RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SOCIAL, ACADEMIC, AND CAREER SUPPORTS AND WELL-BEING AMONG STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES IN UNIVERSITIES IN GHANA By Danielle T. Ayeh A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Rehabilitation Counselor Education – Doctor of Philosophy 2024 ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the support structures available to students with disabilities (SWDs) in three public universities in Ghana and assesses their relationships with the well-being of these students. The research highlights the essential role of socio-emotional and academic support in enhancing SWDs' success and well-being within higher education setting. By using a crosssectional study design, the dissertation draws on data from the disability services offices of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Education – Winneba, and University of Ghana – Legon. Findings revealed a considerable gap in the social, academic, and career support provided to SWDs, underscoring the lack of accessible resources and the profound needs of these students. The study elaborates on the barriers to success for SWDs, including limited institutional preparedness and inadequate support mechanisms. Recommendations for practice and policy emphasize the need for universities to enhance their support services, aiming to enhance access to social, academic, and career support to meet the needs and improve the well-being of SWDs. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the challenges faced by SWDs in Ghanaian universities, providing a foundation for future initiatives to foster a more inclusive higher education environment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To God Almighty, thank You for the strength to make it this far. To my pastors and bishops - thank you for your counsel and for encouraging me when I was at my lowest. To my parents, thank you for encouraging me to get the doctorate and for being my onsite manager because I couldn’t physically be in Ghana for the data collection process. To my siblings - thank you for timely counsel and investment in my life. To my advisor, Dr. Sung, and all the rehabilitation counseling faculty - Dr. Lee, Dr. Leahy, Dr. Nay, Dr. Kuo, thank you for encouraging me and believing in me. To my committee members, thank you for your patience and wise counsel. To those who helped in my data collection process faculty, staff, and research assistants from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Education- Winneba, and the University of Ghana - Legon, I cannot thank you enough for your selflessness. A special thank you to all the students with disabilities at these universities, I’m humbled by your boldness and commitment to excellence. To my friends and colleagues, thank you for encouraging me, writing with me, and literally helping me finally graduate. I am so grateful for every single one of you, especially Phanuelle and Danielle, you two played a significant role in my PhD journey. To my husband, Christophe, thank you for being by my side and for encouraging me to do the best I can do. Thank you for cheering me on and for staying up with me at the most critical times in my program. I love you. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................1 CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 14 CHAPTER 3 – METHOD ...................................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS ....................................................................................................... 49 CHAPTER 5 – DISCUSSION ................................................................................................ 76 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 92 APPENDIX A – LETTER/EMAIL OF INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE ........................ 102 APPENDIX B – EMAIL TO COLLEAGUES IN THE DISABILITY OFFICES IN UNIVERSITIES IN GHANA ............................................................................................... 103 APPENDIX C – RESEARCH PARTICIPANT INFORMATION AND CONSENT FORM .................................................................................................................................... 105 APPENDIX D – DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION......................................................... 108 APPENDIX E – COLLEGE STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES CAMPUS CLIMATE SURVEY (CSDCC) ............................................................................................................... 112 APPENDIX F – DISABILITY RELATED SERVICES AND SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE (DRSSQ) .............................................................................................. 117 APPENDIX G – SATISFACTION WITH LIFE SCALE (SWLS) ...................................... 121 iv CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION Approximately 400 million persons with disabilities (PWDs) live in developing countries, 80 million live in Africa, which is about 20% of all PWDs (Ayoung et al., 2021). It is estimated that 1 in 10 Africans has a disability, and in Ghana about 3-10% of the population have a disability (Amoatey, 2020; Ayoung et al., 2021; Ocran, 2018; Seidu et al., 2021). Several reports have shown that persons with disabilities are one of the most marginalized and impoverished groups of individuals in Ghana (Baffoe, 2013; Danso et al., 2012). Although there seems to be a growing increase of PWDs in the larger Ghanaian society, only about 4.5% of PWDs are likely to pursue higher education (Osei-Tutu, 2021). Additionally, those who do pursue higher education, limited to universities, are more likely to drop out (Getzel & Thoma, 2008; Morley & Croft, 2011) because they are not successful in completing all the academic requirements even if they choose to pursue higher education. This study focused on the perceptions of SWDs in universities in Ghana. SWDs face multiple challenges while pursuing degrees at universities in Ghana impacting their academic performance and well-being. There is often extremely limited support made available to help them thrive (Morley & Croft, 2011; Naami, 2010). Although some universities, limited to universities, in Ghana have enacted initiatives with the goal to support SWDs - including having delegated offices for SWDs; these universities still remain ill-prepared to accommodate the growing needs of SWDs (Ashigbi et al., 2017; Morley & Croft, 2011). The focus on students’ perceptions in this study stems from the need to understand the needs of SWDs, provide better resources and support, increased autonomy, and identify the service gaps. This study examined the perspectives and experiences of SWDs and the social, academic, career support provided for SWDs in universities. The results of the study further informed the 1 development of accommodations, services, and other supports for mitigating the barriers and needs experienced by SWDs in universities in Ghana. Disability and Education Globally Globally, there are about one billion individuals with disabilities, one fifth of them with severe disabilities (The World Bank, 2021). Despite the increasing number of SWDs in higher education, their needs are often overlooked in these settings (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Disability, 2021). The experiences of SWDs vary across different countries due to economic structures and perspectives on disability. In parts of Asia, the literacy rate among adults with disabilities is significantly lower compared to those without disabilities (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2018). In Europe, the number of SWDs enrolling in higher education institutions is gradually increasing, with Austria and Ireland reporting 12% and 3.3% of their populations identifying as SWDs, respectively (Biewer et al., 2015). In the United States, approximately 19.4% of higher education students have a disability (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2019). Harbor and Greenberg (2017) examined the on-campus climate for SWDs in U.S. higher education institutions and emphasized the need for services, supports, and evaluations to enhance the experiences of SWDs. While disability research in the “global south” (which includes Sub-Sarahan African countries like Ghana) has gained more attention, most researchers interested in this topic are from the “global north” (from countries like the United States) (Grech, 2015). As a researcher from 2 Ghana, it is crucial to contribute to the literature on the experiences of SWDs in the global south, providing a different perspective and contextual understanding. Situation in Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa, situated in the global southern hemisphere, comprises four subregions: central, eastern, southern, and western Africa (World Bank Group, 2022; Linder et al., 2012). Countries like Ghana and Nigeria are in the western sub-region in Sub-Saharan Africa and are one of the most advanced economies in that region. Within sub-Saharan Africa the experiences of SWDs in higher education vary. In countries like Nigeria, Uganda, and Zimbabwe, the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) faces challenges due to limited government interest, inadequate disability laws, underfunding, influence from elite societies, and burdensome responsibilities on key individuals (Adugna et al., 2020; Grischow, 2011, 2015). While research on education and disability in k-12 schools in sub-Saharan Africa has emerged in recent years, few countries offer a comprehensive understanding of the experiences of SWDs in universities (Gayle-Geddes, 2015). For example, in South African secondary schools, SWDs advocate for themselves, hold high expectations upon entering university, and seek an equitable educational experience compared to their non-disabled peers (Phukubje & Ngoepe, 2017). After their study, Phukubje and Ngoepe (2017) recommended that university library should transcribe books into an accessible format, provide training for SWDs and their peers on how to use formats, library staff should be proactive in discovering inaccessible documents and form partnerships with publishers, hire staff particularly trained to serve SWDs, provide more assistive technology and a more accessible library website. 3 Despite studies like the ones by Phukubje and Ngoepe (2017) on disability in sub-Saharan African universities, most research on inclusive education are in the primary and secondary settings. Therefore, there are limited studies exist on SWDs in higher education within sub-Saharan Africa, including Ghana (Addae-Wireko, 2019). Therefore, examining the impact of inclusive education implementation in primary and secondary systems on higher education in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in Ghana, is crucial. Historically, PWDs have faced deplorable treatment worldwide, leading to the development of the CRPD, which emphasizes access to education for PWDs in sub-Saharan African countries like Ghana (Disabled Worlds Towards Tomorrow, 2015; Etieyibo & Omiegbe, 2017; Gauthier de Beco, 2014). The CRPD's fundamental goal is to ensure equal opportunities for PWDs and countries that ratified the CRPD are expected to promote the dignity and importance of PWDs (United Nations Treaty Convention, 2006). As Ghana is a sub-Saharan African country that ratified the CRPD, it is essential to conduct studies to explore the experiences of PWDs within the Ghanaian educational context. Situation in Ghana Education is described as one of the most important tools for enabling the full participation of PWDs in society (Fleming et al., 2017; Gayle-Gedde, 2015). PWDs have often expressed that they want more education and training to improve their opportunities to help obtain employment and improve their quality of life (Gayle-Geddes, 2015). The push towards inclusive education started from Western countries and is slowly being incorporated into the Ghanaian society (Kuyini & Desai, 2008; Lamptey et al., 2015). Although these factors are slowly being incorporated, some studies have found varying experiences of SWDs in universities in Ghana. 4 Statement of the Problem Lamptey et al. (2015) found that the current educational institutions do not have a set timeline for SWDs in terms of institutional expectations for SWDs completing school. Additionally, there is no progressive curriculum that pushes SWDs towards pursuing secondary and tertiary education (Lamptey et al., 2015). Further there is scarce research on the perspectives and experiences of SWDs in developing countries since most of the research has been done in Western countries (Ansong et al., 2017; Chamera, 2010). Although legislation has been passed in developing countries in Ghana to protect SWDs in universities, the well-being of SWDs is mostly dependent on individual institution’s culture and climate. In Ghana, even though there was the recent implementation of inclusive education in the primary and secondary education system, it is pertinent to understand how the implementation of inclusive education in primary and secondary education settings have impacted inclusive education in universities (Addae-Wireko, 2019). This is because with the growing population of SWDs, universities should be able to create a space for SWDs to be able to complete their degrees and enter careers without fearing exclusion from academic and social experiences in universities. The Ghana Education Act of 2008, for instance, states that education should be accessible to SWDs (Education Act of 2008). This includes equal access for all students who attend an educational institution in terms of their learning, their ability to pursue educational excellence, and their achievement (Education Act of 2008). However, this legislation has not led to the creation of inclusive environments in universities. According to Ayoung et al (2013), when studying students in universities in the Upper East region of Ghana, majority of institutions do not have accurate statistics on the number of 5 SWDs in their universities. As a result, their study was conducted based on an estimate of the number of PWDs. The inaccuracy of the number of SWDs in universities poses a challenge for policy making and gathering accurate data (Ayoung et al., 2013). To ameliorate similar problems in other areas of the country and aid universities in Ghana have enacted initiatives that tend to support PWDs who are hard of hearing/blind (Essel et al., 2018; Morley & Croft, 2011). When asked about their experiences, SWDs stated that they felt the lack of power and autonomy when addressing structural challenges, still experienced social isolation, and felt the impact of society’s negative perception of PWDs (Morley & Croft, 2011). In developing countries like Ghana, some instructors are uncertain about how to implement inclusive education, which is a problem accompanied by an overall limited political interest in providing inclusive education (Chamera, 2010). Barriers to Pursuing Higher Education in Ghana SWDs in Ghana face significant mistreatment and disadvantages compared to their neurotypical peers within university campuses (Agyei-Okyere et al., 2019; Fleming et al., 2017). Extensive research conducted within academic settings and Ghanaian society at large highlights numerous obstacles encountered by SWDs in their pursuit of higher education, including physical and attitudinal barriers. Physical barriers Physical barriers encompass the inaccessibility of academic buildings in Ghanaian universities. Studies conducted by Tudzi et al. (2017) reveal that SWDs encounter challenges due to the absence of ramps and elevators in academic buildings, with the majority of lecture rooms situated on upper floors. Oppong-Boateng (2020) further highlights that educators in private and public institutions lack training on inclusive education, relying on work-based training or online 6 resources to gain knowledge. The lack of inclusive education training among educators is a concerning and unacceptable factor, as educators play a crucial role in the implementation of inclusive education (Obeng, 2007a). Attitudinal barriers Attitudinal barriers manifest in negative societal practices towards persons with disabilities (PWDs) in Ghana, affecting their educational experiences and participation in social activities (Sackey, 2015). In regions where traditional beliefs hold sway, PWDs may be stigmatized as "witches" or "spirit children" (Srem-Sai, 2015). Such individuals often face ostracization from their communities, and in extreme cases, may be subjected to harmful concoctions leading to their demise. Even accomplished professionals, like a lawyer with visual impairment elected as a representative for the ministry of chieftaincy, encounter discrimination and derogatory remarks (Sackey, 2015). These instances demonstrate the mistreatment PWDs endure solely due to their disabilities. Legislation Legislation concerning PWDs in Ghana presents shortcomings in adequately addressing their needs. Lamptey et al. (2015) discovered that among the seven legislative documents addressing PWDs in Ghana, only three provided definitions of disability, all adopting a purely biomedical perspective. This approach is problematic, as the biomedical model, while widely recognized, is paternalistic and stigmatizes PWDs, neglecting the role of society (Smart & Smart, 2006). Asante and Sasu (2015) identified a deficiency in the Persons with Disability Act, 2006 (Act 715), as it lacks a non-discriminatory clause to safeguard PWDs from discrimination in various contexts, including education. Discrimination against individuals with disabilities persists in both academic settings and legislation supporting inclusive education (Human Rights Watch, 7 2012; Opoku et al., 2019a; Yan et al., 2014). To address these issues, greater exposure to studies and information on the experiences of PWDs is necessary, alongside measures to educate and support individuals in promoting inclusivity among their peers. Social, Academic, and Career support on Students’ Well-being Although the push towards inclusive education has been inspired by Western countries, this push has been slow to incorporate into Ghanian society (Lamptey et al., 2015). One of the social challenges for SWDs in universities in Ghana is that they often experience prejudice and negative attitudes (Braun & Naami, 2019). These negative experiences include exclusion from social environments such as residential living and additional social strain to be included in universities (Tudzi et al., 2017). For example, in terms of academic support, despite research showing that the classroom environment can negatively impact the experience of SWDs, university instructors still have limited knowledge of disability (Baker et al., 2012; Tudzi et al., 2017). Needs and Importance of Social, Academic, and Career Support on Well-being Social, academic, and career support for SWDs play a crucial role in facilitating successful completion of higher education, promoting independence, improving quality of life, and contributing to society (Desai et al., 2001; Kennedy, 2001). Social Support. In the Ghanaian cultural context, social support, characterized by beneficial exchanges between individuals, differs from Western perspectives on social support (Mohd et al., 2019). Extensive research has demonstrated the positive association of social support with proactive coping and psychological functioning, as well as its indirect impact on the functional performance of individuals with disabilities through adaptive efforts in stressful situations (Campbell & Gilmore, 2014; Greenglass et al., 2006; Davis & Brekke, 2014; Holahan et al., 2017). Social support also aids SWDs in successfully transitioning into university life and 8 correlates with improved well-being (Wilcox et al., 2005; Reeve et al., 2013). Given these factors, it is imperative to examine the role of social support within the Ghanaian context for SWDs in higher education. Academic Support. The insufficient information available to faculty and staff regarding the evolving needs of SWDs, particularly in higher education, has led to the establishment of academic support centers or university disability offices to address these needs inside and outside the classroom (Walker, 2016). Academic support for SWDs include the development of specialized academic resources, facilitating integration, and success in the university setting (Aismontas et al., 2017; Lipka et al., 2019; Troiano et al., 2010). Studies have indicated that students who utilize academic support centers achieve higher grade point averages, greater success, and increased graduation rates (Troiano et al., 2010). Career Support. Negative attitudes experienced by underrepresented groups of students, although primarily investigated within cultural and racial contexts, can be applicable to understanding the experiences of PWDs in Ghana (Holloway-Friesen, 2018). In the Ghanaian culture, seeking psychological or disability-related support is often discouraged due to associated stigma (Andoh-Arhtur et al., 2015). Career support aids students in addressing their career needs, facilitates career development, assists with workforce integration, adjustment to work environments, and the achievement of career goals (Berríos-Allison, 2011). Studies have shown that LatinX students in universities are more receptive to career counseling than psychological support, to enhance their help-seeking behavior and improve their college experience (BerriosAllison, 2011). Parental career support, involving practices, modeling, verbal encouragement, and emotional support, has also demonstrated significance in facilitating success for SWDs in university (Blackmon & Thomas, 2014). 