THE ROLE OF VEGANISM ON HEALING AND EMPOWERMENT FOR WOMEN INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE SURVIVORS By Abbie Rebekah Nelson A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Social Work – Doctor of Philosophy 2024 ABSTRACT Intimate partner violence (IPV) is recognized as a public health crisis that has dire consequences to the body, mind, and spirit of survivors. The holistic impact of IPV supports the need for interventions that aid in healing and empowerment on an individual level as well as macro level healing. Intervention research supports the impact that traditional therapy methods can have on the individual but lack an emphasis on holistic methods of healing that include macro level healing elements. Research on holistic methods of intervention such as yoga and meditation remain small and emphasize measuring symptom reduction over holistic healing and empowerment. There is a gap in the literature of modalities to support individual and collective healing and empowerment of women IPV survivors. A vegan lifestyle has been shown with other populations to support healing and empowerment. It has not, however, been explored with the women survivor population. To address this gap and explore if a vegan lifestyle has an impact on survivor healing and empowerment, I used a qualitative phenomenological research design to obtain a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of fifteen vegan, women survivors of IPV. This study explored two overarching phenomenological questions: 1) What are the lived experiences of women IPV survivors who are vegan? 2) What role does veganism play in the phenomenon of healing and empowerment for women IPV survivors? Data was collected via unstructured, in-depth interviews. The hermeneutic circle was used in data analysis looking at parts of the data and then zoomed out to see the whole picture in an iterative process. I identified themes under three interrelated categories. Themes in category one explained the unique experience of being a vegan IPV survivor that included the challenges and holistic impact of abuse. Category two encompassed themes related to the impact of veganism on individual and collective healing. Individual healing was described occurring at the levels of body, mind, and spirit. Collective healing was found through greater connection with themselves and others. Category three included themes related to the impact of veganism on individual and collective empowerment. The survivors felt veganism empowered them to be their authentic selves and that the lifestyle made an impact on the world greater than themselves. The findings also aligned with the theoretical frameworks of holism, integrative body-mind-spirit social work, ecofeminism, and Total Liberation Theory. Clinicians working with vegan and non- vegan survivors are encouraged by these results to acknowledge the holistic impact of abuse and support holistic modalities and lifestyles to support healing and empowerment. Social work education could also benefit from continuing to educate students on holistic interventions that support micro and macro level healing. This dissertation is dedicated to all humans and non-human animals who are fighting to heal despite facing multiple oppressions of intimate partner and animal agriculture violence. May this dissertation be a part of shining healing light on your courageous journey of healing and empowerment. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As an ecofeminist I truly believe all living beings are connected and that we impact the growth and development of one another. Throughout my PhD and dissertation journey, I feel extremely blessed to have so many that have invested and impacted my life and work. I truly would not have made it without their love and support. My deepest gratitude to my chair, Dr. Hyunkag Cho, for always supporting my ideas, and responding with kind and constructive feedback every time we interacted. Thank you to Dr. Anne Hughes and Dr. Joanne Riebschleger who helped start me on the dissertation journey. You all set me up for extreme success. My sincere thanks to my dissertation committee, each of whom I respect immensely. Thank you, Dr. Carrie Moylan for helping me improve my writing skills and always honoring how hard it was to be a mom and complete a dissertation at the same time! Dr. Heather McCauley, your immense knowledge of qualitative methods you graciously shared with me facilitated my research growth. Dr. Amy Fitzgerald, your support of my focus on veganism and animals and helping the committee to understand ecofeminism in a new way is super appreciated. All of you truly were a joy to work with and the value of your guidance cannot be overstated. I was fortunate to have the support of other professors and students along this path. I would like to acknowledge Jax Kynn who walked with me through every step of this journey. Without their help in co-coding and processing, this dissertation would never have reached the depth that it has. Dr. Adrianna Crossing, your walks and phone calls got me through many challenges. Dr. Leo Kattari was always willing to share his knowledge while being a step ahead in the journey. Monaca Eaton, thank you for trusting me to teach and invest in the Michigan State University students during my time in the program. I am truly blessed to call each one of you a friend. v Finally making it through this journey was not just an academic endeavor but a whole body, emotional, and spiritual process. I could not have made it without the support of therapists and energy workers such as Andrea MacFarland Sulak and Michaelene Ruhl who helped me do the deep inner work to be able to face the many challenges that came my way. Many thanks to Rev. Sharon Ketchum and Unity Spiritual Center of Lansing for allowing me a place to work on my dissertation. Deepest gratitude to Miranda Zoumbaris and The Emerging Parent for providing a safe place for my children and I to be our true selves and receive love and support. I am extremely grateful to my dear friends Amy Knapke, Megan Stone, and Rachel Kelly and my sister Clair Young who, although all live far away, were always willing to hop on a call or message with support and love throughout the entire process. Thank you to my sons Corbin and Arco for entering this world during this crazy journey and inspiring me every day to keep working towards a world where no being is oppressed. None of this would have been possible without the endless support of my amazing parents Rusty and Becky Sumrall. You truly understood what I needed to be able to finish this dissertation and you showed up every time I needed you. Words cannot express my gratitude for my soul flame/husband Lee Nelson who never once faltered in his unending love and support. You truly earned your Ph.D. in rainbow husbandry. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... viii INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 10 METHODS ................................................................................................................................... 66 FINDINGS .................................................................................................................................... 80 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................. 105 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................... 122 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 123 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW GUIDE ....................................................................................... 143 APPENDIX B: INTERVENTION CATEGORIES.................................................................... 145 APPENDIX C: INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE RESOURCES ....................................... 146 APPENDIX D: PARTICIPANT CHARACTERISTICS ........................................................... 147 APPENDIX E: NARRATIVE OF IPV VEGAN SURVIVORS ................................................ 148 vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AC animal cruelty AHHA American Holistic Health Association AMA American Medical Association BMI body mass index BMS body-mind-spirit CAM complementary alternative medicine CAPS Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale CBT DV EJP Cognitive Behavioral Therapy domestic violence Environmental Justice Paradigm EMDR eye movement desensitization and reprocessing FT forgiveness therapy GHG greenhouse gas emissions I-BMS integrative body-mind-spirit IPV intimate partner violence MABT Mindful Awareness in Body-oriented Therapy MSW Master of Social Work MBS mind-body-spirit NEP PEP PBD New Ecological Paradigm Personal Empowerment Programs plant based diet PTSD post-traumatic stress disorder viii RCT randomized controlled trial RWA right-wing authoritarianism SD-HARM Social Dominance Human–Animal Relations Model SDO Social Dominance Orientation TI-MBSR trauma-informed mindfulness-based stress reduction VAWA Violence Against Women Act WFPB whole-food plant-based WHO World Health Organization ix IPV as a Problem INTRODUCTION Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a major public health issue, including “physical violence, sexual violence, stalking and psychological aggression (including coercive tactics) by a current or former intimate partner (e.g., spouse, boyfriend/girlfriend, dating partner, or ongoing sexual partner)” (Breiding, 2015). The 2015 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) indicates that in the US over one in three women have experienced psychological aggression, sexual violence, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner during their lifetime (Smith et al., 2018). IPV occurs across all cultures, genders (Messinger, 2011) and populations, but the prevalence is highest worldwide for women, with 30% of women over the age of 15 having experienced IPV, non-partner sexual violence, or both at least once in their life (WHO-UN, 2021). Men are also more likely to cause physical injury to women (Archer, 2000; Swan et al., 2008). Therefore, due to the high rates and devastating effects of violence against women by men in heterosexual relationships, that is the population chosen to focus on for this dissertation. IPV is concerning due to its high prevalence, and consequences to society and individual survivors. The costs to society of intimate partner rape, physical assault, and stalking on is estimated at $3.6 trillion over the lifetime of a survivor, which includes costs associated with medical and mental health care services, lost productivity, and criminal justice responses (Peterson et al., 2018). On an individual level there are ongoing physical, mental health, and spiritual consequences from IPV. When compared to women who have not experienced IPV, survivors of IPV report decreased physical health including frequent headaches, chronic pain, and difficulty sleeping (Black et al., 2011). Mental health concerns include an increased risk of 1 depression, substance use, and chronic mental illness (Coker et al., 2002). Spirituality is different than mental health as it “is characterized by faith, a search for meaning and purpose in life, a sense of connection with others, and a transcendence of self, resulting in a sense of inner peace and well-being” (Delgado, 2005, p. 157). Survivors of IPV have reported spiritual consequences such as feeling disconnected from themselves and others and an inability to use emotional resources to connect with spirituality while in abusive relationships (Senter & Caldwell, 2002). Spirituality has not been commonly measured in IPV intervention research but is critically important to the healing and the ability to cope as it has been found that as spiritual symptoms worsen, the ability to cope in a positive way and remain hopeful decreases for survivors (Katerndahl et al., 2015). With the devastating consequences that ensue from IPV, survivors need supportive interventions to be able to help with the healing process. Interventions for Female Survivors For decades, services and interventions have been offered to female survivors of IPV. Through the battered women's and feminist movements in the 1960-70's, the first domestic violence (DV) shelters and survivor groups were created (Schechter, 1982). Schechter (1982) explains how these shelters began taking a community empowerment approach, but due to the need to develop programs and interventions to meet the immediate needs of survivors, energies began to focus more on individual cognitive based interventions to address IPV. The Duluth Model of interventions using the power and control wheel for psycho education of batterers and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) groups for survivors became the main mode of intervention for IPV treatment in the 1980’s and 90’s (Danis, 2003; Pence et al., 1993). Over the years, many other approaches ranging from individual psychotherapuetic interventions, to community advocacy have been developed and used with survivors. 2 A variety of systematic reviews and meta analysises have sought to determine the effectiveness of these interventions (Arroyo et al., 2015; Eckhardt et al., 2013; Karakurt et al., 2022; Ogbe et al., 2020; Trabold et al., 2018; Warshaw et al., 2013). The advocacy-focused interventions show reductions in violence over time and in the frequency of revictimization (Eckhardt et al., 2013; Trabold et al., 2018). Cognitive based interventions such as CBT had the greatest effect on reducing depression and PTSD (Eckhardt et al., 2013; Trabold et al., 2018; Warshaw et al., 2013), and in one study, the effects were even stronger when an empowerment aspect was added to the CBT (Karakurt et al., 2022). Interventions that focused on individual survivors as well as their communities and networks, such as using advocacy and case management, were helpful at improving social support and mental health outcomes (Ogbe et al., 2020). Brief and short-term interventions may increase safety behaviors with meta-analysis results showing large effect sizes for the outcomes of PTSD, self-esteem, depression, general distress, and life functioning (Arroyo et al., 2015; Eckhardt et al., 2013). These interventions, however, focus mainly on the mental, individual level of healing, and symptom reduction which does not include a more holistic perspective of healing (Lee et al., 2018). Warshaw et al. (2013) point out the need for more whole person body-mind-environment-spirit approaches to working with survivors The social work mission outlined in the National Association of Social Worker’s Code of Ethics emphasizes that social workers not only support the enhanced well-being of individuals, but also advance social justice and empower oppressed groups by acknowledging and addressing the environmental structures that create the oppression (NASW, 2022). The interventions in the reviews above address the aspect of enhanced well- being mostly from the mental level of healing, leaving out the body and spirit aspects, and do not address the process of empowerment 3 or structural oppressions that surround survivors and may impact healing. Holistic interventions and approaches may be a way to support survivors in healing not only on the individual body, mind, and spirit levels, but also acknowledge the systemic oppressions that survivors may need to address in the healing process. Holistic Healing IPV survivors have identified that healing is a multidimensional process that involves physical, mental, and spiritual components (Allen & Wozniak, 2011; D’Amore et al., 2021; Farrell, 1996; Flasch et al., 2017). Healing is defined as “developing a sense of personal wholeness that involves physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects of human experience” (Egnew, 2005, p. 258). Since IPV effects the body, mind, and spirit (BMS), to support survivors in healing, a holistic intervention or approach may be well suited. A holistic intervention is one that acknowledges the multidimensionality of the individual and the environment in which they live, and seeks to support the individual on one or more of the levels of BMS healing. In addition, IPV is known to cause trauma symptoms (Birkley et al., 2016; Taft et al., 2011), and research has shown that trauma affects the brain and body, further supporting that therapeutic techniques which integrate the body to rewire the brain after a traumatic event are needed to enable individuals to regain self-awareness and emotional regulation which aid in the process of healing on the body and emotional levels (van der Kolk, 2014). To support survivors, it is imperative that social workers understand what type of interventions and approaches can support holistic healing to enable healing on the physical, mental, and spiritual levels. A variety of holistic interventions have been used with varying levels of effectiveness for survivors such as yoga (Franzblau et al., 2008), meditation (Lee et al., 2017), and Qigong, a mind-body intervention that combines movement with breathing and meditation with the goal of 4 healing (Cheung et al., 2019). Although these interventions attempt to support survivors in holistic healing by recognizing the whole person perspective of an individual, the empirical research is not as advanced as the more traditional techniques that have been more extensively studied. Also, they do not address the individual and macro level oppressions that survivors are under in addition to surviving from IPV such as racism, classism, and/or sexism, nor do they offer a way to address healing at these levels. Lasting change and healing require interventions that address macro level oppressions given that IPV often takes place in the context of oppressive environments (Bussey et al., 2021; Kant, 2015; Pyles, 2020). There is a danger of replicating oppressive power dynamics if interventions focus solely on individual healing that do not also consider factors in the oppressive environment (Goodman, 2015). Literature on macro- oppressions and IPV have primarily focused on racism, sexism, and classism (Sokoloff & Dupont, 2005) and have left out a discussion around the connection with speciesism. Speciesism is the belief held by humans that other animal species are inferior and is used to justify the exploitation of animals (PETA, 2023). It is important to include speciesism in the discussion as the oppression of animals has been shown to be associated with oppression of women (Fitzgerald, 2005; 2007), and therefore a discussion of liberation of women must include a discussion of animal liberation as well (Hunnicutt, 2020). Veganism Veganism is a lifestyle with the potential to support healing on the individual and macro levels by supporting enhanced well-being of individuals, advancing social justice and empowering IPV survivors. Empowerment is defined as an outcome of gaining more power by a process in which there is a simultaneous focus on strengthening individuals’ ability to positively cope and promoting changes of oppressive structures by individuals and groups taking action 5 (Lee, 2001). This is particularly relevant for IPV survivors as coming from an abusive relationship power has been taken from them in their personal lives in addition to environmental factors and structures placing them in a lower position of power to their male counterparts (Schechter, 1982). Veganism is defined by The Vegan Society (2019) as A philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude—as far as is possible and practicable—all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of animals, humans and the environment. No research exists on a vegan lifestyle or potential benefits for IPV survivors, and this intersection offers unique aspects to explore in the connection between veganism and healing from IPV. This is due to the structural and systemic links between violence against animals and violence against women, in which both animals and women are placed in an “other” and/or “less than” position under humans and men respectively as a result of oppressive systems (Adams, 2010; 2020; Hunnicutt, 2020). Understanding this link and taking action may have a positive effect on healing and empowerment. On the individual level, a vegan and plant-based diet has been shown to have positive benefits on physical health using a Seventh Day Adventist vegan and general population such as providing protection against obesity, hypertension, type-2 diabetes, and coronary heart disease as well as lead to glycemic control, metabolic and cardiovascular benefits (Le & Sabaté, 2014; Kahleova et al., 2017). Veganism has been associated with positive mental health changes. For example, an online sample of currently reported vegans reported less stress and anxiety than omnivores (Beezhold, et al., 2015), and 292 employees of a national insurance company reported a statistically significant reduction in anxiety and depression after taking part in an 18-week vegan protocol (Agarwal et al., 2015). On the spiritual level, 32 self-identified current vegans 6 have reported they felt eating a vegan diet helped them to be more in alignment with their values and that this lifestyle led to greater spiritual well-being (Hirschler, 2011). In addition to the benefits on the individual level, a vegan lifestyle can be an active step survivors can take to be a part of advancing social justice. For example, animal agriculture has taken up over 80% of the Amazon jungle (Nepstad, 2008) and it takes more than 2,500 gallons of water to produce one pound of beef. Choosing veganism can help to cut down on destruction of the Amazon as well as reserve important resources such as water, thus supporting environmental justice. There is a direct connection with species justice, as 60 billion land animals and over a trillion marine animals are used and killed for humans to eat each year (Vegan Society, 2022). Many of those lives could be saved with a vegan diet. A vegan lifestyle can promote humane treatment of humans as well. There is a strong connection between animal agriculture and racial discrimination as factory farms are more likely to be near low-income minority communities (Wilson, 2002). This has major human rights implications as these farms produce toxic gases that can cause serious illnesses to a population that does not have the resources to fight for their rights. Workers at these farms are subjected to unfair and hazardous work conditions that lead to illness and disease as well as injuries on the job. Workers have been shown to have high rates of PTSD due to the horrific acts they are a part of, and criminologists have found that high community slaughterhouse employment levels were associated with increases in total arrest rates for violent crimes such as rape and sexual assault compared to other industries (Fitzgerald et al., 2009). This is also an immigrant rights issue with very high numbers of immigrants being employed in these industries (Cappiello, 2017). For all these reasons veganism supports the advancement of social justice in the area of animal, environmental, and human rights. 7 The process of becoming a vegan involves confronting oppressions of people and animals and deciding to take different action that does not support this oppression (McDonald, 2000). Therefore, a vegan lifestyle could be one way to empower survivors on their healing journey. In an exploration of the psychosocial healing process of becoming and maintaining a vegan lifestyle among a sample of vegan Australian women, Costa et al. (2019) describe the process in the following way as reported by participants. The change arose from an ethical motivation and beginning a vegan lifestyle led to positive changes in one’s health, relationship with others, and ability to take care of their bodies and minds. Through the process the women felt they became cognitively aware of healthy eating as well as animal mistreatment, had greater empathy for themselves and the world. This in turn led them to change their behaviors. Healing benefits for these women included healing of themselves, relationship with animals, other humans, and the environment (Costa et al; 2019). This process aligns with critical consciousness that philosopher Freire (2008) articulates is the process of becoming aware of the oppressions in the social, political, and economic environments that surround someone. Then by acting on that awareness the oppressed can find freedom (Freire, 2008). A vegan lifestyle may therefore be one holistic intervention that can help survivors increase critical consciousness of oppression, take action, and heal on micro and macro levels. Significance of the Study The literature clearly shows the devastating consequences of IPV on female survivors and the need for healing. There is research to show traditional methods of intervening as well as holistic alternatives may be associated with a reduction of negative symptoms and revictimization (Arroyo et al., 2015; Eckhardt et al., 2013; Trabold et al., 2018) of survivors. These interventions however do not address the environmental structures within and outside of 8 the IPV that may be a part of the oppression of survivors and fall short of addressing all aspects of the body, mind, and spirit that are a part of healing. Vegan scholars and ecofeminists have theorized on the intersection of gender violence, animal oppression, capitalism, and patriarchy (Adams, 2010; Hunnicutt, 2020) but no studies have looked at the potential relationship between veganism and healing from IPV. Research has shown some benefits to physical and mental health through eating a vegan diet, but little is known about its potential to raise the critical consciousness of oppression for those partaking in this lifestyle which is essential to the process of empowerment (Lee, 2001). This study will fill that gap by exploring the lived experience of being a vegan and IPV survivor and what role a vegan lifestyle may have on individual healing benefits, supporting social justice, and facilitating survivor empowerment by increasing awareness of structural oppressions. This study is significant as it will be the first empirical study to explore the application of the theories of interconnected oppressions with female IPV survivors through the use of a vegan lifestyle. It has potential implications for social workers and other helping professionals to understand a new modality to be used to support survivors in healing and what aspects of veganism may be supportive of holistic healing. This study is also significant as it seeks to explore healing at the micro and macro levels which is in alignment with the mission of social work that emphasizes that social workers support the enhanced well-being of individuals, advance social justice, and empower oppressed groups by acknowledging and addressing the environmental structures that create the oppression (NASW, 2022). 9 LITERATURE REVIEW Holistic Impact of IPV on Survivors IPV occurs across all cultures, genders, and populations, but the prevalence is highest worldwide for women with 30% of women over the age of 15 having experienced IPV, non- partner sexual violence, or both at least once in their life (WHO-UN, 2021). In the US, one in three women report having experienced a form of severe physical violence because of IPV, 14% have been stalked by an intimate partner, and one in five have experienced contact sexual violence from an intimate partner (CDC, 2022). IPV is concerning due to its high prevalence, and consequences to society and individual survivors. To estimate the cost on society, Peterson et al. (2018) used estimates based on 43 million US adults with victimization history of intimate partner rape, physical violence, and stalking. The results showed that the IPV costs about $103,767 per female victim with a lifetime economic burden to society estimated at $3.6 trillion, which includes costs associated with medical and mental health care services, lost productivity, and criminal justice (Peterson et al., 2018). On an individual level, many aspects of the individual's body, mind, and spirit (BMS), are affected. Breiding et al. (2008) found consequences pertaining to the body for IPV survivors, such as greater likelihood of high cholesterol, heart disease, stroke, joint disease, current asthma, HIV risk factors, and activity limitations when compared to those who did not experience IPV. These outcomes derived from a large cross-sectional public-health survey across 16 US states and two territories (Breiding et al., 2008). The association between mental health concerns and the effect of IPV on the mind is well documented by a systematic review and meta-analysis that confirm the association between IPV, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and bidirectional relationships between IPV and hard drug and marijuana use (Bacchus et al., 2018; Lagdon et al., 2014). In addition, partner 10 violence has been associated with mental health consequences such as eating disorders, sleep disturbances, suicidal behavior, sexual problems, problems with concentration, somatization, personality, and bipolar disorders as well as social, educational, and occupational difficulties (Gallegos et al., 2021; Mazza et al., 2021; Trevillion et al., 2012). Although hard to measure and quantify, Senter and Caldwell (2002) conducted a phenomenological study to explore spiritual consequences of IPV by conducting interviews with open ended questions. The participants reported spiritual consequences, such as feeling disconnected from themselves and others and an inability to use emotional resources to connect with their higher power while in abusive relationships (Senter & Caldwell, 2002). Survivors of family violence that participated in spiritual healing groups conducted by Kreidler (1995) reported that they experienced spiritual distress due to IPV. Spiritual distress was described as manifesting in the survivor not being able to see themselves as whole, accept love and having feelings of despair, meaninglessness, and powerlessness (Kreidler,1995). Katerndahl et al. (2015) found that the spiritual outcomes of “lacking reason for living, insufficient sense of purpose, lack of harmony and peace, a deficit of feelings of productivity and lowered self- comfort” (p. 251), to be associated with survivors’ attitudes and behaviors as well as clinical outcomes (Katerndahl et al., 2015). For example, those that had negative spiritual symptoms had greater difficulty with coping skills, using healthcare, level of support, and how ready they were for change (Katerndahl et al., 2015). IPV can have varying effects depending on how long a relationship lasts or what type of IPV is occurring or co-occurring (Kennedy et al., 2018). IPV can happen once, or can have a cyclical nature that occurs repeatedly over a longer period of time (Lawrence & Bradbury, 2007). The duration and type of IPV can have an effect on the healing process and outcomes (Ulloa et 11 al., 2015). For example, Dutton et al. (2005) found PTSD and depression to be more prevalent for those that experience high levels of all types of violence (physical violence, sexual violence, psychological) when compared to those that experience different combinations of violence types (i.e., moderate levels of physical violence, psychological abuse, and stalking but little sexual violence). In addition to the individual BMS consequences of IPV, power is taken away from the individual on a micro level through domestic abuse (Westlund, 1999). Micro is defined as changes that are happening on the level of the individual (Austin et al., 2016). Power is defined as “one’s potential to influence others” (p. 3) or themselves in the way they feel, think, and behave (Guinote & Vescio, 2010). Power has influence on the interactions between individuals like in the case of an abuser controlling a survivor, between groups, and within groups such as the relationship between gender groups (Guinote & Vescio, 2010). The term macro involves changes within the community, system, or environment surrounding the individual (Austin et al., 2016). Power can be taken from survivors on the macro level by societal systems that may reinforce oppressions such as patriarchy that effects female survivors’ ability to enact power in certain domains of society (Stark, 2007). Oppression is defined as a state of being controlled and treated in an unfair manner that is a result of the process of dominant groups having systemic power over subordinate groups through a variety of means such as cultural imperialism, economic exploitation, and violence (Tew, 2006). Survivors of IPV are under multiple systems of oppression that fall under the metasystem of a “powerarchy” (Joy, 2019, p. 23). A powerarchy is a term used to explain systems of oppression that include the relational aspects of using power over others based on the hierarchical belief that some humans and species are more worthy of power than others. A powerarchy also has a system surrounding the relationship dynamic that supports the guidelines of how to enact that power (Joy, 2019). For example, in the case of IPV, 12 women experience abuse and oppression from their partners and this behavior is supported by multiple systems of oppression including patriarchy (Hunnicutt, 2009). Due to the devasting micro and macro consequences of IPV, healing and