THE ROLE OS’ NIACIN, PANTOTHENIC ACID AND RIB0PLA7TN
IN THE NUTRITION AND HEALTH OP THE WEANLING- PIG

By

WARREN NEWTON McMILLEN

A THESIS
S u b m itte d t o t h e S ch o o l o f G ra d u a te S tu d ie s o f M ich ig an
S t a t e C o lle g e o f A g r i c u l tu r e a n d A p p lie d S c ie n c e
i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u ire m e n ts
f o r th e d e g re e o f

DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY

D ep artm en t o f Animal H usbandry

3950

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................................

1
ii

INTRODUCTION...........................
REVIEW OF LITERATURE..........................................................................

1

N ia c in , t r y p to p h a n , p r o t e i n . .......................

1

P a n to th e n ic a c id

• • .............................................................. .......................

3

R i b o f l a v i n .................................................................................................................

k

Need f o r B - v ita m in s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n .......................................................

6

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS......................................................................

7

G e n e ra l p r o c e d u re . . . . . . . .......................

7

E f f e c t o f n i a c i n , tr y p to p h a n and p r o t e i n s u p p le m e n ta tio n
E f f e c t o f p a n t o t h e n i c a c i d s u p p le m e n ta tio n
E ffe c t of r ib o f la v in le v e l

• .

• » . • • • • . .

. . ................................................................ .

8
17
22

E f f e c t o f com bined n i a c i n , p a n to t h e n i c a c i d an d r i b o f l a v i n
s u p p le m e n ta tio n

. . . . . .

.

♦ ........................ . . .

27

Rape p a s t u r e a s a s o u rc e o f B - v ita m in s

. . . . . . . . . . .

3^

A L falfa. m eal a s a s o u rc e o f B - v ita m in s

. . .

................... * •

37

I n f l u e n c e o f i n i t i a l w e ig h t a n d a d eq u acy o f r a t i o n on g a in s
an d p e r c e n ta g e o f p o o r d o in g p i g s

. . . . . . . . . . . .

DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................................
The r o l e o f n i a c i n

» . • . ...........................

1+1
H3
1+3

The r o l e o f p a n t o t h e n i c a c i d .....................................

1+6

The r o l e o f r i b o f l a v i n

1+7

...........................

The e f f e c t o f com bined n i a c i n , p a n to th e n ic a c i d an d r i b o f l a v i n
s u p p le m e n ta tio n

............................

1+8

PAGE
SUM
KAET AND CONCLUSIONS.......................................................................................................

51

LITERATURE CITED......................................................................................................................

5**-

LIST OE TABLES

1.

Composition of basal rations for niacin, tryptophan protein
tr i a ls 1 and 2

2,

................................................................................................

Influence of niacin, protein level and tryptophan on gains

10

and feed requirements ( tr ia l l)
3*

9

Influence of niacin, protein level and tryptophan on gains
and feed requirements ( tr ia l 2 ) • « • • • « » • • • • *

13

Composition of the pantothenic acid-low rations for tr ia ls

3 and U ............................................
5#

„ .......................................

Influence of pantothenic acid supplementation on gains and
feed requirements ( tr ia l 3 ) * • * .........................« . . . • •

6.

. . . . . . .

. . . . . .

7*

Composition of r i ’bofla.vin-low ration for t r ia l 5 * • • • •

S.

The influence of riboflavin level on gains and feed
requirements ( tr ia l 5 )

* • • • * • • • • • * • « • • •

9* Composition of basal rations for tr ia ls 6 and 7

» * • . *

23
25

26
29

Influence of B—
vitamin supplements on gains and feed
requirements ( tr i a l

11*

19

Influence of pantothenic acid supplementation on gains and
feed requirements ( tr ia l 4 ) .

10.

IS

6)

30

Influence of B-vitamin supplements on gains and feed
requirements ( tr ia l 7 )

• • • • • • • • • • • * • • • ♦

33

pash:

12.

Composition of 'basal rations for pasture t r ia l 8 • • • • .

35

13 * Influence of ^-vitamin supplementation on gains and feed

36

requirements on rape pasture ( tr ia l 8 ). . . . . . . . .
iM-.

Composition of "basal rations for t r i a l

38

15*

Alfalfa meal as a source of B-vitamins with and without
APF supplement ( tr ia l 9).........................

l 6.

.

39

Influence of i n i t i a l weight and adequacy of ration on gains
and percentage of poor doing pigs • . . • • • • • » • •

^-2

LIST OP FIGORES

1.

Relation of niacin, tryptophan and protein . . . . • • • •

lh

2.

Pig from niacin supplemented lo t 2, tr ia l 2

15

3.

Niacin deficient pig from lo t 1, t r i a l 2 « . . . . » . . .

15

H.

Niacin deficient large intestine

l6

. .........................

5* Normal, healthy large i n t e s t i n e ........................................................

l6

6.

Effect of pantothenic acid deficiency on growth

. • * • .

20

7.

Pig from pantothenic acid supplemented lo t 2, t r ia l U . •

21

8.

Pantothenic acid deficient pig from lo t 3* t r i a l U . . . .

21

9* Effect of pantothenic acid supplementation » • • » • • • •
10.

2h

Pig with multiple B-vitamin deficiency on a corn-soybean
meal diet

• • • • • • * • • • • •

28

11.

Effect of multiple B-vitamin supplementation « . « • • » .

28

12 .

Studies with rations of natural feedstuffs . . . . . . . .

31

13 .

Alfalfa meal as a source of B—
vitamins « . * • « . • • • •

M
o

ACKEOmiEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his appreciation to
Dr. E. W
. Luecke of the Department of Agricultural Chemistry and
to Dr. Prank Thorp, Jr. of the Department of Animal Pathology who
were coworkers in the experiments reported here.

The author is

grateful to Dr. G. A* Branaman, Professor G. A» Brown and
Dr. E. H. Nelson of the Department of Animal Husbandry fo r advice
and help in preparing the manuscript and to Chen Kang Chai for help
with the s ta tis tic a l analyses.
Thanks are also due other members of the Animal Husbandry,
Agricultural Chemistry and Animal Pathology Departments and the
herdsmen and students who helped with different phases of the work.

i

INTRODUCTION

The f i r s t weeks afte r weaning are nutritionally c ritic a l.
Diarrhea, post vaccination troubles, nutritional e n te ritis or swine
pellagra, nutritional dermatitis, leg abnormalities, poor growth
and high feed requirement are among the evidences of malnutrition#
Swine specialists and other agricultural authorities agree that the
average weaning weight is about 26 pounds.
Swine producers are reminded of the enormous baby pig losses
by many press and radio releases and a rtic le s in farm and breed
journals.

There is a tendency, however, to accept poor doing wean­

ling pigs as a matter of course#

Many pork producers get used to

th e ir pigs making slow gains and don*t realize that poor feeding is
robbing them of th eir profit#

Some mysterious '’bug1
* is often blamed

for unthriftiness and disease that result from poor feeding#
Results of many t r i a ls at experiment stations indicate that
some of the feed mixtures now in use are inadequate in one or more
of 3 B-vitamins for average weanling pigs#

There is great varia­

tion in the B-vitamin composition of feedstuffs used for swine.

For

example, corn may vary 100 percent in i t s content of the more c ritic a l
B-vitamins, Hunt et al» (19^7)*

As reported here, the necessary B-

vitamin levels appear to be higher for 20 to 30-pound pigs than for
pigs weighing over JO pounds at weaning time.

This means that

results of many feeding tr ia ls with pigs weighing ^0 to SO pounds
in itia lly cannot be applied to average weanling pigs#

ii

When anything happens to throw a weanling pig off feed or
decrease his appetite, deficiencies of niacin, pantothenic acid,
riboflavin and possibly other B-vitamins may occur in a very short
time.

Deficiency trouble due to vitamin deficiencies i s widespread.

This is indicated by the general interest of farmers in anything
that shows promise of preventing post-weaning runts*

Reports from

farmers a l l over the country, especially from the combelt, t e l l of
deficiency troubles.

Even good swine producers fear runts*

Letters

from people who consider themselves to be good hog producers t e l l of
having about 15 percent runts each year.

I t would be foolish to

claim that vitamin deficiencies are responsible for a ll this trouble
or that vitamin supplementation will cure a ll the ills*

However,

there is now adequate evidence that B-vitamin supplementation is
often desirable.
I t is important that veterinarians, feed men and nutrition ists
know and be able to recognize the symptoms of vitamin deficiencies.
I t is also important that means of preventing and treating the common
deficiencies be found and used.

Optimum levels of the nutrients

involved should be established.

Even higher levels may be desirable

for insurance against trouble.
The purpose of this thesis is to present experimental results
concerning the role of niacin, pantothenic acid and riboflavin in pig
growth and in efficiency of feed u tilizatio n , as well as their role
In disease prevention and treatment.

iii

REVIEW OR LITERATURE

f f l a c i n , tr y p to p h a n , p r o t e i n
August Hirsch (ISB5 ) described a noxious factor in maize.

He

mentioned organic disease and intestinal affection and stated that the
trouble was never seen in Europe until maize was introduced.
The main symptom of niacin deficiency is necrotic
Other symptoms include poor growth,

large intestines.

diarrhea, rough hair coats and some­

times dermatitis.

W ia c in d e f i c i e n c y i n sw ine h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d b y C hick j | t a l .
(1 9 3 2 a ), M adison e t a l .
(19^3)* Pow ick e t a l .
et a l.

(19^9)*

(1939)* D av is e t a l .

(1 9 ^ 0 # 19*+3)* Hughes

(19^7)* L uecke e t a l . (19^7* 19^8) au d Dunne

Hughes (1 9 ^3 ) e s tim a te d th e re q u ire m e n t on a s y n t h e t i c

d i e t to b e b e tw e e n 5 a n d 10 mg p e r 100 pounds o f p i g .
The o c c u r r e n c e o f n i a c i n d e f i c i e n c y i s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith
c o r n d i e t s a n d i s r e l a t e d to th e p r o t e i n l e v e l an d tr y p to p h a n c o n te n t.
K re h l e t a l .

(19^ 5 * 1 9 ^ 6) w o rk in g w ith r a t s , fo u n d t h a t th e i n c l u s i o n

o f c o rn g r i t s i n a n i a c i n - lo w d i e t p ro d u c e d r e t a r d e d g ro w th . Growth
im p ro v ed b y e i t h e r i n c r e a s i n g n i a c i n o r try p to p h a n *

was

W in tro b e (1 9 ^ 5 )

r e p o r t e d t h a t n i a c i n d e f i c i e n c y was n o t p ro d u c e d when young p i g s w ere
f e d a p u r i f i e d r a t i o n c o n t a i n in g 26 p e r c e n t c a s e in . Pow ick _et

a l . (19*+7a )

w ere u n a b le to c o n firm t h i s work o f W in tro b e.
L u eck e ab a l .

(19*+S) fo u n d t h a t a d e q u a te am ounts o f tr y p to p h a n

w i l l p r e v e n t n i c o t i n i c a c i d d e f i c i e n c y and t h a t n i a c i n i n c r e a s e s th e
u t i l i z a t i o n o f d i e t a r y tr y p to p h a n .

Ho symptoms o f n i a c i n d e f i c i e n c y

w ere p ro d u c e d on a c o r n r a t i o n c o n ta i n in g 25 p e r c e n t c a s e i n .

M ild symp­

tom s o f n i a c i n d e f i c i e n c y w ere p ro d u c e d i n p i g s r e c e i v i n g a t o t a l o f 17*^
mg o f n i a c i n d a i l y .