9 Well-being. SWDs in Ghanaian universities are clad with the albatross of maneuvering their higher education experience with limited resources. Well-being has been studied by different disciplines; however, it is important to have a clear definition of well-being, the targeted domains, and the rationale for using the domain in a study to alleviate any confusion (Davidson et al., 2017). This study also recognizes that well-being is not stagnant and can be impacted by personal and environmental factors (Lent & Brown, 2008). Additionally, this study focused on two domains of well-being for SWDs in Ghana- their material well-being and personal development (Davidson et al., 2017). Purpose of the Study The main objective of this study is to investigate the perspectives of SWDs regarding social, academic, and career support as it relates to their well-being in universities in Ghana utilizing a cultural studies framework. The study aims to gain a comprehensive understanding of the availability and implementation of social, academic, and career services and supports for SWDs in the Ghanaian university context. To achieve this goal, a cross-sectional survey was conducted to collect university students' perspectives and experiences, focusing on the barriers encountered by SWDs and their specific support needs. The findings of this study provided culturally relevant recommendations and promote advocacy for enhanced services and support from university leadership, aiming to enhance the learning and overall development of SWDs in Ghanaian universities. Furthermore, the outcomes of this research had broader implications for Ghanaian society, informing policies and practices within professional associations such as the Ghana Education Services, the Ghana Institute of Architects, the Ghana Institute of Engineers, and the Ghana Psychological Association. To guide this investigation, the following research questions were addressed: 10 Research Questions These are the four main research questions for this study: - RQ1: What are the social, academic, and career support needs of SWDs at universities in Ghana and the challenges in accessing those needed supports? - RQ2: What social, academic, and career supports are currently available for SWDs at universities in Ghana and what additional supports would be recommended? - RQ3: How do social, academic, and career supports differ across the three different universities in Ghana? - RQ4: How do social, academic, and career supports contribute to the well-being of SWDs at universities in Ghana? Definition of Terms ● Student with Disability (SWD): Student with any physical or mental impairment that impairs their ability to perform one or more major activities of daily living (Americans with Disabilities Act, 2008). Major life activities include seeing, hearing, reading, communicating, schooling, and working (Rothstein, 2018). ● Social support: It is supporting acts performed by family, friends, and others around the individual with the disability (Mundhenke, 2009). It is categorized into three sections: instrumental support, emotional support, and informative support (Ellerton et al., 1996; Mundhenke, 2009). ● Academic support: It is any activity that supports the student's academic progress outside of regular instruction. Academic support includes tutoring, mentoring, and supplemental instruction (Walker, 2016). 11 ● Career support: When an individual is assisted in choosing and deciding how to pursue a meaningful occupation. Career support is determined by the individual's development, choice, and potential (Bimrose & McNair, 2011). ● Well-being: It is complex and combines an individual's optimal experience and functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2001). An individual's well-being is complex and consists of more than their overall happiness (Kahneman et al., 1999). An individual's well-being consists of more than their overall happiness - it includes individual perspective on their experience and psychological functioning based on their environmental context (Kahneman et al., 1999; Ryan & Deci, 1999). ● University: This is a public 4-year university that affords students a post-secondary degree but does not include vocational or technical training institutions/community colleges. This institution should also be accredited, provide a program that leads to the completion of a bachelor's degree, and prepare students for gainful employment in a recognized field (Higher Education Opportunity Act, 2008). ● Disability Services Office (DSO): A delegated office on a university campus that provides various services for students with disabilities to ensure that their classes, employment, programs, and facilities are accessible. ● Perception: A person's cognitive contact with the world around them (Sotlar, 2004). It is a process where individuals recognize that things, events, and relationships become present. It is also associated with recognizing discrimination (Hochberg, 1956). ● Discrimination: An act towards an individual in a particular social group that causes a disadvantage, harm, or wrong towards someone (Altman, 2011). ● Stigma: Occurs when an individual's differences are distinguished from others and linked to undesirable attributes based on the society's dominant cultural beliefs, which leads to a loss in 12 social status and inequality for the individual. In a situation where there is a power differential, stigma occurs when there is stereotyping, labeling, separation, loss of status, and discrimination (Link & Phelan, 2001). ● Discrimination: An act towards an individual in a particular social group that causes a disadvantage, harm, or wrong towards someone (Altman, 2011). 13 CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter aims to comprehensively examine the historical backdrop of education in Ghana, elucidate the conceptual framework, and analyze associated constructs and their implications for the present study. It would encompass a thorough review of disability policies, encompassing relevant literature encompassing demographics, legislations, policies, services, supports, and outcomes documented in scholarly works. Furthermore, within the confines of this chapter, an in-depth discussion was conducted, encompassing the analysis of the conceptual framework and its interconnections with pertinent constructs, culminating in a critical assessment of the implications for the study at hand. Historical Context about Disability Currently, Ghana accommodates a population of approximately 30 million individuals (The World Bank, 2021). From a historical perspective, children with disabilities in various regions of Africa have experienced the tragic practice of infanticide. This lamentable phenomenon is prevalent among specific tribes within countries such as Ghana, Mali, Benin, La Cote D'Ivoire, and Guinea Bissau (Denham, 2017). Consequently, these tribal influences have fostered negative perceptions of children with disabilities, branding them as inhuman entities, "spirit babies," witches, and, in some instances, "snake babies" (Denham, 2017). Consequently, many adverse perspectives and discriminatory attitudes surround persons with disabilities (PWDs). Although Ghana has implemented legislation to protect PWDs, they continue to constitute the largest oppressed group within the country. This oppression stems partly from structural deficiencies and financial constraints within Ghana's legal and regulatory institutions (Ocran, 2019). Regarding education, despite the existence of policies and laws aimed at ensuring accessible and inclusive education for SWDs, these initiatives have yet to effectuate significant attitudinal changes among 14 the populace (Ocran, 2019). Adult literacy rates for individuals with disabilities are substantially lower than their peers without disabilities, with figures ranging from as low as 4% for those with disabilities to 41% for those without disabilities (UIS, 2018). Existing research on the prevalence of SWDs in universities and their availability of social, academic, and career support exhibits variations (Haihambo, 2010). While some studies have concentrated on the perspectives of SWDs within a single university, research has yet to concurrently investigate multiple prestigious public universities in Ghana (Odame et al., 2020; Tudzi et al., 2017). Furthermore, certain studies have solely focused on students' and institutions' perceptions of SWDs studying in universities, yet to explore their perspectives on the different types of available support. For example, Haihambo (2010) employed a mixed research design to ascertain the views of institutions regarding SWDs and the prevalence of SWDs within Namibian higher education. This study discovered that students encountered challenges related to the physical accessibility of institutions, the availability of educational materials in alternative formats, insufficient sensitivity and skills of staff working with SWDs, as well as the lack of structured support systems for SWDs in Namibia (Haihambo, 2010). Consequently, involving multiple large public universities in Ghana is imperative to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the present circumstances and student perspectives concerning career-related services, supports, and outcomes. Cultural Belief in Disability Stereotypes and entrenched beliefs play a pivotal role in the lack of protection for persons with disabilities (PWDs) in Ghana (Ocran, 2019). Ghanaians are known for their strong religious affiliations, with three significant religions prevailing. Each religion holds distinct perspectives on 15 disability, profoundly influencing the attitudes and actions of adherents within Ghanaian society (Botts & Evans, 2010). Individuals’ regions and cultural backgrounds also directly impact their behaviors and perceptions within Ghanaian society. Botts and Evans (2010) state that Christianity perceives disability as a test, punishment, or an opportunity for God's glorification. In contrast, Islam regards disability as society's duty to care for individuals with disabilities. Traditional religion, on the other hand, views disability as a manifestation of divine displeasure or the result of sorcery (Botts & Evans, 2010). A striking example illustrating the prevailing discriminatory attitudes is the appointment of a visually impaired Ghanaian lawyer as a government representative for the Ministry of Chieftaincy and traditional affairs. In response, one traditional chief expressed vehement opposition, deeming the nomination "an abomination" (Kissi & Van Eck, 2017). Thankfully, due to the resolute resistance, specific organizations, such as the Ghana Federation of the Disabled and Amnesty International, stepped in to advocate for the nominee and refute the chief's statements. Nevertheless, chiefs hold significant influence as traditional leaders, shaping the decisions and actions of those under their authority (Kissi & Van Eck, 2017). This instance underscores the mistreatment of individuals with disabilities, even when they have achieved remarkable accomplishments in highly esteemed fields such as law. Cultural Framework To further investigate the lived experiences of Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) in Ghana, the research employed a cultural studies framework, ensuring that the study is situated within the specific Ghanaian context (Nelson et al., 1992). Adopting a cultural studies framework facilitates an enhanced comprehension of the intricate interplay between power dynamics and cultural norms 16 (Sandlin, 2005). Its primary objective is to illuminate the role of power and mitigate its adverse effects on interpersonal relationships. Within the Ghanaian society, PWDs are frequently stigmatized and encounter negative attitudes that relegate them to a disadvantaged position (Naami, 2015). Therefore, employing a cultural studies framework allows readers and researchers to discern how power dynamics and negative attitudes toward PWDs impede their access to educational opportunities (Sandar & Van Loon, 1998). Furthermore, this framework sheds light on the extent to which adult education has become entangled in consumer culture, underscoring the influence of consumer capitalism on the educational experiences of PWDs in universities. Inclusive Education for PWDs in Sub-Saharan African Countries The significance of affording individuals with disabilities (SWDs) the opportunity to express their experiences and viewpoints within universities should not be underestimated. Across sub-Saharan nations, SWDs encounter similar challenges. For instance, in Malawi, persons with disabilities (PWDs) face obstacles in accessing education, healthcare, and employment (Mannan et al., 2012). Similarly, in Namibia, a different sub-Saharan African country, educational support is estimated to be provided for children and youth with learning disabilities, visual impairments, and hearing impairments (Bruhns et al., 1995; Sikanku,2020). Moreover, research indicates that more than half of Namibia's individuals with disabilities aged six years and older have never had the opportunity to attend school (Bruhns et al., 1995). Notably, Ghana, considered a leading sub- Saharan African nation in inclusive education, shares comparable experiences among its SWDs. Inclusive Education for PWDs in Ghana Inclusive education assumes a critical role as it embodies principles of social inclusion, social justice, and the pursuit of fundamental human rights for persons with disabilities (PWDs) (Chamera, 2010), potentially impacting an estimated 150 million children with disabilities residing 17 in developing nations (Zuurmond et al., 2019). However, implementing inclusive education in developing countries encounters various challenges, such as political interests and financial constraints (Chamera, 2010). For instance, governments in developing countries exhibit uncertainty regarding adopting inclusive education, reflecting an overall lack of political commitment to its provision (Chamera, 2010). Furthermore, adopting inclusive education practices in developing countries heavily relies on research and expertise from developed countries, thus needing more cultural relevance and capacity building within the specific context of developing nations (Ansong et al., 2017; Chamera, 2010). Within the Ghanaian educational system, historical experiences of PWDs are limited. Approximately 0.6% of students in Ghana have disabilities (Botts & Evans, 2010). Like other developing countries, the advancement of inclusive education for PWDs in Ghana has followed a similar trajectory (Anson-Yevo, 1988; Ametepee & Anastasiou, 2015). In the past, missionaries primarily established and administered educational provisions for students with hearing or visual impairments (Avoke, 2001). By the 1960s, other organizations had emerged to establish educational facilities for SWDs (Avoke, 1997, 2001). Subsequently, the Ghanaian government assumed responsibility for the education of PWDs through various initiatives (Anson-Yevo, 1988). Notably, the introduction of the Free, Compulsory Universal Basic Education in 1996 compelled the government to acknowledge the necessity of accessible education for children with disabilities. This led to the establishment of the Special Education division within the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Services (Botts & Evans, 2010). While research predominantly focuses on inclusive education within K-12 institutions, limited studies have examined the landscape of inclusive education in higher education institutions. Previous investigations have explored the perceptions of SWDs regarding the availability of 18 adaptive technology at the University of Ghana and the University of Cape Coast, two prominent public universities in Ghana (Addae-Wireko, 2019). The findings revealed that these universities were inadequately equipped to support SWDs, evidenced by inaccessible buildings and inadequate implementation of relevant policies, among other challenges. Inclusive Higher Education for PWDs in Ghana The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) served as a platform for the discussion of the imperative inclusion of SWDs at higher education and other educational levels (Agbenyega, 2002; Adera & Asimeng-Boahene, 2011). The conference also deliberated on the topic of free compulsory universal basic education (FCUBE) to address issues of access, educational quality, and enhancing opportunities for persons with disabilities (PWDs) (Agbenyega, 2002; Adera & Asimeng-Boahene, 2011). Notably, the notion of higher education in Ghana has a relatively recent historical background. Many educational institutions in Ghana need more accurate statistical data concerning the presence of SWDs within their establishments (Ayoung et al., 2013). Instead, studies primarily relied on estimations regarding the number of persons with disabilities. This lack of precise information poses challenges in policymaking and gathering reliable data regarding SWDs within universities. An investigation carried out by Momodu (2013) involving eight universities revealed that despite multi-story buildings, environmental barriers such as inadequate elevators and ramps hindered SWDs from accessing these facilities. Additionally, students reported limited access to library resources, attitudinal barriers from staff, and technological obstacles (Momodu, 2013). Consequently, SWDs pursuing higher education are at a higher risk of dropping out due to insufficient support, resources, and services (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2021). 19 Furthermore, in the past, obtaining a university degree in Ghana was perceived not as contributing to national development but as a means for individuals to ascend to higher social echelons (McCain, 1979). Although higher education has gained greater acceptance in Ghanaian society, graduates with such degrees continue to be regarded as status symbols (McCain, 1979). Upon completing their university education, recent graduates in Ghana must fulfill one year of national service, with exemptions granted to individuals from institutions outside Ghana (McCain, 1979). Recent research indicates that while higher education can serve as a vehicle for democracy, it can also perpetuate social differentiation. Higher education offers both public and private benefits, as it contributes to societal wealth, development, and social security as a public benefit (Morley et al., 2009). Simultaneously, it allows individuals to generate personal wealth and achieve their financial aspirations as a personal benefit (Morley et al., 2009). Unfortunately, within the broader Ghanaian society, individuals who secure employment after graduation are more likely to do so through social connections. Consequently, students with such networks can obtain good employment opportunities (Morley et al., 2009). Employment Situation for PWDs Ananga and Anapey (2016) conducted a study revealing that unemployment among recent graduates from Ghanaian universities has increased. This phenomenon can be attributed to the failure to adequately equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge, coupled with the sluggish growth of the Ghanaian economy (Naami, 2015). The employment challenges faced by Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) in Ghana are even more pronounced due to pervasive negative attitudes toward PWDs, which impede their ability to secure employment and limit the types of job opportunities available to them (Mizunoya & Mitra, 2013; Naami et al., 2012; Naami, 2015). 20 These negative attitudes persist despite laws and policies ensuring that PWDs enjoy equal access to employment and education (Ananga & Anapey, 2016; Kassah, 2008; Ocran, 2019). The employment difficulties encountered by PWDs often compel them to resort to street begging to sustain their livelihood (Kassah, 2008; Naami et al., 2012). In order to address the need for more employment opportunities for PWDs, various associations have undertaken diverse initiatives to facilitate access to jobs. For instance, the Ghana National Association of the Deaf (GNAD) encourages its members to engage in self-employment ventures, such as batik making and different forms of farming, to generate income (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). In addition to advocating for employment opportunities, other organizations, including the Ghana Society of Physically Disabled (GSFD), actively raise awareness about the employment and educational needs specific to PWDs. The Ghanaian government also allocates funding for initiatives that support the educational requirements of PWDs in the country (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). One such initiative is the Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) program, which provides financial assistance and facilitates access to social benefits, including essential materials needed for school attendance (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). Policies In response to the unjust and deplorable conditions experienced by individuals with disabilities, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) was established, extending its reach to sub-Saharan nations like Ghana. However, despite various countries' endorsement of the CRPD, not all have fully complied with its mandate to ensure inclusive education (Mannan et al., 2012). Research has examined disability policies in other sub-Saharan countries, such as Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, and Sudan (Mannan et al., 2012). When employing the EquiFrame policy analysis framework, Namibia's disability policies were generally 21 rated highly, while Malawi, South Africa, and Sudan received lower ratings (Amin et al., 2011; Vanrooy, et al., 2012). The legislation includes provisions that aim to facilitate access to employment for individuals with disabilities through government-provided incentives for employers (Ghana Persons with Disabilities Act of 2006). Moreover, employers are mandated to ensure the provision of accessible tools necessary for individuals with disabilities to effectively carry out their job responsibilities (Ghana Persons with Disabilities Act of 2006). This aspect holds relevance to the present study, as the evaluation of career support entails considering individuals' interests and their awareness of available career opportunities. Inclusive Education Policy in Ghana Over the years, many laws and policies have been passed to protect the rights of PWDs in education and employment settings, including the Disability Act Article 29 of 1992 constitution, the Children’s Act 1998 (Act 560), the National Health Insurance Act 2012 (Act 852), Education Act 2008 (Act 778), and Labor Act 2003 (Act 651). In addition, Ghana established the Disability Act of 2006 (section 715) to establish a national council for persons with disabilities and to provide other essential supports (Disability Act of 2006 section 715). Concepts of this Act include rights; access to employment; access to