empowerment are key components of the recovery process of survivors that interventions have sought to address (Cattaneo & Goodman, 2015). Healing from IPV Many traditional and holistic interventions have sought to address survivor healing and empowerment, but before reviewing these interventions, I will first define and explain healing in relation to intimate partner violence. The definition of healing used in this dissertation defined as “developing a sense of personal wholeness that involves physical, mental, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects of human experience” (Egnew, 2005, p. 258), comes from a qualitative study that conducted seven interviews with key experts in the field of healing. This definition fits well with the physical, mental, and spiritual components identified in the literature related to the multidimensional process of healing identified by IPV survivors (Allen & Wozniak, 2010; D’Amore et al., 2021; Farrell, 1996; Flasch et al., 2017). There is a small body of qualitative literature that has explored IPV healing components and processes. The process is explained as multifaceted, nonlinear (Allen & Wozniak, 2010; D’Amore et al., 2021), transformative (D’Amore et al., 2021; Senter & Caldwell, 2002; Senter & Caldwell, 2002), and happening within the individual as well as in relationship with others (D’Amore et al., 2021; Flasch et al., 2017). This process leads to many themes of healing in which the individuals’ view of themselves and the world have changed through the process (Allen & Wozniak, 2010). Multiple studies identified common themes and components to women’s healing. The most common theme was that of rebuilding the self which included survivors gaining more self- 13 awareness, finding a voice and a new view of themselves (Allen & Wozniak, 2010; D’Amore et al., 2021; Farrell, 1996; Senter & Caldwell, 2002; Smith 2003). Several mentioned the importance of women finding purpose through helping others (D’Amore et al., 2021; Flasch et al., 2017; Senter & Caldwell, 2002), and how rejoining a healthy community and building relationships with others were a strong support in healing (Allen & Wozniak, 2010; Farrell, 1996; Flasch et al., 2017; Senter & Caldwell, 2002). Themes related to having a spiritual awakening and deepening spiritual aspects of oneself included increasing acceptance and forgiveness of self and others, developing inner peace and serenity and reaffirming faith (Allen & Wozniak, 2010; Farrell, 1996; Flasch et al., 2017; Senter & Caldwell, 2002). Healing mental and physical symptoms and learning how to cope with emotions was a common aspect of healing (Flasch et al., 2017; Senter & Caldwell, 2002). Lastly, empowerment that included the ability of the women to feel more in control, self-reliant, and make choices for themselves was a key component of healing (Farrell, 1996; Flasch et al., 2017; Senter & Caldwell, 2002; Smith 2003). Sinko and Saint Arnault (2020) have explored the trauma healing process of gender- based violence (GBV) survivors which includes IPV as well as sexual violence, forced prostitution, genital cutting, and stalking. They used 90-minute interviews in which participants engaged in the activities, such as social network, body map, lifeline, and card sort, to explore the process of healing. They found that there was an interplay on the messages that the women believed about themselves within the recovery process and how the societal messages and values in their social context impacted this. For example, the normalization of violence could lead to women having more self-doubt about their experiences. The recovery process also involved reconnecting to themselves, others, and the world. Sinko et al. (2021), which conducted a qualitative meta synthesis using meta-ethnography, echoed similar themes, such as the process 14 being nonlinear and continual and healing being composed of “trauma processing and reexamination, managing negative states, rebuilding the self, connecting with others, and regaining hope and power” (p. 1). Overall, for healing to take place this literature points to the importance of healing at a personal level and connection with others as well as the need for them to feel they are impacting the world around them. Empowerment From the beginning of the anti-domestic violence movement, empowerment has been a key goal of many agencies assisting women through the healing process (Schechter, 1982). The goal was not only to enable individual women to gain back power in their own lives, but informed by the feminist movement, to work towards structural change to help women break free from the systemic oppressions brought on by patriarchy (Martin, 1976; Schechter, 1982). It is a concept that has been debated for decades in the fields of medicine and psychology as to whether it is a process or an outcome or both (Bernstein, 1994; Rappaport, 1987). In social work it is discussed as a process of gaining individual, intrapersonal, and/or political power so that individuals and communities can make positive changes in their lives (Carr, 2003; Gutierrez, 1990). Common change processes of empowerment include: 1) Critical consciousness - having an understanding of how power dynamics around one impacts them and then taking a role in making changes to their environment to bring about social change; 2) Self-efficacy - having confidence in one’s abilities; 3) Connection with others that can help foster gaining new skills and learning about social structures; and 4) Taking individual and political action to change one’s environment (Carr, 2003; Gutierrez, 1990, 1994). Since stressful life events and being in a position of powerlessness have been suggested as a catalyst for the empowerment process to occur (Gutierrez, 1994), IPV is a particularly relevant event that could become the initiator of the empowerment process if survivors receive the 15 support they need through the process. Cattaneo and Chapman (2010) created a process of empowerment model that shares many of the components outlined above and explain how it can be applied to the work of IPV. The model is described as, an iterative one in which a person who lacks power sets a personally meaningful goal oriented toward increasing power, takes action, and makes progress toward those goals, drawing on their evolving self-efficacy, knowledge, skills, and community resources and supports and observes and reflects on the impact of their actions (Cattaneo & Goodman 2015, p. 84). They explain how their model is helpful for work with IPV survivors as it allows empowerment to be a process and an outcome that is centered on the survivor goals and goes beyond the intrapsychic healing components to include the impact of the social world on the process. Empowerment as an individual and political change process is important for the healing of individuals as there is a strong connection and interplay between these two forces. Masterson and Owen (2006) explain in their literature review exploring empowerment at the individual and society levels that “Helping individuals to feel more personally powerful will have a limited effect without social change to allow that power to be exercised. Likewise, social change will not be empowering if individuals perceive themselves as unable to make use of those changes” (p. 26). In the context of survivors, interventions that support and foster increased individual and societal power have the potential to support healing and empowerment. IPV Intervention History of Interventions for IPV Survivors Over the years many different types of interventions have been implemented with survivors to support them in the healing process. For this section I will be reviewing traditional interventions that are based on the biomedical model of symptom reduction, followed by holistic, and empowerment interventions. Before reviewing the effectiveness of traditional interventions, 16 a brief history can help to explain why they are still the most commonly used and researched. Prior to 1848 when the American Medical Association (AMA) was created, there were no regulations on interventions used for mental and physical health concerns, so biomedical approaches and different types of indigenous healing practices co-existed and were both used for healing (Raheim & Lu, 2014). Likely few formal interventions for survivors existed until after 1900's, when states began to pass laws in the US against partner abuse and implemented punishment for perpetrators (Barner & Carney, 2011). The AMA began to develop standards for medical and psychiatric treatment that were modeled after the biomedical approach based on the premise that the body and mind are separate (Raheim & Lu, 2014). Stahnisch and Verhoef (2012) detail the impact that the Flexner Report published in 1910 had on complementary alternative medicine (CAM) approaches that were growing at the time. Written by politician Abraham Flexner, he challenged psychiatric and medical approaches that were not based on the scientific method and his views led to the shutdown of many medical schools that were teaching more holistic approaches (Stahnisch & Verhoef, 2012). Thus, more training and resources were focused on interventions that were based on the biomedical approach, and if survivors did seek treatment, it was likely based in biomedicine without a holistic approach. Dobash and Dobash (2003) explain how once laws existed against DV in the mid 1900's, some states began to move DV offenses from criminal courts to civil courts. It took time for many states to implement the social casework model that consisted of short jail sentences and psychiatric treatment offered to offenders and casework to victims (Barner & Carney, 2011; Dobash & Dobash, 2003). Schechter (1982) explains how the first DV shelters in the 1960’s and 1970’s began taking a community empowerment approach, but due to a need to develop programs and interventions to meet the immediate needs of survivors, energies began to focus more on individual cognitive based 17 interventions to address IPV. In the 1970-80's, treatment for IPV moved from victim centered to perpetrator centered and focused on prevention and decreasing recidivism (Stover, 2005), not individual survivor healing. The criminal justice approach to IPV treatment continued in the 1980's and 90's as law enforcement were trained to deal with DV. These approaches included increased use of protective orders, victim advocacy, batterer intervention programs as a condition of probation, and coordinated community responses (Danis, 2003). The Duluth Model of interventions using the power and control wheel for psycho education of batterers and CBT groups for survivors became the main mode of intervention (Pence et al., 1993). Although in 1975, the first National Conference on Holistic Health was conducted in California and the American Holistic Health Association (AHHA), and the Holistic Medical Association were formed (Shannon, 2002), psychoeducation and CBT approaches continued to dominate the intervention strategies for survivors. Then in the 1990’s professional groups such as social work began to establish groups like the Society for Spirituality and Social Work and the CSWE Religion and Spirituality Work Group in 2011 (Lee et al., 2018). This sparked the legitimacy of social work education, practice, and research that involved spirituality and more holistic approaches that began to be used with a variety of populations including IPV survivors. In 2001, The Center on Behavioral Health was established “to provide a holistic and integrative approach for promoting mental, emotional, and behavioral well-being of clients” (Lee et al., 2018, p. 21). The center has worked to bring together empirical-based treatment modalities from Eastern and Western traditions to continue to develop a holistic model that integrates BMS in treating families and individuals. The history reveals the strong roots in the traditional biomedical models and the newly growing interest in more holistic healing methods. 18 Traditional Interventions Many traditional interventions based on the biomedical model of symptom and revictimization reduction have been developed and researched over the years. A variety of systematic reviews and meta analysises have sought to determine the effectiveness of these interventions that include, cognitive based interventions (Eckhardt et al., 2013; Karakurt et al., 2022; Trabold et al., 2018; Warshaw et al., 2013), community interventions (Ogbe et al., 2020), and brief and short-term interventions (Arroyo et al., 2015; Eckhardt et al., 2013). Trabold et al. (2018) reviewed fifty-seven articles exploring the efficacy and effectiveness of interventions related to physical and mental health and revictimization of survivors. The cognitive focused or CBT interventions when compared to other clinical interventions highlighted greater potential to reduce revictimization, depression, and PTSD. The reductions in PTSD symptoms had moderate to large effect sizes across the studies with improvements maintaining three- to six-month postintervention follow-up. These findings that CBT had the greatest effect on reducing depression and PTSD were echoed in other reviews (Eckhardt et al., 2013; Warshaw et al., 2013), and in one study the effects were even stronger when an empowerment aspect was added to the CBT (Karakurt et al., 2022). Eckhardt et al. (2013) looked at all studies published since 1990 with randomized or quasi-experimental designs that compared an active intervention with a compare group and found CBT showed the strongest support for reducing PTSD, depression, and trauma-related guilt with some studies showing effects up to 6 months after treatment. Ogbe et al. (2020) conducted a literature review of IPV interventions for survivors that focused on improving access to social support, mental health, and access to resources. They found 27 articles that included interventions that focused on individual survivors as well as their communities and networks such as using advocacy and case management. Results indicated that 19 most studies supported improvements in social support and/or mental health outcomes (i.e., depression, PTSD) of survivors. They did not find evidence that these interventions effected IPV reduction or increasing healthcare use (Ogbe et al., 2020). For brief and short-term interventions there were mixed results. One review reported an increased use in safety behaviors, but not an increase in enhanced use of community resources, or benefits related to IPV revictimization (Eckhardt et al., 2013). Arroyo et al. (2015) found more promising results in their systematic review and meta-analysis of brief interventions that indicated large effect sizes for PTSD, self- esteem, depression, general distress, and life functioning and effects in the moderate range for the outcomes of substance use/abuse, emotional well-being, safety, and recurrence of interpersonal violence. Although these systematic reviews and meta-analyses help to better determine the potential effectiveness of intervention types for IPV survivors, they also mention limitations. Most of the reviews caution strong inferences of what is effective due to concerns such as interventions being short term, methodological concerns such as small sample sizes, not all following experimental designs, high attrition, and lack of replication (Arroyo et al., 2015; Eckhardt et al., 2013; Trabold et al., 2018; Warshaw et al., 2013). The need for more qualitative studies to investigate the mechanism that cause change for survivors through interventions (Karakurt et al., 2022) lacking in these studies and the need to continue to look at the different intervention effects for diverse populations (Ogbe et al., 2020; Warshaw et al., 2013) were also mentioned. Another great limitation is these interventions are mainly focused on symptoms reduction and do not consider a more holistic perspective of healing that includes the mind, body, and spirit (Lee et al., 2018). Eckhardt et al. (2013) specifically recommend the use and research or more holistic approaches for IPV surivors as they are dealing with complex trauma 20 and research on how the brain responds to trauma suggests the importance of incorporating non- cognitively based modalities to help the brain have integration of the mind and body (Lodrick, 2007). Empowerment Interventions Although empowerment has been a key area of interest since the beginning of IPV interventions (Schechter, 1982), and the different components of individual, intrapersonal, and socio-political have been discussed (Carr, 2003; Gutierrez, 1990, 1994), only a small body of literature measures the effect of interventions on survivor empowerment. Empowerment based interventions are also not prevalent in the literature. This may be because as Kasturirangan (2008) suggests that many DV programs say empowerment is a goal of their program but do not clearly define what that means making it hard to measure outcomes. Many of the studies that do explore survivor empowerment are looking at economic empowerment and its relationship with decreasing IPV victimization (Eggers del Campo & Steinert, 2022; Kiani et al., 2021; Stöckl et al., 2021). For example, in a systematic review and meta-analysis of Eggers del Campo and Steinert (2022), the results of 19 randomized controlled trials assessing the impact of economic empowerment interventions on IPV found that economic empowerment was associated with a significant reduction in the pooled measure of emotional, sexual, and physical IPV. They do caution however that some studies did report increased IPV behavior of men trying to control more finances after the interventions. A few studies do explore personal empowerment characteristics such as self-efficacy and ability to cope. Wright et al. (2010) in a sample of African American women survivors found that survivors reporting greater empowerment were better able to cope with life after abuse but were not examining an intervention. McGirr and Sullivan (2017) interviewed 98 women from 21 two domestic violence shelters shortly after leaving to explore the effect of consciousness raising on empowerment. Women who reported the advocates they worked with used consciousness- raising practices were able to develop greater self-efficacy and DV critical consciousness. Although they did not describe a full intervention and only looked at an aspect of interventions used with survivors, the findings are of note that having a greater understanding of societal oppressions and how this related to their personal experience encourages confidence in their ability to meet their own goals. One other study that looked at critical consciousness and female IPV survivors was conducted by Chronister and McWhirter (2006) and explored two group career interventions with 73 women assigned to a treatment group or a wait-list control group. Both intervention groups included career intervention components (Brown & Krane, 2000), but the “standard plus” intervention included aspects meant to increase critical consciousness. The results showed that compared to the standard intervention participants, the ones in the standard plus had higher critical consciousness scores and made more progress towards achieving their goals (Chronister & McWhirter, 2006). Garcia et al. (2021) explored the effectiveness of Personal Empowerment Programs (PEP) and practicing relaxation techniques in lowering stress and depression symptoms and increasing survivor empowerment. Ninety women in domestic violence shelters in California took part in PEP that consisted of 10 two-hour classes that were taught in a group each week led by a therapist. They discussed topics to support personal empowerment such as how to utilize community resources, boundary setting, and understanding the effects of abuse. From pre-post assessments, the results indicated that more past experiences of practicing relaxation techniques correlated with more empowerment. Associations with greater empowerment, less stress, and 22 fewer depressive symptoms were only found for those participants that had not experienced sexual abuse and participated in five or more classes. A few studies have examined the effect of interventions based on empowerment principles such as advocacy and social support of survivors (Kaslow et al., 2010; Trabold et al., 2018). Trabold et al. (2018) reviewed 57 articles exploring the efficacy and effectiveness of interventions related to physical and mental health and revictimization of survivors. The advocacy-based interventions reviewed were based on empowerment theory and included providing women with a trained professional that helped them with services such as community referrals, safety planning, and other support needed related to their abuse. These interventions did show a reduction in violence over time, but many studies did not show statistical differences between intervention and control groups. For mental health they showed short-term improvements in depressive symptoms with the effects lessening over time and no statistical differences between intervention and control groups. Advocacy services provided in the community to women who have exited a shelter have been measured in studies that show those that took place in these interventions experienced decreased depression, increased self-esteem, and higher quality of life and social support (Sullivan & Bybee, 1999; Sullivan et al., 2002). Sullivan & Bybee (1999) randomly assigned 278 battered women to an experimental condition receiving advocacy services or a control condition and interviewed the participants six times over a two-year period. Women who participated in the intervention reported higher quality of life and social support, and less difficulty obtaining community resources. More than twice as many women receiving advocacy services experienced no violence across the two years compared with women who did not receive such services. At three years post intervention a subsample of the women (n=124) from the previous study were 23 examined (Bybee & Sullivan, 2005). Those that had received advocacy prior maintained positive effects on quality of life and social support, but differences between groups on IPV revictimization were no longer significant. The main limitation of these studies is they have not been replicated by different investigators or conducted in different settings. Kaslow et al., 2010 measured the effect of a culturally informed, empowerment-focused psychoeducational group intervention (Nia) on reducing psychological symptomatology for two hundred eight African American women with a recent history of IPV and a suicide attempt. Women were randomized to either the Nia or treatment-as-usual (TAU) group. Those in the Nia group more rapidly experienced a decrease in depression and general distress symptoms and the between-group difference in depressive symptoms persisted at the 12-month follow-up. After the intervention, compared with women randomized to TAU, less severe suicidal ideation was measured in women in Nia when exposed to physical and nonphysical IPV (Kaslow et al., 2010). Constantino et al. (2005), also found that supportive group counseling that included providing IPV survivors with resources, led to a greater improvement in psychological distress symptoms and in perceived availability of social support. The sample of 24 majority Caucasian women took part in the group in a shelter and were compared to a control group. Even though empowerment is a key concept of IPV interventions, more research is needed to understand what type of empowerment interventions are working, and what mechanism lead to effectiveness. Similar to the traditional interventions, empowerment studies often focus on the individual aspects of empowerment and less on the effect on macro level empowerment outcomes such as social activism and structural change. More interventions are needed that address individual and macro healing and empowerment aspects. 24 Holistic Interventions to Support Healing from IPV Understanding the consequences of IPV and the impacts on women's BMS, it is important that interventions support healing at the BMS levels. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) defines trauma as: An event, series of events, or set of circumstances that is experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life threatening and that has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well- being (SAMHSA, 2015, p. 1). IPV would fall under this definition for survivor studies and meta-analyses have shown the association between IPV and trauma symptoms such as post-traumatic stress disorder (Birkley et al., 2016; Taft et al., 2011). Research has shown that trauma affects the brain and body, and therapeutic techniques are needed that integrate the body to rewire the brain after a traumatic event such as IPV and enable individuals to regain self-awareness and emotional regulation which are key components to coping (van der Kolk, 2014). Gillum et al. (2006) found in a study of 151 adult female survivors of abuse that 97% of interviewees noted that spirituality or God was a source of strength and comfort during their healing journeys. Increased psychological well-being and decreased depression were associated with the amount of survivor's positive religious involvement (Gillum et al., 2006), exemplifying the interplay of BMS components in the healing process. Stenius and Veysey (2005) conducted an ethnography with 18 women with histories of violence and cooccurring substance and mental health issues. The women reported that spirituality was an important aspect of healing and 72% reported “a spiritual connection helps them stay sober and maintain their emotional balance” (p. 1161). Interventions that take a holistic approach by not only addressing the mind but also the body and spirit, may be well suited to support survivors in the healing process as they address the whole person that is impacted by the continual trauma of IPV. 25 The origins of the social work strengths perspective discuss the importance of honoring the body and the mind, and how these aspects have the ability to work together to create healing (Saleebey, 1996). This perspective also supports focusing on strengths instead of individual pathology which can be a danger of traditional interventions that often work within a biomedical model that focuses on symptom relief instead of whole person healing (Micozzi, 2011). This approach when focusing on the pathology of clients, also provides the risk of leaving out a macro perspective of considering the effect of the environment and community on healing (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), and the importance of recognizing the multidimensional aspects of humans that lead to healing and wellness. Survivor healing and empowerment require a whole person holistic perspective. Theoretical Orientation for Holistic Interventions for Individual Well- Being Two theoretical frameworks: holism (Micozzi, 2015) and integrative body-mind-spirit (I- BMS) (Lee et al., 2018), are used to support the fundamental basis for the importance of holistic interventions for BMS healing of survivors. The term holism was first introduced by South African naturalist Jan Smuts in the early twentieth century who defined the term as “an ecological concept that the totality of biological phenomenon in a living organism or ecological system cannot be reduced, observed, or measured at a level below that of the whole organism or system”(Smuts 1926, as cited in Micozzi, 2015, p. 14). The holistic framework has roots in many ancient healing traditions from around the globe. For example, Ayurveda, Tibetan, and East Asian medicine take a holistic perspective recognizing the importance of the connection between the BMS within an individual and implement healing modalities that include the multidimensionality of humans and how these aspects are affected by the environment in which the individual exists (Cassidy, 2015). The holistic framework began to be applied to healthcare 26 around 1978 when a group of pioneering physicians founded the American Holistic Medical Association (AHMA) to bring holistic and spiritual concepts back to medicine (Shannon, 2002). The Principles of Holistic Medical Practice are based on the following four beliefs and values: 1) The multidimensional self with an interactive and interconnected BMS; 2) People have innate abilities to heal themselves by moving toward balance on all levels of BMS; 3) An individual exists in a “web of life” that understands the ecological perspective that one does not exist in isolation but is constantly in a biochemical exchange with the environment; and 4) Wholeness - meaning all living things are moving towards a more whole and complete state (Shannon, 2002). Western science has confirmed the BMS connection in fields such as neuroscience (Froeliger et al., 2012; Siegel, 2018), epigenetics (Curley et al., 2011), and psychoneuroimmunology (Irwin, 2008). In the context of IPV survivors’ healing, holism supports that BMS are all impacted by not only the abuse they have undergone but also other aspects in their environment such as race, social class, and interactions with others. For example, Micozzi (2015) explains, “Holistic philosophy also posits that within each one thing is contained all; the microcosm is the macrocosm” (p. 8). Lee et al. (2018) state that the holistic perspective requires intervention at each BMS level of the individual, “in the context of his or her family, broader social environment, and beyond” (p. 65). Holism supports that all individuals have the ability for “self- healing” (Micozzi, 2015, p. 8). This holistic perspective is also a key aspect of social work social systems theory (Friedman & Allen, 2011). Social workers can be key to supporting survivors in their innate ability to heal and providing interventions that address the multidimensional aspects of survivors. The I-BMS theoretical framework (Lee et al., 2018) expands upon the ideas of holism and encourages a holistic perspective in any intervention. It was developed by a collaboration of social workers, medical professionals, psychologists, and therapists at the University of Hong Kong and The 27 Ohio State University and was informed by systems and strengths-based perspectives. This framework informs the view that everything is connected, interdependent, and constantly changing towards balance, provides a deeper understanding of harmony and connection with nature and the importance of moving away from a dualistic way of thinking, understanding change and healing can occur through nonattachment and interdependence, and informs a systems perspective on health, disease development, and the importance of multidimensional treatment approaches (Lee et al., 2018). Although no studies reported using the I-BMS framework with IPV survivors, this framework will guide the analysis and discussion of the empirical review of literature to exhibit how holistic interventions that address BMS are reportedly associated with healing outcomes. The I-BMS framework encourages recognizing the multidimensionality of the individual but also acknowledges that not every holistic intervention will be able to address every BMS aspect at the same time. This concept was helpful when looking for holistic interventions tested with IPV survivors as although the interventions chosen take a holistic view, not all directly address BMS or have outcomes that include BM and spirit. Holism and I-BMS combined support the hypothesis that holistic interventions may lead to multidimensional BMS healing. Holistic interventions involve moving beyond symptom reduction and seek to help the individual integrate one or more of the BMS aspects within themselves, as they interact in a network of relationships and communities that work together in the healing process (Cassidy, 2015). Overview of Holistic Interventions in the Literature Before delving into the reported BMS outcomes of holistic interventions for survivors, I will briefly give an overview of the main categories of holistic interventions that were found. Those that are in the highlighted articles below will be explained in greater detail (refer to 28 Appendix B for a full list of interventions and categories). The interventions fall under six categories: body based, psychological protocolized programs, nature based, artistic expression, mindfulness, and spiritually focused. Body based interventions focus on using the actual physical body as part of the treatment, such as yoga (Franzblau et al., 2006) that involve participants in practicing postures and breathing. Psychological protocolized programs engage survivors in a structured program focusing on reframing thoughts in a holistic way such as holistic cognitive therapy (Zust, 2006). Nature based interventions incorporate connection with nature and the survivor (Lee et al., 2008). The artistic expression category includes interventions that use art and creative expression as a main modality in supporting the holistic healing such as music (Fernandez de Juan, 2016), and drama therapy (Kirk, 2015). The category of mindfulness interventions is comprised of mindfulness and/or meditation as a key component of treatment (i.e., mindfulness-based stress reduction, Gallegos et al., 2020). Those interventions that fall under