2

L u eck e e£ a l * (1947* 1948) a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t u r i n a r y
e x c r e t i o n o f E M a e th y ln ic o tin a m ld e i s a good in d e x o f n i a c i n d e f i ­
c ie n c y a n d a g r e e s c l o s e l y w ith i n t e s t i n a l l e s i o n s an d l a c k o f growth*
I t i s w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t n i a c i n d e f i c i e n c y p l a y s a b i g
p a r t in p ig p e lla g r a o r n u tr itio n a l n e c ro tic e n te r itis *
a s 1934 K in s le y w r ite *

As e a r l y

nI t i s u s u a l l y d e s ig n a te d a s a f i l t h - b o r n e

d is e a s e ? h o w ev er, i t o c c u r s i n sw ine t h a t a r e k e p t u n d e r th e b e s t
s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s . H McEwen (1937) d e s c r ib e d a n o u tb r e a k o f
n e c r o t i c e n t e r i t i s u n d e r s a n i t a r y c o n d it io n s and was n o t a b l e to
a s s o c i a t e t h e d i s e a s e w ith a s p e c i f i c o rg a n ism .
B ir c h _et_ a l .

(1937) an d G hick ejb a l .

(I9 3 ^ a ) r e p o r te d l o s s

o f a p p e t i t e , d i a r r h e a , g ro w th s to p p a g e an d s k in t r o u b l e ( d e r m a t i t i s )
when a p e l l a g r a p ro d u c in g d i e t was f e d .
th e t r o u b l e .

D av is je t a l .

N ia c in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c u re d

(1940) p r e s e n te d d a ta i n d i c a t i n g t h a t

n e c r o t i c e n t e r i t i s d e v e lo p s p r i m a r i l y a s a r e s u l t o f n u t r i t i o n a l
d e fic ie n c y .

N ia c in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was e f f e c t i v e b o th a s a c u re

and a s a p re v e n ta tiv e o f n e c ro tic e n te r itis *

M adison e t a l .

(1939)

r e p o r t e d q u ic k r e c o v e ry from a ty p e o f n e c r o t i c e n t e r i t i s on a
P e n n s y lv a n ia farm when n i a c i n was f e d .

L uecke js t a l .

(1949b) fo u n d

t h a t m u l t i p l e v ita m in s u p p le m e n ta tio n , i n c lu d in g n i a c i n , c u re d B v ita m in d e f i c i e n c y symptoms.
E v id e n c e p r e s e n t e d by Pow ick ^et a l . (1947b, 194*5), L uecke
e t a l . ( I 9U7 , 19^3) an d M cM illen (1 9 4 9 a, 1949b) i n d i c a t e s t h a t
p r a c t i c a l r a t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g c o rn may o f t e n b e low i n n i a c i n f o r
w e a n lin g p i g s .

P a n to th e n ic a c id

The need for pantothenic acid in swine diets was f i r s t
reported by Chick at al.

(1938*0*

On a synthetic diet supplemented

with B^, riboflavin, niacin "eluate factor 11 (pyridoxine), the pigs
developed paralysis of the hindquarters.

The trouble was prevented

when the " f iltr a te factor '1 was fed.
Hughes (1942b) associated the absence of pantothenic acid In
the diet with leg abnormalities which resulted in incoordination or
goose stepping.

Other deficiency symptoms included loss of appetite,

slow growth, diarrhea and an ulcerated condition of the large intestine.
Wintrobe et al.

(1940) described ataxia and degeneration of

the myelin sheath of nerve fibers In pigs fed a synthetic diet f o rti­
fied with the vitamins known at that time.

Later Wintrobe et al.

(1942) developed this nerve degeneration in the absence of pantothenic
acid and pyridoxine*

Wintrobe et al.

(1943) noted poor growth, loss

of hair, diarrhea and small intestinal lesions among other symptoms.
All of the symptoms except the abnormal gait could be corrected by
the administration of calcium pantothenate.
E llis jet al.

(I94l) reported lameness, similar to that observed

by Wintrobe (1940, 1942, 1943) and Hughes (1942b), in pigs kept in dry
lo t and fed a ration of corn, tankage, linseed meal, a lfa lfa meal and
mineral.

The incidence and severity of the disorder was increased by

heating this diet of natural feedstuffs before feeding.

In la te r work

E llis and Madsen (1943) found that pantothenic acid, when added alone,
was effective in preventing the trouble.

On this ration of natural

feedstuffs, incoordination developed after three months.

The extreme

k

symptoms of diarrhea and vomiting observed by e a rlier workers using
a purified diet were not observed by E llis and Madsen*

Even though

badly crippled, many pigs made good growth up to maifcet weight*
Leg abnormalities identical with or similar to those described
above have been observed at several cornbelt experiment stations*

The o c c u r r e n c e o f p a n t o t h e n i c a c i d d e f i c i e n c y on w id e ly u s e d ty p e s
o f r a t i o n s , E l l i s e t a l*
e t al*

(19^3)* F a ir b a n k s e t a l*

(l9*+5) an d M cM illen

( 1 9 *+9a , 1 9 **9h ) s u g g e s t t h a t f e e d m ix tu r e s o r d i n a r i l y u s e d a r e

o f t e n d e f i c i e n t i n t h i s v ita m in *
Hughes a t al*

(1 9 ^ 2 a ) p la c e d th e re q u ire m e n t f o r p a n t o th e n ic

a c i d b e tw e e n 179 an d 26S -^ g . p e r kg* liv e w e ig h t*
used

E l l i s e £ a l*

t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t n e rv e d e g e n e r a tio n .

(19^3)

The recommended

a llo w a n c e i n t h e r e p o r t o f t h e n a t i o n a l R e s e a rc h C o u n c il ( 1 9 ^ ) * IS* 5
mg (U lU ^ g * p e r kg* ) , i s o n ly s l i g h t l y above th e l e v e l i n r a t i o n s
l i k e t h e o n e s fo u n d d e f i c i e n t b y E l l i s
L u eck e e t a l*

al*

(19^3)»

(1 9 ^ 9 a , 1950a) an d M cM illen e t a l*

R e c e n t e v id e n c e ,

(19^9a)* i n d i c a t e s

t h a t recommended l e v e l s s h o u ld b e h ig h e r u n d e r p r a c t i c a l f e e d i n g con­
d i t i o n s th a n a r e now g e n e r a l l y re c o g n iz e d *
Riboflavin

H ughes (1 939) u s i n g a s y n t h e t i c d i e t p u b li s h e d d a t a show ing
t h a t a l a c k o f r i b o f l a v i n b ro u g h t a b o u t r e t a r d e d g ro w th , d i a r r h e a a n d
l e g a b n o r m a litie s *

U sin g a p u r i f i e d d i e t f o r t i f i e d w ith B f a c t o r s

o t h e r t h a n r i b o f l a v i n , Hughes (19^0) fo u n d th e re q u ire m e n t to b e b e tw e e n
1 and 3

P®r h u n d re d pou n d s o f p i g d a i l y .

w ere a l s o n o te d a s d e f i c i e n c y symptoms.

F en ce chew ing an d tr e m b lin g

5

Patek e t a l.

(19^1) lis te d retarded growth, changes in the

skin, hair, hoofs and in the corneal epitheleum resulting in the
development of lens cataract, as symptoms of clinical deficiency.
IPhese workers also noted a collapse syndrome associated with a
drop in hody temperature, slow and irregular pulse and respiration.
Administration of riboflavin produced a rapid response and recovery.
Wintrobe et al.

(19^*0 observed swollen eyelids and lens opacities

in three pigs on a diet low in riboflavin.

Ehese workers also

observed rough skin caked over with heavy sebaceous exudate and a
peculiar gait similar to that observed in pantothenic acid deficiency.
Mboflavin plays an important role in several enzyme systems.
In recent experiments supplementation with small amounts of riboflavin
greatly increased feed efficiency.
the addition of 1*5

Dyer at a l.

(19^9) found that

o£ riboflavin to a com-soybean meal diet

for weanling pigs increased the daily gain from 0 .3 9 to 0 .7 1 pound
and decreased the feed requirement from 5**0 to 350 pounds of feed per
hundred pounds of gain.

In another experiment, Kidder j5t al.

(19^9b)

using natural feedstuffs set the practical minimum level at l.U mg
per pound of ration.

McMillen jet al.

(19**9&) using a ration consist­

ing of com, soybean o il meal, meat scraps, and mineral noted slow
growth on rations containing 1 .1 2 and 0 .9 7
of feed.

OIhe addition of 5

of riboflavin per pound

riboflavin per pound of feed increased

the efficiency of gain 25 and 29 percent in two t r ia ls .

Mitchell jjt a l.

(19 ^9 ) present evidence which indicates that riboflavin requirements
of young pigs are higher In cold environments than at warm temperatures.

6
Need for B—
vitamin supplementation

I t is well known that a commonly used ration composed of
yellow corn, tankage, soybean meal, a lfa lfa meal and minerals is
inadequate for optimum growth and lactation performance when fed
to swine in dry lo t.

Results of many tr ia ls especially at the

Illin o is , Missouri and Wisconsin Experiment Stations, prove that
not only do such rations f a il to promote optimum growth and lacta­
tion but various abnormalities appear in the pigs,
(I 9 U2 ) observed deficiency symptoms in large
type of ration.

growing pigs on this

Much of the earlier work along this

by Fairbanks e_t al.

(I 9 UH) and Krider ejt al,

Keith et al,

lin e is reviewed

(19^)*Krider

e t al.

(19 ^ ) found that a lfa lfa meal and d is tille r s solubles brought
about nutritional improvement, but the weaning weights of the pigs
and subsequent gains were below normal.

Pigs from l i t t e r s fed

a lfa lfa and d is tille r s solubles as well as the pigs fed the basal
diets developed diarrhea, dermatitis and various leg abnormalities.
Results of these studies led the authors to suggest that the
growing-fattening pig may require more of the known vitamins than
the lite ra tu re indicates.
Luecke ^et al.

(19^7» 19^*0 found that the niacin requirement

of pigs fed rations of natural feedstuffs is much higher than the
early requirements established on a synthetic diet.

!Ehe results

of Powick e t a l. (19^7a>, 19^7^* 19^») also indicate a high require­
ment for niacin.

Luecke et al.

(19*+9a) found that rations composed

of natural feedstuffs may not supply adequate amounts of pantothenic
aci d.

7

K rid e r e t a l .

(1 9 ^ 8 ), L uecke e t a l .

(19*+7» 19US) a n d M cM illen

( I9 ^ 9 a ) h a v e shown t h a t w e a n lin g p i g s e x h i b i t a m arked r e s p o n s e i n
g ro w th a n d e f f i c i e n c y t o B - v ita m in s u p p le m e n ta tio n when f e d a c o r n so y h ean r a t i o n i n d ry l o t #
D yer ^ t a l#

(1 9 ^ 9 ) an d M cM illen (19*+9a) p r e s e n te d e v id e n c e to

show t h a t s u p p le m e n ta tio n w ith n i a c i n , p a n to th e n ic a c i d an d r i b o f l a v i n
was a s e f f e c t i v e a s t h e a d d i t i o n o f s e v e r a l o t h e r B -v ita m in s#
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS
General -procedure

S e v e r a l e x p e rim e n ts h av e b e e n c o n d u c te d a t M ich ig an S t a t e
C o lle g e fro m 19^-6 t o 1950 to s tu d y n i a c i n , p a n t o th e n ic a c i d , an d
r i b o f l a v i n d e f i c i e n c i e s , s u p p le m e n ta l r a t e s an d p r o b a b le u s e i n
p r a c t i c a l sw ine d ie ts #

The p i g s u s e d h av e b e e n p u r e b r e d p i g s fro m

t h e c o l l e g e h e r d an d c r o s s b r e d p i g s from th e J a c k s o n P r i s o n Parm#
All of the pigs except those used in t r i a l 6 were on pasture until
put on experiment.

