Ecosystem services from tourism and governance of communal institutions are critical to financial sustainability of community-based natural resource management. I evaluated effects of large mammal occurrence and landscape attributes on incomes from hunting and photographic tourism earned by communal conservancies in Namibia during 1998–2022. I also evaluated effects of local management and governance on total income earned by Namibia’s conservancies during 2011–2022. I compiled annual incomes and occurrence of ‘Big 5’ species (elephant [Loxodonta africana], buffalo [Syncerus caffer], black rhino [Diceros bicornis], lion [Panthera leo], and leopard [P. pardus]) using conservancy accounting and wildlife monitoring data. I compiled annual conservancy performance scores for natural resource management and institutional governance using ‘event book’ monitoring data. Hunting occurred in 70 of 86 conservancies and generated income almost twice as rapidly as photographic tourism. Hunting income increased with conservancy area and number of Big 5 species present but decreased with years since establishment and increasing mean elevation, topographic diversity, and distances to national parks. Photographic tourism occurred in 39 conservancies and generated 447% greater median annual income than hunting for conservancies earning >$0. Photographic income increased with years since establishment and higher annual precipitation but decreased with higher mean elevation. Large mammals are an important driver of income to Namibia’s conservancies and hunting and photographic tourism can provide complementary benefits. Conservancies earning >$0 income generated a median annual of $60,518 since 2011. Income during 2011–2022 increased with years since establishment, higher management performance, presence of nongovernmental organization (NGO) support within conservancies, and annual general meeting (AGM) occurrence. Income during 2019¬–2022 also increased with higher governance performance. Median management and governance performances across conservancies were only about 50% of their maximum scores, indicating higher income potential with improved performance. Conservancies remained financially dependent on NGO support and AGMs were important functions for generating income. I recommend Namibia’s conservancies, particularly those established more recently and with smaller area or without NGO presence, consider inter-conservancy wildlife co-management, collaborating with tourism industries, and prioritizing improved local management and governance to develop more sustainable community-based natural resource economies.
Read
