T HE E M E R G E N C E OF S E N T IM EN TS W I T H I N
A SOCIAL SYSTEM

Walter

E.

Freeman

A DISSERTATION
S u b m i t t e d to the S c h o o l of G r a d u a t e S t u d i e s of M i c h i g a n
S t a t e C o l l e g e of A g r i c u l t u r e and A p p l i e d S c i e n c e
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the r e q u i r e m e n t s
for the d e g r e e of
DOCTOR

OF

PHILOSOPHY

D e p a r t m e n t of S o c i o l o g y
and A n t h r o p o l o g y

1954

ProQuest Number: 10008501

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T h e w r i t e r w i s h e s to e x p r e s s his t h a n k s to Pr. Paul A.
Miller, his m a j o r p r o f e s s o r , for the d i r e c t i o n and c r i t i c i s m s
(liven in the p r o b l e m f o r m u l a t i o n and w r i t i n g of this d i s s e r ­
tation.
His w i l l i n g n e s s to s u p e r v i s e , d u r i n g a p e r i o d w h e n
lie had m a n y o t h e r i m p o r t a n t t a sks to p e r f o r m , w a s d e e p l y
appreciated.
His i n t e r e s t in this w o r k p r o v i d e d a c o n s t a n t
so u r c e of i n s p i r a t i o n .
W i t h o u t the c o o p e r a t i o n , g u i d a n c e , and h e l p f u l c o n s i d e r a ­
tion of all m e m b e r s of the r e s e a r c h t eam of the S o c i a l S c i e n c e
R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e , of w h i c h this w r i t e r w a s a m e m b e r , this
d i s s e c t a t i o n c o uld n e v e r h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n .
Par t of a l a r g e r
study, it d e p e n d e d upon the t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k that was
s t r u c t u r e d d u r i n g the S u m m e r of 1951.
T o Pr. C h r i s t o p h e r
S o wer, w h o d i r e c t e d the I n d e p e n d e n c e Study, m a n y t h a n k s are
e x t e n d e d for his g u i d a n c e and for his s u g g e s t i o n s w h i c h w e r e
so h e l p f u l b e c a u s e of his c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w ith the p r o b l e m s
that faced the w r i t e r .
T o P r o f e s s o r K e n n e t h T i e d k e the w r i t e r
a c k n o w l e d g e s an e n o r m o u s d e b t of g r a t i t u d e for m a n y h o u r s of
patient c r i t i c i s m and a d v i c e .
f u r t h e r t h a n k s m u s t be e x t e n d e d
to P r . C h a r l e s P. L o o m i s who, as P i r e c t o r of the S o c i a l S c i e n c e
R e s e a r c h S e r v i c e , g a v e to the a u t h o r m a n y h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s
d u r i n g tne peri o d of p r o b l e m f o r m u l a t i o n .
A l s o t h a n k s are
e x t e n d e d to the H e a l t h I n f o r m a t i o n F o u n d a t i o n of New Y o r k
C i t y w h i c h p r o v i d e d the f u n d s for the I n d e p e n d e n c e Study.
To Pr. P u a n c L . G i b s o n , P r . Joe Pa n Mills, and o t h e r
m e m b e r s of the P e p a r t m e n t of S o c i o l o g y and A n t h r o p o l o g y , the
w r i t e r w a s h e s to e x p r e s s his t h a n k s for t h e i r c r i t i c i s m s

during the period of writing.
T h a n k s m u s t "be g i v e n to the p e o p l e of I n d e p e n d e n c e C o u n t y
w h o s e names h a v e b e e n f i c t i o n a l i z e d as well as t h o s e of t h e i r
c o u n t y and the p l a c e s they live in o r d e r to p r e s e r v e t h e i r
privacy.
T h e i r f r i e n d s h i p and c o o p e r a t i o n w h i l e the w r i t e r
r e s i d e d in I n d e p e n d e n c e C o u n t y was d e e p l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
To his w i f e and f a m ily, for the m a n y p a t i e n t y e a r s they
h a v e g i v e n that he m i g h t c o m p l e t e this work, the w r i t e r owes
m o r e than can h e r e be a c k n o w l e d g e d .
He a l s o w i s h e s to t h a n k
V.. A . W . for h is w i s d o m and a d v i c e .
T h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n owes m u c h of its o r i e n t a t i o n to the
late Pr. J o h n B. H o l l a n d w h o w a s the m a j o r p r o f e s s o r for the
w r i t e r until hi s u n t i m e l y d e a t h in 1953.
H is i n t e g r i t y and
r i g o r o u s a p p r o a c h to s o c i o l o g y will a l w a y s be r e m e m b e r e d by his
a s s o c i a t e s and f r i e n d s .
To the m e m o r y of a very f i n e s o c i o l o ­
gist, t e a cher, and f r i e n d this d i s s e r t a t i o n is d e d i c a t e d .

THE E M E R G E N C E

OF S E N T I M E N T S WI T H I N

A SOCIAL

S YS TE M

By
Walter

AN

E,

Freeman

ABSTRACT

S u b m i t t e d to the S c h o o l of G r a d u a t e S t u d i e s of M i c h i g a n
S t a t e C o l l e g e of A g r i c u l t u r e and A p p l i e d S c i e n c e
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the r e q u i r e m e n t s
for the d e g r e e of
DOCTOR

OF

PHILOSOPHY

D e p a r t m e n t of S o c i o l o g y
and A n t h r o p o l o g y

1954

Approved

ft*

Walter E . Freeman

This

study

explains

tionship

f o und

around

problem

which

a
the

activity

by

seven

of

persistence

and

manifested

that

is,

completion
Sentiments
in

was
in

the

to

symbolic

social

the

system.

cultural

patterns

system

emerged.

of

historical

the

the

sentiments
Since

by

Such

of

expressed

the

g ave

the

associated

with

structures

examined.

Themes

an

analysis

the h e a l t h

individualism

health

and

of

sentiments

the

survey.

education

system

to

an

the

of

exist.

were
existing

for

within

on
the

relevant
the

social

understanding

to

the

content

of

actors.

sentiments

of

for

of

organization

provided

support

members

terms

nature

quality

traced

on

problem

cease'to

fro m w h i c h

were

of

the

grounded

The

(the

the

of

carried

c o u nty.

solved

allowed

structured

health

relationships

society

w h icn
by

of

with.in

were

rela­

empirically

sentiments

level

of

relationships

temporary

understand
of

was

system would

actors

patterns

themes

the

the

sentiments

within

were

actors

in

the

by

analysis

These

The

problem was

better

emphasis

which

a midwestern

s u r vey)

An

on

of

the

relationships.

qualities

a self-survey

expressed

order

composed

complicated

after

of

system

orientation.

citizens

was

persistent

s o cial

system

hundred

analyzed

a

solving

social

to

system,

within

the

of

and

were

a larger
within

s o c iety,

this

society

collectivism
found

manifested

by

to

be

those

the
were

expressed

relevant
active

in

to

Organizations

such

as

the

Public

lie alt ii S e r v i c e ,

Council, Cooperative Extension Service,
Orange,- etc.

were

s i nce

members

tiiesc

organizations
It w as

pr e s s e d
but

of

treated

found

methods

and

and

with

held

by

the

by
in

Medical Society,

the

also

relevant

held
to

ones

of

ex­

purpose

disagreement
Such

content

divergent

within

actors

a commonality

tiie group.

conflicting

positions

system

of' e x t r e m e

the

structure

them.

social

displayed

manifested

and

group

indications

objectives

different

of

within, the

which

explained

part

or had' close, ties

also

frequently
were

survey

that

sentiments

ttiere w o r e

were

the

as

Health

of

orientations

sentiments

were

in

to

d i s a g r e ern e rit s

the

which

as

associated

tiie r e l e v a n t

structures.
Continuity
general

areas

to w h i c h
beliefs
tance
of

in

of

the

made

all

of

the

good

fested

intrinsic

in

the

of

be

utilized

as

"worthwhile".

relationship
fri e n d s ,

for

the

of

condition

which

*1ii 1 s "fund

relationships

and

by

sacred

in

were

marked

individual,

general

areas

of

found
by
is

in

will"
any

to

be

bonds

community.

the

may

of

found
of
It

value

as

the

be

mani­

society

segments

impor­

agreement

conceptualize
good

and

by

the

and

we

by

quality

life,

strong

the

explained

of

of

phenomenon

together

organizations,

the

defined

be

areas

prolongation
S uch

This

to

were

These

value

objectives

held

which

process.

will".

sets

appeared

adhered.

health,

good

system

commonality

educational

of

the

actors

possible

"fund

of

and

the
in

nay

society

sets

of

obligation

to

further

explains

the

condition

system
tion

of

structural

observed.

may

be

held

pre-existing

Systems

feed

to

a reshaping

the
of

a way

existed

over

a period

further

explains

ple

collective

the

programs

of d i f f e r e n t

good" who

the

remain
unity.

the

are

to

in

of

which

the

two

years

continued
found

in

of

our

joined

together

brief

for

these
and

within

death,

which

together
periods

of

of
of

provide
its

and

solu­

which
This

include
a

tine

for

structures

process

re-birth

for

the

systems

explained.

society

orientations

in

relationships

was

birth,

problem

structures

society

found

social

pervasiveness

relevant

are

the

temporary

expressed

persistence
of

within

overall

found

culture

sentiments

sucJi

action

which

total

In

many

by

relationships

Sentiments

back

oriented

together

society.

continuity

of

peo­

"common
in

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

P ACE
I N T R O D U C T I O N .................
Tiie S e l f - S u r v e y .....................................
B a s i c A s s u m p t i o n s ..................................
Tiie G e n e r a l P r o b l e m
.......
O v e r a l l S t r u c t u r e of the S y s t e m ..........
T h e S o c i a l S y s t e m ..................................
F u r t h e r M e t h o d o l o g i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s .........
Plan of A n a l y s i s ....................................
PART

I - RELEVANT

CULTURAL

1
3
6
7
19
21
21
26

PATTERNS

H I S T O R I C A L T H E M E S IN T H E R E L E V A N T C U L T U R A L
P A T T E R N S ........................
Til ernes of I n d i v i d u a l i s m and C o l l e c t i v i s m
J e f f e r s o n i a n I n d i v i d u a l i s m .......................
C o m p r o m i s e of the J e f f e r s o n i a n P o s i t i o n . . . . . .
J a c k s o n i a n D e m o c r a c y ................
f r o n t i e r Ind i v id ua 1 i sm and S e c t i o n a l i s m ......
R e s i s t a n c e to I n d i v i d u a l i s m and G r o w t h in
C o l l e c t i v i s t i c Tn i n k i n g ......................

29
32
33
33
41
49
52

EM E R C INC S E N T I M E N T S IN H E A L T H .......................
O r i g i n of M e d i c i n e .................................
C u r a t i v e M e d i c i n e ..................................
P r e v e n t i v e M e d i c i n e ................................
P u b l i c H e a l t h ........................................
S o c i a l M e d i c i n e ....................
C o m m u n i t y H o s p i t a l s ................................
H e a l t h I n s u r a n c e ....................................
S u m m a r y . . ..................................

65
65
67
75
77
05
07
00

E M E R G I N G S E N T I M E N T S IN E D U C A T I O N ...................
O r i g i n of E d u c a t i o n .......
E d u c a t i o n in A m e r i c a . ..............
R e l e v a n t E d u c a t i o n a l M o v e m e n t s ...................
T h e L y c e u m and C h a u t a u q u a M o v e m e n t s ..............
T h e L a n d - G r a n t M o v e m e n t .....................
The Co o p er a ti ve Extension S e r v i c e
S u m mar y ................................................

92
93
97
100
104

90

106
103
113

PACE

CHAPTER
PAR T

VI

II - R E L E V A N T

VII1

IX

STRUCTURES

D E S C R I P T I O N OF I N D E P E N D E N C E C O U N T Y ..................
F a r m P r o d u c t i o n ......................................
B u s i n e s s and I n d u s t r y ............. .................
P o l i t i c a l B e h a v i o r ..................................
M e d i c a l S e r v i c e s and H e a l t h .......................
S u n m a ry

119
126
129
130
134
136

T A N G E N T I A L O R G A N 1 EAT I O N S .........................
T n e C o u n t y P u b l i c i1e a 1 1 h D e p a r t m e n t . . . . ........
T h e C o u n t y H e a l t h C o u n c i l ....................
T h e C o o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e ...............
O t h e r O r g a n i z a t i o n s .................................
R e 1 a t i o n sh i p s B e t w e e n T a n g e n t i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n s
and M e m b e r s of the C o u n t y L e v e l ...........

133
140
147
133
161

PART
V II

SOCIAL

III

- TilE S O C I A L

SYSTEM

THE

CO UNTY LEV E l .........................................
C o u n t y -Level A c t o r s
.......
S u m m a r y . . ................................................................................................. .

AN

A N A L Y S I S OF S E N T I M E N T S E X P R E S S E D BY A C T O R S
ON T H E C O U N T Y L E V E L .................................
An A n a l y s i s o f S e n t i m e n t s E x p r e s s e d ...........................
Sentiments Expressed Concerning E d u c a t i o n
S e n t i m e n t s E x p r e s s e d C o n c e r n i n g H e a l t h .........
Federated Public Health In t e r e s t s
.......
Local or C o m m u n i t y H e a l t h I n t e r e s t s .............
I n d i v i d u a l P u b l i c H e a l t h I n t e r e s t s ..............
S e n t i m e n t s C l a s s i f i e d A c c o r d i n g to T y p e o[
H e a l t h I n t e r e s t ..................................
R e l a t i o n s h i p s Amo n g t h e C o u n t y L e v e l A d o r s . , ,
3 u m m a r y ..............................

THE

167

L O C A L L E V E L ..........................................
O r g a n i z a t i o n a l T y p e s . . . ............................
T h e T o w n s h i p - S c h o o l D i s t r i c t T y p e ...............
T h e A s s o c i a t i o n a l T y p e ................... .........
Tiie I n d i v i d u a l F r i end sh i p - A c q u a i n t ar. c e s h i p
T y p e .................................................
T h e U r b a n - P r e c i n c t T y p e . . . . .......................
S e n t i m e n t s of I n v o l v e m e n t ..........................
S e n t i m e n t s E x p r e s s e d in H e a l t h and E d u c a t i o n
on t h e l o c a l l e v e l ...................
S u m m a r y ..........

17
175
214

216
217
213
22 2
223
227
223
2 30
233
236
233
241
24 2
24 3
24 6
247
25 2
256
259

PAGE

CHAPTER
PART
X

XI

IV - F E E D B A C K

F E E D B A C K .................................................... 261
T n e L o c a l P i c t u r e ........ ... ............... ........
263
C o u n t y I m p l i c a t i o n s .........................
274
P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n In H e a l t h ................
276
P l a n n i n g in T e r m s ofP u b l i c H e a l t h P r o b l e m s . . . 278
S t r e n g t h e n i n g the C o u n t y H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t and
the C o u n t y H e a l t h C o u n c i l ....................... 203
S u m m a r y .................... ............................
295
SUMMARY

AND

C O N C L U S I O N S ..........................

300

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
I

II
III

• IV

V

VI
VII'

VIII

IX

X

XI

XII

XIII

PAG E
T R E N D S IN N A T I V I T Y - I N D E P E N D E N C E C O U N T Y
C O M P A R E D V; ITU S T A T E 1 0 6 0 - 1 9 5 0 ....................

121

1950

125

POPULATION,

INDEPENDENCE

C O U N T Y ................

L E V E L OF L I V I N G INDEX FOR F A R M - 0 P E L A T O U F A M I L I E S
IN I N D E P E N D E N C E C O U N T Y AS C O M P A R E D W I T H S T A T E ,
R E G I O N , AND N A T I O N .......... '.......................
TYPE

OF M A N U F A C T U R I N G
EMPLOYEE CROUPS -

I N D U S T R Y BY N U M B E R OF
I N D EP E N DE NC E COUNTY, 1947..,

120

132

C O M P A R I S O N OF T H E P R O P O R T I O N OF R E P U B L I C A N V O T E S
C A S T IN P R E S I D E N 1 I A L E L E C T I O N S FOR
I N D E P E N D E N C E C O U N T Y A N D T H E S T A T E ...............

133

MEDICAL

1950..

135

C O U N T Y A G R I C U L T U R A L A G E N T S IN I N D E P E N D E N C E C O U N T Y
F R O M T H E E S T A B L I S H M E N T OF T H E S L R V I C E TO T H E
P R E S E N T ...............................

155

S U R V E Y OF O P I N I O N S H E L D T O W A R D F A R M A G E N C I E S
CY - I N D E P E N D E N C E F A R M E R S ............................

159

R E A S O N S G I V E N FOR I N V O L V E M E N T IN T H E S U R V E Y
TIIE C O U N T Y L E V E L A C T O R S ............

22-1

FACILITIES

IN

INDEPENDENCE

COUNTY,

D.Y

S E N T I M E N T S OF I N V O L V E M E N T E X P R E S S E D BY L O C A L
L E V E L A C T O R S ...................................

255

W H A T P R O B L E M S OF C O M M U N I T Y H E A L T H DO Y O U F E E L A R E
M O S T I M P O R T A N T IN T H I S T O W N OR T O W N S H I P ? ......

257

W HO

WHO

S H O U L D S E T T H E S T A N D A R D S FOR T H E S O L U T I O N OF
T H E P R O B L E M ? ..........................................
SHOULD

BE

MOST

RESPONSIBLE

FOR

THE

PROBLEM?..

257
259

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE
I

II

PAGE
INDEPENDENCE COUNTY - FOUNDING DATES
T O W N S H I P S .....................

FOR
120

T A N G E N T I A L O R G A N I Z A T I O N S TO T H E S E L F - S U K V E Y
S Y S T E M A N D M A J O R A C T O R S ON TIIE C O U N T Y
L E V E L W HO P R O V I D E D T H I S T A N G E N C Y ..........

139

III

TYPE

I - THE

....

244

IV

TYPE

II - T H E

.................

248

V

TYPE

III t T H E I N D I V I D U A L F R I E N D S U I P - A C Q U A I N T A N C E S H I P T Y P E .................................

249

VI
V II

THE
A

FOUR

MODEL

TOWNSHIP-SCHOOL

TYPES
FOR

ASSOC IATIONAL

OF

LOCAL

RESEARCH

DISTRICT
TYPE

COMMUNITY

DESIGN

TYPE

ORGANIZATION.

........................

253
301

CHAPTER

I

INTRODUCTION

The
social

following

action

ple who,
demand
the

sharing

by

concerned

leads

to

the

join

good".

the

is

common

solution,

"common

mined

that

s t udy

The

of

health.

result

of

the

frame

of

health

of

process

a group

problems

they

which

observed;

that

during

place

years

peo­

to be

largely

t ook

the

of

believe

is

w as

of

that

reference

action

occurred

the

upon

for w h a t

referrent

The

survey,

formation

focused

together

empirical

survey

goals

with

deter­
a

self­

as

a

of

1951

and

concerned

with

the

1952.
The

problems

"rightness"
viduals
the

or

being

"wrongness"
observed.

techniques

less

presented

than

of

Nor

utilized

effective

here

by

some

are

any
is

position

there

tJiese

other

not

any

people

methods

held

by

attempt

as

more

which

the
to

indi­

view

effective

might

have

or

b een

used.
Th e
the

primary

values

were

held

concerned

is b e l i e v e d
these
brings

with

ma y

people

oriented;

and

that

people

what

concern

an

is

shared

one
by

certain
analysis

lead

to

together
provides

of

a specific

problems
of

soci a l

for

of

a system

a better

in

observing

and

group
a

analyzing

of

social
of

held

It

by

of w h a t

which

misunderstandings

who

content.

values

understanding
groupings

people

and

are

service

conflict

2

in

value

t her

for

orientation;

and

this

g o o d ” when

fundamental
The
s t udy
York
the

"common

objectives

data

for

financed
City

and

State
study,

The

original

Social

and

original

w as

the

basic

sertation

but

scope

the

problem

necessity

more

areas

as

li m i t e d .
health

cilities.

The

important

where

beliefs

held

efficacy
ter

of

to d e n y

Values

community

their

themselves

concerned

self-surveys
certain

for

that

light

the

bias

held

effect
and

within

be

of

any

all

or

the

during

the

here

not

this
dis­

is

dea l

of
with

health

fa­

considered

meaning

of

certain

observed.
related

impossible

toward

these

action

through
members

a democratic

and

their

of

the

of

guided
for

nor

be

questions

carried

benefit

communities

up by

with

that

will

of N e w

Michigan

presented

only

being

it w o u l d

values

the

problems

upon

at

needs,

wil l

on

a larger

Service

orientation

health

health

from

Research

dissertation

individuals

supported,

a positive

so l v e

not

of

sheds

the

concerning

motivated,

belief

it

The

problems,

content

by

Although

of

disagree

Foundation

design

provides

the

t a ken

Anthropology

research

toge­

orientation.

Information

by T h e

to w o r k

apparently

course,

such

of

on

continue

they

dissertation

of S o c i o l o g y

College.

people

their

the H e a l t h

carried

Department

of

this

by

why

periods

b o o t s t r a p s ” , has

of

the

a

of

is
a

society,

carry

values.

The

communities

led

wri­

which

citizens

of

of

the

activities.

by

system

members

for

program

of

to

crises
many

can

can
” pick

professionals

3

within
and

the

f i eld

stimulate

to

some

outcome

of

to

support

of

its

community

activities

"grassroots,"^
not,

of

group
the

also

cherish

a c t ion.

value

importance

a democratic

which

It w o u l d

extent,

of

and

society

action
have
be

sprung

certain

such

no

significance

interest

up

if

values

action,

be

take

strange

Although

must

to

the

did

concerning

the

will

writer's

within

the

writer

attempt
the

from

in

the

be

made

awareness

framework

of

stated.

Tin: sl:lf- s u r v l y
In
up

of

pital
wha t

the

a small

group

in C e n t r a l
could

which

winter

they

of

1951,

of

City,

the

l e a ders,

Michigan

the

to

revive

felt

be

valuable

ty.

Its

from

various

associations

who

tion

and

participated

in

1.

membership

had

had

Health

professional

be d o n e
to

county

bee n

for

and

were

their

worthwhile

composed

of

to

at

made

a hos­

of d e c i d i n g
organization
their

coun­

representatives

interested

activities

met

purpose

continue

and

Council

in

health

concerning

ac­

health.

L i t e r a t u r e on c o m m u n i t y s e l f - g e n e r a t i n g a c t i o n is a b u n ­
dant.
See: B a k e r B r o w n e l l , T he H u m a n C o m m u n i t y : Its
P h i l o s o p h y and P r a c t i c e for
T ime of C r i s i s , N e w York:
Harper
G B r o t h e r s , 1950; J a m e s D a h i r t C o m m u n i t i e s for
Better
L i v i n g . N e w York: H a r p e r G B r o t h e r s , 1950;
W a y l a n d J. H a y e s and A n t h o n y N e t boy, T h e S m a l l C o m m u n i t y L o o k s A h e a d . N e w York: H a r c o u r t B r a c e G C o m p a n y ,
1947; Lari H i tch, R e b u i l d i n g R u r a l A m e r i c a . N e w York:
Harper
G B r o t h e r s , 1950; C h a r l e s P. M c C o r m i c k , T h e P o w e r
of the
P e o p l e . N e w York: H a r p e r G B r o t h e r s , 1950;
J ean
C a r t e r and J e s s O g d e n , T h e s e T h i n g s W e T r i e d . C h a r l o t t e s ­
ville: U n i v e r s i t y of V i r g i n i a e x t e n s i o n , 1947; R i c h a r d
VJaverly P o s t o n , Sma 1 1 T o w n R e n a i s s a n c e : A_ S t o r y of the
M o n t a n a S t u d y . N e w York: H a r p e r G B r o t h e r s , 1950; R i c h a r d
W a v e r l y Po s t o n , D e m o c r a c y I.s Y o u . N e w York: H a r p e r G
B r o t h e r s , 1953; I r win T. S a n d e r s , M a k i n g G o o d C o m m u n i t i e s
B e 1 1 e r . L e x i n g t o n : U n i v e r s i t y of K e n t u c k y Press, 1950.

4

The
in

organization
actuality

had

failed

and

wa s

ty

did

facing

value

fo rts

of

carried

on

not

advance

beyond

to g a i n

in an
lay

the

the

professionals

saw

had

members

and

this

Health

Department,

in

community

vide
the

more

groups

effective

suggestion

that

at

this

project
gain

of

might

information

course

of

health

problems.

The
health

particular

concerning
by

the

in

certain

wanted
dairy

county

to

products

procedures
mitted

county
all

were

of

more
and

f ew

coun­

the

could

and

interest

the

The

in

the

the

and

c o unty.

was

to

through

begin

to

general

of

questions

a questionnaire

professionals

who

were

he a l t h ,

the

Extension

health

the

e.g.,

concerning
of

farm

communicable

a

a new

survey

Various

within

pro­

organization,

as

a

of

Director

pursue

county

upon

to

It was

agreed

for

ef­

County

order

Department
and

the

cooperation

people.

voted

agreed

the

who

oriented

outcome.

county

Health

conditions
to

in h e a l t h

the

in

Department

mobilize

needed

incorporated

about
the

Health

the

for

people

public

pertaining

to m a n .

A

officials,

project

agencies

areas
know

ne w

throughout

health

of d i s b a n d m e n t .

groups

group

gain

for

educating

problems

the

It

area

particular,

the C o u n t y

stage.
the

unfortunate

services

planning

which

in

throughout

meeting

which

an

the

programs

groups

which

professional

considered

few m i n o r

of m a n y

of

organization

tasks,

all

interest

probability

and

a

the

interested
Office

handling

animals
diseases

in

such

trans­

of

When
upon,
be

one

taken

had

the

questionnaire

basic

problem

of m o s t

been

agreed

of

people),

a tremendous

needed.

Since

and
do

since
such

result,

the

a county
No

responsible
contacts
used
of

nity,

for

others

county

access

the

scho o l

villages
sional
no

particular

made

with

carrying
method
ily

of

give

were

was

Another

the

faced

people

methods

aid

in

le a d e r s .
to

of

to

the

it w as

their
see

peculiar

their
School

people
the

in

contact
In

in

The

contact

member

with

grou p ,
felt,

each

structure

of

commu­
Superin­

the

contacts
would
With

of

the
a

small

profes­

instances

are a

areas

was

a few

community.

were

within

group

one

some

that

limited

the d i f f e r e n t

families

known

own

of

throughout

several

person

its

might

Actually

area.

to

county

had

the

can

the

of

project

throughout

one

people

a

had

in

most

such

She

project

be

be

such

immediately

to

the

would

had

co u n t y .

the

hire

people

a hospital,

which,

educating

help

in

wa s

of

to

(this

voluntary

of N u r s e s

organization
rise

able

county

" w o r t h - w h i 1e-ness"

"known"

organization

organizations
out

of

area.

to

s i nce

voluntary

system.

o f the

people

to

county

Superintendent

of

found

the

agreed

were

interviewers

having

promotion

Some

were

by

population

the

of

and

interviews

objective

involving

was

If

available

feelings

in

throughout

of

that

of

the

c o unty.

tendent

force

solution

to g ain

the

labor

certain

of 6 4 , 0 0 0
easy

the

was

formulated

throughout

to m e e t

felt

problem

b een

faced.

people

no m o n e y

it wa s

a job

was

the

upon

had

aid

where
were
in

this
c o uld

eas­

relationships

6

It

wa s

the

fested

itself

people

sharing

organizational

in

a social

similar

activity

system.

goals

The

made

above

that

mani­

interaction

possible

the

of m a n y

following

analysis.
BASIC

ASSUMPTIONS
In

the

original

purpose

of

certain

assumptions

stated

at

further

gathering

this

point,

it w a s

a special

case

one w h i c h

is

of
(1)

acticn

may

.system.

a

be

and

zations

form

within
is

the

social

the

system.

county
In

and

systems

in

this

which

such

de-activated
the

a

of

the

a way
the
even

that

of

m ay

call

that

health

the

a

and

so­

so

as

that

problem

self-survey

social
of

organi­

system
to

or

articu­

structures
(self-survey)

social

system

tern p*o r a r y , w h i c h
framework

the

ensuing

soci a l

s o cial

the

is

mobilizes

existing

thou g h

(3)

a unique

operates

the

for

follows.

of

self-survey
a wav

be

diffused.

individuals

within

community.

shou l d

a c t i o n , namely:

authority

such

we

analysis,

problem-oriented,

system

process

group

the

foundation

self-survey

operation

actions

structure,

in

(2)

the

theory

of

that

the

This

a

future

for

assumptions

of

in

temporarily,

a social

activated

as

for

b ody

with

unit

pattern

l e ast

solved.

itself

is,
a

quasi-social
late,, at

social

structured

provide

type

assumed

as

These

that

(4)

wa s

the y

voluntary,

viewed

That

the

a general

S e c o n d . it w a s
of

made.

since

and

which

as w e l l

assumed

controlled,

resources

data
were

assumptions

First,

cially

design,

of

is

is

existing

7

Third,
which
That

are
is,

rarily
as

a

it w a s

evoked
many

and

achieve

it

the

the

ularities
and

(2)

porary

of

has

in

the

human

and

relatively

Fourth,

the

its

own

a

must

of

maintain
and

(2)

t h ese

symbolic

was

includino

this

interaction

self-survey

even

though

to

patterns

upon.

subject
all

tempo­

Thus
to

(1)

soci a l

provoked

of

by

reg­

systems,

its

tem­

auided
(1)

a

bv

set

between

the
of

the

develop

social

of

actors

necessary

beliefs,
out

of

functionally

actors

(3)

conception

of

to

sentiments

and

reinforce

interaction.

