PROPERTIES* GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTURAL SUBSOIL HORIZONS IN SOME MICHIGAN SOILS By Eliahu Wurman AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Soil Science 1957 Approved Eliahu Wurman ABSTRACT The characteristics, genesis and classification of te x ­ tural sub-soil horizons in some Podzol and Gray-Brown Podzolic soils of Michigan were studied* A series of three soil profiles having textural bands from the lower, central and upper part of Mi chigan1s lower peninsula, in addition to a maximal Podzol profile (void of such textural bands) were described in detail in the field* Bag samples from selected horizons of these profiles were taken for further laboratory studies* Laboratory analyses included pH, exchange capacity, exchangeable hydrogen, organic matter, t?free iron oxidetf, mechanical composition, and total specific surface. A series of mineralogical analyses were also undertaken* The dominant sand fractions of the soil horizons were analyzed for quartz, K and Na feldspars, using an x-ray geiger counter spectrometer. Clay minerals present in the less than 2 micron fractions were identified using both an x-ray geiger counter spectrometer and differential thermal analysis apparatus. Heavy mineral separations of dominant sand fractions were also conducted. Finally artificial columns containing pure quartz and sub-soil material from the Coloma fine sand profile, w i t h or without artificial limy layers, were set up. Columns were leached with distilled water, suspensions containing natural clay material previously decanted from the same subsoil material and dilute oxalic acid solution. Visual changes in the columns after leaching, changes in the clay content of sus pensions after moving through soil columns and changes in the clay distribution in columns themselves were recorded. Field observations showed textural layers to be more reddish in color as well as finer toxtured than sandier hor i ­ zons immediately above or below them. They may cut across geo logic strata and their vertical cross-sections are often wavy and discontinuous. Some textural layers are calcareous, do not follow surface configuration and do not cut across geo­ logic strata. Physical, chemical and mineralogical studies in the laboratory showed non-limy bands to contain a higher concen­ tration of silicate clay minerals, higher organic matter and "free iron oxide", lower pH, higher total specific surface, higher exchange capacity and exchangeable hydrogen. The studies indicated that most of the textural horizons were pedo-petrogenetic in origin; i.e. original stratification of parent material had been modified by soil development pr o­ cesses. The pedogenetic modifications may result from indepen­ dent or simultaneous movement of silicate clay minerals, oxide, and organic matter. iron As evident from uniform distribu­ tion of clay minerals in some soil profiles and artificial soil column experiments in the laboratory, bulk clay movement is a major factor in clay translocation in coarse tsxtured soils. Bulk silicate clay movement alone, however, will not account for the high organic matter and "free oxides" in the textural bands or the variations in mineralogical compositions of some of the bands. Movement of a silicate clay mineral- organic matter-iron oxide combination; a silicate clay acid or iron oxide-organic matter complex; or organic matter and an iron oxide-clay mineral combination are also possible mechanisms. Soil clay minerals and organic matter have a net negative charge, while Iron oxide (hydrated) has a net positive charge. All or any of th9 three combinations mentioned above will be able to move simultaneously through the silicate soil skeleton If all assume a negative electrical charge. Free lime, alternate wetting and drying of soil as influ­ enced by evapo-transpiration, may bring about the deposition of mobile constituents in suspension. Changes in the chemical characteristics of the moving clay complexes; e.g. electrical charge, brought about by addition or removal of one or more of the constituents by the soil matrix through which they move, may cause flocculation and deposition. A change in the elect­ ric charge of an organic-iron complex as it moves through soil body could cause its flocculation and also deposition of sili­ cate clay coming in contact with it. Some of the "free iron oxide" found in soil horizons is attributed to that which is derived from lattices of clay minerals Mineralogical discontinuities in these soil profiles do not alone account for the formation of textural bands in situ, i.e. weathering in place, but may indicate the possibility of this as a contributing factor. PROPERTIES, GENESIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTORAL SUBSOIL HORIZONS IN SOME MICHIGAN SOILS By Eliahu Wurman A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Soil Science 1957 ProQuest Number: 10008455 All rights reserved INFO RM ATIO N TO A LL USERS The quality o f this reproduction is dependent upon the quality o f the copy subm itted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete m anuscript and there are m issing pages, these will be noted. Also, if m aterial had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQ uest 10008455 Published by ProQ uest LLC (2016). C opyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This w ork is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code M icroform Edition © ProQ uest LLC. ProQ uest LLC. 789 East Eisenhow er Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346 ACKN OWLE DGEMENT The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Dr. E. P. ¥/hiteside for his individual interest and unfailing guidance throughout the course of this study# Also, he would like to thank Dr. M. M. Mortland for his technical assistance in the x-ray analyses# The author appreciates deeply the Graduate assistantship offered to him by Michigan State University, enabling h i m to pursue and complete this study# biography Born: April 11, 1930, Berlin, Germany Home: Tel-Aviv, Israel Undergraduate studies: University of California, 1950-1953 Graduate studies: Iowa State College, 1953-1954 Michigan State University, 1954-1957 Experience: Graduate Assistant, Michigan State University, 1954-1957o Soil Surveyor, Michigan, 1954-1957# Soil Survey Party Chief, Michigan, 1956. IN MEMORY OF K. M, COOPER TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ............................................... 1 REVIEW OF L I T E R A T U R E ...................................... 3 X-ray Diffraction and D.T.A. Analyses of Soils . • . Chemical Reactions of Periodic Nature ................ Textural Bands in Soils ............................... Soils containing textural B horizons in the Northcentral United States ........................... Textural band formation in soils; composition and ........................ genesis • . . . General aspects of iron and clay movement and deposition in soils ........... Clay minerals present in Podzolic soils . . . . . 3 5 6 6 8 9 16 METHOD OF A T T A C K .......................................... 18 Introduction ............................................ Soils S t u d i e d .......................................... Montcalm loamy s a n d ............................... ............................... Montcalm fine sand Coloma fine sand ................................. Wallace sand ...................................... 18 19 20 22 26 29 Methods of A n a l y s i s ............................ Introductory N o t e ................................. pH M e a s u r e m e n t s .................................... Mechanical Analyses ............................... Cation Exchange Capacity ........................ Exchangeable Hydrogen ............. Total Specific Surface ............................. Organic Carbon ................................. Total Carbon ...................................... ”Free Iron Oxide” ................................. Heavy Mineral C o n t e n t ............................. X-ray Determination of Quartz and Feldspar . . . . X-ray Determinations of Clay M i n e r a l s ........... Differential Thermal Analysis of Clay Minerals . . Microscopic Examination of Natural Soil Aggregates (Debris Preparations” ........................... Artificial Soil Column Experiments ................ 31 31 31 31 32 32 32 32 33 33 34 34 35 36 RESULTS 36 36 ................................................... 39 Field O b s e r v a t i o n s ...................................... 39 TABLE OF CONTENTS continued Page Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil Samples . . Montcalm loamy sand • ............................. Montcalm fine s a n d ................. Coloma fine s a n d .................................... Wallace sand ...................................... Mineralogical Properties of Soil Samples . . . . . . Montcalm loamy s a n d ............................... Montcalm fine sand . ............................. Coloma fine sand ................................. Wallace s a n d ........................................ Quartz Analysis ........................................ Feldspar Analysis .................................... . X-ray Silicate Clay Mineral Analysis ................. Clay Mineral Analysis by D. T. A ...................... Microscopic Examination of Natural Soil Aggregates . Artificial Soil Column Experiments .................. (GENERAL DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS . . . . Physical and Chemical Properties of Textural Horizons Horizon Nomenclature and Classification . . . . . . Soil Profile Development with Emphasis on the Origin of Textural B a n d s . 41 42 45 48 51 54 55 57 59 61 63 63 64 65 73 74 80 80 83 88 C O N C L U S I O N S ....................................................102 B I B L I O G R A P H Y ................................................. 105 APPENDIX . . ............................................... 109 X-ray and Differential Thermal Analyses of Clay from Montcalm loamy sand and Wallace sand profiles • . • 110 Montcalm loamy s a n d ................. Ill Wallace s a n d ............................... 112 Montcalm loamy sand parent material ............ 113 Computations of Quartz and Feldspar Percentages from X-ray Data ...........................................114 Quartz content of dominant sand fractions . . . . 115 Feldspar content of dominant sand fractions • . . 115 Tabular Presentation of Physical and Chemical Proper­ ties of Soil Samples .................................. 116 LIST OF FIGURES Page 1* Montcalm loamy sand; profile diagram 2 0 Montcalm fine sand; profile diagram .............. 23 .............. 25 ................ 28 .............. 30 3* Coloma fine sand; profile diagram 4. Wallace sand; profile diagram . . . . 5. Illustrations of textural bands in Northern Michigan 6. Montcalm loamy sand; mechanical analysis 7. Montcalm loamy sand; "free iron oxide", matter, pH and exchangeable hydrogen 40 ......... 42 organic ........... 43 8. Montcalm loamy sand; exchange capacity/clay ratio, specific surface/clay ratio, "free iron oxide"/clay ratio, and organic matter/clay ratio ........... 44 9. Montcalm fine sand; mechanical a n a l y s i s ............ 45 10. Montcalm fine sand; "free iron oxide", organic matter, pH and exchangeable h y d r o g e n .................... 46 11* Montcalm fine sand; exchange capacity/clay ratio, specific surface/clay ratio, "free iron oxide/clay ratio, and organic matter/clay ratio ......... . 47 12. Coloma fine sand; mechanical a n a l y s i s .............. 48 13. Coloma fine sand; "free iron oxide", organic matter, pH, and exchangeable h y d r o g e n .................... 49 14. Coloma fine sand; exchange capacity/clay ratio, speci­ fic surface/clay ratio, "free iron oxide"/clay ratio, and organic matter/clay ratio ........... 50 15. Wallace sand; mechanical analysis 16. Wallace sand; "free iron oxide", organic matter, pH and exchangeable hydrogen ...................... 52 Wallace sand; "free iron oxide"/clay ratio, organic matter/clay ratio ............................... 53 Montcalm loamy sand; medium sand quartz, fine sand quartz, medium sand plus fine sand quartz,, medium sand/fine sand quartz .............................. 55 17. 18. . 51 LIST OF FIGURES Page (continued) 19o Montcalm loamy sand; medium sand K-feldspar, fine sand K-feldspar, medium sand plus fine sand K-f eld­ spar, medium sand/fine sand K - f e l d s p a r .............. 56 20. Montcalm fine sand; fine sand quartz, very fine sand quartz, fine plus very fine sand quartz, fine sand/ very fine sand quartz ................................ 57 21. Montcalm fine sand; fine sand K-feldspar, very fine sand K-feldspar, fine sand plus very fine sand Kfeldspar, fine sand/very fine sand K-feldspar . . . 58 22. Coloma fine sand; fine sand quartz, very fine sand quartz, fine sand plus very fine sand quartz, fine sand/very fine sand q u a r t z ........................... 59 23. Coloma fine sand; fine sand K-feldspar, very fine sand K-feldspar, fine sand/very fine sand K-feldspar, fine sand plus very fine sand K - f e l d s p a r ............60 24. Wallace sand; medium sand quartz, fine sand quartz, medium plus fine sand quartz, medium/fine sand q u a r t z ................................................. 61 25. Wallace sand; fine sand K-feldspar, medium sand K~ feldspar, medium sand plus fine sand K-feldspar, medium sand/fine sand K-feldspar ........... 62 26. Montcalm loamy sand; Differential Thermal Analysis 27. Wallace sand; Differential Thermal Analysis 28* Montcalm loamy sand parent material; x-ray analysis, Differential Thermal Analysis . ................ . 113 ........ . Ill 112 LIST OF TABLES Page 1. Statistically significant differences in quartz contents of sand fractions . ...................................... 67 2. Heavy mineral content of sand fractions 3. X-r^r determinations of relative amounts of clay minerals expressed as areas under respective peaks on a Brown electronic recorder graph ......................... . • 70 Determination of clay minerals by differential thermal analysis ............................. 72 5. Volume and clay concentration of water or percolating suspensions flowing in and out (inflow and outflow) of 30 mesh quartz sand columns of different heights • * . 74 4. . . . . . . . . 