spiritually focused describe interventions that emphasize the spiritual aspects of healing for survivors in the forefront of treatment (i.e., spiritually focused groups, Bowland et al., 2012). BMS Outcomes of Holistic Interventions with IPV Survivors It is essential to evaluate how effective holistic interventions may be to the multidimensional healing process of survivors to understand the impact holistic interventions may have on reported BMS outcomes for survivors. The outcomes have been categorized into five themes with subthemes that fall under bodily, mind, and spiritual healing. Bodily Healing Outcomes Physical Health Holistic interventions are associated with supporting survivors in healing at the level of the body and improving physical health. Outcomes under this theme were reportedly associated 29 with a physical function of the body or changes in the body that are related to physical health or a feeling about physical health and broken into three subthemes: sleep, how survivors feel in their body, and physiological changes. Improved sleep can benefit the healing process of survivors and both positive (Cheung et al., 2021, Hernandez-Ruiz, 2005) and negative sleep outcomes (Michalopoulou et al., 2015) have been reported following holistic interventions. Hernandez-Ruiz (2005) used a music therapy intervention that included participants picking their own music that was combined with a progressive muscle relaxation script for 20 minutes. This led to reported associated changes in sleep quality using a pretest-posttest design with experiential and control groups of 28 women from two DV shelters in a midwestern city. Sleep quality was measured on the first and last sessions by a 19-item self-report questionnaire. Results indicated a reported significant positive effect on sleep quality for the intervention group but not the control group. Cheung et al. (2021) conducted a randomized controlled trial (RCT) using a holistic intervention that lasted 22 weeks. This included group training by a qigong master twice per week for six weeks, group follow up sessions once per week for 16 weeks and encouraged 30 minutes per day of personal practice for participants. The authors recruited Chinese survivors from a local community center in Hong Kong and compared sleep disturbance between two groups, intervention (n=94), and wait-list control (n=92) at six weeks and 22 weeks post intervention (Cheung et al., 2021). The total sleep disturbance scores for the intervention group were significantly lower than those of the wait-list control group at week 6 and 22. But no significant results were noted for sleeping hours in an RCT by Michalopoulou et al. (2015) testing the efficacy of a stress management program with survivors in Greece. The second subtheme includes outcomes related to how survivors reportedly feel in their physical bodies including physical symptoms (Bowland et al., 2012; Koopman et al., 2005), and 30 feelings about their physical health (Beil, 2018). Since research shows that trauma can be held in the body (van der Kolk, 2014), interventions that focus on relieving physical symptoms may support survivors in bodily healing. Bowland et al. (2012) implemented a spiritually focused group intervention for older survivors of interpersonal trauma that included 10-12 sessions lasting two hours. This focused on forgiveness and implementing positive spiritual coping mechanism such as music, poetry, and prayer. The intervention group had significantly lower reported physical symptoms when compared to the control group posttest. Contrary to the previous findings, survivors that participated in a holistic expressive writing intervention by Koopman et al. (2005), did not report significant changes in pain symptoms compared to the control group. The third subtheme includes outcomes related to physiological changes in the body that may result from holistic interventions such as changes in telomerase activity (Cheung et al., 2019), interoceptive awareness, substance cravings (Price et al., 2019a), and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), a physiological index of emotion regulation (Price et al., 2019b). For example, using the same qigong intervention explained above in another RCT, Cheung et al. (2019) compared the intervention group with a wait list control group that received optional health education sessions to determine any change in telomerase activity (Cheung et al., 2019). Telomerase is an enzyme that elongates telomeres which are related to promoting cell longevity and can function to enhance stress resistance. The between group difference was not statistically significant when measured after the intervention at 22 weeks. In an RCT done by Price et al. (2019a), the immediate pre-post effects of a Mindful Awareness in Body-oriented Therapy (MABT) were measured in a population of women in substance use disorder treatment. Interoceptive awareness is a concept that describes how well one can recognize and respond to 31 bodily sensations and MABT is an intervention that teaches interoceptive awareness skills and how to use them for positive coping. Eighty-two percent reported IPV history. Participants (n=187) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: MABT + treatment as usual (TAU), women's health education + TAU, or TAU only. The MABT group received eight 90-minute sessions and when measured at baseline and three- month follow up, compared to the other groups reported significant improvements in interoceptive awareness and mindfulness skills. Participants who participated in at least 75% of the sessions had the above improvements as well as reductions in cravings for substances. Price et al. (2019b) continued the above study by measuring effects of the intervention at six and 12 months. They found the above changes continued as well as significant improvements in RSA, for MABT group vs. TAU. Trauma sensitive yoga may have the ability to support survivors in bodily healing on the inside and out as reported by seven providers who were interviewed about their perceptions of survivors that took part in a 12-week trauma sensitive yoga group (Nguyen-Feng et al., 2019). Through structured interviews and thematic analysis Nguyen-Feng et al. (2019) outline several themes that related directly to bodily healing and physical health. The authors report that the providers explain they saw benefits to the participants body including external visual changes, greater connection to their breath and body, and a strengthened mind-body connection. Mind Healing Outcomes The mind is a key aspect of survivors that includes “cognition, perception, mood, affection, problem solving ability, memory, and willpower” (Lee et al., 2018, p. 65). Holistic interventions are associated with reported positive changes in the mind that include outcomes related to increased positive self-thoughts and improved mental health. 32 Increased Positive Self-Thoughts. Outcomes that related to increased positive self- thoughts related to feelings, actions, appearance, and competency of survivor's self or conversely were related to reducing negative self-thoughts. Survivors that took part in holistic interventions including movement and sports therapy, music therapy, stress management, eco therapy, and forgiveness therapy (FT) experienced a reported increase in self-esteem (Beil, 2018; Fernandez de Juan, 2016; Kokka et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2008; Ley & Barrio, 2011; Mondolfi & Pino-Juste, 2020; Reed & Enright, 2006). For example, participants that took part in a randomized experimental and control group study by Reed and Enright (2006) were assigned to an intervention group that received individual FT one hour a week on average for 7.95 months (n=10) or an alternative treatment (AT) that included discussion of life events and facilitator reflective listening (n=10). When compared to the AT group, the FT group had significantly greater improvements in self-esteem after intervention. Self-esteem and self-efficacy were evaluated by Kokka et al. (2019) that randomized 60 survivors into a control or intervention group that received a lifestyle and stress management program for one hour each week for eight weeks. The intervention took place at a university in Greece and included a variety of different activities including giving information about stress, lifestyle, and physical exercise, training in abdominal breathing, practice in a progressive muscle relaxation, gratitude techniques, dietary counseling, and implementation of guided imagery. Self- esteem was measured by a self-reported measurement, focusing on how the individual sees themselves and how these perceptions influence their behavior. When comparing mean changes post intervention, there was a significant increase in self-esteem for the intervention group members versus the control group members that recorded a reduction in self-esteem. In addition 33 to reportedly feeling better about themselves, the intervention group showed increased self- efficacy post intervention that was measured (Kokka et al., 2019). Increased self-efficacy or believing that one has the power to handle circumstances that arise in life, is very important for survivor healing since many times in abusive situations survivors may feel as if power has been taken from them. Franzblau et al. (2006) used a single factor, repeated measures design to determine the statistical association between yogic breathing, testimony and IPV survivor self-efficacy. Forty women were divided into one of the following groups: 1) Testimony (two 45-minute sessions over two consecutive days with a trained listener); 2) Yogic breathing (two 45-minute sessions over two consecutive days led by a research assistant who was a registered yoga teacher); 3) Combined testimony/yogic breathing (two 45-minute sessions, beginning with 45 minutes of testimony and immediately followed by 45 minutes of yogic breathing); and 4) Waiting controls (no sessions). Some factors of self-efficacy improved for all treatment conditions, but the greatest significant effect was measured by survivors that took part in giving testimony and the breathing intervention. Holistic interventions have been associated with survivors reported increased self-worth and confidence (Nguyen-Feng et al., 2019; Ron & Yanai, 2021), increased self-awareness (Coholic et al., 2021), self-appreciation (Zust, 2006), self-acceptance and increased assertiveness (Schwarz et al., 2021), as well as a sense of accomplishment (Concepcion & Ebbeck, 2005). The qualitative results of a mixed methods study by Schwarz et al. (2021), highlighted the survivor reported outcomes of an eight-session eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy. EMDR is a therapeutic modality based on the adaptive processing model that uses bilateral stimulation of the brain through techniques such as eye movements or tapping to access parts of the brain where traumatic memories may be stored and otherwise inaccessible through 34 talk therapy alone (EMDR Institute, Inc, 2020). It is holistic as it uses bodily and mental sensations as part of the processing and has the goal of not only reformulating negative beliefs but “relieving affective distress and reducing physiological arousal” (EMDR Institute, Inc, 2020). In semi structured interviews, survivors reported feeling a greater self-acceptance and improving their ability to be assertive in a variety of relationships by setting boundaries and speaking up for themselves after completing EMDR (Schwarz et al., 2021). On the flip side of increasing positive self-thoughts, healing of the mind included the removal of thoughts that were negative in the form of reduction of guilt and self-blame that were found as outcomes of conducting psychodrama and dance movement therapy groups with survivors in India and Israel (Kaikobad, 2021; Ron & Yanai, 2021). Improved Mental Health. This theme includes reported outcomes related to mental health and trauma symptoms, mental health functioning, and emotional regulation. It is broken into five subthemes: depression, anxiety, PTSD/trauma symptoms, stress, and emotional regulation. The first positive mental health outcome reported, decreased participant depression, is associated with holistic interventions of spiritual groups, qigong, music therapy, yoga, trauma- informed mindfulness-based stress reduction (TI-MBSR), stress management/health promotion, horticultural therapy, drama therapy, narrative therapy, forgiveness therapy, and EMDR (Bowland et al., 2012; Cheung et al., 2019; Fernandez de Juan, 2016; Franzblau et al., 2008; Kelly & Garland, 2016; Kokka et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2008; Mondolfi & Pino-Juste, 2020; Orang et al., 2018; Reed & Enright, 2006; Schwarz et al., 2020; Schwarz et al., 2021; Tarquinio, et al., 2012). Kelly and Garland (2016) reported that survivors that took part in an 8-week TI- MBSR intervention (n=23), when compared to a waitlist control group (n=22) experienced statistically and clinically significant decreases in depression. Each weekly session of TI-MBSR 35 lasted 2-2.5 hours and included meditation practices that helped teach mindfulness and awareness of bodily and emotional responses. The only study found that did not report significant changes in depression as main effects were survivors that took part in an expressive writing intervention pre-posttest with control study by Koopman et al. (2005). However, those that began the study with depression had significantly greater drops in depression suggesting that expressive writing may still be helpful for IPV women who struggle with depression. Another positive mental health outcome reported was reduced anxiety levels after participation in spiritual groups, music therapy, psychodrama, stress management/health promotion interventions, FT, and EMDR (Bowland et al., 2012; Fernandez de Juan, 2016; Hernandez-Ruiz, 2005; Kokka et al., 2019; Mondolfi & Pino-Juste, 2020; Ron & Yanai, 2021; Reed & Enright, 2006; Schwarz et al., 2020; Schwarz et al., 2021; Tarquinio, et al., 2012). Two mixed methods studies following a pre-posttest design with interviews (Schwarz et al., 2020; Schwarz et al., 2021) provide an example of how the holistic intervention of EMDR may reportedly impact survivor anxiety. Both studies took a sample from community counseling centers where 8 sessions of EMDR were provided individually to 21 (Schwarz et al., 2020) and 41 (Schwarz et al., 2021) survivors. Results found a statistically significant improvement in anxiety. Stress may be another mental health aspect that is impacted by holistic intervention participation as survivors reportedly experienced lowered perceived stress (Cheung et al., 2019; Coholic et al., 2021; Kokka et al., 2019; Michalopoulou et al., 2015; Orang et al., 2018; Ron & Yanai, 2021), after participating in qigong, art-based mindfulness, stress management /health promotion groups, narrative exposure therapy, and psychodrama. For example, survivors that 36 participated in Ley and Barrio's (2011) movement and sports therapy intervention reported via interviews increased knowledge of how to handle stress. Studies have shown a strong association between IPV and trauma symptoms such as PTSD (Birkley et al., 2016; Fedovskiy, et. al., 2008; Taft et al., 2011). Therefore, it is promising that the most robust evidence for holistic interventions potential effectiveness are associated with reduced PTSD symptoms (Allen & Wozniak, 2011; Gallegos et al., 2020; Harris et al., 2018; Kelly & Garland, 2016; Lee et al., 2017; Mondolfi & Pino-Juste, 2020; Nguyen-Feng et al., 2020; Reed & Enright, 2006; Schwarz et al., 2020; Schwarz et al., 2021; Tarquinio, et al., 2012; van der Kolk et al., 2014), and improved trauma and mental health symptoms (Lee et al., 2017). An RCT conducted by Lee et al. (2017), examined the impact of meditation practice on the mental health outcomes of female trauma survivors of IPV who had co-occurring substance use and mental disorders. The intervention consisted of a 6-week meditation curriculum that focused on breathing, loving kindness, and compassion. The group met twice every day for one hour, five days a week consecutively for six weeks for a total of 60 hours. Participants were encouraged to practice meditation each day and 92% of participants reported practicing more than one time each day. Positive significant changes were measured in mental health symptoms and trauma symptoms from pre-treatment to post- treatment in the meditation group, compared to non- significant changes observed in control condition. Significant group differences were noted between clients in the meditation condition and in the control condition on reduced mental health and trauma symptoms, with large effect sizes. When looking for an effective intervention to potentially impact trauma survivor PTSD, van der Kolk et al. (2014) provided an example: 64 women with chronic PTSD and a history of childhood interpersonal violence were randomly assigned to trauma sensitive yoga or the control 37 group that received women's health education. Both groups met for one hour each week for 10 weeks and the treatment group followed a protocolized trauma informed yoga program that included central elements of breathing, postures, and meditation. The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) (Weathers et al.,1999), was the primary outcome measure and both groups had significant decreases on the CAPS scores. The difference was the yoga group had decreases in the large effect size range that were maintained throughout treatment, whereas the control group showed only a medium to large effect size that after initial improvement was not maintained. Fifty-two percent of the yoga group participants no longer met criteria for PTSD after intervention. Although the above study did not specify how many of the women reported histories of intimate partner violence as adults, it was likely very high as a follow up study by Nguyen-Feng et al. (2020) conducting a moderator analysis with the data from the van der Kolk et al. (2014) study, reported that participants reported an average 1.94 forms of adult IPV (e.g., physical, sexual, emotional). In addition to reported decreased depression, anxiety, PTSD, and improved trauma and mental health symptoms, holistic interventions were associated with reported increased emotional regulation (Coholic et al., 2021), and improved mental and emotional status (Beil, 2018; Concepcion & Ebbeck, 2005). For example, qualitative analysis of women that took part in a physical activity intervention reported improved mental and emotional statuses (Concepcion & Ebbeck, 2005). Spiritual Healing Outcomes Spirituality having to do with “meaning making, life goals, morality, values, commitment, fulfillment and hope for the future, as well as a relationship with a higher being, and/or religion” (Lee et al., 2018, p. 68), may play an integral role in the healing of many 38 survivors after exiting IPV relationships (Gillum et al., 2006). Holistic interventions are associated with positive spiritual outcomes related to the two themes of increased spirituality and greater hope for the future. Increased Spirituality. This theme includes outcomes that relate to an increase or improved awareness of any of the elements related to the meaning of spirituality that is characterized by “faith, a search for meaning and purpose in life, a sense of connection with others, and a transcendence of self, resulting in a sense of inner peace and well-being” (Delgado, 2005, p. 157). An increase in meaning and purpose and in religious and existential well-being were reportedly associated with interventions based on sport and movement (Ley & Barrio, 2011), stress management/health promotion (Kokka et al., 2019), drama therapy (Mondolfi & Pino-Juste, 2020), and FT (Reed & Enright, 2006). Ley and Barrio (2011) conducted a group intervention with 56 indigenous Guatemalan survivors that encouraged women to engage in psychosocial activity through movement, games, and sport. Thirty-three women participated in both the pre, and post-test measurements in two separate groups in this mixed method study with the intention to measure increased coherence; One group took part in 12 workshops of four hours, twice a month and the other six intensive workshops of seven hours, once or twice a month led by three facilitators. The authors (Ley & Barrio, 2011) define the concept of coherence consisting of three parts. The first two comprehensibility and manageability mean feeling one understands and has the resources to manage what happens to them. The third aspect meaningfulness was described as a spiritual element in which one attributes meaning to their being, actions, and events. Overall, for both groups the sense of coherence significantly increased post intervention, meaning the women reported an increase in their ability to 39 understand and cope with life's challenges and create a more meaningful life. The participants also reported they left the group feeling they had more meaning and purpose. Mondolfi and Pino-Juste (2020) used an intervention combining drama therapy, theater of the oppressed, and psychodrama in a pretest-posttest mixed method design to determine if it affected Spanish IPV survivor's sexist stereotypes, self-esteem, quality of life, life purpose, and communication skills. The authors describe theatre of the oppressed as an intervention that uses improvisation with oppressed individuals to help them explore power conflicts in their life and opportunities for change (Mondolfi & Pino-Juste, 2020). Nonprobability convenience sampling was utilized to recruit women from two community centers that worked with survivors. The intervention consisted of 20 sessions that each lasted two hours. The sessions were divided into three phases using the psychodrama method of warm-up, action, and sharing. Techniques such as breathing, relaxation exercises, role playing, empty chair, sociodrama, and group discussion were employed. Results showed significant improvement in purpose in life and perception of meaning. The spiritual outcome of a sense of connection with others, was reportedly experienced by survivors that took part in a Holistic Healing Arts Retreat (Dahlgren et al., 2020), an art-based mindfulness group (MBI) (Coholic et al., 2021), and trauma sensitive yoga (Ong et al., 2019). Thematic analysis based on interview data from pre and post MBI group interviews of 14 participants resulted in participants reporting they felt increased peer support and social inclusion as an outcome (Coholic et al., 2021). Ong et al. (2019) conducted a mixed method study with five survivors that took part in 8 sessions of 60 minutes of trauma sensitive yoga. Collective themes that I identified from qualitative pre-post interviews and observations were improvements in social functioning, perceptions of themselves and others, and spiritual benefits. A quote used from a survivor to exemplify spiritual benefits was, “I felt a deeper connection to 40 the universe, and it feels like a connection to the universe of God source” (Ong et al., 2019, p. 8). Qualitative findings of IPV survivors who participated in a “Rites of Passage” intervention that included a combination of healing rituals, blessing, poetry, art, and music, reported developing more inner peace and serenity as a result (Allen & Wozniak, 2011). For example, several women commented on feeling inner peace and calm while participating in group activities such as yoga and meditation, and the ability to calm themselves and feel peace moved into other areas of their lives outside the group. Greater Hope for the Future. Holistic interventions such as physical activity (Concepcion & Ebbeck, 2005), healing arts (Dahlgren et al., 2020), journal art and music therapy (Allen & Wozniak, 2011, Vela et al., 2016), EMDR (Schwarz et al., 2020), and holistic cognitive therapy (Zust, 2000, 2006) were associated with survivor's reports of spiritual healing by fostering a greater sense of hope for the future. This theme relates to outcomes that discuss survivors reported hope and healing because of interventions. The theme also includes survivor outcomes related to their potential development of the ability to view and act on a future self and life by engaging in activities such as future planning of goals. A qualitative study done by Concepcion and Ebbeck (2005) examined the physical activity experiences of survivors in relation to their view of themselves and their circumstances. Seven women were given access to an exercise facility for three months and participated in one to four interviews (due to attrition) with the lead author at one- month intervals that lasted one to three hours covering questions about their experiences and emotional status. Grounded theory analysis revealed spiritual outcomes of the physical activity giving the women a greater sense of hope and healing as they could tangibly see they were moving forward in their lives (Concepcion & Ebbeck, 2005). The activity also fostered a sense of working toward a future self in which the 41 survivors reported they could see themselves with a stronger BMS in the present while working out, and in the future in other areas of their lives. The ability to integrate hope for a future self and life was echoed by survivors that engaged in a five-day residential Holistic Healing Arts Retreat (Dahlgren et al., 2020). The qualitative narrative analysis that highlighted spiritual outcomes came from 44 survivors. The retreat was designed using a holistic philosophy and healing arc conceptual model to treat trauma that included five foundational elements “safety, connection, awareness, expression, integration” (Dahlgren et al., 2020, p. 44). Over the five-day period, examples of BMS activities that were offered as intervention included the following: interactive workshops that teach and promote regulation of the central nervous system, physical challenges to practice regulations skills like ropes courses, stretching and massage, dance and creative movement, art to express internal experiences such as collage and sculpture, group sharing, journal and poetry writing, and gratitude practices. Half of the women reported taking part in this intervention had helped them to integrate aspects of themselves and 42.5% reported greater hope for their future. This included reports of feeling empowered to make future goals and see themselves more whole in the future. This theme was primarily measured qualitatively, but two studies used quantitative scales to measure hope. Vela et al. (2016) used the Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991) with three survivors that took part in nine sessions of creative journal arts therapy in a single case research study. They found the intervention to be moderately effective for improving survivor hope. The Beck Hopelessness Scale (Beck & Steer, 1993) was used by Zust (2000) as a pre-posttest measure of a 20-week holistic cognitive therapy group with nine IPV survivors and eight non- IPV survivors. Survivors reported a greater statistically significant decrease in hopelessness when compared to non-IPV women. 42 Holistic Intervention Literature Review Summary The literature outlined above provides the evidence to support the backdrop for a story about the potential of holistic interventions to support BMS healing for IPV survivors. Bodily healing outcomes fell into three categories. The outcome of sleep was supported by three quantitative studies. Music therapy and Qigong were associated with reported improved sleep, but a stress management program resulted in no significant results on sleeping. How survivors reportedly feel in their physical bodies because of holistic interventions had mixed results with a spiritual group intervention resulting in improved physical symptoms but a holistic expressive writing intervention leaving participants not reporting significant changes in pain symptoms. The intervention with the strongest evidence to support physiological changes was MABT (Price et al., 2019a, 2019b), that was associated with reported improved interoceptive awareness and significant improvement in RSA for up to 12 months post intervention. The most extensive and rigorous methodological evidence exists for the potential of holistic interventions to be reportedly associated with mind healing outcomes. For the theme of increased positive self-thoughts interventions such as lifestyle and stress management program (Kokka et al.,2019), and FT (Reed & Enright, 2006) have the strongest association with improved self-esteem for survivors. By far the most heavily researched mental health outcome of holistic interventions for survivors is PTSD followed by depression. The largest effect size with significant improvements in PTSD symptoms were associated with participants that took part in meditation (Lee et al., 2017) and trauma sensitive yoga (van der Kolk et al., 2014). Spiritual healing outcomes were most strongly supported by mixed-method and qualitative results. Increased spirituality such as reportedly feeling an increase in meaning and purpose was supported by participation in forgiveness (Reed & Enright, 2006), and drama 43 therapy (Mondolfi & Pino-Juste, 2020). Greater hope for the future was reported most strongly by survivors that took part in a Holistic Healing Arts Retreat (Dahlgren et al., 2020), and a holistic cognitive therapy group (Zust, 2000). Like the above reviewed traditional and empowerment interventions, although taking a more holistic view of the survivors, overall, the results of the holistic interventions reviewed focused on individual healing outcomes and symptom reduction and were missing measuring the macro aspects such as empowerment, connecting with others, and creating change in the world. I will next outline the theoretical frameworks that provide potential support for veganism to support survivors in not only BMS healing, but also address macro aspects of healing and empowerment. Interlocking Systems of Oppression Ecofeminism and Total Liberation Theory Ecofeminism (Hunnicutt, 2020), and Total Liberation theory (Pellow & Brehm, 2015) can provide a theoretical framework for understanding interlocking systems of oppression and how veganism could be a potential action for addressing these systems. The social construction of sexuality, gender, race, and class has been acknowledged, accepted, and discussed by scholars (Glenn, 1999; Lorber, 1999). Intersectionality has been a key concept that have helped feminists to articulate the interconnection between different oppressions and how these can be experienced at the same time, with one’s social position creating different levels of access to power (Crenshaw, 1989). Many of the oppressive systems are based upon a hierarchical dualistic belief that man is above and more deserving of power than woman. Ecofeminists built upon this understanding by using a sex-species system to analyze the dualisms found in a patriarchal racist system that adds human, white, mind, and reason to be over their corresponding dualities of animal, “colored”, body, and emotion (Adams, 2007). The human-non-human dichotomy is seen 44 as the side of the duality in which the white male is considered human and those on the other side such as women and “colored” have often been compared to animals (Fitzgerald & Pellows, 2014). This “othering” process of placing something different in a lower category and measuring the value of something based on the qualities of one category has been used with animals and created belief systems of speciesism and anthropocentricism (Adams, 2010). Eco and vegan feminist have shown the structural link between violence against animals and violence against women (Hunnicutt, 2020), by exhibiting how the “othering process” of animals that places them in a less than category is used as justification to kill and abuse them, is also used under the system of patriarchy to “other” women (Adams, 2010; 2020). Another trait that anthropocentrism and speciesism have in common with other systems of oppression is that the beliefs have been institutionalized so that the abuses committed under them are seen as normal and accepted (Fitzgerald & Pellows, 2014). Ecofeminist Carol Adams was the first to use a feminist-vegan critical theory to explore the link of interlocking oppressions of abuse against animals and abuse against women. In her seminal book The Sexual Politics of Meat, she explains how the process “objectification, fragmentation, and consumption” (p. 27) is portrayed and used in media to show animals sexualized and women animalized (2019). First women and animals are “othered” and viewed as less than objects. Then they are fragmented in the case of animals when they are butchered and in the case of women when they are raped and abused, and power is taken from them. This is then followed by consumption either by eating physically or consuming visually the woman in a less than state. She further displays how these two oppressions are connected by showing images in the media in which animals are shown in a feminine sexualized way or images that show women portrayed as animals. The animal and the women that are not displayed in these pictures 45 is what Adams terms the “absent referent” (2019, p. 20), in that it is a representation of their degraded and abused position that is