Certain
suggest
un d e r

elements

structural

analysis.

self-survey,

evoked
of

the

to

unsta_b_I_e.

character.

r e l a t i o n s hips . and

THE

the

common

between

which

behavior

evoked

stable

is

interaction

unstable

eouipment

be

called

self-survey

i n t e r d e p e n d en t r e l a t i on sh i ps
the... siiteni,

may

and

be

of

relatively

structure,

permanent

research
as

ii .sox ia_l s y s t e m

and

Nevertheless,

interaction

irregularities

patterns

relationships

county
of

the

temporary

relatively

process

of

be

that

disappear.

system

relationships
viewed,

mav

kinds

then

social

assumed

are

inherent

problems
a social

is

unique

which

is

and

PROBLEM

in

the

related

If

temporary

stability

GENERAL

to

system,

and

the

above

as

the

characteristic

soci a l

of

unstable,
of

system

is m a n i f e s t e d

patterns

relatively

assumptions

s o cial

by

behavior
the

quality

systems

will

appear

such

a condition

tems

mus t
A

in a c o n s i d e r a b l y

be

its

with

wha t

instability

considered

social

that

of

system

be

at

ma y

relationships
would

altered
is

thi s

be

form.

unique

Whether

to

all

or

not

social

sys­

time.

considered

unique

a way

in

the

sense

vary

in

such

as

to

contrast

regarded

as

relationships

of

an

"ideal**

p
social
which

system.
may

be

Nevertheless,

considered

if e s t e d

in

a society

related

to

change.

dependent
word

upon

unique

refer

to

beinn

analyzed,

cial
bv
the
It
and
be
the

meaning
implies
the

social

intended
last

system.

by

stability

the

or

understandable

regarded

by

as

values

in

our

order

is

relationship

so­

structured

important
of

to

intent.

individual

are

intended

who

make

will

of

the

actors

Sentiments

system

between

relationships

nature

it m i g h t

concept

the

the

are

The

soc ial

are

If

instability

man­

society

class

Most
the

are

programs

that

The

which

temporary.

systems

s y s tems.

a certain

systems

assumption

which

support

in

system.
as

social

nature

unstable

s o cial

a reciprocal

temporary

and

of

is.

many

programs

type

this

social

action

qualified

that

of

cultural

be

be

are

unstable

temporary

will

relationships

an

then,

a certain

systems,

where
Most

such

must,

of

there

up

the

of

these

of

the

be

treated

social

system,

relationships

sentiments

to

become

expressed

by

the

a c t ors.

s h o rtly.

2.

" I d e a l " r e f e r s here to the b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s of wha t
c o n s t i t u t e s a soci a l system. (See page 6).
Instability
of r e l a t i o n s h i p s u g g e s t s a c o n d i t i o n not c o m m o n to the
g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n of a s o c i a l system.

9

Although
as

one

the

of

the

social

a certain

general
be m a d e

tain

relations,

from

all

other

tain

its

structural

of

a system

up

of

of

which

are

relations

4

of

which

of

are

the

by

the

also

it m u s t

"human

beings,

from
3

and

and

structural

repetitious

inherent

persistence

regarded

that

universe**
The

is

systems,

differentiated
in

is

analyzed

s y s tems,

social

continuity.

There

qualities

being

social

all

entities

is m a n i f e s t e d

relationships.
structure,

class

requisites

must

system

and

.
in

is,
in

it
cer­

isolated

it m u s t

main­

continuity

nature

the

meet

of

meaning

the
of

continuity,

. . . . . s t r u c t u r e is a r e l a t i v e l y fixed r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e l e m e n t s , parts, or e n t i ­
t i e s . . . I n the i n t e r e s t s of r e a l i s m it is

3.

4.

A. R . R a d c 1 i f f e - B r o w n , T h e N a t u r e of
Theoretical Nat­
ural S c i e n c e of S o c i e t y , N o t e s on a d i s c u s s i o n in a
s e m i n a r at the U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o , 1937, C h i c a g o :
U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o B o o k s t o r e , 1940, p. 25.
See P a r s o n ' s d e f i n i t i o n of ’’b o u n d a r y m a i n t a i n i n g s y s t e m s " ,
Talcott P a r s o n s . The Social S y s t e m . Glencoe, Illinois:
T h e F r e e Press, 1951, pp. 36, 48 2-483.
C h a r l e s P. L o o m i s
in his p a per on C l e m e n t s o f S o c i a l S y s t e m s and the S t r a ten v o f C h a n g e , ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) d e f i n e s the c o n c e p t of
b o u n d a r y m a i n t e n a n c e in the P a r s o n i a n sense.
It is
a p p a r e n t that the p r o b l e m of s t r u c t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y and
p e r s i s t e n c e is i n c l u d e d w i t h i n such a d e f i n i t i o n .
" B o u n d a r y m a i n t e n a n c e , m a y be d e f i n e d as the p r o c e s s
w h e r e b y the s y s t e m r e t a i n s its i d e n t i t y and i n t e r a c t i o n
pattern; i.e., r e t a i n s its e q u i l i b r i u m i n v o l v i n g b o t h
i n t e g r a t i o n and s o l i d a r i t y .
In the study of the s t r a t e g y
of c h a n g e the p r o c e s s of b o u n d a r y m a i n t e n a n c e is e s p e c i a l l y
i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e m u c h of the r e s i s t a n c e to c h a n g e m a y be
r e l a t e d to b o u n d a r y m a i n t e n a n c e .
M e m b e r s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s
often r e l a t e w h a t a p p e a r to the o u t s i d e r as i n s i g n i f i c a n t
c h a n g e s to the s a c r e d e l e m e n t s of the system.
T h u s the
H o u s e A m i s h w o u l d not i n t r o d u c e e l e c t r i c i t y into t h e i r
h o m e s or b a r n s b e c a u s e this t h e y b e l i e v e d w o u l d d e s t r o y
t h e m as a c h o s e n t h o u g h m a r t y r e d p e o p l e . "

10

bes t to s p eak of the s t r u c t u r e of soci a l
phenomena
only w h e r e t h e r e is an i m p o r t a n t
d e g r e e of
co nt in ui ty w h er e human a ct iv it ie s
are so p a t t e r n e d ( r e c u r r e n t ) that we can
observe a group standardization persisting, ^
a l t h o u g h c h a n g i n g , o v e r a c o n s i d e r a b l e time*
A

soci a l

system

structural
If
ing

of

terms

to

the
to

s t ated
the

a condition

structure,
of

persistent,

in

that

it m a i n t a i n s

its

continuity.

such

concern
has

is

the

of

observation

relationships
a n a l y s i s of

that

the

understanding

persistence

that

the

problem
of

of

of

this

occur,

social

exists

in

the

condition,

becomes

system.^

of

mean­
in

primary

Radcliffe-Brown

p e r s i s t e n c e is

fundamental

society.

I do not b e l i e v e t h e r e is any p r o b l e m of
s o c i e t y w i t h w h i c h a s o cial s c i e n t i s t is
c o n c e r n e d that d o e s not fall into one of
t h r e e g r o u p s I h ave m e n t i o n e d :
" How are
societies classified?
H o w do they p e r s i s t ?
H o w do they c h a n g e t h e i r t y p e ? ”
T h e r e are
p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g the n a t u r e of s o c i a l s y s ­
tems w h i c h we are not d i s c u s s i n g here, but
all of them, I b e l i e v e w i l l fall u n d e r t h e s e
t h ree h e a d s .
Since

5.
6.

7.

a requisite

for

all

social

systems

is

the

maintenance

R o b i n M. W i l l i a m s , A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y , New York: A l f r e d A.
Knopf, 1951, p. 20.
W a r n e r in his d i s c u s s i o n of s o cial ch a n g e , (Lloyd W.
W a r n e r , A m e r ican L i f e . " S t u d y of C o n t e m p o r a r y S o c i e t y " ,
C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1953.) s u g g e s t s
that, " P e r h a p s the mos t i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g a b o u t the
st u d y of s o c i a l c h a n g e is the f a c t that so m u c h a t t e n ­
tion has been g i v e n to it and so l i t t l e to s o c i a l p e r ­
sistence.
W e l a r g e l y tak e for g r a n t e d that s o c i a l g r o u p s
p e r sist.
W e r a r e l y s t o p to ask w h y p e r s i s t e n c e o c c u r s
and try to d e t e r m i n e its n a t u r e . " , p. 37.
R a d c l if f e - B r o w n , jajg. c i t . . p. 47.

11

of

structural

t h eir

TATION WILL

BE C O N C E R N E D

RELATIONSHIPS
In

the

INTENDED

are

intended

it

related

to

as

suggests

that

volved

in

of

temporary,
around
the

a

go a l s

or

of

nature
ac t o r

actor

of

timents
ing

action
the

wil l

held

be

* u

the

and

■
s o c iety.

is

becomes

which

he

is

as

OF

have

Th e

It

of

in­
as

until

assumed

as

that

to w h a t

the

the

temporary

relationship

temporary

of

structured
exist

is

clear

any

become

been

as

concept

recognizes

will

aware

intent,

within

an

the

place.
made

to

behind

(1)

the

time

of

has

he

which

as

crucial

outside

through

actor

Therefore,

intent

within

DISSER­

relationships

mentioned.

is e n t i r e l y

takes

defined

THIS

QUALITY

concept

found.

recognized

that

the

is

are,

reference

within

constant

problem

is

sentiment

was

activity

activity.

into

the

individual

actor

OF

PERSISTENT

relationships

activity

relationships

beliefs

6.

such

the

regarding
of

temporary,

the

PROBLEM

structural

relationships

the

such

enters

Once

cept

not

such

of

system

to

THE

regarding

problem-solving

solution

whether

off

s i nce

TIIE

TEMPORARY.

sentiments,

intent

a set

WITH

AS

assumption

which
is

continuity,

his
to

recognition
involvement,

further

system;

social
the

(2)

system;

t o tal

of
the

analysis.

a c t o r ’s p e r c e p t i o n s

social

the
by

the

of

the
con­
Sen­
exist­

expressed

(3)

normative

beliefs
behavior

®

A l t h o u g h p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n the a c t i o n f r a m e of
the c o n c e p t of a s e n t i m e n t d e f i n e d by P a r s o n s

reference,
is

12

An

actor,

must

be

abl e

abl e

to

see

sult.

to

actor

adheres

social

to

but

of

all

system

DISSERTATION
THEY ARE
THE

and
TO

ON

symbols,
Cassirer

he is

human

of

such

system
action

and

sentiments
not

the

LEVEL.

THE
Such

behavior

is

re­

limi­
the

w h i c h the
conscious

The

collective

relationships
OF

within

a

THIS

M A N I F E S T A T I O N S , AS

SENTIMENTS,

OF

be

outside

to

PROBLEM

action,

that
as

necessarily

COLLECTIVE
OF

and

result

inside

be A F U R T H E R

BODY

of

relationships

identification.

CONTINUITY

A SYMBOLIC
since

b o d y of

SUCH
IN A

in

bot h

manifests

it will

STRUCTURAL

occur

in. such

TREAT

part

identification

which

actors

EXPRESSED

UNDERSTOOD

such

of

a particular

totality

A l s o the

limitations

identity

a

in

his

relationships

system.

provide

Ernst

identify

it w i t h i n

of

social

with

involved

Limitations

tations

THAT

if

SYSTEM

IN

SUCH A W A Y

ITSELF W I L L

a problem

is

essentially

BE

concerned
symbolic.

states,

. . . w e find
in man a t h ird link w h i c h we
m a y d e s c r i b e as the s y m b o l i c system.
This
new a c q u i s i t i o n t r a n s f o r m s the w h o l e of
h u m a n life.
As c o m p a r e d w i t h the o t h e r
a nimals man
l i v e s not
m e r e l y in ab r o a d e r
r e a l i t y ; he
lives, so
to s p eak ina new
d i m e n s i o n of r e a l i t y .
T h e r e is an u n m i s ­
takable difference between organic reactions
and h u m a n r e s p o n s e s .
In the f i r s t c a s e a
d i r e c t and i m m e d i a t e a n s w e r is g i v e n to an

p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e to the a b o v e d e f i n i t i o n .
"... c u l t u r a l l y o r g a n i z e d c a t h e c t i c a n d / o r e v a l u a t i v e
m o d e s of o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t s or
c l a s s e s of o b j e c t s .
A s e n t i m e n t thu s i n v o l v e s the in ­
t e r n a l i z a t i o n of c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s . *
P a r s o n s , op. cit.,
p. 41.
----

o u t w a r d s t i m u l u s ; in the s e c o n d c ase the
a n s w e r is d e l a y e d .
Is is i n t e r r u p t e d
and r e t a r d e d by a s l o w and c o m p l i c a t e d
p r o c e s s of t h o u g h t . . . N o l o n g e r in a m e r e ­
ly p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e , man l i ves in a s y m ­
bolic unive rs e. ^
Ernest
currence
status
tacit

Nagel

(or

t ype

which
or

symbols

has

is

of

standing

be

Thus,

collective

symbolic.

studied

for

The

total
are
have

the

been

of

the

As

or r u l e s

which

give

around

society

purpose

man

understood

in

belief

terms

for
of

to

better
stated,

in
of

under­
it

is

this

understandable.^
as

carry.
human

systems
this

oc­

by w ay

sentiments

sentiments

they

"any

u s a g e " , ^ Such

defined
of

meaning

else

of

has

more

meaning

and

of

being

linguistic

something

manifestations
of

as

usually

Cassirer

makes

content

a

symbol

manifestations

clustered

culture

better

that

Such

symbols

frequently

for

behavior.

universe"

are

signify

conventions

"symbolic
the

to

examined

human

the

occurrence),

taken

explicit
may

defined

be

12

activity

f o und

reason

the w h o l e

will

within

when

from

are
the

examined

which

t hey

abstracted.
. . . t h e s y m b o l is in fact a sort of a w h o l e ,
a c o m p o n e n t of a f i e l d w h i c h a l s o c o n t a i n s
the s o - c a l l e d t h i n g , as wel l as the p r o c e s s

9.
10.

11.
12.

E r n s t C a s s i r e r , An E s s a y on M a n . N e w H a ven: Y a l e U n i v e r ­
sity Press, 1944, pp. 24-25.
E r n e s t N a g e l , " S y m b o l i s m and S c i e n c e " , T h i r t e e n t h S y m ­
p o s i u m of the C o n f e r e n c e On S c i e n c e , P h i l o s o p h y , and
R e l i g i o n , S y m b o l s and V a l u e s : An I n i t i a l S t u d y , edit.,
L y m a n B r y s o n , jj_t. ja_l. , N e w York: H a r p e r 6 B r o t h e r s ,
1954, p. 44,
C a s s i r e r , op. c i t .. p. 32.
F o r an e m p h a s i s on t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , see:
C.K. O g d e n and I.A. R i c h a r d , T h e M e a n i n g of M e a n i n g .
N e w York: H a r c o u r t , B r a c e , & C o . , 1946.

of s y m b o l i z i n g , and the a p p r e h e n d i n g
individual.
In this view, the c o n c e p t
of the symbol is c l o s e to the o r i g i n a l
m e a n i n g of the w o r d in G r e e k .
The sym­
b o l . the b r o k e n off part of the coin
g i v e n to the p a r t i n g f r i e n d , is not a
s e p a r a t e e l e m e n t , but c a r r i e s w i t h it
w h e r e e v e r it g o e s the w h o l e coin in
w h i c h it has p a r t i c i p a t e d , as wel l as
the s i t u a t i o n of h o s p i t a l i t y d u r i n g
w h i c h the c oin w a s b r o k e n in half, and
w h e n it is f i n a l l y m a t c h e d w i t h the r e ­
m a i n i n g half, the w h o l e has v a l u e b e ­
c a u s e the s y m b o l has c o n v e y e d - not c r e ­
ated or e v o k e d - this v a lue.
According
to the v i e w p r e s e n t e d here, s y m b o l s are
a part of the p r o c e s s w h e r e b y the e x p e r ­
i e n c e d w o r l d , the w o r l d of p e r c e p t i o n
and c o n c e p t is c r e a t e d out of the w o r l d
of p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y , the so c a l l e d given,
the u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d mass, or e n e r g y or
set of r e l a t i o n s . 13
If

symbols

standing
which
that

must

they
such

source,
or

are

to
be

have

been

found

in

taken.

in

the

concerning

systems

explain,

sentiments

viewed

gained

beliefs

nor

be

It

do

not

a causal

within

above
the

must

be

sense,

belief
made

necessarily
sense,

all

some

under­

systems
clear,

from

however,

represent
other

the

beliefs

them.

T h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e r e m u s t be some f u n d a ­
m e n t a l b e l i e f f r o m w h i c h all o t h e r b e l i e f s ,
so to speak, hang, a b e l i e f w h i c h s u p p o r t s
all o t h e r s but i t s e l f n e e d s no s u p p o r t , is
a p l a u s i b l e error.
O n c e we i n s i s t u p o n r e ­
d u c i n g the s i t u a t i o n w h i c h e v o k e s the " f u n ­
d a m e n t a l d e c i s i o n " to its c o n c r e t e e l e m e n t s ,
the d e c i s i o n t u r n s out to be a " c o n c l u s i o n , "
and l i k e all c o n c l u s i o n s d e p e n d s upon s o m e ­
t h i n g else.
T h e b o g e y of an i n f i n i t e r e g r e s s
is laid w h e n we r e a l i z e that a l t h o u g h one

13.

D o r o t h y D. Lee, " S y m b o l i z a t i o n and V a l u e " , C o n f e r e n c e
on S c i e n c e , P h i l o s o p h y , and R e l i g i o n , jjj). c i t . . pp. 73-

p r o b l e m a l w a y s i n v o l v e s o t h ers, it d o e s
not i n v o l v e all p r o b l e m s , and that it
is p o s s i b l e to s e t t l e p r o b l e m s e v e n w h e n
the a n s w e r s s u g g e s t new p r o b l e m s . 14
This

dissertation,

which

apply

social
the

^symbolic

the

plaining

ting

f o cus

purpose

the

sentiments

F or

this

t em

to

of

found,

an

the

systems

by

will

be

actors

as

to

as

of

the

to

be

s o cial

make

same,

found

in w h i c h
relevant

and

one

of

ex­

made

In

shif­

remembered

the

within

to

that

meaningful

social

the

on

within

system

more

a

meaning

temporary.
be

symbols

within

expressed

within

themes

society,

selected

a

it m u s t
is

salient

existing

remains

of

the

actors

question

continues

intended

with

by

sentiments

analysis

certain

the

qualities

expressed

of

expressed

problem

belief

such

reason

pattern

is

to

The

concerned

referrent

relationships

the

tural

related

be

pursues

the

persistent

social
the

it

level**,

itself.

the

will

sentiments

While

remain

system

of

the

system.

symbols

up

to

then,

syste m.
the

social

the

15

cul­
sys­

problem

16
at

14.
15.

16.

hand.

Although

such

themes

must

be

expressed

in

the

S i d n e y Hook, R e a s o n . S o c i a l M y t h s , and D e m o c r a c y . N e w
York: N e w Y o r k H u m a n i t i e s Press, 1950, p. 7.
It wil l be n e c e s s a r y , u l t i m a t e l y , to d r o p the l e v e l
of
a b s t r a c t i o n to tha t of the social s y s t e m and the a c t o r s
found w i t h i n it.
B e c a u s e of the i m p o r t a n c e g i v e n to the
s y m b o l i c l e vel in this a n a l y s i s and the i n t e r e s t in the
c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s w h i c h p r o v i d e m e a n i n g for b e l i e f s y s ­
tems, the f i r s t part of the d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l be d e v o t e d
to this level of a b s t r a c t i o n .
T o the e x t e n t that such t h e m e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d as r e l ­
e v a n t a f t e r d a t a had b e e n c o l l e c t e d , s ome d e f e n s e of
post f a c t u m w e a k n e s s be made.
T h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e m e s
w a s b a s e d upon a c c u m u l a t e d d a ta, but a l s o upon a g r o w i n g
o p e r a t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e of t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e w h i l e the r e ­
search progressed.
R a t h e r than b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y post

16

immediate
the

context

problem

Since

the

observed,

of

the

upon

tion.

f o und
It

is

historical
of

the

the

felt

that
better

be

trends

the

cultural

expression
F or

It

is

this

a basic

symbolic

emergence

of

such

of

emergence

symbols
ment

a s o cial
relevant

process

of

the

the

that

always

meaning
by

which

upon

action
expressed

correspond

by

the

found

Val­

to

latency

attached

to

with

the
of

the

ac­

sentiments

exploring

preceding

a 1 1 ow

the

for

immedi­

sentiment.
of

of

dissertation

this

within
the

is

met.

occurred.

concept

t he

emergence

body

of

understanding

system

more

found,

sentiments

or b e l i e f s

or

the

system
to

the

action

responsible

makes

is b a s e d

caused

patterns

the

symbol s. w i t h i n
also

be

often

without
is

must

understood

carried

that

perspective

not

latent

assumption

limited

of

is

do

a belief

reason

meaning

seriously

by w h i c h

of

are

within

values

can

ate

they

particular

This

within

in w h i c h

sentiments

found

expressed
in

culture

symbolically

observed.

meaning

the

meaning

expressed

action

the

analysis

is d e p e n d e n t
ues

of

for

the

self-survey

individual

actor

that

the

sentiments
of

The

understandable
It

introduced.

the

is

that
more

the
the

makes

is

process

particular

itself.

fo r m e d .

is

content

analysis
very

process

emergence
the

of

involve­

understandable.

A b e h a v i o r as an e m e r g e n t , m e a n s that it
must n e c e s s a r i l y , a s a res ul ta nt integration,
c o m e out of o t h e r r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r s a l r e a d y

factum, t h e y led to the f i n a l d e c i s i o n on the part of
the w r i t e r t h a t an a n a l y s i s of s e n t i m e n t s e x p r e s s e d
w i t h i n a s o c i a l s y s t e m m i g h t b e t t e r e x p l a i n its s t r u c ­
tu r a l c o n t i n u i t y .

17

e s t a b l i s h e d . . . A b e h a v i o r a p p e a r s or o c ­
curs in ac t i o n , as a c t i o n , b e c a u s e life
is a c o n t i n u o u s proce s s , and b e c a u s e of
the r e l a t i v e s t a b l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of
s y m b o l s w h i c h d i r e c t and c o n t r o l the
p r o c e s s of l i v i n g in a g i v e n so c i e t y .
E v e r y act e m e r g e s as part of a c o n f i g u ­
r a t i o n w h i c h has i t s e l f e m e r g e d out of
p r e v i o u s act s in s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s . ^
The
to

concept
the

ticular

icisms

the

method

certain
ence

t e rms
basic

and

the

of

all

the

is

one

of

created
problem

which

have

in w h i c h

which

historical

in

this

selection

arise

torical

of

themes

society

In

taken

emergence

analysis

historical

the

of

are

upon

part

the

position

of
of

scientific

of

the

the

allows
the
is

for

a

growth

themes
the

writer

the

that

study

of

the

par­

of

some

basic

is

of

t his

with

philosophy
method.

of
his­

a position

carries

the

crit­

consideration

acceptance

historical
writer

new d i m e n s i o n

found.

which

regarding

the

entirely

to

general

methodology

assumptions
meaning

system

fundamental
The

his

to

historical

method.

of

and

led

the

of

an

it

of

It. is

historical

sci­
first
method

i n q uiry.

M o r e g e n e r a l l y t h e r e a p p e a r s to be no
good r e a s o n for the c l a i m i n g that g e n e ­
ral p a t t e r n of e x p l a n a t i o n s in h i s t o r i ­
cal in q u i r y , or the l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e of
the c o n c e p t u a l t o o l s e m p l o y e d in it,
d i f f e r s f r o m t h e s e e n c o u n t e r e d in the
g e n e r a l i z i n g and the n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s .
T h e e x p l a n a t o r y p r e m i s e s in h i s t o r y , as

17.

W a l t e r Coutu,
A. K n o p f Co.,

Erne roe n t H u m a n
1919, p. 25.

N a t u r e , New

York:

Alfred

18

in the n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , i n c l u d e a n u m ­
ber of i m p l i c i t l y ( t h o u g h u s u a l l y i n c o m ­
pletely) formulated singular statements
of i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n .
Furthermore
or

relevant

ed

as

the

themes

a weakness

selection

in

or

of

historical

lack

of

particularly
analysis

significant

will

not

be

view­

objectivity.

It is a p l a t i t u d e that r e s e a r c h in h i s ­
tor y as in, o t h e r a r e a s of s c i e n c e . s e ­
l e c t s and a b s t r a c t s f r o m the c o n c r e t e
o c c u r r e n c e s st u d i e d , and that h o w e v e r
d e t a i l e d a h i s t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e m ay be
it is n e v e r an e x h a u s t i v e a c c o u n t of
w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d - - t h e r e is no
pr i m a f a c i e r e a s o n to b e l i e v e that, b e ­
c a u s e t h e r e are c a u s a l d e t e r m i n a n t s for
his c h o i c e , a h i s t o r i a n is in p r i n c i p l e
p r e c 1 u d e d - - a n y m o r e tha n is a n a t u r a l
s c i e n t i s t - - f r o m r e n d e r i n g an a d e q u a t e
a c c o u n t of the s u b j e c t s he is i n v e s t ilo
g a t i n g . A7
One
the

last

position

historical

method

causality

in

of

conditions

causal

that

that
is

historical

historical

is

must

that

be

taken

in

the

light

of

of d e t e r m i n i n g

the

point

of

reconstruction.

Such

often

on

causality

can

criticized
never

be

a selection

the

grounds

exhausted.

The o bj ec ti on under d i s c u s s i o n also rests
on a n o t h e r m i s c o n c e p t i o n ; it in e f f e c t
a s s u m e s that s i n c e e v e r y c a u s a l c o n d i t i o n
for an e v e n t has its own c a u s a l c o n d i t i o n ,
the e v e n t is n e v e r p r o p e r l y e x p l a i n e d u n ­
less the e n t i r e r e g r e s s i v e s e r i e s of the
l a t t e r c o n d i t i o n s are a l s o e x p l a i n e d .
But
is t h e r e any v i o l e n c e to the t r u t h ?
Is B

18.

19.

H r n e s t N a g e l , H e r b e r t F e i g l , and M ay B r o d b e c k , " T h e
L o g i c of H i s t o r i c a l A n a l y s i s " , R e a d i n g s in the P h i l o _s_o_phy of S c i e n c e . N e w York; N e w A p p l e t o n C e n t u r y
C r o f t s , Inc., 1953, p. 690.
I b i d . . p. 691.

19

not a c a u s e of A s i m p l y b e c a u s e C is a
c a u s e of B ?
W h e n seme f u t u r e p o s i t i o n
of a p l a n e t is p r e d i c t e d w i t h the h e l p
of g r a v i t a t i o n a l t h e o r y and i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t the i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n of the s o lar
s y s t e m at some g i v e n time, is t h e r e
g r o u n d for s k e p t i c i s m s i m p l y b e c a u s e the
a s s u m e d i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s are in turn
the o u t c o m e of p r e v i o u s o n e s ?
The suppo­
s i t i o n that, w h e n a p r o b l e m is m a d e d e f ­
inite a r e g r e s s i v e c h a i n of a n s w e r s mus t
be s o u g h t if an)’ one a n s w e r is to be o b ­
j e c t i v e l y w a r r a n t e d , is p a t e n t l y s e l f ­
contradictory.
On the o t h e r hand, the
fact that one p r o b l e m m ay s u g g e s t a n o t h e r ,
and so lead to a p o s s i b l y e n d l e s s s e r i e s
of new i n q u i r i e s , si m p i y s u g g e s t s the p r o ­
g r e s s i v e c h a r a c t e r of the s c i e n t i f i c
e n t e r p r i s e ; that fact is no s u p p o r t for
the c l a i m that u n l e s s the s e r i e s is t e r m ­
inated, e v e r y p r o p o s e d s o l u t i o n to a g i v e n
p r o b l e m is n e c e s s a r i l y a m u t i l a t i o n of the
t r u t h . 20
OVERALL,

STRUCTURE

It
which
tem,

has

are
may

been

be

By

part

of

the

environment
which

the

20.

of

the

but

social

not

category

Nagel,

body

op.

less

of

the

of

c i t . . p.

the

what

within
the

t o tal

691.

is

found

area

system

of

part

of

may

environment*

actors,

the
to

sys­

the
the

interest
what

its

saliency

system

by

within

between

When
the

outside

relevant

distinction

distinct.

within
the

whenever

sentiments

and

expressed

expressed

relationships

sal iency,

system

becomes
is

of

sentiments

salient

also

relationships

residual

SYSTEM
that

introducing

expanded,

by

stated

considered

been

that

THE

representative

understanding
system.

OF

or

fall

has

is

total,
is

ignored,

explained
into

Once

a

interested

20

in

salient

and

the

such

considerations,

outside

environment

a division

analysis
roles

in

is

the

within

have

Such

sentiments

rcles

of

total

analysis.

Not

actor

important,

since

but

normative

society)
tors
of

are

with

general

conscious
within
o u ter
end,
to

or

the

not

they

the

an

pla y

of

outside

are

playing

part

relevant

important,

since

they

the

society.
expressed
part

This

in

latter

is d i f f i c u l t

by

the

to

actor

sentiments

distinction
pursue

total

body

of

sentiments

distinction

mus t

be

made,

to

to

the

the

(total
the

senti­

may
he

play

would

be

a

expresses

concerning
any

ac­

collections

collective

the

the

by

provide

themselves

These

to

sentiments,

environment

in

outer

in

played

outer

are

the

nature

the

which

dynamic

important

roles

system

Although

in

the

important

system,

the

a more

actors

to

are

provide

within

unconscious

environment

the

for

all

parts

they

between

relevancy.

allows

play

a re

always

system.

since

o nly

values

within

although

will

of

since

when

within

equally

sentiments

ments

which

themes

it

itself,

roles,

actors

one

significant

evoke

the

distinction

is

arbitrary,

system

it

environment.

the

the

definite
impossible

exhaust.
The

terior

to

to

s y s tem,

the

system.

or

outside
and

the

what

system,
is

then,

what

part, of

the

is

as

to w h a t

salient

analysis

or

is

ex­

relevant

within

the

21

THE

SOCIAL
The

me n t s .