education; transportation; health care and facilities; miscellaneous provisions; establishment and function of a national council for persons with disabilities; and administrative and financial provisions (Disability Act of 2006 section 715). Specifically, designated schools and educational institutions must have the equipment needed for free education and meeting the accommodation requirements for SWDs (Disability Act of 2006 section 715). Apart from designating schools and educational institutions to provide accommodations for SWDs, schools are prohibited from discriminating against SWDs based on 22 their disability (Asante & Sasu, 2015; Ocran, 2019). The only circumstance where a SWD can be asked to attend a different institution is if the SWD is deemed by the Ghana Education System and the Ghana Health Services as someone who needs to attend a school for students with special needs due to exceptional support that the student requires (Asante & Sasu, 2015; Ocran, 2019). Despite having many laws to protect the rights of PWDs in compliance with the CRPD in Ghana, these laws have not changed the attitudes of individuals in Ghanaian society toward PWDs (Kotoh & Van der Geest, 2016; Manful & McCrystal, 2011; Ocran, 2019). The Ghana Education Services and the Ministry of Education can spend more resources designing courses that emphasize disability education which would be promoted at the primary level throughout the educational system to sensitize Ghanaians to influence the attitudes towards PWDs (Srem-Sai, 2015). Social, Career and Academic Support for SWDs in Universities Social Support Social support is usually defined as the existence or availability of people we can rely on, who let us know that they care about, value, and love us (Sarason et al., 1983). Ellerton and colleagues (1996) defined social support as the interaction between individuals’ family, peers, friends, and healthcare providers communicating information, esteem, and or emotional help. Social support can also be defined as tangible, emotional, and informational support (Campbell & Gilmore, 2014; Ellerton et al., 1996). In this study, social support is operationalized as any form of supporting acts performed by family, peers, and others around the individual with the disability (Mundhenke, 2009). This includes instrumental, emotional, and informative support (Ellerton et al., 1996; Mundhenke, 2009). It also includes the support an Individual receives in the form of love, care, and value from people that individuals can rely on (Sarason et al., 1987). The different 23 definitions of social support sub-categorized social support among family, peers, friends, and instructors/teachers. Limited Social Support for PWDs in Ghana. PWDs usually face social stigma, exploitation, discrimination, families being socially ostracized, having a family member with a disability, and having family members hide PWDs due to being shamed by society (Etieyibo & Omiegbe, 2017). Psychiatric facilities in Ghana are under pressure because those admitted for inpatient services tend to overstay. Patients admitted to these institutions receive free care from the hospitals, which families and caregivers find extremely attractive and convenient and end up neglecting them in these institutions (Ofori-Atta et al., 2010). In addition, the Akan ethnic group is one of the largest and most influential ethnic groups in Ghana (Sackey, 2015). Among those with disabilities, 46.5% of PWDs identified as belonging to the Akan ethnic group. Some Akan adages emphasize the importance of following leaders and parents (Kissi & Van Eck, 2017). However, PWDs are sometimes discouraged from obtaining high education or working by family members (Burton et al., 2013) which have ripple effects on the PWDs. Thus, SWDs face compounded social barriers to access higher education and employment (Ananga & Anapey, 2016). Therefore, the solution to the successful inclusion of PWDs into the Ghanaian universities depends significantly on the roles of leaders and parents in ensuring that PWDs have autonomy and advocacy in universities (Kissi & Van Eck, 2017). Benefits of Social Supports for PWDs. Social support is a mediating factor for individuals with psychiatric and mental health disorders. In Ghana, according to Ofori-Atta and colleagues (2010), people who need psychiatric services turn to family members, faith healers, and traditional healers. It has been proven to increase a SWD’s adjustment and serves as a buffer for SWDs 24 (Fleming et al., 2017). Studies show that parental and peer support is a significant predictor of life satisfaction for SWDs which help their behavioral and emotional control and school engagement and outcomes (Campbell & Gilmore, 2014). SWDs who receive parental and peer support report higher self-esteem, higher social competence, experience less loneliness, better management of stress (Ellerton et al., 1996). Thus, family, peer and community support are essential for PWDs (Eleweke, 2013). Previous studies have shown that social support is also crucial for SWDs who attend universities. Lombardi and colleagues (2011) found that SWDs who attended universities would not self-disclose their disabilities even if they had received prior support in high school. Morningstar et al. (2010) found that SWD’s perception of family support as they transition into their higher education is essential. Academic Support Academic support is defined as any activity that supports the students’ academic progress outside of the regular instruction. This includes activities such as tutoring, mentoring, and supplemental instruction (Walker, 2016). Limited Academic Support for PWDs in Ghana. In a study of 49 countries, researchers found that PWDs between the ages of 15 to 29 were less likely to complete education (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2018). When asked about their experiences, SWDs stated that they felt powerless and without autonomy when addressing structural challenges (Morley & Croft, 2011). SWDs also ranked the academic environments as inaccessible – lecture halls, libraries, and tech laboratories (Ashigbi et al., 2017). Due to the inaccessible nature of the academic buildings, without a universal design, it is evident that these buildings could not be adapted to the needs of 25 SWDs (Ashigbi et al., 2017). These structural challenges are examples of academic limitations that SWDs face consistently on university campuses (Ashigbi et al., 2017). While Ghana is considered one of the more progressive African nations when it comes to supporting SWDs, there is limited university library accessibility and the university library materials are not adequately transcribed into accessible forms , including computer training, low vision accessible documents, braille production, braille and audio library services, and orientation and mobility services (Ayoung et al., 2021; Momodu, 2013; Phukubje & Ngoepe, 2017). These limited forms of educational materials limit SWD’s ability to actively engage in class assignments and discussions. Benefits of Academic Supports. Alghazo et al. (2003) revealed a positive relationship between the positive attitude towards PWDs among educators and student engagement and outcomes. Phukubje and Ngoepe (2017) also highlighted the importance of providing accessible educational academic resources and supports, including: transcribes books into an accessible format, provides training for SWDs and their peers on how to use formats, creates user guides for SWDs, library staff should be proactive in discovering materials that are not accessible for SWDs, form partnerships with publishers, hire more staff exceptionally trained to serve SWDs, provide more assistive technology and a more accessible library website. All these suggestions would enable SWDs to engage in course material actively and successfully achieve their academic aspirations. Career Support Career support is defined as any career assistance that is given to SWDs to choose and decide how they pursue a meaningful occupation. Career support is crucial because SWDs often face challenges throughout career development. Studies show that students are equipped with 26 limited skills in navigating employment after completing their degree due to lack of planning, choosing, and implementing their career plan (Gerber, 2011) as well as limited employment opportunities for PWDs in Ghana (Kassah, 2008). There are also other barriers including lacking career options, needing workplace modifications, requiring the supports of rehabilitation counselor or other vocational supports (McClain-Nhlapo, 2007), and facing discrimination from employers and work colleagues (Athanasou et al., 2019). Career counselling has been proven to increase selfefficacy of PWDs and increase career participation. (Athanasou et al., 2019). Limited Career Support for PWDs in Ghana. Career counseling has been proven to increase self-efficacy of PWDs and increase career participation. (Athanasou et al., 2019). While there is a push to provide more funding to enable institutions to provide career-related services and support for SWDs (Chen, 2021), the amount of support and resources are quite limited. For instance, Ananga and Anapey (2016) interviewed 2,337 university students to examine their perspectives about career preparation. They found significant unemployment among recent graduates from Ghanaian universities because of students were ill-prepared for their work-related experiences after completing their degrees along with the slow economic growth in the country (Ananga & Anapey, 2016). Benefits of Career Supports. Providing career support and resources to empower PWDs’ career development is a strategy towards reducing poverty across the globe but must include the voice of PWDs (McClain-Nhlapo, 2007). In addition to improving the inclusivity and diversity of universities to meet the needs of SWDs, offering quality career support and services for SWDs in universities in countries in the global south, such as Ghana, can significantly improve the Ghanaian economy. Ananga and Anapey (2016) examine students’ perspectives about career preparation. 27 Among the universities for SWDs, the accessibility of academic careers can be challenging, having career support available for SWDs would be very helpful in advancing their careers (Ashigbi et al., 2017). Study-related Constructs, Variables and Measures Relationship Between Demographics and Variables Age. SWDs between the ages of 15-29 have a higher dropout rate (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2018). In studies on the experiences of SWDs, most participants tended to be older than their peers (Hlengwa & Masuku, 2022). The data on the ages of the participants was explored further in chapters 3 and 4 of this study. Sex. In primary education, 43% of males completed their primary education, while 40% of females completed their primary education (Sasu, 2022). Similarly, in tertiary education, it is estimated that male students are more likely to complete their tertiary education than their female counterparts (Sasu, 2022). These findings were also evident in later chapters of this study. Ethnicity. With approximately 200 ethnic groups and a highly religious population it is imperative to recognize these aspects in this study (Botts & Evans, 2010). Each ethnic group has specific practices and beliefs surrounding disability (Oppong-Boateng, 2020) this might influence the participants views about themselves and disability. In addition, Oppong-Boateng (2020) found that most PWDs in urban areas identified as belonging to the Akan ethnic group. In this study, all the universities are in regions primarily for persons in the Akan ethnic group. Therefore, there might be a higher percentage of SWDs in these regions than in other regions. Type of Disability. Walking, as the means of movement, accounts for approximately 45% of the movement in urban areas and about 90% in rural areas (Odame et al., 2020). Therefore, individuals with ambulatory and visual disabilities are likely to have more challenges maneuvering 28 university campus than individuals with other disabilities. Most studies on the experiences of individuals with disabilities focused on individuals with visual impairments (Appiah, 2016; Sikanku, 2020). Type of University Enrolled. Based on data collected in 2019, private universities had the highest enrollment, with over two hundred thousand individuals enrolling in Ghana’s tertiary institutions (Sasu, 2022). Private universities were the next ranked, followed by agricultural universities (Sasu, 2022). Registration with the Office for Students with Disabilities. The student’s registration with the disability services assures students of receiving services (Odame, 2020). In this study, requiring registration with the DSO would also mean missing out on a group of SWDs who do not choose to receive services (Odame, 2020). Academic Accommodations. Accommodations for SWDs, include accessible furniture and accessible areas with “internet hotspots” to allow SWDs to access the internet conveniently so students can actively engage in course activities (Oppong-Boateng, 2020). Well-being. SWDs in universities had better well-being because they received more family and community support (Al-Attiyah & Mahasneh, 2018). Types of Support and Related Measures There are multiple instruments that have been developed to assess the career, social, and academic support for SWDs. As a result of all these studies and policies that have been implemented there are various studies on inclusive education and universities (Lombardi et al., 2018). Over 60 instruments have been used to measure the perceptions of persons with disabilities (Lombardi et al., 2018). Currently narrowing down the scope, this was based on the traits measured 29 and the rigor of the instrument and additionally assessing the validity and reliability especially when used on individuals in different cultural contexts. To be able to properly understand the topic of the experiences of individuals with disabilities in universities, many similar studies where were assessed to be able to determine how the experiences of SWDs and universities in sub-Sahara Africa using some of these instruments. In this section, each instrument was described in more detail. Social Support Several instruments assess social support in higher education. For the SWDs in universities, the two appropriate instruments researchers have used are the College Students with Disabilities Campus Climate survey (CSDCC) and the social support questionnaire (SSQ). College Students with Disabilities Campus Climate survey (CSDCC). The CSDCC was developed by Lombardi and colleagues (2011). This survey was developed and originally administered to students in 4-year colleges in the United States (US) to assess the perception of SWDs about social, academic and career support (Lombardi et al., 2011). It has a medium to high Cronbach’s alpha is between .70-.80 and consists of 9 factors, including peer support, utilizing accommodations, disability factors, self-advocacy family support, campus climate, faculty teaching practices, faculty attempts, and stigmatization of disability factor (Lombardi et al., 2011). Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ). The SSQ was developed by Sarason and colleagues (1983) to measure their perceived social support and their satisfaction with social support (Sarason et al., 1983). The SSQ also shows that social support positively correlates with positive life experiences. Additionally, the SSQ shows that social support is a factor that is negatively associated with persisting in a difficult task (Sarason et al., 1983). 30 Academic Support To measure students’ perceptions of academic support in universities, some instruments that have been used in previous studies include: iEvaluate, Accommodation of University Students with Disabilities Inventory (AUSDI), Accessibility of Campus Computing for Students with Disabilities Scale (ACCSDS), and the College Students with Disabilities Campus Climate survey (CSDCC). iEvaluate. This instrument was developed to help DSOs on different university campuses assess their programs. iEvaluate was developed by Dukes (2011). The iEvaluate assessment tool was developed to be an assessment tool to be used by the DSO (Dukes, 2011). It consists of nine subscales: campus and community collaboration, information dissemination, office administration, office policies and procedures, office evaluation, self-determination, universal design, educational access, and educational preparation and professional development (Dukes, 2011). Although the iEvaluate has been shown to recognize the value of assessing their programs for evaluation by professionals working with SWDs in universities, it is deemed inappropriate for SWDs to use to provide their perception of the university support (Dukes (2011). Accessibility of Campus Computing for Students with Disabilities Scale (ACCSDS). The ACCSDS was developed by Fossey and colleagues (2001) and used to measure the accessibility of campus computers. It also evaluates the type of adaptive software used on university computers and the type of adaptation software that faculty use for interacting and instructing students (Fossey, 2001). The ACCSDS consists of five subscales: call-on access to adaptive computers, infrastructure and collaboration, academic inclusion, adaptive technology, and competence (Fossey et al., 2001). 31 Accommodation of University Students with Disabilities Inventory (AUSDI). The AUSDI was developed by Wolman and colleagues (2004) to determine the attitudes of faculties towards PWD in universities (Wolman et al., 2004). The subscales of this instrument are willingness to accommodate students with learning disabilities, willingness to accommodate students with deafness or blindness, willingness to accommodate students with emotional problems, willingness to accommodate students with physical disabilities, assumptions about SWDs, professional development provided by the college, and friendship with persons with disabilities (Wolman et al., 2004). Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIS). The ASSIS was developed by Tait and colleagues (1997) to assess students’ approaches to studying materials (Brown et al., 2015). It consists of 52 items and categorizes individuals’ study strategies as either “deep,” “surface,” or “strategic” (Brown et al., 2015). The researchers concluded that students use memorization methods, a “surface” strategy, to gather information necessary for meeting primary academic purposes (Brown et al., 2015). Career Support To assess students’ career goals and support, these instruments can be considered, include the Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (CDMSES) and Career Decidedness Scale (CDS). Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (CDMSES). Career DecisionMaking Self-Efficacy Scale-Short Form (CDMSES). This survey was developed by Taylor and Betz (1983) and has 25 items and five subscales. The subscales are self-appraisal, goal selection, planning, occupational information, and problem-solving (Taylor & Betz, 1983). The 32 CDMSES aims for self-evaluation, gather information on their occupation, decide their career goals, make plans for their futures, and be able to problem-solve proactively (Creed et al., 2002). Career Decidedness Scale (CDS). The CDS was developed by Osipow (1987) to determine the difference between students who decide on their college majors compared to peers who cannot decide on their future college careers (Betz et al., 1997; Gordon, 1998). The CDS can also be used to determine how students come to their career decisions early and whether they are mature (Betz et al., 1997; Gordon, 1998). Well-being There are various scales for measuring students’ well-being, these include the Flourishing Scale, Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). The Flourishing Scale. The Flourishing Scale was developed by Diener and colleagues (2010) to measure both positive and negative feelings, a combination of subjective and objective well-being. The flourishing Scale has eight items and an internal consistency of 0.80 (Diener et al., 2010). It has a high convergent validity with scales such as the Basic Need with Satisfaction Scale and the Satisfaction with life scale (Silva & Caetano, 2013). Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE). The SPANE was developed by Diener and colleagues (2010) to measure well-being. The scale has 12 items with 6 items each that measure positive and negative experiences, respectively (Diener et al., 2010). It also measures feelings in general (e.g., good or bad) and specific emotions (e.g., being afraid or angry) (Jovanović, 2015). The SPANE also measures the frequency of an emotion and asserts that the frequency of an emotion is directly related to well-being (Jovanović, 2015). Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). The SWLS was developed by Diener and colleagues 33 (1985) to measure an individual’s life satisfaction on a grand scale (Pavot & Diener, 1993). The SWLS comprises of 5 items and was normed in the United States (Diener, 1985). It has been used in various contexts and the correlation between the SWLS and other scales are shown to be medium to high (Diener, 1985). The SWLS was considered a more renowned and appropriate scale to measure the participants of this study’s well-being. 34 CHAPTER 3 – METHOD This chapter outlines the methodological framework to investigate the perspectives of SWDs concerning the support they receive and their well-being. First, the research design was discussed followed by the sampling, sample size, and participant selection criteria. Also, the variables and instruments used for this study and the study procedures were described. Finally, data analysis, anticipated results, and anticipated limitations was discussed. Research Design/Strategy A cross-sectional descriptive correlation design was used to understand the perspectives of SWDs on support and well-being. The study had variables of social support, academic support, career support, and well-being to gather data from SWDs at three universities in Ghana. This quantitative study utilized instruments that allowed students from three public universities in Ghana to share their experiences, which would later be generalizable to other students in similar universities in Ghana and sub-Saharan Africa. Participant Selection The target population for this study was SWDs enrolled in public universities in Ghana. The eligible criteria for participants were: (1) age of 18 and above and their own guardian, (2) enrolled as a student at the University of Ghana- Legon (UG), University of Education- Winneba (UEW), or the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), (3) identified as someone with a disability, and (4) were registered with the disability office on campus. Of the initial estimate of 277 SWDs registered at all three universities, 132 (48%) participants completed the survey – KNUST (n = 30), UEW (n = 62), and UG (n = 40). These SWDs were recruited using the snowballing/referral method. These participants completed both online and hard copy surveys depending on their access to a smartphone from July to August 2023. 