being covered up by using something that is closely related, but still protects the true intention behind the image. She also explains in the terms of language how the absent referent is used by explaining how the word “meat” covers up the absent referent of an animal who has been killed, or when “rape” is used as a metaphor such as raping the earth, the experience of individual women being abused is not acknowledged. In this way, the patriarchal system can use images and language, to continue to objectify and silence the abuse of animals and women and normalize these messages on a large scale. In postindustrial patriarchal society the role of animals and women “is to serve/be served up” and used for male consumption (Gruen, 1993, p. 61). Vegetarian ecofeminists look at the political structures surrounding dietary habits and how this connects to interlocking oppressions with a strong emphasis on animal and women abuse (Gaard, 2002). They emphasize the importance of understanding the connections of oppression and how a path to freedom includes liberation of oppressed humans and animals (Gaard, 2002). This is further outlined in the Total Liberation Theory that is “an intersectional ethos that seeks to contest all forms of inequality and domination” (Springer, 2021, p. 2). It is intersectional as it began in the 1990’s through environmental and animal rights groups and builds off ideas of previous frames of understanding interlocking oppressions such as ecofeminism, deep ecology, New Ecological Paradigm (NEP), and the Environmental Justice Paradigm (EJP) (Pellow & Brehm, 2015). Pellow and Brehm (2015) found in their research through 88 semi structured interviews with environmental and animal activists, conducting fieldwork at conferences and gatherings, content analyses of thousands of pages of internet and written sources produced by activists that total liberation is comprised of the following four elements: “(1) an ethic of justice and anti-oppression for people, nonhuman animals, and 46 ecosystems; (2) anarchism-theory of governance that is anti-authoritarian and premised on mutual assistance and cooperation; (3) anticapitalism; and (4) an embrace of direct action” (p. 193). Ecofeminism supports the understanding of how abuse of nature and animals are interlocked with abuse of women and total liberation outlines what aspects need to be part of working towards breaking interlocking oppressions. Sociological scholars have looked at the historical connection between oppression of animals and humans and how this is connected with the rise of capitalism (Nibert, 2002). For example, when hunter gathers began to hunt and kill animals, a clearer separation of male/female roles and power began to be established setting the base for a more patriarchal society (Nibert, 2003). Anthropological cross-cultural research on over 150 tribal societies analyzing power and dominance in male-female relationships found that women’s power was correlated with plant- based societies and in societies with economies based on animals’ men had more power (Sanday, 1981). Power and privilege for mostly white men began to grow as an agricultural society began which corresponded with more humans and animals being oppressed in the need of labor for more production (Nibert, 2003). Through the continued exploitation of humans, animals, and nature, the system of capitalism has been supported by agricultural, pharmaceutical, industrial complexes, the government, as well as non-governmental agencies committed to continual advancement at the cost of human and non-human life (Nibert, 2002). Empirical evidence to support the connection of interlocking oppressions connected with speciesism is best supported by the testing of the Social Dominance Human–Animal Relations Model (SD-HARM) that “proposes that human outgroup prejudices (such as racial and ethnic prejudice) and speciesism share common ideological motives, including the desire for group- based dominance and inequality” (Dhont et al., 2016, p. 2). This model is based on the 47 understanding of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) that assumes group-based social inequality and oppression are created and maintained due to the preference of humans to safeguard hierarchical social systems and treat people different that come from diverse human groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Dhont et al., 2016 conducted a meta-analytic analysis across three studies (in Belgium, UK, and USA) that showed support for the SD-HARM and that SDO is a key factor responsible for the significant positive association between ethnic outgroup attitudes and speciesist attitudes towards animals. This held true when also accounting for other ideological variables such as right-wing authoritarianism (RWA). For example, two of the studies showed that both SDO and RWA are significantly related to perceived threat posed by vegetarianism, but only SDO accounted for the association between vegetarianism threat and ethnic prejudice. Higher levels of conservatism were associated with higher levels of speciesism, even after controlling for SDO and RWA (Dhont et al., 2016). These results provide stronger support of the psychological inter connection of one’s willingness to exploit animals as well as its’ connection with biases and prejudice against humans. Veganism’s Support of Political Action, Female Empowerment, and Decolonization Holism and IBMS framework provide the theoretical support for the need of an intervention that can address multiple levels of healing and literature shows how veganism in other populations (i.e., African Americans, Caucasian women (Dean, 2014; Harper, 2010)), has been associated with healing at the level of the body, mind, and spirit. Next ecofeminism (Hunnicutt, 2020) and total liberation theory (Pellow & Brehm, 2015) help to understand the connection between abuse of women and other oppressions such as abuse of animals and the importance of addressing multiple oppressions when seeking healing and liberation. A vegan diet may be one important way to support survivors in healing holistically from multiple oppressions 48 because of its potential as a political form of activism to stand against multiple systems of oppression (Cochrane & Cojocaru, 2022; Dickstein et al., 2019). In addition, it can empower women to make their own choices about their bodies (Dean, 2014), and provide a way to decolonize the body and mind (Harper, 2010). First veganism is a way to boycott the eating of animals and to take action towards a world in which the relationships between humans and animals is not based upon violence (Dickstein et al., 2019). It has been described as an “all- encompassing anti-exploitation ethic” (Deckha 2018, p. 285), as by not consuming animals that are part of a system of exploitation to humans and animals, it seeks to not participate in this exploitation and take action on oppressive economic and political systems. Black vegans have described it as “a sociopolitical movement that rearticulates black oppression through the lens of animality and race” (Ko & Ko, 2017, p. 52). Veganism is a way to stand against capitalism and systems of domination by ending the demand for animal products which in turn will erase the human and non-human animal violence connected with this production (Dickstein et al., 2019). Although it is true that not all vegans are ethically and politically motivated to choose this lifestyle, a surveys done of vegans in Switzerland and the US found more than half of their samples were motivated by political concerns (Kalte, 2021; Wrenn, 2017). For example, 89% of the Swiss sample chose political motives (i.e., avoid animal suffering, environmental protection, reduction of world hunger, demonstration of ethical attitude) as their dominant reason to be vegan and saw veganism as an active way to address political concerns (Kalte, 2021). Wrenn (2017) found from a survey of 287 American vegans three out of four identified as activists showing some evidence that this vegan sample is interested in an intersectional approach that veganism can hold. Veganism is an action that can be taken “to overturn the structures and 49 systems which support and facilitate the exploitation of animals” and humans (Cochrane & Cojocaru, 2022, p. 5). Next veganism may be an avenue to empower women to make their own choices about their body and for some a way to decolonize their body and mind (Dean, 2014; Harper, 2010). Adams (2015) posits that veganism is a rebellion against dominant culture in which meat eating is a sign of male dominance and shows how many writers and feminists in history that have supported other movements such as antivivisection and suffrage also chose not to eat meat as they understood the connection between abuse of animals and women. She points to examples such as Canadian suffrages who opened a vegetarian restaurant in 1910 and to writers such as Judy Grahn’s whose play in 1987 features vegetarian fairies and Mary Shelley creating Frankenstein as a vegetarian (Adams, 2015). Vegetarianism has also been linked with the women's suffrage movement in Britain (Leneman, 1997). Leneman (1997) outlines the history of women in the movement who stopped eating meat to improve their health and then realized the ethical reasons of doing no harm to other beings. Other reasons outlined were feeling empowered to have more time to think about how to address social issues by spending less time in kitchen preparing meat and having a way to support oppressions from their home even if they did not have time to be actively involved in the suffrage causes. Many first wave feminists advocated for vegetarianism and/or animal welfare (i.e. Harriet Beecher Stowe, Margaret Fuller, Agnes Ryan), and second wave feminists such as Aviva Cantor and Marjorie Spiegel articulated the connections between oppression of animals and women (Gaard, 2002). The above information shows there is a history of women understanding how not eating meat can lead to empowerment of their body, mind, spirit, as well as the other social justice causes that they supported. 50 The patriarchal norms and perceptions of meat eating are supported with empirical literature that shows vegans and vegetarians are perceived to be less masculine when compared to omnivores in our current society (Ruby & Hein, 2011; Thomas, 2016). Therefore, when women choose to be vegans, they are breaking from patriarchal norms of eating (Dean, 2014). Dean (2014) conducted thematic analysis on 13 narratives submitted between 2011-2014 by women to a vegan blog entitled The Green Recovery that explored topics around how a plant- based diet can help people heal that may have traumatic histories with food. She explains themes such as how veganism helped women to change their mindset around food. The participants explain eating was once a way to control their body, but veganism fostered a shift to a focus on helping the world leading to more freedom for some. Black feminists have discussed how veganism can be an antiracist practice that supports animal, environmental, and social justice (Harper, 2013). The work of black vegan feminists shows the potential of a vegan diet to support African American women in decolonization of their bodies and minds (Harper, 2010, 2013; Afua, 2021). There are strong parallels between how African Americans were treated during slavery and how non-human animals are treated now specifically related to animal agriculture (Spiegel, 1996). Many African Americans are understanding the connection between animal and human oppression and health and are acting by becoming vegan (Rao, 2021). Queen Afua a holistic health activist has been working in the African American community for over 30 years educating women about how trauma of racialized colonialism can be held in their bodies and encouraging a vegan diet to support healing instead of consuming “a standard American diet,” that not only numbs emotions but also leads to more health issues (Afua, 2021). The anthology of stories collected by Breeze (2010) from black women discusses topics such as how veganism has been a way for them to take 51 control of their health and heal their bodies minds and souls as well as be a part of a process of decolonizing their bodies from racialized ways of eating and being. Based on the literature above, veganism has been used for individual healing, and taking a stand against societal oppressions. Next critical theory can provide a lens for understanding the mechanisms of a vegan lifestyle that may support macro level changes to oppression and healing. Critical Theory Critical theory has its history in Marxism and the Frankfurt School in Germany that included many generations of philosophers and scholars whose work and ideas fell under the umbrella of critiquing society and societal problems by looking at the power structures and mechanisms (Garlitz & Zompetti, 2021). It originally critiqued classism, economics, and social orders but scholars such as Bell Hooks, Angela Davis, and Pablo Freire expanded upon these ideas to include a discussion of sexism and race and how this effected oppression and power (Davis, 1983; Salas et al., 2010). Critical theory posits that an understanding of the power components within social systems can lead individuals to understand a need for change and take action towards that change to lead to self and collective empowerment (Salas et al., 2010). Critical theory and particularly the work of Freire (2008) can help to theoretically frame why veganism may lead IPV survivors to greater empowerment. Freire (2008) articulates that critical consciousness is the process of becoming aware of the oppressions in the social, political, and economic environments that surround someone. Then by acting on that awareness the oppressed can find freedom (Freire, 2008). Using a phenomenological approach McDonald (2000) explored the psychological process people go through to learn about and begin a vegan lifestyle by interviewing 12 vegans. The process of becoming a vegan involved confronting oppressions of people and animals and deciding to take different action that does not support this oppression 52 which aligns with Freire’s concept of critical consciousness of systems of oppression and taking action by adapting a vegan lifestyle. Costa et al. (2019) also described the psychosocial healing process of becoming and maintaining a vegan lifestyle among a sample of vegan Australian women and found a similar process that aligns with critical consciousness building. Participants reported their change and behavior was motivated by a process of becoming aware of animal maltreatment as well as a healthier way to eat which led them to greater empathy for themselves and the world. They then experienced positive changes in their health, interpersonal relationships, and their ability for self-care of body and mind (Costa et al, 2019). This process has not been explored with vegans who are also healing from IPV, but the critical consciousness groups supporting women in understanding systemic sexism and oppression and encouraging action steps to address structural change have been a big part of the history of the feminist and domestic violence movements (Hooks, 2000). A critical theory theoretical framework may explain how a vegan lifestyle could holistically support healing and empowerment of survivors by supporting awareness of oppressions against them as well as animals and providing an action they can take to help support micro and macro healing. Veganism Potential for Survivor Holistic Healing As reviewed in the literature traditional and holistic interventions have sought to support individual healing for survivors of IPV. There is a lack of knowledge around interventions that may be able to address both micro and macro aspects of healing. Veganism may be a lifestyle with the potential to support healing on the individual and macro levels by supporting healing on the body, mind, and spiritual levels. Holism (Micozzi, 2015) and I-BMS social work theory (Lee et al., 2018) previously described provide the theoretical support for focusing on holistic healing that acknowledges healing of the body, mind, and spirit of survivors. 53 Although research has not been conducted with survivors on the effects of a vegan diet on BMS healing, other populations have found benefits in this way from a vegan lifestyle. On the individual level, a vegan and plant-based diet has been shown to have positive benefits on physical health (Le & Sabaté, 2014; Kahleova et al., 2017). Plant-based diets have been shown in randomized clinical trials and observational studies to support protection against cardiovascular disease (Kahleova et al., 2017). Plant based diets also reduce the risk of developing metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes by about one half and can be effective for weight control, support metabolic and cardiovascular benefits such as reversing atherosclerosis and decreasing blood lipids and blood pressure (Kahleova et al., 2017). Le and Sabaté (2014) compared non-vegetarian diets to vegetarian dietary patterns (i.e., vegan and lacto-ovo-vegetarian) for various health outcomes from three prospective cohorts of Seventh Day Adventist in the US and Canada (n=153,332). The Seventh Day Adventist religious denomination encourages a vegetarian diet but also has diverse eating habits among its members making it an ideal group to be able to compare different types of diets. Authors found that vegetarian diets provided protection against cardiovascular diseases, cardiometabolic risk factors, some cancers and total mortality and that compared to lacto-ovo-vegetarian diets, vegan diets seem to offer additional protection for obesity, hypertension, type-2 diabetes, and cardiovascular mortality (Le & Sabaté, 2014). There is enough solid research that a plant based diet (PBD) (“a regimen that encourages whole, plant- based foods and discourages meats, dairy products and eggs as well as all refined and processed foods”) (Rinaldi et al., 2016, p. 472) can prevent type-2 diabetes as well as its ability to improve glycemic control and reduce the risk of complications for those that have this condition that the Canadian Diabetes Association includes PBDs as a recommended form of medical nutrition. The American College of Lifestyle Medicine, American Association of Clinical Endocrinology, and 54 the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics also recommend a plant-based diet for individuals with type 2 diabetes (McCarthy, 2022). Some studies look at the benefits related to a particular type of veganism, whole-food plant- based (WFPB) diet that is defined as consisting of “mainly or entirely of vegetables, whole grains, legumes, fruits, nuts and seeds, and contains little or no foods derived from animals” (Pye et al., 2021, p. 1). One RCT with 65 participants from New Zealand found that a WFPB diet group had significant improvements in their body mass index (BMI) compared with the control group at 6 month and greater weight loss continued when measured at 12 months (Wright et al., 2017). Recent studies show that diets based on plant-based foods have been associated with lower risk and severity of COVID-19 (Merino et al., 2021). The World Health Organization (WHO) classified processed meats as a Group 1 carcinogen and red meats as a Group 2 carcinogen, therefore a vegan diet that excludes these products may reduce the risk of cancer associated with diet (WHO, 2015). Veganism has also been associated with positive mental health benefits such as decreased mental health symptomology, increased wellbeing, and life satisfaction. When investigating mood and factors that impact mood between vegans, vegetarians, and omnivores using an online sample of 620 adults, vegans reported less stress and anxiety than omnivores (Beezhold et al., 2015). Females that followed a vegan diet and lower intake of sweets daily had less stress. Although there are variations in a vegan diet, a healthy plant-based diet would consist of a large majority of fruits and vegetables (Clem & Barthel, 2021). Therefore, it is encouraging that longitudinal data from the UK, Australia, and Canada found that those that ate fruits and vegetables more frequently and in greater quantities reported higher mental well-being, increased happiness, life satisfaction, and improved mood (Ocean et al., 2019; McMartin et al., 2013). For 55 example, the Canadian Community Health Survey, a cross sectional survey conducted in five waves over a nine-year period (n=296,121) showed that in an estimate over all five waves, those who had a higher intake of fruits and vegetables had significantly lower odds of depression and anxiety and lower odds of having distress than those who had lower intakes of fruits and vegetables (McMartin et al., 2013). Two studies have looked at the benefits of a worksite vegan nutrition program at corporate sites of major US insurance company (Agarwal et al., 2015; Katcher et al., 2010). Katcher et al. (2010) implemented and tested the program with 113 employees to see its effect on work productivity and health related quality of life. Participants were placed in a group to learn about and be supported to follow a low-fat vegan diet or placed in a control group that did not receive any dietary instruction. When these groups were compared after 22 weeks, the vegan group reported improvement in their overall health, mental health, physical functioning, vitality, an increase in diet satisfaction, and improved productivity at work and on completing daily tasks. In 2015, Agarwal et al. used the same protocol but was exploring the impact of the plant-based protocol on anxiety, depression, and work productivity with 292 employees. Participants reported a statistically significant reduction in anxiety and depression after taking part in an 18- week vegan protocol (Agarwal et al., 2015). Rossa-Roccor et al. (2021) did not find as strong of positive results as the later studies, but in a cross-sectional study assessing the association between dietary intake and mental health and wellbeing, they found that no association was found between plant-based diet preference and the mental health measures. Whereas they found a significant positive association between those that identified as junk food eaters, depression, and anxiety suggesting that type of unhealthy diet does have a different impact on mental health. 56 Although the empirical literature to support the connection between veganism and spiritual health and healing is slim, it is a topic that has been discussed widely among present and past yogic and spiritual communities (Hardin, 2017; Yanklowitz, 2015). From Pythagoras in Greece, Old Testament prophets, to Buddha and early Christian followers the importance of the attitudes, practices, and beliefs around food and how that relates to spirituality have been discussed with many of the recommended practices discussing not consuming animals at all or for a sacred time (Tuttle, 2016; Virtue & Black, 2013). More recently Waldstein (2016) discusses the importance of following an Afrocentric vegan diet for a group of spirituality followers to ensure they are not inputting chemicals or animal products that are a result of animals being oppressed in their body to support a stronger connection to the divine. In his book The World Peace Diet: Eating for Spiritual Health and Social Harmony, Dr. Tuttle discusses the importance of a vegan diet for spiritual evolution of humans (2016). He outlines the history of why he believes the desensitization that humans have undergone in order to be able to culturally accept the eating of animals has profoundly impacted our ability to connect with one another and nature. A qualitative study that interviewed 32 self-identified current vegans explored the reasons for becoming vegan, what motivated vegans to maintain this diet, and the interpersonal and intrapersonal impact of the diet (Hirschler, 2011). Participants reported they felt eating a vegan diet helped them to be more in alignment with their values and that this lifestyle led to greater spiritual well-being in which they had greater connection with themselves and nature (Hirschler, 2011). An online survey of 1,135 self-reported vegans looking at the motivations of becoming vegan found that 4.1% were motivated by spiritual reasons (Braunsberger & Flamm, 2019). Although the above studies did not focus specifically on survivors of IPV, with one in four women being survivors likely some of the participants in the general populations may have been 57 survivors and be receiving some of the benefits. However, research is needed specifically to see if these benefits do directly relate to survivors who engage in a vegan lifestyle. The BMS benefits of a plant-based diet may also transfer well to survivors since the process of healing from IPV has been reported as multidimensional and occurring on many levels (Farrell, 1996; Flasch et al., 2017), and the research reviewed above shows BMS benefits of veganism. Therefore pointing to the potential holistic benefit of veganism for survivors. Social and Species Justices Connection with Veganism In addition to the potential body, mind, spirit benefits of veganism, it is a way to support social justice issues including environmental justice, species justice, and immigrant and human rights. Since the oppressions of animals and women are interlocked on a structural macro level as previously discussed (Adams,2019; Fitzgerald & Pellows, 2014), healing for survivors may be supported by veganism due to its ability to address not only micro but macro level oppressions that will be outlines in this section. What we choose to eat has a direct impact on the environment and evidence supports that a vegan diet can have a beneficial effect on the environment (Clark et al., 2019). Animal agriculture has taken up over 80% of the Amazon jungle (Nepstad, 2008), livestock alone contribute to 56–58% of agriculture’s greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) (Aleksandrowicz & Green, 2016), and it takes more than 2,500 gallons of water to produce one pound of beef. Choosing veganism can help to cut down on destruction of the Amazon and greenhouse gases as well as reserve important resources such as water. A systematical review looking at changes in GHG emissions, land use, and water use found a vegan diet had the greatest median reduction in emissions (Aleksandrowicz & Green, 2016), with another study showing that cows, goats, and sheep have the highest negative impact on the environment. This was followed by pork, poultry, dairy, eggs and fisheries, with plant-based 58 foods having the lowest impact (Poore & Nemecek, 2018). Species and animal rights are directly connected with veganism. Even animal advocates who once created protests at slaughterhouses have realized the most effective way to support animal liberation is by choosing a vegan diet (Ball et al., 1998). This is because of a variety of reasons one being that choosing to eat plant based can decrease the number of animals that have to die for human consumption which is estimated to be 60 billion land animals and over a trillion marine animals that are used and killed for humans to eat each year (Vegan Society, 2022). In addition to the actual lives that are lost, it has been well documented since the 1970’s (Singer, 1975) that animals in factory farming settings are treated with cruel and unsafe practices. Examples include confinement so extreme in some cases they are unable to move, tortious and painful practices while alive and in their killing, and genetic manipulation (The Humane League, 2021). Female cows, pigs, chickens, sheep, and others are exploited in different ways than male animals due to of their reproductive abilities (Brown, 2006). For example, female cows are repeatedly impregnated by artificial insemination and have their babies taken from them after given birth all in the effort to increase milk production for the dairy industry (Jacobs, 2020). Human and immigrant rights are often exploited in the process of killing animals through animal agriculture and a vegan lifestyle can promote humane treatment of humans as well. There is a strong connection between animal agriculture and racial discrimination as factory farms are more likely to be near low-income minority communities (Wilson, 2002). This has major human rights implications as these farms produce toxic gases that can cause serious illnesses to a population that does not have the resources to fight for their rights. Workers at these farms are subjected to unfair and hazardous work conditions that lead to illness and disease as well as injuries on the job. Workers have been shown to have high rates of PTSD due to the horrific acts 59 they are a part of, and criminologists have found that high community slaughterhouse employment levels were associated with increases in total arrest rates for violent crimes such as rape and sexual assault compared to other industries (Fitzgerald et al., 2009). This is also an immigrant rights issue with very high numbers of immigrants being employed in these industries, many of whom do not have other options due to their legal status (Cappiello, 2017). A vegan diet takes away the need for the exploitive animal industry that is currently infringing upon species and human rights daily. In addition, veganism may be a way to decrease the rising levels of poverty with the growing human population. Research points out that at our current rate of food production 820 million people have insufficient food and many more are consuming low micronutrient diets that are leading to diet related diseases (Willet et al., 2019). To be able to support the population by 2050, the EAT-Lancet Commission, made up of 19 commissioners from 16 countries with expertise in agriculture and sustainability, report a more than 50% reduction in global consumption of unhealthy foods, such as red meat and sugar, and a greater than 100% increase in consumption of healthy foods, such as nuts, fruits, vegetables, and legumes are needed (Willet et al., 2019). A vegan diet could play a key role in keeping up with the growing population and stopping more people from starvation and death. For all these reasons veganism supports the advancement of social justice for animal, environmental, and human rights. Since survivors have identified that connection with others and the community and making and impact on their surroundings is connected with the healing process from IPV (D’Amore et al., 2021; Flasch et al., 2017; Senter & Caldwell, 2002; Sinko et al., 2021), for some survivors, the social justice benefits of veganism may provide them with a feeling of being more connected and supportive of animals and humans and support them in this aspect of their healing process. 60 Veganism’s Potential to Empower Oppressed Groups In addition to individual and social justice impact of veganism, it may be a way for oppressed groups to take action on oppressions that are interlocking. When thinking about survivor healing, it is important to recognize the many ways in which power has been taken from survivors on a micro and macro level from their partners, and systems of oppression in society (Stark, 2007). Liberatory and radical social work frameworks discuss the importance of addressing system macro level oppressions when working with clients to create lasting change and healing (Bussey et al., 2021; Kant, 2015; Pyles, 2020). Other fields such as psychology have also brought up similar ideas cautioning that interventions that focus purely on the individual healing are based in Western/Eurocentric frameworks and have the danger of replicating oppressive power dynamics (Goodman, 2015). They further suggest that only by acknowledging the systemic factors of oppression within a client’s life can liberatory healing take place. In order to acknowledge the importance of multiple oppressions in survivor healing, we must first understand how oppressions are interlocking. Survivors are under multiple systems of oppression that fall under the metasystem of a “powerarchy” (Joy, 2019, p. 23). For example, in the case of IPV, women experience abuse and oppression from their partners and this behavior is supported by multiple systems of oppression including patriarchy (Hunnicutt, 2009). Other systems of oppression that meet the criteria of a powerarchy include examples such as capitalism, racism, classism, ableism, speciesism, and anthropocentrism. Speciesism and anthropocentricism the belief that humans are at the center of everything, and their experience is privileged above non- human animals and nature has been used as a justification for the mistreatment of nature and animals (Probyn-Rapsey, 2018). 