69 6. Volume and clay concentration of water or percolating suspensions flowing in and out (inflow and outflow) of artificial Coloma fine sand columns of different heights; also liquid and clay retained by those columns . . • • 75 7* Clay concentrations in different layers of artificial Coloma fine sand columns after leaching with 2000 ml* of distilled w a t e r ........................................ 76 8. Probable pedogenetic and petrogenetic layers in soil profiles . . . . . 86 9. Physical properties of Montcalm loamy sand profile . . . 116 10. Chemical properties of Montcalm loamy sand profile ♦ . . 117 11. Physical properties of Wallace sand profile ............ 118 12. Chemical ............ 13. Physical properties of Montcalm fine sand profile . . . 120 14. Chemical properties of Montcalm fine sand profile • . . 121 15. Physical properties of Coloma fine sand profile . . . . 122 16. Chemical properties of Coloma fine sand profile . . . . 123 17. Percentages of quartz (by x-ray diffraction) in sand frac­ tions, percentages of quartz sand fractions in soil horizons, with sums and ratios of quartz sand fractions 124 properties of Wallace sand profile 119 1 8 o Percentages of K-feldspars and Na-feldspars (by x-ray diffraction) in sand fractions, percentages of K-feld­ spars sand fractions in soil horizons and ratios of K-feldspars sand fractions ........................... 126 INTRODUCTION In evaluation of a soil characteristic, both the petrogenic history of the parent rock and the pedogenic history of the soil may be important. Horizonation may be due to pedo­ genic processes, statification of the parent rock material (petrogenic) or both. Ordinarily, the older the soil, (parent material, climate, vegetation and relief remaining relatively constant) the stronger will be the pedogenic and the weaker will be the petrogenic influence in the soil profile make-up. Soils developed from glacial materials in areas repeatedly glaciated are apt to be stratified due to fluvial activity prior to or during the latest transportation and deposition of the materials. This study deals with the characteristics of textural subsoil bands found in some soils of Michigan and their pro­ bable mode of origin. The strong influence of parent rock material, due to the relative youth of the soils, and the strong eluviation associated with the prevailing climate are taken into account. A series of soil profiles having textural bands, fro m the lower, central and upper part of Michigan1s lower penin­ sula were described in detail in the field and bag samples were taken from selected horizons for further laboratory studies. An attempt was also made to reproduce textural bands in artificial soil columns in the laboratory. Knowing the physical and chemical properties of the textural hands as well as their mode of occurrence in the field, an hypothesis was developed which might explain the origin and development of textural bands in many soil profiles of Michigan. Finally, proposals for designating these horizons to make clear their properties and genesis are presented. REVIEW OF. LITERATURE A number of investigations into the nature and origin of color or textural subsoil bands have been reported in the last few decades, but more intensive studies have besn started in the last few years. literature dealing with: analyses of soils; and C. Textural Following is a summary of some of the A. X-ray diffraction and thermal B. Chemical reactions of periodic nature; (or color) bands in soils, (a) soils contain­ ing textural B horizons, (b) textural band formation in soils, composition and genesis, (c) general aspects of iron and clay movement and deposition in soils, and (d) clay minerals p re ­ sent in podzolic soils. A. X-ray Diffraction and D. T. A. Analyses of SoilsG-rim (1953) offers a comprehensive review of the methods available for the x-ray determination of soil clay minerals. Whiteside (1948) used x-ray film patterns for a quantitative mineralogical study of soil silt fractions. Working with Sangamon loess, he found that for quartz, the L.S.D. at the five percent level was 3.63 percent, and for feldspar 2.19 percent. Phillippe and White (1950) used an x-ray geiger counter spectrometer to estimate quantitatively minerals fine sand and silt fractions of soils. in For silt fractions they found the standard deviation to be 2.19 percent for quartz, 0.89 percent for albite and 3.24 for microcline. They assert that by substituting a geiger counter for the film, a linear relationship exists between intensity of recorded im­ pulse and amount of crystalline material present. and Whiteside Pollack (1954) used an x-ray geiger counter spectro­ meter in a quantitative estimation of quartz in soils. Their investigation emphasizes the importance of a careful standard­ ization of working conditions and frequent checking of stand­ ard samples to detect possible errors in determinations. At the five percent level, a 4.9 percent difference in quartz samples was significant. Gann and Whiteside (1955) used quartz to evaluate quantitative changes in a soil profile. They used an x-ray geiger counter spectrometer, standard quartz, and a particle size range of two-to-fifty microns. They reported no significant effect due to particle size in diffraction intensities, over this range in particle sizes. Grim (1953), Grim and Rowland (1942), Speil, et al. (1945) and Kerr, et a l . (1949) offer a detailed study of the differential thermal analyses (D.T.A.) of clay minerals. Grim and Rowland (1942) found montmorillonite to give endothermic peaks at 100-250° C, 600-700° G, and 900° 0. The first endo­ thermic peak is due to planar water loss, while the second and third peaks are due to lattice water loss and lattice de­ composition respectively. Illite gave endothermic peaks at 100-200° C, 500-600° C, and 900° C. Kaolinite has an endo­ thermic peak at 550° C, and an exothermic peak at 950-1000° C. Both Grim and Rowland (1942) and Speil, et a l . (1945) stress the importance of uniform packing and position of thermo­ 5. couples in getting reproducible results. Both agree that the degree of accuracy lies within ten percent, and that addition­ al x-ray work or petrographic studies are necessary in order to definitely corraborate qualitative or quantitative D.T.A. work. According to Speil, et a l • (1945) rate of temperature rise has little effect on the endothermic peak, while particle size of clay affects its sharpness and position, Kerr, et al# (1949) state that the relative amplitude and shape of peaks are a function of the concentration of the specific clay mineral present. According to them, for semi-quantitative work, amplitude is accurate enough although areas under peaks are more accurate# B# Chemical Reactions of Periodic Nature Liesegang, in 1896, demonstrated band formation in gels that have since been called Liesegang-rings. Holmes (1918) obtained a periodic precipitation of concentric rings (bands) in test tubes of a gel containing chromate ion when a solution of a copper salt was placed on top of the gel in the tubes* According to Holmes, the reason for the gap between precipita­ tion layers is the slow diffusion of chromate ions in gelatin, limiting precipitation to specific depths. Once a ring preci­ pitate was formed, copper ions in excess diffuse to areas of higher chromate ion concentration to bring about a new preci­ pitation. From H ol m e s fs explanation it seems that differen­ tial diffusion rates of ions in a specific medium can cause a periodic precipitation if the ions present combine to form insoluble salts once they are in contact with each other* Morse (1930) worked with supersaturated solutions of various salts* He observed that slightly supersaturated solutions may stand indefinitely without precipitation, while highly supersaturated solutions show rapid precipitation and ring formations in capillary tubes. Morse concluded that super­ saturation up to a certain point followed by rapid precipita­ tion caused rhythmic ring formation in the absence of any colloidal material* Similar reactions might reasonably be ex ­ pected to occur in capillary or colloidal systems such as soils and could conceivably result in color or textural bands differing in chemical composition from adjoining layers. C. a.) Textural Bands in Soils Soils containing textural B horizons in the North-central United States Veatch (1932) established a transition zone between the Podzol region of the northern part of Michigan and the Brown Forest (Gray-Brown Podzolic) region of the southern part of the state. Veatch and Millar (1934) first recognized the biseq.ua* soil profiles in Michigan. Cline (1949) in describ­ ing the bisequa profiles in Hew York state, visualized the upper Podzol profile as developing in a siliceous Ag horizon of an older Gray-Brown Podzolic soil. He thus suggests a *Soil profiles containing more than one kind of illuvial h o ri ­ zon and associated eluvial horizons. This term has recently been proposed by G. D. Smith for such profiles* chrono-sequence relationship between the two sequa. et al* Nygard, (1952) working in the northern portion of the Lake states characterized Fodzols as being highly acid and having a high exchangeable hydrogen percentage due to intensive leach­ ing and movement of organic acids. Stobbe (1952) working in Eastern Canada visualized a Brown Forest--Gray-Brown Podzolic --Brown Podzolic--Podzol chronosequence. According to Stobbe on non-calcareous materials only Brown Podzolic and Podzol soils are formed. Gardner and Whiteside (1952) worked with soils of the Podzol--Gray-Brown Podzolic transition region of Michigan. Their investigations showed that soils developed on loamy sand to sandy loam materials have bisequa profiles, with an upper Podzol sequum underlain by a Gray-Brown Podzolic sequum. Both sequa were derived from the same limy parent material and they believed might be developing simultaneously. In the Marlette bisequa profile, investigated by Cann'and Whiteside in 1955, they believed both sequa to be developing simultaneously. Holt and McMiller (1956) working in the Gray- Brown Podzolic--Podzol transition zone In Minnesota do not mention any trace of bisequa profiles. According to these authors, the soils all had a low overall base-saturation, being lowest in the B horizon. Bailey (1956) made a mi ne ral­ ogical study of the parent rock materials of a number of Mich i ­ gan soils. He found quartz to be the dominant mineral species in all the sand and silt fractions studied while K-feldspar and plagioclase were the other important coarse minerals. 8. b . ) Textural band formation in soils; composition and genesis Smith, et a l * (1950) discussed in detail the genesis and classification of Upper Mississippi Valley Prairie soils. They describe textural bands in soils developed from sandy parent material. 80 inches. These bands were located at a depth of 60 to Mechanical analyses showed their clay fractions to consist mostly of particles less than 0.2 microns in size. Smith, et a l . considered these layers to be genetic, formed by clay movement from overlying materials into these layers. cause of accumulation at specific depths, The it was postulated, might be due to free iron oxide flocculating downward migra­ ting clay. They were thus assumed to move to their present position in the absence of any flocculating agent previous to the encountering of free iron oxide. Folks and Riecken (1956) demonstrated the ability of an organic acid i.e. oxalic acid to mobilize free iron oxide pr e­ sent in the soil. ted, The rhythmic precipitation, it is postula­ is caused by increased withdrawal of the organic ion from solution by absorption on the soil material through which it moves. The organic ion concentration finally goes below the minimum necessary to hold iron in suspension and iron oxide precipitates. This accumulation of positive iron colloid will in time cause clay flocculation out of a downward moving clay suspension by mutual flocculation. and Riecken, formed. This, according to Folks is the mechanism by which clay-iron bands are 9 Jenny and Smith (1935) used artificial quartz sand columns through which ferric oxide or aluminum oxide sols and clay suspensions were alternately passed. of a clay-pan was evident in these columns. Incipient formation No such evidence was found by a mere leaching of quartz sand columns with clay suspension. The finer the sand in the columns the more rapid was the formation of an incipient clay pan by alternate clay and free oxide leaching. The authors also observed that a previous leaching of the sand columns with an electrolyte solu­ tion of various mono- and di-valent ions, enhanced clay accumu­ lation in all cases. Jenny and Smith concluded that conditions favorable for clay-pan formation in the field are: (a) alter­ nate movement of electropositive and electronegative colloidal suspensions, i.e. ferric hydroxide and clay in suspension, (b) flocculation of clay particles by electrolytes or free oxides, and (c) deposition of fine clay coating along minute movement channels causing sieving action and deposition of materials in pores and blocking any future material movement. c.) General aspects of iron and clay movement and deposition in soils Anderson and Byers (1933) tested the interaction of free oxides such as iron and aluminum oxides with various decompo­ sition products of organic matter (i.e. peat, muck) as well as the organic fraction of mineral soils. They found that both aluminum and iron hydroxides yielded iron and aluminum to the organic materials and formed strong complexes with them. They also observed that a ferrous salt gave a stronger combination 10. with the organic materials than the ferric salt did. Ander­ son and Byers postulate therefore that under cool humid climates, ferrous ions released from silicate minerals by hydrolysis, form ferrous hydroxide while humic acid is produ­ ced by the decomposition of organic matter. These compounds react to form a resistant iron-organic matter combination which in turn is leached downward in the soil profile. It was further postulated that under strong oxidizing conditions and/or lowering of acidity, ferric hydroxide and organic radicle separate to form the B horizon of a Podzol soil. Winters (1940) worked with gelatin, agar, silica gel and a 5 percent bentonite gel. He observed no diffusion through any of the materials on contact with ferric hydroxide sus­ pensions. All of the gels except silica flocculated on addi­ tion of ferric or