35 80 participants completed hard copy surveys, whereas 52 completed the online survey using their smartphones. Participants were mostly male (n = 82, 62.1%). Most participants said they had a visual impairment, others had other disabilities including hearing impairment, mobility, and other disabilities further discussed in chapter 4. For the purpose of this study, disability is defined as anything (physical or mental impairment) that impairs an individual’s ability to perform one or more major activities of daily living (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990). Therefore, this study included students with all types of disabilities. The key terms and definition of disability were shared with the research assistants and student leaders for support groups for SWDs to ensure that students with all disabilities could participate in the study. The ages of participants ranged from 19-42, however, it was difficult to determine the mean age because some participants did not feel comfortable disclosing their ages. This limitation is expounded in Chapter 5. In terms of education, 57.8% of participants had completed their high school degree or diploma by the time they were completing this survey. Participants were enrolled in various majors ranging from special education to engineering. For academic performance, 67.7% of participants had a grade point average of 3.0 or above. In terms of income, most students stated that they received financial assistance, most participants selected that their income was through friends and family. In Ghana, English is considered the formal language of command, a sign of education, and is emphasized in schools (Jibril & Gyasi, 2017). Thus, participants could write, speak, and comprehend fluent English. As a result, none of the surveys were translated into any ethnic language. Although the DSOs varied regarding the services provided and the institutions’ 36 restrictions, data collection in each institution was consistent and required a collaborative effort between research assistants, university administrators, DSO staff, and student group leaders for SWDs. Participant Selection Adaptation Although all universities completed physical or virtual versions of the survey, there were some adaptations that had to be implemented for students at UEW. For the UEW students, there was a sign language interpreter available to help students with hearing impairment if they had any questions or concerns about the survey. Procedure The investigator initially visited four educational institutions in Ghana, with the primary objectives of acquiring insights into the administrative procedures (including obtaining ethical clearance) and gathering pertinent information concerning their Disability Service Offices (DSOs). To ensure the ethical rigor of this study, the researcher sought Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval from Michigan State University (MSU). Subsequently, the researcher solicited additional clearance from the Ghanaian institutions. Following ethical approval, the researcher contacted administrative personnel and DSO staff, thus commencing recruitment. Consequently, the researcher collected data from three institutions. The researcher recruited participants by contacting DSOs and specialized student organizations catering to individuals with disabilities in the respective universities. In instances where the university featured an operational student group devoted to disability-related matters, student leaders established a WhatsApp group for prospective study participants. Student leaders and research assistants were included as members in these WhatsApp groups to optimize procedural consistency and safeguard the research's integrity. 37 In institutions without a student group, the DSOs worked with a research assistant assigned to their specific university. Each research assistant obtained training to familiarize them with the study questionnaire for the printed copies and online surveys to ensure that they could answer any of the participants’ questions. Research assistants and DSO workers or student leaders who actively participated in the study were compensated for their contributions to the study. The designated research assistant would coordinate the survey distribution which included a link to the consent form and the Qualtrics survey. To increase response rates the researcher included followup phone calls and Whatsapp messages to the DSO correspondent to increase the response rate (Dutta, 2001; Manzo & Burke, 2012). After all data was completed, the DSOs were given a gratuity as a sign of gratitude for assisting in the data collection process. Due to institutional variances in support for SWDs in Ghana, multiple communications with different departments including asking for assistance with delays with administrative processes. These surveys were cross-checked by faculty at Ghanaian institutions, a clinical psychologist, a sociologist working in data collection in Ghana, and by doctoral students in American universities to ensure that all the studies were adapted to ensure that they were culturally appropriate and accessible to the SWDs. If any questions were raised regarding functionality of the study or cultural appropriation, changes were made to the survey upon receiving feedback to ensure that questions surveys were accessible and directly pertained to the Ghanaian university context. The survey distribution method was accessible, including recognizing the different disabilities that students might have, and their ability maneuver the questionnaire (Baker et al., 38 2012). These adaptations included using Qualtrics formats recognized by basic screen reading technology for speech-to-text (to register students’ responses) and text-to- speech (to allow students to read or access the information on the document). For participants who did not have access to a smart-phone, physical copies of the survey were printed, and DSO staff and the research assistants would read out the questionnaire to students. For students who had smart phones, students would complete the surveys in the DSO office where they would be able to clarify with the research assistant if there were any technical difficulties. In some instances, the slow internet connection would cause delays or glitches in the survey which would require that participants started the survey all over. These unfortunate instances showed the importance of ensuring that students completed the surveys with research assistants to avoid instances where there were any difficulties. Data for the printed copies of the surveys were verified and students initialed the top of each paper of the physical copy and wrote their mobile money details and contact information on the back of the survey. All information was compiled by the research assistant and scanned and uploaded to a password protected file which was only accessible to the principal investigator and the research assistants. In addition to encouraging students to complete this survey, students who completed the survey were given the equivalent of a gift card/mobile money to compensate for their time and data used to complete the survey. Participants had the option of converting the mobile money into data or mobile money equivalent to Apple pay or Paypal. According to Manzo & Burke (2012), participants were more likely to complete surveys when they received postpaid incentives. Therefore, the research assistant verified that participants had completed the survey in its entirety 39 and ensured that students had included their mobile money details to ensure that they received compensation. Adaptation of Procedures Although the researcher pursued ethical clearance from three Ghanaian universities, the researcher could not incorporate data from one of these institutions due to a significant delay in the IRB approval process. Conversely, the fourth institution indicated that ethical clearance granted by the researcher's home institution sufficed. To implement the surveys, students from the UG completed their entire survey online. Whereas UEW students completed the survey using a combination of online and paper copies. Therefore, to ensure the integrity of the study, QR codes were printed in the DSO office to ensure that students did not send survey links to individuals who were not physically present in the DSO office or who stated that they did not want to participate in the study. The research assistant would help individuals who had visual impairments to know where to point their devices to scan the QR code. The paper copies were then entered into Qualtrics. Instrumentation and Variables Demographic Information Information gathered in the demographic survey and sections with questions about the type of disabilities, registration status with disability service office, students’ usage of the DSO, types of supports received, and frequency and type of interaction with other SWD. More information on the demographic section is included in the appendix. 40 Table 3.1 Description of instruments Instrument Name Developed By Constructs Measured Number of Items College Students with Disabilities Campus Climate survey (CSDCC) Lombardi and colleagues (2011) Individual Actions (Self efficacy and self-advocacy) 40 Postsecondary Supports (disability services and Faculty Teaching practices) Social Supports (family and peer support) 40 Disability Services (access and needs) Overall well-being 5 Dutta (2001) Disability Related Services and Satisfaction Questionnaire (DRSSQ) Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) Diener and colleagues (1985 Adaptation of instruments Three instruments were adapted. Variables and subscales and items from each questionnaire. To avoid inconsistency in the operational definition and the concepts being measured, each construct was carefully defined (Altman & Barnatt, 2003). Participants in this study completed the adapted version of the College Students with Disabilities Campus Climate survey (CSDCC) developed by Lombardi and colleagues (2011), the Disability Related Services Needs and Satisfaction Inventory developed by Dutta (2001), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) by Diener (1985). This is because the CSDCC was validated and normed on undergraduate college students in north America (predominantly white students), so it is important to adapt the survey to students in Ghana (Lombardi et al., 2011). These surveys were adapted based on feedback from experts. 41 For example, instead of asking students for their grade point average (GPA), in some Ghanaian universities like KNUST, students were familiar with the term cumulative weighted average/mark (CWA/CWM). In all three institutions, students preferred to use the term “course” to describe their “majors.” Therefore, the researcher had to make the necessary adaptations to the survey to ensure that students recognized these key terms which were crucial parts of the demographic section of the study. Additionally, students referred to their instructors as “lecturers” rather than “professors.” The selected instruments are explained further below. College Students with Disabilities Campus Climate survey (CSDCC). The CSDCC was developed by Lombardi and colleagues (2011) to assess the perception of university climate among SWDs. Researchers have found that university climate can be used to study the approach of university students, faculty, administration, and additional service providers towards individuals from a marginalized group, such as SWDs. This inventory has been used to assess individual actions of SWDs, social support and post-secondary support received by SWDs (Lombardi et al., 2011) and the needs for SWDs (Fleming et al., 2017). There are 40 items with 6 response options for each item in the original version of the CSDCC (Lombardi et al., 2011). Each item is rated on a 6-point Likert scale from 1-never true to 6-always true (Fleming et al., 2017). The internal consistency of the CSDCC is α = .80, which is considered an optimal value (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Lombardi et al, 2011). The 9 factors are: peer support, utilizing accommodations, disability services, self- advocacy, family support, campus climate, faculty teaching practices, faculty attempts to minimize barriers, and stigmatization of disability (Lombardi et al., 2011). The Cronbach alphas of the original factors ranged from α = .60 to α = .88. The description of each of the factors, their psychometric properties, and examples of each are listed below. 42 For this study, the first factor is Peer Support (α = .88) consisting of 4 items (e.g., “I make friends easily at this university.”). The second factor is Utilizing Accommodations (α = .72) consisting of 5 items (e.g., “I don’t utilize accommodations unless absolutely necessary.”). The third factor is Disability Services (α = .77) consisting of 4 items (e.g., “I feel comfortable discussing challenges related to my disability with people who work in Disability Services.”). The fourth factor is Self-advocacy (α = .80) consisting of 6 items (e.g., “Generally, I feel good about myself and my abilities at this university.”). The fifth factor is “Family Support” (α = .79) consisting of 4 items (e.g., “My family members have helped me in college by providing me with emotional support.”). The sixth factor is Campus Climate (α = .79) consisting of 4 items (e.g., “I wish I attended a different university.”). The seventh factor is Faculty Teaching Practices (α = .74) consisting of 4 items (e.g., “My instructors provide more than the minimum modifications needed to accommodate my disability.”). The eight factor is Faculty Attempts to Minimize Barriers (α = .60) consisting of 4 items (e.g., “My instructors include a statement in their syllabus inviting students with disabilities to discuss their needs with them.”). The last factor is Stigmatization of Disability (α = .64) consisting of 5 items (e.g., “I feel my instructors are not willing to provide requested accommodations.”). 43 Table 3.2 Sample questions from the CSDCC Variable Item Likert Scale 1 = never true 2 = rarely true 3 = sometimes true 4 = about half of the time true 5 = most of the time true 6 = always true Social Support I make friends easily at this university Academic Support My lecturers provide more than the 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 minimum changes needed to accommodate my disability Disability Related Services and Satisfaction Questionnaire (DRSSQ). The DRSSQ was developed by Dutta (2001) to assess students’ needs and satisfaction with the DSOs on university campus. Respondents are asked to rate the need or satisfaction with the services on a 5-point Likert scale. This scale ranged from no need (0); some need (1); average need (2), great need (3), and extreme need (4). Questions under the DSO domain had questions that are rated using “yes/no” dichotomous responses, and open-ended questions. The DRSSQ is divided into three sections: demographics, disability related issues (consists of 6 variables), and finally disability related services and needs (Dutta, 2001). The DRSSQ consists of 40 items organized in 11 subscales: (1) Academic Support Services (8 items; (2) Transportation/Mobility Services (4 items); (3) Disability Related Services and Needs (5 items); (4) Housing/Residential Support Services (2 items); (5) Accessibility/Promotional Services (5 items); (6) Recreation and Leisure Services (3 items); (7) Individual Support Services (4 items); (8) Support Groups (3 items); (9) Health Care Services (4 items); (10) Assistive Devices/Special Equipment Services (2 items); (11) Career Counseling/Career Planning (2 items); (12) Job 44 Placement Services upon Graduation (3 items). Only the third domain (i.e., Disability Services: Needs and Satisfaction) of the DRSSQ was used in this study. Table 3.3 Sample questions from the DRSSQ Variable Item Likert Scale Likert Scale 0 = no need 1 = some need 2 = average need 3 = great need 4 = extreme need 0 1 2 3 4 0 = no access 1 = some access 2 = average access 3 = great access 4 = extreme access 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Social Support Academic Support Career Support Peer support group/special interest club/campus organizations Consultations with lecturers on accommodation Provision of information on opportunities for future careers Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) comprises five items (Diener, 1985). The questionnaire was developed as a measure for subjective well-being (SWB) (Diener et al., 1999). The SWLS provides a global subjective perspective on the individuals well-being which is different from other well-being questionnaires which narrow in on a specific population or do not have high psychometric properties (Pavot et al., 1999). For each item in the questionnaire, participants answer on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (slightly disagree), 4 (neither agree nor disagree), 5 (slightly agree), 6 (agree), or 7 (strongly agree) to indicate their agreement with each item (Pavot & Diener, 2008). Sample items 45 include “In most ways my life is close to my ideal,” and “If I could have my life over, I would change almost nothing” This item has a loading factor ranges from 0.61 and 0.85 (Diener, 1985) and are considered ideal. When participants have completed the survey, a higher total score is indicative of someone who has higher life satisfaction. The minimum score is “5” and the maximum score is “35” (Pavot et al., 1991). For example, a total score between 5-9 indicate that the individual is extremely dissatisfied. For an individual who has a score between 15-19, that participant can be considered as slightly dissatisfied. A score of “20” is neither satisfied nor dissatisfied or neutral (Pavot & Diener, 1993). A participant is said to be slightly satisfied when their total score is between 21-25. Finally, a score between 26-30 is considered satisfied (Pavot & Diener, 1993). Composite Scores The research ran the internal consistency for each composite score. To measure social, academic, and career support, items from the College Students with Disabilities Campus Climate Survey (CSDCC) and the Disability Related Services and Satisfaction Questionnaire (DRSSQ) - access were created into separate composite scores. The composite scores were labelled according to the variable they measured for social support using CSDCC items. Similarly for the items from the DRSSQ, they were labelled DRSSQsocialA as access to social support. A similar approach was used to create a composite score for academic support, labelled DRSSQacademicA as access to academic support. However, for career support only items from the DRSSQcareerA as access to career support was utilized. More details are included in the table below: 46 Table 3.4 Description of composite scores Variable Instrument Composite Score Social Support Academic Support Career Support Well-being Data Analysis CSDCC DRSSQ (need) DRSSQ (access) CSDCC DRSSQ (need) DRSSQ (access) DRSSQ (need) DRSSQ (access) SWLS CSDCCsocial DRSSQsocialN DRSSQsocialA CSDCCacademic DRSSQacademicN DRSSQacademicA DRSSQcareerN DRSSQcareerA N/A Number of items 12 8 Internal Consistency α = .82 α = .83 8 9 23 23 6 6 5 α = .88 α = .83 α = .94 α = .94 α = .88 α = .90 α = .78 The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 27.0 for windows was used to manage the raw data and to perform all the data analyses. Specifically, descriptive statistics were computed for all the variables in this study to examine the shapes of the distributions (normal, skewness, kurtosis), the central tendencies (mean, median, mode), and the dispersions (range, variance, standard deviation). To answer research questions 1 and 2 regarding perceived barriers, social, academic and career supports needs, and other demographic factors among SWDs in Ghanaian universities, descriptive analysis was used to represent the characteristics of those variables. To answer research question 3, an ANOVA was run to examine the difference in social, academic and career support across the three universities in Ghana. To answer research question 4, multiple regression analysis was conducted, the normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity of all the 47 variables were examined, to test the assumptions of regression analyses. The coefficient alpha was used to estimate the internal consistency of each measure used. 48 CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS This chapter includes the characteristics of 132 participating SWDs across three universities in Ghana namely the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), University of Education-Winneba (UEW), and University of Ghana-Legon (UG). It also discusses contextual insight of the data analyses and provides a comprehensive summary of challenges encountered, support needs, suggested recommendations, and distinctions observed across the participating universities. The analytical framework involves the application of statistical methodologies such as descriptive analysis, t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), correlation and multiple regression analyses to derive robust and insightful interpretations from the collected data. Characteristics of Participating Universities and Students Before data collection, the estimated population of SWDs in KNUST, UEW, and UG who would participate in this study was 105. This estimate was based on a participation rate for surveys sent via email which is 30% (Sheehan, 2001). After data collection, 132 students participated in the study. Table 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3 further detailed the universities and students' characteristics. University Characteristics The three participating institutions were public universities which were located in three different parts of Ghana and were established at different times to fulfill various academic needs by offering undergraduate and graduate programs. See Table 4.1 for detailed information about each participating university. 