61 Interlocking Oppressions Some empirical literature exists that supports the idea of interlocking oppressions. The strongest evidence is found showing the links and high level of coexistence of abuse of animals and children (Becker & French, 2004; DeViney et al., 1983), as well as abuse of animals and women (Ascione, 1999; Cleary et al., 2021; Fitzgerald 2005; Flynn 2000a, 2000b). Women survivors have reported noticing similarities in how their abuser mistreats them, their children, and pets (Fitzgerald, 2007). The abuse of pets has been shown to be a power and control tactic used to control IPV victims and may be motivated by jealousy of the victim’s relationship with the companion animal (Fitzgerald 2005; Flynn 2000a, 2000b). A systematic review of 35 studies showed the prevalence being high ranging from 21-89% of animal abuse in IPV households (Cleary et al., 2021). Animals have been found to be a great emotional support for survivors even to the point of buffer their desire to kill themselves and a physical support when they intervene to try and protect them from the abuse (Fitzgerald, 2007). Due to this strong bond that survivors feel with their pets, it is common for them to delay leaving a relationship for fear their pet will not be safe as many times they are not allowed in shelter facilities (Cleary et al., 2021; Fitzgerald 2005; Flynn 2000a, 2000b). Children who are exposed to IPV can also be exposed to animal cruelty (AC), and those exposed to both exhibit greater anxiety and depression symptoms than those who are exposed to IPV alone (Hawkins et al., 2019). A positive close relationship between pets’ and children can moderate the relationship between IPV and negative emotional traits such as callous- unemotional that can result from children’s exposure to IPV and AC and buffer the association between IPV and both internalizing problems and posttraumatic stress symptoms (Hawkins et al., 2019; Murphy et al. 2021). This literature exhibits not only the connection between how animals, 62 women and children are abused but the importance of a strong positive connection with a companion animal being imperative in the coping and process of abuse. There may be a connection between one’s ability to support one area of social justice and connect with other areas. A telephone survey conducted with 501 adults in Ohio explored if those who supported animal rights also were more likely to support other social justice issues (Nibert, 2003). Animal rights supporters were significantly less likely to imagine a situation where rape would be the fault of the victim, significantly more likely to support the ability of a woman to obtain an abortion and more likely than non-supporters to consider domestic violence a serious issue. Animal rights supporters were also more supportive of persons who are homosexual, and persons of color. This could provide preliminary evidence that supporting animal rights also may encourage recognition and support of other types of social justice issues. Literature Review Summary IPV is a global health crisis that has devastating consequences to the body, mind, and sprit of women survivors (Black et al., 2011; Coker et al., 2002; Senter & Caldwell, 2002). Traditional, empowerment, and holistic interventions have sought to support survivors in the healing process (Arroyo et al., 2015; Eckhardt et al., 2013; Franzblau et al., 2008). The literature exhibits these interventions have fallen short in taking a multidimensional approach that address micro and macro levels of healing. The vegan lifestyle may be supportive of healing of survivors on the micro and macro level based on empirical evidence that it has supported BMS healing of other populations (Agarwal et al., 2015; Hirschler, 2011) as well as the potential for support of macro level changes on the levels of social, species, and political justice (Nepstad,2008; Wilson, 2002). I-BMS social work theory (Lee et al., 2018), Ecofeminism (Adams, 2019; Hunnicutt, 2020), Total Liberation theory (Pellow & Brehm, 2015), and critical theory (Freire, 2008), 63 provide a theoretical framework to support the potential connection between animal abuse and abuse of women and the use of veganism as a source of healing support to freedom from interlocking oppressions on a micro and macro level. To determine the potential micro and macro level benefits of veganism on healing for survivors more research is needed to understand the lived experiences of vegan IPV survivors, and the role veganism may play. In addition to filling a gap in the research, my own professional, and personal experiences informed this research as I found a lack of holistic interventions for survivors and a void of understanding of how to treat vegan survivors of IPV. This is explored more in depth in the reflexivity statement in the methods section to follow. To date, no research studies focus on the lived experiences of IPV survivors that are vegan. Therefore, a qualitative approach, specifically interpretive phenomenological is best suited for the topic chosen as it is a topic that little information is known, and the goal is to gain deeper insight into what it means to be a vegan IPV survivor (Padgett, 2017). This study attempts to provide deeper insight and understanding of the lived experiences of this population with particular focus on the potential healing and empowerment benefits of a vegan lifestyle. This study hopes to provide a more comprehensive picture of the experiences of healing and empowerment for survivors through veganism with potential implications for the future use of veganism as a support to the holistic healing process. Purpose Statement The purpose of this interpretive/hermeneutic qualitative phenomenological study is to illuminate the experiences of women IPV survivors who identify as vegans. By interviewing women IPV survivors in the US, I will describe the phenomenon of healing and empowerment and what if any impact veganism plays on their experiences. As a result of this study social 64 workers and other helping professionals can have a better understanding of the experiences of vegan women who are IPV survivors and the potential impact of veganism on holistic healing and empowerment. The primary aim of the proposed study is to gain a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of women vegan IPV survivors by exploring two overarching and interconnected phenomenological research questions: 1) What are the lived experiences of women IPV survivors who are vegan? 2) What role does veganism play in the phenomenon of healing and empowerment for women IPV survivors? 65 METHODS Rationale for and Description of Research Method - Phenomenology Qualitative research encompasses many different methods and approaches that seek to explore the natural world and social life (Saldana, 2011). Phenomenology is one qualitative approach that explores the lived experiences of individuals experiencing a shared phenomenon (Peoples, 2021). Phenomenology is useful in social and health science when little is known about a specific phenomenon and the goal is to gain an in depth understanding of participants lived experiences with these phenomena (Creswell & Poth, 2018, van Manen, 1990). Knowing deeper information about common human experiences can often be used to inform practice and policy for helping professionals such as social workers and therapists as well as policy makers (Creswell & Poth, 2018). In this exploratory dissertation study, I utilize a qualitative, interpretive/hermeneutic phenomenological research design to explore vegan IPV survivors lived experience and potential healing and empowerment benefits of a vegan lifestyle, a phenomenon that has not yet been explored with this population. This chapter begins with a brief overview of phenomenology, and the rationale for using the style of hermeneutic phenomenological in this dissertation. Next, I discuss my positionality and reflexive practice, elucidating how my own preunderstandings of the phenomenon of being a vegan IPV survivor and clinical social worker influenced the study from its inception and plan for data collection and interpretation of the data. I will then discuss detailed information on the study’s design and implementation. The chapter will end with a discussion of the steps taken to ensure trustworthiness and scientific rigor, and ethical considerations. 66 What is Phenomenology? Phenomenology finds its roots in philosophical traditions that have developed over centuries and was originally understood as “a radical, anti-traditional style of philosophizing, which emphasizes the attempt to get to the truth of the matters” (p. 4), by describing a phenomenon from the sense of how the experiencer is experiencing the phenomena through their consciousness in the moment (Moran, 2000). A lived experience “involves our immediate, pre- reflective consciousness of life (van Manen, 1990, p. 35). Phenomenology was radical because it was developed as a rejection of the 19th century ideas based in Neo-Kantian positivist traditions that were looking for objective truths and instead emphasized a refusal of the subject-object dichotomy (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Moran, 2000). Phenomenology called attention to aspects of experience and human consciousness that were being ignored with empirical approaches such as the experience of the body and the importance of the holistic view of the environment around the experience (Moran, 2000). Although many philosophers worked to develop ideas related to phenomenology two main theoretical frameworks in which most phenomenological methods are rooted come from Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger (Peoples, 2021). Husserlian Phenomenology Philosopher Husserl (1859-1938) is considered the founder of twentieth-century phenomenological philosophy and transcendental and descriptive phenomenological methods are based on his ideas (Macann, 1993). Husserl philosophized that knowledge be sought by information and observation entering one’s consciousness and through intuition and self- reflection understanding the meaning and pure essence of the phenomena (Moustakas, 1994). He explained that the pure essence could not be fully realized because of what he called the horizon or the present experience which can never truly be taken away to give an outside 67 understanding of a phenomenon. To deal with this issue he introduced the process of phenomenological reduction in which bracketing or epoché is used that involves suspending of judgements to be able to focus on the analysis of experience more purely (Macann, 1993). One’s intentionality or awareness of something could become clearer by thinking about thinking which leads to naming the experience and then organizing information into general categories to understand (Peoples, 2021). He believed that phenomenological inquiry should not be informed by previous theory or scientific evidence but be based on inner evidence of what appears in the consciousness in the moment (Neubauer et al., 2019). In the transcendental phenomenology approach the researcher approaches the phenomenon with an open mind not influenced by previous knowledge or their own biases and then from this place can use intuition to determine shared essences of a shared experience of individuals (Neubauer et al., 2019). Interpretive/Hermeneutical Phenomenology Martin Heidegger was a student of Husserl and he drew from some of his teacher’s ideas as well as his own to create a hermeneutic philosophy (Peoples, 2021). Whereas Husserl’s approach was more focused on description, hermeneutical phenomenology involves interpretation of experiences and a phenomenon through an individual’s lifeworld (Neubauer et al., 2019). Heidegger thought the focus of phenomenological inquiry should be looking at the relationship between and individual and their lifeworld which included and understanding that realities are influenced by the world in which they are lived, and consciousness is influenced by one’s culture and individual history (Lopez & Willis, 2004). Hermeneutical phenomenology seeks to understand individuals’ experiences in their daily lives and how their pre-conscious lifeworld influences this experience (Neubauer et al., 2019). He believed it was not possible to “bracket off” or remove one’s own experience from a phenomenon that one was looking at 68 because you are experiencing the world with the others and cannot separate yourself from being in the world (Peoples, 2021). His solution was a philosophy of understanding and interpretation called the hermeneutic circle in which we enter into interpretation with preconceived biases and judgements that begin to be revised in the process of understanding (Peoples, 2021). This philosophy can be used in data analysis in an iterative spiral process in which the researcher seeks an understanding how the parts of the data influence the understanding of the whole picture of the phenomenon, and likewise how an understanding of the whole influences the interpretation of the parts (Neubauer et al., 2019). Rationale for the Use of Interpretive Phenomenology When considering methodological approaches to explore the topic of the potential impact of a vegan lifestyle for IPV survivors, a phenomenological approach appeared to be the best fit since this was a new topic in which I needed a method that could allow me to dive deep into the essence of the lived experiences of participants to understand the phenomena. Creswell and Poth (2018) explain defining features across most types of phenological studies include: study of a clearly defined phenomenon; exploring the phenomenon with a heterogenous group that have all experienced the phenomenon; usually involves interviews; has an end goal or discussing the “essence” of the experience for the individuals that looks at what and how they experienced the phenomenon. The branch of hermeneutic/ interpretive phenomenology is the best fit for this dissertation as it aligns most closely with the other theoretical approaches and conceptualization of this study and will enable the best methods to deeper the understanding of the topic of interest. Since I used other theories to inform my research methods and questions, the interpretive approach is best as it enables a researcher to have other theories besides the philosophical theories of 69 phenomenology which the transcendental approach does not support (van Manen, 1990). Heuristics falls under theoretical holism science that involves interpretation and a translation of information, the goal not to find an objective truth but to search of a holistic interpretation (Deyfus, 1980). This aligns very well with the use of the holistic and I-BMS social work framing of this project that seeks to understand the female IPV survivor experience from the body, mind, and spirit levels (Lee et al., 2018; Micozzi, 2015). Merleau-Ponty a French philosopher discussed at length the importance of the body and embodiment to one’s understanding of the world and the importance to phenomenological description (Tuffour, 2017). The understanding interpretive phenomenology has of how the environment plays a key role in how individuals experience a phenomenon aligns with the key concepts of social work social systems theory (Friedman & Allen, 2011). The other theories used for this dissertation ecofeminism (Hunnicutt, 2020), total liberation theory (Pellow & Brehm, 2015), and critical theory (Freire, 2018), are used to give a deeper understanding to what oppressive systemic factors may be affecting the lived experiences of vegan IPV survivors and also work well with the understanding phenomenology provides of the many factors that could be affecting one’s experience of a phenomenon. In addition, I have had my own personal experiences with the phenomena of interest in this study and phenomenology recognizes that neutrality cannot be mastered in a research project and provides ways in which researchers can still explore a phenomenon in which they have had personal experience. Role of the Researcher and Reflexivity Interpretive qualitative approaches recognize that the researcher cannot take a “value free” stance to research and their biases and previous experiences will have an influence on many aspects of the project such as framing, data collection, and interpretation (Padgett, 2017). 70 Interpretive phenomenological further assumes that research is a collaborative meaning making process (van Manen, 1990). Relationship phenomenologists detail the joint process of meaning making by discussing how “data does not ‘speak for itself’ but is born within the between of the researcher/co-researcher encounter where they intermingle in “pre-analytic participation” (Merleau-Ponty, 1964/1968, as stated by Finlay, 2009, p. 2). With the researcher playing such an integrative role, reflexivity becomes even more paramount. Reflectivity and reflexivity are important to the process of interpretive phenomenology. Reflection involves the researcher examining themselves and aspects such as their perspectives, and experiences to understand who and the way that they are (Crowther & Thomson, 2020). As the researcher reflects on their own experiences with the phenomenon this is not to take away any focus from the participants experience, but to join them and further embody the pathic knowing of “imaginatively placing oneself in someone else’s shoes” (Manen, 2007). Reflexivity is “our capacity to reflect on how the influences e.g., political, social, cultural, gender, sexuality, class, ethnicity,” impact our research (Crowther & Thomson, 2020, p. 3). Although biases and preunderstandings cannot be separated fully from the research context, it is important they are stated and understood through a reflexive process of self-examination throughout all stages of the dissertation (Peoples, 2021). Although salient throughout, it is important for phenomenological researchers to understand what part of their “humanness” led them to the phenomenon from the start of the project (Finlay, 2002). To display my preunderstandings from the conception of this dissertation I will discuss my social positioning and preexisting knowledge base personally and professionally in relationship to the phenomenon of living a vegan lifestyle as a female IPV survivor. 71 I first became aware of veganism and a vegan lifestyle when I was seeking natural and holistic ways of healing during and after the ending of an abusive relationship with an ex- husband. During my seven-year relationship with him, I was working as a clinical social worker so had access to resources and professional connections that not only helped me be aware of the abuse, but supported me as a survivor in my recovery journey. I began to find personally that the traditional services that insurance covered such as talk therapy and medication were not enough to support my own holistic healing. Therefore, I sought healing in natural ways which led me to alternative medicinal approaches that included yoga and a vegan lifestyle. I am a middle-class, heterosexual, cisgender woman that grew up speaking English only but also am bilingual in Spanish from studying and living and practicing social work in Mexico and Guatemala. Therefore, at the time I was beginning a vegan lifestyle as a part of my own survivor healing, I was also providing therapy to women in Texas, many of whom were currently in or fleeing abusive relationships. Due to their non-documented status, they often did not have private insurance and could only receive services at federally qualified health centers at which I was working. I noticed in my clients that the counseling and medical care they received were helpful in their healing process but similar to my experience, was not enough to support them in the healing journey from surviving to a state of thriving. Since these clients did not have the resources nor social support to add more holistic methods of healing to their lives, I decided to seek professional training in the holistic methods that had been supporting me to bring to my clients. I completed training as a yoga instructor with an emphasis on psychotherapeutic yoga and obtained a certification as a Vegan Lifestyle Coach and Educator. As I began to use my new holistic techniques with clients, they were receptive and found to be beneficial, but I received push back from the agencies I worked for due to insurance not covering techniques that were not 72 research based. I began to look at the research around holistic methods of healing for IPV survivors and realized a need for more research to determine if these methods were helpful and to prove to agencies and insurance companies if they were, that they needed to be covered so clients could access them. As a part of the vegan community, I also began to run across other survivors of IPV who were vegans and talked about various healing benefits of a vegan lifestyle in their own recovery such as how it benefited their health, helped them feel part of a greater purpose, and even opened their eyes to structural oppressions. I could not however find any research that explained or took an in depth look on the impact of a vegan lifestyle for survivors. I wanted to understand what about the vegan lifestyle might have a healing effect on lives of female IPV survivors and hoped if there was an impact, this information may be able to support policy and practice changes. My own healing journey as an IPV survivor, as well as my interest as a clinical social worker in the holistic healing of my clients and being a part of the global vegan community taken together formed the base of my preunderstandings, conceptualization, and development of this dissertation. As I engaged in the hermeneutic circle and all other areas of this research, I was aware of this background information and how it related to my viewpoint as I entered the experience of being in the research with research participants as well as the impact it could have on my interpretations of data and information received (Crowther & Thomson, 2020). Being a survivor and vegan, myself impacted the way the questions were asked, the connection with the participants’, and the lens in which I analyzed the data through. 73 Participants/Sampling Plan To achieve my study aims, I recruited a purposive sample of female identified vegan survivors of IPV. I posted the explanation of the project on Facebook groups that had vegan members since that population is smaller than those that have experienced IPV (i.e. Vegan Lansing, Vegan for Women) and I was looking for survivors that were not actively in an IPV situation. To identify survivors, I explained what domestic violence and intimate partner violence meant in relation to this study as it may have had different meanings depending on survivors’ background and experience. Participants were offered a $30 electronic Amazon gift card as a small incentive to participate and partially compensate for their time (Padgett, 2018). I contacted a professional network I am a part of that has graduates from the Mainstreet Vegan Academy where I obtained my Vegan Lifestyle Coach and Educator Certification. This group posted the study information in their graduate announcements. The information was also shared on one network electronically in Canada. To be included in an interview the survivor had to identify as a survivor of IPV that is not in an active IPV situation. In addition, they needed to identify as a current vegan, speak English, identify as a woman, and have the capacity to take part in a zoom interview. Although an exact number is not given, it has been previously recommended that phenomenological studies need between 3-12 participants to be able to gain an in depth understanding of the population of interests lived experiences (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Guest et al., 2006). Therefore, this study sought to recruit up to 12-15 participants and 15 took part. Data Collection Once Michigan State University’s Internal Review Board approval was obtained and survivors recruited, they were notified of potential benefits and risks and provided verbal consent to participate since all interactions took place electronically. I conducted all 15 interviews using 74 a semi structured interview questionnaire electronically using MSU Zoom technology. The Zoom interviews were conducted in August and September of 2023. The questionnaire was developed with feedback from my dissertation committee and consisted of a series of open- ended questions following the questioning route proposed by Kreuger and Casey (2009). See Appendix A for the interview guide. Questions were created that go under each of the five sections of the route that includes opening and introductory questions, followed by transition questions that flow into the key questions that directly asked about the constructs of interest. Ending questions followed with probes added throughout each step to explore topics deeper. The semi structured format was used as a guide within a participant centered approach. Since this project took place virtually due to the need to connect with vegan survivors that are in various locations, this project was unable to observe the participants outside of the observations made in the interviews. Therefore, the individual interviews were the main method of collecting data. The interviews were digitally recorded via Zoom and transcribed by dedoose transcription. I then looked over the transcription to ensure the accuracy of the digital transcription and make sure it was transcribed accurately word for word. The interview transcripts served as primary data, while field notes and memos were considered to provide context and depth during the analysis process. A personal journal was kept throughout that documented any biases and pre- understandings of the phenomena during data collection and then new understandings of the phenomena during data analysis. Van Manen (2007) discusses the importance of having a “pathically tuned body” that is not only concerned with intellectual knowledge but a metaphysical knowing of what is going on in and around oneself during interviews and throughout the data analysis process. Therefore, traditional methods of transcribing and coding interviews were used as described below, but I intentionally focused also on pathic knowledge of 75 the participant and their surroundings paying attention to representational and “non- representational” data described by Fendler and Smeyers as placing all things on the same plane of importance when it comes to data (2015). Data Analysis Data analysis followed the steps outlined by Peoples (2021) that are also based on the steps described by Giorgi (1985): 1) clean the data, 2) create preliminary meaning units or themes, 3) generate final themes for each interview, 4) create situated narratives that synthesize the themes under each interview and/or survey questions, 5) create general narratives that integrate major themes of participants from the situated narratives, and 6) develop final cohesive general description. In data cleaning (step 1) I listened to the recordings of the transcripts making edits when needed to ensure correctness of translation and taking out unnecessary language that takes away from the meaning (e.g., “um”, “yeah”). I completed this step with caution noticing if the filler words and pauses did matter before removing. In step 2, I read through all the transcripts to get a sense of the whole. Next preliminary “meaning unit” (Giorgi, 1985) or themes were identified that related to the research questions: 1) What are the lived experiences of women IPV survivors who are vegan? and 2) What role, if any, does veganism play in the phenomenon of healing and empowerment for women IPV survivors? A preliminary coding structure was developed by the researcher and a co-coder that also engaged in the above steps with 6 of the transcripts. The co-coder was previously trained on data confidentiality, analysis, and IRB protocol. In order to create this structure, we both coded the 3 transcripts separately and then met to discuss what preliminary themes were beginning to arise. We then met again after coding 3 more to see if the same of different themes were emerging. Step 3 included reading through the preliminary themes and creating final themes as the understanding of the lived 76 experiences of the participants deepened. The co-coder was once again consulted to process my reflections on the final themes. This was done by having another meeting in which we verbally discussed again what similarities and differences we were seeing until we agreed upon a more complete code book. In step 4, a situated narrative was created that condensed each transcript to the themes that had been found during coding and connected direct quotes with the themes as evidence of the meaning units chosen. In step 5, a general narrative was written that synthesized the lived experiences of the participants and unified them together integrating all major themes. At this point I wrote a narrative of the IPV survivors experiences that included the major themes, and I emailed it to participants to ask for their feedback (Appendix E). This was a form of member checking to ensure that they felt I was truly representing and understanding their experiences. I only heard back from four participants, but those that did respond reported they felt their story was represented by the narrative. I also sent the narrative to the co-coder, and we met one more time to talk about how well they felt this narrative represented the themes they had found as well as reviewed the final and added themes that had arisen since the final code book. How often each theme was used was indicated by labels “most, many, and some” (Peoples, 2021, p. 61-62). Peoples (2021) explains that most is used when the theme was identified in more than half of the transcripts, many is used to denote when the theme was identified in about half of the transcripts, and some is used to when a theme displayed an important aspect of the phenomena and/or lived experience but was identified in less than half of the transcripts. Finally in step 6, a cohesive general description of the lived experience was created that “at least implicitly” contained all the meaning of the transformed meaning units (Giorgi, 1985, p. 19) Journaling was also used during the above outlined data analysis process to ensure the use of the hermeneutic circle (Neubauer et al., 2019). After each interview I would reflect and jot 77 down any notes or thoughts that had arisen during the interview. This included personal reflexivity thoughts as well as data analysis ideas about themes and categories. Then after the interviews I kept a running journal document in which I would journal whenever personal thoughts and/or data analysis thoughts I was trying to make sense of came to the forefront of my mind. Distractions and biases did arise throughout the process and by journaling I had a place to document these so that I could concentrate on the data. Through reflection on my fore- knowing the goal was to replace these conceptions with more fitting ones in line with the knowledge from the data (Gadamer, 1975). Through the process of revision of preconceptions, new meaning was created (Gadamer, 1975). Trustworthiness Creswell (2013) recommends at least two strategies to increase the trustworthiness of the data. In this dissertation five strategies were utilized: peer support, triangulation, reflexivity, member checking, and maintaining an audit trail. Peer support was provided by dissertation committee members. This included regular meetings with my chair as well as other committee members to ensure my progress in the process and discuss any ethical or other issues that arose. Creswell and Poth (2018) suggest using triangulation in which other researchers analyze the data using the same research protocol to provide a more diverse understanding of the data. This is why I chose to use a co-coder in this process. It was also very important since I was so close to the subject to have another perspective to make sure I was doing a good job noticing any of my biases that were arising. I engaged in reflexivity by reflecting on my own internal biases individually and with my co-coder at several points in the process. This included the journaling described above by me and the co-coder. Member checking was used by reviewing what I thought I heard from the participants and checking to see if this reflected the meaning the 78 participants were trying to convey after the first interviews. In addition, the participants got the chance for providing feedback to the narrative emailed to them described above. An audit trail was created verbally and in writing which I wrote and discussed with my chair and committee the decisions made in the research process (Padgett, 2017, p. 220) to increase transparency. Ethical Considerations This dissertation study was approved by the Michigan State University’s Institutional Review Board. I obtained verbal informed consent from all study participants prior to the Zoom interviews. They received a copy of the consent via email, and I kept record of verbal consent since all interactions took place virtually. The consent form explained the risks associated with the research including the possibility of experiencing emotional distress, given the personal and sensitive nature of the subject matter we explored. To mitigate this risk, I created a list of IPV resources that could be available to participants if needed (Appendix C). Also, part of the inclusion criteria was that participants were not in active IPV situations. This was to ensure their safety as interviews on this topic while in an active IPV situation may have put them at risk physically and emotionally. I would not have wanted to tax them anymore to think about their journey until they have had some time not in the IPV situation. To ensure the participants understood the process and felt comfortable, before each interview, I explained again why we were meeting, asked if they had any questions, and let them know at any point they could choose to not respond to questions or end the interview for any reason. I encouraged them to let me know if they needed anything else to feel more comfortable. 