it is to be hoped that the learned
scientific men in the recently belligerent coun­
tries will henceforth do their best to re-create
those ties which formerly bound men of learning
and science together all over the civilized world.
P. 137.
Bryce, Jas.; Int. Relations, 1922
The scientific attitude of mind may, after
all, turn out to be a much more humanizing element
than any one would suppose who thought of it only
in terms of the battle with the forces of nature...
P. 21.
Shotwell, J* T.; War as an
Instrument of National Policy, 1929
SOCIAL CHANGE:

To the average man, this term probably

has little more than a local and hazy meaning.
factor in his usual vocabulary.

It is not a

When asked, one person

cited the death of a social "dowager", another mentioned
womens dress, and a third got as far as the Increase of
divorce.

None of them recognized this concept as a per­

manent and powerful social force which may work slowly yet
effectively, and in international as well as in local
affairs.

The advent of democracy, nationalism and the World

War are not likely to enter the average mind, as great
social changes that affect the life of every member in a
world society.

Only those versed in the social sciences

will comprehend the true meaning, range and importance of
this term.

But If the general public did understand It,

they would be prepared to expect change as an Inevitable
phenomenon;

they might even anticipate or detect it in ad­

vance, and be better equipped to meet the new condition.
As it is, many broad social changes, as in international re-

lations, may arrive and produce serious consequence long
before the situation is grasped.

The World War is an ex ­

ample in so far as the lack of social organization was
responsible.

Partridge and Hoover are among those who

sense social change:
Our culture is an experimental culture, and
represents an experimental civilization.
P. 222.
Partridge, Geo. E. Psychology of Nations, *19
President Hoover has appointed a Com­
mittee to study significant social changes in
American life...The study will include a descrip­
tion and measurement of the trends of social
changes in a fairly wide variety of social fields
such as population, inventions, communication, the
family, the church, and so forth.
The purpose of’
the work is largely fact-finding, with the idea of
uncovering problems that it is feasible to deal
with practically at the present time.
The committee
will be known as the President's Research Committee
on Social Trends and will be expected to furnish in­
formation which may be of guidance in policy-making
to the president.
P. 826
American Journal Sociology,; Mar. 1930
INTERDEPENDENCE:

Commerce between nations is generally

regarded as a simple matter of export and import, in which
an excess of exports by value represents our profit.

This

Is looked upon as an endless possibility,, but it is really
a utopian fancy.

It Is not realized that all of the gold

in the world is a minute quantity compared to the total
foreign trade,and that a people must buy in proportion
roughly as they would sell.

Much less is it recognized that

a nation is actually dependent upon others for many of its
daily necessities, such as food, medicine and raw materials.
Forty-seven percent of TJ. S. A. imports are raw materials;
the people In Great Britain would quickly starve if deprived

2 30
of their foreign food supply; other nations are equally d e ­
pendent.

Thus interdependence is a primary and vital con­

dition which needs to be fully and widely explained.

Above

all, there is the more important fact, that while the gov­
ernment of a nation can prevent any disruption in the supply
of local commodities, there is no organization to safeguard
the supplies needed from abroad.

Other nations can deprive

us if they wish; they threatened to do so with rubber; and
they nearly starved the German people during the World War.
Reprisals do not supply needs; they only increase the con­
flict.

This vital fact of interdependence will remain the

core of international difficulty until it is understood by
all people, and provided for.

Normal trade can be a force

for peace as well as a mutual benefit, but only when kept
under social control.

This applies equally to foreign in­

vestments :
British and foreign capital invested in
Canada on Jan. 1, 1929, totalled $5,904,169,000,
said an estimate made public today by the Domin­
ion Burear of Statistics.
Of this sum $2,197,682,000 was British,
$3,470,087,000 was from the United States and
$236,400,000 was from other countries.
"Since our national wealth can be estimated
for the same date as between $28,000,000,000 and
$30,000,000,000 it will be seen that outside
capital comprises about one-fifth of this toitai,"
said the report.
Moreover, it is estimated that Canadians own
from 55 percent to 65 percent of the securities
of all enterprises located on Canadian soil, and
in addition have invested abroad the sum.of
$1,745,815,977.
Of these Canadian investments
abroad, $95,916,848 is estimated to be in Britain,
$991,651,727 in the United States and
$658,247,401 in other countries.
Detroit Free Press, 4-17-30

25 i

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION:

The people within a nation are

accustomed, to living under the control of* '’government"
which enacts laws that must be obeyed.

These agencies of

social control are found, in all towns, counties, states
and nations.

It Is natural, therefore, to assume that sim­

ilar authority would extend to any International organiza­
tion, and a degree of fear over this supposition is one
reason for the objection of many persons to International
organization.

It may not occur to them that the thousands

of associations,

churches, clubs, lodges and societies,

both local and world-wide, are social organizations, and
that the nations can be brought together by a similar social
structure for mutual advantage without the odium of "govern­
ment".

There is no arbitrary force to hold the members of

such a society to any specific action, yet its affairs are
systematized and properly controlled to permit cooperation
and to insure fair play.

Any member may resign if he wishes.

When the interdependence of the nations is understood, the
need of social organization will be more apparent.

But

the broad meaning, value and possible use of this term, com­
pared to the narrower concept of government, needs to be
widely explained, before a portion of the public will feel
that an institution like the League, for example, can be a
benefit without endangering national rights.

All social pro­

cesses require an organization in which to function effect
tively-

-32
LAW AND POLITICS:

Within the nation, the principles

of common law and equity seem to have been pushed from gen­
eral view by a mounting and confusing body of statute law
upon which our courts largely depend.

And politics within

the nation is often characterized more by a division of
party groups seeking office than by a discussion of public
problems.

In world affairs, however, there is no statute

law as such.

International law rests upon basic principles,

custom and precedent, the latter arising out of such matters
as arbitration settlements and treaty Interpretation.
law is now being codified by a commission.

This

And Interna­

tional politics, as witnessed at the League, centers

on

world problems; there is no political party organization,
but law and politics touch each other.

For example a boun­

dary question requires a political adjustment, but it pro­
bably also involves various treaties which call for judicial
interpretation.

Law and politics have a different meaning

and a higher standard, therefore, In the League and the
World Court than the customary viewpoint held by the average
citizen.

The social conditions

in a world of Interdepen­

dent nations call for this new concept of law and politics,
and the fact needs wide dissemination.

Bryce presents an

elementary question in this field:
What is the State? What limits are to be
fixed to its control of individual freedom?
Is
it a law unto itself, bound by no moral rules?
And if it owes duties to its subjects, does it
owe any to other States?
or is the preservation
of its own existence a duty overriding honor, jus­
tice and good faith?
P. 27.
Bryce, Jas.
The Next Thirty Years, 1917

IMPERIALISM:

There has existed always an urge on the

part of nations to enlarge their territory and expand their
Influence.

Although occasionally accomplished by purchase

or other rightful means, the method of conquest by force,
seizure or occupation has been practiced for centuries;
conquest was generally regarded as a v;orthy achievement,
and possession was accepted as a mark of ownership.

This

spirit of imperialism was a fixed policy with many nations.
With the growth of interdependence, however, this attitude
has involved an Increasing danger of conflict, and has been
reduced to such methods as would permit some alleged just­
ification, especially since the 1/orId Tn?ar.

And under a

social organization such as the League, imperialism is com­
pletely repudiated and replaced by the normal process of
competition.

International rules and controls are being

established which will prevent conquest, and which seem
likely to prevent competition from rising to the level of
conflict.

Hence the concept of imperialism seems to be

dead or In the process of dying.

If adequate social org­

anization arrives, the rights of persons and the rights of
property will be respected among nations as they are within
nations.

Hughes and Partridge express the status of imper­

ialism:
TImperial!sm ,t a phrase which serves as a
substitute for thought and suggests the moral
indignation which is so often used to cover a
multitude of delinquencies in argument.
P. 4.
Hughes, C, E , ; Our Relations to the
Nations of the Western Hemisphere, 1928

Not to conquer but to participate in the
life of the world.
P. 223.
Partridge, G. E.,
Psychology of Nations, 1919
DIPLOMACY:

The primary excuse for national diplomacy

was national drive, and the fact that in the absence of a
sound international organization, each nation has had to
negotiate separately with every other nation.
often served a ruler rather than a people.

The diplomat

In the absence

of security, his negotiations were with potential enemies;
they were secret, tentative and uncertain.

He could know

a great deal about his own country and one or two others
but he could not know or understand the situation and r e ­
lationships of all nations.

With the growth of interde­

pendence, the coming of international organization, and
the need of science and research, the center of action
shifts from a direct relationship between states, to a r e ­
lationship between each state and the international body.
The national type of diplomat may even tend to disrupt the
new order.

His office may continue, but It seems probable

that it will be of minor importance, and that it will be
eclipsed by the office of the international delegate and
the scientific expert.

It needs to be recognized, there­

fore, that the old-time diplomacy between nations cannot
be expected to cope with present needs.
international problems are needed.

Specialists in

Burns and Potter con­

cur In this view:
...The truth Is that diplomacy which deals
traditionally with 1foreign* policy, cannot effect­
ively deal with Tinternational policy1 so long as
the danger of war overshadows the whole situation...
P. 131. Burns, C. D . , Int. Politics.

If International organization develops very
far, so that international assemblies or councils
for the regulation of international relations are
created, in which the nations are represented by
persons who are sent there to debate and vote
rather than to negotiate, then only routine admin­
istrative details will be left to the resident dip­
lomat.
In that case he might well be merely a legal
clerk or agent®
Furthermore if and in so far as the
development of telegraphic communication narrows the
discretion of the foreign representative and gives
the home office control over him, the same result
will follow...
P. 106.
Potter, P. B*
Intro, to Study of Int. Organization.
1922
MILITARISM:

This term is not yet in common use, but

It will serve to Include and represent what is generally
understood by such words as war, preparedness, defense and
military action of any kind.

Militarism has been a nation

al practice always, and has carried a measure of honor.
When nations were comparatively small and self-sufficient,
an armed conflict was usually confined to two or three of
them.

If preparedness served as a successful defense, or

if it brought a satisfactory settlement to the victor, it
was considered to be highly justified.

The use of warfare

theright to engage in it, and a belief that it is a nat­
ional security, are still widely accepted.

The arrival of

interdependence and the case of the World War are, however
rapidly repudiating this doctrine.

The prospect of a war

between nations being localized is very remote - the inter
ests and treaty obligations of others v/ould draw them in.
This fact and the frightfulness of modern warfare would un
doubtly raise the cost to both victors and vanquished far
beyond any possible gain.
ations or foretell the end.

No one could predict the combin
Both local and foreign Inter-

H36
ests of every nation would ultimately suffer, and civiliza­
tion would receive a set-back.

Consequently, national mil ­

itarism cannot now be depended upon as real protection; b e ­
yond police power it arouses fear, hinders normal inter­
action and often reacts as a menace.

This concept calls

for a new understanding, therefore, as a preliminary step
toward the acceptance of international organization as a
new form of security.

The order of procedure appears to be

organization - security - disarmament.

All three methods

are being pursued, but nations are not likely to abandon
their arms until they have acquired security.
GEOGRAPHY:

The view has been held that geographic

factors divide and safeguard, or endanger, nations.

There

was a time when a bordering ocean or mountain range pro­
vided considerable protection to a nation from its pos­
sible enemies.

There may still be a measure of safety in

such factors but only to a very limited and decreasing
degree.

San M art in1s army crossed the Andes and Napoleon

crossed the Alps, with limited equipment.

On the other

hand it'is comparatively easy to pass from Belgium to France
or from U. S. A. to Canada, yet these facts have not brought
war.

Whether nations engage in peace or war, has now come

to be a matter of their human relationships largely; the
factor of geographical terrain is rapidly assuming a minor
position.
importance:

In another respect, geography is of increasing
Nature determined the location of many miner­

als and other commodities which all nations must draw upon.

2 37
To cultivate certain products and carry on particular
activities under favorable conditions, man is selecting
definite areas.

In these respects, geography tends to in­

crease the interdependence of the nations.

Thus the world

significance of geography consists of at least two import­
ant concepts, both of which are rapidly changing.

When

this is widely understood, international organization will
be easier to achieve.
ECONOMICS;

When the nations had relatively little

contact with each other, economic questions rested largely
upon local or national conditions.

Considerations of

wealth, exchange or trade, and the laws of supply and d e ­
mand were principally confined to, and treated from the
standpoint of, the nation.

The determinants of costs,

labor and selling prices rarely extended beyond the nat­
ional boundary.