The pigs used in t r i a l 6 were raised in dry lo t.

E x c e p t i n t r i a l 1 m ost o f th e p i g s have a v e ra g e d u n d e r 30
p o u n d s a n d w ere a b o u t se v e n weeks o f a g e when s t a r t e d on t e s t *

A ll

p i g s w ere s e l f - f e d t h e e x p e r im e n ta l m ix tu r e s an d h ad a c c e s s to a u to ­
m a tic w a te r e rs #

E x c e p t f o r t h e p a s t u r e t r i a l , a l l g ro u p s w ere f e d

i n c o n c r e te f l o o r e d p e n s an d w ere b e d d e d w ith s h a v in g s .
I n s e v e r a l o f th e t r i a l s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p i g s w ere a u t o p s i e d
a t t h e end o f t h e e x p e rim e n t.

The b lo o d l e v e l s an d u r i n a r y e x c r e t i o n

o f t h e v ita m in s w ere s t u d i e d a s m e a su re s o f a d e q u a c y o r d e f i c i e n c y
o f t h e d i e t i n some o f t h e t r i a l s #

8

The "b reed in g o f t h e p i g s i s g iv e n f o r ea c h ex p erim en t*
d e t a i l e d c o m p o s itio n o f t h e r a t i o n s i s a l s o p r e s e n te d *

The

The p i g s w ere

v a c c i n a t e d f o r c h o l e r a w ith serum a n d v i r u s a n d t r e a t e d f o r mange w ith
lim e s u l f u r o r "benzene h e x a c h lo r id e b e f o r e b e in g p la c e d on ex p erim en t*
The sodium f l u o r i d e tr e a t m e n t was u s e d f o r worms*
The g a in s w ere t e s t e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e b y th e m ethod o f
S n e d e c o r (19^+6)*

M ethods em ployed f o r th e d e te r m in a tio n o f v ita m in s

i n th e f e e d s w ere n i a c i n , E r e h l e t al*

(19^ 3 )* p a n to th e n ic a c i d ,

Skeggs a n d W right (19^*+). an d r i b o f l a v i n , S n e ll a n d S tro n g (1939)*
P r o t e i n d e t e r m in a ti o n s w ere c a r r i e d o u t by t h e u s u a l K je ld a h l p r o ­
ced u re*

T ry p to p h a n d e te r m in a tio n s w ere c a r r i e d o u t u s in g a m o d ifie d

p r o c e d u r e o f S a u b e r l ic h a n d Baumann (19^-6)*
E f f e c t o f n i a c i n , tr y p to p h a n and
p r o t e i n su p p l e m e n ta tio n
T ria l 1 P i g s u s e d i n t h i s e x p e rim e n t w ere Du.ro c - Y o r k s h ir e c r o s s b re d s *
The c o m p o s itio n o f t h e r a t i o n s i s shown i n T a b le 1*

G ains a n d f e e d

r e q u ir e m e n ts a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 2*
P i g s i n l o t 1 w ere f e d th e 19 p e r c e n t p r o t e i n r a t i o n A*

They

a v e ra g e d 1*0 p o u n d d a i l y g a in and r e q u i r e d 3*09 p o u n d s o f f e e d p e r
p o u n d o f gain *
week*

T h re e o f t h e p i g s d e v e lo p e d d i a r r h e a b y t h e f o u r t h

On a u to p s y a t t h e end o f t h e t r i a l , p i g s from l o t 1 showed

th ic k e n e d , n e c r o t i c l a r g e i n t e s t i n e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f n i a c i n d e f i ­
c ie n c y *

9

TABLE 1
Composition of basal rations for niacin,
tryptophan, protein t r i a ls 1 and 2T

Ingredients of rations

Com

A

B

C

D

*

*

*

$

SO

S7

68
90

Oats
Casein (commercial)
Soybean o il meal

2

Complex mineral mixture

12

5*5

4

25

6

5 .5

4

5

2

2

2

2

Composition
Crade protein, percent

UFiacin, mg per lb.

Tryptophan, percent

The following amounts
animal: thiamine, 10
25 mg; and pyridoxine
A and 3> were added in
200 I. TJ. of D.
2

dS.ioy

1 9 .2 0 ,

l 4 .0 0 ,
(1 5 . i o r

1 5 .9 0

2 9 .6 0

5-22,
( s . 70)

6 .2 3 ,
(1 1 .2 0 K

6*25

8 .1 0

0*20

0*13

0 .4 1

of B-vitamins were supplied daily to each
mg; riboflavin, 10 mg; calcium pantothenate,
hydrochloride, 6 mg* Supplemental vitamins
amounts which supplied 2,000 I. U. of A and

The mineral mixture contained the following (in $); bonemeal, 32#3*
ground limestone, 32 *3 ; sodium chloride, 32 . 3 * ferrous sulfate, 2*5 ;
copper sulfate, 0 *2 ; manganese sulfate, 0 . 1 ; zinc oxide, 0 . 1 ; cobaltous
acetate, 0 *1 ; and potassium iodide, 0 *1 *

^ D a ta f o r t r i a l 2 .

10

TABLE 2
Trial 1 —Influence of niacin, protein level
and tryptophan on gains and feed requirements
(Five pigs in each lo t, tr ia ls lasting 6 weeks)

Lot
Ho,

R a tio n

I n i t i a l F in a l
wei g h t w e ig h t
lb s*
lb s .

Av.
d a ily
g a in
lb s .

Av.
d a ily
ra tio n
lb s .

F eed
p e r lb .
o f g a in
lb s .

1

B a s a l A (19$ p r o t e i n )

39

81

1 .0 0

3 .0 9

3*09

2

B a s a l A / H.A.'*’

Uo

99

UHO**

3 .6 7

2 .6 1

3

B asal B (l4 $ p r o te in )

27

56

0 .6 2

2 .2 0

3 .1 9

^

B a s a l B $ H. A.

28

60

O.7 6

2. 27

2 .9 S

5

B a s a l B / tr y p to p h a n

27

69

1 . 00*

2. 29

2 .2 9

6

B a s a l C (1 5 « 9 $ p r o t e i n )

28

60

0 .7 6

2 .2 9

3 .0 1

Pigs in lo ts 2 and U received daily supplements of 30
o f niacin.
2
Pigs in lo t 5 received daily supplements of 200 mg of I>-L tryptophan,
♦♦Daily gains of lo t 2 highly significant over lo t 1 (P=0.0l).

♦ D a ily g a i n s o f l o t 5 s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t 3 (P=0«05)*

11

Pigs in lo t 2 received the 19 percent protein ration A plus
daily supplements of 30 m£

niacin*

These pigs averaged 1 ,U pound

daily gain, a highly significant increase over the gains of the lo t 1
pigs*

They also required 12 percent less feed per pound of gain*

On

autopsy pigs from this lo t showed no signs of gross pathology*
Pigs in lo t 3 received the low-protein

percent) ration B.

These pigs made an average daily gain of only 0.62 pound and required
3* 10 pounds of feed per pound of gain.

Pour of the six pigs developed

severe diarrhea*

Their hair coats were rough and the skin was scaly

behind the ears*

Autopsy revealed severe intestinal lesions*

The lo t 4 pigs were fed the 1*+ percent protein ration B plus
30 mg of niacin daily*

The average daily gain* 0*76 pound, is not

significantly greater than the lo t 3 pigs*

However, th eir feed in­

takes were greater, feed requirements were slightly lower and autopsy
revealed normal intestines.
The pigs in lo t 5 were fed the 1^ percent, low-protein ration B
plus daily supplements of 200 mg of D-L tryptophan*
gain, 1 ,0 0 pound, is significant over lo t

3*

The average daily

feed requirement is

23 percent lower than for the unsupplemented lo t 3 *

pigs from

this lo t showed a few lesions in the small intestine on autopsy*

P i g s i n l o t 6 w ere f e d th e o a t r a t i o n c o n ta in in g 15*9 p e r c e n t
p ro te in .

T h is o a t r a t i o n was lo w e r i n n i a c i n h u t h i g h e r i n tr y p to p h a n

th a n t h e c o m r a t i o n s *

The p i g s made a n a v e ra g e d a i l y g a i n o f o n ly

0*76 pou n d an d r e q u i r e d 3*01 pounds o f f e e d p e r pound o f g ain*

T h is

p e rfo rm a n c e i s v e r y s i m i l a r to th e p i g s i n l o t H g e t t i n g th e lo w -

12

protein 'basal B plus niacin.

The pigs developed rough hair coats

and did not look lik e th rifty , fa st gaining pigs*
in testin al lesions on autopsy*

There were no

The colons were large and distended

with oat hulls.

Trial 2 -

Pigs used in this experiment were Duroo-Yorkshire crossbreds*
The composition of the ration is shown in Table 1*

The niacin content

of the three rations decreased as the level of casein was increased.
Since the lo ts getting a higher level of casein ate more feed, the
actual intakes of niacin were quite uniform.
The gains and feed requirements are shown in Table 3*
growth curves for lo ts 1, 2 and 3 are presented in Pig. 1.

The pigs

on the basal ration B in lo t 1 gained only 0 .2 6 pound daily and
required H.OU pounds of feed per pound of gain.
with daily supplements of

The pigs In lo t 2,

mg of niacin, made a highly significant

larger gain of 0 *6l pound daily and required only 2 .2 5 pounds of
feed per pound of gain.
Ho evidence of the intestinal lesions characteristic of niacin
deficiency were observed in pigs autopsied at the end of the experi­
ments from lo ts 2, 3 a^d 5*

Severe lesions were present in the lo t 1

pigs on the basal ration B by the fourth week of the experiment.
exhibited diarrhea, rough hair coats and poor appetites.

They

Intestinal

lesions characteristic of niacin deficiency were present on autopsy.
Two of the pigs in lo t

showed diarrhea during the f if th week.

Three

13

TABLE 3

T r i a l 2 — I n f l u e n c e o f n i a c i n , p r o t e i n lev ^ L
a n d tr y p to p h a n o n g a in s an d f e e d r e q u ire m e n ts
( F iv e p i g s i n e a c h l o t , t r i a l s l a s t i n g 6 w eeks)
Av.

Lot
No.

I n i t i a l F in a l
w e ig h t w e ig h t
lb s *
lb s .

N a tio n

Av.

d a ily
g a in
lb s .

d a lly
ra tio n
lb s .

Feed
p e r lb .
o f g a in
lb s .

1

B a s a l B (15*1$ p r o t e i n )

22

33

0 .2 6

1 .0 5

2

B a s a l B / N.A*^

22

1+g

0 . 61**

1 .3 7

2 .2 5

3

B asal B /

22

57

1 .7 5

2. 0 S

27

58

o.su**
0.7U

2 .0 0

2 .7 0

22

66

1 . 05 **

2 .0 6

1 .9 6

try p to p h a n ^

h B a s a l A (1 9 .
5

p r o te in ) 1

B a s a l D ( 2 9 .6 $ p r o t e i n )

^ T h e re w ere s i x p i g s i n l o t H.
2
P i g s i n l o t 2 r e c e i v e d 3°
of> n i a c i n d a i l y ,
^ P ig s i n l o t 3 r e c e i v e d 1 gm o f D-L tr y p to p h a n d a i l y ,
* * D a ily g a in s o f l o t s 2 , 3 *nd 5 h i g h ly s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t 1
(p*01. ) . L o t 3 g a i n s h i g h ly s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t s 1 an d 2 ( P = 0 .0 l) .
L o t *1 n o t c o m p a ra b le f o r s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a tm e n t.
G ains o f l o t 5
h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t s 2 an d 3 (F^O .0 1 ) .