49 Table 4.1 Characteristics of the participating universities University (university name, disability Location (city, region) Total Student Population Registered SWDs Male Female1 (n, %)23 Number of registered SWDs who particpated in the study (n, %)3 Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Ernestine Addy Disability Centre) Kumasi, Ashanti Region University of Education – Winneba (Resource Center / Office Students with Special Needs -RC/OSSN) Winneba, Central Region University of Ghana (Office of Students with Special Needs – OSSN) Accra, Greater Accra Region 48,450 36,550 85,000 37,408 24,303 61,711 27, 543 26,100 53,643 172 (0.20%) 30 (17.4%) 188 (0.30%) 62 (33.0%) 198 (0.37%) 40 (20.2%) 1 This is the demographics of the entire student population. 2 This percentage represents the proportion of officially registered students with the university's Disability Services Office (DSO) compared to the entire student population. 3 This percentage represents the proportion of students who actively chose to take part in the study among those officially registered with the university's DSO in comparison to the entire population of students formally registered with the DSO 50 Characteristics of Participating Students A total of 132 SWDs participated in the study, KNUST(n = 30), UEW (n = 62), and UG (n = 40). See Table 4.2 for detailed information about participant characteristics and summary in the section below. Almost two-thirds of participants self-identified as male (62.1%), which is like other studies on the experiences of SWDs in Ghana (Agyekum, 2021; Amoatey, 2020). The average age of participants was 25.85 (SD = 4.74; range = 18-42). In terms of education, half of the participants (50%) stated that they completed their West African Senior Secondary Certification Examination (WASSCE), which is the high school completion examination that is used to determine a student’s admission into university (US. Embassy in Ghana, N.D.). Most participants were in education-related majors, including special education (37.1%). Approximately two-thirds (66.7%) of the participants reported an estimated GPA of 3.04.0, and about 23.5% had 2.0-2.9. Note that at universities in Ghana, cumulative weighted mark (CWM), also known as cumulative weighted average (CWA), is commonly used in addition to grade point average (GPA). Regarding the type of disabilities, approximately two-thirds (65.2%) of the participants reported having visual impairment/blindness, followed by mobility impairment (13.6%) and hearing impairment/deafness (10.6%). Among all the students, over half (57.4%) utilize the DSO for an average of 1-5 hours and 40% utilize the DSO for more than 5 hours. Majority of the students reported having interactions with other friends or classmates with a disability. Regarding accommodations based on their disabilities, many students reported that they received accommodations, such as extended time for quizzes and examinations (n = 72), modified 51 materials (e.g., converting to and from braille, transcription of assignments and examinations) (n = 52), and assistance with housing and transportation (n = 45). Table 4.2 Current accommodations available to SWDs Extended time Modified materials Transportation Short-term access to assistive technology Paraprofessionals Overall (n = 132) 72 52 45 45 8 KNUST (n = 30) 2 1 20 3 1 UEW (n = 62) 36 37 6 27 5 UG (n = 40) 34 14 19 15 2 Most participants' (n = 132) primary means of transportation were private cars (either driven by themselves or others). Regarding financial support, two-thirds (n = 90) of the participants received monetary aid from family, and one-third (n = 45) received scholarships. Table 4.3 provides detailed information of the participant’s characteristics. Differences in Participant Characteristics across Universities Significant differences across universities were found in several of the participants’ characteristics, including highest degree obtained, estimated GPA/CWM, types of disabilities and frequency of utilizing DSO. To examine the differences, a chi-square test of independence and a chi square test of goodness of fit were conducted concurrently. For highest degree and university, the chi-square of independence was statistically significant (c2(4) = 17.90, p = .001). The chi-square test of independence to examine the relation between GPA and university was significant (c2(8) = 29.63, p < .001). In reference to primary disability and university, it was also statistically significant (c2(8) = 59.18, p < .001). Finally, comparing students’ frequency of utilizing the DSO and university was statistically significant, 52 (c2(8) = 20.59, p < .008). The chi-square results show that the experiences reported by SWDs across the three universities were equal. Table 4.3 Demographic information for participants Overall (n = 132) KNUST (n = 30) UEW (n = 62) UG (n = 40) Gender Male Female Highest degree SHS/WASSCE Diploma First degree Estimated GPA/CWM 3.0-4.0 (60-100%) 2.0-2.9 (50-59.99%) 82 (62.1%) 50 (37.9%) 66 (50%) 19 11 10 8 (6.1%) 0 54 (40.9%) 88 (66.7%) 31 (23.5%) 19 24 5 < 2.0 (< 50%) 1 (0.8%) 1 No GPA/CWM Primary Disability Hearing Impairment/Deafness Visual impairment/Blindness Speech Impairment/Delay Mobility Impairment Other 10 (7.6%) 14 (10.6%) 86 (65.2%) 0 5 5 2 (1.5%) 2 18 (13.6%) 11 (8.3%) 12 6 34 28 35 8 17 28 23 0 9 9 51 0 0 1 29 11 21 0 18 36 3 0 1 0 30 0 6 4 Group Diff. c2(1) = 2.91, p = .234 c2(4) = 17.90, p = .001 c2(8) = 29.63, p < .001 c2(8) = 59.18, p < .001 53 Table 4.3 (cont’d) Freq of using DSO 1 - 5 hours 6 - 15 hours c2(8) = 20.59, p = .008 74 (57.4%) 33 (25.0%) 10 9 40 16 24 8 Overall KNUST UEW UG. Group Diff (n = 132) (n = 30) (n = 62) (n= 40) 16+ hours 10 5 7 22 (16.7%) Demographic with multiple selections5 Overall KNUST UEW (n = 62) (n = 30) (n = 132) UG (n = 40) 9 11 4 25 6 0 15 31 1 49 48 5 34 14 19 15 2 36 37 6 27 5 2 1 20 3 1 72 52 45 45 8 Hear about DSO University admission office Friends/Family Other Accommodations Extended time Modified materials Transportation Short-term access to AT Paraprofessionals Interactions with PWD Friends with a disability Classmates Person at an event Co-workers Not at all Other Transportation Private car (drive/driven) Walking Campus bus Rideshare Other Bicycle Income Family Scholarship Other 1 The tabulated outcomes comprise solely those alternatives that garnered above 30% or below 10% of the overall participant selections. 107 77 53 7 4 1 132 94 40 12 5 2 31 22 10 1 2 0 51 48 31 6 2 1 25 7 12 0 0 0 40 28 12 11 0 0 62 53 5 0 1 1 30 13 23 1 4 1 90 45 7 7 26 0 51 14 6 32 5 1 54 Support Needs and Challenges in Accessing Supports The three variables examined in this study were social, academic, and career support measured by two separate instruments. The categories of each are described in more detail in Chapter 3. Composite scores were computed for each of the instruments as illustrated below. The details of the three variables and their composite scores were included in Table 4.6. The first instrument used was the College Students with Disabilities Campus Climate Survey (CSDCC) developed by Lombardi and colleagues (2011), which was used to gather information on the students’ perceptions of social support (CSDCCsocial) and academic support (CSDCCacademic). The second instrument was the Disability Related Services and Satisfaction Questionnaire (DRSSQ) developed by Dutta (2001), which was used to measure the social, academic, and career needs, access, and recommendations of SWDs at these universities. The three variables measured by the DRSSQ were labelled as three subscales with each further distinguished by whether they were measuring the participants’ access (DRSSQsocialA, DRSSQacademicA, and DRSSQcareerA) to disability services or support needs (DRSSQsocialN, DRSSQacademicN, and DRSSQcareerN). Social Support Needs and Access for Students with Disabilities Social support needs. Using the DRSSQ questionnaire, a composite score for social support needs was also computed and labeled as DRSSQsocialN. It measures student’s needs for social support which consisted of students’ need for individual support services and support groups. The overall mean score for DRSSQsocialN for all three universities was relatively high (M = 3.01, SD = .82), indicating relatively high needs for social support among SWDs. In addition, significant group differences (p < .001) were found across the three universities in students’ needs for social 55 support. SWDs reported having higher need for individual support services (M = 3.23, SD = .81) than support groups (M = 2.79, SD = 1.08). Social support access. The CSDCCsocial was a composite score to measure social support using the CSDCC. Items are rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = never true to 6 = always true), and the higher the score the higher the social support. For this study, CSDCCsocial comprised of factors including peer support, family support, disability service and campus climate. Participants reported an overall mean of 3.68 (SD = .96) on CSDCCsocial, reflecting an average perception of campus climate for social support. Further, significant group differences (p < .001) were found across the three universities in peer support, disability service and campus climate. Similarly, DRSSQsocialA is comprised of factors including individual support services and support groups. Items are on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = no access or need to 4 = extreme access or need), which a higher score indicates higher access to social support. The overall mean score for DRSSQsocialA measuring students’ access to social support for all three universities was relatively low (M = 1.83, SD = .96), indicating that students have limited access to social support. SWDs reported having fewer access to support groups (M = 1.78, SD = 1.05) than individual support services (M = 1.88, SD = 1.09). In addition, significant group differences (p < .001) were again found across the three universities in students’ access and needs in social support. Academic Support Needs and Access for Students with Disabilities Academic support needs. Using the DRSSQ questionnaire, a composite score for academic support needs was also computed and labeled as DRSSQacademicN. It measures student’s academic support needs, which included students’ need for academic support services and accessibility promotional/services. The overall mean score for DRSSQacademicN for all three universities was relatively high (M = 2.95, SD = .78), indicating that students had relatively moderate to high needs 56 for academic support. In addition, significant group differences (p < .001) were found across the three universities in students’ needs in social support. SWDs reported having higher needs for accessibility promotional/services (M = 3.23, SD = .81) than academic support services (M = 2.79, SD = 1.08). Academic support access. Like social support, academic support had two composite scores. The CSDCCacademic was a composite score measuring academic support using the CSDCC, which consisted of the following factors: lecturer teaching practices and lecturer attempts to minimize barriers. Similarly, academic support was also measured using the DRSSQ, which consisted of the following factors: academic support services and accessibility/promotional services. Participants reported an overall mean of 3.65 (SD = .65) on CSDCCacademic, reflecting an average perception of campus climate for academic support. The results showed that lecturer attempts to minimize barriers had lower mean score (M = 3.07, SD = 1.21) than lecturer teaching practices (M = 3.58, SD = 1.08). The overall mean score for DRSSQacademicA measuring students’ access to academic support for all three universities was relatively low (M = 1.80, SD = .82), indicating that students have limited access to academic support. In addition, significant group differences (p < .001) were found across the three universities in students’ access and needs for academic support. SWDs reported having much fewer access to academic support services (M = 2.65, SD = 1.01) than accessibility/promotional services (M = 3.29, SD = .88). Career Support Needs and Access for Students with Disabilities Career support needs. Using the DRSSQ questionnaire, a composite score for career support needs was also computed and labeled as DRSSQcareerN. It measures student’s needs for career support which consisted of students’ need for career counseling/career planning and job 57 placement services upon graduation. The overall mean score for DRSSQcareerN for all three universities was high (M = 3.41, SD = .74), indicating that students had relatively high needs for academic support. SWDs reported having higher needs for job placement services upon graduation (M = 3.44, SD = .73) than career counselling/career planning (M = 3.36, SD = 0.86). In addition, significant group differences (p < .001) were found across the three universities in students’ needs in career support needs. Career support access. Career support had only one composite score from the DRSSQ and was labelled as DRSSQcareerA, which consisted of factors including career counselling/career planning and job placement services upon graduation. The DRSSQ measured students’ access, support needs, and recommendations for career support at their respective university. The overall mean score for DRSSQcareerA measuring students’ access to career support for all three universities was relatively low (M = 1.52, SD = 1.08), indicating that students have limited access to career support. Specifically relating to the composite score, SWDs reported having fewer access to job placement services upon graduation (M = 1.44, SD = 1.15) than career counseling/career planning (M = 1.59, SD = 1.20). In addition, significant group differences (p < .001) were found across the three universities in students’ access and needs in academic support. Other Support As part of the survey, participants also shared their challenges and barriers in an openended question towards the end and content analysis was conducted to determine themes. These examples ranged from encouraging more community-based research to improve the experiences of SWDs to advocacy statements to ensure there was no discrimination against SWDs. Examples of these responses are listed below in Table 4.5. 58 Table 4.5 Examples of barriers reported by the participants. Examples Community-based research Continue survey for effective studies Assistance Mobility Equity Anti-discrimination Assist PWD; encourage employment of PWD Mobility program being introduced Give PWD a more level playing field Anti-discrimination related to job searches 59 Table 4.6 Variables and composite scores Overall Mean (SD) KNUST (n = 30) Mean (SD) UEW (n = 62) Mean (SD) UG (n = 40) Mean (SD) ANOVA Model Sig. Variable Subscale Social Support CSDCCsocial Peer Support Disability Service Family Support Campus Climate DRSSQsocialN 3.68 (0.96) 2.69 (0.86) 3.42 (1.04) 3.88 (1.35) 3.57 (1.49) 3.01 (0.82) Individual support services (need) 2.79 Support groups (need) DRSSQsocialA Individual support services (access) (1.08) 3.23 (0.81) 1.83 (0.96) 1.88 (1.09) 4.41 (0.81) 3.00 (0.84) 4.22 (1.78) 4.27 (1.45) 5.00 (1.09) 3.09 (0.92) 3.11 (1.19) 3.10 (0.94) 2.40 (0.79) 2.47 (0.88) 3.41 (0.89) 2.49 (0.90) 3.24 (1.18) 3.74 (1.31) 3.03 (1.33) 3.28 (0.64) 3.01 (0.93) 3.52 (0.62) 1.45 (0.94) 1.58 (1.08) 3.49 (0.89) 2.79 (0.71) 3.04 (1.22) 3.04 (1.22) 3.29 (1.29) 2.50 (0.78) 2.19 (1.01) 2.88 (0.81) 1.98 (0.86) 1.89 (1.07) F p 13.75 < .001 4.08 .02 10.17 < .001 1.52 .22 25.59 < .001 11.52 < .001 9.23 < .001 7.12 .001 11.19 < .001 7.12 .001 60 Table 4.6 (cont’d) Academic Support Support groups (access) Lecturer Teaching Practices Lecturer Attempts to Minimize Barriers DRSSQacademicN Academic Support Services (need) Accessibility/Promotional Services (need) DRSSQacademicA Career Support DRSSQcareerN Academic Support Services (access) Accessibility/Promotional Services (access) Career Counselling/Career Planning (need) 1.78 (1.05) 3.58 (1.08) 3.07 (1.21) 2.95 (0.78) 2.65 (1.01) 3.29 (0.88) 1.80 (0.82) 1.77 (0.84) 1.83 (1.00) 3.41 (0.74) 3.36 (0.86) Overall Mean (SD) KNUST (n = 30) Mean (SD) 2.33 (0.89) 4.03 UEW (n = 62) Mean (SD) 1.36 (1.00) 3.60 UG (n = 40) Mean (SD) 2.05 (0.98) 3.19 ANOVA Model Sig. 10.75 < .001 5.34 .006 (1.29) 3.04 (1.19) 2.64 (0.82) 2.07 (1.21) 3.24 (1.07) 2.10 (0.88) 2.00 (0.77) 2.30 (0.84) 3.55 (0.57) 3.55 (0.72) (0.93) 3.01 (1.18) 3.42 (0.55) 3.17 (0.70) 3.57 (0.59) 1.42 (0.68) 1.64 (0.76) 1.36 (0.89) 3.63 (0.54) 3.63 (0.61) (0.99) 3.18 (1.30) 2.57 (0.68) 2.36 (0.89) 2.88 (0.94) 2.13 (0.72) 1.79 (0.97) 2.24 (0.96) 2.93 (0.94) 2.80 (1.02) .52 .78 18.60 < .001 14.82 < .001 7.84 < .001 9.47 < .001 1.47 .24 14.55 < .001 11.45 < .001 14.27 < .001 61 Table 4.6 (cont’d) Job Placement Services Upon Graduation (need) DRSSQcareerA Career Counselling/Career Planning (access) Job Placement Services Upon Graduation (access) 3.44 (0.73) Overall Mean (SD) 1.52 (1.08) 1.59 (1.20) 1.44 (1.15) 3.54 (0.62) 3.64 (0.55) KNUST (n = 30) Mean (SD) 2.07 (1.08) 2.27 (1.21) 1.87 (1.20) UEW (n = 62) Mean (SD) 1.00 (0.90) 1.03 (0.99) .98 (0.99) 3.03 (0.92) UG (n = 40) Mean (SD) 1.94 (0.95) 2.00 (1.09) 1.88 (1.08) 8.60 < .001 ANOVA Model Sig. 16.29 < .001 16.30 < .001 10.48 < .001 62 Existing Supports for Students with Disabilities and Recommendations Recommendations for Social Support Participants reported a variety of existing social supports, including transportation assistance, accessed by 34.1% of participants, and accommodation assistance, utilized by 3%. Additionally, 6.1% had access to paraprofessionals, and a small fraction (0.6%) received laundry assistance. Feedback from the participants revealed a pressing need for personal and peer assistance to help SWDs navigate university life. Emphasizing the value of community, participants advocated for the establishment of peer support groups, including a Student Representative Council (12.9%) and advocacy groups (14.3%). They also expressed a desire to connect with fellow SWDs and non-profit organizations that could support their educational journey. Moreover, there was a significant call for enhancements in transportation and road conditions, cited by 25.7% of participants, which underscores the need for more accessible campus infrastructures. Lastly, 8.6% of participants highlighted the crucial need for universities to formulate clear policies that address and prevent discrimination against SWDs, thereby ensuring a more inclusive and equitable educational environment. Recommendations for Academic Support Universities offer various academic supports and accommodations, as reported by students. Among these, extended time on assessments was the most frequently accessible support utilized by 54.5% of participants. Following this, 39.3% of students could access modified materials or textbooks, while 33.8% had the benefit of short-term assistive technology. Additionally, 34.1% mentioned receiving supplemental notes from lecturers or teaching assistants. Notably, 1.5% of students reported the availability of academic material transcribed into braille. 63 Students also proposed enhancements to academic support across diverse university contexts. One of the suggestions was for more assistive technology devices, with 54.3% of students advocating for such resources. Preferences for assistive technology devices varied depending on the nature of the students' disabilities, including audio recorders and speechenabled walking canes, along with opportunities to participate in programs that improve proficiency in using these devices. There was also a call for assistance in device maintenance. In terms of faculty involvement, 14.3% of students requested that lecturers provide more accessible learning materials, exhibit greater consideration for the needs of SWDs, distribute lecture slides in advance, and allow extended deadlines for assignments. Another 15.7% sought support from government or university administrations, suggesting a broader demand for assistive devices and technological resources. Furthermore, there were calls for the formation of study groups, the establishment of university policies advocating for the academic needs of SWDs, and the provision of interpreters, reflecting a comprehensive approach to enhancing academic support for all students. Recommendations for Career Support Although students were able to indicate whether they received career support services from their university, they did not specify which services were provided. This lack of detail may explain their pointed recommendations for the types of support services they believe should be offered. Students expressed a clear need for comprehensive career counseling both before and after completing their academic programs. They proposed robust programs that highlight the importance of partnerships between universities and government agencies to enhance employment opportunities for graduates with disabilities, with 24.3% of students advocating for this approach. Additionally, they supported initiatives like governmentsponsored employment opportunities for SWDs and the development of career plans tailored to their specific needs, reported by 7.1% of participants. 