aluminum hydroxide. This Winters attributes to the positive charge associated with the metal hydroxide as compared to the negative charge of the gels. On contact of peat extract with the gels, diffusion of the extract was clearly evident. This in turn, it was postulated, was due to the common negative charge of the materials. Adding a small amount of organic colloid to ferric hydroxide did not affect its indiffusibility, but when the organic matter— iron ratio was greater than one, iron sol diffused slowly through agar, yet bentonite gel still caused it to flocculate. Winters concluded that the movement of iron sols by diffusion through soils is negligible, and that most of it moves by 11. convection through pores and channels. He also found that by the placing of a powdered iron bearing silicate on top of bentonite gel, diffusion of iron in the ferrous form took place. This Winters attributes to ^surface migration” on clay surfaces by exchange with adsorbed ions. Deb (1950 a, b) used acid and alkali extracts of peat humus and Podzol B horizon. He found that during the addi­ tion of humus to precipitated iron hydroxide a gradual change in the charge of the colloid took place. With increased amounts of humus added, the stability of a sol as a negative colloid increased, i.e. increased amounts of negative ion were needed to flocculate the Iron hydroxide sol. Deb also observed that once the iron sol was completely peptized divalent cations (calcium) had a strong flocculating effect on it. On the other hand according to Deb, exchangeable calcium ions in Podzol soils have no flocculating effect on iron-humus com­ plexes. He concludes, by process of elimination of possibili­ ties considered, that it is the microbial activity in soils which causes the breakdown of humus-iron complexes and the precipitation of ferrIc-hydroxide in Podzols. Bloomfield (1953 a, b) working with leachates of Scotts pine and Kauri leaves demonstrated their ability to mobilize iron and aluminum oxides even under strong aerobic and neutral conditions. As to how long organic material can hold on to the iron, Bloomfield states, is a function of the intensity of aerobic conditions and the pH of the medium. Bloomfield con­ cluded that the deposition of iron in soils from the organic 12. complex is due to both pH and aerobic conditions and not to microbial activity. In 1954 Bloomfield demonstrated the com- plexing action of aspen and ash leaf leachates on iron even in alkaline conditions. According to him, different organic compounds mobilize iron under conifereous and deciduous vege­ tation. Bloomfield (1954) upholds the theory that clay accu m­ ulation in Podzolic soils is due both to the resynthesis from eluviated free oxides as well as bulk clay movement. Aqueous solutions of ash and aspen leaf leachates were found by Bloom­ field to have a marked deflocculating effect on kaolin and to a lesser extent on montmorillonite clays. Delong and Schnitzer (1955 a, b) in their study of iron transport in soils used leachates of aspen, maple, beech and birch leaves and ferric-hydroxide. They found these leachates to mobilize iron (determined as metallic element) in suspen­ sion, from Ag and Bg horizons of Podzol and Gray-Wooded soil profiles. According to them, there exists a narrow range of organic matter-iron (metallic form) concentration ratio in which maximum iron uptake will take place. This ratio centers around a 100 percent saturation of the organic exchange capa­ city with ferric ions. Delong and Schnitzer also found the acidic polysaccharides present in the leachates to be the main contributors to the iron hydroxide mobilizing ability of the l ea v es • Bodman and Harradine (1938) experimenting with soil columns eight inches high of various textures, leached them with distilled water and dilute electrolyte solutions. They found that columns containing sandy loam to clay loam mater­ ials allowed movement of material finer than fifteen microns. Columns containing loamy-sand to sandy loam materials allowed movement of material finer than fifty microns. The five to two micron material showed no regularity of trend in depth distribution within any of the columns after leaching. From this study the authors conclude that particle migration in soils is controlled by porosity of soil as well as chemistry of colloidal material present. Clay accumulation* they be ­ lieved* takes place by physical translocation as well as free oxide movement of previously hydrolyzed clay minerals and re­ combination at greater depths. Bray (1934) worked with soils developed in loessial material in Illinois. Chemical analysis of the fine colloid fraction (less than 0.1 microns) showed the different proper­ ties of that fraction when compared with the "whole colloid" i.e. less than tv^o micron material. according to Bray* This fine colloid, is a decomposition product of the coarse clay size particles or may be formed by weathering of coarse minerals in the soil. Bray concludes that breakdown of mater­ ial to fine clay size particles and their subsequent movement will cause profile differentiation. Even breakdown of coarse clay mat erial to fine clay size and subsequent eluviation he believes causes a differentiation in the types of clay minerals in different soil horizons. Nikiforoff and Alexander (1942) studied the clay-pan and hard-pan of the San Joaquin soil in California, The clay-pan was situated below the surface but above the hard-pan. Chemi­ cal analyses showed iron and silica to be the main cementing agents in the hard-pan. Their presence in the hard-pan was due at least in part to crystallizing in place, according to the authors, as secondary growth of quartz was evident. Acco rd ­ ing to Nikiforoff and Alexander the formation of the clay pan is due to weathering in place of silt size particles, with some of the free oxides recombining to form clay and some leaching down from higher in the profile and recombining there to form new clay minerals. The hard-pan underneath the clay-pan, is postulated, to have formed earlier than the clay pan due to micro-relief variation which caused ground-water to deposit salts and free oxides during summer evaporation. The authors sum up their findings by saying that under the prevailing cli­ matic conditions weathering in place as well as sesquioxide translocation causes the formation of a clay pan above the al­ ready existing hard-pan. Nikiforoff and Drosdoff clay-pan soil in California. (1943) worked with the Dayton According to them, chemical anal­ ysis indicated independent migration of sesquioxides from the A horizon to the B horizon of the soil. High total iron and low free iron content of B horizon was attributed to the incorpor­ ation of the iron in the newly formed clay minerals. The ,TgainTf in clay in the B horizon was far greater than the TTlossn 15. in sesquioxides from the A horizon. The authors concluded therefore that part of the clay in the B horizon is due to weathering of soil particles in situ as well as movement of free oxides from the A horizon and their translocation to the B horizon. In the B horizon recombination of the free oxides takes place with the formation of clay minerals. Brown, et a l . (1933) studied Chernozem-like soils having clay-pan formations. Chemical and physical analyses showed the clay content to increase downward with a maximum clay con­ tent just above the free lime horizon, where pH was observed to rise sharply. From their study Brown, et a l . concluded that clay was translocated downward from the surface by dis­ persion and subsequently flocculated due to high calcium ion content above the free lime horizon. From silica:alumina and silica:iron ratios as well as water of hydration, Brown, et a l . concluded that the same kind of clay existed throughout soil profiles of most soils, and that this serves as further proof for the bulk clay translocation. Marshall and Haseman (1942) used the heavy mineral frac­ tion of fine sand fractions to study qualitative and quantita­ tive changes in a soil profile during its development. used zircon as an index of weathering. They They found that the increase in volume and weight of the B horizon of the Grundy silt loam profile was due partly to an increase of clay brought about by weathering, in situ, and partly by movement of clay from the Ag horizon above. Id. Thorp, et al. (1957) prepared artificial columns of Miami clay loam Bg horizon materials. These columns were leached with leachates of beech leaves as well as oxalic acid and tannic acid. Analyses of the columns after leaching showed a definite indication of fine clay movement out of their upper parts. columns. Clay was present in leachates from all Analysis of that clay showed the presence of illite, vermlculite, chlorite and montmorillonite. From this the auth ors concluded that clay movement in the columns was in bulk form. Tannic acid leachates showed the highest Iron content and was considered as a stronger iron mobilizer than oxalic acid. d.) Clay minerals present in Fodzolic soils Alexander, et a l . (1939) reported illite to dominate in several representative Gray-Brown-Podzolic soils. Grim (1942) and Bidwell and Page (1950) concluded that it Is unlikely that illite forms in soils and is therefore a remnant of original parent material. Kaolinite and montmorillonite, however, they believe, are formed during soil profile development. Grim (1953) stated that montmorillonite and illite are the main clay constituents of calcareous sediments. He believed that no alteration takes place until carbonates are all removed. Coleman and Jackson (1945) in their work on soils of South­ eastern United States found no correlation between pH of soil and clay minerals present. Walker (1949) visualized a pro ­ gressive weathering of mica to a mixture of mica and vermiculite and finally vermiculite. This is brought about by loss of potassium, expansion of this layer, magnesium replacing iron in the lattice and absorption of water in the interlayer surface. Albareda, et a l . (1950) working with Spanish soils developed under a variety of climatic conditions, found kaolinite, montmorillonite, hematite and goethite to accumulate in fine clay fractions, while mica and illite prevailed In the coarser clay fraction. Jackson, et a l . (1952) in studying the weathering sequence of clay size minerals visualized podzolization as a depotassification with resillcation. Mica is converted to montmorillonite and vermiculite by removal of iron and magnesium and the addition of silica. Swanson (1954) Tamura and identified illite, vermiculite and chlorite in New England Brown-Podzolic soils. METHOD OF ATTACK Introduction During the 1954 soil survey of the Tri-Township area in Kalkaska County, Michigan, it was observed that a large number of soils developed from coarse textured parent rock materials i.e. sand, loamy sand and sandy loam, had textural and/or color bands in their subsoil. Similar bands were also obser­ ved by other soil surveyors in Central and Southern Michigan. A study of these bands was undertaken in the following manner: A. A careful and detailed field study of the mode of occurrence as well as the observable field characteristics of textural bands was made. On the basis of these observations, four soil profiles were selected and after detailed field des­ criptions were obtained, bag samples from selected horizons were collected. B. These samples were brought to the laboratory and analyzed, for specific physical, chemical and mineralogical pro ­ perties. The analyses Included: (a) Micropedological study of large aggregates from specific textural bands in order to ob­ serve spatial relationships between soil matrix and mobile com­ ponents present in the soil. (b) Some general chemical and physical characteristics associated with textural or color bands compared to other horizons in the soil profiles, e.g. specific-surface, pH, exchange capacity and base-saturation. (c) Mobile components, their relative concentration in the tex­ tural bands as compared with the horizons immediately above or 19. below them, i.e. less than two micron clay, t!free iron oxide*1 content, organic carbon cont'ent and types of clay minerals present in the less than two micron clay fraction. (d) Tests of the uniformity of original parent rock material from which both textural bands and horizons between them were formed . For that purpose a series of mineralogical investigations were undertaken which included quartz, feldspar and heavy mineral content of dominant sand fractions, and particle size distri­ bution within the greater than two millimeter fraction. C. Using artificial soil columns containing soil mater­ ials from the subsoil of one of the soils investigated or quartz sand, a number of attempts were made to reproduce tex­ tural bands in the laboratory. Observations were made on the changes which took place in soil columns as well as In the different leaching solutions and suspensions. Due to the lack of time, large quantities of leachate were used over a rela­ tively short interval so as to speed up any reaction which might otherwise take place over a prolonged period. In the light of these analyses and experiments, and keep­ ing in mind previous investigations on the subject, a h y po­ thesis was developed which might explain properties observed as well as the genesis and occurrence of the textural bands. Soils Studied After field study, four soil profiles were sampled. The profiles of Montcalm loamy sand and Wallace sand were obtained in the Northern Podzol region of Michigan1s Lower Peninsula in 20. Kalkaska Cou nty , Michigan. This Montcalm profile showed a definite series of finer textured bands below the upper Podzol sequum of this bisequa soil profile. The Wallace profile had no textural subsoil bands and was derived from relatively uniform sand parent rock material. It is a maximal Podzol. The Montcalm fine sand ©as sampled in the Podzol-Gray Brown Podzolic transition zone in Kent County, Michigan. This p r o ­ file showed a clear differentiation into numerous thin finer textured subsoil layers below a weakly developed Podzol B and the remains of a plow layer. A Coloma fine sand profile was sampled in the G-ray-Brown Podzolic region of the Southern part of Michigan (Calhoun County, Michigan). The Coloma profile showed a large number of thin fine textured subsoil bands with only traces of an overlying Podzol B horizon. No free