14

RELATIONSH IP OF NIACIN, T R Y P T O P H A N E , & PR O T E IN

80

70

HI G H

PROTEIN

TRYPTOPHANE
NIACIN

D E FIC IE N T

60

to
Q

Z

13

o

50

a.

z
i—

i
o

^

40

30

20

2

3
WEEKS

ON

4

5

6

7

EX PERIM EN T

Fig. 1 Relationship of niacin, tryptophane and protein.
Note the
immediate effect of niacin deficiency indicating that niacin is
stored for only a very short time.

15

Pig. 2 Pig from niacin supplemented lo t 2* t r i a l 2*
Pigs in this lo t averaged 0. 6l pound daily gain and
weighed *+S pounds a fte r six wedcs1 feeding.

Pig. 3 Niacin deficient pig from lo t 1, t r i a l 2. Pigs
in this lo t averaged only 0 .2 6 pound daily gain and
weighed only 33 pOTU&ds a fte r six weeks1 feeding.

16

jrig. h Niacm aericient large intestine*
Note ttie
thickened condition with feces adhering to the Inner
surface* Shis picture was taken from a representative
pig from lo t 1, t r i a l 2 at the end of the six-week
trial*
This condition has been corrected with niacin
or multiple B-vitamin administration in from two to

QifO

Fig* 5 Normal, healthy large intestine* This picture
was taken from a representative pig from lo t 2, t r i a l 2*

17

of the pigs In this lo t showed evidence of enteritis*

This indicates

that th is 19*4 percent protein ration did not contain sufficient tryp­
tophan to overcome completely the lo ^ n ia cin content*

Effect of pantothenic acid supplementation
Trial 3 -

Hampshire pigs were used in lo ts 1 and 2 and Duroc pigs in
lo ts 3 an&
Table

The composition of the basal rations is shown in

The influence of pantothenic acid supplementation on gains

and feed requirements is presented in Table 5*
lo ts 2 and 3 ar®presented in Pig* 6*

Tk® growth curves of

In both comparisons the pigs

receiving 15 mg of supplemental pantothenic acid per pound of feed
(lots 2 and 4) made significantly greater gains on substantially less
feed than the control pigs in lots 1 and 3»
During the seventh week, two of the pigs in lo t 2 exhibited
incoordination and by the end of the eighth week, four of the five
animals showed abnormal gaits*

Pathological examination of the sciatic

nerve as described by Luecke et al* (I9^9a) showed degeneration of the
myelin sheath*

By the fourth week of the experiment, four of the six

pigs in lo t h exhibited diarrhea which cleared up in about two weeks*
Their appetite decreased and the pigs became rough haired and unthrifty.
By the seventh week, a ll of the lo t H pigs exhibited some incoordination.
The sciatic nerves from three pigs in this lo t were studied pathologi­
cally*
pigs.

Degeneration of the myelin sheath was observed as in the lo t 2

18

TABLE h
Composition of the pantothenic acid-low rations
for tr ia ls 3 and r

Ingredients of rations

Com

A

B

c

t

*

*

86

*7

77

Casein (commercial)

5.5

Sojpbean o il meal (expeller)

5.5

Complex mineral mixture

3

10

20
3

3

Composition
Crude protein, percent
Pantothenic acid, mg per lb*

15 . so

16.20

16 . *40

3*82

3.^2

H.21

The following vitamins were mixed in rations A and B (values
expressed in mg per lb* of feed): thiamine, 5* riboflavin, 5?
niacin, 15; pyridoxine, 2*5* Choline chloride was also added
to both rations at a level of 0,1 percent* Supplemental vitamins
A and D were added in amounts which supplied 2,000 I, U* of A
and 200 I* U* of D*
The mineral mixture in rations A and B was the same as in Table 1*
The mixture for ration 0 contained the following (in $): bonemeal,
31 *6 ; ground limestone, 31*6 ; iodized salt, 31 *6 ; ferrous sulfate,
2*1; magnesium carbonate, 2.0; copper sulfate, 0*2; potassium
carbonate, 0.2; manganese sulfate, 0*5; zinc oxide, 0.1; and cobaltous acetate, 0*1*

19

TABLE 5

T r i a l 3 ~ I n f l u e n c e o f p a n t o th e n ic a c i d s u p p le m e n ta tio n
on g a in s an d f e e d re q u ire m e n ts
( T r i a l s l a s t i n g 8 w eeks)

Lot
No.

R a tio n

No.
p i g s I n i t i a l F in a l
p e r w e ig h t w e ig h t
lo t
lb s .
lb s .

Av.
d a ily
g a in
lb s .

Av.
d a ily
ra tio n
lb s .

F eed
p e r lb .
o f g a in
lb s*

1

B asal A

5

23

66

0 . 6s

2 .1 2

2 .7 6

2

B a s a l A , P . A. 1

5

23

7*

0 . 91*

1 .9 5

2. 1 ^

3

B asal B

6

67

0 .7 5

2 .3 2

3*09

86

1. 10*

2 .5 0

2. 27

14- B a s a l B // F .A . 1

6

25

2k

1

F e e d m ix tu r e s f o r l o t s 2 an d U c o n ta in e d 15 mg su p p le m e n ta l c a lc iu m
p a n t o t h e n a t e p e r pound o f f e e d .
* D a ily g a i n o f l o t 2 s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t 1 (P=0 . 0 5 ) and l o t Ms i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t 3 (F=O.0 5 ) .

20

EFFECT OF PANTOTHENIC ACID

DEFICIENCY ON GROWTH

90

80
NORMAL CONTROL

70

PANTOTHENIC ACID
DEFICIENCY

o
60

X

S3
u
i

50

40

30

20
WEEKS

ON

EXPERIMENT

Fig. 6 Effect of pantothenic acid deficiency on growth* Note
the difference in growth curves at the end of two weeks indicat­
ing that pantothenic acid is stored for only a short time*

21

Fig. 7 Pig from pantothenic acid supplemented lo t 2,
t r i a l H. Pigs in this lot made an average daily gain
of 1 .0 5 pounds and weighed 99 pounds at the end of the
ten-week trial®

Fig. 8 Pantothenic acid deficient pig from lo t 3»
tria l
ITote the crooked hind legs which resulted
in incoordination and goose stepping. Pigs in this
lo t gained only 0 .6 0 pound daily and weighed only 66
pounds at the end of the ten-week tr ia l.

22
Trial h

Purebred Duroc pigs were used in this t r i a l.
of the ration fed is shown in Table

The composition

The influence of pantothenic

acid supplementation on gains and feed requirements is presented in
Table 6.
The pigs in lo t 1 receiving the control diet 0 without panto­
thenic acid supplementation gained only O .h pound daily.

The daily

gains were significantly increased in lo t 3 ^y the addition of 5
B-vitamins without pantothenic acid-.

A similar significant increase

in gain was noted in the lo t U pigs receiving suppl©mental pantothenic
acid only.

The daily gains of the pigs in lo t 2 , receiving a ll G

B-vitamins including pantothenic acid, were highly significant over
those in the other three lo ts.
The pigs in lo t 3 exhibited diarrhea by the f if th week.

As

in t r i a l 1 , a ll of the pigs in this pantothenic acid deficient lo t
showed symptoms of incoordination and degeneration of the sciatic
nerve.
The pigs on the basal diet C exhibited diarrhea during the
course of the experiment but no symptoms of locomotor incoordination
occurred.
Effect of riboflavin level
Trial 5 Chester White pigs were used in this tr ia l.
of the basal ration is shown in Table 7.
ments are presented in Table S.

The composition

The gains and feed require­

23

TABLE 6

T r i a l 4 — I n f l u e n c e o f p a n t o th e n ic a c i d s u p p le m e n ta tio n
on g a i n s an d f e e d re q u ire m e n ts
( E ig h t p i g s i n each l o t , t r i a l s l a s t i n g 10 w eeks)

Lot
No.

R a tio n

I n i t i a l P in a l
w eig h t w e ig h t
lb s*
lb s .

Av*
d a ily
g a in
lb s .

Av.
d a ily
ra tio n
lb s.

P eed
p er lb .
o f g a in
lb s .

1

B asal C

24

52

o*4o

1 .5 6

3 .9 1

2

B a s a l C / 6 B -v ita m in s ^

22

96

1 *05^

2 .5 0

2. 3S

3

B a s a l C / p B - v ita m in s
no P . A.

24

66

0* So*

1 .8 3

3 .0 5

B a s a l C / P .A . o n ly ^

23

66

0 *62^

2 .1 6

3. us

4

P i g s i n l o t 2 r e c e i v e d s u p p le m e n ta ry 3 - v ita m in s i n th e f o llo w in g
am o u n ts ( mg p e r l b . o f f e e d ) : th ia m in e , 2*5 ? r i b o f l a v i n ,
n ia c in ,
1 0 ; c a lc iu m p a n t o t h e n a t e , 1 0 ; and p y r id o x in e , 1*5* C h o lin e c h l o r id e
was a d d ed a t a l e v e l o f 0 .0 5 p e rc e n t*
2
P i g s i n l o t 3 r e c e iv e d t h e same B -v ita m in s a s l o t 2 e x c e p t c a lc iu m
p a n t o t h e n a t e was l e f t out*
•z
■^Figs i n l o t 4 r e c e iv e d o n ly c a lc iu m p a n to th e n a te a t a l e v e l o f 10
mg p e r pound o f feed *
♦ ♦ D a ily g a i n s o f l o t 2 h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t s 1 , 3 and 4 (P rO .O l)•
♦ G ain s o f l o t s 3 an d 4 s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t 1 ( p t0 .0 5 ) .

2^

EFFECT OF PANTOTHENIC ACID SUPPLEMENTATION

70

co
Q

60

z
H- 50
X
o
uI
£

Supplement with
Calcium Pantothenate
2 0 mg. per lb. v

g 40

2

L±J

30

20

WEEKS ON TRIAL

P ig* 9 E f f e c t o f p a n to th e n ic a c i d s u p p le m e n ta tio n to a
d e f i c i e n t r a tio n *
T h is m arked re s p o n s e to s u p p le m e n ta tio n
c a n "be e x p e c te d o n ly when th e v ita m in added i s th e o n ly one
d e fic ie n t*
I n f a c t , th e a d d i t i o n of th e s i n g l e v ita m in to
a m u l t i p l e d e f i c i e n t f e e d m ix tu re has been shown to a g g r a ­
v a t e th e tro u b le *
The f e e d m ix tu re u se d was r a t i o n A,
T a b le 9*

25

TABL35 7
Composition of riboflaviit-low ration for t r i a l 5^

Ingredients of ration

Percent

Com

77

Soybean o il meal

20

Mineral

2

3

Composition
Crude protein, percent
Riboflavin, mg per lb.

1 6,60
O.S**

The following B-vitamins were added (mg per pound of feed):
thiamine, 5 » niacin, 20 : pantothenic acid, 20 ; pyridoxine, 2 . 5 *
Supplemental vitamins A and D were added in amounts which
supplied 2,000 I. tJ. of A and 200 I. TJ. of D,

2

The mineral mixture was the same as the one liste d as a footnote
to Table 1*

26

TABLE 8
Trial 5 - The Influence of riboflavin level
on gains and feed requirements
(Nine pigs per lo t, tr ia ls lasting 8 weeks)

Av.

Lot
No.

N a tio n

I n i t i a l F in a l
w e ig h t w e ig h t
lb s .
lb s*

d a ily
g a in
lb s *

Av*
F eed
d a ily p e r lb .
r a t i o n o f g a in
lb s*
lb s *

1

B asal

22

63

0 .7 3

2 .1 7

2 .9 6

2

B a s a l / 1 i g r i b o . p e r lb *

22

69

o. z h

2.U 0

2 .8 6

3

B a s a l / 2*5 mg rib o * p e r l b .