64 There was also a suggestion for pre-enrollment programs, including seminars and workshops that provide orientation and inform students about job prospects within specific fields or careers, which 12.9% of students found beneficial. Finally, 8.6% of students recommended the establishment of career counseling services connected to advocacy groups focused on career opportunities for individuals with disabilities. These suggestions underscored the students' desire for targeted and effective career preparation that addresses their unique challenges and aspirations. More examples of recommendations are listed in Tables 4.7. Table 4.7 Examples of social, academic, and career support recommended by the participants Social Support Support Groups Advocacy groups n (%) 9 (14.8%) Examples Student support groups, peer support groups, inclusion in student representative council (SRC) 10 (16.4%) Create advocacy groups, advocacy services, Inclusion of SWDs, workshops/seminars on advocacy, leadership roles, SRC Transportation/roads University environment/ policies Academic Support Assistive technology (AT) 18 (29.5%) 6 (8.6%) n (%) 38 (54.3%) Mini-bus, vehicle for SWDs, improve roads Disability friendly environment, university laws to enforce movement and learning, prioritize accessibility Examples Laptops, mobility/talking white canes, recorders, audio devices (blue tooth), embozers (transcription into braille), braille library, AT rentals, low cost AT devices, and exchange programs. Lecturers’ roles 11 (15.7%) Train on advocacy, provide slides, counsel SWDs, inclusive curriculum, and make classroom accessible. Government/ University policies 11 (15.7%) Government academic support, university support for AS, university policy for student learning, university-led student engagement opportunities, and hire more staff 65 Table 4.7 (cont’d) Career Support Counseling/career plan/knowledge n (%) Examples 17 (24.3%) Create career plan for students with VI, discuss future career plans, government should recruit persons to help develop career plan for SWDs, provide career needs, career prospects orientation for students who are admitted in the university Employment 5 (7.1%) Paid employment, create opportunities, help graduates gain employment, intentional activities geared towards employment Workshop/seminar/programs 9 Knowledge/information (12.9%) 6 (8.6%) Career planning seminars/symposium/programs, increase programs, organize frequent seminars More information to allocate employment opportunities, improve knowledge on career opportunities Differences in Supports across Universities in Ghana To further understand how support differs for SWDs across the separate universities, the overall and individual subsections of each composite score was analyzed to determine differences among the three universities – KNUST, UEW, and UG. Differences in Social Support across Universities To further explore the differences across the universities, each composite score was analyzed to determine which differences were statistically significant. For social support, the overall CSDCCsocial, DRSSQsocialA (access), and DRSSQsocialN (need) were all statistically significant at an alpha level of p < .001. In the context of access to social support (CSDCCsocial), students at KNUST reported the highest levels (M = 4.41, SD = 0.81), which was significantly higher compared to their counterparts at UEW (M = 3.41, SD = 0.89); this difference was statistically significant (t(56) = 5.11, p < .001). Regarding access to social support (DRSSQsocialA), the students at KNUST (M = 2.40, 66 SD = 0.79) exhibited a higher score, demonstrating a statistically significant difference from UEW students (M = 1.45, SD = 0.94) (t(78) = 4.55, p < .001). Furthermore, the social support access at UEW was also significantly lower than that at UG (M = 1.98, SD = 0.86) (t(83) = - 2.63, p = .01). In terms of the perceived need for social support (DRSSQsocialN), students at KNUST (M = 3.08, SD = 0.92) reported slightly lower than the need expressed by UEW students (M = 3.28, SD = .64) (t(61) = -2.78, p = .007). Additionally, UEW students (M = 3.28, SD = 0.64) indicated a greater need for social support compared to UG students (M = 2.50, SD = 0.78) (t(88) = 5.17, p < .001), highlighting significant differences across these institutions. Differences in Academic Support across Universities In the comparative analysis of academic support across the three universities, there was no statistically significant difference observed in the average measures. The specific scores were as follows: KNUST (M = 2.95, SD = 0.78), UEW (M = 3.42, SD = 0.55), and UG (M = 2.57, SD = 0.68). For access to academic support (CSDCCacademic), significant differences were noted among the universities (F(2,99) = 9.47, p < .001). KNUST students (M = 2.10, SD = 1.88) experienced notably higher access to academic support, which was significantly different from UEW students (M = 1.42, SD = 0.68) (t(62) = 3.85, p < .001). Furthermore, academic support access (DRSSQacademicA) for UEW students (M = 1.42, SD = .68) was significantly less than that for UG students (M = 2.13, SD = .72) (t(67) = -3.60, p < .001). Regarding the need for academic support, there was a significant variance among the student populations of the three institutions (F(2,99) = 18.60, p < .001). For academic support needs (DRSSQacademic), KNUST students (M = 2.64, SD = 0.82) indicated a lower need compared to UEW students (M = 3.42, SD = 0.55) (t(67) = -4.78, p < .001). Conversely, UEW students (M = 3.42, SD = 0.55) reported a greater need for academic 67 support than UG students (M = 2.57, SD = 0.68) (t(75) = 5.97, p < .001), underscoring the variability in academic support needs across these universities. Differences in Career Support across Universities In an analysis of career support access (DRSSQcareerA) across three universities, significant differences were observed (F(2, 116) = 16.29, p < .001). At KNUST, students reported a significantly higher access to career support (M = 2.07, SD = 1.06) when compared to UEW (M = 1.03, SD = .99) (t(85) = 4.89, p < .001). Additionally, the access level at UEW was significantly lower than at UG (M = 2.00, SD = 1.09) (t(88) = -.93, p < .001). Regarding the need for career support (DRSSQcareerN), students at KNUST expressed a higher need (M = 3.55, SD = 0.57), compared to those at UEW (M = 3.63, SD = 0.54) (t(60) = 3.08, p = .003). In contrast, students at UG reported a lower need for career support (M = 3.55, SD = 0.57), demonstrating a significant difference compared to other institutions (t(85) = 4.40, p < .001). The results highlighted the variability in perceived needs and access to career support across the universities. 68 Table 4.8 Differences in social, academic and career support across universities in Ghana df F-value p-value Post-hoc comparison Post-hoc U1 U2 Diff: U1-U2 df t-value p-value CSDCCsocial 2 13.75 < .001 DRSSQsocialA (access) 2 11.19 < .001 DRSSQsocialN (need) 2 11.52 < .001 CSDCCacademic 2 .636 .531 DRSSQacademicA (access) 2 9.47 < .001 KNUST KNUST UEW KNUST KNUST UEW KNUST KNUST UEW KNUST KNUST UEW KNUST KNUST UEW DRSSQacademicN (need) 2 18.60 DRSSQcareerA (access) 2 16.29 < .001 KNUST KNUST UEW < .001 KNUST KNUST UEW UG UG UEW UG UG UEW UG UG UEW UG UG UEW UG UG UEW UG UG UEW UG 1.00 0.92 -0.08 0.96 0.42 -0.54 -0.18 0.59 0.78 0.17 0.12 -0.05 0.71 0.03 -0.68 0.78 0.06 0.84 1.07 0.14 86 56 86 78 57 83 83 61 88 86 63 93 62 47 67 67 56 75 85 59 5.11 4.13 -0.40 4.55 1.94 -2.63 -1.08 2.78 5.17 1.15 0.65 -0.38 3.85 0.11 -3.60 -4.78 0.31 5.97 4.89 0.53 < .001 < .001 .69 < .001 .06 .01 .29 .007 < .001 .26 .52 .71 < .001 .91 < .001 < .001 .76 < .001 < .001 .60 69 Table 4.8 (cont’d) DRSSQcareerN (need) 2 11.45 UEW < .001 KNUST KNUST UEW UG UEW UG UG -4.63 -0.08 0.62 0.70 88 81 60 85 -0.93 -0.63 3.08 4.40 < .001 .53 .003 < .001 CSDCC = College Students with Disabilities Campus Climate Survey; DRSSQ = Disability Related Services and Satisfaction Questionnaire 70 Table 4.9 Correlations between supports and well-being 1. Well-being 1 2 1.000 -- 3 -- 2. Social Support (CSDCCsocial) .532*** 1.000 -- 4 -- -- 3. Social Support-access (DRSSQsocialA) .220* .235 1.000 -- 5 -- -- -- 4. Social Support-need (DRSSQsocialN) -.304** -.159 -.098 1.000 -- 5. Academic Support (CSDCCacademic) .145 .413*** .129 -.354** 1.000 6 -- -- -- -- -- 7 -- -- -- -- -- 6. Academic Support-access (DRSSQacademicA) .213* .231* .784*** -.184 .232* 1.000 -- 8 -- -- -- -- -- -- 7. Academic Support-need (DRSSQacademicN) -.469*** -.273** -.187 .786*** -.247** -.134 1.000 -- 8. Career Support-access (DRSSQcareerA) .302** .248** .752*** -.162 .271** .785*** -.259** 1.000 9 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9. Career Support-need (DRSSQcareerN) -.263* -.033 -.128 .720*** -.183 -.147 .752*** -.203 1.000 *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 71 Relationships between Supports and Well-being Well-being is defined as an individual's subjective assessment of their experiences and psychological functioning within their environmental context, as described by Kahneman et al. (1999) and Ryan & Deci (1999). The results showed that the relationship between well-being and support was found to be statistically significant, with a strong correlation coefficient indicating a highly significant association. Social Support and Well-being The analysis revealed a positive correlation between social support and well-being, suggesting that students with high levels of well-being typically report strong social support. Conversely, those with lower social support tend to exhibit reduced well-being. In this study, social support was assessed through three distinct metrics. The CSDCCsocial showed a robust correlation (r = .53), indicating a strong relationship. The DRSSQsocialA revealed a correlation of r = .22, suggesting a low to moderate positive relationship. Lastly, the DRSSQsocialN demonstrated a moderate negative relationship with a correlation of r = -.30, highlighting the complex dynamics between perceived needs for support and actual well-being outcomes. Academic Support and Well-being The correlation between academic metrics and well-being revealed varied levels of association. The CSDCCacademic metric showed a low positive correlation (r = .15), indicating a slight relationship. The DRSSQacademicA displayed a correlation of r = .21, suggesting a low to moderate positive relationship. Most notably, the DRSSQacademicN demonstrated a moderate to high negative correlation (r = -.47), indicating that as the need for academic support increases, well-being tends to decrease, and vice versa. These findings highlight a significant inverse relationship between their need for academic support and SWD’s well-being. 72 Career Support and Well-being In this study, career support was evaluated through two specific metrics: DRSSQcareerA and DRSSQcareerN. The DRSSQcareerA demonstrated a moderate and positive correlation with well-being, recorded at r = .30. Conversely, the DRSSQcareerN showed a low to moderate negative correlation, noted as r = -.26, indicating an inverse relationship between the need for career support and well-being. Thus, an increase in students' need for career support was associated with a decrease in their well-being, and vice versa. Summary of Findings Social Support This study assessed different aspects of social support, incorporating factors such as peer support, family support, disability service, and campus climate. The results suggested an average perception of social support across the universities, although significant variations were observed. In general, SWDs reported low access to social support and high need for support groups, demonstrating substantial discrepancies in the perceived versus actual support received. As for social support, KNUST reported the highest levels of social support compared to UEW and UG. Specifically, KNUST students had significantly greater access to social support services, and although their perceived need for social support was less than UEW, it was greater than UG. Most of the existing social support included transportation and accommodation assistance, with a substantial portion of students emphasizing the need for more robust peer assistance and community-building initiatives. Academic Support Academic support was assessed different aspects of academic engagement and barrier minimization by lecturers. The overall perception of academic support was moderate, yet specific areas like lecturer attempts to minimize barriers were relatively lower. Access to 73 academic support was notably limited. There was a significant reported need for more accessible promotional services and academic support services, indicating gaps between the current provisions and the actual needs of students. While there was no significant overall difference in academic support between the universities, specific needs and access to academic resources varied significantly, with KNUST showing lower access compared to UEW and UG. Common academic supports included extended time for assessments and modified materials. There was a strong call for more assistive technologies and better faculty involvement to accommodate SWDs. Career Support Career support was assessed, which looked at career counseling, career planning, and job placement services, all of which reported low accessibility. Conversely, the need for career support was quite high, especially for job placement services. This highlights a critical area of need where students require more robust support to enhance their career prospects postgraduation. Significant differences across the universities suggest variability in how career support is administered and the effectiveness of such initiatives. Regarding career support, significant differences in career support access across universities were noted, with KNUST students reporting higher access levels than their peers at UEW and UG. The need for career support was generally high across all universities, indicating a strong demand for career counseling and planning services. Recommendations for improving career support included enhanced collaboration between universities and government agencies to increase employment opportunities for graduates with disabilities. The results of this study highlighted significant inter-university differences in the support provided to SWDs and underscored the need for tailored approaches to address these disparities. Students provided pointed recommendations to bridge gaps in social, academic, and 74 career support, advocating for systemic changes to enhance the inclusivity and accessibility of university environments. 75 CHAPTER 5 – DISCUSSION This chapter presents the findings of the study, highlighting the varied experiences of SWDs in accessing social, academic, and career support within Ghanaian universities. While SWDs generally have access to these supports, the extent and quality of the services provided vary significantly by the type of support and the institution attended. Students openly shared their personal challenges and barriers encountered while pursuing their academic degrees, offering numerous suggestions for how universities could better cater to the needs of SWDs. A detailed analysis of the data revealed the social, academic and career support that students at the various universities. These observations and their implications are explored in depth later in the chapter, with specific findings detailed for each university involved in the study. Contextual Overview The results of the study revealed the diverse challenges and barriers faced by SWDs across social, academic, and career domains. The study analyzed differences in support across three Ghanaian universities, revealing that students at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) reported higher levels of support compared to their peers at the University of Ghana (UG) and the University of Education-Winneba (UEW). This variation in support is linked to student well-being, with interpersonal relationships playing a critical role in enhancing students' satisfaction and intellectual development. To provide some context before diving into the discussion of the study results, below is an overview of each university. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST). Kumasi, where KNUST located, is a vibrant city with rich history and culturally significant as the seat of the Ashanti region, known for values such as collectivism and respect for the elderly (Cobbinah et al., 2020). KNUST offers robust transportation options, including a bus system and taxis, aiding mobility on campus. It also has visible ramps and an integrated network facilitating access to housing and academic buildings. However, despite these positive cultural attributes, societal 76 attitudes towards individuals with disabilities remain less progressive, reflecting some marginalization of individuals with disabilities (Moasun & Mfoafo-M’Carthy, 2020). This cultural backdrop may influence the levels of support available to SWDs at KNUST. Although students at KNUST reported higher mean scores in social, academic, and career support compared to their peers at other universities, these scores are not high in absolute terms. This suggests that while KNUST provides better support relative to other institutions, there is still significant room for improvement to fully meet the needs of SWDs, particularly in overcoming entrenched cultural barriers and enhancing inclusivity. University of Education – Winneba (UEW). UEW is predominantly focused on education disciplines, with a significant proportion of its students enrolled in education-related programs. Despite the substantial number of SWDs attending UEW, the support infrastructure appears inadequate. The university's DSO dedicated to serving SWDs is under-resourced and difficult for students to locate, which might explain why even though many students have personal connections with individuals with disabilities, the use of the DSO is minimal. The results show that most SWDs at UEW spend less than five hours per week at the DSO, suggesting that either the services provided do not meet student needs or are inaccessible due to visibility and resource constraints. This scenario highlights a critical gap in support services at UEW, especially considering the university's significant focus on education fields, including special education. The situation calls for urgent improvements in the visibility and resourcing of the DSO to better support the academic and social needs of SWDs at the university. University of Ghana (UG). UG is the oldest university in Ghana, which steeped in colonial history, impacting its physical infrastructure. UG’s architecture and road network present accessibility challenges due to its age and design, affecting the mobility of SWDs. Feedback from SWDs at UG highlights a clear need for improved accessibility and inclusivity 77 on campus. UG students display a notable degree of independence and participate actively in a student group for SWDs, organizing without much dependence on their DSO. However, the existence of this group and the frequent use of the DSO indicate a proactive community among SWDs at UG, despite the physical and systemic barriers they encounter. This independence, alongside the expressed need for better infrastructure, suggests that while UG’s SWDs are resourceful, significant improvements by the university in terms of physical accessibility and transport services are essential to truly support and enhance the educational experience of these students. Supports for Students with Disabilities at Universities in Ghana Social Supports for Students with Disabilities Results of this study showed that the need for social support was high while the access to it was relatively low, reflecting a discrepancy between available services and perceived needs. Previous studies indicated that SWDs experience higher levels of loneliness and social isolation compared to their peers (Herts et al., 2014). While physical access to facilities might be available at universities, equitable access to social, recreational, and non-academic activities often remains limited (Stodden, 2015). The results underscored the importance of creating an inclusive campus atmosphere that promotes safety, belonging, and engagement, which are essential for the full participation of SWDs in campus life (Strange, 2000). In addition to general social support, peer support was identified in the current as a significant area of challenge, underlining the importance of inclusion in campus groups such as student representative councils and study groups. The label of disability often leads to marginalization and social exclusion (Kassah, 2007; Moasun & Mfoafo-M’Carthy, 2020). Soresi and Nota (2004) suggest that integrating SWDs into these groups can enhance their social connections, promote normalcy, and boost engagement and motivation. Lombardi et al. (2012) also emphasized that higher peer support correlates with greater institutional satisfaction 78 and academic success. Family support was also identified as crucial for fostering selfdetermination and hope among SWDs (Morningstar et al., 2010). However, previous studies highlight a cultural stigma within Ghanaian communities that often results in exclusion of individuals with disabilities (Avoke, 2002; Azumah & Onzaberigu, 2017). Campus climate is another critical factor, with research by Murray, Lombardi, and Kosty (2014) suggesting that a supportive campus climate is integral to the adjustment and academic success of SWDs. Lombardi et al. (2016) emphasized its importance in preparing SWDs for post-secondary life. A friendly campus environment not only aids SWDs but also enhances awareness and sensitivity among non-disabled students (Huger, 2011). Culturally, within Ghana's Akan ethnic group, respect for elders and authority figures is paramount, yet disabilities in family are often viewed as a familial disgrace (Acheampong et al., 2022). This societal backdrop may explain why SWDs report only a moderate level of social support, underscoring the need for cultural and institutional shifts to better support these students (Obeng, 2007b). Results of the study further shed lights on the significant impact of social relationships on their college life quality and satisfaction, highlighting that SWDs would benefit from and advocate for inclusion in study groups, advocacy groups, and particularly the Student Representative Council (SRC) at universities. Research by Tinto (1993) underscored the importance of such connections, noting that students who are well-connected with peers are more likely to persist academically. Hartley (2010) and Lombardi et al. (2012) also emphasized that peer mentoring and support groups based in universities, along with participation in events and extracurricular activities, are vital for developing robust peer support networks for SWDs. Academic Supports for Students with Disabilities The results of this study indicated that the perceived need for academic support services was notably high; however, the access to academic support services and 79 accessibility/promotional services was relatively low, underscoring a significant gap between available support and student needs. The need for accessibility/promotional services was particularly highlighted, indicating a significant demand for academic support. Engagement in university programming and interaction with faculty and peers in social and educational settings are crucial for the success of SWDs (Kuh et al., 2006; Strayhorn, 2012). The findings also suggest that universities in Ghana need to enhance the opportunities for SWDs to engage academically, particularly through the DSOs, which can play a pivotal role in facilitating access to necessary accommodations and advocating for the use of assistive technologies and diagnostic assessments in classrooms (Stodden, 2015). Assistive technology has been identified as a crucial need, with recommendations for providing resources such as assistive listening devices, notetakers, readers, audio recordings, Braille materials, large print materials, relocation of classes to accessible locations, and adapted computer terminals (Summers et al., 2014). Meyer (2012) also highlighted the role of DSOs in collaborating with SWDs to evaluate and implement effective accommodations. There is a strong call for DSOs to provide faculty and staff with training to better support the academic needs of SWDs. Baker et al. (2012) indicated that the attitudes and awareness of faculty are major obstacles to the academic success of SWDs. This reflects a broader issue within universities, which could benefit from a more attentive approach to the cultural and environmental factors impacting SWDs (Fleming et al., 2017). In addition, students expressed a particular need for more accessible campus environments, encompassing better transportation options, improved road conditions, and disability-friendly facilities. Such enhancements are crucial as they contribute significantly to student engagement and academic involvement, as established by Kuh (2002), who noted that greater engagement leads to increased academic participation and performance. 