SYSTEM

system
These

sense,

and

the

action

who

were

of

segments

in

organization
survey

in

of

calls
with

survey

interviewing)

for

less

a focus

one

tured
but

the

of

for

rather

in

major

actors

Methodological

purpose

those
with

These

analysis

problem

experimentation.
the

of

the

certain

of

natural

In
or

of w h i c h

respect

standpoint

elements

lend

former

w ill

the

recruiting

elements
The

those

be

it

them­
segment

studied

is

composed.

Considerations

faces

problem

providing

"how".

of

were

segment.

distinct

and

which

The

and

with

the

process

of

archi­

who

did

Level"

from

generalization.

methodological

concerned

included

"Local

the

observed.

breakdown

u pon

In

interviewing,

and

actors

who

be

level

relationships

those

analyzed

analysis

their

to

actors

early

(i.e.,

can

to

the

help

"Local

were

the

local

the

the

Thus

Those

within

primarily.

found.
on

seg­

operational

of

will

be

an

respect

were

relationships
Level"

distinct

to w i t h

to

segment.

the

Further

not

respect

executing

in

survey
who

recruiting

doing

Th e

the

the

organization

selves

Level"

were

those

in

some

derived

with

organization,
and

idea,

"County

house-to-house

help

or

into

referred

involved

concerned

of

be

primarily

more

The

wil-l

been

they

the

t h eir

h ave

in w h i c h

up the

to

separated

process

make

active

been

therefore

county-wide
tects

has

this
life

this

has

not

answers

of

sense

such

history

of

study

is

been

struc­

a "why"

nature

a
a

study
social

is
s y stem.

22

It
of

is

analysis

processes
tural
out
an

the

which

within

for

the

by

but

insight

of

that

into

the

symbolic

how

symbols

affected
By

an

by

the

tion

and

takes,

in w h i c h

the

problem

problems

formulated

arise

out

that

of,

of

George
B r ace,

and

of

within

s t udy

suggests

sense
is,
to

this

” the
be

observation.”

C. H o m a n s , T h e
and C o . , 1950,

was

s t eps

the

general

is

However,

only

one

m ay

gain

with

and

with

are

em e r g e .
one

It

is

is

able

system,

upon

the

the

the
ac­

society

apparent

equally

that

important

problems

are

chapters.

concerned
a re

specific,
the

not

the

direction

theories
by,

is

concerned

Such

subsequent

which

is

manner

has

other

by

It

a s o cial

nature.

study

is

they

of

struc­

concerned

affect

identity.

supported
21

is

action

its

the

spelled

It

it,

gains

in

area

this

formation

soci a l

its

action

in

steps

explains

utilized

which

in w h i c h

substantive

the

investigation

social

such

of

undertaken.

method

analysis

the

treated

a certain

method,

matters

21.

and

is

provide

logical

action.

system

effect

this

a more

in

actors

the

the

research

the

action
of

of

the

the

social

treat

problem

system

means

of

total

approaching

of

cas e

this

of

system which

that

to

examination

revealing

manifested

orientation

In

of

a rea

an

general

writer
by

dissertation

for

social

level

analytically

the

The

the

the

this

a soci a l

purpose

analysis

method

of

allow

continuity.

supposed

to

task

level

Human G r o u p . New
p. 16.

with
shown

the
to

detailed
of

York:

abstraction

Harcourt,

23

utilized

in

sis

being

from

cas e

study

social

this

of

system

relationships
this

sense

over

a period

The

field

dissertation

confined
a social
is

not

which

the

an

are

three

be

method

of

alone.

impossible

unit.

The

observable,

was

years

the

perspective

observable

method

observer's

this

system would

occur

case
of

to

prevents

An

Data

action

the

f i eld

observer

activities

ma y

be d e s c r i b e d

the

and

and

were

by

actual

since

however,

utilized.

analy­

in

collected
technique.

as:

"he a t t e n d e d all c o u n t y m e e t i n g s d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d to the survey.
lie s a m p l e d a v a ­
r i e t y of local m e e t i n g s d e d i c a t e d to the
same p r o j e c t .
All m a j o r a c t o r s in the
s u r v e y w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d by him.
Likewise,
he o b t a i n e d m e m b e r s h i p l i s t s of o r g a n i z a ­
ti ons w h i c h p a r t i c i p a t e d in the survey,
kept f i e l d r e c o r d s on o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n ­
cerning general community activities, d e ­
t e r m i n e d m a j o r e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s of
i m p o r t a n c e to the survey, o b s e r v e d the
a c t i o n s of m a j o r s u r v e y p a r t i c i p a n t s as a
c h e c k on the v a l i d i t y of the i n t e r v i e w s ,
and d e v e l o p e d a c h r o n o l o g i c a l list of
e v e n t s w h i c h s e r v e d to d e l i n e a t e the f l o w
of the a c t i o n p r o c e s s . " 2 2
In

addition

to

the
used

above

interview

was

sertation

constituted

asked,

such

of

analysis

22.

the

and

method

although
only

information

data

the

a small

gained

in C h a p t e r

of

IX,

by

collection

data

used

portion
this

"The

of

method

Local

in
the

a formal

this

dis­

questions

provides

all

Level."

T h e a b o v e d e s c r i p t i o n has b e e n a b s t r a c t e d f r o m the
l a r g e r s t u d y w h i c h is to be f o u n d in a m a n u s c r i p t to
to be p u b l i s h e d by the F r e e Press, G l e n c o e , I l l i n o i s .
( C h r i s t o p h e r S o w e r , J. H o l l a n d , K. T i e d k e , and
K . F r e e m a n , P a t t e r n s of C o m m u n i t v I n v o l v e m e n t , p . 17.

24

The
an

historical

analysis

society.

of

the

Such

method

was

cultural

a method

utilized

themes

was

.

of

order

belief

complemented

s ocio-anthropo1o g ica1 techniques

sis,

and

in

by

field

to

provide

systems

the

use

method

in

of

and

analy-

23
No

attempt

method

against

ed

both

for

analysis.
category
search

analysis
Also

made

large

the

the
of

is

this

one

the m e t h o d s

the

but

sciences

sort

to d e f e n d

non-quantitative

of

qualitative

some

that

and

share

soci a l

here

Actually

quantitative

of

much

be

another.

The

in

w ill

is

considered

analysis

to

the

an

utilized
or

unfortunate

non-quantified

into

that

upon

call­

qualitative

falls

extent

is d e p e n d e n t

particular

the

all

re­

qualitative

use

of

terms.

data

is

not

24
necessarily
beer,

n o n - q u a n t i f i a b 1e .

reached

method
t a ken

from

used.
from

The

the

the

nature

greater

field

of

The

choice

the

problem

portion

observer's

of

daily

the

of

analysis

and,the

data

notes.

used

has

field
h ere

Whatever

w as
the

25
admitted
vided

weaknesses

a rich

involvement

23.

24 .
25.

store
and

in
of

objectivity,
qualitative

participation

in

the

data

information
action

itself

pro­

concerning

programs.

It w as

J o h n D. H o l l a n d ,
"The U t i l i t y of S o c i a l A n t h r o p o l o g y
as an A d j u n c t of a S o c i a l Survey,** I n t e r n a t ional
J o u r n a l of O p i n i o n and A t t i t u d e R e s e a r c h . 5, 1 9 5 1 - 5 2 .
M'a tie J a h o d a , e t . ja_l . , R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s i n S o c i a l
R e l a t i o n s . N e w York: D r y d e n Press, P a r t 1, p. 295.
See: H e l e n Peak,
**P r o b l e m s of O b j e c t i v e O b s e r v a t i o n " ,
L. F e s t i n g e r and P. Katz, R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s i n the
B e h a v i oral Sc i e n c e s . N e w York: D r y d e n Press, 1953.

evident
such

to

data

sented

the w r i t e r
would

above.

expressed

lead
The

by

that
to

an

analysis

represents

the

analysis

of

employed

the
of

content

field

of

analysis

same
in

of

point

major

analysis

differ,
of

should

which

because

interest^

degree

studies

than

content,

portion

communications.

communication

greater

of

will

It

is

the

in
of

not

be d o n e

the

problem

pre­

belief

a social

action

this
be

w o rk.

The

confused

with

in

not

that

growth

of

of

grown

emphasized

content

content

in a c t u a l i t y

but
has

has

the

of

participating

pro g r a m ,

type

of

a clarification

individuals

content

analysis

importance
such

they
of

in

methods

contain

content

the

analysis

quantification

to

here.

To be sure, m o d e r n c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s has
a d d e d a new f e a t u r e to the e x p l o i t a t i o n
of c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e n t for r e s e a r c h
p u r p o s e s na m e l y , the d e v e l o p m e n t of e l a b ­
o r a t e t e c h n i q u e s for q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of
the m a t e r i a l .
Indeed, in r e c e n t m e t h o d o ­
l o g i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s q u a n t i f i c a t i o n is, as
a rule, r e g a r d e d as a n e c e s s a r y e l e m e n t in
c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s . 27
T he

strength

of

the

assumption

the
that

analytical

method

a qualitative

used

emphasis

is g r o u n d e d
is n e c e s s a r y .

T h e e m p h a s i s on q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s has,
of c o u r s e , a d v a n c e d the s t udy of c o m m u ­
n i c a t i o n c o n t e n t c o n s i d e r a b l y by a d d i n g
p r e c i s i o n to i n s i g h t .
Yet - and this is
the o t h e r side of the coin - c o n c e r n w i t h
q u a n t i f i c a t i o n has b e c o m e so d o m i n a n t
that it o f t e n o v e r s h a d o w s c o n c e r n w i t h the

26.
27.

Jahoda,
Ibid.

^ejt. jJ,. ,

jjj}.

c i t . . p.

236.

the

on

a

26

p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
data.
D e f i n i t i o n s of c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s
tend to e m p h a s i z e the p r o c e d u r e of
a n a l y s i s r a t h e r than the c h a r a c t e r of
the d a t a a v a i l a b l e in r e c o r d e d c o m m u ­
nications.
In' a d d i t i o n , they imply a
s o m e w h a t a r b i t r a r y l i m i t a t i o n of the
field by e x c l u d i n g f r o m it all n o n - q u a n ­
t i f i e d s t a t e m e n t s . 26
To

this

extent

qualitative

the

following

analysis

of

tive

been

analysis

which

was

s o cial
for

has

manifested

in a

set

of

which

h ave

ter

and

which

the

analysis.
Part

I will

will

delineate
for

pinge

upon

which

sentiments

28.

relevant

social

of

logical

a

III

236-237.

II,

and

and

action

compartments
in

the

this

chap­

content

III,

IV.

historical

the

within

IV d e s c r i b e
III

these

is d e v o t e d

This

which

that

content
the

of

Chapter

themes

sentiments

provide

a

the

Patterns.

and

as

structured

Cultural

actors

Chapter

program

defined

be

discussed

emerging

by

will

on w i t h i n

salient

system

sentiments.

I b i d . , pp.

in

Kelevant

the

expressed

Chapters

to

a descrip­

social

chapters

Chapters
or

a

is

relationships

elaborated

with

of

partially

called

analysis

the

analyzed.

bee n

relevant

allow

and

an

following

be

be

is c o n c e r n e d

of

segmenting

will

part

be

dissertation

history

purpose

concepts

this

life

The

oriented

ANALYSIS

the

system.

the

stated,

of

is

content.

PLA N O F

As

analysis

im­
by

system

can

emerging
to

the

II

27

relevant

sentiments

the

system

the

relevant

come
of

tures

II

major

and

are

social

of

of

the

IV

These

preceding

with

Kelevant
setting

within

describes

sentiments

historical

Independence

in

place
a

and

social

the

be­

themes

These

struc­

social

system

Chapter

V describes

County,

the

in w h i c h
system

the T a n g e n t i a l
of

Structures.
in w h i c h

identity.

took

structures

county

the

for

occurred.

the

in w h i c h

relationships

Organizations

references

the

Chapter

which

actors

in

VI

provide

the

system.
III

provides

Chapter

is

for

concerned
a

parts

actors.

within

- The

sentiments
local
an

it,

Chapter

in

analysis

is

of

County

the

the

the

L e vel

of

and

Level,

concerned

with

VII.

Local

into
L e vel.

relationships

expressed
an

itself.

system

the

the

by

analysis

Chapter

organizational

sentiments

System

social

sentiments

in C h a p t e r

terms
of

the S o c i a l

the C o u n t y
and

VIII

described
level

with

segmentation

VII.describes

of a c t o r s

vides

expressed

Chapter

education.

the

its

action

two d i s t i n c t

the

while

of

social

manifested

Part
It

the

gains

concerned

further

terms

become

system.

structures

social

that

in

which

observed,

reveals

provide

emerges

health

sentiments

cultural

Part

is

action

expressed

the

the

of

of

IX

units

expressed

these
of

the

describes
and

pro­

within

such

uni ts.
Part

IV

is

concerned

consequences

of

the

s o cial

with

Feedback

action

and

or

the

empirical

sentiments

expressed.

28

Chapter X i n c l u d e s
so cial

action

feedback

Chapter
the

total

program

process

the R e l e v a n t

a description

that

of

the

within

the

county

occurs

between

known
and

effect

suggests

the S o c i a l

of

the

the

System

and

Structure.
XI

provides

analytical

conclusions

design

in

the

and

an

assessment

light

of

future

of

research.

PART

RELEVANT

I

CULTURAL

PATTERNS

CHAPTER

vant

H I S T O R I C A L T H E M E S IN T H E
CULT URAL PATTERNS

RELEVANT

Before

examining

themes

to

problem

the

concerning

the

since

I will

Part

become

by

s t udy

meaning

the

terms

The
in

once

again

for

the

ships
the

the

of

’’c u l t u r a l

The

of

use

of

intent

by

and

of

the

has

treatment

social
within

and

necessary,

patterns

"culture”

that

it

Parsons,

Talcott,

as
in

they
the

meaning.

is

qualified

It
of

symbolic
system
the

b een

discussed

s h ould

culture

to

be m a d e

some

serves

as

a focus

manifestations

of

relation­

which

provides

meaning

system.

c i t ..

ex­

clear

On b o t h levels, h o w e v e r , v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s
of the s i t u a t i o n c o m e to have s p e cial
" m e a n i n g " for ego as " s i g n s " or " s y m b o l s "
w h i c h b e c o m e r e l e v a n t to the o r g a n i z a t i o n
of his e x p e c t a t i o n s y stem.
Especially
w h e r e t h e r e is social i n t e r a c t i o n , signs
and s y m b o l s a c q u i r e c o m m o n m e a n i n g s and
s e r v e as m e d i a of c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n
a c t ors.
W h e n s y m b o l i c s y s t e m s w h i c h can
m e d i t a t e hav e e m e r g e d we m ay s p e a k of the
b e g i n n i n g s of a " c u l t u r e " w h i c h b e c o m e s
part of the a c t i o n s y s t e m of the r e l e v a n t
actors.1

I.

rele­

discussion

qualified

fact

are

**p a t t e r n s " .

chapter.

the

some

such

concept

a specific

relevancy

the

the

the

which

p a t t e r n s * ’ is

to d e s c r i b e

"relevant"

that

dissertation,

attempt

preceding

within

this

carries

analysis

actors

of

historical

is d e t e r m i n e d

notion

tent

the

concept

relevant.

following
This

II

p.

5.

for

30

The

meaning

of

patterns,

usage

in

studies

of

culture,

works

of R u t h

pare

three

Benedict.

primitive

2

in
is

the
b est

Benedict,

tribes,

sense

of

their

illustrated
in

focused

by

attempting

upon

the

past
the

to

com­

configurational

3
content

of

attempted

their
to

capture

Patterns,
limited
Part

sense.

1 are

culture.

as
In

largely

the

used

Using
"deist*

in

this

actuality,
concerned

patterns
of

the

study,
the

with

in

culture

are

way,

in

chapters

isolation

she

itself.

applied

following
an

this

of

a more
of

specific

4
and

relative

lection

of

areas

the

areas

criteria

provided

dominant

values:^
1.

3.

2.

3.
4.

3.

of

value
of

in A m e r i c a n

value

are

based

by R o b i n W i l l i a m s

in

Culture.
upon
the

the

The

se­

following

selection

of

U x t e n s i v e n e s s of the v a l u e in the total
a c t i v i t y of the system.
What proportion
of a p o p u l a t i o n and of its a c t i v i t i e s
m a n i f e s t the v a l u e ?
D u r a t i o n of the value.
Has it b e e n p e r ­
s i s t e n t l y i m p o r t a n t ove r a c o n s i d e r a b l e
p e r i o d of t i m e ?
I n t e n s itv w i t h w h i c h the v a l u e is s o u g h t
or m a i n t a i n e d , as shown by: e f f ort, c r u ­
cial c h o i c e s , v e r b a l a f f i r m a t i o n , and by
r e a c t i o n s to t h r e a t s to the v a l u e -- for
e x a m p l e , p r o m p t n e s s , c e r t a i n t y , and s e ­
v e r i t y of s a n c t i o n s .

R u t h B e n e d i c t , P a t t e r n s of C u l t u r e . B o s t o n :
Houghton
M i f f l i n Co., 1934 and B e n e d i c t , T h e C h r y s a n t h e m u m and
the S w o r d . B o s t o n : H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n Co., 1946.
B e n e d i c t , Pat tern s o f C u l t u r e . 1934.
A m e r i c a n C u l t u r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and m a j o r
themes d i s ­
c u s s e d l u c i d l y by B r o g a n , See: D e n i s W i l l i a m B r o g a n ,
T he A m e r i c a n C h a r a c t e r . N e w York: A l f r e d A. K n o p f C o m ­
pany, 1944, and B r o g a n , A m e r i c a n T h e m e s . N e w York:
H a r p e r & B r o t h e r s , 19 49.
W i l l i a m s , _0 £. c i t . . pp. 3 8 2 - 3 8 3 .

31

. P r e s t i g e of v a l u e c a r r i e r s - that i s f
of p e r s o n s , o b j e c t s , or o r g a n i z a t i o n s
c o n s i d e r e d to be b e a r e r s of the value.
C u l t u r e h e r o e s , for e x a m p l e , are s i g ­
n i f i c a n t i n d e x e s of v a l u e of hig h g e n ­
e r a l i t y and e s t e e m .
Instead

of

sense

that

parts

or

is m o r e
danger
in

the

a chance

such

I and

the

relevant

the

relevant

historical

cess

of d e v e l o p m e n t

selected

the A m e r i c a n
they

will

values
The

ordering

following

of

of

"system**,

bee n

chapters,

patterns
of

sentiments

Since
as

it

that

there

is

is

applied

avoided.
then,

are

concerned

which

are

f o und

society

and

provide

that

the

of

relationships

parts".^

has

in

arrangement

of '"system"

structures

carried

patterns

s t ruct ure s .

365.

be

converge

since

certain
They

described

are

that

intensity,
in

our

f o l low.

they

basic

descriptive

duration,

the

to

relevant

that

the

chapters

I b i d . . p.

themes

Culture.

have

describe

cultural

6,

a set

terminology

as

provide

extensiveness,

time.

determinate

to

usage

uses

emergent

upon

the
the

system.

been

tain

is,

the

for

have

since

Williams

"some

cultural

of m e a n i n g

The

in

to

that

confusing

Part

soc ial

refers

study,

content

"patterns",

entities,

of

within

it

than

this

with

u s ing

this

display

values

data

which

over

Chapter

sentiments

that

found

undergone

indicate

a

pro­

valuable

afid p r e s t i g e

society

chapter
the

have

particularly

specific
ar e

in

that

period

the
cer­
of

III

and

Chapter

within

the

relevant

the

relevant

emergent

in

IV,

32

IIISTOR I CAL T H E M E S
The

following

with

the

establishment

will

indicate

An

attempt

liefs

to

present
and

the
d ay

sidered
study
lack

to

will
of

be

an

to

arbitrary
analysis

will

be

concerned

point

in

time w h i c h

of

certain

the

development

they

are

found

more

particularly

of

provide

a constellation

which

hav e

time.

have

for

the

particular

be d i s c u s s e d .
of

operational

Independence

undergone

Only

beliefs.

trace

at w h i c h
and

treatment

environment

importance

logical

made

society

specified

of

beginning

p o int

themes

sentiments
of

will

relevant

These

the

historical

change

This

other

is

on

sentiments

breakdown

for

in

the

be­

in

the

immediate

County,

Michigan.

of b e l i e f s

which

the

not

such

manifested

throughout

sentiments

bearing

of

and

a period

hav e

problem

been
of

con­

this

done

to

indicate

but

to

provide

the
a

study

of

the

following

opposed

to

collective

pa 11 e r n s .

T H E M E S OF I N D I V I D U A L I S M
AN D C O L L E C T I V I S M

The

matter

of

individualism

constraint

has

long

in W e s t e r n

Civilization.

tion

of m a n ' s

with

his

desire

have

set

the

so c i a l

bee n

a matter

independence
for

stage

order
for

philosophical

as

Problems
and
and

years

his

of

struggle

focused
quest

of

political,

interpretations;

upon

for

established

and

strife

the

asser­

freedom

social

along

controls

economic,

interpretations

and
which

33

have

considered

controls

which

losophies
any
will

concern
be

wil l

tivism

not

in

in

it
be

the

Although
American

optimum
against

to

the

is

JLFFbRSONlAN

the

are

assumed

in w h i c h
sion

are

the

be

this

found.

to

of

in

freedom

in t e r e s t .

this
of

concept

relative

is

the
in

the A m e r i c a n

nor

freedom,

purpose

to

of

phi­

is

there

s i nce
the

this

individualism
cultural

from

Such

chapter,

definition

beliefs

it

culture
discus­

and

collec­

tradition.

INDIVIDUALISM
rich

with

the

philosophical

markeditself

in' m a n y

to m e e t

requirements

the

of m a n ' s

"best”

In s t e a d ,

consider

light

his

traced

actual

that

point

heritage
position

peculiar
of

ways

of L u r o p e a n
has

been

which

an infant

and

thought,

unique

have

and

has

bee n n e c e s s a r y

expanding

culture.

A m e r i c a n phil o s o p h y - if so p r e t e n t i o u s
a term may be used for t h i n g s A m e r i c a n s
b e l i e v e d in - was, like the A m e r i c a n
c h a r a c t e r , an a m a l g a m of i n h e r i t a n c e and
e x p e r i e n c e ; and if the i n h e r i t a n c e is
m o r e o b v i o u s , the e x p e r i e n c e is m o r e in­
teresting.
To c o n f e s s that the f o r m a l
c o r p u s of p h i l o s o p h y was i n h e r i t e d tells
us little, for the A m e r i c a n w a s a free
agent, and if the ter m i n h e r i t a n c e s u g ­
g e s t s a p a s s i v e role it is m i s l e a d i n g .
T h a t the D e c l a r a t i o n of I n d e p e n d e n c e w a s
a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of J o h n L o c k e ' s S e c o n d
T r e a t i s e on G o v e r n m e n t , w as w r y l y . r e m a r k ­
ed by John A d a m s and has been m o n o t o n o u s l y
r e a f f i r m e d , but it is p e r t i n e n t to o b s e r v e
that L o c k e r a t i o n a l i z e d a r e v o l u t i o n and
J e f f e r s o n i n s p i r e d one and that L o c k e is
r a t h e r b e t t e r k n o w n in the A m e r i c a n t r a n s ­
la t i o n than in the o r i g i n a l .
The important

34

i n q u i r y is w h y the A m e r i c a n took w h a t
he did f r o m the a c c u m u l a t e d s t o r e of
p h i l o s o p h y and w h a t he did w i t h w h a t
he t o o k .^
Although
imentary
which

The

one,

has

concept

sonian

in

constant

stream

beliefs

set

such
in

a set

of

were

the

of

related

the

finds

in

of

by

growth

a rather

one
of

basic

the

glorification

of

its

the

source

if

it m ay

of

that

in

be

the

agent

his

natural
his

intellect.
w as

The

hardly
for

individual

of

who

faced

whic h ,
hardly

Rights

structured,

social

mankind

was

were

Natural

men.

Beliefs

environment

freedom,

nature

other

as

belief.

this.

contemplative
all

theory

however,

restrictions

upon

freed o m .

s u r p r i s e d * that the J e f f e r ­
this m e t a p h y s i c a l a p p a r a t u s

Henry Steele Commager,
Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y Press,

Th e A m e r i c a n
1930, p. 26.

M i n d . New

the

Jeffer­

called

man

to

theme

such

individualism

a free

rud­

nation;

struggle.

accounting
to

bee n

a natural

barriers

human

has

relationship with

concerning

W e c a n n o t be
sonian found

7.

in

Jeffersonians

purpose

conditions

man

problems

to

the

hardly

accepted

tremendous

by

and

environment

insurmountable
embraced

through

treatment,

beliefs
an

philosophy

distinguished

thought

distinguishes

although

for

of

individualism

with

been

philosophical

Instead
were

has

individualism

Jefferson's
which

it

run

of

main

the A m e r i c a ^

Haven:

a d e q u a t e for his p o l i t i c a l p r o g r a m .
The
i n d i v i d u a l c l a i m s w h i c h seemed n e c e s s a r y
for m a n ’s m a s t e r y of his e n v i r o n m e n t in
J e f f e r s o n ’s day were socially innocuous;
m a n ' s s t r u g g l e w as still m o r e a g a i n s t
n a t u r e than a g a i n s t his f e l l o w m e n . ^
It
to

is

evident

conquer

tempered

men,

l a ted

to

s o cial
w as

obstacles

with

other

some

would

how

to

this

basic

ians

and
That

sophical
due
of

life

of

man

a ble

0.
9*

w as

and

that

was

to

which

the

a mark

last

the

appeal

attracted
in

his

the A m e r i c a n

more

that

such

"The

p a ths

the

d ay

t h eme

has
of

and

of

never

lost

Jefferson­

in A m e r i c a n

of

beliefs
of

if he w a s

thinkers

the

such

to
9

philo­

years

was

a basic

had

way

for

the

agriculture

and

Jeffersonian

Continent."

sophisticated

b a sic

through

to

farmer.

of A m e r i c a n

advocates.

leave

would

re­

a question

so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

representativeness

and

such

Individualism

rights"

was

faced

that

not

questions

the d i s t i n c t i o n

eventually
a way

if

freedom

r e l a t i o n s h i p with

serious

the

these

over

to

is

in m a n ' s

environment,

of m a n ' s

lead

preserved.

belief

to

history

follow

natural

It

such

"natural

frontiersman

to

it

in

thinking

and

natural

that

Jefferson

largely

his

a basic

acceptance

naivete

the

in

he was.

s h ift

individuality

such

eventually

free

pattern

abl e

that

because

increase
It

were

is

true

equally

L e o n a r d B o o r s t i n , T h e L ost W o r l d of T h o m a s
N e w York: H e n r y H olt Co., 1948, p. 196.
I b i d . , p. 242.

he

the

had
mastery

that

other

influential

Jefferson.

36

in

the

claim
in

establishment
upon

the

of

•'aristocratic

the

Distrust

the

and
by

to

formed

later

they

fisc a l

frontier

the

faith

in

insti-

viewed

to

up

of

in

the

the

states

group

that

the

ignored

agricultural

but

men

true

and

name

of

society.

patriots,

were

which

to

(This

foun­

led

to

thwart

any

group

p a r t y that

lies

on

interests

statesmen

despite

issues

those

was

Anti-Federalist.)

international

Such

evil

s o ught

founders

the

merchants
with

called

glor­

as

Jeffersonian

these

which

constitutional

and

been

ignore

a nation,

often

set

many

with

t o ward

p o l icy.

of

and

and

federated n a t i o n . ^

also

were

concerned

they

a

has

shown

Man y

tablishment
tion,

to

nature

frontiersmen

appeared

more

of

confused
and

distrust

s t rong

its

lies

akin

principles

Anti-Federalist

be

American.

!0.
11.

the

establish

not

were

was

of

thinking

the

controls,

suspicion

original

that

of

lack

grasped

against

manmade

shou l d

T he

their

pattern

tradition with

rapidly

struggle

held

efforts

American

but

position, which

European

American

un-natural,

ders

t h eir

nation,

„10

The
ified

this

a distinctive

nature

tutions.

of

the
of

whose

stability

important
t h eir
were

to

grounds

the

new

interests

and
the

realistic
dominately

a
es­
posi­
of

import.

i b i d , . p. 210.
Joh n F i s k e , T h e C r i t i c a l P e r i o d of A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y ,
Do st on: H o u g h t o n , M i f f l i n V, Co., 1691, p. 310.

°7

That
ment

of

the

Federal
his

Jefferson
founding

Convention

early

to

led

the

with

Much

the

toward

representatives

in

of

loss

line

this

individual

governments

individual

citizens.

the

a

then

written

impressions

tional
was

letter

of

Convention.

one
did

of

the

last

so w i t h

the

to

such

The

New

states

York

to

ratify

, points

fro m

the

I b i d . . p.

309.

to

various

equally
that

in

dominated

opposition

c o uld

rights.
were

be

Their

better

could

passage
of N e w
at

explains

found

protected

respect
below
York

di­

basic

w as

the
t a ken

concerning

the C o n s t i t u ­
w hy

New

the C o n s t i t u t i o n ,

reluctance.