lime was encountered at any depth in the Wallace sand, Montcalm fine sand or Coloma fine sand profiles. Montcalm loamy sand Location ............. Native vegetation Drainage T26N R8W Section 34NBl/4, NE40, NE corner. Boardman twp. Kalkaska County, Michigan. . . Northern hardwood i.e. sugar maple, beech, and northern red oak. ......... Well drained S l o p e ................10 percent Physiography ......... Rolling, glacial moraine, Mankato age 21. Montcalm loamy sand (continued) Depth 00 i o Sample number Ml 8-10” M3 10-17” M4 17-24” M5 24-30” M6 30-35" M7 35-39" 00 M2 39-41" M9 41-43" M10 43-48" Mil 45-50" Ml 2 48-52" Horizon ____________ DescriptionAp Grayish yellowish brown(10YR4/2,moist); loamy sand; weak, medium, granular; soft; pH 6.4, A2 Light yellowish grayish brown(9YR6/2, moist); sandy loam; medium, platy; soft; pH 6.6. Bhir Dark yellowish brown to moderate yellow­ ish brown(10YR4.5/3, moist); sandy loam; medium, crumb; slightly hard; pH 6.2. A2 Light grayish yellowish brown to yellow­ ish gray(10YR6/5, moist); sandy loam; medium platy; soft; pH 6.2. Bt-la Grayish brown to grayish yellowish brown (7.51B4/2-10YR5/3, moist); sandy clay loam; medium angular blocky; hard; pH 5.6. Bt-lb Light yellowish brown to moderate yellow* ish brown(7.5YR5/4-10YR5/4, moist); sandy loam; medium, angular blocky; hard; pH 6.6* A2 Light yellowish brown(10YR7/4, moist); sand; single grain; loose; pH 6.9. Bt-2a Strong brown to strong yellowish brown (7.5YR5/6-5YH4/8, moist); sandy loam; medium, angular to subangular blocky; hard; pH 6.8. Bt-2b Light grayish brown(7.5YR5/2, moist); sandy loam; medium, subangular blocky; hard; pH 6.4. A2 Light grayish yellowish brown(10YK7/3, moist); sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.4. Thickness varies from 2-5 inches; calcareous in spots. Bt-3 Strong yellowish brown(7.5YR5/7, moist); loamy sand; weak, blocky; soft; pH 7.6. Thickness varies from 2-5 inches; cal­ careous in spots. A2 Light yellowish brown(10YK7/3, moist); sand; single grain; loose; pH 8.0; cal­ careous . * ISCC-NBS color names are used in the following descriptions, taken from: TtISCC-NBS Method of Designating Colors and a D i c ­ tionary of Color Nam es51, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Circular 553, 1956. pH measurements were done with a glass electrode. 22. Montcalm loamy sand (continued) Sample number Depth Horizon M13 52-58" Bt-4a M14 56-60" Bt-4b M15 58-62" A2 Ml6 62-69" Bt-5 ____ _______ Description_____________ Strong yellowish brown(7 .5YR5/7, moist); loamy sand; weak, angular blocky; slight­ ly hard; pH 7.8; calcareous. Strong yellowish brown(7.5YR5/7, moist); loamy sand; weak, angular blocky; slight­ ly hard; pH 7.8; calcareous. Light yellowish b r o w n (10YR7/3, moist); sand; single grain; loose; pH 8.0; slightly calcareous. Strong yellowish brown(7.5YR5/7, moist); loamy sand; weak, angular blocky; slight­ ly hard; pH 7.6; slightly calcareous Montcalm fine sand Note: The selection of this location was motivated by the very clear differentiation of the lower soil profile into thin, finer textured layers, in between much thicker sandy horizons. Because of their horizontal layering, these bands give the strong impression of being a result of the original stratifica­ tion of the parent rock material. Some removal of the upper horizons had occurred in the road cut and they were not sampled therefore. Due to the thinness of the textural bands, sample descriptions refer to specific depths rather than to the total thickness of each horizon. This profile is the coarse textured extreme of the Montcalm series. L o c a t i o n ............. T6N R8W Section 1 NSl/4, SW corner. Along highway M21, 2.5 miles southwest of Ada, Ada twp., Kent County, Michigan. Native vegetation Drainage . . Mixed Northern Hardwood and Oak Hickory. . . . . . . . Well drained. S l o p e ................SO percent. Physiography ......... Hilly glacial moraine, Cary age Figure* 1 Montcalm loamy sand; profile diagram 23. Ap 10" A2 ,9 ' O ' ? 15" — ° r-^>° ° cz' K <3 . ‘ Bhir O 0 & £=> r > - " X ~ C ? oC:^» <=> O <=> *=> o « A2 • Bt-la Bt-lb A2 Bt—2a Bt-2b A2 Bt-3 A2 Bt-Ua Bt-Ub "e ® a -nszrazs: *o * Bt-5 24. Montcalm fine sand (continued) Sample number Depth K1 0-2” K2 17” K3 25” K4 38” K5 41” K6 43” K7 47” K.8 49” K9 53” K10 51” Kll 51” K12 51 ” K13 54” K14 58” K15 60” K16 62” Horizon _______ _________Description_____________ _ Bhir ? Moderate yellowish brown(10YH5/3-5/4, moist); fine sand; crumb; friable; pH 7.2 A2 Moderate yellowish brown to light yellow­ ish b r o w n (1OIK5/4-6/4, moist); loamy fine sand; massive to slightly blocky; soft; pH 6.7. Bt-1 Strong yellowish b r o w n (7.5YR5/7, moist); loamy fine sand; very weak, angular blocky; soft; pH 6.7. Light yellowish brown(10YK6.5/6, moist); A2 fine sand; massive to slightly blocky; soft; pH 7.1. Light brown(7. 5YR5/5-5/6, moist); fine Bt-2a sandy loam; weak, medium, angular blocky; friable; pH 6.8. Light bro wn(7.5YR5/4-5/6, moist); fine Bt-2b sandy loam; weak, medium, angular blocky; soft; pH 6.4* Light yellowish brown(10YK6/5, moist); A2 loamy fine sand; slightly massive; soft; pH 7.5. Strong yellowish brown(7.5YR5/6-6/6, Bt-3a moist); fine sandy loam; weak, moderate, angular blocky; soft; 6.2. Strong yellowish brown (10YR5/8, moist); Bt-3b fine sandy loam; moderate, angular blocky; soft; pH 6.6. Light yellowish brown(10YR7/3, moist); A2 fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.4. Strong yellowish b r o w n (7.5YR5/B, moist); Bt-4 loamy fine sand; moderate, angular blocky; pH 6.8. Light yellowish b r o w n (10YH7/4, moist); A2 fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.1. Light yellowish brown(10YH7/4, moist); A2 fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.9. Bt-5 Strong yellowish brown(7.5YR5/8, moist); loamy fine sand; weak, angular blocky; soft; pH 6.7. Light yellowish bro wn(10YR7/4, moist); A2 fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.4. Bt-6 Strong yellowish brown (7.5YR5/8, moist); loamy fine sand; weak, angular blocky; soft; pH 6.7. 25. Figure. 2 Montcalm fine sandj profile diagram 0” Bhir ? A2 10” 15" 3Cr Bt—1 arjzaus^r 30” A2 Bt—2a Bt-2b A2 -Btr A2 60” *>.. o . „ ’O . !SB/M11\v. 65” - iAM Hy*JT .» O . ■ ^ ’* • <> . t \ \ IW F * .. • 1• -.O * £> O' Bt-5 *-? 3*3=33?] Bt-6 26. Coloma fine sand Note: The top two feet of the profile represented recent wind blown deposits. Depth designations are from the top of the d e pos it • L o c a t i o n ............. T3S R7W Section 3 M l / 4 , NE40, SE corner Newton twp., Calhoun County, Michigan Native vegetation Drainage . . Oak Hickory ............. Well drained S l o p e ................6 percent Physiography ......... Sample number Depth 0-24” Rolling glacial moraine, Cary age Horizon _____________ Description_______ _________ / Cl 25” Ap C2 30” Bhir-1 C3 40” Bhir-2 C4 52” B3 C5 57” A2 06 63” A2 07 65” Bt-1 08 68” A2 09 70” Bt-2 Grayish yellowish brown(10YR4/2, moist); fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.7. Strong yellowish brown(10YR5/8, moist); loamy fine sand; very weak, angular blocky; soft; pH 7.6. Dark orange yellow(10YR6/8, moist); loamy fine sand; weak, massive; soft; pH 7.4. Moderate orange yellow(10YR7/8, moist); fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.4. Light yellowish brown to moderate orange yellow(10YR7/6, moist); fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.5. Light yellowish brown to moderate orange yellow(10YR7/6, moist); fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.4. Light b r o w n (7.5YR5/4, moist); loamy fine sand; very weak, fine, angular blocky; soft; pH 6.4. Light yellowish brown to moderate orange yellow (10YR7/6, moist); fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 7.0. Light b r o w n (7.5 Y R 5 / 4 , moist); loamy fine sand; very weak, fine, angular blocky; soft; pH 6.4. 27 Coloma fine sand (continued) Sample number Depth Horizon CIO 73” Cll 76” Bt-3a C12 80” Bt-3b C13 95 ” C14 10 1” Bt-4 C15 106" A2 A2 A2 Description Light yellowish brown to moderate orange yellow (10YR7/6, moist); fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 5.5. Light b r o w n (7.5YR5/4, moist); loamy fine sand; very weak, fine, angular blocky; soft; pH 5.5. Light brown(7.5YB5/4, moist); loamy fine sand; very v^eak, fine, angular blocky; soft; pH 5.5. Light yellowish brown to moderate orange yellow (10YR7/6, moist); fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 6.2. Light brown( 7 .5YR5/4-, moist); loamy fine sand; very weak, fine, angular blocky; soft; pH 5.5. Light yellowish brown to moderate orange yellow (10TR7/6, moist); fine sand; single grain; loose; pH 6.0. Figure. 3 28. Coloma fine sandj profile diagram Ap Bhir-1 « x i l l Bhir-2 B3 A2 VW%4%Wv)IUAVtfkX* acoazrasyvn ^// ■- A2 # Bt-1 Bt-3b A2 100" mil J 1 mi i Bi—i; A2 110" 120” g g n a n » i i ^ ^ H V A k t f =JC T H iii Wallace sand L o c a t i o n .................. T26N R8W Section 14 SWl/4, NW40, SW1Q, SW corner. Boardman twp. Kalkaska County, Michigan. Native vegetation . . . . Northern Hardwood i.e. Sugar maple, Beech and Northern Bed Oak Drainage .................. Slope .................. 8 percent Physiography ............. Sample number W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 Depth 0-5tf 5-7rt 7-12n 12-22Tt 22-35l! 35/ Horizon Well drained Rolling glacial moraine, Mankato age. _____________ Description_____________ Ap Brownish gray(10YR4/1, moist); single grain; loose; pH 6.5* sand; A2 Brownish pink( 7 .5YR7/2, moist); single grain; loose; pH 6.1. sand; Bhir Grayish brown(7.5YR4/2, moist); massive; ortstein, mixed with orterde; hard; pH 5.3. sand; Bir Strong yellowish brown(7.5YR5/8, moist); sand; massive; ortstein; hard; pH 5.5. Cl Light yellowish brown(10YR7/6, moist) sand; single grain; loose; pH 6.4. 02 Pale orange yellow(1CYR8/3, moist); sand; single grain; loose; pH 6.4. Figure. U 0" 30. Wallace sand; profile diagram -Hf‘£U.K.t• • Ap 11. * .• 5" ~ • ' • — _ — — A2 O - Bhir 10" & ’*** - - - - i?" Btr 2d" 25" Cl 30* o 35" r 7C* pH measurements 6 10" " 20" - 7 7D. Exchangeable hydrogen, m.e./lOO gm. 8 0 1 A2 Bhir A2 Bt-la Bt-lb A2 BW Bt—2b 6o» A2 Bt—f> 2 3 U 5 44. Figure 8* Mont-calm loany sand; exchange capacity/clay ratio, specific surface/clay ratio, "free iron oxide”/clay ratio, and organic matter/clay ratio. 3A. M.E. exch. cap./lOOgm. clay 100 10*' 150 A2 Bhir 20” A2 Bt-la Bt-lb 30” Uo” 8B. Sp. surface, M^/gm. clay Bt—2 Bt-2a t—2b 50” 60” A2 Bt-5 70” 8C. "Free iron oxide(F©203)" gm./lOOgm. clay 10 8d. Organic matter gm./lOOgm. clay 20 10 10" A2 Bhir 20” A2 30" Bt-la Bt—lb A2 Uo” 50" 60” A2 Bt-5 70" 20 30 45» Figure 9. Montcalm fine sand; mechanical analysis Percent 10 10” 20 _ A2 20” Bt—1 lay Wilt sand A2 Bt—3a A2 Bt—6 46* Figure 10* Montcalm fine sandj "free iron oxide", organic matter, pH and exchangeable hydrogen* 10A. "Free iron oxide"(FegO^), percent* 10B. Organic matter, percent* 10" A2 20" Bt—1 A2 Bt—3a Bt-3b A2 Bt-6 IOC* pH measurements 10D* Exchangeable hydrogen, ra*e*/l00 gm. 0 10" - A2 20" Bt—1 60" 1 2 3 k 5 47. Figure 11. Montcalm fine sand; exchange capacity/clay ratio* specific surface/clay ratio, ’’free iron oxide/clay ratio, and organic matter/clay ratio, 11A. M.F* exch. cap./lOOgm. clay 11B. Sp. surface, M^/gm. clay 0 0 10 20 30 UO 50 100 200 A2 Bt—1 A2 Bt-3a Bt-3b A2 Bt-6 60"_ 11D. Organic matter, gm./lOOgm. clay 11C. "Free iron oxide” (Fe203), gm./lOOgm. clay 10 2 0 ”_ Bt-1 30”- Uo”_ Bt-3b 60*L Figure 12. Coloma fine sand; mechanical analysis Percent 0 10 20 30 UO £0 60 70 80 90 J_______ 1_______ I_______ 1_______ I_______ 1_______ I_______I_______ i_______ 1_ 1 A2 80" silt sand /clay - 90" A2 Bt-U A2 49. Figure 13. Coloma fine sand; "free iron oxide”, organic matter, pH, and exchangeable hydrogen. 13B. Organic matter, percent 13A. ”Free iron oxide”(Fe203)# percent 0 J 60” .5 _L_ L l'.O 0 .1 . 70” . A2 Bt— 1 80” A2 Bt—3a - 90” - 100" - 110" - A2 Bt-li A2 13D. Exchangeable hydrogen, m.e./lOOgm. 13C. pH measurements It.? ? 1 6 J A2 Bt—1 A2 Bt—3a A2 Bt—li A2 .2 50 • Figure lU« Coloma fine sandj exchange capacity/clsy ratio, specific surface/clay ratio, "free iron oxide/clay ratio, aid organic matter/clay ratio. lUA. M.E. exch. cap./lOOgm. clay lUB* Sp. surface, Vp/gm. clay 10 100 20 300 200 6ott 70" A2 Bt—1 80” A2 Bt-3a 90” ICO" 110" lUC* "Free iron oxide"(F®203), gm./lOOgm. clay ll±D. Organic matter, gm./lOOgm. clay 0 0 J 11 60" 70" 80" 90" 100” 110" J 5 till 10 J lj IS I— I 1— 1— 1— I— 1— 1— 1— 1— L A2 Bt—1 A2 Bt—3a A2 Bt—U A2 1 I £ 1 L 1 I 51. Figure l£. 7/allace aand; mechanical analysis Percent 10 _1_ 0 20 30 _l_ -V-VM VV/vW*~ 90 100 _J_______L_ Ap A2 4 10” 2 Bhir - T J 20” _ Bir Ljilt sand i. -clay Cl 30” - Uo” - Figure 16. Wallace sand; "free iron oxide", organic matter, pH and exchangeable hydrogen* 16a. "Free iron oxide" (Fe2 C>3 ), percent. 16b o Organic matter, percent. 0 0 .1 2.0 1.0 Ap A2 Bhir Bir Cl C2 16D. Exchangeable hydrogea, 16C. pH measurements 7.0 0 Ap A2 Bhir Bir Cl 30" _ C2 1 2 3 U 5 £' 7 53 • Figure 17* Wallace sand| ,fFree iron oxide/clsgr ratio, organic natter/clay ratio. 17A. "Free iron oxide”(Fe2 <>3 ), 17B. Organic matter, gm./lOOgm. clay gm./lOOgm. clay I Ap A2 10 Bhir ” " Bir 20” Cl 30” C2 i Mineralogical Properties of Soil Samples The following graphs and tables show the mineralogical properties of selected horizons from the soil profiles studied. Appendix• For a tabular presentation of this data, see the 55 • Figure 18* Montcalm loaner sand; medium sand quartz, fine sand quartz, medium sand plus fine sand quartz, medium sand/fine sand quartz• 18a. Medium sand quartz, percent 0 1 10 1 20 30 Uo $0 i 1 1 1 1 18B. Fine sand quartz, percent o 10 Ap A2 Bhir A2 Bt-1« Bt-lTc A2 Bt-2a Bt—2b A2 Bt-5 1 20 30 Uo 50 1 I J 1 1 1 I 18C. Medium sand plus fine sand 18D. Medium sand/fine sand quartz, percent quartz 0 10 20 30 UO ^0 60 70 0 .5 1.0 1.5 1 1 1 1 1 ...! 1 1 1 1 1 1 I t 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 Ap A2 Bhir A2 Bt-ls Bt-lb A2 .. . ... 1 Bt-2i Bt-2b A2 Bt-5 56. Figure 19. Montcalm loamy sand; medium sand K-feldspar, fine sand K-feldspar, medium sand plus fine sand K-feldspar, medium sand/fine sand K-feldspar, 19A. Medium sand K-feldspar, percent 19 3 . 0 1 1 Fine sand K-feldspar,percent 2 3 » 1 t 1 I 1 * f 5 6 7 I I 1 1 ..-L -I Bt-la Bt—2a 19C. Medium sand plus fine sand K-feldspar, percent 0 J 1 I L j-L Ap A2 Bhir A2 Bt-la Bt-lb A2 8 t-2a Bt—2b A2 Bt-5 19D. Medium sand/fine sand K-feldspar 8 I I 1 57. Figure 20. Montcalm fine sand; fine sand quartz, very fine sand quartz, fine plus very fine sand quartz, fine sand/very fine sand quartz. 