Today, professional economists and the

Industrial leaders appear to recognize the interdependence
of the nations.

The great industries are achieving inter­

national organizations, while the people and their legis­
lative representatives are still laboring with economic
nationalism.

The higher tariffs and foreign reprisals

reveal this fact.

It would be helpful to Inform the public

that the supply and the price of many staples such as cof­
fee, coal, cotton, sugar, wheat, wool and many others are
now determined In a world market, and not in any national
setting.

Knowledge is needed of the mutual necessity of

reciprocity in trade, also of the Importance of cooperat­

238
ing with, foreign nations toward their stability, credit,
social welfare and buying power.

This is now unique to

many minds, but if translated to the local principle of
desiring a "good neighborhood",

it may lead more quickly

to international organization and stability.

Excellent

work is being done by the Economic Consultative Committee
of the Vi/orld Economic Conference under the League of
Nations, and their publications are available.

The

attached comments are typical among International scholars.
A nation orders its economic life best when
it applies Its energies to the producing of these
things in which it enjoys the greatest advantage,
whether comparative or absolute.
P. 4.
Fraser, H. F . , For. Trade & World Politics, 1926
International Relations In economic affairs for
the next four years seem likely to be dominated by
the controversy between those who believe in the
nationalistic or protection!stic and subsidizing
policy and those who see far greater prosperity for
everybody in International cooperation for all round
reduction of tariffs, subsidies and other restrictions
to normal commercial intercourse all over the globe...
Kerr, Philip- Sec. to Llovd-George, 1916-21,
"England & America" - Saturday Rev., 1-26-29.
RAGE AND COLOR:
lem.

This is a difficult and serious prob­

The public have a tendency to regard the populations

of many nations, and color differences, as distinct racial
groups.

It seldom matters whether the supposed difference

is in physique or In behavior, or in both, It is usually
attributed to "race".

Thus what may be called national

and color types are believed to be separate groups biolog­
ically.

As a result, the peoples of the world are rather

arbitrarily placed in classes and made to stand upon dif­
ferent levels in relation to each other.

This sets up

239
opposition| each class attributes all manner of weaknesses
to the people In the other classes, and the danger of con­
flict is increased.

This is racial prejudice, and it Is

a barrier to international organization.

It is a purely

subjective attitude, however, resulting from a misconcep­
tion of race and culture, and the confusion of both.-

It

is very Important, therefore, to disseminate the knowledge
that the fact of race refers to structure only; that races
are not pure; that the theory of differentiation on racial
grounds is largely exploded, as the races are about equal
In potential capacity; and that the distinctive behavior of
each national group represents an acquired culture pattern.
If an infant born in any nation, were to be Immersed im­
mediately into the environment of any other country, he
would acquire the language and other habits of his adopted
land.

When these facts are widely understood,

some of the

unjust "racial" antipathy may be expected tosubside.^

Ross

illustrates the fallacy of differentiation on racial
grounds:
More and more the time honored appeal to
Race is looked upon as the resource of ignorance
or indolence.
To the scholar, the attributing of
mental and moral traits of a population to heredity
is a confession of defeat, not to be thought of u n ­
til he has wrung from every factor of life its last
drop of explanation.
'Blood* Is not a solvent of
every problem in national psychology, and 'race' is
no longer a jugglers hat from which to draw explan­
ations for all manner of moral contrasts and pecul­
iarities.
Nowadays no one charges to inborn dif­
ferences the characteristic contrasts between Eng­
lishmen and Rus siansy between Jews and Christians,
between Javanese and Japanese.
The marvellous
transformation, today of Japan, tomorrow perhaps
of China and Siam and the Phillipimes, make one

2.40
doubt if* even the Impassive Oriental is held fast
in the net of race...
p. 309.
Ross, E. A . ; Foundations of Sociology.
LANGUAGE:

The ability to communicate is fundamental

to understanding.

Rudimentary communication can be ac­

complished by signs, pictures and translations, but the
full meaning is rarely transmitted by these methods.

^t

requires spoken or written language to properly convey
ideas and feelings, and to arouse genuine interest, apprec­
iation and sympathy.

Of all great nations, U. S. A. is

the most deficient In language ability.

Few of her people

can speak or read any tongue except English.

Her commun­

ication with other peoples is, therefore, often confined
to their knowledge and willingness to use her language.
This Important fact limits the range of action and the
standing of her people.

Her travellers to other countries

are numbered in thousands, yet the knowledge that they gain
Is largely limited to the eye, the guide-book and the in­
terpreter.

They rarely meet the better foreigner; they

seldom participate in his life, and do not comprehend his
situation.

Consequently, they remain "outside" the facts,

judge by the standards of their own country, and often
return with erroneous opinions.
a bad impression abroad.

They also, frequently leave

With the arrival of the Interna­

tional radio, movie and telephone; with an enlarging ex­
change of publications; and with a world-wide expansion of
industry, the mono-linguist Is handicapped.

Artificial

language has a poor chance in competition with living

241
languages.

English, and French are now recognized through­

out the world as the international tongues.

It i s ■sug­

gested, therefore that the new importance of this subject
should be known, and that all educated persons, at least,
should possess one of the above languages and one other
tongue•
ISOLATION:

There is a difference between the prin­

ciple of Isolation and the willingness or desire to main­
tain it.

As a principle, It Is fallacious: as a fact, It

rarely exists unless under abnormal and more or less injur­
ious conditions.

Furthermore, the growth and development

of human beings Is dependent upon their interaction;
this is the only way In which the transmission and diffus­
ion of knowledge can occur.

Hence the Idea of Isolation

is contrary to nature, and the desire to maintain It is
an Impractical concept.

U. S. A. has an enormous economic

contact with other nations, and her people travel exten­
sively.

An element In her population, however, while

fostering this trade, desire to maintain a degree of
isolation* They would continue to hold this foreign trade
and large investments abroad without participating with the
other nations, or sharing any responsibility for the social
stability and welfare of this world community.

This posi­

tion is not unlike that of the peddler who would utilize
the facilities of a town and compete with its merchants
while refusing to cooperate and declining to pay any
taxes.

When it Is known that this Isolationist policy

is Impractical and unsafe, international organization will

242
"be more hopeful.

There is a point at which cooperation is

useful and not inconsistent with independence•

Barnes is

one of many who support the valuo of contact between cul­
tures .
It has long been recognized by anthropolo­
gists and cultural historians that the contact of
cultures is far the most' effective force in break­
ing down stagnation, repetition, localism and pro­
vincialism in the civilization of any people...
P. 16.
Barnes, H. S.; Hist. & Prospects
of the Social Sciences.
DEMOCRACY:

There arc many stages or degrees, and

many biev/s, of democracy.

In general it is an ideal of

associated living based upon a recognition of common
rights and. Mutual interests as implied In the principle
of "equality of opportunity".

There are those who view

democracy as complete freedom from restraint, and a large
element do not understand that Its benefits carry a respon­
sibility.

True democracy requires that each shall give up

a certain freedom to the common will, that each In conse­
quence may enjoy a certain security, but this entails a
voluntary support of the general wil.l - a responsibility.
The growth of democracy within nations and the growing In­
terdependence between them, calls for new emphasis on the
obligations of both citizen and nation.

It is suggested

that the citizen be taught that there Is no guarantee of
democracy, and that Its privileges, together with the
stability of the nation are entirely dependent on the de­
gree to which he fulfills his responsibility in their de ­
fense*
tion.

This might well be translated to concrete illustra­
Likewise, interdependence, and the protection of

243
national rights calls for an extension of this knowledge
to an application of democracy between the nations.

If

equality of opportunity Is desired, It must be granted.
Full freedom of the national will is inconsistent.

A

portion must be given up to the International will in
order to be enjoyed by the nation.

This can be gradual

as circumstances warrant, but the principle Is sound, and
when widely understood, and followed, a democratic type of
international organization will bo nearer.

Garner quotes

Lord Curzon In this connection:
...Lord Curzon has not incorrectly ob­
served, "foreign affairs, if you examine the
matter, are really domestic affairs, for this
reason:
they touch the life, the Interest, and
the pocket of every member of the cominunit;^•"
P. 14 Garner, J. YL • Am. For. Policies, 1928
SCV j.
uREIGNTY:

It is worth while to note how man is

gradually dropping unsound theories.

For a long time, and

until quite recently, some rulers considered themselves to
be absolute sovereigns.

They even possessed the power of

life and death over their subjects; their will was abso­
lute.

There were also limited monarchies in which the

rulers claimed sovereignty but actually divided its exer­
cise with their people through a parliamentary power.
Finally, modern democracy arrived and vested sovereignty
ostensibly in the people, especially In U. S. A. In this
country, the exercise of this sovereignty Is deputized b e ­
tween local, state and national authorities who are often
regarded as possessing the real sovereign powers since
they arc the only persons in actual control.

In a prac­

244
tical sense, sovereignty is therefore divided between say chree separate groups of authorities.

No one of them

can usurp the specific authority of -another, and the cit­
izen cannot recover his powers.

Thus sovereignty is di­

vided for convenience within the nation, and the plan works
well.

The average citizen does not object to this, but he

believes that his country is and should be absolutely
sovereign in relation to other nations, and he is inclined
to resent any implication to the contrary.

This attitude

is naturally a barrier to any form of international organ­
ization.

It might be helpful, therefore, to explain this

division of sovereignty in the nation, and to show also
that every treaty between nations is really a reduction of
national sovereignty.

This might lead to a general under­

standing that some of the powers of a nation can be, and
often are, transferred or deputized for convenience and
v/lthout harm.

This new concept of sovereignty Is in keep­

ing with democracy, and seems necessary to an Improved in­
ternational attitude.

Buell is one of many who recognize

this position:•
...Under this postal convention, virtually
every state has surrendered its "sovereignty"
over foreign postage rates; but nobody has wor­
ried about it, simply because this method of
cooperation has advanced the interests' of every
country in the world.
P. 138. Buell, R. L.;
International Relations, 1925
NATION AND NATIONALISM:

These terms are distinct, but

many citizens seem Inclined to confuse them, and to regard
either one as just cause for a more or less pompous or

subjectivc attitude which, can be quite harmful to interna­
tional friendships.

Any particular display, especially in

the presence of foreigners, is not only uncalled for, but
it arouses ire, is bad form and decidedly provincial.

The

words Ohio or Indiana may mean much to those who live there,
but they have long ceased to exhibit undue emotion over
the fact.

It Is equally possible to feel deeply for all

that the nation may mean, and yet exorcise a commendable
restraint.

It may clear this situation to explain that

the term nation is coming to mean merely a geographical
area with its population and government,-a purely objec­
tive concept, and this appears to be the most desirable
viewpoint.

It provides a sound basis from y/hich to. calmly

approach any relevant facts, whether national or interna­
tional.

On the other hand, all subjective and emotional

phenomena within nations are being confined to the term
"nationalism” .

This helps to separate objective facts

from feelings.

The facts then become suitable subject-

matter for International discussion, cooperation and
agreement.

It Is recognized that the content of nation­

alism exists, but that agreement is unlikely, and that if
loft to itself, it may gradually subside or merge In a
cosmopolitan or International feeling as the world peoples
advance in a mutual organization.

In so far as national­

ism can bo sot over by itself, its unfavorable influence
tends to be reduced.

Nothing desirable can result from a

surplus of nationalism.

All authorities agree on this

246
p o i n t , but only two are quoted.:
Let the best side of every nation be better
known*
Each nation has made Its contribution to
the sum of human greatness.
Dwell on that, and
not on the failings.
P. 43. Lloyd-George;
Vlhere are We Going?
...In the United States, each one of us is
subject to city, State, and national officials,
and we do not feel that this situation involves
any practical difficulty.
In principle, however,
this double allegiance is a significant step
towards international or Interstate federation.
P. 142
Potter & West; Int. Civics, 1927
GOVERNMENT:

The theory of government in a democracy

like U, S, A. Is almost ideal; the faults lie In Its prac­
tice, and they trace directly to the citizen who often
neglects his duty to himself.

Instead of organizing and

selecting the best loaders and statesmen, he usually
accepts the "ticket" which the well-organized officeseolccrs present to him.

Occasionally, he gets a good gov­

ernment, but the method is weakened by the fact that the
office-seeker must become such a specialist in politics,
to win, that he may have neither aptitude nor time to b e ­
come a statesman.

Hence the voter needs to be reminded

that his interests, both at home and abroad, will be ad­
vanced little further than the ability of the leadership,
which he has authorized, permits.