E x c l u s i v e of our o b j e c t i o n s o r i g i n a t i n g
fro m the w a n t of power, we e n t e r t a i n e d
an o p i n i o n that a g e n e r a l g o v e r n m e n t ,
h o w e v e r g u a r d e d by d e c l a r a t i o n s of r i g hts,
or c a u t i o n a r y p r o v i s i o n s must u n a v i o d a b l y ,
in a short time, be p r o d u c t i v e of the d e ­
s t r u c t i o n of the c i vil l i b e r t y of such
c i t i z e n s w h o c o u l d be e f f e c t u a l l y c o e r c e d
by it, by r e a s o n of the e x t e n s i v e t e r r i t o r y

12.

the

the A m e r i c a n

This

delegates

opposition

12

to

constitution.

which

the G o v e r n o r

Their

much

rights

to

thought

voiced

autonomous

from

that

of

the

they

establish­

referred

were

document.

ratifying

of

appeal

Convention

general

the

of d e m i - g o d s

the

by

of

he

of

asserted

feeling

in

ultimate

assumption
smaller

that

assembly

opposition

the

and

part

his

structuring

of

take

and

the

to d i f f i c u l t i e s

rected

"an

the C o n s t i t u t i o n a l

disagreement
during

Many

to

document

as

position

frontiersman.
states

failed

York
and

of the U n i t e d S t a t e s , the d i s p e r s e d
s i t u a t i o n of its i n h a b i t a n t s , and the
i n s u p e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t y of c o n t r o l l i n g
or c o u n t e r a c t i n g the v i e w s of a set of
men...^
THE

COMPROMISE
European

and

Marshall

OF
as

THE

JEFFERSONIAN

such

might

ideas

have

fostered

been,

the

American

life

cannot

Federacy

when

the C o n s t i t u t i o n

necessary

for

centuries

of

for

a new

and

and

champions

able
which

the

be d e n i e d .

old

of

timber

for

must

spell

weak

the
the
out

In
w as

thinking

necessary
elements

that

they

early

being

altered
of

established,

ideas
part

of men

structure

Adam s ,

days

inherited
of

the

Jeffersonian

rights

of

Hamilton,

the

to be

republic.

natural

by

fact

institutional

political
v ery

POSITION

of

were

the
it was

through

planning

thinkers
hardly

suit­

a government

control.

It seems to me a s i n g u l a r piece of f o r ­
tune that we have this o p p o r t u n i t y of
w a t c h i n g a r e m a r k a b l e g r o u p of men d e ­
b a t i n g the very basis, p u r p o s e and l i m i ­
t a t i o n s of p o l i t i c a l power.
Remarkable
they c e r t a i n l y were.
No one can read
M a d i s o n ' s r e c o r d of t h o s e s u m m e r m o n t h s
at P h i l a d e l p h i a in 1707 w i t h o u t b e i n g
s t r u c k by the l e a r n i n g and s e n s e of
s t a t e s m a n s h i p that w e r e shown by m a n y of
the d e l e g a t e s w h o w e r e t h ere to f r a m e the
Constitution.
T h e y inc l u d e d mos t of the
l e a d i n g f i g u r e s in A m e r i c a n life: e x c e p t
T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n , w ho was m e r c i f u l l y away
in Paris.
For Jefferson, sentimental,
u n c e r t a i n , u n p r i n c i p l e d was not the stuff
of w h i c h C o n s t i t u t i o n s are m a d e . ^

13.

Id.

H e n r y S t e e l e C o m m a g e r , ed., " L e t t e r of R o b e r t Y a t e s and
J o h n L a n s i n g to the G o v e r n o r of N e w Y o r k 1 7 Q 7 f "
P o c u m e n t s of A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y . N e w York: F. S. C r o f t s
& C o . , 1945, p. 150.
Lord R a d c l i f f e of W e r n e t h , T h e P r o b l e m of P o w e r , L o n d o n
S e e k e r and W a r b u r g , 1952, p. 52.

39

The

belief

rights
cial

that

ideologies

contract

it w e r e

focused

the

for

those

being

first

ten

and

upon

yet

upon

v ery

gave

birth.

this

they

the

to

fre e

fro m

nature

of

"The

were

15

and

contract

provision

for

is

contained
of

the

the

natural
the

who

giving

between

the

which

upon

the

significant

individual

over

the
allow­

part

that

rights

was

govern­

contract

of

found

awareness

to

bill

so­

a new

amendments

the

equally

men

this

of d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n

merged

drawn
of

the

a

and

that

nor
of

up by

of

could

such

social

men

who

not

such

help

A masterpiece

of

through

of

the

which

certain

serious

and
but

divided
be

18th,
and

19th

they

govern­

were

natural
as

powers

to

within

with

the

20th
of

the
based
the

inconsisten­

reflect

a model

nei­

rights

a constitution

and

of

a constitution

doubts

riddled

readily

federation

that

and

pop u l a c e ,

statesmanship

51.

the

a way

contract

inconsistencies
trend

for

independent,

had

free

separate

philosophical

I b i d . . p.

in

wholly

politically

belief

provided

s t ates

beliefs

government,
cies,

the

world"

of

It

freedom

sovereign

wholly

wisdom

in

flexibility

cases

constitution

separate

based

completely

restrictions.

A

ther

in

a

governed.

the

the

The

amendments

specified
mental

to

in

novelty

gave

change

they

that

governed.

Constitution
ed

aware

were

refuted

conception

upon

and

is

men

to w h i c h

quite

political

ment

these

American

centuries.

governmental

40

wisdom,
sight

the C o n s t i t u t i o n

into

the

dominant

provides
themes

us w i t h

of

considerable

individualism

and

in­

collec­

tivism.
In

1800,

ascendancy,
already
tion

cultural

of

life.
to

of

agriculture
He
was

office,

gain

had

dividual

to

through

conflicted

be

that
with

freedom

a

finally

degree
only

support

primary

claimed

this

need

for

for

a realistic
original

centers

an

had

other

Hamilton,

conceded

to

that

which

flourish
was

Jefferson,

position

statesman

philosophical
policy

con­

acceptance

protection.

a government

had

industry.^

agriculture

as

agri­

time
an

of

while
often

position
loose

A r t h u r S c h l e s i n g e r , Jr., T h e
L i t tle, B r o w n and Co., 1945,

Age
pp.

it

only

of

in­

con t r o l .

J e f f e r s o n h i m s e l f h e l p e d n o u r i s h the s e r p e n t
in his L d e n w i t h one of his f a v o r i t e m e a ­
sures, the H m b a r g o of 1807, w h i c h set on
firm f o o t i n g the m a n u f a c t u r i n g e s t a b l i s h ­
m e n t s s t a r t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y a l o n g the A t l a n ­
tic c o a s t d u r i n g the t w e n t y y e a r s p r e c e d i n g .
T h e W a r of 1 8 1 2 and the B r i t i s h b l o c k a d e
further stimulated domestic manufactures.
A p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f f o l l o w e d the war, and b e ­
hind its w a l l yet m o r e u n d e r t a k i n g s s p r a n g up.

16.

had

assump­

Alexander

manufacturing,

government

and

by

system,

over

urban

through

agriculture.

claim

encourage

his

was

economic

that

and

political

fundamental

also,

there
of

the

gained

realized

Federalists,

importance

further

saw

a great

could

had

in m a n u f a c t u r i n g

the A m e r i c a n

necessary

possible

to

The

overall

architect

Jefferson

growth

freedom

that

the

the

modified

that

c e ded

when

of J a c k s o n , Boston:
10-11.

in

41

T h e f a r m r e m a i n e d the s t a t i s t i c a l
c e n t e r of A m e r i c a n life, but b u s i n e s s
e n t e r p r i s e was e x e r t i n g s t r o n g e r and
s t r o n g e r c l a i m s on the i m a g i n a t i o n of
the p e o p l e and the a c t i o n of the g o v e r n ­
ment. 17
If

the

original

manufacturing

position

government,
osophical
scene.

tain

basic

tation

more

the

policy

in

economic

critical

ingly

that

of

to

by
but

the

freedom

of

were

over,

such

manufacturer
operate

pervasive

with

position

interests.

admitting
such

an

to

After

a position
desired

maximum

cer­

interpre­

in d u s t r y .

who

phil­

the A m e r i c a n

industrial

individual

national

Jefferson's

achieved

we

the

period

see

emerging

of m u c h

freedom.
that

the

championed

order

during

aware

trolling

the

upon

over

a

was

the
far

laizze-

freedom

in

market.

denial

individual

emerged

t h eir

DEMOCRACY

It w a s
flourished

to

years

be

continued

equally

politically,

the

upon

had

dominance

an

imagination

of

put

protective

JACKSONIAN

17.

be

o v ert

that

have

cooperation

acceptable

faire

the

freedoms

c o uld

crucial

might

weakened

capture
could

to

possible

position

to

only

related

is

Although

tended
Not

it

interests

by

The

growing

economic
Henry

I b i d . . pp.

which

0-9.

Jacksonian

upon

was

called

natural

wa s

manufacturing

had

Democracy

the A m e r i c a n

frontiersman

market.

Clay,

when

re-dressed

increas­

were

the A m e r i c a n
the

a

concerning

becoming

interests

Although

scene

con­
System,

Hamiltonian

i2

economic
of

muc h

of

national
western

position

in

such

the W e st,

banking

a way

as

to

receive

g r o w in g d i s s e n s i o n

interests

had

in

thoroughly

the

the

support

light

enraged

of

the

farmer.
C l a y ' s p l e a s a n t d r e a m of a p a t e r n a l i s t i c
p r o s p e r i t y of A m e r i c a got its first rud e
a w a k e n i n g f r o m G e n e r a l J a c k s o n and his
m o t l e y f o l l o w i n g of w e s t e r n e q u a l i t a r i a n s
and e a s t e r n p r o l e t a r i a n s .
Gen tl em en were
s u d d e n l y r e m i n d e d that the plain p e o p l e had
been o v e r l o o k e d in the d i s t r i b u t i o n of b e n ­
efits.
T h e w a t e r s of p r o s p e r i t y , it w o u l d
seem, had been t r i c k l i n g s o m e w h a t too
s c a n t i l y to t hem from the g r e a t r e s e r v o i r s
w h e r e they w e r e i m p o u n d e d ; and as they saw
the w e a l t h p o u r i n g into p r i v a t e ponds
t h r o u g h g o v e r n m e n t a l pipe lines, a n a t u r a l
h u man e nvy took p o s s e s s i o n of them.
In
t h e o r y the pipe lines b e l o n g e d to them,
and the i m p o u n d e d w a t e r s w e r e to be used
for c o m m o n i r r i g a t i o n ; but in p r a c t i c e the
m a i n s s e e m e d to c o n d u c t onl y to L o w e l l in­
d u s t r i a l i s t s and' P h i l a d e l p h i a and N e w York
c a p i t a l i s t s , and the w a t e r s t u r n e d out to
be p r i v a t e l y owned.
As the r e c o g n i t i o n of
this fact came hom e to the p r o d u c i n g m ass
it p r o v i d e d a r a l l y i n g point for an a n t i ­
m o n o p o l i s t m o v e m e n t and d e t e r m i n e d the
g r e a t o b j e c t i v e of the J a c k s o n i a n attack,
the a s s a u l t on the B a n k . I Q

It w as
port
of

of

growing
the

18.

thing

business

the W e s t

sumers

one

system

banker

and

V e r n o n L.
N e w York:
p. 145.

convince

interests

since

markets,

to

the y

but
of

were

it was

loans

certainly

of

the

the
Las t

providing
another

which

was

farmer
were
and

t h ing
for

a hardship

on

that
to

the

the

expanding
to

the
the

explain

bes t
part

sup­

advantage
con­
the

interest
of

the

of
farmer.

P a r r i n g t o n , Main C u r r e n t s in A m e r i c a n T h o u g h t .
H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and C o m p a n y , 1930, Vol. 2,

The
tain

Jacksonian

respects,

Jeffersonian
tion,

The

governs
ment

was

the

in

individualism

to

ral

but

felt

by

ideologies

the

demanding

such

belief

the

in

the

gigantic,
there

a state

in

of

an

1800's
such

of

strong

sovereign

States,

and

it w o u l d

be

the

mus t

"natural

by

govern­
indivi­
of w e s t e r n
tremendous

of

vested

and

of
natu­

constantly
the

parties

rights."
to

remained,
the

bes t

concept

be

utilized

entirely

reinforce

however,

interested
the

and

parties

general

romantic

individual.

corporate

a growth

found

of

a random

their

the

nation

w as

instituted

l ose

of

picture

that

did

the

a period

and

sense

a corporation.

that

cer­

protec­

governs

disciples

simply

being

interesting

definition

in

equi pm ent

any

sanctity

developed

of

of

interests

again

as

principle

which

chosen

individualism

e ver

with

of

in

belief

the

Never

upon

rights

middle

and

to

that

the

valve

of g o v e r n m e n t a l

a realistic

controls

mythical

related

is d o u b t f u l

to

thought

s o cial

of

by

ushered

nation.
be

the

"government

protects

led

a safety

terms

themselves

infringements

Muc h

By

best

which

this

activity,

the

as

reshaped
in

J a c k s o n ians

activity

protected

now

replaced

Considering

interests

it

that

governs

democracy,

who

it

acted

individualism

least"

dualism.

p a rty

since

belief

which

period

interests

in

business

legal
If

w as

any
to

necessary

had

become

enterprise

interpretation
realistic

exist
to

in

the

combine

of

notion

the
of

a

United
it w i t h

some

41

understanding

of

economy.

This

rapidly

realized

industrial
mediate
The

gal

of

the

in

a

in

dispute

a

state

if

vidual
the

upon

problems
i.e.,

It

was

the

the

owed

concerned
was

was

the

and

this

not

trade

the

no

same

restrictions
The

definition.

it

initial

time

of

of

the

growing

Bank

or

19

le­

was
of A u g u s t a ,

not

the

status

that

of

not

laws

pertaining

with
of

the

of

individuals

equal
the

. . .
definition

The

as

judgment

focus

a corporation with-

allegiance.

apply

im­

interests

corporation
of

The

controls.

business

this

case

was

nation

economic

and

the

and

infant

their

whether

case,did

itself?

an

rights

with

the

of

prosperous

statesmen.

and

found

status

over
it

upon

during

arisen
w h ic h

many

commerce

In

was

rights

to

and

Hamilton,

of

thrust

out.

to

this

had

related

that

of

position

spelled

corporation

light

the

commerce,

had

corporation

and,

as

independent,

position

these

definitions

dispute

the

s t a t e s,

specifically
a

was

problems

internal

between

strong,

revolution

greatest

upon

a

to

indi­

force upon

case

sheds

*

Th e c o r p o r a t i o n must no d o u b t show that
t h e l a w o f i t s c r e a t i o n g a v e it a u t h o r ­
ity to m a k e s u c h c o n t r a c t s ,
through such
agents.
Y e t a s in t h e c a s e o f a n a t u r a l
person,
i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t h a t it
s h o u l d a c t u a l l y e x i s t in t h e s o v e r e i g n t y
i n w h i c h t h e c o n t r a c t is m a d e .
It is
s u f f i c i e n t t h a t it s e x i s t e n c e as an
artificial person,
in a s t a t e o f i t s

19.

L a w r e n c e B. L v a n s , " B a n k o f A u g u s t a V . L a r l e " - - 1 3 P e t .
519 , 10 L . L d . 2 7 4 ( 1 0 3 9 ) " , C a s e s on A m e r i c a n C o n s t i ­
tutional L a w t Chicago:
C a l l a g h a n and Co.,
1942,
p p . 735-741.

45

c r e a t i o n , is a c k n o w l e d g e d and r e c o g n i z e d
by the law of the n a t i o n w h e r e the d e a l ­
ing t a k e s place; and that it is p e r m i t t e d
by the laws of that p l a c e to e x e r c i s e
t h e r e the p o w e r s w i t h w h i c h it is e n d o w ­
ed ... 20
The
whether
bama)

judgment
or

not

denied

in

the

this

state

rights

of

cas e

was

in w h i c h

contract

to

then
the

to

be d e c i d e d

dispute

citizens

of

as

to

existed

(Ala­

other

states.

D o e s the p o l i c y of A l a b a m a d e n y to the
c o r p o r a t i o n s of o t h e r s t a t e s the o r d i ­
nary c o m i t y b e t w e e n n a t i o n s ?
Or d o e s
it p e r m i t such a c o r p o r a t i o n to m a k e
t h o s e c o n t r a c t s which, f r o m t h e i r n a ­
ture and s u b j e c t m a t t e r , are c o n s i s t e n t
w i t h its policy, and are a l l o w e d to
i n d i v i d u a l s ? . ..21
The
state

judgment

of A l a b a m a

dividuals
valid

of

w as
did

other

contract

on

finally
not

deny

states
the

made
the

and

part

upon

the

rights

therefore

of

of
the

corporations

basis

that

contract
same
was

the

to

in­

freedom

to be

of

accept­

ed .
The

principle

individual
of

the

meaning

complex
fre e
ye a r s

has

of

enterprise,
at

governmental

20.
21•

given

business

and

of

viewing
to

the

it

times

has
for

have

I b i d ., p.
I b i d . , p.

737.
739.

world

rights.hardly

nourished
reasons

restrictions

corporation

business

individual
c o uld

the

has

endured

related
argued

the

myth
to

its

a

legal

a restatement

Although

this

as

modern

and

reality

through

protection
position

of

the
from

from

the

level

of

rights

guaranteed

to

the

individual

by

the

con­

stitution.
An

example

of

such

a

position

occurred

in

1938.

In C o n n e c t i c u t G e n e r a l L i f e Ins. Co. v.
J o h n s o n , . . . i n v o l v i n g a C a l i f o r n i a law
t a x i n g i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n i e s upon the
a m o u n t of the g r o s s p r e m i u m s r e c e i v e d
by them upon b u s i n e s s d o n e in the state,
the c o u r t held the law to be in v i o l a ­
tion of the du e p r o c e s s c l a u s e of the
F o u r t e e n t h A m e n d m e n t in so far as it t a x ­
ed the C o n n e c t i c u t c o m p a n y on p r e m i u m s
receive?d in C o n n e c t i c u t on r e i n s u r a n c e
c ontracts made with companies doing
b u s i n e s s in Ca 1 i f o r n i a .22
The
ment

significance

made

but

Amendment.

h ow

It

an

of

the

of

individualism

the

ideological

logic

of

direction
the

last

the

of

the

ture

without
belief

cas e

it was

made

concerning

that

sense,, w as

was

placed

decision

once

the

business

activity

that

in

the

autonomy

of

the

It

h ave

be d i f f i c u l t
occurs

of. the

as

business

it w o u l d

consideration

judg­

Amendment,
a protection

legal

apparent.

interests

the

the F o u r t e e n t h

and

some

in

Fourteenth

such

became

lies

considered

but

upon

corporate

hardly

the

ever

corporations,

the

century

muc h

the

of

that

this

is d o u b t f u l

in

rights

of

definition

interests
is

in

this

traveled
to

understand

within

myths

individual

during

this

that
and

cul­

support
private

e n t e r p r i se.
The
quo

22.

upon

justification
the

part

I b i d . . p.

of

366.

for

the

the

large

preservation
wealthy

of

the

interests

in

status
the

'17

United

States

sonian

doctrine

of

individual

freedom

to

conquer

allowed

follows

vironment

without

controls,

it w o u l d

ful

that

all

opportunity
pered
by

to

the

wealth

the

degree

has

refused

to

the

basic

nomic

depression

and

has

are
be

new

to

can

enterprise

businesses

frontiers

not

yet

abundant

supported

trend

a r med

of

and

to

new

and

established.

23

pros­

chiefly

a doctrine

to

the
for

the
to

in

which

men.

Although

last

twenty

a great

throughout

fr e e d o m .

reject

eco­

the w o r l d ,

the

beliefs

The

position

of

still

suggests

that

and,

exciting

not

inequality

d ue

en­

success­

conquer

between

conflict

westward,

have

in

been

equal

explain

for

change

conquer

the

had

and

thinking

Manufacturers

his

opportunities

by

unwilling

in m o v e m e n t s
offers

adjust

inequalities

opportunity

found

to

of

have

they

in

has

governmental

part

many

justification

been

of

that

have,

many

b een

an

the

Jeffer­

man

obstacles

country

considerable

Association

not

23.

has

world

individual

there

The

undergone

business

others

the

Since

unnatural

on

fact

offered

philosophical

has

National

has

and

this

The

recognize

years

natural

belief

these

su c c e s s .
then,

the

in

that

of

which

system,

of

the

p r o sper.

our

the

be

degree

enterprise.

unreasonable

inadequacy

and

a considerable

individuals
to

environment

to

although
the

they

genius

may

A good e x a m p l e of such a p o s i t i o n t a k e n
i z a t i o n has bee n the t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m
c a l l e d F r o n t i e r s of I n d u s t r y .

be

are

of A m e r i ­

opportunities

There

the

some

in
evidence

by this o r g a n ­
t hey s p o n s o r

40

to

question

they

are

segment
in

the

the

reality

manifested
of

the A m e r i c a n

motivation

of A m e r i c a n

in

and

citizens*

of

such

beliefs,

but

everyday

behavior

by

population

direction

of

they

as

long

as

a significant

become

activities

realities
in

the

life

49

FK UNTIL};
The

1M) IV IDIIA LI S M A NN

S L C T TO N A 1.1S M

period

by

sponsible
United

for

the

Stales.

redefinition
note

introduced

that

rapid

The

of

this

growth

growth

redefinition

philosophy

cloaked

It was

within

thought

adel

of

of

had

distinctly
ward
in

as

and

sized

defined

the

of

last

the

was
of

the

still
the
in

was

was

been

his

to

Jeffer-

i n t e rest.

where

the

what
by

cit­

the

of A m e r i c a n

w as

to

the

struggle

25

had

be

and

Turner
shap e d

found

as

west­

succeeded
empha­
American

It was i n e v i t a b l e that such a f o r m u l a
shou l d a p p e a l to a p e o p l e w h o felt in­
s t i n c t i v e l y that they had c r e a t e d m o r e

C o m m a g e r , T h e A m e r i c a n M i n d . 1950, pp.
F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n T u r n e r , T h e F r o n t ier
H i s t o r y . Ne w York: H e n r y Holt and Co.,

man

Turner.

society.

24.
25,

24

regarding

Jackson

environment

that

and

thought

civilization.

conditions

a

as W e s t e r n

frontier

growth

produced

with

advanced

that

in

found.

Frederick

evolutionary

coped

environmental

be

stimulating

c o,n vi need
had

to

old

special

frontier,

American

sectionalism

an

the

were

pioneer

establishing

again

re­

the

interesting

which

American

the

once

is

sections

followed' the

institutions

it

of

scholar

of

yet

in

w as

resulted

garb

influential

emergence

Turner

as

great

tremendously
the

the

sectionalism

sectionalism

was

in

Democracy

the

individualism

The

of

of

individualism,

son i an

and

Jacksonian

29 6 - 2 9 7 .
In A m e r i c a n
1950.

50

than the y had i n h e r i t e d and that they
owed l i t t l e to the O ld W o r l d .
It w a s a
n a t i o n a l i s t i c f o r m u l a , for it s u g g e s t e d
that d e m o c r a c y and f r e e d o m and the i n s t i ­
t u t i o n s that g a v e them m e a n i n g w e r e l a r g e ­
ly A m e r i c a n i n v e n t i o n s ; in so far as it
did not i n q u i r e into the e x p e r i e n c e of
ot h e r p e o p l e s w i t h t h e i r f r o n t i e r s , it w as
a l m o s t p a r o c h i a l , 26
As

narrow

American
nation
more
to

it

as

such

democracy

of

the

laid

bulk
the

isolationism.

an

might

explanation
have

been,

of A m e r i c a n

foundation
Turner

it

of

the

growth

captured

the

agriculturalists.

for

a definitely

described

the

growth

of
imagi­

Further­

western

appeal

of A m e r i c a

as

. . . a l w a y s b e g i n n i n g over on its o u t e r edge
as it a d v a n c e d into the w i l d e r n e s s .
There­
fore, the U n i t e d S t a t e s w as b o t h a d e v e l o p ­
ed and p r i m i t i v e s o c iety.
T h e W e s t was a
m i g r a t i n g region, a s t a g e of s o c i e t y r a t h e r
than a place.
b a c h r e g i o n r e a c h e d in the
p r o c e s s of e x p a n s i o n f rom the coast, had its
f r o n t i e r e x p e r i e n c e , w a s for a time "the
W e s t " and w h e n the f r o n t i e r pass e d on to new
r e g ions, it left b e h i n d , in the o l d e r areas,
m e m o r i e s , t r a d i t i o n s , and i n h e r i t e d a t t i t u d e
to w a r d life that p e r s i s t e d long a f t e r f r o n ­
tier had p a s s e d by.
But w h i l e the i n f l u e n c e
of the f r o n t i e r p e r m e a t e d E a s t as w ell as
We s t , by s u r v i v a l of the .pioneer p s y c h o l o g y
and by the r e a c t i o n of the W e s t e r n i d eals
and life upon the Last, it w a s in the n e w e r
re g i o n s , in the are a c a l l e d the W e s t at any
g i v e n time, that f r o n t i e r t r a i t s and c o n ­
c e p t i o n s w e r e mos t in e v i d e n c e . ^
That

Turner

culture

26.
27.

is

felt
quite

the W e s t
clear,

to be

but

also

the

foundation'of

c l ear

was

American

implication

that

C o m m a g e r , H e n r y S t e e l e , _oj3. c i t . . pp. 2 9 6 -297.
F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n T u r n e r , T h e S i g n i f i c a n c e of S e c t i o n s
In A m e r i c a n Hi s t o r y . N ew York: P e t e r S m i t h , 1950, p. 23.

with
the

the

disappearance

preservation

of

of w h a t

the
was

frontier
generated

grew

the

through

need

for

life.

. . . W e are now in the third p h a s e of our
d e v e l o p m e n t ; the fre e lands are gone, and
w i t h c o n d i t i o n s c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e of
E u r o p e , we hav e to r e s h a p e the i d e a l s and
i n s t i t u t i o n s f a s h i o n e d in the age of
w i l d e r n e s s - w i n n i n g to the new c o n d i t i o n s
of an o c c u p i e d c o u n t r y . 26
It w as
the
in

apparent

section
frontier

growing

of

to T u r n e r that
the

lif e

American

United

were

to

the

States
for m

agrarian

in w h i c h

West

such

the d e v e l o p m e n t

was to

ideals found
of

a new

culture.

T h e s p i r i t of a d v e n t u r e , of b u i l d i n g to
the m e a s u r e of the o p p o r t u n i t y , w h i c h the
W e s t e r n m o v e m e n t c a r r i e d into the m o r e
spacioirs and v a r i e d p r o v i n c e s b e y o n d the
M i s s i s s i p p i , has c h a n g e d as the s u r g e s of
m i g r a t i o n h a v e passed over t h e s e r e g ions.
It has b e e n m o d i f i e d by the g r o w i n g r e ­
l i a n c e on a s s o c i a t i o n i n s t e a d of i n d i v i ­
dual competition.
S e l f - r e l i a n c e is still
s t r o n g e r t h e r e tha n in the East; but t h e r e
has a l s o d e v e l o p e d in t h o s e e c o n o m i c o r ­
g a n i z a t i o n s , like c h a m b e r s of c o m m e r c e ,
f a r m b u r e a u s , c o o p e r a t i v e s o c i e t i e s , R ot a r i a n s and K i w a n i a n s , w h i c h c a r r y on w i t h
a d i r e c t n e s s and e n e r g y that b e l o n g to the
Far West.
T h e r e is a g r o w i n g i n s i s t e n c e
on c o n f o r m i t y to c o m m u n i t y p u b l i c o p i nion,
c o m p a r e d w i t h the d a y s o f . t h e f r o n t i e r s m a n
and the " s e l f - m a d e m a n . "
B ut the W e s t ' s old i n i t i a t i v e , its
love of i n n o v a t i o n , its old i d e a l i s m and
o p t i m i s m , its old love of b i g n e s s , even
its old b o a s t f u l n e s s , are still here.
As
yet it has not p l a y e d the p o w e r f u l part in
the c o m m o n l ife of the U n i o n w h i c h it will
com e to play.
T h i s land of f a r m owners,
this land t r a i n e d in p i o n e e r ideals, has a

20.

I b i d ..

p.

37.

be

and

d e e p ' C o n s e r v a t i s m at b o t tom, in s p i t e of
its s o cial and p o l i t i c a l p i o n e e r i n g .
It
m ay yet m a k e n e w c o n t r i b u t i o n s to A m e r i c a ,
by its u n i o n of d e m o c r a t i c f a i t h and innovation with a conservative subconsciousness.
K KSISTANCE

TO I N D I V I D U A L I S M
IN .COLLECTIV ISTIC T H I N K I N G
The
viewed
the

Midwesterner

the

outcome

survival

m ent

that

IGOO's
"This

of

was

c o uld

ducing

classes",

businessmen,
natural
the

be

philosophy,

to

-

-

sidered

American

by

during

intense

criticism

part

those

a minority

29.
30.

the

since

momentum
from

workmen,
l a bor

that

the

in

the

this
of

and

move­
late

position.

the

"pro­

small

unrest

30

It was

concerning

which

c o uld

was

largely

major

upon

labor

movement."

certain

principles

espoused

the

philosophy

Midwest

these

who

the

dependent

Even

separate

master

principles

these

as

seriously

be

con­

being

doctrine

of

individualism.

It w a s

of

as

dominated

to

century

society

increasing

observed

the

19th

mentality.

farmers,

traditional

questioned

with

within

Jeffersonian

late

essentially

long

find

the

agrarian

grow

not

AND G R O W T H

of A m e r i c a n

an

to

of

Q

the
and

later
unrest

Midwesterners

in A m e r i c a n

period
were
who

of

being

of the
152.

19th

century

manifested

considered

policy-making.