20A. Fine sand quartz, percent 0 y> ^0 ^0 I|0 ^0 60 20B. Very fine sand quartz, percent 70 1 0 10 20 30 iiO £0 A? Bt—1 A2 Bt-3a Bt-3b A2 Bt-6 20C. Fine sand plus very fine sand quartz, percent 20D. Fine sand/very fine sand quartz 9 A2 Bt-1 A2 Bt—3 a Bt—3b A2 Bt—6 i ? ? V ? f 58 Figure 21. Montcalm fine sandj fine sand K-feldspar, very fine sand K-feldspar, fine sand plus very fine sand K-feldspar, fine sand/very fine sand K-feldspar. 213. Very fine sand K-feldspar, percent 21A. Fine sand K-feldspar, percent 10 0 20 Bt-3a Bt-3b 21C. Fine sand plus very fine sand K—feldspar, percent 0 20 10 1 1 1 / 1 1 f 1 I f 1 1 1 i 21D* Fine sand/very fine sand K-feldspar 1 A2 Bt-1 A2 Bt-3a Bt—3b A2 Bt-6 2.0 I 1 1 1 I ) i 1 I 3.0 1 I 1.0 0 i 1 1 I 59. Figure 22• Coloi&a Tine sand; fine sand quartz, very fine sand quartz, fine sand plus very fine sand quartz, fine sand/very fine sand quartz • 22A# Fine sand quartz, percent 0 22B* Very fine sand quartz, percent 10 20 30 Uo 50 60 J----1___ I ___ I___ 1__ L 0 5 i l l 1 I J I 1.1 10 15 I J 1. 1 i. 1 J_ A2 Bt—1 A2 Bt—3 a A2 Bt—U A2 22C. Fine sand quartz plus very fine sand quartz, percent 0 1 10 t 20 t 30 Uo 50 60 ___ £___ 1 1___ I 22D. Fine sand quartz/very fine sand quartz 70 1 .1 A2 Bt—1 A2 Bt-3a A2 Bt-U A2 1 1 1 ' _J ... 1 1 60. Figure 23* Coloma fine sand; fine sand K—feldspar, very fine sand K-feldspar, fine sand/very fine sand K-feldspar, fine sand plus very fine sand K-feldspar* 23B. Very fine sand K—feldspar, percent 23A* Fine sand K—feldspar, percent 10 0 12 0 1 _L_ A2 Bt-1 A2 Bt-3a A2 Bt-U A2 23D* Fine sand/very fine sand K-feldspar 23C* Fine sand plus very fine sand K-feldspar, percent 0 JL_ k 8 10 _J 12 L_ 0 A2 Bt-1 A2 Bt-3a A2 Bt-U A2 61 Figure 2h« Wallace sand; medium sand quartz, fine sand quartz, medium plus fine sand quartz, medium/fine sand quartz. 2UA. Medium sand quartz, percent 0 10 20 A- 1 I * 1—JL. 1 I 1 I— A 1 1 1 2l|B. Fine sand quartz, percent 30 iiO I, I I I I I I 1 I 0 10 20 30 J 1 1 I » 1 l I 1 l I I I 1 J— Ap A2 Bhir Bir Cl C2 2UD. Medium sand/fine sand quartz 2liC. Medium sand plus fine sand quartz, percent 0 1 1 10 20 30 1 i UO 1 £0 60 i 1 0 70 J i i i i i i i i ii I — Ap A2 Bhir Bir Cl C2 / 62. Figure 25. Wallace sand; fine sand K-feldspar, medium sand K-feldspar, medium sand plus fine sand K-feldspar, medium sand/fine sand K-feldspar. 25a . Fine sand K—feldspar, percent 0 1 22 31 Ii 1 U 55 J---- 1-- L---L___l 66 i 25B. Medium sand percent 0 7 i 1 J 2 3 L I K—feldspar, k 5 6 J____ I__ L Ap A2 Bhir Bir Cl C2 25C. Medium sand plus fine sand K—feldspar, percent 0 L 1 1 1 I f 5 1 I I 25D. Medium sand/fine sand K-feldspar 1 1 1 10 .?. .... 0 , Ap A2 Bhir Bir Cl C2 .5 1.0 63. Quartz Analysis Distribution of quartz in the dominant sand fractions was taken as an index of the uniformity of the parent material. The accuracy of determinations was ^ 11.5 percent of quartz at the 5 percent level, and ^ 5.7 percent at the 33 percent level using F i s h e r !s Tt ! test in computing the significant difference. Pollack and Whiteside (1954) re­ ported a 4.9 percent figure at the 5 percent level for quartz, while Phillippe and White (1950) reported a 2.19 percent figure at the 5 percent level for quartz. Coloma fine sand was the only profile of the four investigated which did not indicate evidence of some stratification when using the sta­ tistical quartz correlation, Table 1. The method of using quartz as a weathering index is not infallible, but is help­ ful in investigating the uniformity of a parent material. Other characteristics such as particle size distribution, feldspar content of dominant sand fractions, and clay mineral analysis should be examined before deciding the origin of specific horizons. Feldspar Analysis K-Feldspars (Orthoclase and Microcline) were the domi­ nant feldspars present in all four soils. Gann and Whiteside (1952) reported orthoclase to be as resistant to weathering as quartz, while Ca-plagioclase was lost from soils due to weathering. As such, K-feldspar distribution in the sand 64. fraction may bo used as an additional guide to the uniform­ ity of parent material. This fact was used in correlating soil horizons in Table 8 . In most cases quartz plus K-feld- spar plus heavy minerals added up close to 1 0 0 percent of sand fraction going slightly above or below it at times. Variation might be due to a greater or smaller preferred orientation of quartz or feldspar in x-ray samples as compared with the respective standards. X-ray Silicate Clay Mineral Analysis Both kaolinite and illite occur in all horizons of soil profiles investigated. Montmorill&nite occurs in the upper sequum of the Montcalm loamy sand (Podzol), throughout the Vi/allace sand (maximal Podzol) and is almost completely absent from Montcalm fine sand and Coloma sand which occur In the Central and Southern part of Michigan. The common occurrence of illite and kaolinite is in agreement with the results re­ ported by 6-rim (1942), Bidwell and Page a l . (1939), Winters and Simonson (1951). in the Podzol soils studied. (1950), Alexander, et Chlorite was present Chlorite is completely absent from the Cray-Brown Podzolic Coloma profile but present in the other profiles. Vermiculite Is absent from the Wallace (Pod­ zol) and occurs only in the calcareous stratifications of the Montcalm loamy sand (Podzol). Different origin of parent material may be the cause for the complete absence of vermicu­ lite from the upper part of the Montcalm loamy sand profile. It can also be postulated that illite, and chlorite to a lesser 65. e x te n t , weather to give montmor11Ionite in a Podzol profile as suggested by Jackson, et a l . (1952). Illite may weather to form vermiculite and chlorite in both Podzol and Gray-Brown Podzolic soils as proposed by Walker (1949), Tamura and Swan ­ son (1954). The relative intensity of an x-ray diffraction peak obtained from a clay mineral is a function of its degree of orientation in the sample irradiated. The same amounts of clay minerals in two different samples may give different peak intensities due to the difference in degree of orienta­ tion in the sample. No quantitative evaluation was attempted. Clay Mineral Analysis by D. T. A. In all four profiles analyzed, the presence of kaolinite was definitely established, thus corroborating x-ray analyses. The presence of expanding type of clay minerals was also de­ monstrated although no attempt was made to separate them. The presence of organic colloids is Indicated by the strong exo­ thermic peaks in the Montcalm loamy sand and Wallace sand Podzol profiles, (Figures 26, 27, 28). Figure 28 shows the influence of hydrogen-peroxide treatment on the clay fraction of Montcalm parent material. The exothermic peak characteriz­ ing organic matter presence in untreated clay fraction between 300 and 400° C was eliminated by hydrogen peroxide treatment. The exothermic peak in the Ap horizon of the Wallace sand pro­ file between 700 and 800° C indicates strong absorption of organic colloid on the clay (Jordan, 1949). Neither the Bhir 66 • and Bir horizons of the Wallace and Montcalm loamy sand nor the Bt horizons show the strong adsorption of organic matter on silicate clay* However, the organic peak between 300 and 400° Is apparent in the Bhir and Bir horizons and some Bt horizons (Bt4a, B t 5 ) • The shape and temperature of an e xo­ thermic peak may thus be used as an indication of the kind of organic matter, as well as its relationship to silicate clay minerals present* No attempt was made to measure quantitatively all clay minerals present from the D.T.A. data. A sample of kaolin (Cornwall, England) was analyzed and comparing its peak height to those of soil clays, the Coloma fine sand and Montcalm fine sand on this basis contained approximately 1 0 percent kaolin­ ite in A2 horizons and 20-25 percent kaolinite in the Bt hori­ zons* Vvallace sand horizons average between 5 and 10 percent kaolinite while Montcalm loamy sand contained between 5 and 20 percent kaolinite in its horizons. 67. Table 1. Statistically significant differences in quartz contents of sand fractions Horizons correlated Horizon (depth) Horizon Fraction Correlation (depth) Montcalm loamy sand Bt-lb (30-35°) it tt A2 (35-39°) m.s • f .s. iii 1 ii Bt-2b (41-43°) m.s. f .s. iii ii (35-39°) Bt-2a (39-41°) m.s. f .s • iii iii Bt-2b (41-43°) tt ti m.s. f .s. ii i Bt-2b (41-43°) A2 (58-62°) m.s. f .s. ii ii (58-62°) Bt-5 (62-69°) m.s. f .s . ii i A2 A2 Wallace sand Bhir (1 2 - 2 2 °) m.s • f .s. iii ii (22-35°) tt tt m. s • f .s. iii iii tt C2 (35*°) m .s . f .s. iii ii Ap (0-5°) Cl tt Montcalm fine sand Bt-1 tt A2 (25°) Bt-3a (49°) f .s. v.f.s. iii ii tt Bt-3b (53°) f .s. v.f.s. iii iii ( 47°) Bt-3a (49° ) f .s . v.f.s. iii ii 68. Table 1. (continued) Horizons correlated Horizon (depth) Horizon Bt-3b ( 53") tt Bt-3a tt Fraction Correlation (depth) ( 49" ) A2 (60" ) f .s. v.f.s. iii ii f .s. v.f.s. ii iii B t -6 ( 62") tt tt f .s . v.f.s. iii ii A2 ( 4 7 11) tt tt f .s. V.f.S O iii iii f .B . V.f.S. ii iii f .s • v.f.s. iii iii f •s . v.f.s. iii iii tt f .s . v.f.s. ii iii (1 0 1 ") f .s. v.f.s. ii iii tt f .s. v.f.s. i/ii iii f .6 • v.f.s. ii iii f .s. v.f.s. ii iii f .s. v.f.s. iii iii f .s. v.f.s. iii iii Coloma fine sand A2 A2 (61" ) tt tt (76" tt Bt-4 tt A2 (106") A2 (61" ) A2 (106") tt Bt-1 (65" ) Bt-3a Bt-4 (106") tt ) it Bt-3a (95" ) tt (65" tt (73" ) A2 A2 Bt-1 ) (73" ) A2 tt (76" ) tt ^i - significant difference at the 5 percent level. H _ i t " " » 33 percent , f iii- no significant difference at the 33 percent level. 69. Table 2 . Heavy mineral content of sand fractions (Each value given is an average of two determinations) Sample Depth Horizon l Percentage Sample Depth Horizon Percentage by weight* by weight medium fine medium fine sand sand sand sand Montcalm loamy sand Montcalm l fine sand* Ml 0 -8 ” 0.3 0.5 Ap 0.9 3.3 K2 17” A2 M2 8 -1 0 ” A2 0.2 2.7 0.4 K3 1.0 25” Bt-1 M3 10-17" Bhir 0.7 0.8 K7 47” 2.1 0.2 A2 M4 17-24" A2 2.5 0.6 0.9 0.3 K8 49” Bt-3a M5 24-30” Bt-la 1.9 0.6 0.6 K9 53” Bt- 3b 0 . 8 M6 30-35” Bt-lb 3.0 0.7 A2 0.8 0.6 K15 60” M7 35-39” 4.8 0.8 0.3 0.8 K16 62” A2 B t -6 39-41” Bt-2a 0.8 M8 0.2 M9 0.7 41-43” Bt-2b 0.3 0.9 0.06 A2 Ml 5 58-62” 5.8 0.3 Ml 6 62-69” Bt-5 Coloma fine sand** Wallace sand W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 0- 5” 5-7” 7-12” 1 2 -2 2 ” 22-35” 354” 0.4 Ap A2 Bhir Bir 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.8 1.0 01 0.6 1.0 02 0.8 1.8 C6 C7 CIO Cll C13 014 C15 61” 65” 73” 76” 95” 101” 106” A2 Bt-1 A2 Bt-3a A2 Bt-4 A2 2.0 3.0 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.6 * At the 5 percent level a significant difference ^ 0 . 5 for medium sand ^ 1 . 7 for fine sand jjesgeAt the 5 percent level a significant difference i^-0.5 for fine sand fEll.O for very fine sand 5.4 6.5 4.6 4.6 3.5 4.4 4,4 70. • CO © rH G © E-i G © 73 G 3 CO OS © G (0 GQ at _ G 73 a, © © to G GO E)0 © G G a* © X 73 a> g o GQ O rH © Of G G © © G *H ■H G a o G >>p © o rH © O rH © Cm O G © O -P G G cq 3 O © S 3 G o © > to •H JsJ -P © © © rH O * © G © > Cm **h O -P o G © o a. •H (0 -p © © G G •H a G © P © >» © G « # © p O tH <4 G •H c— rH O © CO C— t O ^ O O T f C M ^ c — C - O 'M* lO to to CO 00 Oi O 00 LO I CMCO*M a P T HG © © O P P a -h -h + H H O © rH i—t < P t H iH •rH o rH • • rH 3 P P o to to •H G G a © © G P P © G G £> H H -►H-t © P ■H rH rH 4rl tt © P •H i—1 iH «H 1 O <3* rH tt c- » rH © . 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Tab le 5 shows results obtained with quartz columns. The higher the concentration of the inflowing suspension, the h i gh er the c oncentration of the outflowing liquid. Height of column h a d little effect on the effluents concentration. A p p a r e n t l y none of the suspensions lost clay in percolating t hr o u g h the quartz sand but all gained some sediment fr om the quartz as did distilled water. The only clay retained in quartz columns was therefore that suspended in the liquid r e ­ tained b y the columns. Table 6 shows results obtained by leaching artificial soil columns of different heights with clay suspensions of different concentrations. The only increases in clay concen­ tration on passing through the column were in the cases of d is tilled water. Influents; Intermediate concentrations of clay in the 0.0142, 0.0285, and 0.0425 percent, gave very similar effluent concentrations; p ercent respectively. 