Furthermore, the voter

should remember that his own knowledge, desires and support
limit the acts of his representatives.

Another fact for

the citizen to know, is that the increasing complexity of
national and foreign affairs, and their Inter-relationship,
calls for a technical knowledge and scientific treatment

247
which, transcend the ability of the many politicians.

Gov­

ernment Is coming to be regarded as an objective and
scientific function, as a service which the citizen buys
and must pay for, and must therefore diligently ezanine to
avoid deception.

When efficient service is soberly de­

manded from government, there will be a better foundation
for international organization, and the expert will replace
the amateur, as described by Barnes:
...Bureaus of research will be much more
generally used and their Influence much more
definitely felt.
The expert will supersede the
amateur.
The well trained student of politics
will find a ready place In the administrative and
legislative branches of government, as we already
recognize his importance in the judiciary.. P. 442.
Barnes, H. E.; Hist. & Prospects of the
Social Sciences, 1925
PUBLIC OPINION:

In tlae days of autocratic govern­

ment, there was almost no united or influential public op­
inion; poople merely obeyed the commands of their rulers.
But under modern democracy and rapid communication, public
opinion is bo coming such a powerful force that it Is now
regarded as the final arbiter and sanction of the laws and
of all public questions.

It influences national and Inter­

national policies, and guides officials.

Comparatively

little Is known as to how it forms and functions but Its
subtle importance and value arc unquestioned.

The ac­

curacy and soundness of public opinion are dependent upon
the degree of propaganda and especially upon the knowledge
and judgment with which the public interpret the available
data.

This is particularly true of International matters

248
since in this wide field, the public lean largely upon in­
direct information.

For those reasons, public opinion is

a comparatively new and very Important concept, and it is
suggested, therefore, that its nature and use be widely
explained, In the hope that the citizen will objectively
select and value the material which enters into his opin­
ions.

If this can be accomplished, It will supply a fund­

amental Influence and sanction for a safe and sound inter­
national organization.

Bryce and Hoover are among the

statesmen who emphasize the new value of public opinion.
When tho ministers of a country have to
submit their negotiations and their treaties to
the public judgment before tho nation is com­
mitted to a certain course there may be a better
chance of avoiding ignoble or harsh and aggres­
sive action... P.. 205. Bryce, Jas.;
Int. Relations, 1922
The difficulties in the instance of tho
Chinoso-Russian dispute show the clear need of
some method of mobilization of public opinion
against the violation of the Kellogg pact.
By'
International conference on specific questions,
such as disarmament, we have advanced the method
of cooperation i n 'settlement of old standing
dangers... Hoover, Herbert; Dot. F. P., 4-15-30
EDUCATION:

In tho average mind, the concept of edu­

cation is probably confined largely to the teaching of
youth in school and eollcgc, whereas "formal education" is
a more correct term for this specific period and function.
Broadly speaking, education is a continuous process through­
out the greater portion of the life of the individual.
Whether in play, at work, or In any form of contact with
environment, education occurs, whenever active conscious­
ness exists, and some of the most important facts and

2.49
principles are

learned. 0*111316.6 of the school room*

How­

ever obtained, education - knowledge - Is the only method
by which man can meet the problems of life.

Some of this

knovrledge Is acquired by what are known as primary or
face-to-face contacts, but with the expansion of activity
and interest to national and now to international hori­
zons, an Increasing amount of knowledge must be gained
through such indirect means as books, reports and the
press.

Furthermore, the acquisition of this newer knowl­

edge and the ability to intelligently Interpret it has a
new Importance to the citizen who would live under a dem­
ocracy which must be maintained by a competent public
opinion.

Education through indirect channels has a

broader meaning and value to every person, therefore, and
should be widely explained.

The psycho-social and peda­

gogic implication of increasing contacts are also sug­
gested by such authorities as Partridge

and Dewey:

It Is through participation in activities that
are International in scope that in our opinion, the
best education in the Idea of Internationalism will
be obtained.
P. 192.
Partridge, Geo. E.
Psychology of Nations, 1919
...It is not enough to teach the horrors of
war and to avoid everything which would stimulate
International jealousy and animosity.
The empha­
sis must be put upon whatever binds people to­
gether in cooperative human pursuits and results,
apart from geographical limitations.
The secondary
and provisional character of national sovereignty
in respect to the fuller, freer, and more fruitful
association and intercourse of all human beings
with one another must be Instilled as a working
disposition of mind.
P. 114. Dewey, John;
Democracy & Education, 1916
LEADERSHIP:

Individuals are factors in groups, and

250
group life is therefore the unit of society.

Every group,

whether large or small, has a leader; It cannot otherwise
function successfully or retain Its coherence.

The behav­

ior and achievement of every group Is limited by the capa­
city of its leader and the degree of his support.

Adequate

leadership Is therefore a necessary and most Important
factor in every undertaking.

With the growth of Indirect

contacts, especially on national and international levels,
many citizens are unable to obtain a close view or a de­
tailed knowledge;

they may be obliged to rely largely upon

their chosen leaders.
man must acceptr

In such large matters, the average

and carry out whatever action is taken

whether wise or not.

All of the tv/enty concepts which are

being discussed call for unusually alert leadership, and
the fullest measure of cooperation both within and between
nations.

No Interaction between peoples is more complex

and sensitive than international relations, and since grave
consequences are in the balance, It is suggested that the
need and serious importance of prosent-day leadership be
widely described and emphasized.

The catastrophe of the

World War was at least partly the result of the lack of
international leadership.

If democracy rests upon educa­

tion, both arc dependent upon a recognition of the

need of

competent leaders, and this view is shared by Zimmern and
Partridge among many others:
‘Knowledge Is power.
Authority without
knowledge Is powerless.
Power disassociated
from authority Is a revolutionary force.
Un­
less the modern world works out a satisfactory

251
relationship betvireen export knovirlcdgo and pop­
ular control, tho days of democracy arc num­
ber od.
P. 62. Zimmcrn, A.
Learning & Leadership
To increase sensitiveness to Leadership but
also to make that sensitiveness selective of
true values, Is one of the great educational
problems of a democracy.
P. 234.
Partridge, G. E.; Psychology of Nations, 1919
The twenty concepts have now been examined and it Is
suggested that the wide dissemination of their true mean­
ing and importance will provide a sound basis upon which
to carry out the following methods toward international
organization:
WORLD COURT: Since provision under reservations,
for the adherence of U. S. A. to the World Court has been
arranged and signed, it only remains for the Senate to
ratify the act, to make it effective.

It is recommended

that this be done quickly for it will strengthen the
standing of the Court, place its services at the disposal
of this government on a proper footing, and especially b e ­
cause It is an Immediate method of gaining a much-needed
good-will abroad.

All the leading jurists urge this pro­

cedure, but it needs the whole-hearted support of public
opinion to overcome some prejudice and procrastination in
the Senate.
COOPERATE WITH THE LEAGUE:

The country does not

appear to be sufficiently informed regarding the
present international problems and tho

nature of

organization or

services of the League, to warrant Immediate membership,
and since indifference or •’
u nofficial cooperation leads to

awkward situations, immediate open and official coopera­
tion is proposed*

This may temporarily arouse opposition

from a few persons, but there is no valid point upon which,
they can stand, and there is likely to be a large majority
who will applaud and support this advance in policy.
Other nations will welcome this action with an enthusiasm
which will relieve the present tensity over the tariff,
clear the way for an adjustment of this and similar dif­
ficulties, and win back much of our prestige abroad.

As

for us, we should immediately benefit from the closer con­
tact, and gain an international experience which will per­
meate the country and qualify pub3.ic opinion on many inter'
national issues, including the question of League member­
ship.

Our country is already officially cooperating in a

very few matters, but a general declaration of intention
to do so seems necessary to put us en rapport with other
peoples.
1.
S.
3.
4.
5.

Such action might take the following forms:
Official recognition of the League.
Proposal to officially cooperate in every
practical wray.
Offer to contribute proportionately toward
certain accavities,
Set up a League division within the State Dept.
Establish an office in Geneva to facilitate
cooperation.

KELLOGG PACT':

The implications of this Pact and its

whole-hearted acce ptance by some sixty-one of a possible
sixty-four nations, offer a unique opportunity to XJ. S. A.
to render a great service to a willing and waiting world.
The Pact outlaws war, except for defense, but it provides

253
no definition of this elasiic term, and no definite machinory for peaceable adjustment of disputes.

A committee

under the League, which met last March to close the frgapn
in the Covenant caused by tho Pact, have prepared an amend­
ment for the next Assembly, which may thus harmonize the
two instruments, whereupon the League will provide the
needed peace machinery.

But since U. S. A. is not a men-

ber at Geneva, yet is bound by the Pact, her only recourse
in an emergency is tho League or the delay incidental to
arranging for outside arbitration.

Even should she have

adhered to the Court, the dispute might not be justiciable.
Obligations to defend tho Pact seem implied but are not
clear, and as mentioned - defense is left open.

TJ. S. A.

might clarify and strengthen the whole matter therefore,
by some action such as proposing the League facilities as
a complement to the Pact, and volunteering to cooperate
with tho Loaguc for this purpose.

The League, thus stren­

gthened, and supported by World public opinion, could not
be defied by any small group of nations bent upon war.
Defense and aggression might then be more narrowly defined.
Some such action as here suggested, seems necessary to com­
plete the Kellogg Pact.

It may be added that the Pact and

the fact that practically all commodities may have an in­
direct war use, appear to eliminate neutrality, yet the
meaning of this term might well be settled by international
declaration.

These steps would supplement general cooper­

ation with the League.

.Potter and West comment on the

254

Kellogg Pact:
• • •Outlawry of war is a legal attack on the
legal side of v/ar; it must be bought by providing
a legal^ substitute in community legal protection.
This brings us back to our old problem and our
old method of attack - the establishment■and opera­
tion of an international federal government with
power to enforce its rules and decisions.
P. 194
Potter & West, International Civics, 1927
REPARATIONS:

This subject is so complex that

general suggestion can be made.

only a

The fact that U. S. A.

is the principle creditor exposes her to the danger of
much ill-feeling which might take form In some retaliatory
effort.

In the opinion of some expert economists, notably

J. Maynard Keynes of the British Treasury, it is impossible
for Germany to lower wages and readjust her internal life
sufficiently to create the enormous surplus sums necessary
to pay the reparations.

Some authorities also find that

ifshe were able to do so, the transfer would
quantity of goods

dump

such a

into the markets of the Allies as to

demoralize their own production, employment and market con­
ditions.

In the meantime, Germany would be unable to buy

abroad, and would be practically off the list as a customer.
As a consequence, many believe that attempts to collect will
cause much harm and that cancellation is the best policy.
The Young Committee struggled with these problems for
months, and their seriousness is complicated by the fact
that Gei’many has been obliged to continue to borrow more
than she has been able to pay.

A reckoning day or a crash

appears to be ahead, and Incidentally, XJ« S. A. has loaned
most of the money.

For all these reasons, it Is suggested

255
that the situation be closely watched and adjusted.

Rep­

arations is outside the League, but It could severely
shake any International organization.

In a lecture last

July In Geneva, Mr. Keynes said:
...If the United States really advanced
their loans as an investment, then the things
said in the United States at the time of the
War were some of the greatest hypocracies in
historyl
If, however, the U. S. decide to make
concessions to Europe, let them ask, as a high
price, the freeing of Germany from her Repara­
tion obligations, and thus pass on their action
as a real foundation for the peace of the world I
INTERNATIONAL BANK:

In consequence of the Reparations

problem SIThe Bank of International Settlements'1 has just
been established In Basle for the principle purpose of
smoothing the conditions In International exchange arising
from the attempted transfer of Reparations.

This bank can

perform some other functions but its present ownership is
distributed among the leading banks in a few Important n a ­
tions, and there appears to be no public supervision.

In

the opinion of prominent financiers, however, the stabil­
ity of national currency, credit and exchange are now so
important to the welfare of any international organization,
as to call for a truly international bank whose transac­
tions shall be subject to the final check and review of
the League.

It Is suggested that such a bank might well

be established.

Tho supervision of the League would pre­

vent it from falling under the control of any nation or
regional group, and would permit the denial of credit to
an aggressor nation In time of crises.

This would add

256
strength to the League’s policy of peacefully preventing
war In order that a dispute may be rationally adjusted.
It has been proposed that one-third of the profits of such
a bank go to its reserves, one-third to its member

banks

as dividends, and that the remaining third would soon be
sufficient to meet the total budget of the League.