80 Karabin (2009) highlighted that academic competence among students notably increases when they receive appropriate accommodations. Despite the low access reported in this study, the demand for academic support remains high. Solutions proposed include more inventive teaching methods and enhanced academic assistance from instructors, which could foster better engagement and reduce disengagement risks among SWDs. While SWDs at Ghanaian universities recognize some efforts to reduce academic barriers, there remains a substantial need for improvements in support services and campus accessibility to ensure they can fully participate in and benefit from their educational experiences. Career Supports for Students with Disabilities Concerning career support, the results of the study revealed that while the need for career support for SWDs was quite high, access to those support services was low. Career support needs were highlighted with job placement services upon graduation being one of the most critical areas. This study noted that in Ghana, individuals with disabilities often rely on extended family networks for employment, whether formal or informal, and sometimes without income (Groce et al., 2011). Negative perceptions about the financial decision-making capabilities of individuals with disabilities persist, limiting their career prospects and contributing to continued poverty among this demographic (Boateng, 2012; Opoku et al., 2019b). This underscores the urgent need for comprehensive career training and support systems that promote economic independence and facilitate more substantial career opportunities for SWDs. Thus, there is a significant need for enhanced career counseling and better dissemination of information about career opportunities. Specific suggestions include offering more comprehensive guidance on future career paths, including government career plans for SWDs, and providing prospective students with information about career prospects upon graduation. Such initiatives could help students make informed decisions about their majors 81 and motivate them in their career pursuits. Furthermore, students recommend that universities facilitate opportunities for paid employment and organize workshops and seminars to increase career opportunities and provide vital information for SWDs on navigating the employment landscape. Soresi et al. (2008) advocate for comprehensive career guidance programs (e.g., career counseling and career planning) that not only aid in job placement upon graduation but also support the broader inclusion of SWDs in the workforce, thus enabling them to actively participate in community life and exercise their rights. The results resonate with research indicating significant employment and educational disparities between individuals with and without disabilities (Groce et al., 2013; Heymann et al., 2014; Mizunoya & Mitra, 2013). A study in Ethiopia by Groce et al. (2013) highlighted that while some individuals with disabilities received skills training, it was inadequate for securing substantial employment opportunities. Opoku et al. (2017) further identified that the lack of educational access for individuals with disabilities directly impacts their employment prospects. Vocational training often faces challenges related to inadequate facilities, resources, and funding (Gyamfi et al., 2015; Mensah, 2023), which limits the vocational potential of individuals with disabilities. These findings suggest a pressing need to enhance the support systems for SWDs, focusing on both educational and vocational aspects to ensure they can fully realize their potential. As Soresi et al. (2008) point out, a deeper understanding of the workplace is necessary for individuals with disabilities, emphasizing the responsibilities and commitments required to sustain employment beyond the often-highlighted positive aspects. Discrepancies in Supports across Universities in Ghana The study explores the disparities in social, academic, and career support for SWDs across three Ghanaian universities: KNUST, UEW, and UG, revealing significant variations in the levels and types of support provided. Specifically, KNUST students reported higher levels 82 of social support compared to their counterparts at UEW and UG. This may reflect the influence of local university cultures and the physical and administrative structures of the institutions. UEW students exhibited the greatest need for social support, possibly indicating a gap in the available resources or community engagement at this institution. Accessibility challenges were also noted, with KNUST and UG providing more physical accommodations then UEW like ramps, although some were inadequately placed, complicating access for SWDs. These findings suggest a critical area for improvement in making campus facilities universally accessible across the board. Differences in academic support were also prominent. KNUST, specializing in science and technology, reported higher levels of academic support, whereas UEW, focused on education, surprisingly reported the highest needs for support despite its academic focus. This discrepancy highlights potential inefficiencies or resource constraints within UEW's DSO. Orr and Hammig (2009) suggest that faculty in the humanities and social sciences, predominant at UG, are typically more accommodating, which may explain the moderate level of academic support reported there. These insights underscored the need for tailored strategies to enhance DSO capabilities across different academic disciplines. Career support showed significant group differences among the Universities. KNUST students had better access to career support, contrasting with the lower levels reported at UEW and UG. Despite UG's established career and counseling center, students still expressed a significant need for more comprehensive career counseling and guidance. This points to a broader systemic issue where even well-equipped institutions may fail to meet the specific needs of SWDs, emphasizing the need for targeted career support programs that address the unique challenges faced by these students. 83 The findings highlighted the urgent need for universities to re-evaluate and strengthen their support systems for SWDs. Enhanced training for DSO staff, improved physical accessibility, and more robust career support programs are critical areas for development. Additionally, fostering a closer connection between Ghanaian universities and the workforce can ensure that SWDs are adequately prepared and supported for professional success. These improvements are not only crucial for the inclusivity and effectiveness of educational programs but also for the broader integration of SWDs into the workforce, contributing to more equitable societal outcomes. Relationships between Supports and Well-being This study highlights the significant impact of social, academic, and career support on the well-being of SWDs in universities. Research indicates a strong link between SWDs' wellbeing and their social relationships. Specifically, a positive relationship was found between SWDs' reported well-being and their access to social support. Conversely, as the perceived needs for social support increased, SWDs’ overall well-being declined. This suggests that insufficient social support can exacerbate the challenges faced by SWDs, highlighting the protective role of robust social networks against life stressors. Social support is also crucial for psychological well-being and life satisfaction in university settings (Fleming & Leahy, 2014; Glozah, 2013; Mahanta & Aggarwal, 2013). The study further emphasizes the importance of academic support in enhancing SWDs' well-being. Positive correlations were observed between well-being and access to academic support. This aligns with findings by Diener and Suh (2000), reinforcing the notion that academic support systems play a pivotal role SWDs’ well-being. However, a negative relationship was noted between well-being and the perceived academic needs, suggesting that unmet academic needs can detrimentally affect SWDs’ well-being. The scarcity of research on 84 SWDs in sub-Saharan Africa underscores the urgent need for more studies to understand and address the academic challenges faced by SWDs in these regions (Owusu-Ansah et al., 2012). Regarding career support, the study revealed a positive correlation between SWDs' well-being and the access to career support, indicating that effective career guidance is associated with improved well-being. However, a negative correlation was found between well- being and the need for career support, suggesting that those who require more career support might experience lower well-being. This reflects broader findings by Naami (2015), which highlight the economic challenges faced by households of individuals with disabilities, pointing to the crucial role of career support in enhancing the economic well-being of SWDs. This study underscored the critical need for comprehensive support systems in higher education that cater specifically to SWDs, integrating social, academic, and career support to enhance overall well-being. Universities are encouraged to promote inclusive social networks through mentorship and peer-support programs, while also strengthening academic support by enhancing DSO resources and faculty training. Additionally, expanding career support services with tailored career counseling and job placement opportunities is crucial for ensuring SWDs' economic independence. Ongoing research to continuously adapt and improve support services and informed policy advocacy are essential for equipping educational institutions to effectively support SWDs. By implementing these strategies, universities can significantly improve the educational and social outcomes for SWDs, fostering a more inclusive and diverse academic environment. Strengths and Limitations of the Study Study Strengths There are several strengths identified in this study. First, the researcher in this study collaborated with faculty, staff, and professionals across Ghanaian academic institutions to tailor the surveys to the local context, ensuring that the terminology was accessible to 85 participants. Such community-based participatory research approach underscores the value of engaging with local faculty who are attuned to cultural and systemic nuances. In addition, the researcher conducted visits to each university involved, providing a firsthand understanding of how classes were administered and allowing for direct interactions with the DSO) at each institution. These visits were crucial for assessing the actual number of SWDs, which often differed from the figures reported online. To maintain the integrity of the research, two research assistants were employed and thoroughly trained on study protocols and ethics. Both assistants were familiar with the institutional environments, having either studied or worked there which is crucial in ensuring the fidelity of the data collection process and the reliability of the data collected. Study Limitations While this study has many strengths, there are also limitations. The study encountered a significant discrepancy in the participation of SWDs, with a smaller number registering for the study compared to the estimated presence of SWDs at these large universities. This limited participation may be attributed to several factors identified by Meyer (2012), including the timing of when SWDs choose to disclose their disabilities. Those who disclose later, often when academic challenges arise, tend to seek less support and achieve less favorable outcomes compared to their peers who disclose early. Operational challenges also impacted the study's data collection process. Some participants lacked access to smartphones or other digital devices, necessitating the use of printed questionnaires that had to be scanned. This introduced inconsistencies in data entry, particularly when participants omitted mandatory information such as age, which was required in the digital platform Qualtrics but not emphasized in the manual data entry. Consequently, research assistants often needed to seek clarifications from the DSOs, delaying the data entry process. 86 Furthermore, the support from DSO staff in reading questions to participants introduced additional complexities. Some staff members occasionally misinterpreted the questions, requiring consultation with research assistants. In cases where surveys were incomplete, research assistants had to revisit universities to ensure completion, reflecting the inherent limitations of self-report surveys where participants might tailor their responses to what they perceive as socially acceptable (Joinson et al., 2007; Lombardi et al., 2011). The survey's length also significantly affected completion rates, with completion times varying dramatically—from as little as approximately 11 minutes to nearly 4 hours and 39 minutes. This variance largely depended on whether participants used their devices, or the printed copies later transcribed into Qualtrics. According to Sheehan (2001), both the survey modality and the time invested can influence the completion rates and, by extension, the reliability of the survey results. Implications for Practice, Research, Training and Policy Implications for Practice To improve social support within the campus community, universities can establish a robust system tailored to the needs of SWDs. Such a system should foster an environment where these students can readily find encouragement, solace, relaxation, and exemplary models of successful social interactions among peers, friends, and roommates (Field et al., 2003; Garrison-Wade & Lehmann, 2009). Furthermore, forging partnerships with other university departments or external organizations can amplify the support network available to SWDs (Scott et al., 2016). Hence, a strategic focus on cultivating such partnerships is warranted. Another avenue for enhancing practices is to glean insights from DSO’s staff regarding effective training methodologies and leveraging their rich experience in working with SWDs. Rather than solely advocating for students, educators and support personnel can impart 87 essential skills and behaviors through active modeling (Field et al., 2003). This approach not only empowers SWDs but also fosters a sense of autonomy. Effective communication is pivotal in fostering a conducive learning environment for SWDs. Field and colleagues (2003) underscored the significance of fostering positive and transparent communication channels between students and academic staff. Such avenues facilitate SWD’s willingness and openness in expressing their needs, seeking accommodations, and embracing academic risks, thereby cultivating positive peer interactions. However, gaps in faculty and staff's knowledge regarding reasonable accommodations and disability law, as well as a limited grasp of disability and universal design for instruction, persist (Baker et al., 2012; Hong, 2015; Oertle & Bragg, 2014; Sniatecki et al., 2015; Yssel et al., 2016). Adequately trained DSO staff can play an important role in bridging these knowledge gaps and fostering informed discussions. While accessibility to these resources remains a challenge for faculty, incorporating faculty training is essential (Plotner & May, 2017). Hence, formal partnerships with faculty, which may encompass training initiatives, can significantly influence students' perceptions of their academic institution positively (Plotner & May, 2017). Facilitating social engagement among SWDs necessitates fostering personal and interpersonal skills conducive to establishing friendships, nurturing mentorship relationships, and forging connections within the broader community (Demetriou & Schmitz-Sciborski, 2016). Additionally, providing supplementary support for these students to cultivate peer networks can ease their transition into the college milieu (Herts et al., 2014). Implications for Research This study underscores several implications for future research within the Ghanaian context. Primarily, there is a pressing need for locally developed research-based interventions that are tailored to Ghana rather than relying on methodologies imported from foreign 88 countries. This approach is critical as past engagements by foreign researchers have occasionally failed to deliver tangible benefits to participants, specifically SWDs, and have been perceived as primarily benefiting the researchers’ academic pursuits. Furthermore, participants expressed concerns that the study, like others before it, might not yield practical benefits for SWDs in Ghanaian universities. To address this, the scope of research outcomes should be broadened to assess university needs that could be supported by external grants, ensuring that the research contributes directly to the universities involved. There is also an opportunity to deepen the understanding of SWD experiences through more detailed qualitative studies. Such exploratory research should be expanded to include a larger number of SWDs from various universities across Ghana, potentially through simultaneous cross-sectional studies. Additionally, involving the parents of SWDs in future research could provide valuable insights into the expectations and desired outcomes for their children in postsecondary education. Studies like those by Miller et al. (2018) have shown that parental perspectives can significantly enhance the understanding of the needs and experiences of SWDs at universities. Given the vital role of parental support in the adjustment and success of SWDs at the tertiary level, incorporating these viewpoints can offer a more comprehensive understanding of how to effectively support SWDs (Lombardi et al., 2016). Implications for Training To enhance understanding and support for SWDs, it's imperative for universities to expand classes and curricula that educate students without disabilities about their experiences (Naami, 2015). Additionally, increasing professional development opportunities for faculty and teaching assistants on this subject is crucial, as faculty attitudes toward SWDs can be negatively impacted by limited knowledge or interaction (Getzel & Thoma, 2008). 89 Moreover, there's a gap in high school education in preparing SWDs for university, highlighting the need for administration and university leadership to be informed about these students' needs (Getzel & Thoma, 2008). Governments could further support this by providing funding opportunities for SWDs to pursue formal education, thus reducing barriers to employment in both the public and private sectors (Naami, 2015). In terms of career support, universities can implement diverse training systems to provide SWDs with access to current information on the labor market in Ghana. These systems should offer opportunities for self-assessment of aptitude, interests, and career management, ensuring inclusivity and equal opportunities in career development. Implications for Policy To bridge the educational transition from secondary to tertiary institutions for SWDs, it's imperative that secondary schools establish policies that promote strong collaborations with universities. Guidance counselors should facilitate campus visits for prospective students, allowing them to familiarize themselves with university campuses and specifically the DSOs, addressing the observed gap in awareness about these services (Karabin, 2009). Universities are also encouraged implement policies that mandate consistent engagement between faculty and SWDs. This could include requiring faculty and teaching assistants to complete annual online training or professional development sessions focused on disability accommodation, with this training being a critical component of their annual performance reviews (Fobi et al., 2017). Additionally, universities should adopt institutional policies that standardize accommodations across campuses to ensure that all SWDs receive necessary support. This should include, but not be limited to, extended time for test-taking, access to recording devices, and the conversion of texts into Braille (Tudzi et al., 2020). 