0.0148, 0.016 and 0.0135 In some Instances, when the clay c o n ­ c en tr a t i o n or volume of the influent is high i.e. 0.029, and soil c olumn longer than 48 cm., percolation ceases after a while. Initial wetting of soil column 4 with distilled water, did not alter the concentration of clay in effluents, or the amount of clay retained. Table 7 shows what effect a distilled water leaching has on the di stribution of less than two micron clay in a uni f or m soil column. The fractionation and clay analyses of the two s ta nd a r d columns h elped in obtaining a statistical signifi­ cant figure, to be used in the study of results obtained from 78. the f ou r l e a c h e d columns. The difference in silt, sand or clay contents of the various fractions In the soil columns, can therefore be attributed to the initial differences in the f i l l i n g of the c o l u m n s * R e s u l t s obtained with oxalic a cid leaching experiment were as follows: a* Tw en ty-four hours after the first 50 ml. acid were added, of oxalic distinct brown color bands appeared in column 4 (uniform, non-limy material) at a depth of 87 cent i­ meters; column 3 (limy stratum at 93-101 cm.) at a depth of 82 centimeters; and in column 2 (limy stratum at 17^24 cm.) at a depth of 84 centimeters. no bands b. a pp ea re d In column 1(three limy strata), were observed at that period. A f t e r seventy two hours (3 days), a new brown band in column 3 (limy stratum at 93-101 cm.) of 67 cms. an d in column 4 at a depth of 62 cms. at a depth Column 2 (limy stratum at 17-24 cms), showed a series of three faint b r ow n bands strata) just above the limy layer. Column 1 (three limy showed the formation of brown bands beneath the lower m a r g i n of e ach of the limy strata, forming an extension of these layers* c. Afte r ninety-six hours, column 1 showed a series of fai nt b r ow n bands, between the second and third limy strata (51-65 cms.). bands Column 2 and 3 showed the formation of brown immediately below the calcareous layers. d. After five days a series of brown bands were observed 79. d ir e c t l y above the upper limy stratum in column 1 (27-31 cms.) and c olumn 3 (93-101 cms.). e. evident A f t e r seven days the formation of a red band was in the upper part of the limy stratum of column 1, the one closest to the surface, and in the only limy layer of column 2* f. O nl y the unifo rm non-limy column showed evidence of some clay In the effluent, while the rest of the columns gave clear effluents. g* A l l but two of the color bands formed were dark y e ll ow is h brown (10YR4/4, moist). The two bands formed in the calcareous layers were red (10R5/8, moist). h. Columns 2, 3 and 4 showed strong leaching effects in their upper part with yellow (101QR7/6, moist) color. Areas above l i m y layers showed accumulation of material with darker colors; yellowish brown I. columns (10YK 5/4, moist). Color bands formed above limy material in stratified or in u n i f o r m non-limy column were much more distinct and contrasting than those formed in between limy layers. j. leachates. No oxalate ion was detected in any of the four column GENERAL DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS Physical and Chemical Properties of Textural Horizons Textural horizons, whether close to the surface or deep are an integral part of the soil profile* Whether petro-pedo- genetic or pedo-genetic, their properties may be markedly in­ fluenced by the processes taking place in the soil profile. Textural horizons may differ from soil to soil. One common feature to all is that they are horizons containing more clay than the adjoining layers. soils are relatively young. In Michigan the large majority of The materials were deposited mainly during the Cary and Mankato sub-stages of the Wisconsin glacial period. Inherent properties of parent materials strongly influence soil properties and profile development. Multiple textural horizons are found in materials of sand to sandy loam textures. The textural horizons that are due to original stratification of parent material may differ from those formed in originally uniform parent materials. Those differences may not necessarily be observed in the field but should be detectable with the aid of physical and chemical analyses in the laboratory. The following is a summary of physical and chemical properties of the multiple textural hori­ zons that were analysed in this study: a. Textural layers contain two to seven times the amount of clay that Is present in intervening sandier horizons. b. Largely due to their much higher clay content, textural layers have total specific surface areas two to twelve times higher than specific surface areas of the interven­ ing horizons. The amount of specific surface is a func­ tion of the amount of clay as well as the type of clay minerals and the amount of organic matter found in the bands * Textural layers are horizons of concentration and/or accumulation of organic matter and !,free ironTt• This ,!free ironu accumulation may be partly or wholly due to the higher clay content i.e. iron in the lattice of clay minerals that is released during chemical analysis. Textural layers are horizons of high exchange capacity and exchangeable hydrogen, (in absence of free lime). The high exchange capacity is due to higher colloidal content and determined by the amount and type of clay mineral as well as organic colloid present. Textural layers have lower pH values and higher percent base saturation than horizons in between (in absence of free lime)• Exchange capacity and specific surface per gram of clay reflect the dominant influence of the type of clay mineral present in the textural layers. Vermiculite, montmorill— onite and colloidal organic matter are the greatest con­ tributors, followed by illite, chlorite and kaolinite. The "free ironn/ d a y ratio is lower in textural layers than in horizons in between. The "free iron"/clay ratio 82. In textural layers is similar to or lowee than that found in the Podzol B of the Montcalm and Wallace profiles. The range in total chemical analyses of clay minerals as reported by Grim (1955) are as follows: Feg 0 3 Montmorillonite Vermiculite Chlorite Illite Kaolinite Tr. 2.78 0.82 0.76 0.27 - 6.35 - 10.94 - 8.70 - 18.88 - 2.00 Since all of these clay minerals are present in the soils analyzed it is possible that the nfrea-irontT found in the textural bands can be partially or wholly attributed to the clay minerals present in them. h. Organic matter/clay ratios are lower in non-limy textural horizons than in the adjoining horizons. They are much lower than those of the Podzol B. i. The heavy mineral distribution in the soil profile shows no preferential concentration in either textural bands or adjoining horizons (with exception of the lowest textural horizon in the Montcalm loamy sand profile). j. The Podzol sequa studied i.e. Montcalm and Wallace pro­ files contain montmorillonite, illite, kaolinite and chlorite near the surface, while deeper in the profile illite, vermiculite, and kaolinite or chlorite predomin­ ate. In the Gray-Brown Podzolic soil, i.e. Coloma fine sand, illite, vermiculite, and kaolinite predominate with rare appearances of montmorillonite. 83. k. Quartz studies were undertaken to evaluate uniformity of the parent material. quartz. Parent materials were all high in Large variations in ratios of fine sand and medium or very fine sand quartz fractions from different horizons indicate some lithologic variations in parent materials. 1. Feldspar distribution shows no distinct pattern when com­ paring textural horizons with horizons in between. Ortho­ clase and microcline were the dominant feldspars in all soil profiles. Horizon Nomenclature and Classification Field observations of soil horizons form the basis for any further genetic interpretations. Field characteristics such as relative position in the profile, color, texture, structure and lime presence, are the criteria used in arriving at a possible mode of formation of soil horizons. Any useful soil classification scheme must be based In part on properties observable in the field. The elimination of a genetic bias from soil classification will cause soils people working in the field to become artists rather than scientists. When we draw a line around a mapping unit in the field, we assume the whole area classified to be similar enough in characteristics to be included in the group of characters observed in the holes bored. This in turn relies on the assumption that soil forming factors in the classified area are similar enough to cause a similar combination of soil properties. We are 84. therefore mapping areas on a genetic basis manifested in field characteristics. If we leave out the genesis factor from the classification scheme, we in fact remove one of the bases of our field mapping. The question as to what is more important, ftprocesst! or ^characteristic*1 can only be answered by asserting that they are inseparable. Cohen and Nagel (1934), in their discussion of the !,scientiflc method11, assert that the process of classifying things really Involves, or is a part of, the formation of hypo­ theses as to the nature of things. Further, tho most important thing in the choice of a basis for a natural classification is to pick that property in the objects studied which will be the significant clue to their ijature. With this in mind we now turn to the horizon designation of the soil profile studied. Each designation consists of both pedogenic and petrogenic part. Designations such as A2, Bh, Bhir, and Bt refer to characteristics of the horizons that indicate the dominant soil formation processes taking place, and as such are a pedogenic designation. In cases where it was established that some horizons were formed from signifi­ cantly different parent material than others, a petrogenic de­ signation in the form of a Homan numeral was assigned to a specific parent material grouping. They are numbered in the order in which they are found from the surface downward. choice of criteria for such separations are critical. following is a list of the criteria chosen: The The 85. 1. Percentage of material larger than 2 mm. (on basis of bag-sample). 2# Particle size distribution, the emphasis being on the dominant sand fractions. 3. Clay mineral analyses of the clay fractions. These are given little weight because of the possible origin and mobility of this fraction during soil formation. 4. Quartz content of dominant sand fractions and their sums. 5. Ratio of amounts of quartz in dominant sand fractions. 6. Ratio of K-feldspar content of dominant sand fractions. 7. Heavy mineral content of dominant sand fractions. The small numerals (i) assigned to each horizon in Table 8 are based on each of the above criterion, separately. Fin­ ally, these are evaluated collectively with a large Roman numeral in each horizon. It should be emphasized here that this tabulation is primarily designed to point out the possible petrogenic relationships of the various textural layers. Pedogenic designations preceded by the same Roman numeral indicate their probable origin from similar parent materials in that profile, i.e. petrogenically uniform. It is possible for an original stratification of the parent material to be modi ­ fied by soil processes and thus become partly pedogenic and partly petrogenic. This is another reason that both pedogenic and petrogenic designations are necessary. 86 1 g o •S -P © © © © -p © >> © © cd H I— I > > Ph CaOrH © >> © ICO C > D rH CQ Cd © © *H •H H »H *tH -H w a * 4 >: © © cd Cd ex OU CQ Ui TJ X rH rH © © Cw 1 t o W o • a a o 1 • CQ CO • • & o N N I—I-P P © © © o © •H c©d © oH a* fcdd « • o £3 rH CQ to cd • • cd P-. a c© ® © pi CO CM N © P bO © © © © G? © © o tt © p-l CO Cd •tH U Cd © rH © to I O H 0 s| a ca cd o •H *H £> CD O cd a rH cd cd o -p © o S3 to d rH CO •H H cd cd > * X Probable © *H © IQ -continued- pedogenetic and petrogenotic layers in soil profiles —1 o h 0 cd © o c— CO 1 — 1rH 1 1 1 O CO o rH o a tH o I P N O O H Td © © © > © 1 — 1 © CO r-H © d > © © a ® iH m a IQ 03 i— 1 *r4 Cm O d CL r-H i-4 O 03 ^ Xf CD d d iH -P d O o • C O © rH XI at Eh d -rH 03 d © >> at rH O •rH -p CD d © hO o d -p © Xu xt d at o iH P © d © to o xt © CL © rH 40 at 40 O d P-t O 03 i —1 © © © CO d d © © a Pf © © Xt X J f-H i— 1 © © Cm C m 1 1 « . d o • © iH C O . -P ©Cm . -rH (Q > O a N IS) a -P -P o d d o © © d d 1 — 1 d a* . at o • © iH © « t£ . 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Soil Profile Development with Emphasis on the Origin of Textural Bands Properties of textural subsoil horizons were reviewed in the preceding sections. Table 8 showed how specific physical, chemical and mineralogical analyses were used as criteria to differentiate the probable pedogenetic and petro-genetic origin of these textural layers. Two kinds of genetic textural layers may be postulated: a. Pedo-petrogenetic; those formed due to the interaction of an original stratification of the parent material and modifications caused by the genesis of the soil profile. b. Pedogenetic; those formed primarily due to genetic changes in the soil profile. The following is an attempt to explain the mode of origin of the two kinds of textural layers in light of the results obtained in the laboratory. Pedo-petrogenetic textural bands Barshad (1955) mentions the following criteria for test­ ing the uniformity of parent-materials: a. Total mineralogical analysis, with particular attention to the heavy mineral fraction. b. Nature of particle size distribution of the resistant minerals c. (heavy or light) of the non-clay fraction. Nature of ratio of two resistant minerals in any one of the non-clay fractions. d. Particle size distribution of the whole non-clay fraction. 89. e. Nature of clay distribution with depth. f. Nature of changes in chemical composition of non-clay fraction. Most of these criteria were used to some extent in the construction of Table 8. Some of the criteria indicated dif­ ferent parent materials, while others were less specific. The ftindependability11 of a property is important in the final evaluation i.e. Roman numeral assignment to the various hori­ zons. The greater the number of criteria pointing towards a petrogenetic difference, the more positive a person can be that such a difference exists. Glacial drift materials, more often than not, do show some kind of stratification. At least two kinds of indepen­ dent stratifications were found in soil profiles under invest­ igation (Table 8); (a) textural stratification due to different particle size distribution of the non-clay fraction, (b) mineralogical stratification due to differences in heavy mineral content, quartz and K-feldspar and possible differen­ tial clay mineral type distribution. The two types of discon­ tinuities do occur simultaneously in some of the soil profiles investigated e.g. Montcalm fine sand, Bt-6 horizon. Micropedological observations of the textural bands below 35 inches, in the Montcalm loamy sand soil, showed the presence of a brown clay-like material, acting as bridges between mine­ ral grains, very little occurring on their surfaces. This material may have moved into these layers and deposited along 90. channels of movement or particularly where suspension drop­ lets left clay on drying of the soil. The Wallace sand (maximal Podzol) profile shows a dis­ continuity in the particle size distribution of the sand fractions below 22 inches. On that basis, Cl and 02 horizons may be regarded as petrogenetically different from the rest of that profile. No free lime was found in the Montcalm and Coloma fine sand profiles. D. T. A* analyses of the same two profiles showed the kaolinite type clay minerals to be twice as high in the textural layers as compared to the intervening sand­ ier horizons. This can be attributed to any of the follow­ ing causes, separately or combined: (a) Differential accum­ ulation of kaolinite in textural layers. Bloomfield (1954) found ash and aspen leaves to deflocculate kaolin much more than montmorillonite. This preferential dispersion may account for higher mobility of kaolin with respect to other clay minerals. (b) Original discontinuity in the distribu­ tion of kinds of clay minerals in the soil profile i.e. petrogenic feature. Mechanical and mineralogical analyses indicate a poss­ ible difference in original parent material