Such

a bank would be an actual factor in an international org­
anization.

The Uo S. A. Reserve System indicates the inter­

national need:
There must be control over credit expansion
somewhere or the resources of the Reserve banks will
contribute to Inflation when the sioirit of Inflation
Is rife, with the result that they will be exhausted
and unavailable when they are really needed.
The
purpose of the Reserve act was to create reserves
which would not be exhausted in times of general
expansion...
P. 90. Monthly Survey: Nat. City Bk.
N. Y . , 1928
TARIFF STIJIY: Decision regarding a tariff is still
regarded as a purely national prerogative, but in the
light of interdependence and other facts previously devel­
oped, It would appear that there is neither justice nor
wisdom In this position.

It is rather an attitude of in­

dividualism, supported by undue nationalism, expediency or
politics and perhaps a paucity of world knowledge.
not in keeping with the times.

It is

The proposed general in­

crease in U. S. A. tariffs has been officially protested
by thirt 7/--three nations, and a number of them have just
enacted severe reprisals which have already contributed to
a severe

trade depression.

The fundamental principle is

simple - if we would sell abroad, we must permit a reas­
onable entry of foreign goods In return.

Too arbitrary a

257
position wil3. prevent international organization by p ro­
voking enmity.

It is suggested, therefore, that competent

national economists meet in International conference, con­
sider national sources, capacities and needs and arrive
ac a policy of exchange of commodities and tariffs consis­
tent with standards of living as far as possible.

Results

will be difficult, and schedules will be found below or
above which a nation will not wtradeTf, but a compromise
will develop on many Items,

This method might reduce the

friction caused by the arbitrary and independent action of
each nation, and lead a little closer to international
organization.

A Geneve. Tariff Conference In 1930 resulted

as follows:
...Three main lines of difficulties were apparent,
some countries exhibiting both of the first two
cited below:
(1) The new nations In Eastern Europe, such as
Poland and Czechoslovakia, while not opposed to the
idea of a tariff holiday, are
inclined to view it
reluctantly during the period of industrial upbuild­
ing which they are seeking to promote.
(2) The definitely agricultural countries, such
as Rumania and Finland, are dubious as to the politi­
cal consequences of any agreement which would tend
to make them permanently dependent on the Industrial­
ized nations for certain manufactured goods.
(3) The strongly nationalist governments of Italy
and prance are definitely opposed to stabilizing cer­
tain customs duties at a time when they are anxious
to forward consolidation and expansion of large-scale
Industries by keeping out such competitive Imports
as American automobiles... P. 7
..There has been fruitful consideration of
the future of the most-favored nation clause In the
event of development of multilateral commercial treaty
arrangements.
And for the first time since the war
the vital element of stability has been Introduced
Into the European tariff situation, viewed as a whole.
This good start will be followed up by the League.
(17 nations signed the final act.)
P. 8. Morley, Felix,
Geneva Correspondent: League of Nations News:
April 1950

258

REDUCE ARMAMENT:

It is first necessary to realize

that national disarmament Is a utopian fancy in the absence
of the security offered by international organization.
Even a reduction of armament is more difficult to obtain
than any other form of cooperation, as recent efforts to
accomplish it have shewn.

Nevertheless, the Imposing

armies and navies of the world arouse fear and maintain a
tension between all nations.

Continuous effort to reduce

fighting power should be made, therefore, as any method of
reducing tension will be an aid to the consummation of In­
ternational organization.

There is no other road to secur­

ity, and security must actually exist before the great
danger and immense cost of armament can be eliminated,,
NATIONAL OFFICIALS:

It Is hardly possible to over­

estimate the value of the goodwill established by such
visits as that of Premier MacDonald to the United States
and by President elect Hoover to Latin America.

It puts

the public in good humor, increases the support that they
give to the efforts of their leaders, and permits face to
face contacts from which come good understanding and im­
portant treaties, as well as good business.

This feeling

is attested by the following headings In the New York
Times, 11-11-28:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Hoover Is planning to leave this week fbr South
Ame ric a.
Hoover Trip pleases Borah.
Argentina plans Greeting.
Peru Ecppcts Gain in Relations.
Virgin Islands invite Hoover.
Cuban Officials are pleased,
Mexico Heady to Invite him.

25.9

8.
9,
10.

Canal Zone awaits Hoover.
British. Interested in Hoov er’s Mission.
Rome calls trip ”Master Stroke.”
A change in foreign affairs now brings an immediate

effect in lical affairs.

I.Iuch national legislation touches

the lives of other peoples.

If national officials could

have a first hand knowledge of the world and a personal
acquaintance with some of the officials of other countries?
It would broaden their viewpoint and tend to reduce fric­
tion.

A great many high officials of other nations spend

a few days in Geneva during the summer session of the
Assembly:; they discover unsuspected good qualities in for­
eigners;

they are amazed at the success of cooperative

effort; and they return home with new Inspiration and many
friendships.

The writer speaks from personal experience

in suggesting that our government officers combine business
with pleasure If necessary* and increase their foreign
acquaintance.
INSTITUTE OF INTELLECTUAL COOPERATION:
a division of Intellectual Cooperation.

The League has

Its committee con­

sists of many world-renowned scholars who work for Inter­
national cooperation and organization on the intellectual
plane.

The Committee has the aid of a section of the Sec­

retariat* and Its resolutions are given effect through the
Institute of Intellectual Cooperation which Is located in
Paris.

They have

already

established national institutes

In thirty-four nations (1929)* and it is suggested that
these organizations provide an excellent channel through

260
which, every branch of local study and intellectual

ife

can be. expanded to incluse international knowledge and con­
tacts*

especially in all educational fields.

INTERNATIONAL DIRECTORY:

Many persons engaged in some

occupation or line of work* desire to keep in touch with
the progress of the activity abroad* and foreign travel­
lers may desire to attend the meeting

of various foreign

societies* but the exchange of adequate information is too
meagre.

The national Institutes of Intellectual Cooper­

ation might publish and distribute quarterly to the librar­
ies and colleges of the world* an international directory
of the national meetings and events which may be of in­
terest to foreigners.

The directory could state the name*

location* dates* outline of subject-matter* conditions of
attendance and the address of the secretary.
would be

ql

This plan

especial value to travellers who often miss

important meetings because there is no recognized and reli­
able source of information.
PRESS:

The press has a great responsibility to sup-

oly complete* reliable* and useful international Informa­
tion as the foundation for the public opinion and conse­
quent action of ever nation.

The writer has Investigated

the methods of the leading' press agencies, and believes
that* on the whole* they make every effort to maintain
accuracy and Integrity of fact.

The quantity of foreign

data is increasing* but is still too limited.

The public

can improve the foreign news situation by calling upon the

261

press for more data* and by requesting that It Include
social*

economic and political matter of a useful and

factual nature.

The press will g3_adly conform* but vari­

ous associations*

societies and individuals must let their

desires be known.

There are papers whose desire for cir­

culation leads them, into a low sensationalism.

They

stretch or warp tho truth and supply ready-made opinions
rather than facts.

It Is believed that the self-respect­

ing reader desires facts and prefers to form his own opin­
ions.

Viscount 3ryce points out that some papers hastily

publish unjustified attacks and snoers against other n a ­
tions* which of course “reach h o m e 15* are long remembered*
and instill much ill-feeling.
Although American papers have rapidly increased
their content of foreign news since the World War, the
volume is still much below that found in leading European
papers.

An average daily issue of the London Times devotes

two pages to objective foreign news.
in the Issue of Sept.

The actual headings

20* 1929 number 32 and are listed

bolow; 17 small notices are also in this issue* making
49 In all:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
5.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

Failure of Penal Ordinance* Hong-Kong.
Pretoria Statuo to Botha* Pretoria.
Native Policy in South Africa* Bloemfontein.
Hungarian Army Manoeuvres* Budapest.
Canadian Pacific and Welsh Coal* Ottawa.
Mr.
MacDonald’s Visit to Canada* Ottawa.
Latvians Condemned to Death by Soviet, Riga.
Labour Policy* Melbourne.
Training of Students* Rome.
Reparations in Eastern Europe* Budapest.
Bihar and the Simon Commission* Calcutta.
Itslian Shot near Cannes* Cannes.

262
IS.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.

Stranded Immigrants in Montreal, Ottawa.
Iraq Undor tlio Mandate.
Question of Tax Reduction, Paris.
Late T s a r ’s ’
‘‘Fortune*' in U. SI, Paris.
French. Mail Aeroplane Feared Lost, Paris.
Canadian Vessel Fired on, Halifax.
U. S. and Foreign Trade, Now York.
Case of Canada and Australia, Geneva.
Lord Ceci l’s Plea for Advance, Genova.
Labour Attitude, Wellington
Australian Government’s Position, Canberra
Anglo-Polish Telephone, Warsaw.
Profits of Big Corporations, Washington.
Tailless Aeroplane, Berlin.
Iraq and the League, Bagdad.
Sir Cecil Hurst Elected, Geneva.
Tension In Vienne., Vienna.
Mr. W h itl ey’s Departure for India, Bombay.
Mawson Antarctic Expedition, Adelaide.
The Anglo-Egypt!an Treaty, Alexandria.
Telegrams in Brief: 17 Items, totaling 49.
London Times: 9-20-29.
RADIO: Radio, and all that It may mean, Is a tremen­

dous influence for International understanding and organ­
ization.

International hook-ups do much to annihilate

distance, to stimulate interest in other countries, and to
establish ties.

The words

'*KIng of Groat Britain'1 may only

have called up a picture of some Impersonal and sidtant
potentate, but when his voice is hoard over the radio, he
becomes a human being even to those T.ho have never seen him.
It seems only necessary for foreign peoples to become real
by some form of contact,

to create Interest and sympathy,

and to learn that human nature Is the same there as here.
Radio has wide possibilities for the cultivation and r e ­
tention of a second language;

even local hook-ups with

schools at certain hours - say fox'4 a French speaker, can
be developed.
using radio.

The British secondary schools are already
It can be widely expanded throughout the

263
world.
'MOVIE:

Another great force toward international org**

animation is the movie* "but its wonderful possibilities in
this field have scarcely been touched.

(.30,000 has been

expended upon a film showing the League in operation,

and

it Is available for distribution through the League of
Nations Association of New York City.

Such travel talks

as are given by Holmes and by Newman together,with views
of African animals are useful, but they lean toward tour­
ist Interest.

It would be more desirable to circulate

films showing the actual production of important commodi­
ties - say rubber - which this country imports.

The pro­

cess could be shown progressively, and would be of p ar­
ticular value if given s. social setting by weaving In
scenes of the home,
people.

school and community life of the

Conversely, foreign views showing the arrival and

use of American exported products would catch the eye and
tell the story of national interdependence.
arriving in Japan,

The writer,

experienced a strange feeling of dis­

tance, but the sight of a Singer sewing machine, ad though
operated by a Japanese,
ness.

quickly dispelled this strange­

The machine was a connecting medium which trans­

mitted and revealed a common interest.

From that moment,

the Japanese were no longer strangers.

A descendant of

the ancient Incas in Cuzco became a friend through a com­
mon experience with an old Ford car.

The movie* assisted

by the new application of sound, can bring the worl d’s
peoples together If its possibilities are utilized.

264
ADVERTISING:

It will probably always be easier to

sell the people what they think they want, than to raise
their standards, yet history reveals that standards have
often been raised when a -useful principle has been sup­
ported by a courageous effort.

The final success of the

electric light, dentistry and vaccination are illustrations,
^n comparison, It would appear to be easier to stimulate
the sale of olives or silk or any foreign product by clev­
erly uncovering and describing relevant facts regarding the
foreign sources which may be little known.

For example,

the historical significance of the olive tree, a picture
or story

of silk culture in Japan, or how we pay the South

Africans

for the diamonds, gold and rubber which they send

to us, are all possible methods of lifting advertising to
a double use, and thus contributing to the social welfare
of the world.

New sources and new markets, along with an

expansion of interest, knowledge,

and understanding can

often be

developed in this way by the subtle use of adver­

tising.

The advertising agencies can render a valuable

service to the-world in this manner.

The photographers’

Association are developing a service for obtaining auth­
entic photographs of events and scenes that may occur in
any nation.
AUTHORS:

With the Increase of foreign travel and in­

terdependence, there is an increase in the demand and need
for world knowledge.

The scholar, banker, manufacturer,

professional man, statesman, farmer and even the worker,

265
want to know how this or that foreign situation may affect
their local problems.
need to know.