79 FINDINGS This study aimed to gain an in-depth understanding of the lived experiences of women vegan IPV survivors with particular focus on the potential healing and empowerment benefits of a vegan lifestyle. The chapter begins with a description of the sample of women including demographics. Next the general narratives and themes will be discussed. When analyzing the data, I was looking for the story of the lived experience of the participants. The themes were selected for relevance with the research questions and in line with the ecofeminist, holistic, and critical theory frameworks. The themes fell under three categories, the lived experiences of a woman vegan survivors, the impact of veganism on healing, and the impact of veganism on empowerment. The themes will be presented and organized under these categories with the caveat that these categories are not entirely separate or distinct. All the themes are a part of the lived experiences and often participants would discuss their healing and empowering as happening hand in hand or at the same time. Both unique individual experiences as well as those that the women experienced separately but displayed commonalities of the journeys of women, vegan IPV survivors are presented. Quotation marks indicate words or phrases spoken by participants. Longer quotations will appear apart from the text. Participants will be identified by numbers instead of names to protect anonymity (i.e. P#). Themes and subthemes elucidate the lived experiences of the survivors as well as the impact of veganism on their healing and empowerment. Description of the Sample At the time of the in-person interviews, participants ranged in age from 24 to 57 with the majority self-identified as White except for one Hispanic, one white and Native American and one Asian (see Appendix D). They all identified as women vegans who had been in at least one 80 relationship with IPV with a male as the perpetrator. Two of the women experienced two IPV relationships and one had been in three. All the participants lived in suburban or city environments within the US. All the women had been out of their last IPV relationship at least a year up to 32 years being the longest time since the IPV relationship ended. Over half of the women became vegan during their abusive relationship (8), five after leaving the relationship, and one before the relationship began. The other two had become vegan before they entered an IPV relationship and were not allowed to continue while in their relationships. They both went back to veganism after exiting the relationship. The types of abuse that participants experienced included emotional, sexual, physical, verbal, and stalking. Most explained a combination of multiple types of abuse that they experienced with emotional being the most reported. Three participants reported only experiencing emotional abuse. All participants identified as either an ethical vegan or a whole food plant-based (WFPB) vegan except for one. Ethical vegans chose to be vegan for ethical reasons such as animal rights and WFPB is a type of veganism in which people choose to eat more whole foods that are minimally processed. The number one reason for becoming vegan the participants reported when asked at the beginning of the interview was for the animals, health, and environment and all those reasons were why the participants stayed vegan. Lived Experiences of Vegan Women IPV Survivors Under the category of lived experiences of vegan women survivors are the themes becoming vegan, holistic impact of abuse, and companion animals and abuse. These themes as well as their subthemes help set the stage for understanding the deeper lived experiences related to healing and empowerment. 81 Becoming Vegan To tell the story of the lived experiences of women IPV vegan survivors the first theme that emerged was the process of becoming vegan. This process involved a participant having a past self, raised consciousness, and new identity. Process of Becoming Vegan When explaining what led to them becoming vegan, all the participants had a past self, meaning a time in their life when they weren’t vegan before becoming vegan except for one who was born vegan. Eight of the participants discussed having a realization at a young age that eating animals hurt the animals and had become vegetarians when they realized this. One participant explains, So from a very young age, I always had a really strong compassion for animals from spiders and bugs, little things to large animals. And to the point where I felt different. I had a sensitivity toward animals that made me feel very different. (P15) The other participants found out about the lifestyle as adults due to situations such as researching ways to improve health or talking with others who were already vegan sharing the benefits with them. Many discussed childhood abuses being a part of their story before becoming vegan and how this led to a low self-esteem. One explained, “I still just had very little sense of my own self-worth. You know, having grown up in an abusive childhood situation (P7).” Later in the interview when talking about the IPV, those that had experienced childhood abuse would discuss how that set the stage for them to be more susceptible to abuse in adulthood. After explaining their past self before becoming vegan, they all talked about a point in time or several moments when their consciousness was raised to the suffering of animals and the impact that animal agriculture and eating animal products had on the environment. This awareness led them to making a change in their diet and becoming vegans. P15 gives an example 82 of how for her, the change happened in an instant “when I learned about how agriculture in this country is handled, that was like, that sealed the deal. I went vegan 100% right then.” P14 explains that for her it was more of a process: It took me about like three months to make my full transition. And in that time, you know, I wasn't just researching health things. It led me down animal rights and environmental rights and all of the other really huge impacts that being vegan could be. This process involved many moments of raised consciousness to the harmfulness of a non-vegan lifestyle. After the consciousness was raised, the women made choices to start taking the daily actions to be vegan that included what they ate and other aspects such as making sure they were not wearing clothes or using products that harmed animals. These actions as well as their awareness of the impact they were making on the world around them led to a change in their identity. Explaining that “it's something that's so like it's so much a part of who I am (P3),” and “I feel like it's just part of the definition of me” (P10). Challenges Becoming a vegan brought many positive changes to the lives of the participants that will be discussed below in the section on holistic healing, but two unique challenges arose, facing social stigma and degrading vegan actions as a form of control and abuse. When asked if there were any negatives to being vegan the most talked about challenge was that of social stigma and navigating a non-vegan world socially. Participants talked about how it was hard sometimes to find things to eat when they were out with friends or family and that they felt judged by others who were not vegan. They discussed a spectrum of some people just not understanding to others being aggressive and mean about their choices to eat in a different way. For example, P4 explains “my family, my extended family, they take issue, or they poke fun or they make passive aggressive comments about us being vegan,” when discussing the lifestyle choices of her and her 83 children. All of the women except one emphasized how despite the challenges veganism still had a positive effect on their healing and empowerment. The outlier was P14 who discussed how the social stigma and isolation had a negative effect on her healing and empowerment process. She explains, I feel like going vegan on your own can feel very lonely at times and very segregating. And although you're choosing this life to better yourself or better the planet or whatever it may be, you can be very alone in that route, which can impact healing and it can come with some negative implications and people trying to challenge you, and especially if you're starting off. You may not have all the answers to all of their arguments. So I can see how that can really affect power and healing. A second unique challenge for those that were vegan before and/or during the IPV relationship is how the abuser would forbid or discourage vegan actions or become extremely agitated by the vegan lifestyle which would lead to controlling and abusive actions. The participants who had been vegan before entering the relationship explained how “not eating meat was not an option. And so I ate whatever he ate” (P15). This was very challenging for the participants as they still believed in the ethics of veganism and wanted to eat in this way and felt their partners were blocking a part of them from being expressed. Therefore, they all returned to veganism after exiting the abusive situation and felt this was one of the ways they took control back in their lives. P11 explained about her abuser, He said he couldn't marry me, and he couldn't be with me if I didn't go back to eating meat because I was embarrassing him. And it was weird. So, like an idiot, I went back to eating meat. But as soon as I left him, maybe a day later, I went back to being a vegetarian. And then a couple of years later, I became a vegan. You can hear in these words the desire to live as a vegan never left this participant, even though she was not allowed to express this when she was in the abusive relationship. Other participants would talk about how their partners would get annoyed if they would try and help a stray animal or order vegan things at restaurants. P5 became a vegan during her IPV relationship, and she 84 explains for her abuser it was “like just another thing that I was just another horrible wife. I wasn't even cooking him decent meals anymore, and it was just another reason why he should divorce me.” Other women who were vegan during their relationships talked about how difficult it was to cook and prepare dead animals for their partners once they had become vegan. The social stigma and ways in which vegan actions could be controlled by abusive partners are two unique challenges faced by vegan IPV survivors. Holistic Impact of Abuse After understanding the process and importance of becoming vegan in the lives of the participants the next theme to explain the lived experiences of IPV vegan survivors is the holistic impact the abuse had on them. Two subthemes that are interrelated will be explained. The first is the personal impact and the second is the impact on companion animals and survivor. Personal Impact All participants were impacted in a holistic way and all discussed body, mind, and/or spiritual consequences of the abuse. These impacts were discussed in a way that it was clear they were not affected separately but that the whole person was impacted. Participants often explained the impacts on the body and the mind and how they were connected. P2 explains effects to the mind such as PTSD symptoms and within the same sentence how it affected her physically and in other ways: I would say it's impacted me just like this. PTSD symptoms like really strong startle response, like a lot of physical symptoms, sexual problems and probably just in like every way possible. You know, suicidal ideation, like all of the major bullet points on the lists. P12 explains how she felt trapped in her own body and mind as she states “I was a prisoner and within my own body in my own mind. And I couldn't. I couldn't get out. I didn't know how to get out. And so that was really, really, really, hard.” Even though the abuse was 85 happening outside of their bodies, the women clearly felt the impacts internally on a deep physical and emotional level. The women talk about how the effects on the body impacted the emotions and vice versa. For example, P4 explains how the emotion of shame and the effects of the abuse had an impact on her body showing how the mental aspect of feeling shame related to the bodily reactions: I was full of shame. I was like living in shame. So in between the period of the violent event and becoming vegan, like, I was extremely tired. I was gaining weight for no reason. I was losing my hair like I was very much like having trauma in my body. The trauma these women were experiencing because of IPV was impacting their bodies and minds in many ways. Looking at the impact the abuse had on the spirit the participants used words such as “Oh, it was crushing. It was soul crushing” (P7), and “while I was in it, it totally crushed my spirit. I feel like I had no self-worth. I didn't believe in myself. I didn't think that I could do anything (P3).” The participants felt as if the abuse caused them to lose control of themselves and their choices as P12 explains, “I didn't feel like I was empowered to have a choice or to have a voice.” One participant explained how she started to believe she couldn’t do anything on her own and “had to rebuild myself from the ground up (P3)” when the relationship ended as it had taken her confidence and sense of self efficacy. Not only how they felt about themselves and how they saw themselves was affected but also how they viewed the world. P4 explains how every aspect of her life was affected in addition to her perspective: It's everything. And, you know, you don't even realize how much it impacts all of those aspects of your life. Until you're out of it. You really don't. Just everything. How you see the whole world is just completely affected emotionally. You're just like so stressed. The participants describe IPV as an experience that holistically impacted their whole being including their body, mind, spirit and changed how they viewed the world around them. 86 Impact on Companion Animals and Survivor The second theme under the holistic impact of abuse is the impact that the abuse had on the animals that the survivors loved as well as how this dynamic effected the ability of the survivors to exit the relationship. All the participants who talked about having pets while in their abusive relationship discussed how the abuse not only impacted them, but also their companion animals. They talked about cats and dogs that witnessed the abuse and how this was traumatizing to their animals in addition to themselves. P9 explains a time when her abuser was trying to attack her physically: “I'm screaming at the top of my lungs. My dog was never the same. He was never the same after this. He like didn't bark” (P9). The dog witnessing the abuse had a traumatizing effect on him. The participants acknowledged that the animals are also survivors. The importance of the survivor and companion staying together was highlighted by all participants explaining how it took them longer to leave the abuse due to having a harder time finding a place in which their animals could go with them. The practicality of having to find a place to live that would take animals is detailed by P10 when explaining why she stayed longer in the abuse with her animals. “I think it does make you stay longer because it's harder to be able to get somewhere. And then when you're. Like I had to buy something, right, because nobody was going to rent to me.” Even when trying to stay with family and friends, survivors would run into barriers. P1 explained that she was trying to move back in with her parents, but they did not want her to bring her dog. She felt it was important for her and her dog to be together: I just put my foot down and said, “Look, I need to leave this relationship and I'm bringing my dog with me because it's important that we stay together.” And I think we don't fully understand the impact of like separating survivor and their companion animal. The abuse was experienced by the human and the animal companion and affected them both. The connection with the animal was so important that women stayed in a dangerous situation longer 87 to make sure their animals would be safe and that they could come with them when they exited the relationship. Impact of Veganism on Survivor Healing and Empowerment The first aim of this project was to understand the lived experiences of women IPV survivors who are vegan. The context I have given above about the process of becoming vegan as well as the impact of the abuse helps to set the stage to dive deeper into their lived experiences and the impact that veganism has on their lives of survivors. This section will continue to elucidate the lived experiences of vegan survivors while focusing on the second aim of the project to explore the role of veganism in the phenomenon of healing and empowerment. The themes will be represented under the categories of impact of veganism on healing, and the impact of veganism on empowerment. Holistic Healing Participants explained that the healing journey that they had been on since leaving their abusive relationship was “very lengthy and ongoing” (P13), and an “active process.” A key component to this process was choosing to engage in a vegan lifestyle. Before jumping into the holistic healing impact of veganism I want to mention that survivors did discuss other modes of healing that fell into two categories of traditional, and complimentary and/or alternative. Traditional modes included counseling, meeting with a therapist, case manager, and/or going to group counseling. All participants except one discussed utilizing traditional methods for healing with therapy being the number one. Participants discussed how therapy helped them to process what had happened to them and realize that the abuse was not their fault. It also supported the women in finding themselves again after the abuse. P13 explains the process of finding herself again in therapy as “doing a lot of therapy and really digging into, like, who I am. My goals in 88 life. Going through the process, going back in time and figuring out who I was before the abuse” (P13). Therapy helped participants reconnect with parts of themselves that had been forced to be dormant during the abuse. Complimentary and/or alternative modalities included anything outside of the traditional methods that the participants identified as helping with their healing. Discussed were yoga, breathing, meditation, music, humming, journaling, acupuncture, chiropractic, and exercise. Of the holistic modalities, exercise was the most frequently discussed among the most participants explaining how it had an impact on improving their physical and mental health and helping them to release trauma from their bodies. P2 says she “started exercising in the past two years really, really, regularly. And I never knew the impact that would have on my mental health. The impact that would have on my physical pain. Just like the way I carry myself is different now” (P2). The different forms of exercise discussed were yoga, martial arts, kickboxing, Pilates, cycling, weightlifting, somatic exercises, and hiking. The participants also talked about how these modalities are connected with veganism and go “hand in hand” in helping with the healing process by supporting the body, mind, and spirit: I started doing yoga around the time that I became vegan, so it was kind of coincided together and that was very healing for me as well. And I also go to the gym like 4 or 5 days a week and I'm training to be a yoga teacher as well right now. So that's how the yoga and veganism went hand-in-hand (P6). Many of the modalities worked well with veganism in the healing process as they supported healing on multiple levels like veganism. Although traditional and non-traditional modalities aided in the healing and empowerment process of participants, the focus of the interviews homed in on understanding the potential impact of veganism on healing and empowerment. Veganism and choosing what to eat that nourishes the body, mind, and spirit was explained as a healing process in and of itself as P15 explains, “Every time I feed myself, it's a healing process. You 89 know, I'm very deliberate with what I put into my body.” The healing impact of veganism was described on an individual micro level of healing as well as a collective macro level. Individual Healing The theme of individual healing includes what themes participants discussed about veganism that they felt had healing benefits for them on an individual level. The subthemes included healing benefits to their bodies, minds, spirits, and relationship with food. Just like the abuse had a holistic impact on the participants, the healing impact of veganism was also holistic and interrelated. Body All participants discussed the positive benefits that their bodies experienced when they became vegans. They talked about how they loved how they looked, lost weight, had more energy, and clearer skin. When talking about her experience P14 said that after going vegan, “I lost the weight and I was feeling so toned and so strong, I had so much more energy. I no longer needed caffeine in the morning. I was no longer taking naps. I felt like my skin cleared up a bunch” (P14). In addition to overall feeling stronger and healthier, the participants that experienced chronic pain or illnesses discussed how much this lifestyle helped decrease the symptoms of these conditions. Participants that had colitis and arthritis discussed how these conditions had gone into remission since changing to a vegan diet, and the women that were of menopause age mentioned it seemed to be much easier for them than their peers. P3 attributes her chronic illness staying stable to veganism explaining, I don't think that there's really a lot of other things to explain why my illnesses have stayed stable, especially considering that I've had significant stress in my life, including the intimate partner violence. And normally stress would have been a very big trigger to, you know, exacerbate my illnesses. 90 Those that had done blood work reported their blood pressure and cholesterol were always in healthy ranges. The participants also talked about the connection of not hurting animals and physical health. They talked about feeling lighter as they didn’t have the guilt of hurting other beings and feeling cleaner knowing they were not ingesting dead animals. P2 explains this connection with her body as: I physically, I just feel more, you know, like pure in this way that I like quite a lot. Not having blood in my body and having other bones in my body it’s disgusting. So I feel cleaner, I feel more pure, I feel more I mean, I'm definitely in the best shape in my life and I'm very active. And I think that just being in vegan circles, a lot of those people are quite healthy. Feeling better physically helped the women have a greater capacity to address their healing and cope with the stress of the negative impact of the abuse. Having a stronger physical body also connected to giving them the energy to be able to address mental and spiritual aspects of healing. Mind Looking at the impact that veganism had on the mind includes anything related to mental health, or feelings and/or thinking of the participants. The women describe how being vegan helped them in their healing by giving them a feeling of peace and a calmness knowing they were not contributing to the suffering of other beings. They also talked about not feeling guilty about their actions and instead feeling like veganism was an action they could take that was positive: I think that veganism, like I said, it made me feel like I was doing good things. So it was a really positive. To see myself in a positive light was very changing for me to say, you know, okay, these horrible things have happened to me, but every day I wake up and I make the choice to do something good that doesn't benefit me at all but benefits others and the planet. So that, was very healing for me. Choosing this positive action changed the way that the women viewed themselves and in turn helped to improve their self-worth. Knowing that they were not contributing to other beings 91 suffering as P8 explains, “it's just made me feel better in my heart. And I'm not contributing to that, but I think it's helped me emotionally. To feel like, okay, I can feel good about myself because of this.” Again, it shows how veganism gave them a positive action step that helped them to feel better about their choices and themselves. The same idea that came out with the physical benefits helping the women to face the challenges that arose in their lives and in their healing, journeys also was displayed for mental health. P11 says, “So being vegan definitely helps. Like health wise, mental health wise, having a clear conscience and dealing with horrible things.” Feeling at peace with one’s decisions supported mental health providing more resilience for participants to face other stressors in their lives. The women acknowledged the huge amount of stress that their bodies were under when in an abusive relationship and trying to heal. The support that veganism provided them mentally and physically helped with the healing process. P15 describes how she thinks veganism can support the “detoxing” of a survivor: I think that if a woman has or a man has gone through any kind of violence or abuse of any kind. I think that part of their healing process needs to be able to detox themselves mentally and physically. And I think that if nothing more, while they're going through therapy, while they're going through the healing process, if they adopt a plant-based diet to aid in their body's ability to handle the stress that they're experiencing, I think it's highly medicinal, highly beneficial. She is recommending this for others as she herself felt that she was able to detox her body physically from toxins of animal products and emotionally rid herself of the guilt and shame of hurting animals which led to her increased capacity for healing after her abuse. The women often talked about healing explaining how the body and mind were connected and could not be separated in the healing process. P12 explains, “becoming vegan has created such a better place in my body for healing. That when your body, you feel like you your body is healing from the inside out is going to affect your mind.” Veganism supported the healing of the body and the 92 mind by supporting participants to feel emotionally stronger with less guilt and better about themselves. This all supported the internal work they were doing to heal. Spirit The spirit or spirituality in this context deals with anything related to faith, religion, a connection with a divine force, or a deeper connection with others, and purpose. Some of the women discussed the spiritual aspects of their healing from IPV and most of the women discussed how veganism played a role in their spiritual lives and/or spiritual healing. Recognizing the divine nature of animals and nature and making the choice through veganism to honor this connection helped the women to feel more connected with their higher power. P12 explains how she believes that God created everything and that humans are meant to care for the things God created. Veganism was a major way to honor that by not hurting God’s creations. In her own words, And again, you know, the things that he gave to us were, you know, everything that he created along with the animals, you know. And so spiritually, you know, I feel like bringing that back has brought me closer to God, has brought me closer to feeling that love and calmness and just that love for not only myself, but for others, too. And closer to the Lord, too. She as well as other participants discussed feeling closer to themselves, others, and their higher power through the vegan lifestyle. The vegan lifestyle, and choosing to honor themselves, animals, and the environment each day in and of itself was considered an expression of spirituality. One woman who is training to be ordained as a Lutheran minister stated, My spiritual journey has been a huge part of healing which is connected to the more holistic. Like a movement into recognizing that what we do as a whole people is connected to our spirituality. It's not just going to church or like praying, but it's how we're living, how we're connecting with the world, not just other people, but the planet, the environment, the animals, the plants, etc. Which has changed the way that I view Scripture and understand like my own call to ministry, which has been really instrumental in moving forward for me. (P4) 93 Organized religion was also discussed in relation to veganism and abuse. Some participants felt the values and ethics of veganism aligned very well with their religious traditions. P14 explains this in relation to Buddhism and how being vegan opened her up to more of the aspects of the people and concepts of the religion and spirituality: There are so many ties to veganism and Buddhism, and so I just became more interested in like this peace and love, religion, and all of these people that I'm meeting and learning more about how they carry themselves and how they see the world. And it kind of opened my eyes to this whole new way of life. And so for me, spirituality is connecting with nature and not necessarily something. Up in the sky. But good and bad energies that I can lean into or stray away from. Two of the women discussed complicated feelings they had with the religions they were a part of. On one hand they found strength in their spiritual connection with God but did find some of the messages about marriage and staying in marriages to be toxic in relation to abusive relationships. Overall, those that talked about spirituality and the connection with a higher power felt that it was supportive of their healing. The vegan lifestyle aligned with their spiritual beliefs and helped to deepen their spiritual connection. In conclusion, the women felt that veganism had a holistic impact on their healing and that “being vegan can heal on so many levels” (P11). I have highlighted the levels of the individual healing of the body, mind, and spirit and how these interrelate to impact healing. Healing Relationship with Food Some participants also mentioned how becoming vegan helped them to heal their relationship with food. Some talked about how they grew up not knowing anything about nutrition and how veganism helped them learn how to cook and incorporate a large variety of health foods into their diet. Some women talked about how difficult it could be to be forced to cook every meal for their partner and how being able to prepare their own vegan food now felt empowering. P6 explains that from being abused, “I also developed an eating disorder from that 94 which veganism kind of helped me come out of too” (P6). Veganism helped the women to feel more connected with their foods and in turn with themselves having a healing effect on their relationship with food. Collective Healing A major healing aspect of veganism that all the women talked about was its ability to not only enable healing on the individual level but have an impact on collective healing. Two subthemes that illuminate this theme are connection and compassion, and vegan families. Connection and Compassion The experiential theme of connection and compassion encompasses the understanding that the women had between the connection of abuse of animals, nature, and people and how that relates to their compassion and healing from IPV. All the women understood the connection between being vegan and how this decreases abuse of animals and nature. In relation to the environment ideas discussed included how being vegan reduced their carbon footprint, used less water, and supported overall environmental health. They discussed the horrors of animal agriculture in how animals are treated as well as the impact that it has on the environment. Understanding these connections was important as they felt by being vegan, they were a part of collective healing occurring on the plant. Another important aspect of this understanding was how it increased their compassion not only for the animals but for themselves. It helped the women to better understand that just like the animals and nature did not deserve to be abused, they also did not deserve that kind of treatment. On a personal level. After researching and seeing what the animals were going through and kind of really doing that deeper dig. It was more of a personal connection, identifying with their experiences through like, being sexually violated or exploited reproductively. Things like that, being held hostage, being hurt, being vulnerable. Even those were definitely things I identified with. So it definitely drove that compassion to want to speak out for them and also uphold those values within my own life. (P1) 95 As this participant explains, learning about the horrors done to animals and realizing she understood what that was like drove her to want to stand up for the animals’ rights as well as increased the values of non-violence in her own life. By having awareness of the oppression around them in the animals and the environment, this served as a mirror for the women, reflecting back their oppression. This helped open their eyes to realizing they did not deserve to be oppressed either. I do think that being vegan in general you kind of. Well, I would hope that you tend to think more about. Kind of what you had mentioned earlier, like you're thinking about the environment, you're thinking about the world, like you're thinking about things other than yourself. And I would like to think that. You know, maybe that has like deep down contributed to like my moral compass and being able to say like, this behavior is not okay. (P3) As the women internalized this realization that the abuse of animals was not ok, it increased their capacity to have compassion for themselves and know they did not deserve the abuse they had experienced just like the animals did not. This increased their desire to not replicate this oppressive behavior on other humans or animals and contribute to communal healing: And so I just realized, like, no one belongs to me and I don't belong to anyone. And so what happened to me wasn't okay. And what I've done to others isn't okay. And I don't want to continue to do that to animals in any way. (P2) Their experience with trauma and abuse strengthened their ability to be able to understand the trauma the animals were going through and then motivated their actions to continue to choose veganism so that other animals and the environment were not abused. P13 states, I definitely think for me, just having been through the trauma that I went through or like the abuse that I went through for so long. To be able to say, like I as a person, am not contributing to that trauma in the lives of any animals is really helpful for me. There was a healing power that the women explained of knowing they were not participating in the oppression of other beings that was stronger for them because they knew what it was like to be abused and oppressed at the hands of an intimate partner. 