of the two lowest 91. horizons extent in the Montcalm fine sand e.g. A2Bt-5 and to a lesser in the Bt-1, Bt-3a and Bt-4 horizons of the Coloma fine sand profile. The influence the textural and mineralogical petrogenic differences have on the potential initiation of a textural band can be evaluated in the light of the following available information: a. Under the prevailing climatic conditions, quartz and K-feldspar, constituting 90 percent or more or rhe non­ clay fraction of soils under investigation, contribute little if any to the formation of clay in place. b. The presence of Ca-feldspar, the least resistant of the feldspars under prevailing climatic conditions, was not demonstrated in the x-ray analysis of dominant sand fractions. c. Neither N a nor K-feldspar show any preferential differ­ ences in textural bands compared to intervening layers. d. Silt content of Coloma fine sand is very low rarely rises much above 2 percent. i.e. Little potential sieving action on clay moving in suspension can be postulated therefore. In the Montcalm fine sand pro­ file, the silt is somewhat higher in the overlying A g than the Bt horizons in all cases. e. The same kinds of clay minerals are found in both tex­ tural bands and intervening sandier layers. However, 92. the kaolinite type clay minerals increase in percentage in the textural bands in the Montcalm and Coloma fine sand profiles. ^ f r e e textural horizons, no preferential con­ centration or reduction of heavy minerals is apparent. With its easily weathered ferromagnesium minerals, this fraction could have contributed to the formation of clay or iron-oxides in place. The textural and mineralogical discontinuities may be used solely as indicators to the possible existence of depositional bands in the parent material. pletely account for their formation. As such, it does not com­ Pedogenesis may play a major role in the formation of textural bands, regardless of the inherent mineralogical properties and discontinuities in the parent material. It is for this reason that they often obscure original differences in the parent material. The role of pedogenesis in textural band formation Textural bands of the soil profiles investigated showed a higher concentration of clay (less than two microns), ”free iron oxide” and colloidal organic matter. The increased con­ tent of the three components can be attributed to: (a) indi­ vidual movement and accumulation of the three components. (b) An iron-organic matter complex moving independently of the clay. (c) "Free iron oxide” derived wholly from lattice of clay minerals and as such its concentration is a direct function of the clay content, while the colloidal organic matter moved 93. independently. (d) The movement and accumulation of a clay mineral-iron-organic matter complex as a unit* (e) The weathering in situ of silt size particles, releasing both silicate clay minerals as well as free iron oxide. A combin­ ation of all five possibilities seems to fit the situation on hand, the reasons for such an assertion to be pointed out now. Analysis of clay fraction (less than two micron) from Montcalm loamy sand C horizon (72 inches), showed the clay fraction to contain 2.5 percent Tffree iron oxide11 as F e o0^. c o If all the free iron oxide was derived from the clay only, Bt-la horizon in the Montcalm loamy sand with 2 0 percent clay should contain 0.5 percent ”free iron oxide” . As results in­ dicated (Appendix Table 10), the lffree iron oxide” content of that horizon was 1.1 percent. There was more ”free iron oxide” than could be accounted for if it was only derived from the clay itself. The following calculations also indicate that in the Montcalm and Coloma fine sand profiles the tex­ tural horizons contain more ”free iron oxide” than can be obtained from the total disintegration of clay minerals pre­ sent. These calculations are based upon the assumptions that there is 6 percent of total Feg03 in the clay mineral fractions of these soils and that all of this is soluble as ”free iron oxides” . G-rim*s (1955) citations data of clay mineral analy­ sis cited previously indicate that this would be a reasonable figure based on the four clay minerals present. Actually the chemical composition of the clay minerals is quit© variable and the proportions of each present are not known. 94. Horizon Calculated C l a y "Free iron oxide" of % soil from clay Percent F e 20 3 "Free iron oxide" in soil Percent F e 20 3 Montcalm fine sand AB Bt-1 AB Bt--3& B t- 3b AB Bt-6 0o4 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.5 0.22 0.48 0.15 0.56 0.43 0.05 0.38 3.6 8.0 2.4 9.3 7 .2 0.9 6.3 Coloma fine sand A2 Bt-2 AB B5-3a AB B t-4 A2 2.7 9.9 2.6 10.0 2.4 8.4 2.2 However, 0.2 0.6 0.15 0.6 0.15 0.5 0.13 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.4 even assuming a complete breakdown of the clay m in er al s during iron analysis and a fairly high figure for the total iron content of the clay minerals present, the clay content does not account for all the "free Iron oxide1' present In the textural bands. sence of free The D.T.A. analyses do not show the pr e­ Iron oxide In the textural bands of the Mo ntcalm loa my sand or the Podzol B horizons of the Wallace sand. M in eralogical analy se s also show that the "iron rich" types of clay m in er a l s i.e. illite, vermiculite and chlorite (when p r e ­ sent) are concentrated in the sandier layers in between the textural bands, in the Mo nt c a l m and Coloma fine sand profiles. T hi s bein g the case, higher "free iron oxide"/clay ratios should be in these sandy layers. This is borne out by the results 95. obtained (Figures lie and 14C)* A person could justly surmise therefore that only a part of the ”free iron oxide” found in the textural bands was derived from the clay minerals them­ selves, but the rest has not been identified for certain as known crystalline forms of ”free iron oxide” * If part of the ”free iron oxide” in the textural bands is assumed as ” independent” of the iron in the original clay minerals present, be due to: its movement and deposition in the soil may (a) independent movement of amorphous oxides in suspension or In solution, (b) movement in an organic matter- iron complex form, or (c) movement in a clay-iron complex* A sandy soil ”skeleton” can be assumed to have a net negative charge. The iron oxide, having a net positive charge, under acidic conditions must be ”protected” or the pores must be large enough, in order for it to move through an oppositely charged medium. Organic matter decomposition products can re­ act with iron oxide to form a complex with a net negative charge, depending on the ratios of the two components as shown by Deb (1950 and Delong and Schnitzer (1955 a,b). This complex in turn could move through a negatively charged soil medium* Iron ions can be adsorbed on the surface of clay minerals and preferentially oriented clay and iron oxides have been cited to explain the pleochroism of some silicate clays {personal communication from D e . Stephens, England). Therefore, movement might occur as a silicate-iron oxide complex. Experiments with pure quartz columns in the lbaoratory showed 96. the ability of* a less than two micron clay from a differentia* ted Coloma subsoil sample to move unhampered through them. On the other hand, the same complex, moving in suspension (of the same concentration) through a bulk sample of the same Goloma subsoil material, was partially prevented from moving through it, as manifested by the reduction in concentration in the effluent (see Tables 5 and 6). A simultaneous movement of two negative constituents such as clay minerals and organic-iron complex, is possible without mutual interference. The accumulation of both of these components of the soil suspension can be brought about in the following manners: (a) Deposition of both out of soil suspen­ sion due to the lack of water to flush them further, sedimen­ tation, or by withdrawal of water by evapo-transpiration. The alternate wetting and drying of the soil body by rainfall could cause such an accumulation at the “forward progress ma rgin” of the wetting front, as might occur in these soils during certain periods. (b) Free lime presence, causing the flocculation of both clay minerals or clay complexes and/or the organic-iron complex. Due to the absence of free lime in the Montcalm and Coloma fine sand profiles, this mechanism seems somewhat doubtful there, although the parent materials of those profiles probably contained some lime. However, in the Bt-5 textural band of the Montcalm loamy sand, this may be the major factor. (c) Mutual flocculation of free iron oxide and clay, as suggested by Folks and Riecken (1956). There exists the possibility of the organic-iron and/or other colloidal complexes reversing their electrical charge with varying conditions in the soil profile. This might be brought about by the adsorption of additional iron from the soil matrix to the organic or clay complexes moving through it, or withdrawal by adsorption of one of the components in the per­ colating fluid* Once the organic-iron ratio reaches a critical point i .e • ICO percent saturation of the organic matter ex­ change capacity with iron, the complex will become positive, according to Delong and Schnitzer (1955a). This change in electric sign will cause the flocculation of the organic com­ plex itself in the negative matrix, as well as some of the clay minerals coming in contact with it. If this were the main or only mechanism by which the clay is deposited, increased free Iron oxide/clay ratios would be expected in the textural bands. This is the case in the A2, Bt-la and Bt-lb layers of the Mont­ calm loamy sand. The reverse is evident in the Bt-5 layer of the same profile, where petrogenetic differences and free lime complicate the picture. Also, in the Montcalm and Coloma fine sand profiles, the sandier intervening layers have a higher free iron oxide/clay ratio than the adjoining textural bands, if all the "free iron oxides” are attributed to the clay frac­ tion of the soil. As such, the iron oxide acting as a floccu­ lating agent is not the only factor in the movement and accumu­ lation of clay in textural bands. (d) The beginning of deposi­ tion in fine pores of the original materials due to textural or 98. structural conditions originally present in the soil. Such a physical barrier may start a sieving action on any colloidal material moving through the soil. These concentrations may also become absorption media for other components in the soil solution which in turn may be n caught1* and deposited. Comparing the organic matter/clay ratios of the textural horizons to those found in the Wallace or Montcalm Podzol sequa* we find them to be many times lower in the textural bands. The organic matter/clay ratios are higher in the sandier inter­ vening layers than in the textural bands themselves, except in the Bt-S horizon of the Montcalm loamy sand, while "free iron oxide”/organic matter ratios are very similar in both types of la yer s• Microscopic studies of non-limy textural bands in the Montcalm loamy sand, Montcalm and Coloma fine sand profiles showed the brown clay-like material to concentrate in between mineral grains, acting as bridges between them, very little occurring on the grain surfaces. This may be taken as indica­ tion that deposition out of suspension took place, perhaps by evapo-transpiration of the moisture in between the mineral grains. Physical translocation of clay in soils is caused by the movement of water. In order for that to happen, clay must be dispersed and brought into suspension. According to Barshad (1955) conditions favoring dispersion are a high state of hydration, low electrolyte content, pH far from isoelectric points and the absence of oppositely charged colloids in the same system. A reverse in any of these conditions will cause clay flocculation out of suspension or no movement at all. Organic matter may help clay move by chelating the positive iron and aluminum oxides. According to Barshad, clay migra- tion is a seasonal affair, alternating with periods of floccu­ lation. He too advocates the idea of clay and iron moving in­ dependently or simultaneously, depending on interaction in the three component system of silicate clay-iron oxide-organic matter. As mentioned previously, a less than two micron col­ loidal fraction containing such a system was observed to move through and be partially retained by natural soil material columns in the laboratory (Table 5). The build-up of clay concentration may take place at the surface of a layer containing free lime and cause a textural band to form there. With the removal of the free lime by solu tion, clay will be able to migrate further. No clay was observed to migrate through the columns containing free lime layers in the laboratory but clay did move out of columns con­ taining no limy layers. These columns were leached with both distilled water and dilute oxalic acid solution. In the case of oxalic acid leaching, brown color bands were evident imme­ diately below the limy bands after 2000 ml. (160 surface inche or about the equivalent of 5 years mean annual rainfall) of solution were poured through. Allowing for runoff and evapor- ation-transpiration losses, this would be the equivalent of many more years of leaching under natural conditions* 100. In th© non-limy column, a rapid formation of color bands was evident as the oxalic acid permeated the soil solumn. This may be an illustration of the possible importance of organic acids in the movement and accumulation of (colloidal material)in soils. It also corraborates work done by Folks and Riecken (1956), demonstrating a possible mechanism of band formation. The fact that no oxalate ion was detected in the effluent of any of the soil columns, may be due to the inter­ action of the organic anion or acid with soil constituents fixed in the columns, e.g. iron or aluminum oxides. The import­ ance of soil organic matter as a source for organic acids, phenols and tannins has been demonstrated. These compounds were derived from the leachates of various leaves and were shown by Bloomfield (1953 a,b) and Delong and Schnitzer (1955 a,b) to have a complexing action on iron compounds derived f rom soil materials. By way of summary, from the data available, both physical and chemical mechanisms are involved in the textural band form­ ation in soils under