I b i d . . pp. 2 5 4 - 2 5 5 .
S e l i g P e r l m a n , J\ T h e o r y
M a c m i l l a n Co., 1928, p.

the

themselves

It w as

Labor

on

during

that

the
to

be

such

M o v e m e n t . New

a

York

period

that

American

buropesn

thought

made

greatest

inroads

in

the

culture.
T h o s e m o v e m e n t s spun the t h read of l i b e r a l i s m
that runs t h r o u g h the y e a r s from the G i l d e d
A g e to the V>o r J d W a r - a t h read w o v e n of
the e a r l i e r l i b e r a l i s m that c a m e f rom the
f ro n t i e r , and the new c o i l e c t i v i s t i c t h e o ­
ries that came f r o m Ku r o p e .
In the e i g h ­
ties and n i n e t i e s it was still l a r g e l y n a t i v e
a g r a r i a n , but in the e a r l y y e a r s of the new
c e n t u r y it d r e w h e a v i l y on the p r o l e t a r i a n
p h i l o s o p h i e s of bur ope -- s e e k i n g to a p p l y
old w o r l d e x p e r i e n c e to A m e r i c a n p r o b l e m s .
T h r o u g h it all runs i n c r e a s i n g l y a note of
s o b e r i n g re a l i s m .
A f t e r a h u n d r e d years,
p o l i t i c a l r o m a n t i c i s m w as s l o w l y d y i n g in
A m e r i c a .31

Darwinian

t h o ught,

although

a s a manifestation

of

process

reversed

who

off

La stern
this

an

of

in

interests.
vvas

that
the

Thorstein
ophy,

equal

process

period

thought

can

easily

claimed

hands

dom

w as

the

which

people,

to

to meet

the

questioning

The

1890*s

to

Parrington,

both

the

of

resulted

in

social
t h ose
by

to

during

complete

Lester Ward

large

a

granted

a growth

indicative

considerable

oj). c i t . , p . 258.

the

priveleges

that

of

was

the w e a l t h y

prosperity

belief

1 9 3 0 ’s.

31.

of

it c r e a t e d

the

work

unpopular

gain

special

since

by

the d e m a n d s

of

supported

in

selection

terms

significant

although
was

natural

in A m e r i c a n

individual.
Veblen

championed

share

The

hardly

being

in
free­
and

of

a philos­

mass

of A m e r i ­

adherence

in

the

A
the

significant

romanticism

occurred
19th

with

during

the

farm

upheavals

much

of

ri g h t s .

The

that

opponent

fr o m

general

concerned
ments
were

usually

Although
of

the

national

controlled

farmer

farmer

to

extent

that

gai n

a general

collectively

in
the

the

loss

control

industry

face
of

has

of

collective

relation

to

his

unity
belief

he did
in

manifest

such

trend

unity

unity,

he

than

more
an

in

to

and

of

failure
to
the

his

cohcerned

an

impossible

a condition
adequate

at

least,
w as

of
the

success

attempt

the
same

outcome

him.

his
to

to

The

condition

autonomy

of

a

inability

most

achieve

they

feeling.

outcome

the

move­

realization

time,

partly

in

were

such

the

a

resulted

intense

partly

belief

failed

was

was

fact

crisis,

economy,

was

and

which

era

final

nation's

fundamental

That

the

succeeded,

issues

notion

individual.

a period

still

to j u s t i f y

period

politically.

the

technological
upon

for

the

Since

success

the

individual

was

and

of

farmer

of

economic

suffering

governments,
of

this

banking.

some

quarter

the

doctrine

of

to

leadership

Jacksonian

periods

and

latter

found

during

blow

individualism

philosophy

the

with

of

1800's,

same

and

achieved

s t ate

act

of

money

recognition

decisive

ver y

with

during

some

the

a serious

intellectual

latter

issues

accompanied

rather

of

The

the

frequently

outgrowth

chiefly

occurred

he

espoused

position.

in

Jeffersonian

difficulty

contrary
the

the

marked
concept

lacking

of

the

the

movement

Although

embraced

his

that

surrounding

the

century.

struggle

of

in w h a t
lack

of

achieve

it.

Although

his

position

the
he

farmer

is

still

appeal

to

the

zation

of

unrestricted

One
farmer

to

economic
in

the

still

basic

dominant

wes t

has

b een

a century

in

of

the

itself.

realized

he

has

position

changing

order
The

creates-a

havior

difficult.

of

issues
tions

with
of

valence.
and

19 53
In

and

in

but

the

while

the

makes
that

life,

of

collective
the

claimed

government

there

mad e
he

are

a stand

of

intervention

half

again

contrast

to

mid-west
of

his

less

for
on

be­

con­
stands

expression
certain

wheat

this
was

needed
in

middle-

to be

take

which

longer

the

a rapidly

The

example

no

in

even

mentality.

of

last

this

the

vote

might

once

of

industry,

weakness

the

prediction

he will

best

that

can

of

he may

yet

He

the

for

condition

that

farmer

for

problems

for

the

of

frequently

and

aid

reali­

the

aware

farmer

he w a i t s

doctrines

to meet

of

of

well

individualism

enterprise

He

in

can

and

lii s s t r u g g l e

a "ghost-dance"

that

perhaps

in

failure

he was

enemy,

19 5 2 the

that

freedom

individualism.

old

are

any

awareness

age

decisive.

tection

an

a sense

economic

a highly

group

victory

ambivalent

his

for

overall

lie m a y d e m a n d
in

with

individual

In

confusion

manifested

politically

it.

accepted

world.

the

position

How e v e r ,

farmer

trols

of

towards

belief

in

considerably

individual

certainly

involved

manifest

this

a

gam e

shifted

a c t ion.

held

such

has

of

lasting

was

he

ineffectiveness

beliefs

a

equality

support

fair

result

achieve

position

today

elec­

am b ifirm
the

pro­

agricultural

56

economy.
sented

He

a welfare

and

yet

the

farmer

year
The

claimed

having

state

elected

from

later

for

high

farmer

has

learned

he

still

prone

it

contrary

since

is

basic

myth

of

m uch

founded

theme

on

an

administration
bondage

that
upon

muc h

the

the

and

culture.

To

be

highly
the

of

of w h a t

was

considered

American

in

a climate

criticism

pean

ideologies,

American

gained

instrumental
order

sonian

part

in

bringing

and

victory

to

yet

principles

to

vote

cloaked

and

The
to

with

along

fact

by

such

that

by

Euro­

in

the
he

industry
with

Jeffersonian
of

that

although

culture

in muc h

a

1000's

changes

farmer,

and

fact

the

the

life

cherished

fostered

basic

and

supported

the

yet

consider

"’u n A m e r ican"

battle

either

and

Americans

the A m e r i c a n
to

he d e ­

collective

prior

a

production.

protection

ideas

the

economic

conducive

democracy,
the

the

proceded

society.

certain

a result

a general

hardly

surrounding

of

As

in

from

life

releasing

of

criticism

r-esulted

resulted

character.

a large

commerce,

often

of

of

to

threaten

would

w ay

pledged

many

solidarity

itself

his

repre­

principles,

reality
he

which

on w h e a t

collective

to w h a t

the

of

to

he

quotas

the

such

new

incompatible

to

found

lost

w as

to d e n y

individualism

challenge

administration

protection

m ust

is

be

an

governmental

sires

the

that

the

l a bor
ideas
or

and
was
of

Jack­

mythology

philosophies.

F r o m the a g r a r i a n a g i t a t i o n - - s u p p l e m e n t e d
by p r o l e t a r i a n and m i d d l e - c l a s s r e c r u i t s has c o m e the A u s t r a l i a n ba l l o t , the I n i t i ­
a t i v e and the R e f e r e n d u m , the R e c a l l , the

a

P i r o c t P r i m a r y , and p o p u l a r e l e c t i o n of
Senators.
T h e only i m p o r t a n t a g r a r i a n
p r i n c i p l e that has not been a d o p t e d is
the p r i n c i p l e of p r o p o r t i o n a l r e p r e s e n ­
tation.
If a g r a r i a n i s m lost its g r e a t
b a t t l e ove r the. c u r r e n c y , it won the
b a t t l e over i n c o m e tax.
N u l l i f i e d by a
s c a n d a l o u s c o urt d e c i s i o n a f t e r it has
been long a c c e p t e d , the income tax was
f i n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d by the t e d i o u s m e t h o d
of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a m e n d m e n t - - a n o u t c o m e
that owed m uch to the M i d d l e B o r der.
In
c o s t i n g up the a c c o u n t s of A m e r i c a n d e m o ­
cracy, the l a r g e s t sums must be c r e d i t e d
to the J a c k s o n i a n f r o n t i e r .
W h e t h e r the
new m a c h i n e r y is useful or m e r e l y c u m b e r ­
some, t h e r e is m uch d i s a g r e e m e n t , but it
is a g r a r i a n in o r i g i n and it came from
an h o n e s t a t t e m p t to d e m o c r a t i z e A m e r i c a n
p o l i t i c s . 32
The
same

labor

period

movement.
tively
and

movement

shared

a

Although

oriented,

als o w a s

in

somewhat
marked

the

labor

responsible

American

philosophy

t h eme

individualism.^

of

Marxian

immigrants

in

European

which

in

the

orientation
was

many

ran

role

liberal

gained
shared

1000's.

by

That

more

which

farmer

was

a similar

the

many

it was

of

in

collec­
fate
the

established

im p e t u s

purposive

fundamentally

this

the

changes

to

its

during

with

shared

contrary

It

gav e

States

a philosophy

movement

doctrines
late

United
similar

by

for

n3

tellectual

the

from

the

in­

incoming

dominantly
direction

such

an

orientation

lack

of

effectiveness.

3 2.
33.

F a r r i n g t o n , V e r n o n L., oj>, c i t . . p. 267.
C h a r l e s A. B e a r d and M a r y R., T h e R i s e of A m e r i c a n
C i v i l i z a t i o n . ’’T h e I n d u s t r i a l Era", N e w York;
M a c M i l l a n C o m p a n y , 1930, pp. 2 1 1 -253.

Originally

responsible

gaining

the

for

but
its

sympathy

of

56

the

growing

pe r i o d
king
ing

of

American

the

" R o b b e r - B a r o n s ’*,

sentiments
of

"middle-class",

private

which

were

it

which

lost

contrary

to

was

their
the

t i ring

support

of
by

pervasive

the
evo­

feel­

property.

Th e e n o r m o u s s t r e n g t h of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y
in A m e r i c a , at once o b v i o u s to an obs e r v e r ,
g o e s b a c k to the ail i m p o r t a n t fact that,
by and large, this c o u n t r y was o c c u p i e d
and s e t t l e d by l a b o r i n g pi o n e e r s , c r e a t i n g
p r o p e r t y for t h e m s e l v e s as they went a l ong
and h o l d i n g it in small p a r c e l s . 34
Since

the

sanctity
ment

position
to

itself

of

private
woul,d

the

laborer

property,

i g nore

this

w as

it was
basic

one w h i c h
natural

t h eme

denied

that

the

move­

in A m e r i c a n

life.

A l a b o r m o v e m e n t must, from its ver y nature,
be an o r g a n i z e d c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t the r i g h t s
of p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y ... B e c a u s e the labor
m o v e m e n t in any f o r m is a c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t
the a b s o l u t e r i g h t s of p r i v a t e p r o perty,
the e x t e n t to w h i c h the i n s t i t u t i o n of p r i ­
vat e p r o p e r t y is e n t r e n c h e d in the c o m m u ­
nity in w h i c h a labor m o v e m e n t o p e r a t e s is
of o v e r w h e l m i n g i m p o r t a n c e to it.°°
Utilizing
American

slogans

which

sounded

basically

"rn idd 1 e-c 1 a s s" w i t h d r e w

apprehension

as

to

the

outcome

of

their
such

"foreign",

support

with

the
some

a movement.

...the C h i c a g o "Anarchists", with a full­
b l o w n p r o g r a m of r e v o l u t i o n a r y s y n d i c a l i s m
in all but the name itself, w e r e m a d e to
feel the f e r o c i o u s s e l f - d e f e n s e of a ' g i ­
g a n t i c a l l y g r o w i n g and self s a t i s f i e d c o m ­
m u n i t y a g a i n s t t h ose wh o w o u l d i m p o r t m e t h ­
ods of the class s t r u g g l e of R u s s i a and
S pa i n .36

34.
35*
36.

P e r l m a n , S e l i g , .ojd . c i t . , p . 157.
I b i d . . pp. 15 5 - 1 5 7 .
I b i d . . pp. 1 5 9 - 1 6 0 .

Although
utilize
This
of

the

was

collectively

established

partly

revolt

the

fostered

consequence

of

the

institutions

result
by

the

oriented,

of

the

Marxian

p a rty

failed

in A m e r i c a n

but

philosophy

it was

in A m e r i c a n

to

society.

aforementioned

doctrines

system

laborer

also

the

politics.

It is to this u n c a n n y a d a p t a b i l i t y of the
e s t a b l i s h e d A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c a l parties,
m e e t itig with the w e a k g r o u p c o n s c i o u s n e s s
of. A n e r i c a n labor - w e a k e s t in regard to
p o l i t i c s and p o l i t i c a l issues, - that the
u n i f o r m f a i l u r e of A m e r i c a n i n d e p e n d e n t
labor p a r t i e s has been d u e . 37
The

l a b orer,

cal

s e nse

then,

and' it

has

ye a r s

that

he

ity.

This

success

through

the

dualism

f o und

collective
of

the

and

last

dication
The

has

existing

three
a

in

years

p l ace
their

years
the

some

of

individual.

their

many

of

sentiments

37•

I b i d . , p . .173.

New

labor

the

federated

has

Deal

indivi­

for

the

The

is

general
it m o r e

re­

trend

unions

to d e n y

the

has

general

both

and

b een

an

public

and

in

in­

opini o n .

championed

Farm

a

purpose

general

the

by

enough,

The

fostered

expressed

of

un­

interest

gained

organizations
to

twenty

collective

symbols

established

sensitivity
the

The

community.

a politi­

interestingly

basic

institutions

for

in

the

in

last

in

been

of

the

the

success

achieved,
of

himself

through

movement.

has

th.e r i g h t s

establish

been

been

his

but-it

prestige

of

only

achieved

within

of

communists

to

manifestations

realizing

spect

has

one

acceptance

failed

Labor

60

movements

in

has

been

ple

during

to

the

which

and

suffered

had

the

l a b orer,

There
New

during
and

willing
gr o u p s ,

on m u c h

the

level

the

cial

fostered

O'ne sided

laborer
Also,

were

large

sulted
m er

same

interests,

and

from
the

the

war

elections

in

themselves

in

30.

the

on

verbalized

United

in

le a r n e d

the
as

regained

the

to

the

for

interests
by

in

the

a more
1 952

political
a growing

part

The

the

the

equalized

both

and

t h reat

of
to

many
commer­

farmer

and

interference.

1 9 4 0 ’ s, p r o v i d e d

and

battle

government

the p r o f i t s

side

cen­

farmer

economic

industry
of

farmer

the

self-interest

conservative

both

reaction

Laborer

in

governmental
and

princi­

institutionally

Although

of

in

nineteenth

past.

fight

favor

blocked

and

accepted
of

which

a general

new-administration
in

battle

accepted

i n d u stry.

years,
with

allied

had

mobilization

laborer

the

Farmer

operate

organized

national

the

t hey

the

both

hal f

them

conditions

During

what

by

of

ho w e v e r ,

Having

to

as

frequently

the

by

last

to

pressure

of

was,

laborers

repugnant
more

Much

l O O O ’ s wa s

Deal

the

through

policies

late

interesting.

farmers

been

St a t e s .

the

time.

of

quite

many

United

during

this

period

lo s s e s

what

lost

was

tury,

the

that

re­

the

point

of

laborer

industry

farview.

38

had
to

fight

individualism

States.

Labor relations
at the J a c k & H e i n t z p l a n t d u r i n g
the
w a r y e a r s are a good e x a m p l e of this g r o w i n g t e n d e n c y .
See: R o s w e l l W a r d , T h e P e r s o n n e l P r o g r a m at Jac k &
H e i n t z . N e w York: H a r p e r B r o t h e r s , 1946.

61

If
to

be

ism

one w e r e

a complete

in

the
the

changes

that

social

last

of

dily

willing

in

to

and

part

a

numbers
basis

for

their

cloaked
from

in

the

are

the

by

lizing
and

sel f

more

form

as

be

and

is

a continuing

down

laborer

they

have
they

found
are

their
in

the

local

an

end.

the

has

of

any­

on

the

increased

provided

a

Collective
frequently

the

more

meaning

battles

Although

institutional

collective

reign

community.

consider

stand.

rea­

a philoso­

part

carry

to

with

not

free

with

interest

and

have

maturity

although

more

concerned

supporting
process

at

on

philosophy.

the

is

The

surrounding

allow

maturity

and

to

economic,

accept

concerned

This

a mistake

sophistically

ideologies

become

would
life

sight.

citizen

to

1 952

instituted

present

a growing

individual

interests,

in

been

repugnant

of

the

of

individual­

from

of m y t h s

which

American

level

also

farmer

conservative,

the

to

American

social

has

have

less

national

It w o u l d
fought

in

lost

is he w i l l i n g

and

There

change

political,

sanctity

population.

change

phil oso p h ies

Th e

elections

champion

be

IBOO's

democracy

who

the

would

late

the

political,

people

of

the

neither

everyone.

of

years

of

in A m e r i c a n

reject

but

national

t h ose w h o

much

quality*

Jeffersonian

economic,

one

f rom

a lasting

individualism
of

twenty

the

for

States,

occurred

thinking

b ee n

consider

victory

United

through

phy

to

means

collectively
the
The

basic

far

of

rea­

oriented

differences

Farmer's

behavior.

more

movement

T h e A m e r i c a n F a r m e r 's M o v e m e n t has t h e r e ­
fore c o n t i n u e d and still c o n t i n u e s .
It is
not so m u c h a social s t r u c t u r e as it is a
body of i d e o l o g i e s and s e n t i m e n t s about a
c o n t i n u i n g set of issues.
T h e s e w e r e the
i s s u e s of an e v o l v i n g social order, society,
or e c o n o m y .
T h e m o v e m e n t has been and is
m o s t p r e c i s e l y o b s e r v e d in the d r a m a t i c
e p i s o d e s m a r k i n g its course, b e c a u s e they
c l e a r l y r e veal the issues about w h i c h it
r e v o l v e s and the i d e o l o g i e s and s e n t i m e n t s
w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s its norms.
These ideolo­
gie s and s e n t i m e n t s did not a r i s e wit h each
f a r m e r u p h e a v a l ; they have been in e x i s t e n c e
in all of the p e r i o d s b e t w e e n e p i s o d e s and
are still in e x i s t e n c e .
T h e y are the norms
of the c u r r e n t p o w e r f u l f a r m e r public, w h i c h
is s u s t a i n e d by farmers' o r g a n i z a t i o n s , f a r ­
mer p r e s s u r e groups, farm j o u r n a l i s t s , c o l u m ­
nists, and e d i tors, c o n g r e s s m e n and s e n a t o r s
from rural areas, and g o v e r n m e n t programs.
All of these art' still a t t e m p t i n g to r e s o l v e
the same i s sues wit h w h i c h the f a r m e r s of
A m e r i c a have w r e s t l e d as they hove b e c o m e
i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n s c i o u s of their i n c r e a s i n g
i n v o l v e m e n t in the c o m m e r c i a l e c o n o m y of m o d ­
ern s oc i e t y . 39
The

same

continuation

pcrvasive
the

behavior

cent

for

can

be

the

both

reshaping
understood

Much
follow

omitted

39.

of

in

the

in

of w h a t
the

the

groups

this

American

would

be

of

chapter.

be

Both

from

movement

eco n o m y .

can

apart

growth

labor

modern

institutionalization.

ble

to

force

of

viewed

groups

such

an

equally

difference

in

have

tradition

and

t e rms
been

of

in
re ­

responsi­

neither

of

them

a tra d i t i o n .

historically

the A m e r i c a n
The

The

is

chief

necessary

culture,
focus

has

has
bee n

in

order

been
upon

C a r l C. T a y l o r , T h e F a r m e r s * M o v e m e n t 1 6 2 0 - 1 9 2 0 .N e w
York: A m e r i c a n b o o k Co., 1953, p. 500.

the

63

basic

themes

dencies
the

they

society.

cies
and

as

of

are

and

have

certain

It

still

tend

individualism

to

affected

has

been

found

support

in

noted

the

the

individual

autonomy

to

expression

in

self

strictions
The
study,

on

the

ments

of

which

glorified

it.

rural

Yet

removed

it

character.
day
are

is
of

is

fro m

by

positions

yet

are

content,
his

evident

The

which

of

the

pressed

in

social

has

that

to

collective

still

tenden­

dominant

of

in

expression

the

manifests

con­

individual
growing

of

nature

the

and

of

in

soc i e t y .

dissertation,

from

re ­

to
The

senti­

degraded

only

its

the s o c i e t y

basic themes

orientation
are

M ore

focused

present

positions,

difficulties

in

which

created

individualism

ambivalent

to­

thinking

ambivalence

directly

shortly

rural

ambivalent

collective

this

a period

times

lost
in

certain

lead

at

of

by

culture

farmer

a c t ion.

beliefs

a c t ion,

through

one w h i c h

far

interest

is d o m i n a t e d

traced

has

necessitate
by

chief

the A m e r i c a n

a reflection

and

the

been

position

to A m e r i c a n

problem

4 0.

which

structure

dominance

motivation

supported

ceptional

r i ght

ten­

structures

traditional

the

is

position

a conflicting
of

such

is

and

w ho

relevant

frequently

terms

of

relevant

which

a society

farmer

rural

,in

in

form

collective

freedom.

American

since

that

belief

cerning

growing

not

and
ex­
on

the

if e x ­
explaining

A s t r e s s on the n e c e s s i t y for the A m e r i c a n f a r m e r to
r e s o l v e m a n y of his c o n f l i c t s by a d j u s t i n g to the
trend
in the A m e r i c a n e c o n o m y and yet p r e s e r v i n g the c o n d i t i o n
of i n d i v i d u a l i s m t h r o u g h the f a r m f a m i l y is m a d e by

64

the

structural

enough

at

handled
ments
to

must

being
are

this

later

state

when

be

to

the

of

that

the

At

in

converging
terms

of

s y s tems.

the

integration

sentiments

are

social

suggest

explained.

observed

this

problem
of

the

time

found

their

but

shou l d

within

the
or

emergence

be

it m u s t

pattern

it

sentiments

It will

of
be

senti­
sufficient

social

beliefs
within

be

system
which

the

rele­

structure.
The

large

tered

around

f o und

some

dominance

any

point

understood

vant

ican

continuity

change

in

themes

of

integration
to

s o cial
change

pattern

the
life

in
the

of

within

support

total

that

individualism

former

this

sentiments

the

concept.
the

condition

total
The

former
can

configuration

and

and

found

clus­

collectivism
culture

primary

occur
of

are

it

by

giving

myths

of A m e r ­

is d o u b t f u l

without

have

that

se r i o u s

the A m e r i c a n

social

character.

41.

A. W h i t n e y G r i s w o l d in a s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s of
h i s t o r i c a l t r e n d s in A m e r i c a , A. W h i t n e y G r i s w o l d ,
F a r m i n g and D e m o c r a c v , N e w York: H a r c o u r t , Brace, & Co.,
1940.
A l t h o u g h D a v i d R i e s m a n has shown a trend toward the
" o t h e r d i r e c t e d 11 c h a r a c t e r type in A m e r i c a , (See:
D a v i d R i e s m a n , T h e L o n e l y C r o w d ..New Haven: Yale U n i ­
v e r s i t y Press, 1950), it is s i g n i f i c a n t that such a
type, a l t h o u g h a c h a n g e from the " i n n e r d i r e c t e d "
c h a r a c t e r , is still e x p r e s s e d in terms of i n d i v i d u a l i s m
(See: D a v i d R i e s m a n , I n d i v i d u a l i s m R e c o n s i d e r e d . G l e n c o e ,
I l l i n o i s : T h e F r e e Press, 1954.)

CHAPTFR
l£M E R G I N G

In d e a l i n g
is

necessary

salient

to

themes

turies

as

man

S FNT I ML NTS

with

sentiments

view

the

which
has

have

been

gin

a combination

The

speculated
of

on

scie n c e ,

thing

but

and

con t r o l ,
cerning
basic

yet

been

of

any

with

health,

through

to

at

is

outside

presuppositions
notions

In

are

the

concerning

the

ori­

magical

can

based

cen­
histories

out

and

best,

it

certain

the

point

rituals

phenomenon,
s e nse

of

diseases.

practice

conceived

of

development

religious

a narrow
few

field

expressed

common

which

man

its

early

in

m a gic.

other
the

knowledge

Be

what

prolongation

found

on
it

the

of m e d i c i n e

has

Birth

than

philosophy

tioner.

1.

the

over

that

ligi o n

and

in

the

only

be

method
upon

any­

origin.

MFDICINF

Since

tural

and

of

rationally

ORIC IN OF

process

been

origin

in

concerned

it

rites.*

has

IN H E A L T H

historical

of m e d i c i n e
through

III

only

stages
and

limited
it was

death

of

life,

part

of

H. F . S i g e r i s t , A H i s t o r y of
No. 27 of H i s t o r i c a l L i b r a r y

19 5 1 .

co n t r o l ,

closely

outside

he m i g h t

early

it

na­

to

re­

con­

a certain
practi­

methods

M e d i c i n e . New
(Yale M e d i c a l

is

a

of m a n ’s

provide

medical

link w h a t

with

l i nked

necessitated

the
to

concerned

b e ing

assistance

necessary

is

he

used

York: Bibl.
Library),

66

in
his

a curative
practice

sense
to

early

medicine

magic

than

was

of

the

In
aware

of

the

have

more

religious

within

and

such

that

affinity

in

order

and

yet

order

relegate

appear

with

the d e g r e e

an

or

It w o u l d

common

order

of m e d i c a l

s e nse

its

religious

of magic.

society

nature

the

the

realm

would

the

integrated

extent

the

with

ganization

with

practices

the

social

to w h i c h

would

that
of
or­

a theology

control

to

a great

practice.

Malinowski

uses

magic,

we

become

to m e d i c i n e .

...in o r d e r
to d i s t i n g u i s h it from re ­
l i g i o n we d e s c r i b e d it as a body of
p u r e l y p r a c t i c a l acts, p e r f o r m e d as a
m e a n s to an end.
S u c h als o we have
f o u n d it w h e n we tried to d i s e n t a n g l e
it f r o m k n o w l e d g e and fro m p r a c t i c a l
arts, in w h i c h it is so s t r o n g l y e n ­
m e s h e d , s u p e r f i c i a l l y so a l i k e that it
r e q u i r e s some e f f o r t to d i s t i n g u i s h the
e ss en t ia ll y different mental attitude
and the s p e c i f i c a l l y ritu a l n a t u r e of
its a c t s . ^
Medicine

as

it d e v e l o p s

social

technology

magic,

but

emerged
its

it w o u l d

as

origin

realm

2.

see m

in

early

such
the
the

life

early

its

in

art

r e l a t i o n to
to

or

the

part

process

a s s u m e that m uch

the w o r l d

of

the
of

of w h a t

of m o d e r n

man

found

rites.
practices

p r o fane,
w as

a practical

safe

practice

of

controlling

lose

medical

Although
the

m ay

into

of

medicine

a connection

closely

related

with

to w h a t

B r o n i s l a w M a l i n o w s k i , Maci i c . S c i e n c e ,
Glencoe, Illinois:
F r e e Press, 1948.

were

the

found

nature

would

be

and R e l i g i o n .

of

in

67

considered
medical

as

sacred.

interests

Thus

have

fro m

carried

the

with

beginning
them

we

find

application

that

to b o t h

3
the

sacred

ancient
this

times

dual

today

and

by

to

the

nature
the

practice,

the

rest

is

of

his

says,

in

the

science

No

present

physician

his

defied

p r o fane.

practitioner

from

day

been

has

practice.
who

after

"There
hands

says,

medical

is

(This

has

to

igno r e

often

is

illustrated

applying

nothing

of G o d , "

"He

abl e

or

all

more
in

the

that

I can

a society

a fifty-fifty

skill

chance

of

do,

which
of

has

pulling

t h r o u g h . ")
CURATIVE

MEDICINE

The
of

early

science

and

philosophy
transcend

of

by H i p p o c r a t e s

creed
in

of

this

case

of

to
all

sentiments
tion
has

is

there

advancement.

2500

years

ago,

for

the

p a t ient,

that

his

oath

and

d ay

been

physician

he

by

the

is b e s t

demand

receptive

physicians.

shown

for

frequently

an

of

the

neither

to

growth

within

society

S uch

the

that

a case

was

responsibility
remains

It will

l a ter

sentiments.

to m u c h

to

by

adherence
Thus

of

the

a traditional

that

the

a cluster

of

to

the

recogni­

while

the

physician

scientific

carries

set

be d e m o n s t r a t e d

material

exemplified

him

parallel

consistently

scientific

present

that

found

runs

responsibilities

of d o c t o r - p a t i e n t

medicine,

3.

yet

the

chapter
the

of m e d i c i n e

medicine

mere

physician

knowledge

the

findings

in

orientation

of

F o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h e s e c o n c e p t s see E m i l e
D u r k h e i m , E l e m e n t a r y F o r m s of R e l i g i o u s L i f e . G l e n c o e ,
I l l i n o i s : F r e e Press, 1947.

68

the

scientist

nor

the

society.

As

been

found

change

and

as

cares

to

a result,

a resisting

participate
the

physician

element

those

who

h ave

recorded

medicine

through

the

last

three

the

severe

most

c in e

have

been

critics
the

of

in

the

the

a scientist

in

himself

has

process

of m e d i c a l

tremendous

centuries

scientific

physicians

as

have

o f ten

growth

s h own

achievement

of

that

in m e d i ­

themselves.^

. . . t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of s c i e n c e is....
far f r o m c o m p l e t e w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n it­
self.
T h e r e are m a n y k i nds of e v i d e n c e of
this, but for the p r e s e n t p u r poses, it is
s u f f i c i e n t to cit e the strong, o f ten b i t t e r
r e s i s t a n c e f r o m w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n i t s e l f
to the a c c e p t a n c e of w hat have t u r n e d out to
be c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t s c i e n t i f i c a d v a n c e s
in t h e i r own f i e l d . The
to

resistance

scientific

recording
Talcott

the

on

advancement
history

Parsons
nature

of

cates

implication

part
has

of

out

the
of

the

role

the

often

of m e d i c i n e

points

universal
the

the

of

sacred

as

medical

bee n

passed

off

by

those

narrow-mindedness.

essentially
the

practitioner

rationalistic

physician

symbols

and

connected

yet
with

and

indi­
such

a role.
It is to be p r e s u m e d that his a s s o c i a t i o n
w i t h d e a t h is a very i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in
the e m o t i o n a l t o n i n g of the r ole of the
physician.
If he is not in g e n e r a l t e n d ­
ing in our s o c i e t y to take the p l a c e form e r e l y o c c u p i e d by the clergy, an a s s e r t i o n
o f t e n made, but s u b j e c t to c o n s i d e r a b l e
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , he at l e ast has v e r y i m p o r ­
tan t a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h the r e a l m of the
sacred.
In this c o n n e c t i o n it is

4,

5.