At least they will more and more

This opens a comparatively new field In

U. S. A. for the serious author.

Even the fiction writer

can locate his story in a foreign setting, utilize the
romantic period, or weave In the social and historical
factors,

that bear upon the international situation.

The

cultivated writer who visions the Ideal of world democracy,
can render a great educational service, whatever his
special field may be.

The author can exert a wide influence,

and prepare the ground for international organization.
LIBRARIES:

Following the author, the publisher,

bookseller and especially the librarian, can suggest, en­
courage and s.timulate the production and distribution of
books and periodicals which will cultivate and expand the
public interest and knowledge of the world, Its peoples,
and their relationships. By circular, bulletin, display
and newspaper notice they can assist in qualifying the
public to meet the expansion of national problems in the
new world setting.

Practically every subject has an in­

ternational connection or Implication which will often be
of Importance to the student.

But in'TJ. S. A., the public

does not yet appear to be sufficiently acquainted vd th the
recent works'on foreign subjects, hence some assistance Is
suggested.

Tho League offers an information service to

libraries or others upon various plans.
CHURCHES:

How to maintain the membership is a growing

266
problem in many churches.
nastics, has beon tried.

Almost every method,

even gym­

But since the church Is founded

upon the teachings of Christ, it would appear that its
activities are naturally confined to the spiritual and
moral issues between men.

And in this connection, the tens­

ion and conflict between nations offers an enormous field in
which the effort of the church could bo well expanded.
growing need for better international understanding,

The

and

the difficulties Involved, make it a timely, worthy, and
appropriate subject for a united and objective effort on the
part of tho churches.

They may achieve some results, es­

pecially if they will connect their moral teachings to the
concrete facts and relations between the nations.
ASSOCIATIONS AND SOCIETIES:

Regardless of the object

or the area embraced by any specific group, it will prob­
ably have some International interest or connection, or
some occasion on which world affairs can be considered.
The membership will often include someone who has had a
foreign contact which can be utilized, or persons with
such knowledge can bo brought In.

Foreign matters can be

made to be both informing and entertaining.

There the con­

ditions permit, it is suggested that questions and dis­
cussion be encouraged,
vokes thought,

since general participation pro­

stimulates investigation, adds to the inter­

est and develops the subject.

International relations is

a broad field; It concerns every one, and is therefore a
good subject for frequent discussion.

If continued, it is

267
likely to lead to tho problem of International organiza­
tion. Tho Bibliography will provide necessary reference
matter,

and if possible,

the information service of the

Foreign Policy Association should be available for reli­
able current data .
ADULT EDUCATION:

Plato urged people to continue

their studios after the formal education period, and Spen­
cer In his essay on Education, pointed out that the aver­
age person was compelled to .learn much about life after
leaving school.

The great scholars and tho most success­

ful men continue to be good students.

Adult education is

expanding, and while university guidance Is an advantage,
it is not necessary.

Any adult may turn his spare time to

profitable enjoyment by the pursuit of any definite branch
of learning.

A daily schedule will enable him to overcome

any desultory effort, until ho is well Into his subject,
when Interest and an arranged contact with others in the
same field, will yield a keen satisfaction and raise his
whole level of life and service.

Many adults will find

the international field to be especially absorbing;

it will

tie in with almost any subject or occupation, and import­
ant daily events keep It a live and interesting topic when
handled by an informed person.

It will prove worthy the

intelligence and spare time of any true student.

Institutes

for the study of political science and allied subjects are
held in Williamstown, Mass., the Universities of Chicago,
California and elsewhere.

Having first educated himself by

268
wido reading, deliberation, and worth-while contacts, the
adult can acquire some leadership in his community#

The

appended bibliography, and the service rendered by the
Foreign Policy Ass'n. of New York, also tho World Peace
Foundation of Boston, are recommended#
in ternational Book N e w s ” Is published by tho
World Peace Foundation for the purpose of keeping the
American public advised of the great variety of ser­
viceable material made available by official and semi­
official International cooperative agencies, - as
well as by the World Peace foundation Itself.
The
Nows will also contain announcements of now publica­
tions on subjects of current or special interest.
The Nov/s is an integral part of the service of the
World Pca.co Foundation In making facts on international
relations and International cooperation available to
the public in authoritative pamphlet and book form
and In tho official publications of tho League, tho
International Labor Office, the Permanent Court of
International Justice, and other international cooper­
ative bodies.
International Book Nev/s will be sent to interes­
ted readers, without charge, on request.
P. 2.
World Peace Foundation 1929.
FOREIGN TRAVEL AGENCIES:

After considerable exper­

ience with various agencies, the writer believes that they
can render a more valuable service, and increase their
business, by ascertaining the occupation,

special Inter­

est or purpose of voyagers, and arranging to supply them
with foreign data of a more useful and extensive nature.
The employment of one or two widely travelled persons
would supply each customer with more specific Information
for his particular purpose.

Special directories to each

nation, covering Institutions, locations, meetings and
important events should be available, as suggested above,
and should be kept up-to-date.

Present printed matter Is

269
largely designed to induce journeys and tours over routes
which may have been previously covered, or which may not
be worth while.

If an effort is ma.de to induce contact

with foreign persons a n d events, rather than aimless wan- v
derings, many customers will be better satisfied;
can go abroad at less expense,

they

and w i l l have reason to r e ­

peat their journeys more often, since they will have made
friends a nd established useful contacts.

An agent w i t h

direct foreign experience can assist associations and
societies in group travel, and can facilitate their con­
tact with similar groups abroad, through foreign corres­
pondents.

Reciprocal travel will thus be encouraged.

In­

ternational understanding will thus be advanced.
FOREIGN TRAVELLERS:

No method will put a person In

tune w i t h any other nation unless supplemented by direct
contact.

Living among another people gathers innumerable

scenes and incidents into a cumulative a r,id visual config­
uration* and clothes It with meaning.
away many of the myths of the homeland,
understanding snd sympathy.

It also sweeps
and broadens the

But the uninformed traveller,

especially the mere "tourist” sees only the exterior,
does not recognize a difference in tradition and custom,
and is likely to judge b y his own standards; he learns
little.

Preparation is necessary; the geography, history,

social-economic and political life, distances, money
system, and If possible the language d nd cards of intro­
duction should all enter into the equipment.

Above all,

270

the stay in each nation should he long enough to permit
living with the people*

Participation in business or some

activity will then add a fulness of meaning and color the
whole picture with feeling*
be really understood*

Only then will that nation

It is this inner knowledge and

feeling which should be gained,, but it all depends upon
the degree of preparation, tolerance, contact and insight.
It cannot be pushed or directly sought; it is rather a
by-product of time a n d participation, but it will foster
international organization.

It is equally desirable to

utilize every opportunity to invite foreign individuals
and groups

to visit this country, and to assist them in

forming correct impressions.
pecially avoided,
advantage.

Exaggeration should be es­

since it is likely to react to our dis­

The wide-spread belief abroad, that. U. S. A.

is rolling In wealth has been partly caused by the wellknown American exuberance of spirit and careless use of
money.

In other a nd older nations, money is not the meas­

ure of social position.

Professor ZimmernTs views will

help to orient the travellers
t rav ell ers tales 1...are now too often
synonouous with ill-natured, gossiio based on
an experience with a hoted bill or a dispute
over a window in a carriage... Great journeys and
little minds go 111 together.. P..48.
The final
stage of the ordinary citizens education will con­
sist In a. first hand experience of foreign coun­
tries acquired under c onditions which promote true
intorno-tional understanding. . . This may bo described
as the School of International Contacts.
P. 49,
Zimmorn, A.; Learning Ez Leadership.

271

EDUCTIONAL OFFICHALS;

On thcvhole, educational of­

ficials a r e highly respected, and theirw ork is appreciated.
In the present

stage of democracy, however, their scholas­

tic Ideals a re often subjucted to political control.

The

necessity of being responsive to political power, may di­
vide their efforts a. nd reduce their opportunity to keep
abreast of educational method.

A leader in any field Is

responsible for the welfare of his followers; they look
to him for the solution of problems and for improvement
in mehtod.

Education is fundamental and far-reaching

influence, and since now experiments and new methods are
constantly being tried, It Is believed that the educational
official should maintain the broadest possible contacts
with other leaders in his field.

It is suggested,

there­

fore, that they form an international organization for the
comparative study of the methods used in all of the n a ­
tions, and that they give special attention to the ways
and means of expanding or altering present curricula to
Include the international implications which interdepend­
ence now calls for.

An exchange of official viewpoints

upon this subject would be most helpful to every nation,
both internally and externally,
EXCHANGE OP TEACHERS;

There are those who, on gain­

ing experience with the world, are Inclined to regard the
teaching profession as a theoretical, academic and clois­
tered group.

It would be equally subjective and unsound

to say that the man of the world lacks Ideals and educa-

*

272
tion.

It is sound to say, however, that an exchange of

views and of environment is often beneficial.

An interna­

tional exchange of teachers will give their efforts a dif­
ferent response and bring them new ideas and fresh inspir­
ation.

It will bring a new presentation to students.

Moreover,

it will correct some errors, multiply contacts,

lead to valuable friendships, and broaden International
understanding.

It is suggested that when possible, the

valuable seminar method should be adopted.
purpose are urgently needed.

Funds for this

Dr. Duggan, director of the

Institute of International Education in New York, makes
the following statement in his annual report for 1929;
...But the United States is known in Latin
America chiefly by Its movies, Its jazz and other
aspects of its life which do not add to its
prestige.
Personal contacts are made chiefly by
salesmen who frequently leave a bad Impression as
to our education and ideals.
The Latin Americans
resent the fact that apparently we are interested
solely in commercial intercourse with them and not
Interested in cultural contacts as Is the case
with some of the most advanced European countries
which send some of their finest scholars, publi­
cists, and educators to lecture in the Latin Amer­
ican universities. P. 7.
Seven teachers from England were entertained by the
English-speaking Union of New York for several months in
1929, and their work was very well received. • It Is be­
lieved that an exchange of language teachers would be es­
pecially beneficial and that it might be arranged on a
large scale.
SABBATICAL PERIODS;

In a democratic world, the de­

velopment of International peace and security depends so

273
largely upon education,

that regular sabbatical periods

for foreign contact and study seem to be necessary.

Those

charged with the duty of educating youth must have an in­
ternational experience and outlook, and be able to handle
their subject in its application to world problems.

Cecil

Rhodes provided a fund from which qualified members of
the Oxford staff may enjoy periods of foreign travel and
study.

The foreign interests and investments of TJ. S. A.

have become so important to the nation and therefore to
every citizen,

that the national government would seem to

be justified in contributing to an educational fund for
the national expansion of world knowledge.

Such an appro­

priation would effect a tremendous saving if it ultimately
assisted in accomplishing international organization and
thereby reduced the colossal expense of armament.

A first

use for such a fund would be to acquaint educators with
international facts through sabbatical leave and' foreign
st u d y .
FOREIGN STUDY?

It is not only necessary for educa­

tional officials and teachers to be well grounded in in­
ternational matters, but it is also important that stud­
ents - especially during the formative period - receive a
✓
thorough preparation and then be immersed in a foreign en­
vironment whenever possible.

A face-to-face contact with

foreign students and teachers is suggested.

For example,

in two summers, the schools of two countries could be ex­
perienced,

or in some cases a year could be spent abroad

274
"between the high-school and college periods.

The Insti­

tute of International Education of New York City Is already
working in this field but its funds are limited.

The nat­

ional fund proposed above might contribute toward such
foreign study for especially qualified students.

It Is

also recommended that more adults take advantage of the many
opportunities for study abroad.

The Geneva School of Inter­

national Studies, under .the leadership of Professor Alfred
Zimmern who is Deputy Director of the League’s Division of
Intellectual Cooperation, is one of the best Institutions.
It received 450 students from 33 nations In 1929.

An in­

crease of world knowledge and of direct foreign contact are
fundamental to a national readiness for international organ­
ization.
The Permanent Center of Int. Information of Geneva
listed approximately 50 congresses, lectures, courses, confer­
ences,

etc. in Geneva from April 5 to Nov. 11, 1929, and

published the following list of Int. organizations having
their Headquarters or their representative in Geneva;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

I. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
Sec.-Gen’s. Office of the League of Nations •
Interparliamentary Union.
Int. Bureau for the Defence of Native Populations.
Int. Phllarmenian League.
Int. Committee for Georgia.
Int. Alliance against the Illrd Int.
Int. Peace Bureau.
Int. Alliance of Women for Suffrage & Equal Citizenship.
Council for the Rights of Jewish Minorities •
Permanent Agency of the Sionist O^g. to the L. of N.
Geneva L. of N. Union.
L. of N. Association of America.
Int. Union of Assns. for the L. of N.