96 Vegan Families and Social Support Another subtheme under collective healing was the impact that the choices of the vegan survivors had on others around them as well as the importance of community for healing. Most talked about when living a vegan lifestyle, they would lead by example and share with others around them. Many of the women discussed family members that they supported to becoming vegan. The family members mentioned that had become vegan was a sister, dad, husband, and children. P15 explains how she encouraged her sister to begin a vegan lifestyle to help her health: You know, one of my sisters became vegan a couple of years ago. Her health was horrible. She had multiple surgeries, scoliosis. She had a lot of issues. She was the youngest until I came along, and I started doing classes with her and encouraged her to do. I said, let's just start with a plant-based diet. Let's just do that. And then the next thing you know, she's gone fully vegan. Once her sister experienced the benefits for herself, she wanted to continue the lifestyle that her sister had introduced her to. All the women that had children discussed how at least one of their children was vegan and it was very important for them to share these values with their children: It's really brought my kids and I closer because it's like something that we have in common that we're, like different than a lot of people. And so have like a vegan anniversary party every year. It's something they are very proud of. They're very proud of being vegan. And that makes me really proud. (P4) She goes on to talk about how she let them choose and they are teenagers and adults and still choose this lifestyle for themselves. Having others that they love join them in this lifestyle is a part of the healing process they can experience communally. Not all women have support of their family or family members that are vegan but all, but one participant talked about the importance of communal social support in helping them in the healing process. When asked how they coped with emotions that arose many women discussed 97 the importance of having a friend to reach out to and talk to that was supportive. As P2 explains, “I have a lot of friends, a lot of close relationships. So, you know, talking to the right people is really crucial in the healing process.” The women talked about the importance of social support and particularly the support of a vegan community. P11 explains she went to a vegan health coach training and she says, I was so happy. I was like, Oh my God, I feel normal for the first time. And, you know, like 13, 14 years of doing it. Those are the ways that I heal myself. Like it's not adult survivor or domestic abuse survivor groups that I go to. It's the gym or the vegan groups. I belong to several vegan groups that I go to. Since we do not live in a vegan world where everyone understands what it is like to be vegan it helped the women to have social support around them that were vegan themselves even if they had not experience IPV. This helped to support them in the vegan aspect of themselves. The women found they could heal in community with other vegan family members and friends. Impact of Veganism on Survivor Empowerment In addition to healing, the second research aim focused on the potential empowerment benefits of a vegan lifestyle. Similar to healing there were ways in which veganism gave power back to the survivors on an individual and collective level. On the individual level the theme of self-efficacy and control and authentic self were identified. On the collective level veganism helped the women feel they were making an impact greater than themselves on the world through veganism. Activism also showed up as a subtheme under collective healing. Individual Empowerment The subthemes that the women discussed under individual empowerment include ways in which veganism helped them to step into their own power on an individual level through increased self-efficacy, control and strength to be their authentic selves. 98 Self-Efficacy and Control Women explained that being vegan helped them to have more self-efficacy and power and control over themselves, their choices, and what they contributed to the world around them. P5 says, “Becoming vegan, I felt like I had power over myself. Power over what I put in my body. Power over what I contributed to the world. What I did to the world.” The ability to feel in control of their bodies and their choices was very important for the women to feel empowered after being in a relationship that took this control away. P6 explains how sexual abuse felt like someone else had control of her body and she realized that part of her having control over her body and choices was choosing not to harm others in what she chose to eat: The having been through sexual abuse, it was, you know, somebody is taking control of your body in a way that you don't want. And it got me thinking about all the animals in slaughterhouses or in dairy farms. The chicken and the egg farms and all that. And so to make that choice every day to not cause bodily harm or take something that is not mine, I think it I don't think I even thought about it like that at the time. But I do think that that made a big impact of saying like, you know, we have the choice to not harm others and it's up to us whether we're going to make that choice or not. P14 also explains how veganism gives her more autonomy over her body and helps her to “bridge the gap,” that existed for so many years in an abusive relationship when she did not have control over her body or choices: But I do feel like being vegan gives me more autonomy over my body in some weird way. I'm not sure how to explain that further, but it's a feeling that I have that like I decided to make this change in my diet and lifestyle to better myself, both spiritually, emotionally, physically, everything. And the fact that I continue to choose this lifestyle every single day when I wake up gives me a lot of confidence in my control that I have over my body. So I guess for so many years, not having that control over my body and over my mental state (veganism) kind of fills that, bridges that gap. The feeling of having more control over one’s choices and body not only applied to choices made in the vegan lifestyle about food and what to wear but also helped the participants be able to take control of other areas of their lives and problems that arose: 99 I feel like I have control. I feel like that it's really given me a lot of control over every situation. And even when I come up with like into like problems now, like I can just overcome them, I can think of other ways. Just work around it. (P5) This participant goes on to explain how being vegan has helped her have more confidence in her ability to solve problems as she has been in many situations in which she has had to think of creative ways to be able to eat. She now uses the same skill set with other problems that arise. She explains also that being a vegan forced her to practice boundaries and saying no to things that weren’t vegan. This strengthens her ability to say no in other areas of her life. The words of P13 also exhibits how choosing to be vegan is not only empowering in itself but supports the women in taking back control in other areas of their lives: I definitely think like within that. I think it's very helpful for me to be able to wake up every morning and face the choice of whether I choose to continue being a vegan or not. And that spills over into other areas of my life to where I'm like, okay, like I'm in control of the things I do each day, whether it's what I eat and what I choose to wear. The vegan lifestyle increased the women’s self-efficacy and belief in their abilities to make choices and take control of themselves and their actions. They felt more in control of their body, their choices, and more confidence in their ability to navigate the world around them. Power to be Authentic Self All the women discussed a part of their identity or their whole identity being aligned with non-violence and compassion towards other beings. Stepping into a vegan lifestyle helped the women feel empowered to be their authentic self by giving moral guidelines and actions they could take on the daily basis that aligned with their true self committed to nonviolence. P2 talks about how empowering it is to be able to make changes towards more love for herself and others through veganism: If veganism is who I really am at my core, veganism, the behavior, not veganism, but like, the behavior of love towards another is who I really am and I believe is who we all 100 are and are at our core and in our hearts. And so knowing I think this is empowering, knowing I can make a change. As the women took lifestyle changes externally in line with vegan principles of non-violence, this empowered them to step into more of their authentic selves. P4 describes this idea as “making the switch to veganism was very empowering and continues to be like one of the fundamental things about me that I think helps me move out into the world in a way that feels authentic.” Through veganism the women not only felt more aligned with their true selves but felt that making choices that protected other living beings was “really instrumental” in taking back power that had been stripped from them from the abuse. The personal empowerment that the women experienced through veganism went hand in hand with the importance of supporting empowerment on a collective level for other living beings. P4 illustrates this with her words: But what's rising for me is moving into veganism not only gave me an avenue for living authentically for myself and making a difference, but it's a way of actively protecting others who have no voice or have no agency, which is instrumental, I think, in regaining a sense of power when that's been taken away. As the women felt more empowered individually through veganism to make their own choices and act in an authentic way in line with their true selves, it was important for them to support empowerment in others. Collective Empowerment Empowerment is a concept that includes individually increasing self-efficacy and taking back control of one’s life but also becoming aware of oppressive power structures that surround the individual and taking action to address those structures. The theme of collective empowerment includes the understanding that participants had that being vegan was a way to take back power for other being such as animals and stand against the animal agriculture industry that causes a 101 great deal of oppression. The women also took actions to support individual and collective vegan and IPV causes through activism. The two subthemes impact greater and activism will help to highlight through the women’s own words how veganism helps with collective empowerment. Impact Greater Through veganism all the women in this project felt that their choices were a part of making an impact greater than themselves on the oppressive structures around them (Lee, 2001). P9 explains, “We have to save the planet. That's to me, the number one thing about veganism right now. I get the animals and I get health, but I've kind of put them down. Right now, it's all about saving the planet.” This participant is making a connection with veganism and impacting the health of the whole planet. All the participants understood the oppressive nature of animal agriculture and how it was damaging people, animals, and the environment. As P8 states, Because I think, you know, like our oceans are dying. Our you know, we're running out of, like animal agriculture is. I feel like animal agriculture is the biggest problem in our world today because of, like, the methane gas and the, you know, like there's I know there's scientific stuff like the ice caps are melting because our, you know, we're shifting and all that. But I also think that we're losing all these animals and they're all going extinct. And so me not contributing to that and my kids not contributing to that and makes me feel like I'm making a difference. Veganism is a clear action step to make an impact greater than themselves on the world around them. By not eating animal products, each day that they are showing with their actions they do not align with the oppressive structures a part of creating food from animal products. The women discuss how they feel their vegan lifestyles contribute to improving the condition of the world for themselves, the animals, and the environment. “Being vegan, I am contributing to the world. I'm contributing to making it a better place for the animals as well, or health wise for me and for the environment” (P12). They are taking power back for themselves as well as not contributing to more oppression by continuing with the vegan lifestyle. 102 Activism In addition to feeling like veganism was a way to engage in activism in and of itself due to its connection with disrupting oppressive systems, women discussed participating in one-on- one activism as well as communal activism for animal rights and domestic violence. One on one advocacy related to veganism included actions like helping people transition to veganism, offering plant-based health coaching, cooking for people, leading by example, encouraging others to add plants to their diets, and rescuing animals. Women talked about how others would see the benefits of veganism in their lives and ask to learn more. For example, P15 explains, “Many people come to me that want to transition and so I help people there. So I still kind of feel like I've got a little bit of that vegan activism going on there.” P13 discusses how she finds people are most open to making diet changes by her “just encouraging people to eat more of a plant-based diet and incorporate more vegetables into their diet.” One-on-one advocacy related to domestic and intimate partner violence included talking to friends about their situations and supporting them by going with them to court if they needed help in that area. Also taking in animals for people that were trying to leave IPV situations until they can figure out their next steps since this can be such a barrier for women leaving relationships. P10 discusses that she has a desire to create an animal rescue center: to take in animals for people like in those situations until they got back on their feet so that they had the animals had a place to be at and then the people could do what they needed to do and they could get them back. She has not created the center yet but has been able to do this on individual levels. Communal activism that reached more than just individuals and had a more macro influence was also talked about for vegan issues as well as IPV. For veganism women talked about volunteering at animal sanctuaries, producing festivals, participating in animal rights 103 groups, and taking their vote seriously on issues that impacted animals and environmental rights. P2 described that it was empowering being a member and working with two animal advocacy groups in college. “I got into animal rights like two years after being vegan. I got into, like, direct action everywhere and anonymous for the Voiceless. I did that in college and then it was super empowering.” P9 describes how the vegan festivals that she works to put on reach thousands of people exposing some of them to veganism who had not yet had much exposure: I mean, it's my world now. I mean, I don't know how else to describe the fact that it's our livelihood. I mean, my activism, my activism is producing festivals and reaching tens of thousands of people annually. And a majority of them aren't vegan. Communal activism for domestic violence was described as actions such as speaking at churches or workshops about their story of IPV and writing their story in papers to be published. P6 is a musician who writes and shares songs about her DV experience. “I volunteered my time to sing a little bit about my story at a United Women of Color, which is a Huntsville based nonprofit and. Yeah, I'm very vocal about my story and my past.” Individual and communal activism was an active extension of the empowerment that the women experienced. Conclusion The vegan women survivors felt becoming a vegan and continuing to live a vegan lifestyle was and continues to be a transformative process that has impacted their healing and empowerment after IPV. The vegan lifestyle had an impact on their individual holistic healing and empowerment as well as collective healing and empowerment. The experience of being vegan while surviving IPV has given the women a daily action step that supports their overall wellbeing and provides a way to stand against oppressive power structures of abuse within their own lives and the lives of other beings. 104 DISCUSSION To date, there is no published literature on women, vegan, IPV survivor lived experiences and the potential impact of veganism on healing and empowerment. The literature does address healing and empowerment for vegans, as well as healing and empowerment for survivors in other populations separately. It does not address the impact of IPV or the healing processes for those with intersecting identities of vegan, woman, and a survivor. The aim of this exploratory, qualitative, phenomenological study was to uncover an in-depth understanding of fifteen women survivors lived experiences with veganism, with a focus on healing and empowerment experiences. The discussion section begins with an integrated summary of the findings in Chapter Four in relation to the research questions. The parallels and dissimilarities of the findings with the vegan, healing, and empowerment literature will be discussed for each of the 3 categories of findings: 1) the lived experiences of women vegan survivors, 2) the impact of veganism on healing, and 3) the impact of veganism on empowerment. The findings will then be considered through the lens of the following theoretical frameworks: holism (Micozzi, 2015), integrative body-mind-spirit (I-BMS) (Lee et al., 2018), ecofeminism (Hunnicutt, 2020), Total Liberation (Pellow & Brehm, 2015), and critical theories. Next implications for future social work practice, education, and policy are discussed. The chapter is closed with a review of the study limitations and suggestions for future research. Integrated Summary of Literature Connections The Lived Experiences of Women Vegan Survivors The lived experiences of women vegan survivors included many unique aspects such as the process of becoming vegan, the challenges, and the impact of abuse on themselves and their 105 companion animals. First the process of becoming vegan was a pivotal point in the lives of all participants. They all described a similar process that they went through becoming vegan. They describe the time they were not a vegan, and then something that occurred or a variety of events that brought awareness to the issues surrounding veganism. Next this awareness led them to more research about animal rights and the practicalities of living a vegan life that led to an eventual complete change in lifestyle. This process the participants describe is in line with the vegan learning process that McDonald (2000) outlines in her research on becoming vegan that includes a past self, a catalytic event that brought awareness to the issues of veganism, a decision to learn more and then eventually a complete change in one’s worldview. Although they may have made the transitions at different speeds and times in their lives, they all followed this same process. Becoming vegan did not come without challenges. The most discussed among the participants was the social stigma and the way in which veganism played into the domestic violence. Living as a vegan in the US where currently only 1% of the population identifies as vegan (Jones, 2023), means that a vegan is in the minority surrounded by others who may not agree with or identify with this lifestyle. This posed challenges for the women I interviewed who explained how family members and friends often did not understand, would not accommodate, and in some cases would be rude and disrespectful to them for the choices they were making. Other research confirms that dealing with other humans who don’t understand the vegan lifestyle or support those choices can be a source of discomfort and stress, especially at the beginning of one’s vegan lifestyle journey (Costa et al., 2019; Hirschler, 2011; Vestergren & Uysal, 2022). The many different typologies and forms of abuse have been well documented in the literature for intimate partner violence and include physical, sexual, stalking, and psychological 106 aggression (Ali et al., 2016, CDC, 2022). A particular type of psychological abuse unique to the vegan women interviewed that is not addressed in the literature, is the way in which not allowing veganism became something that the abusers used to control the women. The women who had been vegan before starting the relationship or became vegan during discussed how their partners on the mild end found them not eating meat to be annoying and on the more aggressive side would not allow them to maintain their vegan lifestyle while with them. This is a type of emotional and psychological abuse as it stopped the women from being able to express their true selves and controlled their behaviors in a way that was damaging to them. Another aspect of the lived experience was the holistic impact of the abuse. The abuse effected the women on a personal level in their own bodies and minds as well as the companion animals that they lived with. The women confirmed that the abuse had a devastating holistic impact on their bodies, minds, and spirits. They talked about symptoms such as chronic pain, fatigue, depression, anxiety, and losing themselves all of which have been previously documented in the literature as personal impacts of IPV (Bacchus et al., 2018; Breiding et al., 2008; Katerndahl et al., 2015). The holistic impact was very overwhelming and crushing at times making it very difficult to keep going each day. In addition to the impact the abuse was having on the women’s bodies, minds, and spirits, those that had companion animals living with them through the abuse acknowledged the difficulty that the animals went through as co-survivors. Previous literature is clear about the high levels of co existence of abuse of animals and women (Cleary et al., 2021; Fitzgerald 2005; Flynn 2000a, 2000b). This particular sample did not talk about direct abuse of the animals but instead the effects witnessing the woman be abused had on them. The findings did echo the previous work of scholars (Cleary et al., 2021; Fitzgerald 2005; Flynn 2000a, 2000b) who found 107 it is common that women with strong bonds to companion animals delay leaving an abusive relationship for fear of what will happen to their pet or the logistics of not having a safe place to go with the companion animal when wanting to escape. All the women with pets during the abuse discussed the above concerns and the additional layer of love and bonding with animals that came from being a vegan. The women vegan survivors expressed unique aspects of the process of becoming a vegan as well as the impact of the abuse while also sharing similarities with previous studies on other populations. The Impact of Veganism on Healing Although the vegan women experienced devastating holistic impacts of the abuse, they all were able to exit these relationships and begin a journey of healing. They explain the process as having many dimensions, being active, happening in a nonlinear way and leading to developing new selves. Other qualitative research with IPV survivors concur that the healing experiences are explained as multifaceted, nonlinear, and transformative (Allen & Wozniak, 2010; D’Amore et al., 2021; Senter & Caldwell, 2002). Although the healing impact of veganism was the focus of this project, the women did discuss other traditional healing modalities such as therapy and group work. Of the non-traditional methods discussed yoga and exercise were talked about the most. Previous research has found promising results of yoga supporting improvements in PTSD symptoms (van der Kolk et al., 2014) and improving self-efficacy of women IPV survivors (Franzblau et al., 2006). The vegan survivors discussed how yoga helped them to feel better and safer in their bodies. A qualitative study done by Concepcion and Ebbeck (2005) examined the physical activity experiences of survivors in relation to their view of themselves and their circumstances. The participants who worked out felt stronger in their bodies, minds, and spirits in the present moment while working out and reported it helped them have hope that 108 they were moving along the healing journey (Concepcion & Ebbeck, 2005). The vegan women in this study also discussed the healing power of exercise to support their bodies in feeling stronger as well as their mental health and sense of overall well-being. The vegan lifestyle was reported to be highly supportive of individual and collective healing. On the individual level the vegan women found the vegan lifestyle to be a key component in supporting their bodies to feel their best. They discussed the increased amounts of energy and strength as well as decreased pain and illnesses that benefited them after switching to a vegan diet. This aligns with documented physical benefits other research has shown in general and seventh day Adventist populations such as protection against obesity, hypertension, type-2 diabetes, and coronary heart disease, in addition to metabolic and cardiovascular benefits (Le & Sabaté, 2014; Kahleova et al., 2017). Feeling better physically gave the women more energy to invest in healing. Veganism has been associated with positive mental health changes such as reported less stress and anxiety (Beezhold, et al., 2015), and a reported statistically significant reduction in anxiety and depression after 292 employees of a national insurance company that took part in an 18-week vegan protocol (Agarwal et al., 2015). The vegan women in this study also discussed the mental health benefits that came from feeling peace about the decisions they were making and not feeling guilty about hurting others as they chose a vegan lifestyle. Having an action step that was in line with their values helped to improve their overall self-worth and feelings about themselves. Once again having this mental freedom in addition to the physical benefits, supported the women in dealing with the stress of the abusive relationship and the healing process. The vegan survivors reported that the vegan lifestyle was supportive of their spiritual healing as it deepened their connections with themselves, nature, and their higher power. 109 Veganism was an act they could take that was described as part of a spiritual practice recognizing that what they chose to eat made an impact on their connection with themselves and the divine presence in other beings and nature. This aligns with the qualitative work done by Hirschler (2011) who interviewed vegans. The participants reported they felt eating a vegan diet helped them to be more in alignment with their values and that this lifestyle led to greater spiritual well-being in which they had greater connection with themselves and nature (Hirschler, 2011). In addition to the impact of a vegan lifestyle on the individual level, it also was described as having an impact on collective healing. All the women discussed understanding how their actions of choosing veganism supported the healing of themselves, animals, and the environment by decreasing the animal maltreatment and degradation of nature through not participating in animal agriculture. Understanding this connection of their actions with healing on a level greater than themselves increased their compassion for themselves and others. In a sample of vegan Australian women, Costa et al. (2019) found that participants reported changing actions to a vegan lifestyle was motivated by a process of becoming aware of animal maltreatment as well as a healthier way to eat which led them to greater empathy for themselves and the world. The participants in this dissertation expand upon that empathy by explaining the connection that this had to their realizations of the oppression in their abusive relationships. As they became aware of the animal suffering that occurred when a vegan lifestyle was not chosen, the survivors could understand with firsthand experiences what it felt like to have their bodies and minds controlled by another being. This increased their desire to not replicate this oppression and motivated their continued vegan lifestyle to support healing of themselves, animals, and the environment. 110 Another important aspect of collective healing that was discussed was social influence and support. The women explicated how they led by example with their lifestyle and that this often had an influence on friends and family around them becoming interested in veganism. They talked about helping family members transition and the pride that their children felt when they got to share the vegan journey with them. In this way they were leading to collective healing by sharing the benefits of the lifestyle with those they loved so that they could also be a part of the healing. In addition to the social influence, social support was a key component discussed as a part of the healing process. It is documented in the literature that social support is important for survivor healing (Flasch et al., 2020), but the added vegan aspect created different challenges than a survivor that does not identify in that way. A vegan survivor is a part of a minority lifestyle and although the women did discuss valuing support from others that were not vegan, they found having a vegan community particularly helpful as they shared many values and lifestyle similarities with other vegans. Social support is not only supportive of healing but can also help vegans to be able to stay vegans in a world that is not always supportive of this lifestyle (Cherry, 2006; Hodson & Earle, 2018). Supporting others in their vegan journeys as well as being supported by others were all key aspects to the collective healing of the women vegan survivors. The Impact of Veganism on Empowerment Empowerment is a process of gaining individual, intrapersonal, and/or political power so that individuals and communities can make positive changes in their lives (Carr, 2003; Gutierrez, 1990). The women reported that veganism had an impact on their individual and collective empowerment. On an individual level, living a vegan lifestyle increased the women’s self- efficacy around their choices about how they treated themselves and others. A philosopher Dean 111 (2014) discusses how women choosing to be vegans, is a way to break from patriarchal norms of eating. She was discussing this concept in a non-abusive context. In the context of surviving from abuse, the vegan survivors outline the importance of having control over their bodies as their male abusers used to have all that control. Veganism gives them some of that control back and therefore could be seen as a step against the patriarchic control the abusers were enacting over them. Self-efficacy is one of the four change processes of empowerment in addition to 2) critical consciousness- having an understanding of how power dynamics around one impacts them and then taking a role in making changes to their environment to bring about social change, 3) connection with others that can help foster gaining new skills and learning about social structures; and 4) taking individual and political action to change one’s environment (Carr, 2003; Gutierrez, 1990, 1994). The vegan survivors also discussed the other four change processes as a part of their empowerment. The previous section on connection discussed the critical consciousness raising that the participants went through as they became aware of the power dynamics in animal agriculture in relation to their abusive relationships. They connected with others through social support and felt they had increased power over their bodies and the impact they made on the world by the choices they could make to empower themselves as well as empower animals. In this way they were taking an action to change their environment. This action step of veganism not only provided an action step to change their outward environment, but also empowered the women to feel more in alignment with their authentic selves. The women discussed how their true selves were ones of non-violence. Veganism helped them truly step into a lifestyle that was not oppressive to others. 