90 Furthermore, echoing recommendations from a study by Naaami (2015), it is suggested that the Ghanaian government, along with universities, develop welfare programs that provide additional financial support for SWDs. This support could cover accessible software like screen readers, maintenance or replacement of assistive technology devices, and additional funding for housing, transportation, and meals. Such policies would significantly enhance the educational experience and overall welfare of SWDs. Conclusion This study of three public universities in Ghana highlights a common need across the institutions to enhance the support systems available to SWDs. The findings emphasize the universities' responsibility to provide comprehensive social, academic and career support, as outlined by Meulenbroeks and van Joolingen (2022). Success in higher education for SWDs is influenced by a range of factors including accessibility to learning materials, physical health, and the capacity to manage the stressors associated with higher education (Kugbey et al., 2015). The students in the study expressed a clear need for improved social, academic, and career support, offering practical suggestions for enhancements. These suggestions underscored the critical role of tailored and accessible support services in fostering the well- being and academic success of SWDs. The feedback from the students provides valuable guidance for the universities to develop more effective support mechanisms that address the specific needs of SWDs, thereby improving their overall educational experience and outcomes. 91 REFERENCES Acheampong, N., Dogbe, D., Rockson, G., Teye, E., & Amaniampong, P. (2020). Colleges and universities: Experiences of students with visual impairments at the university of education, Winneba-Ghana. London Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(5), 75-82. Addae-Wireko, A. (2019). Availability and Use of Adaptive Technology for Supporting Persons with Disability in Selected Public Academic Libraries in Ghana. 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Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 45(2), 4-8. 101 APPENDIX A – LETTER/EMAIL OF INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE Dear Student: My name is Danielle Ayeh, and I am a fifth-year doctoral student in the Rehabilitation Counselor Education program in the College of Education at Michigan State University in the United States of America. I am inviting you to participate in a research study titled “Relationships between Social, Academic, and Career Supports and Well-being among Students with Disabilities in Universities in Ghana.” The purpose of the study is to interview students with disabilities who are enrolled in universities in Ghana on their perception of the different types of support that they receive at the institution. You are eligible for this study if you are (1) age of 18 and above and your own guardian, (2) currently a student at the University of Ghana- Legon (UG), University of Education- Winneba (UEW), or the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), (3) identify as someone who has a disability, and (4) be registered with the disability office on campus. To participate in this study, you will be asked to fill out a demographic form and fill out a survey through email, which takes approximately 20-30 minutes. Please note that your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. If you are interested, please click this (hyperlink) to participate in this study. Should you have any questions, please contact me at ayehdani@msu.edu. Thank you for your consideration. Sincerely, Danielle T. Ayeh 102 APPENDIX B – EMAIL TO COLLEAGUES IN THE DISABILITY OFFICES IN UNIVERSITIES IN GHANA Dear ____: My name is Danielle Ayeh, and I am a fifth-year doctoral student in the Rehabilitation Counselor Education program in the College of Education at Michigan State University in the United States of America. I am currently recruiting participants for my dissertation study on hearing the perceptions of university students with disabilities. Students who choose to participate in the study will be sent a link to the survey. To determine if students are eligible for this study they must first be (1) age of 18 and above and your own guardian, (2) currently a student at the University of Ghana- Legon (UG), University of Education- Winneba (UEW), or the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), (3) identify as someone who has a disability, and (4) be registered with the disability office on campus. The students will complete a demographic form and fill out a survey, which takes approximately 20 - 30 minutes through email. This study will empower students with disabilities to share on their perceptions about their experience in university. This will enable us professionals to understand the loopholes in our university and support services and know how to improve our services for our students. Please note that the students’ participation in this research is entirely voluntary. If students are interested in this study, please share this (hyperlink) to students. I will also attach a recruitment email that can be used to recruit students and a recruitment flyer that can be sent on multiple listservs. Should you have any questions, please contact me at ayehdani@msu.edu. Thank you for your time and consideration. 103 Sincerely, Danielle T. Ayeh 104 APPENDIX C – RESEARCH PARTICIPANT INFORMATION AND CONSENT FORM Study Title: Relationships between Social, Academic, and Career Supports and Well-being among Students with Disabilities in Universities in Ghana Researchers and Titles: Danielle Ayeh, MA, CRC, Doctoral Candidate in Rehabilitation Counselor Education Connie Sung, Ph.D., CRC, LPC, Associate Professor of Rehabilitation Counseling Department and Institution: Counseling, Education Psychology, and Special Education, Michigan State University Contact Information: Danielle Ayeh (ayehdani@msu.edu) or Dr. Connie Sung (csung@msu.edu) EXPLANATION OF THE RESEARCH and WHAT YOU WILL DO: As a current university student who identifies as someone with a disability, the goal of this study is to find out your perception of the different types of support that students with disabilities receive at your institution. You are eligible for this study if you are (1) age of 18 and above and your own guardian, 105 (2) currently a student at the University of Ghana- Legon (UG), University of Education- Winneba (UEW), or the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), (3) identify as someone who has a disability, and (4) be registered with the disability office on campus. To participate in this study, you will be asked to fill out a demographic form and complete an online survey which takes approximately 20-30 minutes YOUR RIGHTS TO PARTICIPATE, SAY NO, OR WITHDRAW: This study is independent of your current position as a student at your university. All participant information will be kept confidential and stored on the online survey software (Qualtrics). To ensure the anonymity of your responses, any identifying information will be de-identified and only aggregated information will be shared in presentations and/or publications. Participation is voluntary, you may choose not to participate at all, or you may refuse to participate in certain procedures or answer certain questions or discontinue your participation at any time without consequence. Whether you choose to participate or not will not affect your position or evaluation as a student. COSTS AND COMPENSATION FOR BEING IN THE STUDY: There is compensation associated with participating in this study. Participants will be offered a 50 Ghana Cedis gift card of airtime as compensation for completing the survey. CONTACT INFORMATION FOR QUESTIONS AND CONCERNS: 106 If you have any concerns or questions about this study, such as scientific issues, how to do any part of it, or to report an injury, please contact the researcher Dr. Connie Sung at csung@msu.edu or Danielle Ayeh at ayehdani@msu.edu. Both researchers are from the Office of Rehabilitation and Disability Studies in the Department of Counseling Education Psychology and Special Education (CEPSE), the College of Education. If you have any questions or concerns about your role and rights as a research participant, would like to obtain information or offer input, or would like to register a complaint about this study, you may contact, anonymously if you wish, the Michigan State University’s Human Research Protection Program at +1-517-355-2180, Fax +1-517-432-4503, or e-mail irb@msu.edu or regular mail at 4000 Collins Rd, Suite 136, Lansing, MI 48910. DOCUMENTATION OF INFORMED CONSENT. By clicking on the button below, you indicate your voluntary agreement to participate in this study. - I agree to complete this survey. ☐ Yes ☐ No Initials____________ - I agree to allow excerpts from my responses to be used for presentations at research and training conferences and I understand that my identity will not be revealed. ☐ Yes ☐ No Initials__________ 107 APPENDIX D – DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Interview Questionnaire Instructions Thank you for your willingness to participate in this survey. This survey consists of short questions about your experiences and perceptions as a student at the University of Ghana, University of Education- Winneba, or Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. This survey will last about 20 - 30 minutes. You can discontinue this survey at any point in time if you no longer wish to continue. Please carefully review the provided instructions and kindly ensure that you check or fill in the blanks with the most accurate descriptions applicable to your specific situation. 1. Age: 2. Gender identity: ❑ Male ❑ Female ❑ Prefer not to answer Demographics (Education) 3. Highest level of education: 4. University: 5. Current enrollment status: SHS/WASSCE International Baccalaureate/Advanced ❑ ❑ level ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Diploma First degree Postgraduate degree Technology ❑ University of Education – Winneba ❑ University of Ghana - Legon Enrolled part-time ❑ Enrolled full-time ❑ Not enrolled but will be for ❑ next semester ❑ next semester Not enrolled and won’t be for 108 6. Semester enrolled at current university ❑ 1 ❑ 2 ❑ 3 ❑ 4 or more ❑ Other: 7. What course are you taking? 8. Estimated grade point average/cumulativ e weighted mark Demographics (Disability) 9. Primary disability ❑ 3.6-4.0 (70-100%) ❑ 3.0-3.5 (60-69.99%) ❑ 2.5-2.9 (50-59.99%) ❑ Less than 2.0 (Less than 50%) ❑ Not applicable. I do not yet have a GPA/CWM ❑ Visual impairment/blindness q Hearing impairment/deafness ❑ Learning disability (Eg: dyslexia, dysgraphia) ❑ Speech impairment/Delay ❑ Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ❑ Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) ❑ Chronic health condition (Eg: diabetes, lupus) ❑ Psychiatric Disorder (Eg: schizophrenia, bipolar disorder) ❑ Mobility Impairment (Eg: cerebral palsy, spinal cord injury) ❑ Traumatic Brain Injury ❑ Neurological Disability (Eg: epilepsy, Parkinson’s) ❑ Other (please specify): 10. Number of semesters registered with the office for students with disabilities ❑ Currently not registered ❑ 1 ❑ 2 ❑ 3 ❑ 4 or more 11. How did you hear about the office for students with disabilities? ❑ University admissions office ❑ University administration ❑ Professor ❑ Teaching assistant (TA) ❑ Friends/family 109 (select all that apply) ❑ High school teacher/advisor ❑ Other (please specify): 12. What kinds of accommodations do you receive from the office of students with disability? (select all that apply) Modified material/modified Extended time for assignments Transportation assistance Access to short-term assistive ❑ ❑ ❑ devices ❑ textbooks ❑ faculty/teaching assistants Paraprofessionals ❑ Other (please specify): ❑ Additional notes from 13. How frequently do ❑ Less than an hour per week use the resources provided by the office for students with disabilities? ❑ 1-5 hours per week ❑ 6-10 hours per week ❑ 11-15 hours per week ❑ 16 or more hours per week 14. Have you had any interactions with other people with disabilities (check all that apply): ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ event ❑ Not at all Yes. I have family members with a disability Yes. I have friends with a disability Yes. I have classmates with a disability Yes. I have co-workers with a disability Yes. I met someone with a disability at an Other (please specify): 15. What is your current housing situation? Live in an on-campus hostel Live in off-campus private hostel Live with family members Live with friends in a living situation not ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ described above Demographics (Income) 16. Source of income/financial support (select all that apply) ❑ Family ❑ Friends ❑ Scholarship ❑ Government support ❑ Other (please specify): 110 17. Mode of transportation do you use to get around your campus ❑ Walking ❑ Bicycle ❑ Trotro (Public transportation)/Taxi Ride share: Eg: Uber, Yango, Bolt ❑ Drive private car independently ❑ Driven by family members/friends ❑ Use campus bus system ❑ Other (please specify): 111 APPENDIX E – COLLEGE STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES CAMPUS CLIMATE SURVEY (CSDCC) In this section of the survey, you will encounter multiple categories. Within each category, you will find statements to rate using a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never true) to 6 (always true). Please circle the rating that most accurately reflects your opinion for each statement. 1 = Never True 2 = Rarely True 3 = Sometimes True 4 = About Half of The Time True 5 = Most of The Time True 6 = Always True Peer Support Never True Rarely True Someti mes True 1. I have trouble making friends at this university 2. I make friends easily at this university 3. I have difficulty meeting new people at this university because of my disability 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 About Half of The Time True 4 4 4 4. I have strong and rewarding 1 2 3 4 5 friendships with other students at this university Utilizing Accommodations Most of Always True The Time True 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 112 Never True Rarely True Someti mes True 1. I don’t utilize accommodations 1 unless absolutely necessary 2. I use my accommodations 1 2 2 only when I am not doing well in a class 3. I request faculty notification 1 2 letters from Disability Services office 4. I utilize Disability Services 1 2 3 3 3 3 Most of Always True About Half of The Time True 4 The Time True 5 6 6 6 6 4 5 4 4 5 5 office to assist me in arranging my accommodations as needed 5. I find that I do not utilize my accommodations because it is not convenient to arrange them 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. 2. 3. 4. Our university Disability Services effectively responds to specific incidents of insensitivity I feel comfortable discussing challenges related to my disability with people who work in Disability Services office I feel satisfied with the support I receive from Disability Services Office I utilize advising/counselling support provided by the Disability Services office as needed Disability Services Never True Rarely True Someti mes True 1 2 3 About Half of The Time True 4 Always True Most of The Time True 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 Self-Advocacy 113 Never True Rarely True Someti mes True 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 About Half of The Time True 4 4 4 4 4 4 Always True Most of The Time True 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 Family Support Rarely Never True True Someti mes About Half of Most of The Always True True The Time True Time True 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. I perform as well as other students in my class(es) 2. Generally, I feel good about myself and my abilities at this university I keep up with the reading in most of my courses 3. 4. My disability is not an issue for me and my performance at this university I feel comfortable advocating for myself and my needs at this university I know about my rights and responsibilities as a student with a disability 6. 5. 1. My family members have helped me in university by providing me with emotional support 2. I rely on family support when I face challenges at this university 3. My family members have helped me seek out or find support services in university 4. My family members have helped me in college by providing me with financial support Campus Climate Rarely True Never True Someti mes True About Half of The Time True Most of The Time True Always True 114 1. I wish I attended a different university 2. I do not feel comfortable moving around on this campus 3. I feel comfortable on this 1 1 1 2 2 2 campus 4. I feel the overall campus environment is supportive of students with disabilities 1 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 Lecturer Teaching Practices Never True Rarely True Someti mes True About Half of The Time True Most of Always True The Time True 1. My lecturers use an inclusive curriculum design so that my accommodation needs are minimized 2. My lecturers provide more than the minimum changes needed to accommodate my disability 3. Generally, I feel lecturers are supportive of me at this university 4. The overall teaching style of my lecturers at this university permits all students to learn the course material regardless of their individual needs 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lecturer Attempts to Minimize Barriers Never True Rarely True Someti mes True About Half of The Time True Most of Always True The Time True 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. My lecturers include a statement in their syllabus inviting students with disabilities to discuss their needs with them 2. My lecturers make a statement in class inviting students with disabilities to discuss their needs 115 3. My lecturers have general knowledge about accommodations 4. My lecturers provide grading rubrics in order to clarify the expectations of major assignments prior to deadlines 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 Stigma Associated with Disability Someti mes True Rarely True Never True About Half of The Time True Most of Always True The Time True If I do not disclose my disability early in the term, my lecturers are reluctant to provide accommodations I feel my lecturers are not willing to provide requested accommodations I am reluctant to disclose my disability to my lecturers My lecturers are willing to provide the accommodations outlined in my notification letter I feel my lecturers doubt my ability to succeed even when accommodations are provided 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 116 APPENDIX F – DISABILITY RELATED SERVICES AND SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE (DRSSQ) For each category, excluding suggestions/recommendations which are open-ended, please circle your perceived need for the service on a scale of 0-4, and your access to that service on a scale of 0-4. The scale for need ranges from: 0 - No need 1 - Some need 2 - Average need 3 - Great need 4 - Extreme need The scale for access ranges from: 0 - No access 1 - Some access 2 - Average access 3 - Great access 4 - Extreme access. 117 Academic Support Services Planning academic accommodation Implementing academic accommodation Taking tests with academic accommodation 1. Academic advising and counselling 2. Registration assistance 3. Classroom accommodations 4. 5. 6. 7. Course load adjustment 8. Assignment extensions/modifications 9. Consultations with lecturers on accommodation 10. Learning aids 11. Taped (recorded) materials 12. Text conversion services 13. Assistive listening technology 14. Assistive reading technology 15. Reader/writer/interpreter 16. Tutorial support and one-on-one assistance Suggestions/recommendations: Need (scale of 0- 4) 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Access (scale of 0-4) 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Accessibility/Promotional Services Need (scale of 0- 4) 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Pre- and Post-admission disability information services 0 1 2 3 4 1. Making university facilities accessible 2. Accessibility of disability services 3. Disability services application procedure 4. Access (scale of 0-4) 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 118 5. Admission correspondence 6. Dissemination of information on disability laws 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 7. in Ghana Providing designated parking for students with disabilities Suggestions/recommendations: 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Individual Support Services Advice on personal safety Counselling on safe mobility Provision of language guides 1. 2. 3. Suggestions/recommendations: Need (scale of 0-4) 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Access (scale of 0-4) 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Support Groups 1. Peer support group/special interest club/campus organizations Study groups Financial aid/support Student Representative Council Advocacy group for students with disabilities 2. 3. 4. 5. Suggestions/recommendations: 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 1. 2. Repair of assistive devices Information on/availability of renting assistive devices Need (scale of 0-4) 0 1 2 3 4 Access (scale of 0-4) 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 119 Suggestions/recommendations: Career Counselling/Career Planning 1. 2. Career Services Provision of information on opportunities for further academic pursuits Provision of information on opportunities for future careers Sugges tions/recommendations: 3. Need (scale of 0-4) 0 1 2 3 4 Access (scale of 0-4) 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 Job Placement Services Upon Graduation Need (scale of 0-4) Access (scale of 0-4) 1. 2. 3. Employment options/opportunities in the community Assistance in overcoming barriers to employment Training in writing resume and attending interviews Suggestions/recommendations: 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 120 APPENDIX G – SATISFACTION WITH LIFE SCALE (SWLS) Please take a moment to rate the following statements on a scale of 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 7 (Strongly Agree) by circling the appropriate number. 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Slightly Disagree 4 = Neither Agree nor Disagree 5 = Slightly Agree 6 = Agree 7 = Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly Agree 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. In most ways, my life is close to my ideal The conditions of my life are excellent I am satisfied with my life So far, I have gotten the important things I want in life. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 121