ABSTRACTThis dissertation examines the critical role of ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) in the early development of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) among infants and toddlers, with a focus on the transformative potential of justice-based ethnic-racial socialization (JBERS). While systems must be held responsible for the systemic racism that is deeply embedded in the social structures of the United States and perpetuated through both historical and contemporary practices, there is a role for accountability and intervention at the individual level as well. The early childhood period, particularly infancy and toddlerhood, presents a unique opportunity to engage caregivers and children in meaningful practices that can disrupt the development of harmful ethnic-racial biases and promote racial justice. A key contribution of this work is the exploration of the literature on ethnic-racial awareness in the earliest stages of life. The existing literature primarily focuses on older children and often overlooks infants and toddlers, with limited attention given to the role of caregivers in fostering healthy ERI during the formative years of birth to age 3. This gap is addressed in a scoping review (Study 1) which synthesizes the current state of research on ethnic-racial awareness among children from birth to age 3. Study 1 identifies the need for more diverse, inclusive research that incorporates Multiracial populations and highlights the underrepresentation of toddlers in studies of ethnic-racial identity development, especially given the significance of this period in the emergence of self-awareness. Further, Study 1 demonstrates the need for more research on the ethnic-racial socialization practices among caregivers of infants and toddlers using validated measures.Building on these findings, Study 2 introduces two new measures designed to assess caregivers' capacity to engage in JBERS with infants and toddlers. These measures focus on the ERI beliefs that caregivers of infants and toddlers hold and ERS practices in which caregivers of infants and toddlers engage. These new measures offer a means of evaluating the potential for JBERS interventions. Study 2 contributes to the field by providing tools to assess how caregivers can be better equipped to support healthy ERI development in young children.Taken together, the two studies inform the development of the Reciprocal Healthy Ethnic-Racial Identity Development (RHERID) model. Future research should build upon the findings of this dissertation to examine associations between JBERS delivery and infant/toddler outcomes among diverse ethnic-racial groups and within varying cultural contexts. Ultimately, this work underscores the importance of intentionally engaging in JBERS early as one aspect of the multimodal approach required to dismantle systemic racism and contribute to the broader pursuit of racial equity and social justice in the United States.
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