23

76

0 .9 5 *

2 .6 2

2 .7 7

♦Differences in daily gains not s ta tis tic a lly significant,

27

While the differences with increasing levels of riboflavin
are not significant* there is an indication in the data that
supplemental riboflavin increased the gains and lowered the feed
requi rement.

33ffect of combined niacin, -pantothenic acid
and riboflavin sup-plementation
~
Dry-lot raised purebred Duroc pigs were used in t r i a l 6 .
In t r i a l 7 pasture raised Duroc x Poland x Hampshire pigs were used.
The composition of the rations used is shown in Table 9»
Trial 6 —
The results of B-vitamin supplementation in tr ia l 6 are
shown in Table 10.

Growth curves of the pigs are shown in Pig. 12.

Pigs in lo t 1 on the basal ration gained only 0.6 3 pound per day and
required H.0 1 pounds of feed per pound of gain.

There was no addi­

tional growth response in lo t 2 from the addition of calcium panto­
thenate.

In lo t 3* the riboflavin supplement in addition to calcium

pantothenate brought about an increase in the daily gain to 0 .7 3
pound and decreased the feed required per pound of gain.

During the

f if t h and sixth weeks several pigs in lo t 3 exhibited diarrhea which
may have been due to a borderline niacin deficiency.

Two of the

pigs showed typical niacin deficiency symptoms described by Dunne
et a l.

(19 ^9 ).
The pigs in lo t K receiving supplementary calcium pantothenate,

riboflavin and niacin made significantly higher dally gains (1 .0 0 lb.)

28

Fig. 10 Pig with m ultiple B-vitamin deficiency on a
corn-soybean meal diet* The p ig had not gained f o r
over two weeks. Note the rough h a ir and mange-tlike
skin.

Fig. 11 E ffect of m ultiple B-vitamin supplementation.
The p ig had made a gain of 0. 65 pound per day and had
completely recovered from the rough h a ir and unhealthy
skin condition in two weeks.

29
TABLE 9
Composition of “
basal rations for tr ia ls 6 and 7

Ingredients of rations^

A

B

$

f

Ground yellow com

kB

SB

Oats

15

Soybean oil meal (espeller)

12

12

Meat scraps

12

12

10

5

3

3

Alfalfa meal

2

Complex mineral mixture-^
Composition

19.50

i s . 20

Thiamine, mg per lb.

1.50

1 .3 0

Riboflavin, mg per lb.

1.12

o.97

Pantothenic acid, mg per lb.

5.0**

^.35

12.15

13.50

Crude protein, percent

Hiacin, mg per lb.

^When synthetic ‘vitamins were added to both rations they were added
in the following amounts per lb* of feed; niacin, 20 mg; calcium
pantothenate, 15 mg; riboflavin, 5 mg; thiamine, 5 mg; pyridoxine,
2 mg; Bjo concentrate (Merck) 0*25$* &d& choline chloride, 0*1$.
Supplemental vitamins A and L were added in amounts which supplied
2,000 I. TJ. of A and 200 I. TJ. of D.
2The a lfa lfa meal in ration A was dehydrated 17$ protein and in
ration B was stua^cured 15 $ protein.
^The mineral mixture was the same as described in the footnote to
Table 1.

30

TABLE 10

T r i a l 6 — I n f l u e n c e o f B—"vitam in su p p le m e n ts on
g a i n s a n d f e e d r e q u ire m e n ts
(S ev e n p i g s i n eac h l o t , t r i a l l a s t i n g t e n weeks)

Lot
No*

B at i o n

In itia l
w e ig h t
lb s*

P in a l
w eig h t
lb s*

Av.
d a ily
g a in
lb s .

Av.
d a ily
r a tio n
lb s .

P eed
p e r lb*
o f g a in
lb s .

1

B asal B

2U

6S

0 .6 3

2*53

1*. 01

2

B a s a l ^ P.A*

2^

6s

0 .6 3

2 .9 1

^ .6 2

3

B a s a l / P*A. ^ rib o *

2*+

75

0 .7 3

2.U 3

3 .3 3

h

B a s a l / P . A. / rib o * / N.A. 23

93

1 . 00 «»*

3. 1 U

3*lU

5

B a s a l / P*A* / rib o * / N*A*
/ p y r id o x in e / th ia m in e
/ c h o lin e
2*4-

90

o#9^**

3 .0 6

3 .2 6

^ S ee f o o t n o t e to T a b le 9

l e v e l s o f B—v ita m in s added*

♦ ♦ D a ily g a in s o f l o t s H a n d 5 h ig h l y s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t 1 (p * 0 * 0 1 ).

31

STUDIES WITH

RATIONS OF NATURAL FEEDSTUFFS

100
CONTROL

90

P.A.-t- RIBO
P . A . H - R I B O + N.A.
P .A .+ RIBO + N.A. + T h . + B,

80

70

z

°

60

z
tX

<2
L
lI
U1

* 50

//
40

30

20
WEEKS ON

EXPERIMENT

Fig. 12 Effect of B-vitamin supplementation with rations of
natural feedstuffs*
Growth curves for lo ts of pigs in tr ia l 6 *
Note the significant increase in growth from the supplementation
with pantothenic acid / riboflavin ^ niacin*

32

and required 22 percent less feed per unit of gain than the controls.
The lo t 5 pigs getting the 6 B—
vitamins made an average daily gain of

0 *9 ^ pound*

This gain is also highly significant over the controls

and not significantly different from the gains made hy lo t h.

Their

gains were 19 percent more efficient than the control pigs in lo t 1 *
Trial 7 -

The results in t r i a l 7 are presented in Table 11*

There are

no significant differences between the daily gains and feed require­
ments of lo ts 1, 2, 3 an&

I t is interesting that again as in

t r i a l 6 the addition of supplementaxy calcium pantothenate, niacin
and riboflavin (lot 5 ) brought about a significant increase in daily
gain.

The lo t 5 pigs made an average daily gain of 1.01 pound daily

and required 25 percent less feed than the lo t 1 pigs fed the unsupplemented basal ration.

The addition of vitamin

concentrate in

lo t 6 had no significant effect on gains or feed requirements.

Again

as in t r i a l 6 , the addition of thiamine, pyridoxine and choline in
lo t 7 failed to further stimulate growth or increase feed efficiency.
In fact, in both these tr ia ls the gains were slightly lower and the
feed requirements higher when thiamine, pyridoxine and choline were
added.
The lo t 1 pigs getting only the basal ration in both tr ia ls
exhibited diarrhea at various times during the experiments.
hair coats were rough and they were obviously deficient*

Their

Four of the

pigs in lo t 1 , tr i a l 7 , were goose stepping at the end of the t r i a l.

33

TABLE 11
Trial 7 “ Influence of B-vitamin supplements on
gains and feed requirements
(Eight pigs in each lot* t r i a l lasting nine weeks)

Aw*

Lot
Ho.

B a tio n

I n i t i a l P in a l d a i l y
w e ig h t w eig h t g a in
lb s *
lb s * lb s *

d a ily
ra tio n
lb s .

Peed
p e r lb .
o f g a in
lb s .

Av*

1

B asal A

27

69

0*66

2 .8 3

4 .3 0

2

B a s a l / P . A.

26

69

0 .6 8

2 .8 8

u.2 3

3

B a s a l / H.A.

26

70

0 .7 0

2 .8 5

u.0 7

^

B a s a l / P.A» / H.A*

26

76

0 .7 9

3 .1 7

1*.02

5

B a s a l / P.A* / H.A. / r i b o .

27

91

1*01*

3. 26

3 .2 3

6

B a s a l / P . A* / H. A. / rib o *
/ Bxa

27

91

1 . 02^

3 .6 5

3-58

B a s a l / P .A . / H.A. / r i b o .
/ ®12 / th ia m in e / p y r id o x in e
/ c h o lin e
26

86

0 *96^

3 .2 7

3-U l

7

^ S@
e footnote to Table 9 for levels of B—
vitamins added*
♦Dally gains of lo ts 5* 6 and 7 significant over lo t 1 (P^0.05).

3*

These results indicate that the rations used in tr ia ls 6 and
7 were deficient in niacin, pantothenic acid and riboflavin#

The

levels of riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid in rations A and B
(Tahle l )

should be adequate for normal growth when based on the

recommendations of the National Research Council (19*^0*

However,

i t appears that requirements for these vitamins on this type of feed
mixture are considerably higher than those established from earlier
experiments using synthetic diets#

Rape pasture as a source of B-vitamins
Trial S -

The pigs used in the pasture tr ia l were purebred Chester Whites
and Durocs.

Each lo t of pigs had access to one-quarter acre of rape

pasture and green forage was always available.
the basal rations is shown in Table 12 #

The composition of

The gains and feed require­

ments are presented in Table 13*
There was l i t t l e difference in daily gain and feed requirement
between the pigs in lo t 1 on the cornr-soybean meal basal ration A and
those in lo t 2 getting suppl©mental B-vitamins in addition#

The pigs

in lo t 3 on basal ration B, gained 0#6l pound daily compared to 0.39
pound daily for the pigs in lo t k getting B-vitamins in addition to
the corn-tankage ration B.

This basal ration B was analyzed and found

to be deficient in at least one amino acid and the B-vitamin supple­
mentation appeared to aggravate the deficiency#

A n o th e r i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a tio n was th e f a c t t h a t t h e p i g s i n

35

TABLE 12
Composition of basal rations for the pasture t r i a l S1

Ingredients of rations

A

B

t

*

Corn

11

Soybean o il meal (solvent)

20
16

Digester tankage
Minerals

2

S2.5

3

1 .5

Composition
Crude protein, percent

1 7 .1 9

1 7.13

Hiacin, mg per lb*

11* Us

1 3 .5 6

Pantothenic acid, mg per lb*

3.86

1*91

Biboflavin, mg per lb*

0 .7 9

0 .7 8

Pigs in lo ts 2 ana U received
following amounts (mg per lb.
pantothenate, 10? riboflavin,
D were added in amounts whieh
1* TJ* of 3D
*

2

supplementary B-vitamins in the
of feed): niacin, 1 5 ? calcium
2# Supplemental vitamins A and
supplied 2,000 I. U* of A and 200

The complex mineral mixture was the one outlined in the footnote
to Table 1.

36

TABLE 13
T r i a l 8 «• I n f l u e n c e o f B—v ita m in s u p p le m e n ta tio n on g a in s
an d f e e d re q u ire m e n ts on ra p e p a s tu r e
( S ig h t p i g s p e r l o t , t r i a l s l a s t i n g 8 w eeks)

Lot
No*

B atio n

In itia l
w eig h t
Lbs*

F in a l
w e ig h t
lb s*

Av.
d a ily
g a in
lb s*

Av*
d a ily
r a tio n
lb s *

F eed
p e r lb .
o f g a in
lb s .

1

B asal A

31

93

l.ll* *

2*99

2*70

2

B a s a l A •f B - v ita m in s

30

90

1 . 07**

3 .0 3

2 .8 3

3

B asal B

31

65

0 .6 1

2 .0 3

3. 3^

^

B asal B

31

53

0 .3 9

1 .6 5

1+.21

B - v ita m in s

^ S e e f o o t n o t e t o T a b le 12 f o r l e v e l s o f B -v ita m in s added*
♦ • D a ily g a i n s o f l o t s 1 a n d 2 h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l o t s 3 an d U
(F = O .C l).

37

lo ts 3 &nd 4 consumed much less herbage than the pigs getting the
more adequate "basal ration A.

Pape pasture proved to he an adequate

source of B-vitamins under the conditions of this tr ia l.