S i r W i l l i a m O s i e r , T h e E v o l u t i o n of
Haven: Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1922.
P a r s o n s , T a l c o t t , oj). c i t .

Modern

Med ic i n e . N e w

69

i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e tha t the d i s s e c t i o n
o f a c a d a v e r is i n c l u d e d in t h e v e r y
f i r s t s t a g e of f o r m a l m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g ,
a n d t h a t it t e n d s t o b e m a d e b o t h s o m e ­
t h i n g of a s o l e m n r i t ua l, e s p e c i a l l y the
f i r s t d ay , on t he p ar t of t he m e d i c a l
school a u t h o r i t i e s , and m e d i c a l s t u d e n t s
often have quite violent emotional reac­
t i o n s to t h e e x p e r i e n c e .
It m a y h e n c e b e
c o n c l u d e d t h a t d i s s e c t i o n is n o t o n l y an
i n s t r u m e n t a l m e a n s to t h e l e a r n i n g of
a n a t o m y , b u t is a s y m b o l i c a c t , h i g h l y
charged with affective significance.
It
is a s e n s e t h e i n i t i a t o r y r i t e o f t h e
p h y s i c i a n - t o - b e into his i n t i m a t e a s s o ­
c i a t i o n w i t h d e a t h and the d e a d . 6
Sentiments
of t h e

in t h i s

physician

activities.
fere with
would

society

clearly

That

such

a basically

tend

to r e f l e c t

"narrow-mindedness**
Such
role
goals
and

objectives

two

and

very

separations

upon

being

the

the

inextricably
The

is t h a t

disease

and d ea th .

has

That

Ibid.. . pp. 4 4 4 - 4 4 5 .

times

of h i s
inter­

to d i s e a s e

upon

the

the h i g h l y

nor does

entwined

so-called

been

universalistic
that

with

the

ideal

the g o a l s

of t h e e m p h a s i s

relationship between

it c l e a r l y

and

the

it d e n y

importance

separations

centuries

at

approach

is d e m o n s t r a t e d

in m e d i c a l

practice;

by

such

preventive medicine.

relationship between

through

should

quality

role

physician.
not d e n y

curative

the h i s t o r i c a l

sacred

light

the a f f e c t i v e

crucial

from

symbols

a different

physician
are

out

rationalistic

of the

patient

The general

6.

sacred

of s c i e n c e .

chapter

physician
the

by the

of m e d i c i n e

in t h i s

point

a position does

played

emerging

physician

o n e of c u r e a n d

physician

realizes

and

patient

release

from

the n e c e s s i t y

70

of

prevention,

practice

and

of m a g i c a l
sized
the

of c o u r s e ,

certainly

rite

the d oc to r

immediate

lief

but

and

viewed

aid

as

the

an e n t i r e l y

was

tied

the

technology

cognitive

u p to t h e a f f e c t i v e
of t h e

he b e l i e v e d

prevailing

sentiments

science

patient
but

has

such

than

can

confidence

the w i s h f u l

diagnosis

and

displayed

or n o t

humane
face

approach

of

more

growth
creased

to

although

offer

hope

be

p r o b l e m but

Today with

the

to t h e

the bel ie f

tenets

to cure.

Such

of

a position
over

he has

that

to t h e p a t i e n t

it

even

science

the c o r r e c t

controversy
that

the

practitioner,

has

thought

not

of m a n k i n d ,

physician

be told

upon

he did

to a c c o r d i n g

problems

in t h e g e n e r a l

is s o m e t i m e s

for r e ­

of h i s d e p e n d e n c e

upon

the

should

to his

upon

an

in­

is a m o r e
in t h e

inevitable death.

Through
moved

It

that

need

hardly

in t h e m e d i c a l

knowledge

a patient

curable disease.

of t he

less b ased

thinking

could

reaction

empha­

primarily

immediate

submitted

confidence
is

based

culture.

many

sufficient

is f r e q u e n t l y
whether

of his

in t h e e a r l y d a y s

patient

nature

in a n d

answer

enormous

The

physician which

understand

that

of t h e

medical

relationship which

dyad was

of d i s e a s e .
part

in t o d a y ' s

a part

important

patient

crisis
on

it p l a y e d

the

and

is e v i d e n t

the

last

few years

in t h e d i r e c t i o n

of a w o r l d

based

specialization.

upon

the m e d i c a l

practice

of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n
technological

The degree

as

an o u t ­

progress

to w h i c h

this

has

and

in­

is c h a n g i n g

71

the

image

society.

of the

physician

In

large

our

of m e d i c a l

personal

and

the

lack

ifested

the

physician deals with

medium

of h o s p i t a l

physicians
has

made

the

sentiments
To

ly

public

to an

that

The

country doctor.

public

as w e l l

complete
medical
ment

case and

as t h e

practice.^

The

physician

among

the m a n y

himself
the

part

pressed
fication
7.

as a n

and
is

resents

in h i s

in h i s
of his

physician,
profession,
role

and

the

This

the

The

that

the

the a r g u ­

states

be r e d u c e d
as an

that

this
to

individual.

he be n u m b e r e d

individualism

role

Practice

of

toward

identification,

coincides with

in s o c i e t y .

by

some c on si deration

strong

towards

trend

usually

implication

image

in t h e g e n e r a l

to n o t e

be lost

be h i g h ­

voiced

the

interest

medicine

would

completely

ideal

protests

concerning
of

has

the

practice would

T h e N e w A c a d e m y of G e n e r a l
of s u c h c o n c e r n .

role

level would

practice without

individual.

of t h e

of c h a n g e

interesting

the

of e m e r g e n c y

in h i s

cherishes

lack

patient

the

it.

have been

socialized

the

too

in c a s e s

secondary

that medical

"red-tape" while

except

physician

It

against

claims

of m a n y

still

There

specialization

voiced

reluctance

the d i r e c t i o n

public

is m a n ­

The

of the c h a n g e

and

contacts

the

through

concerning

impersonal

incorrect.

the

calls

aware

expressed

suggest

shifted

night

practice,

primary
his

in A m e r i c a n

patient

bureaucracy.

to m a k e

evident

citadels

hospitals,
as

of

is f r e q u e n t l y

the

sacred

of the

is a g o o d

of

on

ex­
identi­

physician
example

72

as

an

individual

s a cred
life

symbols

and

become

a mystery
more

in

of

terms

myth

large

by

to

his

of

the

with

a feeling

of

their

such

as

oriented

although

not

to

science

come

fashionable

to

toms

of

cold.

The

examples

physician
cat e

his

has
role

s ociety,

the
of

existence
science

mentioned
tion
at

of

of

this

has

from

the

changed
but

As

to

of

if

of

doctoring

some
of

science

rol e

of

the

statement
science
has

gained

organism,

labels

Thus
the

it

notion

and

concerning

within

should

ascendance

per­

s i nce
growth

has

the

the
extri­

the

the

be­

symp­

to

maintained
That

has

that

found

in

which

usual

physician

itself

mean

fashionable

symbols

of man.

is

actually

impossible

been

in

medications

tradition

h ave

with

so

to d i s e a s e

of

the

not

s a cred

which

the

labels

instead

more

giving

become

have

treatment

the

such

powers,

support

the

with

the w o r l d

they

classified.

prevalence

of m a n ' s

view

give

difficult

many

sacredness

time.

used

it

to

medical

within

also

a virus

sentiments

before

the

just

has

roust be

have

found

indicate

vasiveness

It

the

emerged

Although

what

p l ayed
still

has

Although

and

miraculous

understood

a common

patients.

people

of

connected

which

prescribes

part

Mw o n d e r - d r u g s " .

are

rights.

of d r u g s

chemical

sentiments

individualism which

a society

still

bulk

a world

in

which

of

natural

conscious

the

combined

symbols

physician

becoming

the

by

the

profession

the

dominated
the

is

his

and

supported

past

which

of

death

a culture
the

expresses

b een

very

no­

be m e n t i o n e d
in

the

modern

73

world
the

the

culture

place

the

become

beliefs

of

or

and

science

achieve

of w e s t e r n

societies

of

and

more

dependent

the

growth

volved
of

its

of

within

tific

has

the

left

of

the

science
in

process

underlying

within
and

t r uth

a dependence

fact

the
the

has
upon

led

hav e

has

as

an

to

The

that

the

it

people

science

answer

t a ken

science

belief

a society

has

has

culture.

As

"scientisra"

within

for

the

become
its

more

problems,

reached

into

all

that

the

physician

has

become

has

led

him

the

consumer

process

him w i t h

internalized

this

truth

pro b l e m s .

knowledge

As

dominant

into

belief

this

become

judgments

seek

upon

The

medicine,

stating

many

the
g

life.

scientific

dition

by

of

value

values
to

has

society.

approximations

solution

areas

approach

of w e s t e r n

beliefs

attempt
ma y

rational

rather
an

a condition

than

the

ignorance
which

F.

to be

p r o d ucer.

of m u c h
G.

that

Crookshank

in­

His

con­

is

scien­

describes

that:
. . . w i t h o u t H i s t o r y M e d i c i n e may only be
s c i e n t i f i c in the m o d e r n sense of the w o r d
- - a s e n s e i m p u t i n g l i t t l e b e y o n d the p o s ­
s e s s i o n of some a t t r a c t i v e f o r m of t e c h n i ­
cal p r e c i s i o n .
T h a t is to say, the art of
the p r a c t i t i o n e r m ay be i m p l e m e n t e d by the
e x e r c i s e of the t e c h n i c a l p r o c e d u r e s that
h a v e b e c o m e m o r e or less r a t i o n a l i z e d by
a p p e a l to w h a t are c a l l e d the a u x i l i a r y
s c i e n q e s — anatomy, physiology, chemistry,
and p h y s i c s - - w h i l e in d e f a u l t of p r o p e r

8.

R o b e r t fC M e r t o n , " S c i e n c e and the S o c i a l O r d e r " ,
T h e o r y and S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e . G l e n c o e , Il l i n o i s :
Press, 1949.

Soc i a 1
Free

74

f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s p e r t a i n i n g to P a t h o l o g y ,
d i s c u s s i o n m a y be a s s i s t e d by r e f e r e n c e to
the p r i n c i p l e s of t h e s e s c i e n c e s . ^
There
toward

the

reached
many

has

by

the

practitioner

has
If

thrown

his

chiatrist,

of

must

in

may

theory

are

nature

of

scientific

9.

order

always
the

accepted
the
but

of

to do

upon

theory

and

tested

or

must

with

confidence

the

in

the

ap­
psy­

is
the

objectivity

in

their

rela­

a confidence

p r a ctice,

a confidence

found

needing

are

seldom

practice

is

A

which

public

in

change.

of F r e u d i a n

tested,

not

the

patient,

maintain

and

therapeutic.

the

maintain

propositions

psychoanalytic

of

person

and

they

field,

pathology.

assumptions
as

general

rationally

one

rapport

bot h

that

in m e d i c i n e

intervention

to gain

this

or

expressing

complete

the

this

mental

psychiatrist

though

of

be

the

realizations

direction

consciously

y e ars

apparent

with

upon

dependence

order

Freudian

other words,

emphasis

The

a bond

this

more

f i fty

Although

himself

without

and

made

origin.

taking

no w a y

in

in

of F r e u d

patients

sense,

not

The

in

in t e n s e .

In

psycho-analysis.

concern

problems

established

which
In

has

establish

tionship.

last

organic

not

a confidant

analytical

a trend

increasing

the

exceedingly

no

M.D.'s

patient

proaching

rol e

nee d

an

of

the

findinos
had

of m a n y

the

bee n

emphasis

diseases

trend

also

the

necessarily
has

accepted

F r o m an e s s a y by F. G. C r o o k s h a n k , '" K s s a y on the R e l a t i o n
of H i s t o r y and P h i l o s o p h y to MediciTie,** C. C. C u m s t o n ,
I n t r o d u c t i o n to the H i s t o r y .o£ M e d i c i n e . N e w York:
Alfred
Knopf, 1927, p. XV.

7G

much
an

of F r e u d i a n

adherence

society.
the

concept

the

of

set

of

patient

which

temporary

dyad.

and

the

J

nature
has

and

duties

unite

sphere

in m a n y

of

cases

which

himself

and

b o t h .p h y s i c i a n

with

The
sets

be

this

sentiments

to

aside

In
the

a sense
care

cure.

of
Fie

The

restoration

of

and

into

patient

a

to

o t her i n t erest.
a g e n t of

the

physician

ad*hered

authority.

an

in

concerned

must

of any

disease

surrounding

espoused

society.

o t her

as

themes

between

those

which

physician

of

bee n

subordinates

from

sacred

health
a

. 10

MEDICINE

values

held

possibility

important

10,

the

manifested

prayer.

a tradition

the e x c l u s i o n

has

replaced

in A m e r i c a n

from

it

the

a linkage

health

and

completely

upon

of

medicine

interference

to

has

s a cred

inherited

a release

PREVENTIVE

the

rights

goals

The

on

curative

physician

of

couch

establishes

have

minimum

desire

transcends

individualism

is d e p e n d e n t

are

it

popularized

tradition

curative

with

patient

sacred

the

of

since

concerned

with

analyst's

emphasis

sphere

and

often

Judo-Christian

section

and

which

The

The
the

theory

phase

by
of

science

toward

prediction

mark

the

search

a rather

for

recent

truth
but

in m e d i c i n e .

See: "Th e C o n c e p t s of F a m i l i s t i c G e m e i n s c h a f t and C o n t r a c ­
tual G e s s e l s o h a f t as A p p l i e d to D o c t o r - P a t i e n t R e l a t i o n ­
ships," Charles
P. I.oomis and J. A l l e n Beegle, R u r a l
Social S y s t e m s .
New York: P r e n t i c e Hall, Inc., 19G0,
pp. 1 1 2 - 1 1 5 . ; a l s o A l i c e Joseph, " P h y s i c i a n and P a t i e n t " ,
A p p I i ed A n t h r o p o l o g y , V o 1. I, No. 4, 1942.

76

We have traced medicine through a series
of u p w a r d s t e p s - - a p r i m i t i v e stage, in
w h i c h it e m e r g e d fro m m a g i c and r e l i g i o n
into an e m p i r i c a l art, as seen a m o n g the
E g y p t i a n s and B a b y l o n i a n s , a s t a g e in
w h i c h the n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r of d i s e a s e
wa s r e c o g n i z e d and the i m p o r t a n c e of its
s t u d y as a p h e n o m e n o n of n a t u r e was a n ­
n o u n c e d ; a stage in w h i c h the s t r u c t u r e
and f u n c t i o n s of the h u man b o d y w e r e w o r k ­
ed out; a stage in w h i c h the c l i n i c a l and
a n a t o m i c a l f e a t u r e s of d i s e a s e w e r e p r o ­
f i t a b l y studied, and a final stage, into
w h i c h we have j u s t entered, the a p p l i c a t i o n
of the k n o w l e d g e of t h e i r p r e v e n t i o n .
Sci­
e n c e has c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e d m a n ' s a t t i t u d e
towards d i s e a s e . ^
The

modern

with
his
As

the

beliefs

primary

methods
this

The

to

11.
12.

when

a safe

drug

objection

by
of

of

of

experiment

the

Michigan
in

the

the
the

of

physician

physician

Michigan

medical

points
with

to

with

has

utilize

his

again

the

is

such

to

im­
such
of

the

to­

methods

and

licensed

Service.
approve

experiment

physicians'

patient.

and

phase

Health

Society

patient.

utilized

societies

immunization
the

o nce

h o w ever,

Public

Medical

polio

but

interesting

to

States

indoctrinated

innoculation

immunization,

United

any w a y

of

The

ranking

the

concerned

new m e a n s
the

become

medicine

been

effective.

qualification

state

has

disease,

aspect

by

has

preventative

proven

approved

course,

f o und

against

unwillingness

without
the

have

particular

unless
as

of

of

orientation

scientists

munization

tal

physician,

in

reluctance

12

Osie r , T h e E v o l u t i o n of M o d e r n _M_ed i_c_in.e. 1922, pp. 220-221.
It is i n t e r e s t i n g to note that this d i s p u t e f i n a l l y was
r e s o l v e d w i t h the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the e x p e r i m e n t a s ­
s i g n e d to t he N a t i o n a l P o l i o F o u n d a t i o n .
Detroit Free
Press, A p r i l 20, 1954.

77

Another
public

phase

health

frequently

and

of m e d i c a l
it

divorces

Those

physicians

their

time

ifest

a different

and

is

in

type

of

the

to

of

area

f rom

medical

profession

representation

this

himself

and

prevention
that

in

the

preventative

the

have

the

of

public

in

interest
the

area

and
of

of

medicine.

who

f i eld

field

practitioner

personnel

health

growth

is

devoted

are

health

man­

a distinct

preventive

medicine.
PUBLIC

HEALTH

This
veloped
search

group

since
of

occurred

manifests

the

middle

Pasteur,

possibility

of

It

during

has

been

movements

hav e

of

Koch,

in m e d i c i n e

beliefs

and

which

prevention
this

emerged

the

19th

others,

has
as

in h e a l t h

period

c e n tury.
rapid

brought

well

as

to

have

With

the

that

f r ont

de­

the

advancement

curative

of g r o w t h

in A m e r i c a n

which

re­
has

the

practices.
sanitation

society.

P r i o r to the y e a r s 1 8 6 6 - 1 8 7 1 , w h i c h
i n c l u d e the b e g i n n i n g s of the p r e s e n t
c e n t u r y of p r e v e n t i v e s a n i t a t i o n , the
h e a l t h and l o n g e v i t y of the p e o p l e was
r e g a r d e d as d u e to the special p h y s i c a l
e n d o w m e n t s of each p e r s o n . 13
With

a change

concerned
t he n d u e

13.

with
to

in

this

health

enlarged

basic

philosophy,

problems

which

large

were

cities

beginning

became
to

Pi ague

populations,

S t e p h e n S m i t h , "The H i s t o r y of P u b l i c H e a l t h , 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 2 1 " ,
H a l f C e n t u r y of P u b l i c H e a l t h , edit., M . P. R a v e n e l ,
J u b i l e e H i s t o r i c a l V o l u m e of the A m e r i c a n P u b l i c H e a l t h
A s s o c i a t i o n , N e w York: 1921, p* 2.

A

78

With
tions

were

cussing
had
ment

this

formed

and

existed
that

century
health

growing

handling
before

finally

which
with

in

gave

local

concern

local
such

this
began

areas

public
for

the

health,

associa­

purpose

of d i s ­

problems.Health

tine
to

but

take

impetus
county

in

to

it was
f orm

s t ate

units.

at

Departments

largely
the

this

turn

departments

of
of

move­
the

public

15

" L o c a l h e a l t h u n its are the c o r n e r s t o n e of
the n a t i o n ' s health.
T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of
all s p e c i a l i z e d p u b l i c h e a l t h p r o g r a m s d e ­
pe nds u l t i m a t e l y on a d e q u a t e l y s t a f f e d local
h e a l t h u n i t s w h i c h p r o v i d e the p e o p l e wit h
the b e n e f i t s of m o d e r n m e d i c a l science.
W h e r e f u l l - t i m e local h e a l t h units do not
exist, p r e v e n t i v e m e d i c a l s e r v i c e s and c o m ­
m u n i t y s a n i t a t i o n p r o g r a m s are a p p l i e d only
sporadically.
P e o p l e look to the local
h e a l t h offic e r , the nurse, and the s a n i t a r ­
ian for t h o s e d i r e c t s e r v i c e s w h i c h in the
m i n d of the public, at least, r e p r e s e n t the
c o m m u n i t y ' s b u l w a r d a g a i n s t e p i d e m i c s and
p r e v e n t a b l e i l l n e s s . "16
Lstablishing
ways

been

strators

a difficult
have

effectively

14.

15.
16.

a public

agreed

within

an

health

proposition.
that

for

area*

unit

Public

a health

the

in a c o u n t y
health

unit

following

to

basic

has

al­

admini­

operate
staff

must

T h e A m e r i c a n P u b l i c H e a l t h A s s o c i a t i o n w h i c h has set
up s t a n d a r d s of p u b l i c h e a l t h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , l a r g e l y
a c c e p t e d by p u b l i c h e a l t h a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , w as o r g a n i z e d
in 1073.
T h e f i r s t s t a t e b o ard of h e a l t h in B o s ton, M a s s a c h u ­
setts, w a s e s t a b l i s h e d in 1057.
The N ational Health Assembly, A m e r i c a 1 s H e a l t h . New
York: H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1949.

79

be

maintained

primary

A

in

services

order
of

to

function

public

One

physician

(h e a l t h

One

nurse

5,000

One

sanitarian

One

clerk

study

cities

showed
in

the

per

per

per

can

officer)

25,000

only

United

such
be

per

a way

that

the

off e r e d .
local

health

unit.

people.

15,000

that

health

in

people.

people.
forty-sever

States

met

counties

these

and

standards

seventeen

of

staffing

17
in

1940.
Since

the

cost

partially

through

st a f f

and

expenses

borne

by

provide
been

the

difficult

for
for

a county

county

while

the

the

people

unit

i.e.,

through

various

many

health

taxation,

occurred

county

f u nds

of

the

see

are

government

programs

that

be

met

salaries

operation

federal

to

must

and

of

state

it

" F r o m 1 907 to 1935 the n u m b e r of f u l l - t i m e
c o u n t y h e a l t h u n i t s g r o w f r o m 1 to 561.
T h e s e 561 l o cal u n its serv e d 7 62 c o u n t i e s .
T h e p a s s a g e of social s e c u r i t y l e g i s l a t i o n
in 1 935 g a v e a d d e d i m p e t u s to the g r o w t h of
our n e t w o r k of local h e a l t h s e r v i c e s so
that by 1 9 4 7 t h e r e w e r e 1,284 local h e a l t h
a r e a s a c c r e d i t e d as h a v i n g f u l l - t i m e units.
T h e s e 1 , 2 8 4 u n i t s s e r v e d 1,874 of the 3 , 0 7 0
c o u n t i e s in the U n i t e d S t a t e s .
This pic­
tur e is m o d i f i e d s o m e w h a t by the fact that
309 of the 1 , 2 8 4 f u l l - t i m e c o u n t y h e a l t h
d e p a r t m e n t s had no h e a l t h offic e r , and t h e s e

A m e r i c a * s H e a l t h , op.

cit.,

p.

61.

has

such

pr o gram.

17.

the

usually

occur,

the w o r t h

of

a

00

309 local h e a l t h u n i t s served 655, or
o v e r o n e - t h i r d , of the 1 , 074 c o u n t i e s
a l l e g e d l y c o v e r e d by f u l l - t i m e local
h e a l t h u n i t s in 1 9 4 7 .” 10
The

dependence

ple

creates

a different

nel

of

type

this

curative
in

public

phase

as

because

of

the

questioned

trasts

sharply

who

realize

the

pursestrings

A
roles

the

their

public

source
of

played

physicians

and

the

ship

apparent

prevention
ately

apparent

is w i l l i n g
order
the
on

18.

the

to

lack

to

gain

physician
and

potential
to

the

apparent

part

of

the

I b i d .,

p.

60.

the

of

peo­

person­

in

the

physician,secure
p u r e l y upon

his

always

profession

freely

physicians

paid),
and

sharply

which

by

its

which

marks

health

fees
are
con­

personnel

controlled

very

by

tradition

is

the

and

patient

need.

the

in

towards

In

ma y

In

to

relation­
field

be

patient

physician

latter

of

of

immedi­

the

provides

any m a n n e r

the

social

the

case

the

the

health

of

not

in

private

their

first

position

problem

public

gain

problem
In

and

phenomenon

conscious

his

a difference

personnel

from disease.

an

involved

is

public.

of

those

of

medical

income

health

subordinate
release

between

m ass

taxation.

specialists,

The

an

of

public

constraint.
from

not

health

distinction

by

nature

a public
of

large

i n c o m e is b a s e d

sacred

existence

further

his

with

the

The private

(although

with

upon

relationship

contrasted

that

rarely

abhors

has

of m e d i c i n e .

the k n o w l e d g e

which

health

in

instance
resistance

constraint

m

tha t

may

be

applied

general

health

health,

application

results

in

hav e

l ost

which

quate

certain

co u r t

little

public

health
action

individuals
threat

to

the

health

is
who

are

find

purpose

of

public,

picture

and

run s

which

in

order

he

can

In

reality,

trols
gai n

allow

set
by

the

of

have

for

the

the

to

be

the

to

the

been *instituted

do

and

the

But

and

a
health

intermediary

laws

which

live

not

will

enters

the

of A m e r i ­

government

to him

realizing

controls.

police

sentiments

to

although

Since

legality

from

lives.

of a d e ­

actions

19

an

to

basic

their

restraining

their

include

citizens

of

so,

of

the y

restrictions

reason,

public.

guaranteed

health,

such

by

of

feel

of

to do

adherence

frequently

some m e a n s

this

individual

many

parties

purpose

to

of

to

freedom

public

adherence

for

interference

co u r s e ,

up by

For

the

public

public

conditions

constraint

contrary

the

of

because

reluctant

necessary

denies

realize

controls

19.

to

are

health

the

upon

the

protecting

case

effective,

enforcing

the

life

upon

considered

it

the

freedoms

necessary.

general

of

individual

to be

necessary

protect

can

where

bearing

is

in

constraint

officials

the

departments
for

of

necessity
Also

personal

enforcement

public

the

interests.

conditions

have
For

for

agencies

a life

by

by

society.

his

resist

the

the

protection

the

fact

fact

that

S e e the S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n , J a c o b s o n
setts, 197 U.S. 11, 25 S. Ct. 358, 49 L.
E v a n s , L. B., o p . c i t .. pp. 8 6 7 - 8 7 2 .

that

the

which

con­
they
the

basic

v. M a s s a c h u ­
Ed. 6 4 3 (1905),

B2

beliefs

in

freedom

have

certain

resistance

vention

of d i s e a s e .

to

b een

the

aims

Another

aspect

f ace

is

the

loss

practitioner

and

specialist

must

ication

and

upon

his

he w i s h e s

to

not

be

for

a public

is

behind

his

public

Fo r

this

result

a ny

what
in.

in

public

order
health

Also

his

very

people

seek

his

advice.

of

to

a given
He

m ust
to

As

value

is

the

unit

one

of

mus t

is

in

can­

need

and

who
one

preventive

on

the
his

for

the

reasons
part

of

mysterious

The

many

support

to

be e x p l a i n e d

public

med­

that

those

public

any

the

a great

necessary

action

give

their

there

public

avoid

to

medicine

adequate
it

pre­

health

of m u c h

goals

edu c a t e .

medication

in

rely

informed

reason

present

position.
who

an

the

a

practitioner

must

the

to

granted

preventive

to

society

public

enforcement,

direction

to

in

inherent

the

of

the

and

practices
in

legal

devoted

health

society

all

from

symbols

are

sympathetic

official

will

unexplained
found

in

practice

a

necessitates

he a l t h .

health

lets

This

sacred

public

Since

is

involved

understand

through

which

educated

of

draws

those

which

The

to

achieve.

public

the

ability

it.

measures, in

of m a n y

members

instituted

represent
which

the

of

those

technology.

dealing.with
deal

that

d e n ied,

health

plained,
"All the d o c t o r has to do is g i v e the
p a t i e n t a l i t t l e pink pill and say,
" T h a t w i l l m a k e you b e t t e r . "
He d o e s n ’t
h a v e to tell h i m w h a t ' s in the pill, if

or

pamph­
this
to

nurse

the
ex ­

03

a n y t h i n g , nor w h y he has p r e s c r i b e d such
a medicine.
In p u b l i c h e a l t h we have to
e x p l a i n to e v e r y o n e just w h a t m e d i c i n e
we are u s i n g and w hat it will do.
If we
i m m u n i z e a c h i l d the p a r e n t m u s t kno w
e x a c t l y w h a t is h a p p e n i n g .
W e hav e to
m a k e the p e o p l e a w a r e of the w hy of

things.**
In

facing

the

public

practitioners
It

becomes

official
tive

he

succeed

somewhat

who

in

may

needs

of

be

an

gates

the

Public
planning.
long

run

the

in a c c o m p l i s h i n g

becomes

commonplace.

a dilemma

a condition

is

be

made

become
which

cessity

of

being

informed

created

by

such
of

privileges.
public

doing
public

People

health

official

must

mus t
as

their

of
is

take
in

o f ten
In

consider

w hat

problems

important.

by

of

upon
an

upon

area,

public

the

first

ne­

as

individual

the

**nosey
the

health

and

in

so

to m a n y

of

the

health

and

condition

public

their

with

seem

of

the

The

planning,

comes

ne­

of r a t i o n a l

the

of

irritated

the

which

conditions.

a denial

Also

the

so doin g , the

is d e p e n d e n t

might

of

in

In

a process

problem

effec­

consideration

place.

process

be

gain.

service

and

which

To

dependent

viewed

the

health

commonplace

often

become

health

nature

otherwise

public

privacy

nurse” .

ignore
more

must

frequently

activity

the

careful

involved

planning

but

adequate

and

public

esteem.

tremendously

must

problems

the

of

he m i g h t

als o

careful

invasion

publ i c

provide

health

for

achieve

to

healthofficials

an

to

order

plans

dominant

of w h a t

esteem

health
In

way,

enlightened

creates

of

much

trying

enlightenment
much

this

official,

because

of

this

entifically
the

involved

knowledge

to

experiment

to

measure

areas

in

is

has

his

in

in

also

one

note

advantage
has

efforts

as

p r a ctice.

of

but

the

through

Not
he

has

public

the

an

control

accomplished

part

of

the

county

of

large

large
the

partly

of

numbers

health

preventive

and

an

of

data

he

using

is a b l e

certain

not

in

of

another

immunization
with

that

available.

practitioner
partly

he

a program

to w o r k

statistical

public

and

is

s ci­

opportunity

since

has

effectiveness

becomes

onl y

he

such

aided

planning,

If

the

has

t o ward

science

terms

domain.