27.5

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
’41.
42.
43.
44-.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.

II. ECONOMIC INSTITUTION
Int. League of Economic Entente.
III.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Int. Labour Office.
Int. Management Institute.
Int. Inst, of Social Christianity.
Central European Bureau of Mutual Church Assistance,
Women's Int. League for Peace and Freedom,
Int. Council of Women.
World Union of Women for Int. Concord.
Int. Masonic Assn.
League of Jewish Women.
American Com, of the Geneva Inst, of Int. Relations',
Permanent Sec. Office of the Int. Conference of Nat.
Unions of Benefit Societies & Mutual Insurance
Funds in case of Illness.
Int. Assn. of Journalists accredited to the L. of N,
IV.
HUMANITARIAN WORK
Int. Red Cross Committee.
Int. Institute for the Study of Sanitary WorkingStock .
Save the Children Int. Union.
Int. Migration Service.
Int. Conference of Private Orgs. for the Protection
of Migrants.
Int. Council of Nurses*
Permanent Sec. Office of the Int. Conference of the
Assns. of Mutilated. Soldiers, & ex-service Men,
Int. Humanitarian and Philozoic Bureau.
The Howard League for Penal Reform.
The Anti-Opium Information Bureau.
Int. Theosophical Order of Service.
V. SCIENTIFIC & EDUC. INSTS.
Postgraduate Inst, of Int. Studies.
Int. Committee of Psychotochnics applied to Vocation­
al Guidance oc to the Opg. of Work.
Int. Inst. Psychology and Psychotherapeutics.
Permanent n t . Centre of Conferences & Congresses of
Psychical Research.
Int. Commission for the Teaching of Mathematics.
Students Int. Union.
Int. Student Service.
Int. League of the Young.
Int.. Bureau of Education,
Now Education Fellowship,
Int. Assn. of Blind Students.
Int. Radio Union,
Int. Esperanto Bureau.
World Work for Teaching by Pictures.
Int.. Union of Teachers of the Jaqucs-Dalcrozo
Method.
Int. Federation of UnivA Women.
I.S.H.A. (Int. Student ospitality Assn.)
Int. Assn.. for the Worl’
d Theosophical Univ.

276
VI. INSTITUTIONS OCCUPIED WITH MORAL V/ORK.
I n t , Federation of the Blue Cross Temperance Soc.
Int. Abolitionist Federation.
VII. RELIGIOUS W O R K . n
53.
Int. Service of the_Society of ^rlends (Quakers)
59.
World Alliance for Promoting Int. Friendship thru
thb churches.
60.
World*s .Alliance of- Young. Men.1s Christian Assns.
61.
Foreign Com. of the Nat. Council of Young M e n ’s
Christian Assns. of the U. S. and Canada.
62.
The World’s Student Christian Federation
63.
Universal League for the Observation of the Sabbath.
64.
Int. Bureau of the “Bahai15 Religious & Social Move­
ment .
65.
Int. Headquarters of the !5Soufi“ Movement.
VIII. MISCELLANEOUS INSTITUTIONS.
66.- Int. Normal School of Physica3- Education of the
Y. M. C. Assns.
67.
Int. Group of Young W o m e n ’s Christian Assns.
68.
Swiss Univ. Group for the L. of N.
69.
Assn of ex-Students of the Univ. of Geneva.
70.
Geneva School of Int. Studies.
71.
Swiss Theosophical Society (Swiss section of the
Int. Theosophical Society).
72.
Russian Section of the Int. Theosophical Society.
73.
Special service of Int. Motor-car Touring.
74.
Federation of Int. Institutions (semi-official &
pr i v a t e ).
75.
Int. Club.
76.
Anglo-Genevesc Society.
77.
Press Club.
78.
Int. Catholic Club.
79.
Permanent Centre of Int. Information.
Permanent Centre of Int. Infm. Geneva, 1929.

56,
57.

INTERNATIONAL PHILANTHROPY: A large number of ex­
perienced and world-minded citizens of U. S. A. have given
enormous sums toward the cause of International life and
understanding,

and have thereby directly advanced the w e l ­

fare of human society, besides winning the gratitude of
mankind.

Public-spirited citizens of other nations have

also contributed within their means.

A complete list is

not available, but the magnificent gift of two millions of
dollars by Mr. John D. Rockefeller Jr. to provide a library
for the League of Nations may be mentioned as indicative

277
of his judgment of a great future for the League and for
international organization.

It is worth noting that the

great gifts for international benefit, have come from p e r ­
sons whose world travel, contacts and interests, have
equipped them with a knowledge of world needs, which the
average legislator and citizen do not possess.

Philanthro­

pists can render a groat service toward the success of In­
ternational organization.
FORMAL EDUCATIONS

Almost every method which has been

devised and proposed for achieving international organiza­
tion, rests finally upon formal education.

The educational

system supports democracy:; it shapes public opinion; It
has been a leading factor In creating an Interdependent
world, and is now called upon to clothe It with a social
organization.

Education is a social function, and it can

help the individual and the nation to recognize and to
participate with other peoples in this now international
environment which now holds so much of mutual Interest.
The degree of participation will return a proportionate
benefit.

Dewey sayss

By doing his share In the associated
activity, the individual appropriates the
purpose which actuates it, becomes familiar
with its methods and subject matters, acquires
needed skill, and is saturated with Its emo­
tional spirit.
By Education, almost every subject taught can be ex­
panded to a world plane; its International Implications
can bo stressed; and the student will thus become able to
recognize the need of international organization.

No

278

doubt some teachers are already treating their subjects
on this broader plane, but they may be able to amplify it.
Without presuming to give specific directions,

the follow­

ing suggestions are submitted?
Agriculture :
history,

Social and world significance of its

quantities produced, grades, markets and prices;

International Institute of Agriculture at Rome.
Architecture;

World schools, designs, materials and

construction methods.
Art:

National social psychology and history revealed

by art.
Bacteriology;

National status, and credit for dis­

coveries .
Botan y :

World distribution of flora, and its social

significance.
Business Administration:

Interdependence.

World

sources, markets, prices, organization.
Chemistry;

Social Significance of natural chemical

deposits and processes.

War.

Economics:

New international factors and effects.

Education?

Foreign contacts,

Engineering;

exchanges, methods.

National practices,

conditions.

Need of

standards.
English:

Origin. World use.

Foreign difficulties.

New meanings of words and terms.
Entomology;
Mediterranean fly.

World social importance.

Yellow-fever•

279
Forestrys

World, supply, distribution, prices, refores­

tation cooperation.
Geography;
Geology;

Social influence and changed conditions.

World dependence on certain natural geolog­

ical deposits.
His tor y;
World-War'.

Rise of the nation.

Cause and effect of'

Social situations.

Home Economics?

National methods.

Sources of foreign

materials.
Journalism?

World Importance,

Languages ?
Law?

subjects, public opinion.

New importance of world communication.

National difference, harmony, international law,

world court.
Literature ?

Touch Literature of all nations.

tional significance.
Mathematics ?
Medicine ?

Interna­

Social value.

Universal "language'1.

Serves all nations.

International Conference Advance by interna­

tional cooperation and comparison.
Meteorolog y ?

Climate of various nations and social

me ani ng.
Music ?

Reveals history and temper of people.

Inter­

national social value.
Philosophy ?

Individualism.

Cosmopolitanism.

Inter­

national i srn.
P hysics ?
tions.

Historical development.

Groat physicists.

Political Science?
leaders.

National applica­

International needs, institutions,

National differences.

280

Psychology;

Social psychology of race, nationality,

climatic effects.
Sociology;

Fundamental importance in world social

p r oblems.
Zoology;

World distribution of general social effects.

Each subject will offer some evidence favoring contin
uous international cooperation and organization for higher
social values which can be stressed by discussion.

It will

be observed that these suggestions call for no additional
equipment, although maps, golbes, pictures,

specimens,

films and perosns with foreign experience can be used to
good advantage.
SUM11AEY

From a general consideration of the methods outlined,
it is clear that the actions of a. democratic nation depend
finally upon its public opinion.

There will be no expan­

sion of the educational system, no increase of foreign
news, no extended cooperation with the League, and no p a r ­
ticular advance toward international organization untilthe public believe that they want those things.

A little

knowledge of the international situation will automatically
filter through, but it will be slow, incomplete,

and often

subject to narrow Interpretation or some local expediency.
'Public opinion is the controlling factor, end another
great war may come before this opinion is ready to insist

281
upon a definite organization to prevent it.
The formation of public opinion is not under control
or adequately understood.
available,
be used.

Until more knowledge of it is

it is recommended that every known influence
Informed leaders in the fields of sociology,

economics, political science, law and education can de­
vote their efforts to a scientific study of world facts
and needs, and can disseminate the results through writ­
ing, speaking and discussion.

Such leaders in interna­

tional affairs as Professor Zimmern, Sir Arthur Salter,
Sir John Wilson, Viscount Cecil, II. Briand, Sr. Scialoja,
Sr. Mado.riaga., Mr. J. Maynard Keynes, Pres. Hoover,
Chief Justice Hughes, Prof. Shotwell, Hr, Buell, Dr.
Duggan and others deserve groat credit for their effort
to advance public opinion.

The 1caders of many assoc­

iations and societies can utilize the work of these and
other leaders for lectures and discussions.

Leaders of

the press can do a great deal, but above all, loaders in
education must lay a foundation of world knowledge as a
basis for an enlightened public opinion.

Persistent

effort with all of the methods outlined Is necessary to
the realization of international organization.

282

COHCLUCIONS
The great force of Social Change has brought about
a succession of institutions for the purpose of control­
ling human society throughout the period of history.
These institutions range from the semi-organized tribal
system,

through various stages of religious control,

authoritarian government,

and democracy*

Social Change

and other forces have finally resulted in the present
solidarity and dominance of the nation as a powerful
social,

economic and political unit, and in democracy as

the most modern form of associated living.

The nation Is

an objective geographical and political concept, but Its
development has been accompanied by a collection of tra­
ditional and subjective values among Its population,
known as nationalism.

Tills attribute unites a people and

strengthens the nation up to a point, but it may carry too
far,

especially In the absence of knowledge regarding nec­

essary relations with other nations,

and thereby become a

barrier or even a menace to International interaction.
The arrival of modern democracy has fostered the
rapid growth of science, invention, industrialization and
corni'nunica.tion, until the former national sufficiency has
now been replaced by a condition of vital Interdependence
among the nations.

Much of the food, medicine,

clothing

and raw or manufactured commodities needed in the daily
life of one country must be obtained from others.

Com­

merce Is organized largely on a world basis- prices are

283
controlled, by a world supply and. demand;

social and. eco­

nomic life are expanding to an international plane; thus
the world Is interwoven, and. is becoming the unit of in¥

teraction.

In consequence, the old. spirit of opposition

and. conflict between nations, must give way to a recog­
nition of mutual problems and mutual interests.

The size,

complexity and. continuity of these international matters
extend, beyond, the scope and legitimate authority of any
single nation or small group of nations.

The former n a ­

tional diplomacy Is Individualistic and inadequate to
this

new condition

of the world.

. Social theory and the facts of history show that
peace and order - civilization in fact - rests upon some
form of social organization.
every society and association;

It is deemed necessary for
it-is applied to every

town,

country,

that

societies tend to Interact with others, and to

up a

mutual social

velop.

state and. nation.

It is equally true
set

organization as mutual interests de­

In the International field, the evidence shows a

complex and. growing condition of interdependence which,
in the absence of social organization for Its control,
can lead to the grave danger of conflict.

The govern­

ment of any nation possessing vital necessities, may
withhold or restrict the supply, and. discriminate b e ­
tween nations; this Is already being done.
conditions,

Under these

extremes of nationalism and national arma­

ment no longer provide adequate protection; they are
rather a menace to national security since they set up a

284

fear and tension that hold the nations apart.