Alfalfa meal as a, source of B-vitamins
Trial 9 *
■
*

Purebred Duroc and Chester White pigs were used in this tr ia l.
The composition of the basal rations is shown in Table l4.
and feed requirements are shown in Table 15*

The gains

The pigs in lo t 1 getting

the com-soybean meal—
B—
vitamin diet gained 0.£>6 pound daily and
required 3.06 pounds of feed per pound of gain.

The pigs in lo t 2

getting APF in addition to the basal gained slightly faster, averaging
0*95 pound daily gain on 2.79 pounds of feed*

The p i g s i n l o t 3 g e t t i n g b a s a l r a t i o n B w ith 5 p e r c e n t a l f a l f a
m eal s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e c r y s t a l l i n e B - v ita m in s g a in e d o n ly 0*55 pound
d a i l y , h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t lo w e r g a in s th a n th e p i g s i n l o t s 1 a n d 2 ,
g e t t i n g t h e c r y s t a l l i n e B - v ita m in s .

P ig s g e t t i n g t h e APF su p p lem en t

i n l o t 4 g a in e d s l i g h t l y f a s t e r , 0 .6 2 pound d a i l y on l e s s f e e d th a n
l o t 3 p ig s , b u t th e d if f e r e n c e i s n o t s ig n if ic a n t.
The growth rates of these lo ts from the beginning of the
experiment until lo t 1 weighed 200 pounds are shown in Fig. 13 .

It

is interesting that the alfalfa-APF lot 4 made the same daily gain
as lo t 1 for the entire t r i a l.

However, the gains of lot 4 were

significantly less than lo t 2, receiving crystalline B-vitamins and
APF, both at eight weeks and at the end of the experiment.

3S

TABLE l k
Composition of 'basal rations for tr ia l 9

In g re d ie n ts o f r a tio n s

A1

B

$

$

Com

72

6s

S oybean o i l m eal ( e x p e l l e r )

25

2^

D e h y d ra te d a l f a l f a m eal
Com plex m in e ra l

5
3

3

C o m p o sitio n
C rude p r o te in # p e r c e n t

1 7 . *2

IS . 2

H la e in # mg p e r l b .

25. 82

11 . sk

P a n t o t h e n i c a c i d , mg p e r l b .

1 H.1 5

**•35

3 .1 7

1 .1 1

R i b o f l a v i n , mg p e r l b .

The f o llo w in g B - v ita m in s w ere added to r a t i o n A (mg p e r l h . o f
f e e d ) * n ia c in # 1 5 ? c a lc iu m p a n to th e n a te # 1 0 ; and r i b o f l a v i n , 2. 5*
S u p p le m e n ta l v ita m in s A an d 3) w ere ad d ed i n am ounts w hich s u p p lie d
2 #000 I . TJ. o f A a n d 200 I . TT* o f D. M in e ra l was ad d ed a s g iv e n
i n th e f o o t n o t e to T a b le 1 .

39

TABLE 15
Trial 9 “* Alfalfa meal as a source of B-yitaming
with and without A
FT* supplement
(Eight pigs per lot* tr ia ls lasting 8 weeks)

Lot
Hb*

Ration

In itia l Einal
weight weight
lbs*
lbs*

Av*
daily
gain
lbs*

Av*
daily
ration
lbs*

Eeed
per lb.
of gain
lbs*

1

Basal A •f B-vitamins

28

76

0 *86 ^

2 .6 2

3.06

2

Same as 1 / APE

28

81

0.95**

2 *6H

2.79

3

Basal B

27

58

0*55

2 .00

3 .6 2

4

Same as 3 / APE

28

63

0 .6 2

2*02

3. 2U

^See footnote to Table 1^ for levels of B—
vitamins added*
♦♦Daily gains of lo ts 1 and 2 highly significant over lo ts 3 and b

(pto.oi).

200
180

B V itam in s
B V itam ins an d A P F

160

A lfa lfa
A lfo lfa o n d A P F

140

WEIGHT

in POUNDS

120
100

80

60

40

20
W EEKS o n

EXPERIM ENT

Pig. 13 A l f a l f a m@al a s a s o u r c e of B-vitamins.
poor growth of the a l f a l f a pigs* lo t 3» tr ia l 9*

Note the

Hi

All of the pigs in lo t 3 receiving alfalfa meal exhibited
incoordination characteristic of pantothenic acid deficiency by the
thirteenth week.

These lo t 3 pigs also exhibited periodic diarrhea

and mild dermatitis during the t r i a l.

The 5 percent alfa lfa meal

proved to be Inadequate as a source of B—
vitamins under the condi­
tions of th is experiment.

The cora-soybean meal—
B—
vitamin ration

(lot l) became deficient in APF afte r 8 weeks.

Influence of i n i ti a l weight and adequacy of ration
on gains and percentage of poor doing pigs

B-vitamin supplementation was found to increase the gain and
decrease the percentage of the poor doing pigs.

In Table l 6 , data

on a ll of the pigs used in these experiments on which &-week weights
are available, has been arranged in H groups.

Group 1 includes the

pigs ranging in weight from 28-32 pounds which received a ll three
of the vitamins.

Group 2 includes 28-32 pound pigs which had one

or more of the vitamins missing in the diet.

Group 3 includes 22—
26

pound pigs receiving a ll three vitamins and Group H, 22-26 pound
pigs with at least one vitamin missing.
I f a pig failed to make an average daily gain of 0.80 pound
for the eight—
week period, he was considered to be deficient.

Bata

in the table reveal that only 1 out of 2H of the Group 1 pigs (H. 2
percent), weighing 28 to 32 pounds in itia lly , failed to gain 0 .8 0
pound daily when the 3 B—
vitamins were fed.

Eighteen out of 25

(72 percent) of the 28 to 32 pound pigs (Group 2) became deficient
when one or more of these vitamins were le f t out of the ration.

^2

TABL2 l 6
Influence of i n i ti a l weight and adequacy of ration
on gains and percentage of poor doing pigs
G-roup
28—
32
pigs,
quate

lf
lb.
ade­
ration

2*+

Croup 2,
28-32 lh.
pigs, defi­
cient ration

G-roup 3*
22-26 lh.
pigs, ade­
quate ration

Group H,

22-26 lt>.
pigs, defi­
cient ration

25

Hz

55

Av. 1ni t i al wei ght
lbs.
29*5

29* S

23.9

2 U.1

56- day gain lhs*

36.6

55.8

3^*5

No. of pigs

57*3

Av. daily gain
lhs,

1 .0 2

0 .6 5

1 .0 0

0 .6 2

Eange of gains
lhs.

H2-76

03-68

32-78

10-61

Coefficient of
variation
percent

15*66

^3*00

20 . U7

^1.92

No. of poor doing
pigs
12

IS

Percent of poor
doing pigs

72.0

1+.2

9

21. k

Ho

72.7

**3

Nine out of H
-2 (21* H percent) of the pigs in Group 3 weighing 22 to

26 pounds in itia lly , "became deficient even though they received the
3 B-vitamins.

Forty out of 55 (72.7 percent) of the pigs in Group H

weighing 22 to 26 po\mds, made poor gains when one or more of the
vitamins were l e f t out.

These results indicate that higher levels

of the 3 B—
vitamins are more necessary for 25-pound pigs than for

30 -pound pigs.
The coefficients of variation for the supplemented pigs were
15*66 and 20. H7 percent respectively for the two groups.

For the

deficient pigs, the coefficients of variation were Hi*92 and H3.CO
percent.

This means that variation in gain, as well as average daily

gain i t s e l f , is an indication of deficiency.

DISCUSSION
The role of niacin

The data presented here along with supporting evidence estab­
lishes niacin as an essential factor in the prevention of deficiency
symptoms on low-protein diets consisting largely of com*

These defi­

ciency symptoms include loss of appetite, poor growth, rough hair
coats, dermatitis and especially thickened large intestines accompanied
with diarrhea*
The results reported in Tables 2 and 3 show that adequate
amounts of D-L tryptophan will prevent niacin deficiency in the pig
on low-protein rations, with niacin appearing to increase the u tiliz a ­
tion of dietary tryptophan.

No symptoms of niacin deficiency were

44

observed when the pigs received either 30
D-L tryptophan daily*
Krehl et a l.

of niacin or 1 gram of

These results are in agreement with those of

(1945, 19^6a, 1946b) in that supplemental niacin and

tryptophan increased the growth rate in rats on niacin-low com diets*
Powick €*t al* (1948) found niacin not to “
be completely effective as
a substitute for tryptophan hut tryptophan appeared to he a sa tis­
factory substitute for niacin*
Ho symptoms of niacin deficiency were observed on a corn ration
containing 25 percent casein ( tr ia l 2).

These results confirm the

work of Wintrobe jst al* (19 ^5 )*
Severe niacin deficiency was observed on a feed mixture con­
taining 15*1 percent protein with 11*2 mg of niacin per pound of feed*
Borderline niacin deficiency was observed on a 19*4 percent protein
ration containing 8*7 mg of niacin per pound.
These results indicate that the niacin requirement estimated
by Hughes (19^3) through the use of purified ration is too low for
corn rations*

This observation agrees with that of Powick e t al*

(1947b) who observed severe niacin deficiency in young pigs receiving
up to 0.4y mg of niacin per kg* of live weight per day*
While the gains were low and inefficient, a feed mixture con­
taining 90 percent oats prevented the characteristic lesions and
other symptoms of niacin deficiency*

This observation is interesting

in the lig h t of the results reported by Davis &t a l. (1940) that
nutritional deficiency is prevented or greatly reduced on a barley
ration*

Davis and coworkers also observed fewer pigs affected with

*5

nutritional necrotic e n te ritis when fed wheat or oat groats instead
of corn*

I t seems likely that the higher tryptophan content of the

other grains such as oats, "barley and wheat accounts for the lowered
niacin requirement#

The fact that there is a direct relationship

between the tryptophan levels in the feed and the niacin requirement
of the pig is of practical importance where corn is a major constituent
of the ration*

Corn is a very poor source of both tryptophan and

niacin and care must be taken to insure adequate levels of both in
the ration*
Another Interesting observation is the fact that the disease
was produced more easily in pigs weighing less than
than in 40-pound pigs*

30 pounds in itia lly

Braude jst al* (19*+6) were unable to produce

niacin deficiency in heavier pigs.

I t is likely, however, that niacin

deficiency along with a shortage of other B-vitamins is a common occur­
rence under farm conditions*

Thorp ete al* (1950) observed typical

symptoms of niacin deficiency in BO-pound pigs that were on a ration
of com, soybean o il meal, meat scraps, mineral and poor pasture*
Luecke et al* (I9^9b) found severe B-vitamin deficiencies In eleven
groups of pigs on farms that averaged 17 to **0 pounds in weight*

Pigs

autopsied from each group indicated severe lesions characteristic of
niacin deficiency#

Pield cases exhibiting intestinal lesions on

Pennsylvania farms studied by Madison et al* (1939) responded to
administration of niacin*

U6
The r o l e o f •pantothealc a c id
There is ample evidence from the tria ls reported here and in
the lite ra tu re to identify pantothenic acid with degeneration of the
myelin sheath of the sciatic nerve and resulting incoordination of
the hind legs, or goose stepping.

In every tr ia l in which pantothenic

acid was l e f t out ( tr ia ls 3 *

7 » 8 and 9 ) goose stepping occurred

in from 7 to 13 weeks.

In the tria ls where only a part of the pigs

exhibited abnormal gaits, i t appeared that practically a ll of the pigs
were affected.