He

condition
his

some

to

the

his

of m e d i c a l

a ble

gram.

in

effectiveness

immunization
he

orientation

to

pro­
he
This

view

experimental.

SOCIAL MEDICINE
Since World
in

the

has
such

field

been
a

War

II

of S o c i a l

greater

there

Medicine.

in E u r o p e

perspective

has

has

and

become

been

20

Great

a growing

Although

such

Britain,

recognized

in

interest
a trend

the

this

need

for

country.

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d is the p r o b l e m of the
m a r k e d o r i e n t a t i o n of the m o d e r n m e d i c a l
s t u d e n t t o w a r d p a t h o l o g y and d i a g n o s i s ,
to the n e g l e c t of the total e c o l o g y of
h e a l t h , and of the c o n c e p t s of p r e v e n ­
tion of d i s e a s e and social r e s t o r a t i o n
of the d i s a b l e d .
The intense c o m p a r t ­
m e n t al i zat i on of m e d i c a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r
and the c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e r a p e u t i c
specialties foster a certain narrowness
of m e d i c a l o u t l o o k that m a k e s m o r e d i f f ­
icult the a c h i e v e m e n t of the b est s t a n ­
d a r d s of total h e a l t h care.
If s e r v i c e
p r o g r a m s are to e m b r a c e the c o n c e p t s of
h e a l t h c o n s e r v a t i o n and c o o p e r a t i v e m e d ­
ical t e a m w o r k , the s c h o o l s m u s t p r o d u c e
h e a l t h w o r k e r s w h o u n d e r s t a n d the soci a l
and p r e v e n t i v e a s p e c t s of m e d i c i n e . 21

20.

21.

T h e f o l l o w i n g are a few of the m a n y p u b l i c a t i o n s that
have c o v e r e d this s u b j e c t s i nce the war:
Sir Edward
F a r q u h a r B u z z a r d , " S o c i a l M e d i c i n e and the G e n e r a l
P r a c t i t i o n e r , " T h e P r a c t i t i o n e r . Vol. CLI, No. 903,
S e p t e m b e r , 1943;
F r a n c e s A l b e r t E l e y Crew, " S o c i a l
M e d i c i n e as an A c a d e m i c D i s c i p l i n e , " M o d e r n T r e n d s in
Pub 1 i c flea 1 1 h . Edit, by Paul B. H o e b e r M a ssey, N e w
York: 1949;
I a g o G a l d s t o n , T h e M e a n i n ci of S o c i a l
M e d i c i n e . C a m b r i d g e : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1954;
W. H o b s o n , " W h a t Is S o c i a l M e d i c i n e ? " , B r i t i s h Med i c a 1
J o u r n a l . Vol. II, J u l y 16, 1949;
Sir Wil s on Jameson,
"War and the A d v a n c e m e n t of S o c i a l M e d i c i n e , " T h e
L a n c e t . Vol. II, No. X V II, O c t o b e r 24, 1942;
George
R o s e r n , " A p p r o a c h e s to a C o n c e p t of S o c i a l M e d i c i n e " ,
M i 1 b a n k M e m o r ia 1 F u n d Q u a r t e r l y . Vol. X X V I , No. 1,
J a n u a r y , 1948.
R i c h a r d E. W e i n e r m a n , "The Q u a l i t y of M e d i c a l C a r e " ,
T h e A n n a l s of the A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y of P o l i t i c a 1
S c i e n c e . Vol. 273, J a n u a r y , 1951, p. 186.

66

Although

some

health

and

sis

of

this

this

is

If

porate
are

chapter
the

within

Where
such

between

draw

preventive

compatible

that

would

is

the

of

starting

and

p o int

22

it

two

is

has

are

and

may

be

the

main

necessity

medicine

It

public

interdependent

public

point?

between
been

a growing

s o cial

private

a starting

physician

the

there

field

with

distinction

health,

that

case,
the

the

found

areas.

to

incor­

ideologies

health
has

the­

views.

been

in

which

the

suggested
relationship

p a t ient.

W h o is r e s p o n s i b l e for the p r o p e r c o n ­
c e p t i o n and e x e c u t i o n of t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s ?
T h e y fall, for the m o s t part, upon the
family health adviser.
U s u a l l y this p e r ­
son is the p r i v a t e p h y s i c i a n , w h o aids
and g u i d e s all m e m b e r s of the f a m i l y in
all m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g to i n d i v i d u a l
h e a l t h p r o t e c t i o n .23
If

this

change

is

to

must

take

occur

place,
through

it
the

is b e l i e v e d
education

by
of

some
the

tha t

medical

dent.
M e d i c a l e d u c a t i o n as it is f o r m u l a t e d
now c o n s t i t u t e s a g e s t a l t into w h i c h
s o c i a l m e d i c i n e c a n n o t be fitted.
For
social m e d i c i n e a l s o r e p r e s e n t s a g e s ­
talt, and it is n ot f u s i b l e w i t h s p e c i fi c i s t , c u r a t i v e m e d i c i n e .
This does
not i m p l y tha t soci a l m e d i c i n e d e p r e ­
c a t e s or r e j e c t s the t h e r a p e u t i c c o m ­
p e t e n c e s of c u r a t i v e m e d i c i n e .
It only
a f f i r m s tha t the g e s t a l t of s o cial m e d ­
i c ine can a b s o r b that of c u r a t i v e m e d ­
icine, but that the r e v e r s e is i m p o s s ­
ible. 24

22.
23.
24.

G a l d s t o n , Iago, o p . c i t .
W i l s o n G. S m i l l i e , P r e v e n t i ve Med ic i ne a nd
H ^ a l t h . N e w York: M a c m i l l a n , 1946, p. 5.
G a l d s t o n , Iago, oj). c i t . . p.
90.

Public

the
stu­

07

Since

the

trend

statement,
health,
effort

it

seems

which

are

between

engaged

in

in m e d i c a l
rather

aimed

those

an

important

an

important

bear

certain

that

future

providing
in

agent

of

the

for

curative

medicine,

change

process

would

engaged

preventive

as

at

history

must

and

above
in

coordinated

medicine

and

those

the

physician

he

receives,

education

movement

the

trends

a more

consider

the

entire

out

towards

social

med i c i n e .
COMMUNITY
The
growing

HOSPITALS
trend

ing

K.

and

Kellogg

as

States

the

for

the

purpose

struction

of

health

The

for
of

these

organized

the

of

last

of

relations.

in

hospital

The

has

Survey

such

national

the

public

for
was

of

the
the

25

Serv­

United

Construction
and

state

construction.

called

been

as,

Fund.

been
and

has

through

agencies,

change

Hospital

hospitals

years

the C o m m o n w e a l t h

a program

local

hospitals

few

certain

and

agency

government.
provided

26.

efforts

greatest

has

25.

during

Foundation

Act

munity

community

importance

sponsorship
W.

in

a new
now

26

The

effort
called

aid
con­

in

com­

upon

to

Paul A . M i l l e r , jejt. jil_. , C o m m u n i t v O r n a n i zat ion F o r
H e a l t h : Selected R e f e r e n c e s . Social Science Research
S e r v i c e , D e p a r t m e n t of S o c i o l o g y and A n t h r o p o l o g y ,
M i c h i g a n S t a t e C o l l e g e , F a s t L a n s i n g , M i c h i g a n , 1950,
p. 11.
C o n g r e s s of the U n i t e d S t a t e s , " H o s p i t a l S u r v e y and
C o n s t r u c t i o n A c t " , " P u b l i c L a w 725", Un i ted S t a t e s
S t a t u t e s At L a r g e , W a s h i n g t o n , D. C.: U. S. G o v e r n m e n t
P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Vol. 60, Par t I, pp. 1 0 4 0 - 4 9 .

38

take

the

through

responsibility
taxation.

The

hospital

construction

stake

such

on

in

the

part

of

domain

of

has

led

new

in

patterns

f a ced

the

can

no

HEALTH

INSURANCE

for

health

taken

many

ple

years,

some

health
can

has
care

be

companies
erative

as

insurance

been
in

plans

area,
or

which

such
at

in

been

New

s o lved

and

which

lowest

the

individual

be

of m e d i c i n e .

through
tried

the

to

for

one,
first

provide

life.

An

ade­

prepayment
number

Private

family

plans

with

varying

instituted

now

a steady

maximum

cost.

result

must

divisions

call

either

a segmentalized

although

will

as

profession,

problems

through

a

involvement

inevitably

have

in

them with

defined

everyday

that

citizens

medical

t u rns

people
their

a way
the

the

institutions

the

once

will

movement,

sought

offered
have

an

twists

security

local

Furthermore,

preventive

the A m e r i c a n

covered
have

be

and

sporadic

health

plan

longer

such

provided

sentiments.

curative

The

quate
of

the

in

for

of

has

enterprise

health

in

forty

public

relationships

belief

has

involvement
programs

private

of

which

providing

enterprises.^^

the

to

of

of

peo­

insurance
while

coop­

degrees

of

Q Q

success

by

cases

have

cause

of

27.
23.

special
failed

high

cost

interest
to

solve

and

g r oups.
the

limited

problem

Such
of

coverage.

plans

health

in m a n y
needs

Non-profit

Paul A. M i l l e r , C o m mun i t v H e a l t h A c t i o n . E a s t
M i c h i g a n : M i c h i g a n S t a t e C o l l e g e Press, 1953.
M i l l e r , ,e_t.
, j0 £. c i t . . pp. 15-16.

be­

and

Lansing,

89

voluntary
purpose
been

health

of

organizations

reducing

done,

frequently,

legislative

acts.

29

limited

since

quately

protected.

more

general

and

more

part
years
sue,

of

plans

were

cine

has

Such

a fear

dualisms

29.

30.

Compulsory
insurance
has

by

the

a great
the

dominant

health

has

are

not

health

itself.

margin.

of

concern

way

of

lif e

sacredness

of

the

The

has

30

by

though
fear

in

in

the

political

the A m e r i c a n

medical

been

Only

resistance

expressed

to

compulsory

evidenced
eve n

ade­

led

is­

both
such

that

socialization

the
of

has

a serious

plan,

eventual

deal

plans

has

s t ate
found

insurance

been

This

are

a national

it b e c o m e

a narrow

to

for

movement

seriousness

lead

the

pressure

the

these

above

indicates

and

as

the

defeated

the

such

certain

in

a national

provided

preserving

cases

of

discontent

This

a program would

support

population

the w a r

offering

the

for

coverage.

the

health

however.

increasing

formed

of

increased

following

parties

by

been

numbers

program.

the

and

Even

large

The

insurance

cost

h ave

such

of m e d i ­

in

the

people

past.
in

indivi-

profession.

It

See: O d i n A n d e r s o n , S t a t e E n a b l i no Leai slat ion F or
N o n - P r o f i t H o s p i t a l and Med ical P l a n s . S c h o o l of P u b ­
lic H e a l t h , P u b l i c H e a l t h E c o n o m i c R e s e a r c h S e r i e s ,
No. 1, A n n A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n , 1944; a lso
C u y B e n j a m i n N e r r e n , " T h e O r i g i n and D e v e l o p m e n t of
V o l u n t a r y , N o n - P r o f i t H e a l t h I n s u r a n c e in M i s s i s s i p p i " ,
U n p u b l i s h e d M.A. T h e s i s , D e p a r t m e n t of S o c i o l o g y and
R u r a l Life, M i s s i s s i p p i S t a t e C o l l e g e , 1954.
Odin Anderson, "C om pu ls or y Medical Ca re Insurance,
1 9 1 0 - 1 9 5 0 " , T h e A n n a l s of the A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y of
P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e . Vol. 273, J a n u a r y 1951, pp. 1 0 6 - 1 1 3 .

90

is

significant

chief
T he

opponent

private

dualism
in

t hat

our

of

any

found

in

the

remains

a

health

symbol

relationship

Association

of

between

is

the

insurance

p r o gram.

the

indivi­

basic

patient

and

doctor

s o c iety.

desire

some

apparent

form

that

prevailing

a large
of

such

health

compulsory

s t ill

far

adequate

protection

from

and

pe o p l e ,
are

interested

in

change

the

next

movement

as

the
few

apt

years,

is

indicates

a radical

change

in

Since

reaching

the
its

care

that

to

no

insurance

ultimate

occur

the
in

of

large

of

bulk

of

s h ared

a movement.
health

better

the A m e r i c a n

goal

sentiments

such

reshaping
do

health

for

parallel

and

in

do

it

c o uld

it d e v e l o p s

people

and

changes

health

the A m e r i c a n
insurance

medical

concerning

of

health

sentiments.

is

American

portion

a desire

movement

ing

Medical

nationalized

physician

Nevertheless

the

the A m e r i c a n

than

Those

values

dur­

observe

this

s o c iety.

SUMMARY
It

has

cerning

health

historical
this

way

sight
ican

been
in

themes

the y

into

s h own

have

the

our
of

in

society

chapter
are

individualism

formed

basic

thi s

patterns

values

held

that

sentiments

found

interwoven

and

collectivism.

which

toward

in

con­
the
In

allow

us

some

health

in

the

in­
Amer­

culture.
Individualism

private
public

medical
health

has

become

practice

are

seen

to

closely

while
be

associated

sentiments

more

closely

with

associated
related

to

the
with

91

collectivism.
in

the

divisions

vancements
and

as

tiv e

In m e d i c i n e

are

these

action

pe o p l e .

wil l

That

the

munity

hospital

made

by

unlikely

relations,

that

they

orientations

velopments

will

the

cess

private

of

such

chapter
ments

has
of

form

within

fested

in

been

for

of

a greater

American

are

accepting

growth

of

will

be

wil l

social

the

In

all
in

play

thi s

chal­

health

of h e a l t h

supported

collec­

medicine,

compulsory

areas

medicine

of

people

such

ad­

of

part

the

Rapid

degree

the

and

cleavage

preventive

on

alone.

physician

their

preventive.

area

re-interpreted

health
t he

them.

observed.

here.

in

sentiments

historical

patterns

sentiments

education

treated

of

around

and

be

the

fin d

terms

probability
of

a large

insur­

are d e v e l o p i n g ,

in

themes

com­

of
such

de­

individualism

part

in

the

pro­

re-interpretation.

Patterns
clustered

the

Although

and

occur,

American

collective

and

in

called

evidenced

movement.

is

be

themes

curative

advancements

is

it

the

being

lenge,

ance

of

such

the

Such

which

same

themes
carry

next
way

in

the

chapter
that

then,

treated
many

social
will

health

in

to

have

the

last

conflicting

conflicting elements
0

expressed
The

are -seen,

will

be

ele­
mani-

system which

treat

sentiments

sentiments

were

CHAPTER
EMERGING

As
of

in

the

case

educational

spective.
upon

the

SENTIMENTS

of

emerging

content

Education
basic

IV

must

in

themes

any

of

be

IN E D U C A T I O N

health

sentiments,

understood

particular

that

in

sentiments

historical

culture

per­

is d e p e n d e n t

cu l t u r e .

T h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s , even w i t h i n a
small e d u c a t i o n a l unit like the family, d e ­
pend to a high d e g r e e on the s p i r i t of the
l a r g e r soci a l b o d y in w h i c h the p e r s o n s are
living.
A n y c h a n g e in the p o l i t i c a l , e c o ­
n omic, or s o cial s t r u c t u r e of this l a r g e r
group, like the n a t ion, d e e p l y a f f e c t s not
o n l y the o r g a n i z a t i o n of e d u c a t i o n , but its
w h o l e s p i r i t and t e c h n i q u e as w e l l . . . T i m e s
of p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e show v e r y i m p r e s s i v e l y
t he h i g h d e g r e e to w h i c h e d u c a t i o n , in n e a r ­
ly all of its a s p e c t s , d e p e n d s upon the
so cial s t r u c t u r e of the group.
It s e ems to
be e a s i e r for s o c i e t y to c h a n g e e d u c a t i o n
than for e d u c a t i o n to c h a n g e s o c i e t y . I
The

ver y

the

process

itself

nature

this

learning

of

change

in

a constant

cess

1.

of

from

symbol

process

knowledge

human

development

education.

is d e r i v e d

child,**

the

of

of

since

carries

which

of

the
the

state

education

in

the

very
of

the

Latin

e d u c a r e . "to

with

It

K u r t Lewin, R e s o l v i n g
thers, 1940, pp. 3-4.

it

for

formation

society

Social

meaning

the

one

also

c h ange.

any

been

Since

allows

past.

has

of

of

generation
for

ideas

Therefore,

a
human

pass

on

dimension

themselves

although

is d e p e n d e n t

up
the

to

the

are

upon

education

bring

content

calls
of

dependent

the

upon

the

C o n f l i c t s . Harper

and

pro­

Bro­

93

transmission
wisdom

of

of

the

past

past

tradition,

experience

and

the

it

carries

suggestions

with
of

it

the

necessary

c h a nge.

O R I G I N OF E D U C A T I O N

cine

The

origin

of

and

health

c are

origin

of m an

education
the

of

the

societies
for

of

gods.

and
of

technologies

on

to

innovations
As
were

ety

asto be

necessity,
available

not
the
by

ritual

usually

flourished
generation

societies

could

were

contributed

available

sition

of

were

those

fit

for

read

the

by

became

to

the

who
such

transmission

means

of

any

more

the

by w o r d
was

basically

in

and

ritual

more

upon

priests

and/or

experience

for

the

a written

experts

or

with

to

the
to the

the m a n y

elders.

Also

would' pass

combined

with

generation.

books
such

func­

called

necessary

craftsmen

a few

the

rite

expiation

information.

of

and

so

Early

pre-literate

acquainted

life,

of

than

of mouth.

contemporary

but

the

considered

maintained

nor w r i t e

with

process

expert

literate

of m e d i ­

the

past

the

case

emerging

primitive

a culture dependent

experts

next

in

the

stages

heritage

found

experts

as

early

been

even

minutia

as

the

but

These

Such

common

as w a s

assumed

knowledge

complexities

experts.

existence

this

then,

its

have

past

family

the

variations

of

be
In

hardly

transmission

tion

can

himself.

could

transmission

education,

or

records

a suitable

The

mass

of

po­
soci­

few w h o

f o u n d it

language

became

teachers.

The

rich

a

and

94

the

royalty

order

to
As

came

and

civilizations

became

more

inheritance

limited

The

republic
ry

laid

m uch
the

the

on

same.

slaves

part

citizenry

and

of

Plato

in

the

w as

once

subjected

again

masses

t hat

our

as we

k now

it

were

the

had

not

the

of m a s s

Through

ideal

citizen­

period

k n own

to

to­

necessary

realize

confined

fostered

education

it w a s

growth

in

of e d u c a ­

ideas

mass

the G r e e k s

be­

Greece

the

to

in

teaching

process

that

order

with

as

the

the

civilization.

education
It

of

such

ancient

citizens

educated

responsibilities.

education,

foundation

the

western

Empire

in

of

were

complex

Although

in d i m e n s i o n s

throughout

the R o m a n

the

clerks

religious

a classical

children

educated

grew

It w a s

emerged.

to

belief

an

of

world,

the G r e e k s

have

and

public

v;as

day.
to

them

scribes

for

western

tion
by

fit

with

institutionalized.

first
the

along

of

it w as

citizens

considered

and

in

such

a process.
V,'ith
the

the

Middle

A g es,

past

receded

ical

maintained
the

fall

the

knowledge

knowledge

had

attainments
f o und

in

todians
heritage

of

of

the R o m a n

learning
to

proper
t he

been

b ut

the

of

of

knowledge

of g r a m m a r ,

the

ancient
with

existed

in

and,
life

world.
the
in

the

here,
could

Much

decline

of
of

the w e s t e r n

the

church

and

they

passed

on

rhetoric,

and

beginning

transmission

monastery

position

lost

what

hands

the

and

Empire

of

the C l a s s ­

those
be

the

logic,

the

past

world

and

main

in

ancient
cultural

was

brotherhoods.
for

who

trained

the

of

As

part

theology.

to be
cus­
a
More

concerned
theology
this

with
than

period

condition
false
w as

w as

held

incubation

at

this

growing

Medieval

found

of E n l i g h t e n m e n t .
the

fact

cepted

that

knowledge

occurred
ability
bee n

to

and

mankind.

seek

people

heritage

were

It wa s
could

of

capable

Locke

realize

is

all

2.

the

i m ply

would,

that

of

of

such

course,

and

the

the

the

a

be

education

concern
of

In
of

of

the

to

the

of

and

past

it

entire
Ages

the

and

extreme

the

and

ac­
which

individuals
had

that
mass

the

those

of

never
know­

of

church

that.the

interpretation
intact

few

thought

the

denied

of

the A g e

the

the G r e e k s ,

Middle

knowledge

of

in

o f ‘the

the

of

custodian

belief

time

period

during

hands

revolution

truth.

the

classical

expression
in

remained

circumspect

John

to

of

To

education

mass

truth.

who

resistance

ques­
of

the

church.

capacities
voi d

the

during

of A q u i n a s

it w e r e

established

ience

find

interpreter

full

fundamental

emergence

of

tioned

the

day,

With

the

the

science

the

remained

w as

the

The

even

modern

learning

the

and

one

against

learning

became
the

of

static.

of

institutionalized

knowledge,

static

its

church

grew with

thought,

ledge

With

the

in

a sound

time.

reaction

learning,

of

somewhat

a completely

t he

occuring

maintenance

a progression

was

since

The

the

f ind

who

truth
suc h

i d eas

at

suggested
and

that

truth.
birth

2

that

he w as

Locke
and

J o h n Locke, "An E s s a y C o n c e r n i n g
T h e W o r k s of J o h n L o c k e . Lo n d o n :
1812, Vol. I, C h a p t e r s I and II.

m an
born

states

that

through

the

with

that

e q ual

the

primary

exper­

min d
capacity

Human Un derstanding,"
J. J o h n s o n and C o . ,

96

of

the

the

human

mind

impressions

outward

is

the

made

objects

or

on

by

"intellect's
it,

its

either

own

ability

through

operations

to

the

when

receive

senses
it

by

reflects

3
on

them."

Jean

Following

Jacques

human

Rous-seau

learning

which

in

the

tradition

provided
lent

an

itself

of

the

extreme
to

the

Enlightenment,

interpretation

principles

of

of

Locke.

R o u s s e a u ' s t h e o r y of e d u c a t i o n is a plea
for n a t u r a l e d u c a t i o n , for the f r e e d e v e l ­
o p m e n t of the c h i l d ' s n a t u r a l and u n s p o i l ­
ed i m p u l s e s .
I n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d not b e g i n
u n til the d e s i r e for k n o w l e d g e arises.
H e n c e , e d u c a t i o n m u s t be l a r g e l y n e g a t i v e ,
c o n s i s t i n g In the r e m o v a l of u n f a v o r a b l e
c o n d i t i o n s , a task r e q u i r e s the g r e a t e s t
c a r e . . . T h e s e ideas are not i n c o n s i s t e n t
with Locke's principles.
If the soul is
by n a t u r e an e m p t y tablet, then men are by
n a t u r e equal, and d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the m
are the r e s u l t of e x t e r n a l c a u s e s of all
k i n d s as Ilelvetious has a l r e a d y taught.
E d u c a t i o n and the social e n v i r o n m e n t b e c o m e
the m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u m e n t s for the p e r ­
f e c t i o n of the h u m a n r a c e . 4
The

glorification

of

the

realizing

the

potential

education

was

the

the
to

entire
the

wit h

the G r e e k s ,

f u ted

during

the

capacities

outgrowth

process

tradition

individual

of

of

the

of

the

growth

education

in

scholasticized
reformation

and

in

and
of
A ge

the

importance

individuals
of

such

through

Enlightemnent,
beliefs

the w e s t e r n
during

of

the

owes

world,

Middle

flourishing

in

itself

starting

Ages,

this

but

Age

re­
of

Enlightenment.

3.
4*

F r a n k T h i l l y and L e d g e r Wood, ^ H i s t o r y of P h i l o s o p h y ,
N e w York: H e n r y H o l t & Co., 1951, C h a p t e r XIII, p. 335.
I b i d . . C h a p t e r XIV, pp. 408-4 0 9 .

97

The

Age

incipient
this
and

growth

period
the

t he

in

that

that

philosophy
education

led

in an
we

had

the

to

in

in

a major

Culture

Revolution

realizing

the

could

emergence

true

upon

in

and

not

It
of

potential

which

found

separated

then

under­

Jeffersonian

importance

of

of

colonization

be

is

the

the

the

thinking

Theories

populace.

individualism

the

growth

revolution.

the

effect

since

general

educated

find

beliefs
in

with

the A m e r i c a n

belief

standable

of A m e r i c a n

coincided

unrest

expression
from

of E n l i g h t e n m e n t

of

individual

capacities.
EDUCATION
The

IN A M E R I C A
notion

American

to
had

to

was

in

thi s

existed

f o und
his

The

Massachusetts

School

dation

for

the

free

years

in

the

even

early

The

of

of

before
Law

sort

colonial

be
of

of

1 647
that

had

laid
has

the
If

the

the

ca­

possible
nation

Jefferson's

schools

United

with

it w o u l d

a different

ever.

system

part

endowed

environment,

with

the

notion

was

by Thomas. J e f f e r s o n .

naturally

new world
b e f ore.

populace

cerned

through

this

to

educated

fostered

to be

adjust

create
ever

an

philosophy

individual
pacity

of

than

been

con­

time,

how­

the

foun­

existed

States.

It B e i n g one c h i e f e p r o i e c t of y e ould
d e l u d e r , S a t a n to k e e p e men f r o m the
k n o w l e d g e of y e S c r i p t u r e s , as in f o r m r
times by k e e p i n g y m in an u n k n o w n tongue,
so in t h e s e l a t t r t i m e s by p e r s w a d i n g f r o m
y e use of t o n g u e s , yt so at l e a s t y c true
s e nce & m e a n i n g of y e o r i g i n a l l m i g h t be
c l o u d e d by f a l s e g l o s s e s of s a int s e e m i n g

90

d e c e i v e r s , y* l e a r n i n g may not be b u r i e d
in y e g r a v e of o r f a t h r s in y e c h u r c h and
c o m m o n w e a l t h , the Lord a s s i s t i n g or en ­
deavors,-It is t h e r e f o r e o r d r ed, yt e v r y t o w n e s h i p in this i u r i s d i c t i o n , a f t r y e Lord hat
i n c r e a s e d y m n u m b e r to 50 h o u s h o l d r s , shall
t h e n forthwl*1 a p p o i n t one w*-*1 in t h e i r t o w n e
to t e a c h all such c h i l d r e n as shall r e s o r t
to h im to w r i t e & reade, w h o s e w a g e s shall
be paid e i t h r by y© p a r e n t s or m a s t r s of
such c h i l d r e n , or by y e i n h a b i t a n t s in
g e n r all, by w a y of supply, as y e m a i o r part
of t h o s e y* o r d r y e p r u d e n t i a l s y e t o w n e
shall a p p o i n t ; p r o v i d e d , t h o s e yt send t h e i r
c h i l d r e n by not o p p r e s s e d by p a y i n g m u c h
m o r e ym t h e y can hav e y m t a u g h t for in o t h r
townes; & it is f u r t h r or d e r e d , y t w h e r e any
t o w n e shall i n c r e a s e to y e n u m b r of 100 f a m ­
i l ies b e i n g a b l e to i n s t r u c t y o u t h so f a r r as
the y shall be f i t t e d for y e u n i v e r s i t y , p r o ­
vided, yt if any t o w n e n e g l e c t y e p e r f o r m a n c e
h e r e o f a b o v e one yeare, y* e v e r y such t o w n e
shall pay 5 p o u n d s to y e next s c h o o l e till
t h e y shall p e r f o r m e this o r d e r . ^
The

very

early

colonization

phasized

the

necessity

emphasis

was

put

of

the

order

individual

upon
to

f or

interpret

the

truth

this

emphasis

was

only

from

the

natural
nent

5.

rights

would

and
part

and

doctrines

change

much

of

in A m e r i c a n

an e d u c a t e d

religious

to g a i n

reformation

period

and

scriptures

thereby
of

citizenry.

experience
the

the

history
True

the

resulted

enlightenment,

and

fostered

unconquered

the

by

early

an

provincial

in

However,

that
the

the

necessity

himself,

salvation.
thinking

em­

growth

in

conti­

colonial

" M a s s a c h u s e t t s S c h o o l L a w of 1 6 4 7 , " H e n r y S t e e l e
C o m m a g e r , e d ., D o c u m e n t s of A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y . N e w
A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , Inc., 1950, d o c u m e n t no.

York:
20.

99

thinking
less

to

concerned

concerned
Such

with

institutional

adaptation

to

a new

be

individualism,

as

described

new

nation

that
with

a rigorous

emerged

in

the
such

f o und

transmission
growth.

the A m e r i c a n
ones

An
and

upon

the

part

of m a n y

even

a classical

with

the

a European

in

of

be

certain
of

rather

of

European

Universities

There

even

were

serious

and
be

it

in

is

con­

than

to

upon

education,

patterned
these

intense

a proper

obtained

Jeffer­

adaptability

life

but

more

I.

would

upon

pattern

that

of

growth

knowledge

existence

c o uld

program

with

and

nation.

ideals

in C h a p t e r

frontier

Americans

growing

the

emphasis

ideology.

nature

elimination

of

culture.

were

of A m e r i c a n

in

a philosophy

struggles

and

pre-occupied

institutionalized

European

stamp

was

agricultural

a carefully

within

past

philosophy,

to

natural

after

a national

w as

The

cerned

of

with

a philosophy

sonian

the

that

bor e
feelings

education
this

drawbacks

of

country
included

training.