In the

light of all the facts, therefore, a continuous interna­
tional social organization is necessary,

and offers the

only reliable form of national security.
An examination of the possible forms of organization
indicates that the existing League of Nations offers the
best solution of the question under present conditions of
national dominance, and that the most desirable policy for
U. S. A . , is to adhere to the Tor Id Court, and officially
cooperate with the work of the League, les-vlng membership
until experience and public opinion can develop a de­
cision.
In a democracy,

the methods necessary to effect

participation In the League or any similar international
organization, depend upon an enlightened leadership In
all of the channels which create public opinion.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
AIT of the following Looks and publications make
excellent contributions to the international problem but
as the average reader will be unable to peruse all of
them, a few which seen to possess special merit are
listed at the beginning.
BOOKS.
Author
Bryce,
Buell,
Burns,
Cecil,

James
R. L.
C. D,
Viscount

Title

Year

International Relations
11

M

*5

1928
1925
1920

11
PBlltifis
The '7ay of Peace’ Essays
1924
and Addresses
“Foreign Affairs'w All Publications Under (Monthly)
Dewey, John
Democracy and Education
1926
Donaldson, J.
Int. Economic Relations
1928
“For. Pol. Assn.
All Publications Under
Fox, Sir F.
Mastery of the Pacific
1928
Scientific Study of Human
Giddings, F. E.
Society
1924
Dept. Com. Bui. -;,'-625
Hall, Ray
Racial Basis of Civiliza.
1926
Hankins, F. H.
Essays on Nationalism
1926
Hayes, C. J* H.
Cond.Itlons of Indius. Peace
1927
Hobson, J. A.
American Foreign Relations
1928
Howland, C. P.
The L’orld Court
'
1929
Hudson, H. 0.
Study
of
Int.
Govt.
1923
Hughan, J. "7 .
The Pathway of Peace
1925
Hughes, G. E*
Inst, of Intel.
All Publications Under
Cooperation
Inst, of Int.
All Publications Under
Education
Henworthy and.
Freedom of the Seas
1928
Young
All Publications under
League of H a t .
For Id. Peace Found. , Boston, USA Agent
Public Opinion
1927
Lippmann, ~7 .
Senate A League of Nations
1925
Lodge, H. C,
DIsarmament
1929
Madariaga, S
Society of Free States
1919
Morrow, D. ""r
Our Foreign Affairs
1924
Mowrer, P. S
Social Change
1922
Ogburn,
F
Intro, to Study of Int. Org.
1922
Potter, P. B
Far as an Instru. of Nat. Pol 1929
Shotwell, J. T.
Soc. Psych, of Int. Conduct
1929
Stratton, G. II.

II
Author

Title

Taft, "',H. et a h
U. So Dept. Con.
Zimmern, A. h.

Abbot, B,
A clclams, Jane
Alder son,
A,
(4

II

Allport, P. II.
Ahmad
Angel 1, J. "I.
Angell, Norman
Ar istotle
Baker, P. J. No
Baher, R. S.
Bar k er , hrnest
Barnes, H. P.
Beer, G-. L.
Beman, L. T.
Benns, P. L.
Bentley, et a h
Bernard, Do L.
Bernstein, H.
Bigelow, John
Bingham, ”h & F.
B1 a!:eslee, Go il.
Boechel, F. II.
Bogrrdus, E, So

Bolitho, ’Bn.
Bougie, Celestin
Bowman, Isaiah
Brand, R. II.
Brandes, G. H.
Brent, C. H.

Year

League of Nat. V o l 0 II
(".'orId Peace Found.)
All Publications Under
Learning <H Leadership

1919

Hist. Aspects of the
1926
Immigration Problem
1920
Nationalism; a Dogma Curve;
1905
Balfour
Carnegie
Social. Psychology
1924
Blessings of Brit. Rule in India
1929
Recovery of Germany
1927
The Publie Find
ITust Britain Travel the
1926
I.Ioscow Road?
Politics and Economics
DIs armament
1926
Uoodrow T"Ilson, Life &
1922
Letters
1927
National Character
Hist. £z Prospects of the
1925
Social Sciences
Brief History of the U. S
1917
English Speaking Peoples
1923
Intervention in Latin Am.
1930
Europe Since 1914
Psychology of 1925
Intro, to Social Psychology 1926
1924
Instinct
1926
Road to Peace
International Cooperation
1926
u
1916
Procedures In Employment
1926
Psychology
The Pacific Prea
1928
Between "'ar & Peace
1926
New Social R e s ear ch
Hist, of Social Thought
1922
Faking Social Science 3tudiesl925
Fund. of.Social Psych.
1924
1926
Italy Under "ussolini
19 26
Evolution of Values
New "orId Problems in Pol­
1923
itical Geography
Union of South Africa
1909
1.1a.zz ini
Leadership
1908
11

Ill
Author
Bryce,

James

Title

Year

Proposal for Prevention of
Future "'ars
1917
International Relations
1922
Next Thirty Years
1917
Holy Roman Empire
1904
Buell, R. L.
Europe, a Hist, of Ten Years
1928
Burns, C. D.
Industry Cz Civilization
1925
Short Hist, of the "orId, 1918-192S
Bullard, A .
A-’. Diplomacy in the "odern 'orId
1917
Bury, John B.
Hist, of Freedom of Thought
1913
3ush.ee, F. A.
Princ. of .Sociology
1923
Bustone 11 t e , A.
The Ear Id. Court
1925
Carver, T. IT,
Economy of Human Energy
1924
Chamberlain, J . P . Embargo Resolutions Cz
Neutrality
1923
Chas e , Ltuart
The Tragedy of "aste
19.25
Churchill, BT.
Churchill, Life and "York
1913
Coker, F. H.
Readings in Political Philos.
1914
Cole, Oh Do H.
The Economic Bystem
1928
Capitalist Combines
1928
Colman, C-. II.
C omt e , Augus t e Positive Philosophy
1923
1922
Conklin, Edwin Direction of Human Evolution
Cooley, C. H.
Human Nature Cz the Social Order 1922
Social Process
1918
Social Organization
1909
Ford
1922
Crowther, 8.
1929
Culbertson, VJo Int. Economic Policies
Delaisi, F.
Political Myths Cz Economic
Realities
1925
House of Cecil
1914
Dennis, G. R.
Human Nature and. Cconduct
1922
Dewey, John
Social Adjustment
1927
Dexter, R. C.
1923
Dickinson, G.L. ’7ar; Its Nature, Cause Hz Cure
Int. /narchy, 1904-1914
19.26
The Polish Corridor Cz Conseq.
1929
Donald, Sir R.
Poland., Plan of "hnan, Ltabil.
1927
Dulles, J. F.
Political
Theories
Dunning, Y. A.
Americanization of Carl Lchurz
1930
Easum, Co V.
Cultural
Evolution
1927
Ellwood, C. A.
Coop.,
Its
Probs.
C
z
Possibil,
1928
Enfield, A. E.
Great Britain from Ad.am Lmith
Fay, Co R.
to the Present Day
1928
Ily Philosophy of Industry
1°29
Fay, Leon F.
Fe 1 clian, He m a n R e gu1ar1za11on o f Nmp1oyment;
Sin.plI . of Style Problem
1925
Regularization of Employment’
Cooraina. In Lab. Market
1925
International Law
1924Fenwick, Co G.
1924Florence, P. E Economics of Fatigue cz Unrest
Old. Lavages in the New Civiliz. 1928
Fosclick, Fu Bo
Chemical "."arfare, Its Possibilities
Fradkin, B. Y.
Cz Probabilities
1929

IV
Author
Frasers II* F.
Gi elding s , F. H
Gillin, J. L.
Ginsb er g , "orr i s
Gooch, G. P 0
Grunzel, J„
GuIchard, L.
Gump1owlc z , L .
Hall, Ray
Harden, .a m 6
Hart, J
Hayes, :
Herbert
Hichs, F. C.
Hills, J. I f . C-J
Morison, D C
Hobson, J. A
Hollingworth A
Poffenberger
Hornbech, S. IN
Fought on, IT. T),
goward-H I 1i s , C
Hu d cl1 e s t on , 8.
Hudson, H. 0.
Hughes,
Hurst et a h
Inge, 'V. R.
Irwin, Hm. K.
Jenks A Lauck
Jessup, ?. C.
Johnson, Allen
Johnston, '7. A
A. H„
Jo mi n i , He nr I
Jones A Allerman
Josephson, H.
F.ilpatr Ich, Hr. H,

Title

hear

Foreign
1926
'oriel Politics
1913
The Responsible
Gocial Theory
1912
1906
descriptive A Hist. ; ociology
192S
Gri 'inology A Penology
1922
The Psychology of Lociety
1920
Hatlocalism
1916
Econo- 1i c Nr o t e st i on I sm
1930
The Vaval Rlochade
Outlines of Sociology
Halo of Int. Payments of U
A , 1923
"filson, Clenenceau, Hindenberg
"tinnes Hing Peter, Ienin,
Bonaparte, Bernhardt
1925
In s I d.e Hup er i en c e
1927
Recent Developments In the social
Sciences
1927
Nationality A its Problems
1920
Ne w '7orld 0rd.er
The Finance of Govern lent
T'orals of Economic Internat
Toward International Gov.

1925
1920

Applied Psychology
Contemp. Politics in the Far E.
Policy of U. 3. A Other Nations
Respect to the Recog. of the
Russian Goviet Gov., 1917-29
The Origin, Gtructure- A T'Torking
of the League of Nations
Those Huropeans (20 Leaders)
The 3th Year of tYe Permanent
Court of Int. Justice
Advisory Opin. of the RrorlcL Co.
Our Relations to the Nations of
the Hestern Hemisphere
Pan-American Peace Plans
G r . Britain A the Dominions
England
Hoover
Immigration Problems
American Neutrality A I n t .
Police
The TJ. 3. A'the Horld Court
Union A Democracy

1923
1923
vi th

1923
1924
1930
1929
1928
1929
1923
1926
1928
1926
1928
1928
1915

Air Route Hap of the "T
orld
1928
""orld
Life of Napoleon
1064
The L. of N. from Idea to Real. 1927
Hho Hill be Toaster, Europe or Aml928
Problems of the Pacific
1928

V
Author
Lrehbiel, E. 3.
Lroeber, A. L.
Lansing, R, 3
Latane, J. H.
Leconte, 0. 0.
Lehmann, E. A.
Levi, N.
Lewisohn, S. A.
LIchtenberger,J.
Lindenan, E . C .
Lippmann, T'h
Lloyd-George, D.
Locke, John
Lodge, II. C.
Lucas, o h Chss.
Ludnig, Emil

Title

Year

nationalism, '"ar, A Society
1916
1923
Anthropology
The Dig Dour
1921
1922
From Isolation to leadership
Clenenceau
1919
The Zeppelins
1927
Smut s
1917
New Leadership in Industry
Development of Social Theory
1923
Social Discovery
1924
The Phant om Publie
1927
There Are ’re Going?
Civil Government
1924
The Lellogg Treaty
British Empire
1915
1927
Bismarck
1926
Napoleon
Lumley, 3 = E.
Phans of Social Control
1925
Principles of Sociology
1923
1923
IlacCurdy, J. T.
The Psychology of 'ar
MacLean, A. I'.
Mo d ern Iimni gr at i on
1925
M cD oug a11, D m .
Social Psychology
1912
Character A the Conduct of Life
1927
1927
Oriental
Exclusion
McKenzie, R. D.
Madariaga, S ain Englishmen, Frenchmen & Spaniards 192S
1927
Malet, A,
Histoire de France (in French)
LorId Citizenship
1927
Manry, J. C.
Politics of Peace
1929
Martin, C. E.
1927
Mayo, La the r ine Mo th er Ind.i a
Making of a State
1927
Masaryk, T. G.
Resident Orientals on the Pacific
Hears, L . G.
Coast
1927
Peace Pact of Paris
1925
Miller, D. H,
Races, Nations, A Classes
1924
Miller, H. A*
A Republic of Nations
1918
Minor, R. C.
Mitre, Lartolomei Life of San Martin
1893
China, A Nation in Evolution
1928
Monroe, Paul
Spirit of Laws
1923
Montesquieu, C.
Issues of European .Statesmanship 1927
Montgomery,
Syllabus on Int. Relations
1925
Moon, P. T.
Imperialism- & *."orld Politics
1926
Background of the London Naval
Morgan, L. P.
Conf erence
1930
Life of Roosevelt
1907
Morgan, James
1912
Gladstone
Morley, John
Making of British India
1923
Muir, Ramsay
Origins of Leadership
1909
Mumford, Ik
The Ordeal of this Generation
1929
Mur ray, Sir. G.
Mussolini,
Autobiography
1928
Mussolini, 3.
Myers, Denys P . Nine Years of the L. of1 N. 1920-28
Origin A Conclusion of the Paris Pact
Renunciation of far as an Instrument
of National Policy
1929

VI
.Author
Nevins, Allan
Newfang, Oscar
North, C. C.
Norton, T. J.