Even though they did not show the definite stringhalt­

lik e g ait, they would slip down on the scales or wet places on the
floor.
Goose stepping has not occurred in any of the several lots
where ample pantothenic acid supplements have been added*

Further

evidence of the inadequacy of the pantothenic acid—
low rations are
the lower blood and urinary excretion levels reported by Luecke j|£ al.
1950a).

Blood levels were found to be uniformly low in defi­

cient pigs and to be a good criterion of the adequacy of the diet.
The incoordination resembled that described by Wintrobe et al.
(19^2), Hughes (19 ^2b), E llis et a l. (19^3) and Fairbanks et al.
(19 ^ ) #

This type of leg abnormality has been observed on many cori>-

b elt farms.

Wehrbein (1916) and Boyle (1937) reported incoordination

under practical feeding conditions.
in the fie ld in pasture-fed pigs.

Goose stepping has been observed
I t has occurred under pasture

feeding in t r i a l 2 and in other experiments.

-Alfalfa meal cannot be

depended upon to prevent entirely the trouble (tria ls 6 , 7 and 9)»

*7

Deficiency symptoms have been observed on rations containing
up to 5 . 0 U mg of pantothenic acid per pound of feed ( tr ia l 7 )*
There is considerable evidence that levels now generally recommended
are too low for feed mixtures commonly fed in dry lot*

The role of riboflavin

The several deficiency symptoms described by Hughes (19^)*
Patek jet a l* (19 ^1 ) and Wintrobe jet a l* (19 ^ ) have not been
duplicated in experiments with pigs on diets of natural feedstuffs*
In fa c t, no definite symptoms, like "nutritional necro" and goose
stepping which characterize niacin and pantothenic acid deficiency,
have been attributed to a lack of riboflavin.

Some recent informa­

tion, Krider et al* (19^9l3)» Dyer et al* (19^9) and McMillen et al*
(19 h9 a) identify riboflavin with efficiency of feed utilization*
The results of riboflavin supplementation in tr ia l 5 are marred
by too much variation within lots*

I t is interesting, however, that

gains and feed efficiency increased with the addition of 1 mg and

2*5
ration*

o f riboflavin per pound of feed to the corn-soybean meal

The addition of synthetic riboflavin to the commonly used

type of ration in t r i a ls 6 and 7 greatly increased the efficiency
of feed u tiliza tio n , 25 and 29 percent respectively in the two tria ls .
This increase in efficiency is in agreement with the findings of
Krider et al.

(19^9b) and Dyer et al* (19^9)*

I t is reasonable to

assume that riboflavin has been responsible for some of the increased
efficiency noted on the addition of crystalline B—
vitamin mixtures in

ks

several t r i a ls at the Michigan and. Illin o is Experiment Stations*
Krider et al* (I9^9h) found the practical minimum level of
riboflavin on mixed rations to he l.U mg per pound of ration*

The

results of tr i a ls 6 and 7 indicate that the optimum level may he
higher.

The effect of combined niacin, pantothenic acid
and riboflavin supplementation

Substantial evidence has been presented which indicates that
commonly used rations when fed in dry lo t to weanling pigs are likely
to be deficient in either niacin, pantothenic acid or riboflavin or
in any two or a ll three of these vitamins.
In tr ia ls 6 and 7 *he addition of synthetic niacin, pantothenic
acid or riboflavin alone or any two of than together had l i t t l e effect
on gains.

The same can be said for effect on feed requirement except

for riboflavin.
both t r i a ls .

Biboflavin apparently increased feed efficiency in

The significant finding is that the addition of the

three vitamins together significantly Increased gains and definitely
lowered the feed requirement.
et a l.

Similar results were reported by Dyer

( l 9 *+
9 ) using a eoriwsoybean meal type of ration.
In tr ia ls 6 and 7 the addition of thiamine, pyridoxine and

choline failed to increase gains and efficiency.

Dyer et al.

(19^9)

also failed to get an added growth response on addition of thiamine,
pyridoxine and choline.

These workers did get a substantial boost

over the basal with choline alone.

Krider _et al.

(19^)

not get

an increase In gain and efficiency by the addition of bio tin , pyracin,

U9

inositol, para—
animobenzoic acid (PABA), or pteroylglutamie aeid
(PGA)*

Experimental evidence to date indicates that niacin,

pantothenic acid and riboflavin are the B-vitamins most likely to
he deficient in the diet of weanling pigs in dry lot#

The neces­

s ity for increased levels of choline in practical swine rations is
s t i l l open to question.

Other B-vitamins have not been shown to be

of practical significance.
The results reported here, along with those reported by
Luecke et al,

(19^9^)» identify B-vitamin supplementation with a

role in the prevention and treatment of multiple B-vitamin defi­
ciencies both under experimental and farm conditions,
Results of these experiments not only demonstrate that Bvitamin supplementation leads to more efficient gains but there is
a strong indication that the use of these 3 B-vitamins exert a protein
sparing action.

The pigs from the B-vitamin supplemented lo ts in

these experiments have averaged 1,0 pound daily gains (Table l 6 ).
I t is interesting that these gains have been attained on corn-soybean
type rations practically identical with those obtained by Dyer et al,
(19^9) and Krider et al.

(19^S, 19^9) on com-soybean oil meal rations

containing 20 percent total cru.de protein.
These results are not surprising since i t has been shown that
each of these 3 vitamins have been known to exert protein sparing
effect.

Sure jet al.

(19^S), working with rats, found that various

comuonents of the B complex increased the biological value of casein
and the economy of feed u tilizatio n .

I t is well established that

50
niacin spares tryptophan, Krehl et al,
Wintrobe (191I5) and Luecke ^et al.

(19^5, 19U6a, 19U6b),

(195+7» 19*+8).

Pantothenic acid

has recently "been shown to increase nitrogen retention in the pig,
P. Emsbo et al.

(19^9)*

These workers found that the nitrogen

retention in percent of resorbed nitrogen is appreciably lower in
pantothenic acid deficient pigs than in those that received panto­
thenic acid.
The work of McMillen et al.
Krider et al.

(I9^9a)* Dyer et al.

(19^9) and

(19^9b) suggest that riboflavin is an important factor

in efficiency of feed u tilizatio n .

Prom the evidence of a relation

of these 3 vitamins individually with protein metabolism and e ffi­
ciency in feed u tiliz a tio n , i t is not surprising that supplementation
with lib eral quantities of niacin, pantothenic acid and riboflavin
reduces the level of protein required.
This apparent protein sparing action means that the protein
requirements of weanling pigs must be reevaluated in the light of Bvitamin supplementation.

Early work on protein requirement was carried

out with rations which may have been inadequate in B—
vitamins.

Forti­

fication with these 3 B—
vitamins, then, appears to be of great practical
importance*
Adequate levels of B-vitamins offer insurance against the occur­
rence of deficiency symptoms which are common on .American farms, Luecke
et a l.

(I 9 U9 ).

There is ample evidence that B-vitamin fortificatio n

increased the efficiency of feed u tilizatio n on both com-soybean meal
and mixed type of rations containing other ingredients.

In this study,

51

only U, 2 percent of the 3 Q—
potmd pigs that received the 3 vitamins
failed to gain 0.S0 pound daily, while 72 percent failed to make the
gain when one or more of the vitamins was le f t out of the feed mix­
ture*

This means that B—
vitamin supplementation offers insurance

against runty pigs*
The very recent work of Luecke ^et al* (1950*b)* Cunha _et al*
(1950)

others, indicate that antibiotic effect plays an Important

part in the synthesis of B—
vitamins and possible other factors in the
large intestine of the pig*

So fa r this antibiotic effect has been

demonstrated only in the presence of B-vitamin supplementation*
Future research may reveal that antibiotics can replace B-vitamins in
the diet of the pig*

The role of the B-vitamins will need to be

reevaluated in experiments in which antibiotic and APF supplements
are used.
SUM
M
ARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Results are reported of the effect of niacin, pantothenic acid
and riboflavin supplementation for nine experiments involving 292
weanling pigs*
Niacin was found to prevent pig pellagra on rations consisting
largely of corn*
intestines*

The main symptom of deficiency was necrotic large

Borderline pellagra was produced on rations containing

up to 19 percent protein and up to 11*2 mg of niacin per pound of feed*
Excellent and efficient growth was obtained on a ration containing
29*6 percent protein without added niacin*

No symptoms of niacin

52

deficiency were noted when corn was replaced with oats*

Supplemental

tryptophan replaced niacin and prevented the deficiency symptoms*
Supplementing a low-protein ration (15*1 percent protein) with niacin
seemed to increase the u tilizatio n i f dietary tryptophan, "but the
niacin did not replace tryptophan entirely*
The role of pantothenic acid was found to "be the prevention
of locomotor incoordination, goose stepping, due to degeneration of
the myelin sheath of the sciatic nerve.

Goose stepping has "been

observed on rations containing up to 19*5 percent crude protein and
5*0^4- mg of pantothenic acid per pound of feed*
Riboflavin was found to be an efficiency factor.

Ifhen added

to a commonly used mixed ration, efficiency of feed u tilizatio n was
increased 25 and 29 percent in two tria ls .
Calcium pantothenate, riboflavin and niacin when added to the
mixed basal rations, brought about a significant increase in daily
gains, prevented the occurrence of deficiency symptoms, and reduced
the feed required per unit of gain 22 to 25 percent.
In two tr ia ls supplements of thiamine, pyridoxine and choline
failed to further increase gains or lower the feed requirements.

It

is concluded that the rations used were deficient in niacin, panto­
thenic acid and riboflavin under the conditions of these tria ls and
that lib eral supplementation of these vitamins overcame the deficiency.
The addition of synthetic niacin, pantothenic acid and riboflavin
to a com-soybean meal type ration on rape pasture failed to increase
gain significantly or to increase feed efficiency significantly.

It

53
Is concluded that rape pasture furnished adequate amounts of these
3 B-vitamins when the pigs consumed enough pasture*
On a com-tankage ration in which the pigs apparently had an
amino acid deficiency, B—
vitamins appeared to aggravate the trouble*
Five percent a lfa lfa meal failed to furnish adequate amounts
of the 3 B-vitamins on the corn-soybean meal type ration and on the
mixed ration*

Ten percent alfalfa meal proved inadequate on the

mixed ration*
Apparent protein sparing action of supplementation with these
3 B-vitamins is discussed*
Adequate levels of niacin, pantothenic acid and riboflavin are
essential in maintaining vigorous and healthy pigs*

Higher levels

are required to prevent deficiency symptoms in 2^-pound weanling pigs
than in pigs weighing 3^ pounds or more*

Furthermore, the use of a

variety of natural feed ingredients to make up a swine ration offers
no guarantee that the ration will contain adequate levels of these
3 B-vitamins for weanling pigs, especially in dry lot*

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Curative action of nicotinic acid on pigs suffering from
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Chick, H., T. P. Macrae, A. J. P. Martin and C. J. Martin
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1950 Affect of animal protein factor on lowering protein needs of
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19^0 The relation of nutrition to the development of necrotic
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E llis, N. R. and L. L. Madsen
19^1 Relation of diet of swine to development of locomotor incoor­
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62:303-316

55
E llis , IT. R. , L. L. Madsen and 0, 0* Miller
19^3 Pantothenic acid and pyridoxine as factors in the occurrence
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Emsbo, P* , J. Moustgaard, A* Sjieborg Ohlsen og Grete Thorbek
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beretning fra forsjigslaboratoriet. 1 Kommission hos August
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Hirseh, August
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19^2a The minimum requirement of pantothenic acid for the growing
pig.
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*
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Jour* Agr.