investigation. The ability of a ndiffer- entiated complex11 of iron oxide-silicate clay-colloidal matter to move through columns containing natural soil material may be one of the possible mechanisms. The individual movement of silicate clay and iron-organic matter complex simultaneously or at different seasons can also be postulated. The deposition of the individual complexes or a combination of them may be caused by a chemical interaction between them, physical factors 101. such as alternate wetting and drying of the soil (evapo-transpiratlon), the activity of a third agency on one or both of the mobile constituents i.e. free lime flocculating clay, organiciron complex or both. As results show, a combination of the above mentioned factors is needed to explain physical, chemi­ cal and micropedological observations. CONCLUSIONS Coars© textured soils In Northern Michigan often show textural horizons below a Podzol sequum. Field observations revealed that these textural layers are more reddish in color as well as finer textured than the sandier horizons immediately above or below them. These textural layers vary in thickness fro m 1/8 to 8 inches and from one to many in a particular pro­ file. They cut across geologic strata at different angles and are often discontinuous (Figure 5). In addition to these non- limy, brown, strong brown, or strong yellowish brown textural bands, some calcareous layers which do not often follow sur­ face configuration and do not cut across geologic strata are found in some profiles. Physical, chemical and mineralogical studies in the lab­ oratory showed that the non-limy, more reddish textural hori­ zons contain a higher concentration of silicate clay minerals, Nfree iron oxide11 and organic matter than the adjoining layers. They may or may not be of the same parent material as the horizons immediately above and below them. They are wholly or in part the result of pedogenetic processes acting on the original stratification of the parent material. With time, soil formation processes bring about an alter­ ation of any geologic strata. Lime is leached out, clay and/or iron oxide and organic matter may move independently or as a complex in or out of it. Weathering in place may cause further accumulation of silicate clay. They then are in part pedogenetic 103. In origin i.e. pedo-petrogenetic. Pedogenetic textural bands are due primarily to soil formation processes. Translocation of silicate clay minerals and colloidal organic matter may take place independently or as a complex, at different periods or simultaneously. In the soils examined, some of the iron oxide in textural bands may be attributed to the clay material Itself, while some is possibly In the form of t!free iron oxiden . As evident from the uniform distribution of clay minerals in some non-stratifled soil columns and artificial soil column experiments in the laboratory, bulk movement in coarse textured soils is a major factor in the translocation of clay independ­ ently or as a complex with iron and colloidal organic matter. Free lime, and the alternate wetting and drying of the soil, may bring about the deposition of clay out of soil suspension, with the eventual formation of a textural horizon. Once a fine material accumulation is initiated, larger quantities of water will be held by that horizon. With increased moisture, some weathering in situ might take place resulting in a further In­ crease in silicate clay mineral content. This does not elimin­ ate the possible interaction between iron oxide, clay and organic matter to initiate a textural horizon. The dynamics of soil formation very often obscure the importance of parent material in soil characteristics observed in the field. A seemingly pedogenic textural band may turn out to be of partially petrogenic origin after detailed miner­ alogical studies have been conducted in the laboratory. 104. Both petrogenic and pedogenic aspects of soil formation are a part of the genetic history of the soil profile, and as such, must be considered in any natural soil classification system. BIBLIOGRAPHY Albareda, J. M.x, V. Aleixandre, and J. G. Vicente. Variation or Pnysidco-Chemical Properties of Clay with Regard to ,Fourth Intl. Cong. Soil Sci. Trans. Vol. 2, pp. 80-82, 1950. Alexander, L. T., S. B. Hendricks, and R. A- Nelson. Minerals Present in Soil Colloids, II: Estimation in Some Repre­ sentative Soils. Soil Sci., 48: 273-279, 1939. Anderson, M. S., and H. G. Byers. Character and Behaviour of Organic Soil Colloids. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bull. 377, pp. 1-30 1933. Bailey, H. H. Mineralogical Composition of Glacial Materials as a Factor in the Genesis and Morphology of Some Michigan Soils. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan State Univer­ sity, 1956. 145 numb, pages. Barshad, I. Chemistry of the Soil. Chapt* 1: Soil Development Reinhcld Publ. Co., New York, 1955. Bidwell, 0. W., and J. B. Page. The Effect of Weathering on Clay-Mineral Composition of Soils in the Miami Catena. Soil Sci. See. Amer. Proc. 15: 314-318, 1950* Bloomfield, C. A Study of Podzolization, I. Mobilization of Iron and Aluminum by Scotts Pine Needles. J. Soil Sci. 4: 5-16, 1953. ______________ . A Study of Podzolization, II. Mobilization of Iron and Aluminum by the Leaves of Agathis australis (Kauri). J. Soil Sci. 4: 17-23, 1953. ______________ . A Study of Podzolization, V. The Mobilization of Iron by Aspen and Ash Leaves. Soil Sci. 5: 50-56, 1954 The Deflocculation of Kaolin by Tree Leaf Leachates. Trans. Fifth *Intl. Cong. Soil Sci. Vol. 2, pp. 280-283, 1954. Bodman, G. B., and E. F. Harradine. Mean Effective Pore Size diameter and Clay Migration During ?/ater Percolation in Soils. Soil Sci. Soc. 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The Movement of Iron Oxides in Podzol Soils, Soil Sci., 1: 112-122, 1950. J. __________ . Estimation of Free Iron Oxide in Soils and Clays and Their removal. J . Soil Sci. 1: 212-220, 1950. Delong, W.A., and M. Schnitzer. Investigations on the Mobili­ zation and Transport of Iron in Forested Soils, I. The Capacities of Leaf Extracts and Leachates to react with Iron. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 19: 360-363, 1955. ________________ , Investigations on the Mobili­ zation and Transport of Iron in Forested Soils, II. The Nature of the Reaction of Leaf Extracts and Leachates with Iron. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 19: 363-368, 1955. Folks, H. C., and F. F. Riecken. Physical and Chemical Proper­ ties of Some Iowa Soil Profiles with Clay-Iron Bands. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 20: 575-580, 1956. Gardner, D. R. , and E. P. Whiteside. Zonal Soils in the Trans­ ition Region Between the Podzol and Gray Brown Podzolic Region in Michigan. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 18: 137-141, 1952. Grim, R. E ., and R. A • Rowland. Differential Thermal Analysis of Clay Minerals and Hydrous Materials. Amer. Min., 27: 746-761, and 801-808, 1942. . Clay Mineralogy. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 19537 Holmes, H. N. Experiments in Rhythmic Banding. Soc., 40: 1187-1195, 1918. J. Amer. Chem. 107. Holt, R # F., and P. R. McMiller. Characteristics of Some i-orest Soils from Gray Brown Podzol Transition Zone in 84-87, 1956. nn8B0ta- Soil S c i * S o c - Amer. Proc., 20: Jackson, M. L . , Y. Hseung, R. B. Corey, E. J. Evans, and R. C. Vanden Heuvel* Weathering Sequence of Clay Size Minerals in Soils and Sediments, II* Chemical Weathering of Layer Silicates. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 16: 3-6, 1952. Jenny, H., and G. D. Smith. Colloidal Chemical Aspests of Clay-Pan Formation in Soil Profiles. Soil Sci., 39: 377-389, 1935. Jordan, J. W. Alteration of the Properties of Bentonite by Reaction with Amines. Miner. Mag., 28: 598-605, 1949. Kerr, P. F., J. L. Kulp, and P. K. Hamilton. Differential Thermal Analysis of Reference Clay Mineral Specimens. Amer. Petr. Inst. Project 49, Columbia Univ., New York, 1949. Marshall, C. E., and J. F. Haseman. Quantitative Evaluation of Soil Formation by Heavy Mineral Studies: A Grundy Silt Loam Profile. Soil Sci* Soc. Amer. Proc., 7: 448453, 1942. Morse, H. W. tions. Periodic Precipitation in Ordinary Aqueous Solu­ J. Phys. C h em. , 34: 1554-1558, 1930. Mortland, M. M., and J. L. Mellor. Conductometric Titration of Soils for Cation-Exchange Capacity. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 18: 363-364, 1954. Nikiforoff, C. C., and L. T. Alexander. The Hard-pan and the Clay-pan In a San Joaquin Soil. Soil Sci., 53: 157-172, 1942. , and M. Drosdoff. Soil Sci., 55: 459-482, 1943. Genesis of a Clay-pan, I. Nygard, I. J., P. B. McMiller, and F. D. Hole. Characteristics of Some Podzolic, Brown Forest, and Chernozem Soils of the Northern Portion of the Lake States. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 16: 123-129, 1952. Parker. F. W. The Determination of Exchangeable Hydrogen in Soils. J. Amer. Soc. A g r o n . , 21: 1030-1039, 1929. Phillippii M. M., and J. L. White. Quantitative Estimation of Minerals in the Fine Sand and Silt Fractions of Soils with Geiger Counter X-ray Spectrometer. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 15: 138-142, 1950. 108. Pollack, S. S., E. P. Whiteside, and D. E. Van Varowe. X-ray I'! raCI n Common Silica Minerals and Possible Appli** cation to Studies of Soil Genesis. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 18: 268-272, 1954. Smith, G. D . , W. H. Allaway, and F. F. Riecken. Prairie Soils of the Upper Mississippi Valley. Adv. Agr. II, pp. 157-205, 1950. Speil, S., L. H. Berkelhammer, J. A. Pask, and B. Davies. Differential Thermal Analysis. U.S. Bur. Mines. Tech. Bull. 664, 1945. Stobbe, P. C. Morphology and Genesis of the Gray Brown Po d­ zolic and Related Soils of Eastern Canada. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 16: 81-84, 1952. Tamura, T., and C. L. W. Swanson. Chemical and Mineralogical Properties of a Brown Podzolic Soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 18: 148-153, 1954. Thorp, J., L. E. Strong and E. Gamble. Experiments in Soil Genesis; The Role of Leaching. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 21: 99-102, 1957. Veatch, J. 0. Soil Maps as a Basis for Mapping Original Forest Cover. Mich. Acad. Sci. Papers, 15: 267-273, 1932. _____________ ., and C. E. Millar. Some Characteristics of Mature Soils in Michigan. Jour. Art. No.. 172 (n.s.) Mich. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1934. _____________ . Soils and Land of Michigan. Michigan State College Press., E. Lansing, Mich., 1953. Walker, G. F. The Decomposition of Biotite in the Soil. Mag., 28: 693-703, 1949. Min. Whiteside, E. P. Preliminary X-ray Studies of Loess Deposits in Illinois. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc., 12: 415-419, 1948. Winters, E. Migration of Fe and Mn in Colloidal Systems, Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 472, 1940. , and R. W. Simonson. III. pp. 2-92, 1951. The Subsoil. 111. Adv. in Agr., APPENDIX 110. X-r ay and Differential Thermal Analysis of Clay from Montcalm loamy sand and Wallace sand profiles Figures 26, 27 and 28 serve as an illustration of the type of x-ray diffractions as well as thermal curves ob­ tained from soil clay samples. Clays were obtained from lime free (acid treated) sodium saturated soils. -"t.-r. , . . r ■ , y -The1-same— _£4rgure shows the manner in which areas under respective d iffraction peaks were calculated. ^ ,X • 111. MONTCALM LOAMY SAND. ISO. 8 0 0 9 0 0 600 B f- 2 o 3 9 -4 !' 100 a - lo 700 4o a 500 7 0 0 8 00 soa 300 SOff 100 «K7 900 IQO 600 800 4 1 -43 Bhir 700 400 700 800 900 6 00 4oa 200 200 A2 TOO I 7 -2 4 5 2 -5 6 3 0 0 400 "300 400 7QQ 8 0 0 60 0 200 too 900 700 Bt-lo 2 4 - 30 J 100 600 B t-5 700 800 ^00 300 TOO- 62-69 Bt-lb 400 700 500 TOO 200 100' 20a 600 600 DEGREES F ig . 2 6 *C D.T . A. A N A L Y S I S CLAY FR A C TIO N 800 900 5 “A N D. 00 800 O 500 '00 200 100 Bhir 7-12' 400 300 50 700 800 9 0 0 600 Bh 12 - 22 300 400 500 600 100 200 DEGREES Fig. 2 7 C D.T.A. CLAY ANALYSIS FRACTION 900 113. 10 A 14 A 800 900 DEGREE *C 600 7A 3 .3 5 A 10 A 14 A Fig.28 . I. I c MONTCALM L.S. o. K-roy. «'»«'»' b. •- 1 P A R E ". „0^ ’ , 550f. *' ° T A " organic mott.r "ire." ' '' ; PARENT-MATERIAL « WOm..* W «"P" 0'_ e. No-Clay, lime-tree. 114. C om pu ta t io ns of Quartz and Feldspar Percentages F r o m X-ray Data S t a n d a r d samples gave the following peak heights, using a scale f ac to r of 8 (in scale divisions) : A° E . Wurman H.Balley (1956) Quartz 3.35 280 176 K-feldspar, a v e . 3.25 - 60 - 119 Na-feldspar (oligoclase) 3.20 From the ratio of quartz peaks, a figure for the feldspar minerals was established: K-f eldspar, ave. (Wurman) = 280 176 x Na-feldspar (Wurman) = 280 176 x When a mixture of feldspars is 6Q _ "* 95 9 toq being irradiated, the3.25 A 0 peak is totally due to the K-f eldspar i.e.orthoclase and mierocline, while the 3.2 A peak is mainly due to Na-feldspar e.g. oligoclase, but is reinforced to some extent by the K-feldspar• From H. B a i l e y fs data: 100 percent K-f eldspar would give 21.0 divisions peak height at 3.20 A° (S.Fo « 8). In the tables that follow, the percentage feldspar is reported as corrected values, assuming: 3.25 A 0 peak - All K-feldspar (mierocline, orthoclase) 3.20 A° peak - Na- plagioclase (oligoclase)-(21 x % Kfeldspar calculated from 3.25 A peak) Percentage quartz In sample Percentage K-feldspar in sample = (3.55 A° peak height) x 100 280 r (5.25 A° peak height) x 100 95 3.25 A peak height Percentage Na-feldspar s (3.2 A°peak height - 21 x 95______ x 100 in sample 190 o 1 —I * • o t • ID P cjP«H CM • CD O O (h to CD CM PL CM CM o• | 1 —1 c— CO • • Oi LO CO CM CM CM co • c- * Oi • o• O c- CM CM CO to C- rH CD c- Oi ID o o • CO I • r—I • • • cm 1—1 Oi • • Oi o O rH rH CO o CM • • • • • o 30 CO i—1 I—1 LO CO CO CO to CM CM CD rH rH • rH C“ GO Oi 1—1 LO o • • • D CO c~- CO • Oi LO CM c- • rH LO • ID ! o rH cd to CJ * • CO o * 1 i—1o o • cd rH o •H a •O od CO • -C •rH o o I ID • O • 3 > CM P 04 tH CO aj t J p H o cd Eh IQ rH > si Oh a CM —1 Oi CD 1 • o • CM i—1 CO to iO • o CM O • • i—1 o CD • CM «r O 00 H CH a o N •H P O PG > a 0 o 1—1 • CM • basis cd IQ GO CO * CO On 4 i—1 • CM i —l ■t—I CO Tf a Oi • • to CD CM O rH • • • Of U O • 3 >» CD i—1 •H C m O CM t e- 31 H d ® a g W CO 3 aa ^ 3 117. 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