Title

Year

Emergence of Modern America
1927
The U. 0. of the V/orld
1930
Social Differentiation
1927
The Constitution of the U. S., Its
Sources and Applications
1930
Nowak, Karl P.
Versailles
1929
Odum, H. '.7,
M a n ’s Quest for Social Guidance 1927
Offutt, Milton
Protection of Citizens Abroad by
Armed Forces of the U. S.
1928
Ogburn, W. P.
The Changing Family
Overstreet, H.A. World Organization
1918
Page, Kirby
Dollars & World Peace
1927
Panunzio, C.
Iminigration Crossroads
1927
Park cz Burgess
Sociology
1921
Partridge, G.E. Psychology of Nations
1919
Pearson, X.
Grammar of Science
1922
National Life from Standpoint of
Science
1905
Peffer, N.
The White H a n ’s Dilemma
1927
Pergler, Chas.
Judicial Interpretation of Int.
Law in the U. S.
1928
Perrin, P. A. 8c
Klein, D. B.
Social Psychology
1926
Petre, P. L.
Life of Bolivar
1910
Pike, L. 0.
Const. Hist, of House of Lords
1907
Plachy, Frank
Britains Economic Plight
1926
Plato
Republic
1918
Potter, P. 3.
The ”.
Torld of Nations
1929
Myth of American Isolation
1921
Potter cz West
International Civics
1927
Powers, TI. H.
America Among the Nations
1921
Prescott, '7. H. Conquest of Peru
Price, Burr
The V/orld Talks It Over
1927
Prince, Morton
Psychology of the Kaiser
1918
Queen, S. A. 8z
Mann, D. K.
Social Pathology
1925
Rappard, V/. E.
Uniting Europe
1930
Raymond, .23. T.
Balfour
Lloyd-George
1922
Reuter, E. B.
Population Problems
1923
R i i s , Jacob A.
The Making of an American
1901
Risley, Herbert People of India
Ritchie, A. D.
Scientific Method
1923
Robinson, H. G. Civilization- Enc. Brit. 14th Ed.
Roch, Walter P. Lloyd-George
1920
Ross, E. A.
Social Psychology
1908
Social Control
1904
Foundations of Sociology
1905
Rousseau, J. J. The Social Contract
1914
Ryan, John A.
Unemployment
1930
Sarfatti, M. G. Mussolini
1925
Schlesinger, A. New Viewpoints in Amer. Hist.
1922

VII
Author
Scott, A, M.
Sellars, R. 77.
Sertali, Mario
Shenton, H,. N.
Shotwell, J. T„
Show erman , G „
Siegfried, A.
Slosson, P 0
Smith, P. 3.
Smut s , J. C .
Sneclden, David
Sorokin, P.
Spaight, J. M.
Spanner, S. F.
Spencer, H.

Stuart, G. H.
Sutherland, E
T ar d i eu, Andr e
Tarbell, I. M
Taussig, F. V
Taylor, G.
Thomas, F.
Thomas, D. Y.
Thomas, ”r. H. &
Znaniecki, F.
c.*
Thompson, V. O
Todd, A. J.
Tolstoy, L. N
Tralle, H. E*
Trevelyan, G. M
Tsurumi, Y.
Vidal de La
Blache, P. M.
Y/allace, Ym. S.
Wallis, Y. D.
Y/ard, L. F.
Yard, Paul VI,

Title

Yes.r

V/ins ton Churchill
1905
Next Step in Democracy
1916
La Costituzione Russa; Diritto
e Storia
1928
Practiaal Application of Sociol. 1927
Building of Int. Goodwill
1926
Eternal Rome
1925
Post-War Britain
1925
A Study of Nationality
1930
Problem of Austro-German Union
1929
Must We Have '7ar?
1924
Africa 8c Some World Problems
1930
Practical Applica. of Sociology 1924
Contemporary Sociological
Theories
1928
The Sociology of Revolution
1925
Pseudo-Security
1928
This Airship Business
1928
First Principles, Ethics & 0thersl920
Education
1880
Social Statics
1901
Synthetic Philosophy
1901
Latin America & the U. S. A.
1922
Criminology
1924
France & America
1927
Napoleon
1S23
Free Trade, Tariff & Reciprocity 1920
Environment 8c Race
1927
Environmental Basis of Society
1925
100 Years of the I.lonroe Doctrine 1927
Polish Peasant In Europe 8c Amer.
Danger Spots In "rorld Population
Theories of Social Progress
Y/ar and Peace
psychology of Leadership
Garibaldi
Present Day Japan

1927
1930
1926
1925
19*25
1911
1926

Principles of Human Geography
1926
Dictionary of Canadian Biography 1926
Intro, to Sociology
1927
Dynamic Sociology
1908
Sovereignty, A study of a Contemp­
orary Political Nation (London) 1928
1926
Weatherly, U. G. Social Progress
Salvaging of Civilization
1921
Veils, H. G.
Value of Humanistic Studies
1917
Wenley et al.
(Cavour) Seven Great Statesmen
1923
Y/hi t e , A . D.
Cecil Rhodes
1921
V/I111 arms, B.
Investments of U. S. Capital In
Winkler, Ilax.
Latin America
1928

VIII
Author*
Wolf, A.
'.7o odwor th, R .S
Woolf,
Woolfe,
Zimmern, A. 3,

Title
Essentials of .Scientific Method
Psychology
Imperialism W Civilization
Economic Imperialism
Third British Empire
Nationality c: Government
The Greek Commonwealth
The Prospects of Democracy

Year
1921
1928
1926
1918

PAMPHLETS & ARTICLES
Aut?nor
Allport, F. H.
Bain, Read
Baldwin, R. J.

Barnes, R. P.
Beard,
Berdahl,
Bernard, L. L.

Binkley, W. E.
Bogardus, E. £
Borah, W . E.
Burch,
Butler, H. M.
Child, C. M.
Cooley, Co H.
Coolidge, C.
Cooper,
Dutt, R. et al

Title £c Publication
Nature of Institutions; Social Forces
12-28
An Attitude on Attitude Research; A m ­
erican Journal Sociology, 5-28
Address Before Am. Society of London
Literary Digest, 11-17-28
Menace of Anglo-American Naval Rivalry;
Lit. Dig., 1-5-29
Militarizing Our Youth, (Pam.) Intro.
by John Dewey
Bigger A Better Armament; Harpers 1-29
U. S. A. & the League; Mich. Law Rev.
4-29
Search After Values; Soc. Forces, 12-28
Sociology in the Argentine; S. P . , 9-27
Recent Trends in Social Psychology;
Soc. Forces, Vol. 2, 1924
Guilt Clause In Versailles Treaty,
Cur. Hist., June 1926
World Leadership Types; Jr. Sociology
A Social Research; July-Aug, 1928
Freedom of the Seas; Cur. Hist. o-29
Bruce, S. M. ; Am. Rev. of Rev., 2-27
Paradoxes of Legal Science; Mich. Law
R ev. , 4-29
Drop Policy of Isolation; N. Y. T.
Mag., 1-11-23
Biological Foundations of Social Int­
egration; Am. J. S. XXII.
Roots of Social Hnowledge; A.J.S. 7-26
Armistice Day Address; Det. Free
Press, 11-12-28
Binston Churchill, A. J. S. HHII.
Statistical Abstract of U. S.; U. S.
Dept. Commerce Publications.
Anglo-American Differences; Cur. Hist.
5-29
English Speaking Union” All Pub. under.

IX

Author
Ferenczi,

1.

Title

Jhiblicatdon

Int. Migrations, Vol. 1; Statistics com­
piled by the Int. Labor Office, Geneva.
Fi sh, C . R .
Passing of England1s Economic Hegemony;
"For, Affairs", 7-23
George, VI. H., Auguste Comte; Sociology & the Hew Poli­
tics; A. J. S. 11-27
Gideouse,
Int. Industrial Agreements; For. Pol.
As sn
Grabo, C. II.
Education for Democratic Leadership;
A.J.S., 1917, Vol. 23; pp. 763-778
Grace,
Canada as a Lor Id Power; R, R. 6-27
Harley, J. E.
Outlawry of War; Fortnightly Rev., 9-28
Ha rris,.
Brit. For. Policy; Landmark, 12-28
Hart, J* M .
Hist, of Social Thought; Soc. F. 12-28
Hawthorn, H. i .Methods of Studying Personality Devel,;
A. J. S.; Vol. XX111.
Hoover, H.
Armistice Day Address, 1929
Hudson, M. 0* America *s Role in the L. of H,; A m ­
erican Political Science Rev. 2-29
H utchins,
Institute of Human Relations; A.J.S, 929
Hyde,
Chas. E. Hughes on American Foreign
Policy Current History, 12-28
Int. Affairs; Index to Papers in 50 Per­
iodicals .
Int. Labor Office; All Publications Under
Kerr, Philip
England A America, 1, Sat. Rev, 1-26-29
England Cc America , 11, "
"
2-2-29
L. of IT, Assn. (H.Y.) All Pub. Under
Britarns Industrial Future, 1928; Lib­
eral Industrial Inqiry.
MacDonald, J, Ramsay; Am. R. R., 5-27
Difference between the Arbitration Court
Meyer,
Cz the world Court; R.R. 6-27, P.629
Irigoyon; H. Y. T.. 10-21-28
Miguel, S.
Money Power in Politics; Ah 1antic
I'lunro ,
M ont hly, 2-27
Sources
of Political Power (Sociology of
Neeley,
Leadership) Am. J. S., 3-27
Hew Lor Id Road Guide; For. World Order
550
Danger of Am. Loans to Europe; Cur,
Kitti, F. S.
Hist. 12-28
N orton, 1* J Review of Howland1s Survey of Am. For­
eign Relations; Sat. Rev. 2-16-29
Review of Shotwell* s Lar as an Instrum­
ent of Hat. Policy; Sat. Rev. 1-26-29
Battle for a Free Press; Pamphlet
Hoyes, F. 3.
Our Racial Frontier on the Pacific;
Park, R.
Survey, 5-26
Thos. Paine, Prophet & Martyr of Democ­
racy; Am. Jr. Soc., 3-28
Real Senator; Viorlds Y.’ork, 12-23, X.
Pringle, „
L hit her England; Liv, Age, 7-28
Rechberg, A.
Roosevelt, II, Pacific Era Begins, R. R. 1-29
Social Values Cz Nat. Existence; Am. Soc.
Soc, Pub., Vol. X.

Author
Ross, E. A.

Title Cz Publieation

Mar as a Determiner; Ami. Soc ..Soc'*. Pub.
Vol. X,
Ross, et al,
Roosevelt, Balch, Baldwin, 1/ailing,
Adams; - -War £c Militarism In Sociolog­
ical Aspects,. Am. Soc. Soc., Vol. X
Sackett, E. B . Admin, of the Int. School Correspondence
of Jr. Red Cross, 1929; (Pamphlet)
Sirdar, I. S.
Old Aisia Rises to Defy Europe; N 0 Y. T.
Mag,, 9-29-28
Simonds, F. H . Does Europe Hate Us A Why; R . :R. 2-27
Hooking Up with Hoover; R. R. 1-29
Hoover, S. Arnericanus; R*. R. 2-29
Am. Cz the European Picture; R. R. 3-29
there Vie Stand with England; R. R. 4-29
Better Friends or Higher Tariff; R. R,.
5-29
Smuts, ‘J. C.
Gen Smuts Y!eighs the League; N . Y , T .
10-28-28
Sullivan,
Hoover in Latin America; R. R. 2-29
Sweetser, A 0
L. ■of IT. Month by Month; Cur. Hist. 3-29
Approach to LorId Unity, 1930 (Pamphlet)
Yv'hat May Sociologists Do Toward Solving
Symposium,
Ear; A. J . S., 1917, Vol. 23, pp. 1-66
Thur st one, L .L.Measurement of Attitudes; Jr. Sociology
Le Approa ch the LorId Court; R. R, 5-29
L alsh,
World*s Problem of Petroleum; R.R* 5-29
Llliver, J.C.
One World Federation; Det. News, March
Yiells, H. G •
16, 17, 18, 19; 1930
America’s Haval Policy; Cur. Hist. 3-29
Wilbur, R. L.
Hoover; Cur. Hist* 12-23
'Wools ey, T..D . Lansing*s Record as Sec. of State; Cur.
Hist., 12-28
World Court; All Publications Under
World Peace Found. All
"
t?
Race Prejudice;
Chicago Univ. Ph. D,.
Y oung
Dis s ertation
Aimmern, A. i. America Cz Europe? Cz other Essays; 1922