Hughes, E. H.
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Chem. 2^ : 355-363

Cereal

Keith, J. B., R. C* Miller, L. S. Thorp and M
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* McCarty
19^2 Nutritional deficiencies of a concentrate mixture composed of
corn, tankage, soybean oil meal and alfalfa meal for growing
pigs* Jour. An* Sci. 1:120—
125
Kinsley, A* T.
193^ The Infectious swine disease situation*

Vet. Med.

29:24-28

56

Krehl, W
. A. , F* M. Strong and C. A* Elvehjem
1943 Determination of nicotinic acid. Modifications in the micro­
biological methods.
Ind* Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed. 15:471-475
Krehl,

1945

W
. A., L*
J. Teply,P. S. Sarmaand C. A. Elvehjem
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and i t s counteraction by tryptophane.
Science 101:489-490

Krehl, W
. A., P. S. Sarma,
L. J* Teply and C*A* Elvehjem
1946a Factors affecting
the dietary niacin and tryptophane requirement
of the growing ra t. Jour. Rut. 31:85-106
Krehl, W
. A., J. De La Huerga and C. A, Elvehjem
1946b Tryptophane studies* I.
The effect of niacin on the u tiliz a ­
tion of tryptophane. Jour, of Bio. Chem. 164:551-561
Krider, J. L., B. W
. Fairbanks and W
. E. Carroll
1944 D istillers by-products in swine rations, II. Lactation and
growing-fattening rations. Jour. An. Sci. 35107-119
Krider, J. L ., D. E. Becker, 5. F. Fan Poucke and M. F. James
1948 Crystalline or crude concentrates of B-vitamins supplement a
corn-soybean meal ration for weanling pigs in dry lo t.
Jour*
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Krider, J. L* , D. E. Becker, L. 7. Curtin and R. F. Fan Poucke
1949a Dried whey products in
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An. Sci. 8:112-120
Krider, J. L., S. W
. T errill and R. F. Fan Poucke
1949b Response of weanling pigs to various levels of riboflavin. *
Jour. An. Sci* 8:121-125
Luecke, R. W., W
. R. McMillen, F. Thorp, Jr. and Carolyn Tull
19^7 ®he relationship of nicotinic acid, tryptophane and protein in
the nutrition of the pig.
Jour. Rut. 33*251-261
Luecke, R. W., W
. N. McMillen, F. Thorp, Jr. and Carolyn Tull
1948 Further studies on the relationship of nicotinic acid, trypto­
phane and protein in the nutrition of the pig. Jour. Rut.
36:417-424
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. N. McMillen and H. W
. Dunne
1949a Pantothenic acid deficiency in pigs fed diets of natural
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Stafseth
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57

Luecke, R. W., W
. R. McMillen. and F. Thorp, Jr.
1950a Further studies of pantothenic acid deficiency in weanling
pigs.
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1950 b
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vitamin B , animal proteinfactor,
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McEwen, A- D.
1937 Recrotic e n te ritis of young pigs not associated with salmonella
infection.
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1939 Mcotinic acid in swine nutrition.
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19*+1 Riboflavin deficiency in the pig.
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Am. Jour, of Physio.

Powick, W
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19*+7a Ricotinic acid deficiency and nicotinic acid requirement of
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Powick, W
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19*+7b Relationship of corn diets to nicotinic acid deficiency in
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191+g Kelationship of tryptophane to nicotinic acid in the feeding
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5®
Sauberlick, H. E* and C. A. Baumann
19^6 The effect of dietary protein upon the amino acid excretion
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by rats and mice. Jour, of Bio. Chem. 166: *+17-1*25
Skeggs, H. R. and L. D. Wright
1 9 ^ The use of lactobacillus arabinosus in the microbiological
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Snedecor, G. W
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19^6 S ta tistic a l methods. Pourth edition.
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Snell, E* E. and P. M
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1939 A microbiological assay for riboflavin.
Ed. 1+s3 U
6—
3H9

The Iowa State College

Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal.

Sure, Barnett and Preeland Romans
19^8 Influence of the concentration of mixtures of various com­
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1930 Unpublished data. Mieh. Agr*l. Exp. Sta.
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1916 Paralysis of pigs.

Jour. Amer. Vet. Med, Assn.

**9:23®-21
*,+

Wintrobe, M
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I 9 I40
relation of diet to the occurrence of ataxia and degen­
eration in the nervous system of pigs. Bui. Johns Hopkins
Hosp. 6 7 :3 7 7 -^
Wintrobe, M
. M., M
. H. Miller, R. H. Pollis, J r ., H. J. Stein,
C. Mash&tt and S. Humphreys
19**2 Sensory neuron degeneration in pigs, IV* Protection afforded
by calcium pantothenate and pyridoxine* Jour. Hut. 2^*3^5—
366
Wintrobe, M
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I 9 U3 Pantothenic acid deficiency in swine. With particular ref­
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Bui. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 73!313-3^1
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1941* Riboflavin deficiency in swine. With special reference to
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Wintrobe, M
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I 9U5 nicotinic acid and the level of protein Intake in the nutrition
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Jour. Nut. 3^5 395-^12

VITA
Warren Newton McMillen was born near Calera, Alabama,
October l6, 1913 .

His elementary education was received in the

schools of Shelby County.
He attended Berry College at Bome, Georgia, from 1930 to
193^ receiving the B. S. degree.

He attended Oklahoma A and M

College from 193 *+ to 1936 receiving B. S. and M
. S. degrees in
Animal Husbandry.
He was Professor of Animal Husbandry at Panhandle A and M
College and Research Professor at the Panhandle Experiment Station,
Goodwell, Oklahoma, from 1936 to 19*+*+.

He joined the A
n*

Husbandry sta ff at Michigan State College in 19 *+
*+ as Assistant
Professor of Animal Husbandry and Research Assistant in the
Experiment Station.

He is now Associate Professor of Animal

Husbandry and Research Associate.
He i s a member of the following organizations:

Alpha Zeta,

Phi Sigma, Phi Kappa Phi, Sigma Xi, American Society of Animal
Production, American Genetic Association and American Association
for the Advancement of Science in which he was elected a fellow in
19*K>.
Publications
McMillen, Warren N. • Clyde H. Jamison and Wright Langham
19^0 Production, handling and feeding sorghum silage by use of
the trench silo.
Panhandle Bulletin 66. 23 pp* illu s.
McMillen, Warren N. and Wright Langham
19*+2 Grazing winter wheat with special reference to the mineral
blood picture.
Jour. An. Sci. 1:1**—
21
Langham, Wright, Warren N. McMillen and Lamar Walker
19^3 A comparison of carotene, protein, calcium and phosphorus
content of buffalo grass, buchloe dactyloides, and blue grama,
bouteloua g racilis.
Jour. Am. Society of Agronomy. 35535-^1

McMillen, Warren N., Quentin Williams and Wright Langham
1943 Chemical composition, grazing value and vegetative changes
of herbage in a typical plains pasture.
Jour. An. Sci.
2 : 237- 2*4-3
McMillen, Warren N. and Quentin Williams.
1 9 ^ Range and pasture studies and grazing recommendations for
the Southern Great Plains (Okla. ). Panhandle Agr. Exp. Sta.
Panhandle Bulletin 67 * *+7 PP* illu s .
McMillen, Warren N.
1 9 ^ Beep well irrigatio n in the Oklahoma panhandle.
Bulletin 6*+. 21 pp. illu s .

Panhandle

McMillen, W
. N,
19*+5
A useful method of appraising theadequacy ofswine
M. S. C. Veterinarian.
5*152-15®
McMillen, W
. N.
19*+5-*+6 Feeding mineral to swine in Michigan.
1 and 2 : 30«31

rations.

M
. S. C. Veterinarian

McMillen, W
. N.
19*4-6 Swine pastures save feed and increase p rofit.
Sta. Qua. Bulletin.
28:1-5

Mich. Agr. Exp.

McMillen, W
. N., E. P. Reineke, L. J. Bratzler and M
. J. Francis
19**7effect of thiouracil on efficiency of gains
and carcass
quality in swine. Jour. An. Sci. 6:305-309
McMillen, W
. N.
19*4-7 Swine f e r t i l i t y problems.

M
. S. C. Veterinarian.

7*68—
71

McMillen, W
. N., G. A. Brown and R. W
. Luecke
19*18 Dehydrated potatoes for swine. Mich. Agr, Exp. Sta. Bulletin.
30:380-382
Wallach, D. P., H. W
. Newland and W
. N. McMillen
19*4-8 Some studies on temperature adaptation in the baby pig.
Agr. Exp. Sta. Qpa. Bulletin* 30*277-282

Mich.

Luecke, R. W., W
. N. McMillen, F. Thorp, Jr. and Carolyn Tull
19*4-8 Further studies on the relationship of nicotinic acid, trypto­
phane and protein in the nutrition of the pig. Jour, of
Nutrition.
36 **+17“*42*4Reineke, E. P., W
. N. McMillen and L. J. Bratzler
19*4-8 The effect of mild thyroprotein stimulation on growth in swine.
Mich. Tech. Bulletin 209. 18 pp. illu s .

Feenstra, E. W., Frank Thorp, J r . , M. L. Gray and W
. N. McMillen
1948 Transmissible gastroenteritis of baby pigs. Jour. Am. Vet.
Med. Assn. 113 (g6l): 573-575
Luecke, R* W., W
. N. McMillen, F. Thorp, Jr. and Carolyn Tull
1947 The relationship of nicotinic acid, tryptophane and protein
in the nutrition of the pig. Jour, of Nutrition.
33:251-262
McMillen, W
. N., W
. H. Sheldon and W
, G. Peart
19*48 An automatic self-cleaning water bowl for hogs.
Exp. Sta. Qua. Bulletin.
31:178-181

Mich. Agr.

Luecke, R. W
. , F. Thorp, J r . , W
. N. McMillen, H. W
. Dunne and H. F.
Stafseth
19*49 A study of B-vitamin deficiencies in pigs raised on farms.
Mich. Tech. Bulletin 211. 22 pp. illu s.
McMillen, W
. N.
19*49 Profitable pork production.
illu s .

Mich. Ext. Bulletin. 299*

Moxley, H. F. and W
. N. McMillen
19*49 Four years of sow testing in Michigan.
Qua. Bull etin.
31:392-39*4

*47 PP*

Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta.

Luecke, R. W., W
. N. McMillen, F. Thorp, Jr. and Joanna R. Boniece
19*49 The effect of vitamin B-12 concentrate on the growth of weanling
pigs fed corn-soybean diets.
Science. 110:139-1*40
Luecke, R. W., F. Thorp, J r . , W
. N. McMillen and H. W
. Dunne
19*49 Pantothenic acid deficiency in pigs fed diets of natural feed­
stuff s. Jour. An. Sci.
8:*+6*4-469
Dunne, Howard W., R. W
. Luecke, W
. $T. McMillen, M
. L. Gray and Frank
Thorp, Jr.
1949 The pathology of niacin deficiency in swine. Am. Jour. Vet.
Research. 10:351-356
McMillen, W
. N., R. W
. Luecke and Frank Thorp, Jr.
I 9 I4.9 B-vitamins for weanling pigs.
Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Qia.
Bulletin.
32:191-195
McMillen, W
. N., R. W
. Luecke and F. Thorp, Jr.
1949 The effect of lib eral B—
vitamin supplementation on growth of
weanling pigs fed rations containing a variety of feedstuff s.
Jour. An. Sci.
8:518-523
Luecke, R. W., W
. N. McMillen and F. Thorp, Jr.
1950 Further studies of pantothenic acid deficiency In weanling pigs.
Jour. An. Sci.
9*7®-®2

- , V. ST. McMillen and F. Thorp, Jr.
Luecke, &• W
She
effect
of vitamin B^g, animal protein factor and strepto­
135®
mycin on the growth of young pigs. Arch# of Biochem. 26 : 326-327