112 The collective empowerment were the aspects of empowerment that the women discussed related to making an impact greater than themselves on the world. The participants discussed an understanding of veganism as a way to take back power for themselves, and animals. They loved that they no longer participated in the oppressive systems of capitalism related to animal agriculture and felt veganism created healing for the whole planet. In addition to the daily action step of being vegan that led to collective empowerment, the vegan survivors discussed ways in which they participated in one on one and communal action activism for animals and IPV survivors. Also in line with the change processes of empowerment outlined above, as women’s knowledge and self-efficacy around their own oppression and the oppression of animals grew, they were able to take more external steps of activism to support change. Cattaneo and Chapman’s (2010), empowerment model that they have applied to IPV survivors discusses the importance of survivors making goals to increase power and taking action to meet those goals. The vegan survivors strive to live a vegan lifestyle as their goal and by taking the actions steps in that direction they describe how their individual and collective power is increased. Theoretical Framing of Findings This section explores the findings through the lens of holism (Micozzi, 2015), integrative body-mind-spirit (I-BMS) (Lee et al., 2018), ecofeminism (Hunnicutt, 2020), Total Liberation (Pellow & Brehm, 2015), and critical theories. These theories combined with the findings can help to increase understanding of why the vegan survivors might find the vegan lifestyle impacts healing and empowerment. First holism supports the idea that a living organism cannot be fully understood unless it is seen in the whole and not broken into parts (Micozzi, 2015). In this study looking at the experience of human women vegan survivors holistically, it was important to pay 113 attention to the many parts of the individual that were affected as well as how they fit together to impact the whole. The women reported that experiencing abuse was a whole body and mind experience that affected every part of themselves and aspect of their lives. This also goes along with the holistic perspective that understands that what is happening around the individual in their environment impacts them (Shannon, 2002). The abuse had a devastating holistic body, mind, spirit on these women. Knowing that all areas of the internal and external experiences of the survivors’ lives were impacted by the abuse, the I-BMS social work framework supports the need for an intervention that addresses each level of the individual (body, mind, spirit), in the context of their broader social environment (Lee et al., 2018). The survivors told a story in their interviews about the way in which a vegan lifestyle addressed their holistic healing and empowerment. It supported healing of their bodies, minds, and spirits, and supported them to step into their whole authentic selves they wanted to be in the world. It also gave them a way in which to relate to the world around them with more compassion through the choice of veganism each day. In addition, they could take action steps to engage in activism. Ecofeminist, and vegan feminist theories elucidate the structural connections between the abuse of women and nature by explaining how patriarchy and the hierarchy and “othering” process of animals and women are the guiding principles that lead to both animal and human oppressions (Adams, 2007). They call for an overthrow of the hierarchical androcentric philosophy of life to be replaced with a view of the nature, animals, and humans as all a part of an interconnected web that can work in harmony and co-exist (Gruen, 1993). Although only two of the participants had previous knowledge of ecofeminism as an academic theory, all the women in the way they talked about the abuse of animals and the abuse of women understood there was some kind of connection between the two. Ecofeminism as well as Total Liberation 114 theory discuss the importance of addressing multiple oppressive systems at once in order to achieve true liberation (Springer 2021). The interlocking systems of oppression were displayed most clearly in two ways from the stories of the vegan survivors. First while in the abusive relationships, the survivors with companion animals saw first-hand that the abuse, they were experiencing from their partner also impacted their companion animal. They would not leave the relationship until their companion animal could come with them as they knew that even if they got out, they could not be truly free if their animal family member was still trapped in that environment. Second, the key theme of connection and compassion gives a clear example of the interlocking nature of oppressions and how this impacts healing and empowerment. As the survivor’s realization of the animal suffering at the hands of animal agriculture grew, they could empathize and understand what the animals were going through on a deeper level due to the abuse they had experienced. Making this connection strengthened their desire to not be a part of supporting oppression in any way possible. This motivated a continued desire to continue living a vegan lifestyle. The women found it to be very healing and empowering to know they were making a choice that was not participating in the continued oppression of other people and animals. Veganism gave them a way to literally break the patriarchy within themselves by not consuming beings that have been oppressed. Black vegan feminists talk about similar concepts and add that a vegan diet can be part of decolonizing the body from a racialized way of eating and interacting with the world (Breeze, 2010; Ko & Ko, 2017). The healing and empowerment impact of a vegan lifestyle that the women articulated lines up very closely with the concepts of critical theory. Critical theory propounds that once an individual understands the components of power within social systems, this awareness or “critical consciousness” (Freire, 2008) leads to actions to confront those power systems. This 115 then can contribute to individual and collective empowerment (Salas et al., 2010). The process of becoming vegan and living a vegan lifestyle that the vegan survivors tell follows this trajectory. Through the process of becoming vegan and living a vegan lifestyle, the survivors became more aware of the oppressive power structures connected with capitalism and animal agriculture. It also helped them to better understand the oppressive nature of the abuse they had endured with their ex-partners. This awareness led them to choose a vegan lifestyle to confront the oppressive systems connected with consuming animals. As they lived the vegan lifestyle, they reported feeling an increased sense of individual empowerment as well as loving being a part of collective healing and empowerment for the animals, other humans, nature, and the world. The women embraced veganism as a political action that produced individual and collective healing and empowerment. Implications for Social Work Practice, Education, and Policy There are several important social work practice and policy implications that can be drawn from this project. First this project clearly shows that IPV has a holistic impact on survivors and the need for practitioners to take a holistic view of their clients when working with them on goals and interventions. The survivors in this study benefited from traditional methods of therapy but also emphasized how non-traditional methods such as yoga, breathing, and veganism were pivotal to their healing and empowerment journeys. It is imperative that social workers feel competent to support survivors with these interventions which points to the importance of training and education in holistic methods. Only one MSW program offering a course focusing on MBS (mind-body-spirit) approaches had research results (Raheim & Lu, 2014). This course was a pilot study with 35 students that were given pre-post assessments after completing the course. Results indicated that students reported a significant improvement in thier knowledge of 116 MBS practices, use of complementary alternative medicine, and cultural competence. This provides preliminary support that more courses such as the one tested in the above study may help practicioners understand MBS approaches and could lead to more effective practice. Only a few other programs outside of social work offer curricula to support knowledge in BMS practices such as Western Michigan Universities' Holistic Health Graduate Certificate Program, and Arizona State Universities' Integrative Health Minor (Gant et al., 2009), and within social work the Holistic Social Work Practice Concentration at Governors State University (Lee et al., 2018). There is a need for integration of holistic practice content in social work programs to support competent holistic practice of social workers with IPV survivors and other populations. A vegan lifestyle and the way in which it aligns with social work values and ethics is also something that is not widely understood in social work. The National Association of Social Worker’s Code of Ethics emphasizes that social workers not only support the enhanced well- being of individuals but also advance social justice and empower oppressed groups by acknowledging and addressing the environmental structures that create the oppression (NASW, 2022). The findings of this study support that veganism supports the above goals and although more research is needed to continue to flesh out how veganism aligns with social work values and ethics, it is an important concept for social workers to understand. More awareness through Continuing Education Units and social work education may help practitioners understand how this lifestyle may be supportive of their clients. Particularly for survivors of IPV there is a need for more education of social workers and clients on the impact of what they are eating may have on their body’s minds and spirits. As P2 stated in her interview, “I would love to see veganism recognized as widely as these other healing modalities. It's so obvious how deciding to not hurt others could empower someone who's been hurt.” 117 Several policy implications could provide support in expanding holistic interventions to survivors. As mentioned in the policy section, the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) as well as the Family Violence and Prevention Services Act, provide much of the funding to DV shelters as well as to national resource centers that work collaboratively to inform DV intervention and prevention efforts at the individual and community levels (NRCDV, 2013). If some of the funding could be specified to be used to support newer holistic interventions, it could support agencies in implementing more BMS approaches. There is a need to expand mechanisms for reimbursement so that federal, state, and local behavioral health systems have ways to reimburse interventions that are holistic. Another idea would be to create taskforces for holistic interventions among researchers and practitioners who are practicing holistic interventions as well as survivors to lobby for funding and increased collaborations. If the research continues to grow, eventually state licensing boards could add CEU credit for practitioners seeking training in holistic interventions. When working specifically with vegan survivors of IPV it is important for practitioners to educate themselves on vegan ethics and values and become familiar with this subculture to provide culturally competent services. When asked at the end of the interview how it felt to tell their stories in this way, some of the survivors discussed how they have talked about IPV in therapy, but the therapist never held space for them to talk about the importance of veganism in their healing and as a part of their identity. When working with vegan survivors, not addressing this aspect of themselves could be missing a key part of working with them in a holistic way. Since the vegan population is still very small and the findings as well as previous research show that they can be often discriminated against, it is important that practitioners support them in finding a vegan community to support them in this journey. 118 Study Limitations, Strengths, and Directions for Future Research This section will outline the limitations for this study as well as the strengths, and directions for future research. Although I took steps to ensure the trustworthiness and rigor of this research, there are some limitations that must be considered. First the sample lacked diversity in areas such as race, geographic location, and type of vegan. The sample was primarily white women who live in suburban or city areas in the US and self-identified as ethical or whole foods plant-based vegans. The method of recruitment and eligibility criteria likely played a key role in the demographic constitution of the sample. I recruited from online Facebook groups in large cities within the US that had higher percentages of vegans. Therefore, I was likely to get women who lived in cities in the US. Also, only vegans who enjoy being a part of groups online would have seen this post. It could be that those that are involved in groups may be more social and ethically motivated which could have impacted the responses to the questions. The voices of those vegans that live in rural areas or identify as a race other than white were not well captured in this project due to the lack of sample diversity. More representation from different groups of women from different racial and demographic areas would be encouraged in future studies. For example, there may be ways in which veganism supports different subgroups such as black vegans who feel this lifestyle can be a decolonial process. Future research could expand upon this and look at different vegan types to more fully understand the experience of women, vegan, IPV survivors. For the safety of survivors, women were not eligible to participate in this study if they were in an active IPV situation. Although this was a well thought through decision for this project, it does run the risk of leaving out voices of vegan survivors who are currently in active IPV situations. Future research might brainstorm ways to safely be able to explore the lived experiences of women in active IPV situations. The survivors were asked at the beginning of the 119 interview why they became a vegan and why they stayed vegan. Future research could conduct a cross analysis to determine if the reasons for becoming and staying vegan impacted the themes in which the participants felt were important. All the above-mentioned limitations effect the generalizability of the study. My own social identity could also be a limitation in this study. As I mentioned in my positionality statement, I am very close to this topic as I also identify as a woman, vegan, and IPV survivor. Although I took steps to be aware of my biases and not allow them to the best of my ability to affect my interpretation of the data, likely someone with a different identity that was not so close to the topic would have a different framing for various themes that arose. Despite trustworthiness measures such as member checking, and using a co-coder, there is still a risk that my own voice was more likely to intertwine with the interpretation and retelling of the survivors’ narratives since I had been through similar situations in my own life. In addition, the use of unstructured interviews may cause a limitation. Unstructured interviews are an appropriate means of gathering information in qualitative phenomenological research methods (van Manen, 1990). However, they do lend themselves to the ability of participants to focus their responses on the questions that align most with their experiences which may vary per participant, thus giving unequal representation to certain elements of the experience. The research questions and methods were appropriate for an exploratory investigation of the lived experiences of vegan, women, IPV survivors, but other quantitative and mixed method designs may help to deepen the understanding of this experience as the knowledge base grows. This study has several strengths. It is highly innovative being the first study to explore the lived experiences of vegan, women, IPV survivors. The findings also provide many areas of 120 future research to be explored. This being an exploratory study, the qualitative method with a small sample size was appropriate. Future studies however could expand the sample size and create a mixed method study in which interviews exploring healing and empowerment are also paired with validated healing and empowerment quantitative measures to increase the knowledge and measure quantitatively the constructs of interest. There is no current research published on the unique ways in which abusers may use the controlling or inhibiting of a survivor’s vegan lifestyle as a type of emotional abuse. Since this came out as devastating consequence for women who had been vegan during their IPV relationship, more research is needed to understand the impact and mechanisms of this form of control. The women in this study explained the power that increasing their critical consciousness of the systems of oppression connected with animal agriculture and then taking an action step through a vegan lifestyle had on their healing and empowerment benefits. Therefore, future research may consider conducting critical consciousness raising groups with IPV survivors who are not already vegan to give them an opportunity to learn about the oppressions connected with the abuse of women and animals. The women could then be given an opportunity to decide if they wanted to take an action step based on the information, they just learned such as trying vegan lifestyle. A final strength to mention is the survivor centered approach that was taken throughout the design, implementation, and writing of this dissertation. I acknowledge as the researcher my position of power but sought to work as a co-creator of knowledge with the participants. 121 CONCLUSION IPV is a devastating experience impacting women in a holistic way. This exploratory phenomenological study focused on the lived experiences of women, vegan, survivors of IPV and the potential impact of a vegan lifestyle on healing and empowerment. Results from the analysis of 15 interviews show the holistic impact of abuse on vegan survivors and the important ways in which a vegan lifestyle supports women survivors on the micro and macro levels of healing. 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What are the lived experiences of women IPV survivors who are vegan? 2. What role, if any, does veganism play in the phenomenon of healing and empowerment for women IPV survivors? Demographics 1. How old are you? 2. What race do you identify with most? a. White/Caucasian b. Black or African American c. Hispanic d. Latino/a/x e. Asian or Asian American or Pacific Islander f. American Indian or Alaska Native g. Other 3. What is your current gender identity? a. Female/woman b. Male/Man c. Trans Female/Trans Woman d. Trans Male/Trans Man e. Genderqueer/Gender Nonbinary f. Other 4. Where do you live (i.e., City, Country)? 5. What kind of vegan would you describe yourself to be? a. Ethical vegan b. Raw vegan c. Whole foods, plant based d. Other 6. What brought you to veganism? a. Animals b. Environment c. Health d. Other 7. What reasons have you stayed vegan? Semi-Structured Protocol Warm up Opening: Thank you for agreeing to talk with me today and taking the time to give your valuable feedback. I want to remind you that this is a safe and confidential space and all your personal information will be deidentified with any of your information that is used for research. Also, at any time if you want to decline to answer a question or stop the interview just let me know. 143 Introduction: You were asked to take part in this interview as you identified as being an survivor of relationship violence as well as a vegan. Today I will be asking you questions to better understand your lived experience as a vegan IPV survivor. 1. Could you describe the events that led up to becoming a vegan? a. How long have you been a vegan? b. What factors impacted your decision to become a vegan? c. How did becoming a vegan coincide with relationships where you experienced physical, sexual, or emotional abuse? 2. What positive changes have occurred in your life since becoming vegan? 3. What negative changes have occurred in your life? 4. Some say that veganism helps them feel like they are making an impact on the world that is greater than themselves. Does this resonate with you? How so? Why not? 5. Everyone I am speaking with for this study experienced physical, sexual, or emotional abuse in their intimate relationships at some point. I know it might be difficult, but can you think back to that general time in your life and describe the person you were then? What were you thinking and feeling? What kinds of things were important to you? 6. How would you describe the impacts that relationship/those relationships had on your mind, body, and spirit? Now that we have a better understanding of your experiences with your relationships and how you became a vegan, I will now ask you some questions about your healing experience. 7. How would you describe the healing process you have been on to recover from the abuse you experienced in your relationship/s? 8. Can you describe in what ways veganism has played a role in the healing process? a. Body, mind, spirit 9. What helps you to manage emotions that come up around your past relationships and the abuse you experienced? -People, organizations, coping skills 10. Do you engage in any social activism related to abusive relationships or veganism? Can you tell me more about that? 11. How would you describe what has led to your current self-confidence and feelings of power within yourself? 12. Is there something else you think I should know to better understand the processes of healing and empowerment and how veganism may have an impact on that? 13. What did it feel like to tell your story in this way? 14. Is there anything else you would like to ask me? Closing I want to thank you so much for your time and for sharing your experiences. [Explain what happens next] 144 APPENDIX B: INTERVENTION CATEGORIES Body based • Qigong Baduanjin • Movement and sport therapy • Physical activity at fitness facility • Yogic Breathing • Trauma-sensitive yoga • Kripalu-based yoga • Mindful awareness in body-oriented therapy Psychological protocolized programs • Stress management and lifestyle program • Holistic cognitive therapy (INSIGHT) • EMDR • Holistic healing arts retreat Nature based • Horticultural therapy • Ecotherapy program Artistic expression • Music therapy • Dramatherapy • Expressive writing • Creative journal arts therapy • Dance Therapy • Holistic art-based mindfulness • Narrative exposure therapy Mindfulness interventions • Meditation • Mindfulness-based stress reduction • Mindful awareness in body-oriented therapy • Trauma-informed mindfulness-based stress reduction • Stress management program Spiritual focused • Forgiveness therapy • Spiritually focused group intervention • Rites of passage groups 145 APPENDIX C: INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE RESOURCES United States The National Domestic Violence Hotline 1-800-799-7233 (SAFE), www.ndvh.org National Dating Abuse Helpline 1-866-331-9474, www.loveisrespect.org National Child Abuse Hotline/Childhelp 1-800-4-A-CHILD (1-800-422-4453), www.childhelp.org National Sexual Assault Hotline 1-800-656-4673 (HOPE), www.rainn.org National Suicide Prevention Lifeline 1-800-273-8255 (TALK), www.suicidepreventionlifeline.org National Center for Victims of Crime 1-202-467-8700, www.victimsofcrime.org National Resource Center on Domestic Violence 1-800-537-2238, www.nrcdv.org and www.vawnet.org Futures Without Violence: The National Health Resource Center on Domestic Violence 1-888-792-2873, www.futureswithoutviolence.org National Center on Domestic Violence, Trauma & Mental Health 1-312-726-7020 ext. 2011, www.nationalcenterdvtraumamh.org Worldwide International Domestic Violence Resource Guide https://www.mysticmag.com/psychic-reading/domestic-violence-resource-guide/ Global Resources for Domestic Violence https://www.domesticshelters.org/resources/national-global-organizations/international- organizations 146 APPENDIX D: PARTICIPANT CHARACTERISTICS Table 1: Participant Characteristics Participant Age Race Where live Type of vegan 23 white suburban ethical 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 29 white 38 white 38 white 46 white 24 asian 54 white/n a 52 white 53 white 52 white 57 white 48 34 white 26 white 54 white city suburban suburban suburban suburban suburban city suburban suburban/rura l suburban/city suburban city suburban ethical other-health ethical/wfpb wfpb ethical ethical/wfpb ethical ethical ethical ethical/wfpb ethical/wfpb ethical ethical/wfpb wfpb hispanic city Years vegan 1 Years out of IPV 2 8 5 3 7 7 8 29 12 10 16 30 8 5 25 1.5 1 4 4 8.5 32 27 11 10 21 29 7 8 25 Type(s) of abuse p,e,v,st,s x e,s,v,sx e p,e,v,sx p,e,v,sx e,sx p,e p,e,st p,e p,e,sx e e e,sx e,sx p,e,sx Key Race: na – Native American Type of vegan: wfpb – whole foods plant-based Type of abuse: p – physical e – emotional v- verbal st – stalking sx – sexual 147 APPENDIX E: NARRATIVE OF IPV VEGAN SURVIVORS Hello, my name is Sarah and I want to tell you about my lived experience as a woman IPV survivor who is also a vegan. I was not exposed to veganism as I was growing up, but I always had a love of animals. As I got older, I started having some health issues and began to research ways to support my health. This led me to information about veganism. This opened my awareness to the horrors of the animal agriculture industry and starting to realize that what I chose to eat had an impact on animals, the environment, and my health. I also met other vegans who had experienced positive impacts on their lives from becoming vegan. It was a process to transition, and I continued to educate myself about the vegan lifestyle and ethics. Once I transitioned to veganism, I can’t imagine ever going back as I know my choices have a positive benefit not only on my life but the lives of animals and the world around me. Amidst the benefits the biggest challenge for me was the social stigma around veganism and other people in my life such as my family and friends not understanding. Some people were even rude and hostile about my new choices. I became a vegan during my relationship with my ex-partner and he found it very annoying that I would not eat meat and still forced me to cook animal products for him. Sometimes I would even have to eat meat around him, or he would get upset. I was in the abusive relationship for about 3 years and this relationship had a huge impact on my physical, mental, and spiritual life. I was scared all the time and very depressed and felt trapped in my own body and mind. Physically I was tired all the time and would get sick more easily. On the spiritual level I felt like my soul had been crushed and I lost all self-worth. Another aspect of the abuse that was very challenging for me was that I had a dog named JoJo and he would get very traumatized by witnessing the abuse against me. I also had to stay longer than I anticipated in the relationship because it was hard finding a place I could go that would 148 take a pet. Eventually I was able to move in with a family member with my dog and my healing journey after the abuse began. The healing has been an ongoing and active process for me. Going to therapy and talking to a therapist helped me to realize that the abuse was not my fault and begin to try and find myself again. I also have found exercising and meditation to be great techniques to help me release trauma from my body and cope with emotions that arise. Veganism has worked hand in hand with these other methods of healing to help me heal in a holistic way. I am so glad I found veganism to support me on my healing journey. Let me explain to you the impact veganism has had on my healing and empowerment after abuse. First of all, on an individual level being a vegan helps me to feel better physically, emotionally and spiritually. Physically I feel so much stronger and have so much more energy since I am not eating processed animal products. Emotionally I have so much less guilt because I know my choices as a vegan do not infringe on the rights of other living beings. Feeling less weighed down physically and emotionally has allowed me a greater capacity to focus on all the healing aspects of life after abuse. Spiritually I feel so much more connected with myself, nature, and my higher power knowing that the choices I make as a vegan are more in line with the values of love and respect for all beings. Veganism has also helped me to have a positive connection with food and a greater awareness of the connection between food and my overall health. Speaking of connection, it was realizing the connection between the abuse of animals, nature, and people that helped me to increase my compassion for myself and other living beings. Once I realized this connection, I knew I would never go back to eating other beings and would strive to live a vegan lifestyle in all my actions. It is very important to me to not oppress another 149 living being or be a perpetrator in any way that I can control. I think once I really decided that it was not ok for humans to abuse and oppress animals and nature it really helped me look at the way I had been treated and realize just like the animals I also deserved a life free of abuse. I really feel I understand the trauma the animals go through on a deeper level because of the abuse I have undergone, and I don’t want any part in abusive actions towards other beings. I feel like being a vegan has helped to empower me to take autonomy of my own body and choices. This is very important for me because for so long when I was experiencing IPV my choices and autonomy were taken from me. I get to choose everyday by my choices of being vegan to cause less suffering in this world. That really empowers me to have confidence that I can make other changes in my life in addition to veganism to improve myself and support my healing. I want to live a non-violent life as much as possible and being vegan gives me the action steps to be able to do this. It also helps me feel more aligned with my true self of love and compassion for all beings. Another thing I love about being vegan is I feel like I am making an impact greater than myself. In so many ways our plant is dying and with my choice to be vegan I help support the well-being of myself, animals, and the environment. Feeling more empowered in myself has led me to seek out ways in which I can advocate for others and be a part of vegan and domestic violence activism. On an individual level I lead by example and talk about the benefits I have received from veganism with others. I also have supported friends who have gone through IPV situations by going to court with them and even keeping their pets if they need help with that until they can find a way to exit their situation. The activism I do on a more communal level includes being a part of a vegan advocacy group that supports issues related to animal rights as well as volunteering at a women’s shelter. In the future I would love to develop a non-profit that 150 support survivors and animals on their healing journeys after abuse. I am so grateful that I found veganism and that I have it as a lifestyle that can continue to support my individual healing as well as the healing of the animals and the world. 151