. . . B u t w h y send an A m e r i c a n y o u t h to
E u r o p e for e d u c a t i o n ?
W h a t are the o b ­
j e c t s of an u s e f u l A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n ?
C l a s s ic a l knowledge, modern languages,
c h i e f l y F r e n c h , S p a n i s h , and Italian;
M a t h e m a t i c s , N a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , I mean
to i n c l u d e C h e m i s t r y and A g r i c u l t u r e , and
in N a t u r a l h i s t o r y , to i n c l u d e B o t any, as
w e l l as the o t h e r b r a n c h e s of t h o s e d e ­
partments.
It is true that the h a b i t of
s p e a k i n g the m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s c a n n o t be
so w e l l a c q u i r e d in A m e r i c a ; but e v e r y
o t h e r a r t i c l e can be as w e l l a c q u i r e d at
W i l l i a m and M a r y c o l l e g e , as at any p l ace
in E u r o p e . . . Let us v i e w the d i s a d v a n t a g e s
of s e n d i n g a y o u t h to E u r o p e . . . He a c q u i r e s

100

a f o n d n e s s for E u r o p e a n l u x u r y and d i s ­
s i p a t i o n , and a c o n t e m p t for the s i m p l i ­
cit y of his own co u n t r y ; he is f a s c i n a t e d
w i t h the p r i v i l e g e s of the E u r o p e a n
a r i s t o c r a t s , and sees, w i t h a b h o r r e n c e ,
the l o v e l y e q u a l i t y w h i c h the poor e n j o y
w i t h the rich, in his own country; he
c o n t r a c t s a p a r t i a l i t y for a r i s t o c r a c y
or m o n a r c h y ; he f o r m s f o r e i g n f r i e n d s h i p s
w h i c h w i l l n e v e r be usef u l to him, and
lose the s e a s o n s of life for fo r m i n g , in
his own c o u n t r y t h o s e f r i e n d s h i p s whic h ,
of all others, are the m o s t f a i t h f u l and
p e r m a n e n t ; he is led, by the s t r o n g e s t of
all h u m a n p a s s i o n s , into a s p i r i t for f e ­
m a l e i n t r i g u e , d e s t r u c t i v e of his own and
o t h e r s h a p p i n e s s or a p a s s i o n for w h ore,
d e s t r u c t i v e of his health, and in b o t h
c a s e s l e a r n s to c o n s i d e r f i d e l i t y to the
m a r r i a g e bed as an u n g e n t l e m a n l y p r a c t i c e ,
and i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h a p p i n e s s . . . h e r e ­
turns to his own country, a f o r e i g n e r ,
u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the p r a c t i c e s of d o m e s ­
tic e c o n o m y , n e c e s s a r y to p r e s e r v e him from
ruin, s p e a k i n g and w r i t i n g his n a t i v e
t o n g u e as a f o r e i g n e r , and t h e r e f o r e u n q u a ­
l i f i e d to o b t a i n t h o s e d i s t i n c t i o n s , w h i c h
e l o q u e n c e of the pen and t o n g u e e n s u r e s in
a f r e e c o u n t r y . . . C a s t y our eye over A m e r ­
ica: w h o are the men of m o s t le a r n i n g , of
m o s t e l o q u e n c e , m o s t b e l o v e d by t h e i r c o u n ­
t r y m e n and m ost t r u s t e d and p r o m o t e d by
them?
T h e y are t h o s e w h o have bee n e d u c a t e d
a m o n g them, and w h o s e m a n n e r s , m o r a l s , and
habits, are p e r f e c t l y h o m o g e n e o u s w i t h t h o s e
of the c o u n t r y . ^
RELEVANT

Since
of

educational

ture

6.

this

being

chapter

EDUCATIONAL

is

sentiments

observed,

MOVEMENTS

concerned
emerging

it w o u l d

be

with

within

relevant
the

impossible

to

patterns

s o cial
follow

struc­
the

T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n , " L e t t e r to J, B a n n i s t e r , O c t o b e r 15,
1 7 0 5 , " H e n r y S t e e l e C o m m a g e r , L i v i n g I d e a s in A m e r i c a .
N e w York: H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 1951, pp. 5 5 7 - 5 5 0 .

101

trends

which

mentioned

have

in

the

resulted
growth

of

public

school

system

cation

are

themselves

ysis.

What

those

trends

gence

of

pattern
this

in

most

reason

phasized

the

the

useful

Further

it

ticular

type

is

general

the

necessary

of

however,

more

to

education,

emphasizes

of

as

only

which

health

role

be

from

an

the

a small

time
part

the
of

of

the
For
em­

us.

that

With

clear why

emer­

of a p a r ­

education

activity.

are

has

concerns

the

anal­

system.

knowledge

m ost

understand

it will

social

education

a body

such

demonstrate

the

edu­

and

understandable

in

community

stated,

in A m e r i c a n

point,

that

entire

compulsory

this

the m a s s e s

education

picture

p r e sent,

to

of

The

study

in A m e r i c a n

nature

considerations
trend

make

of

in A m e r i c a .

enormous

manifested

trend

of

at

developments

of

education

transmission

ticular

the

us

which

previous

development

objects

in A m e r i c a n

sentiments

the

education

the

concerns

sentiments
of

and

from

a par­
p l ays

in

these
following

Jefferson
the

to

total

movement.
The
the

20th

years

century

position.
tion
to

an

ending

coming

saw

Perhaps
of

age w h e r e

age.

it

the

19th

a shift

in

actually
The

critical

period

century

and

those

the A m e r i c a n
was

the

beginning

philosophical

philosophical

of R o m a n t i c i s m w a s

considerations

of

social

posi­

shifting
problems

102

ru l e d
The

over

beliefs

in

Transcendentalism

radical
was

no

change
longer

Pragmatism.

and

The

struggle

between

man

to

the

thinking

in

the

hands

fie v o t e d

such

little
an

merely

of

on

of

the

absolute

century

Into

this

philosophy

his

was

J a mes

and

and

f u n d a m e n t a l 'belief

to

scientific

advancement

could

ultimately

prove

doubt

emphasis
shifted

contemplation

on

the

would

the

part
lead

emphasis

of w h a t

of
to

limited

of

introduced
new

the

It w as

interpretation

John

D e wey,

were

in a p r a c t i c a l
as

long

as

pragmatist

truths.

d o in o rather
this

life,

such

early

or d i r e c t e d

the

fundamental

workable.^

basic

to

practical

itself

the

upon

was

hardly

its

later,

a

of J e f f e r s o n

beliefs

pioneer

undergone

period

environment.

early

ideals.^

had

agrarianism

Jeffersonian

and

the

of

19th

romantic

of W i l l i a m

proclamations

was

the

pragmatic
up

advancement

reality

unquestioned.

brought

life

of

the

American

a

the

There
that

Pragmatism
than

on

the

doing.

...'I he d i v i s i o n of the w o r l d into two kinds
of being, one s u p e r i o r , a c c e s s i b l e only to
r e a s o n and ideal in nature, the o t h e r i n f e r ­
ior, m a t e r i a l , c h a n g e a b l e , e m p i r i c a l , a c c e s ­
sible to so u s e - o b s e r v a t i o n , t u rns i n e v i t a b l y
i nt o the idea that k n o w l e d g e is c o n t e m p l a t i v e
in n a t u r e .
It a s s u m e s a c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n
t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e w h i c h was all to the d i s ­
a d v a n t a g e of the l a t ter.
But in the actual
c o u r s e of the d e v e l o p m e n t of scien c e , a t r e ­
m e n d o u s c h a n g e has come about.
V.'hen p r a c t i c e

T.

F a r r i n g t o n , ^ojg. c i t ., (See: Vol. Ill,
of C r i t i c a l R e a l i s m in A m e r i c a " ) .

P.

Commager,

jjjg.

c i t . . 1950,

pp.

90-107.

"The

Beginnings

103

of k n o w l e d g e c e a s e d to be d i a l e c t i c a l and
became experimental, knowing became pre­
o c c u p i e d w i t h c h a n g e s and the test of
k n o w l e d g e b e c a m e the a b i l i t y to b r i n g
about cer ta in changes.
K n o w i n g , for the
e x p e r i m e n t a l sci e n c e s , m e a n s a c e r t a i n
kind of i n t e l l i g e n t l y c o n d u c t e d doing; it
c e a s e s to be c o n t e m p l a t i v e and b e c o m e s in
a t r u e s e n s e practical.*^
Pragmatism,

then,

herited

spirit

the

dentalism
is

by

could

and

and

it

justify

answer

to

the

This
ments

that

people

to m a k e

towards
provided
timents.
these

which

practical.

it d r e w

of

knowing

(that
in

which

the

material

education

for

all,

education

practical

problems

gav e

more

available

the w o r l d
such

sentiments

around

which

at

them

educational

the

the

o p ened

them.

of

with

new

this

chapter

are

the

carried

implications

of

to

relevant

with

living.

wil l
to

turn
of

of

and
be
the

the

practical
more

move­
cen­

the A m e r i c a n

and

Although

beliefs

mus t

citizens.

the d e m a n d

science

movements

the A m e r i c a n
rest

to

such

all

life

expressed

as

of

impetous

in A m e r i c a n

abundant

since

in­

from T r a n s c e n ­

knowledge

beyond

It

system which

social

The

is

the

a philosophical

into

the

frontier,

a division

movements

technological,

in

for

appeared

inquiry

faith

provided

occurred

These

of

the

that

philosophy

tury.

which

of

accepting

M knowable"

sense),

expressed

them

knowledge
more

avenues

dominantly
an

Such

appeal

movements

accompanying
concerned
problem

of

sen­

with
the

d i s sertat io n .

9.

John
Holt

Dewey, R e c o n s t r u c t i o n
and C o m p a n y , 1920, p.

In P h i l o s o p h y . N e w
121.

York:

Henry

104

THE

L YC EU M AND
The

masses

CHAUTAUOUA

quest

for

fostered
during

popular

education

children.

ledge

how

the

the

to

nineteenth

adapt

might

make

a constant

stage

of

the

process

of

s c i ence.

to

the

States.

The

Lyceum

that

public

tablished.
schools,

for

the

of

taken
well

over
as

function

10.

the

of L y c e u m s

and

if

findings
on

and

library
and

of

century

improving

museums.

w as

the

From

United
to

had

for

of

been

es­

public
and

adults.

of E d u c a t i o n

school
time

systems
on

at

time

facilities,

groups

this

States

the

improve

Boards

arrangement

through

the

to

the

the

in

and m u s e u m

discussion

for

in

Chautauqua

in the

was

was

the

systems

purpose

know­

of

library

the

the

part

s c hool

and

through

offered

the

of

as

successful

prior

nineteenth

and

learn

necessary

a concern

occurred

as w e l l

century

function

libraries

to

more

of a p p l i e d

a movement

adults

it w as

Lyceum

the A m e r i c a n

nineteenth

lectures
the

to

if man was

latest

Such

up a d e q u a t e

to a r r a n g e
middle

the

Generally,

set

the

of

findings
led

adaptation

movement^

of

and

environment

successful

the b e g i n n i n g
adequate

with

part

include

progression,

touch

United

to

his

this

in

lead

the

century

that

to

to be

public

was

natural

that

adult

u pon

achievement

which

It w as

education

knowledge

by

science

MOVEMENTS

the

lectures

By
had

as

major

and

a

Paul II. J o h n s t o n e , "Old I d e a s V e r s u s N e w I d e a s In F a r m
Life", F a r m e r s In & C h a n g i n g W o r l d . Y e a r Book of A g r i ­
c u l t u r e , W a s h i n g t o n B.C.: U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g
Of f i c e , 1940, p. 135.

general
were

adult

often

co u n t r y .
as

an

found
For

had

many

years

degenerated

with

the

development

The

Chautauqua

tieth

and

at

the

of

the

at

remained

and

began
the

series

and

many

and

years

this

the

agricultural
still

was

remaining

the

the

twen­

te a c h e r s .

rural
same

of

America

organization

principle
Institute
granted
more

appeal
of

of

adult

re­

degrees

oriented

was

to

tremendous

rural

educational

Midwest.

however,
being

institutions.

school

became

center

the

of

purpose

the

it

the

of

advan­

Its

remained

turn

the

eventually

itself

disappeared

Institute

the

but

exist

the C h a u t a u q u a

entertainment.

in

the

through
not

but

quarter

Sunday

was

and

movement

period,

masses

for

to

pic t u r e s .

The Chautauqua

inclined

especially

During

motion

in

Chautauqua

same.

century

f i rst

and

of

continued

during

spread

century

the

the C h a u t a u q u a

ulation

radio

that

Lake

academically

for

to a m e a n s

twentieth

teachers

movement

turn

lecture

tion

commercialization

1074

institute

in t e r e s t ,

nineteenth

in

as

for

the

L ake C h a u t a u q u a
of

the

end

the

movement

through

of

n ear

found

the

while

the

parts

primarily

is

during

mained

of

the

toured

scholars

functioned

origin

education

education

entire

movement

Its

Chautauqua

the

but

and

American

movement

through

of

continued

century.

founded

The

part

the

century

cing

early

The

Prominent

programs

this

program

entertainment.

during

program.

on L y c e u m

educational

century
of

education

same

expressed

With

r u ral

the

and

the

in

bulk

gaining

interest
the
of

in

growth

educa­
of

state

the A m e r i c a n

their

support

pop­

from

106

the
be
THE

land,

any

oriented

to

in

practical

the

in

interest

population

Lyceum

pression

and

the

of e d u c a t i o n

Chautauqua

contemporary

that

occurred

The

growing

Un ion

the

establishment

for

finally

led

of

public

of

the C i v i l

to

manifested

the

Homestead
for

states

at

Morrill

the

Act.*^
of

of

the

Union

education

for

the

30,000

12.

13.

acres

of

land
for

the

citizens.

public

Representative

to

land

the

destined

growth

the

the

of

middle

from

many

of S t a t e
Act

of

to

same
be

to

in C o n g r e s s .

of

y ear

act

each
13

of

The

full
Grant

ex­
System

nineteenth

of

the

s t ates

With

land

an

abundance
at

Morrill
the

promoting
provided
for

funds

the

agriculture**

the

settlement

to

in

of

expansion

out

s t ate

expressed

the

the

parceled

This

Land

of

of

westward

purpose

its

government,

a program

bod y

it was

colleges

1862.

the

large

as

found

in

the

of

education,

tremendous
In

part

movements

pressure

launched

in

grants

the

its d i s p o s a l ,

War,

was

vided

the

land

on

towards

ce n t u r y .

11.

was

agriculture.

dominant

the A m e r i c a n

and

education

" L A N D -GKANT* MOVEMENT
The

in

trend

close
which

following
Act

pro­

various

agricultural

for

a grant

each

Senator

collected

of

f rom

A l t h o u g h o t h e r s t a t e s had i n s t i t u t e d p r o g r a m s of a g r i ­
c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n , the s t ate c o n s t i t u t i o n of M i c h i g a n
p r o v i d e d for an a g r i c u l t u r a l co l l e g e .
The legislature
p r o v i d e d $ 4 0 , 0 0 0 for b u i l d i n g s , m a i n t e n a n c e , and t e a c h ­
ing.
M a r y l a n d and P e n n s y l v a n i a f o l l o w e d s h o r t l y a f t e r ­
wards with similar institutions.
T h e H o m e s t e a d A c t of 1 8 6 2 m a r k e d the p e r i o d of the g r o w t h
in a m o r e l i b e r a l land p o l i c y of the g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h
a l l o w e d the g e n e r a l p u b l i c an o p p o r t u n i t y in the land
m a r k e t i n s t e a d of j u s t the w e a l t h y s p e c u l a t o r w h i c h had
bee n the c a s e in the past.
M o r r i l l A ct of 1862.

107

the

sale

of

supporting

these
at

agriculture

lands

least

and

one

were

to be

college

mechanical

used

devoted

arts.

for
to

the
the

purpose

of

learning

of

14

T h i s f i r s t " l a n d - g r a n t ” A c t c o n s t i t u t e d the
g r e a t e s t s i n g l e p i ece of l e g i s l a t i o n ever
p a s s e d in the i n t e r e s t of a g r i c u l t u r a l e d u ­
ca t i o n , and u n d e r its p r o v i s i o n s i n s t i t u t i o n s
w e r e g r a d u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d in each of the
s t a t e s and in H a w a i i and P u e r t o Rico.
In
some of the s t a t e s the a g r i c u l t u r a l or m e ­
c h a n i c a l s c h o o l s are a t t a c h e d to the s t ate
u n i v e r s i t i e s or o t h e r c o l l e g e s .
In M a s s a ­
c h u s e t t s , the i n c o m e was d i v i d e d to h elp
fo u n d two s c h ools, the M a s s a c h u s e t t s A g r i ­
c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e and the M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i ­
tute of T e c h n o l o g y . ^

rill

The

Morrill

Act

of

to $ 1 5 , 0 0 0
annually
T he

$25,000

allotment.

17.
lft.

the

and

stations

16.

of

the

in

reached

of

17

Along

citizen,

the

1907

was

and

grants

second

of m o n e y

Mor­

amounting

of

$1,000

$25,000

annually

in

1900.^

this

for

sc h o o l s ,

In

which

an

additional

development
for

the d e v e l o p m e n t

colleges

the

increase

with

funds

by

an

research.

for

state

for

provided

agricultural

provided

followed

a state with

sum

experimentation

passed

14.
15.

the

1 0 6 2 was
provided

to

Amendment

sidization

on

year

until

educating

of

169 0 w h i c h
per

Kelson

A ct

1607,

the
of
the

supported

throughout

the

in

the

purpose

an

sub­
of

emphasis

Hatch

Act

up ­
was

experiment
United

States.^

Ibid.
Harold Underwood Faulkner, American Economic H i s t o r y .
6th ed.. N e w York: H a r p e r & B r o t h e r s , 1949, pp. 2 2 4 - 2 2 5 .
F . R. E d w a r d s , " A g r i c u l t u r e - - T h e F i r s t T h r e e H u n d r e d
Y e a r s " , Y e a r b o o k of A g r i c u l t u r e . 1940, pp. 17 1 - 2 7 6 .
Ibid.
Ibid.

106

Such

experimentation

search
complex
The

and

enabled

problems

nineteenth

of e d u c a t i o n
of muc h
of

the

ment

of

the

of

to

the

average

growth
farmer

cultivation

century,

then,

provided

had

dreams

the

in

and

which

led

been

for

in

"land-grant"

to

new

developed
the

considered

Jefferson

in

became

agricultural
face

and

many

more

of

and

the A m e r i c a n
realized

the

economic

the A m e r i c a n

advancement

re­

notion

realization

destiny.

with

ways.

the

Many

advance­

movement.

In m a n y w a y s t h e s e y e ars w e r e the b r i g h t e s t
in A m e r i c a n a g r i c u 1 1 u r a 1 h i s t o r y .
T h i s was
an era of c o n f i d e n t e x p a n s i o n in w h i c h the
f u t u r e s e emed secure.
W i d e n i n g m a r k e t s in
h u r o p c kept pace w i t h e x p a n d i n g farm areas
in thi s c o u n t r y .
F a c t o r i e s a b r o a d and at
home a b s o r b e d the c o t t o n c r o p and i n d u s t r i a l
centers purchased foodstuffs.
E x c e p t for the
p a nic periods, p r i c e s w e r e g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r
and f a r m e r s w e r e abl e in turn to buy the p r o d ­
ucts of f o r g e and f a c tory.
In the South,
slaves, the c h i e f p r o p e r t y of the p l a n t a t i o n
owner, ros e in value, and in the old iNorthw e s t the r a pid s e t t l e m e n t c o m b i n e d w i t h good
p r i c e s p u s h e d up the v a l u e of lands.
In such
a s i t u a t i o n it was n a t ural that the t a lent of
the n a t i o n s h ould turn to s c i e n t i f i c i m p r o v e ­
ment s , to the i n v e n t i o n of far m m a c h i n e r y ,
and to a g r i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n .
Agriculture
w as the n a t i o n ' s p r i m a r y interest.
Transpor­
t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d and i n d u s t r y
w as o r g a n i z e d to s e r v e its needs.
T h e period,
in truth, w a s A m e r i c a ' s a g r i c u l t u r a l e r a . ^
Tilt: C O O P F L A T I V E
Although
existence

19.

to

EXTENSION

much
the

Faulkner,

that

early

Harold

is

SIM;VICE
extension

developments

Underwood,

J3J).

work
in

t o day

farmers'

c i t . , p.

owes

its

movements

225.

and

109

the

organization

ing

the

the

program

middle

The
of

this

of

of

was

Smith

" L a n d - G r a n t ** c o l l e g e s

the

nineteenth

finally
Lever

which

cen t u r y ,

occurred

it w as

in

dur­

1914

that

launched.

Act

was

responsible

for

the

establishment

serv ice.
" W h i l e the bill w a s pen d i n g . C o n g r e s s m a n
L e v e r e x p l a i n e d the p u r p o s e of the l e g i s ­
la t i o n .
He p o i n t e d out the e s s e n t i a l in­
f o r m a t i o n that w a s b e i n g g a t h e r e d by
a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e s and s t r e s s e d the need
for p u t t i n g this i n f o r m a t i o n in the h a n d s
of f a r m e r s .
He d e s c r i b e d the p o t e n t i a l
e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e as an a g e n c y that had
b e e n s o u g h t for h alf a c e n t u r y . ? 0

With

the

surprising
part

in

Bureau
from
the

members

50

cents

county

the

that

action

the

were

furnish

and

charged

Farm

the

program.

" . ..a

pay

small

for

necessary
aid

w as

movements,

Bureau

a year...to

agent,

1 9 2 0 * s financial

farmers*

extension

to a d o l l a r

extension

and

of

the G r a n g e

supporting

grapher,
In

early

pay

fee

the

withdrawn

Farm
ranging

salary

of

supplies

not

active

Michigan,

services

office

finally

In

an

membership

help

the

took

it w a s

a stenoand

in

travel.'

Michigan,

since,
"It soon b e c a m e e v i d e n t . . . that the p r o g r a m s
of the F a r m B u r e a u of F e d e r a l and S t a t e
E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e w e r e such that e x t e n s i o n
w o r k c o u l d not c o n t i n u e to r e c e i v e f i n a n c i a l
s u p p o r t f r o m the F a r m B u r e a u . " 22

20.

21.
22.

of

Michigan State C o l l e g e C oo p e r a t i v e Ext en si on Service,
" H i s t o r y of C o o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n W o r k in M i c h i g a n
1 9 1 4 - 1 9 39", E a s t L a n s i n g , M i c h i g a n : M i c h i g a n S t a t e
C o l l e g e , 1941, B u l l e t i n *229.
M i c h i g a n S t a t e C o l l e g e B u l l e t i n *229, ^oj).. c i t .
Ibid.

21

110

The

break

some

between

states

determined
The
tension

by

and

portion

of

of

support

government
the

local

according
the

the

the

the

The

levels

government,
of

the

proportion

the
of

level

of

this

un u s u a l

state.

It

beliefs

there

is

often

in

partially

in

found

The

is

as

it

of

exists

The

county

federal
share

a

is

not

a standard

States

and

in

cost

is

paid

nature

of

the

bureaucracy
natural

deepest

ex­

a service

government

There

United

the

nationally,

of g o v e r n m e n t .

by

in

are

some

the

federal

control

also

that

individualism
the

title

such

the

others.

championed,

occurred

of

and

in

fundamental

are

expenses

p r o gram.

throughout

eac h

never

policies

structure

t han

to

has

c o o n c r a t ivc

county.

three

cost

a larger

to

reveals

state

systems

b u reau.

given

all

the

two

extension

Farm

in

by

government,

states

the

service

handled

ratio

today

emphasis

statewide,
are

and

these

varies
areas

most

concern

from

where

strongly

in

local

au­

tonomy.
The

extension

cultural

colleges.

people
l e dge

of
that

health,

of

effective

the

it
the
only

operates

Its

chief

the

latest

help with

through

purpose

is

research

problems

of

to

the

s t ate

pass

findings

farming,

on

to

and

home

agri­
the

know­

economics,

like.

extension

since

levels

state

m ay

and

The
kind

the

service

service

gains

its

hierarchy.
in

areas

is

chief

a bureaucracy
source

Thus,
where

of

power

extension

the

people

of

an

unusual

from

the

lower

services

can

be

need

and w a n t

it.

Ill

E x t e n s i o n ' s a s s i s t a n c e must t h e r e f o r e , be
g e a r e d to p r o b l e m s w h i c h p e o p l e r e c o g n i z e
and to the d i s c o v e r y of u n a p p r e c i a t e d needs,
or it w i l l d o no e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k at all.
But c o l l e c t i v e l y t h e s e p r o b l e m s and
i n t e r e s t s e n c o m p a s s b r oad p o r t i o n s of h u m a n
activity.
A major problem facing extension
f o r c e s at all t i m e s is, then, one of so d i s ­
t r i b u t i n g its a v a i l a b l e e d u c a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s
to the v a r i o u s p r o b l e m and i n t e r e s t f i e l d s in
such p r o p o r t i o n that the m a x i m u m c o n t r i b u t i o n
m ay be m a d e .23
Therefore,

there

are

two

though

conflicting

ones,

One

the

belief

is

that

the

other
tion

is
can

without
leads

general

process
the
be

carried

sion w o r k e r s

and

Although
of
The

a highly
feeling

belief

are

24.

those

pragmatic
or

extension

work

within

individualism

the

everyone.

for

that

no

effective

program

so

g r eat

bureaucracy.

w ho

This

mentality

are

served

on

by

as

is

notion

in

The

educa­

extension,

latter
the

al­

system.

and

necessary

a scale,

w h ich,

the

is

in

realization

part

of

exten­

notion

them.

bureaucratic

in m a n y

s p h eres,

the

educational

program

has

preserved.

expression

aptly

in

in

compromised

collective

highly

. . .We
early

23.

on

organized

a general

are

education

realization

a well

to

of

themes

phrased

of

sentiments

by D e a n

Eugene

which

been

support

Davenport.

such

a

24

c a l l e d it the "New E d u c a t i o n ” in t h o s e
days, as d i s t i n c t fro m the t r a d i t i o n a l .

U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e and A s s o c i a t i o n of LandC r a n t C o l l e g e s and U n i v e r s i t i e s , " J o i n t C o m m i t t e e R e p o r t
on E x t e n s i o n P r o g r a m s , P o l i c i e s , and C o a l s " , W a s h i n g t o n ,
D. C.; U.S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1940, p. 8.
E u g e n e D a v e n p o r t , " S p i r i t of T h e Land G r a n t C o l l e g e " ,
ed. by E.K. Bliss, ,et_. .ai* , W a s h i n g t o n , D.C.: P u b l i s h e d
j o i n t l y by the G r a d u a t e S c h o o l , U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i ­
c u l t u r e and the E p s i l o n S i g m a Phi, N a t i o n a l H o n o r a r y
E x t e n s i o n F r a t e r n i t y , 1952, p. 9.

112

In the n a r r o w n e s s of our e n t h u s i a s m we
c a l l e d it p r a c t i c a l and useful, as d i s t i n c t
f r o m the c l a s s i c a l and us e l e s s .
F o r of w h a t
good is it w h e n a man can say ” 1 am hungry*"
in six or s e ven l a n g u a g e s but c a n n o t earn
h i s own b r e a d and b u t t e r ?
N o r w e r e we a l t o g e t h e r i l l o g i c a l in all
this, for the o l d - t i m e e d u c a t i o n i n s i s t e d
that e d u c a t i o n and u t i l i t y w e r e m u t u a l l y e x ­
clusive,
E v e n the e a r l i e r s c i e n t i f i c r e ­
s e a r c h e s in the i n d u s t r i e s w e r e d u b b e d
c o m m e r c i a l and u n e d u c a t i v e if the i n v e s t i ­
g a t o r ha d in the b a c k of his h e a d the s l i g h ­
test n o t i o n that the r e s u l t s of h i s r e s e a r c h e s
m i g h t , some t i m e or other, in some way, b e c o m e
of use in the w o rld.
A g a i n s t such tidal w a v e s
of p r e j u d i c e did the Land G r a n t C o l l e g e S p i r i t
p o u n d in its e a r l y e f f o r t s to b l e s s m a n k i n d ,
and it is l i t t l e w o n d e r that s o m e t i m e s it too
m i g h t h a v e l a cked in b r e a d t h of v i sion.
For
t h o s e w e r e d a y s of n a r r o w n e s s and of i n t e n s e
prej ud i c e s .
The

perpetuation

Grant

of

s y s t e m h ad

pr o g r a m .
f o und

Such

within

such

individualism

an

education.
of

b een

a

Agricultural

tor

on

the

the

service

area.
the

When

college

the

the m a j o r

must

effect.

of

the

such

in

and
It

are

to

for

he

is

from what
needed
In

the

is

the

Land-

extension

degree
right

that

chief
wit h

are
beliefs

to h a v e

of

the

administra­
the

people

often

decides

the

he h a s

learned

in

he w i l l
a

the

the

those who

contact

is he w ho

in

a great
and

in d i r e c t

services.

that

extension

Often

people

specialists
for

capacity

f o und

th r o u g h

meant

manifest

A g ent.

l e vel

then,

has

offices

county

needs

sentiments

fostered,

system

and

County

various

basic

a perpetuation

in

One

the

sense,

make

the

requests

thehi,

he

is

to
a

113

specialist
source
and

of

of

through
In

levels
the

administrator

25

It

inadvisable
people

the C o u n t y

Agent.

order

agency

for

since

considered

to e n t e r
such

high

college

agricultural

technically

prestige

the

is

and

to m a i n t a i n

employed,

this

an

local

agents

is

as

information.

State

quest

as w e l l

a g e nts.

area

functioned
For

this

of

the

college

maintained

by

the

Agricultural

enhances

the

effectiveness

acts

both

as

is

as

the

usually

among
the

reason,

faculty.
College

made

hiring
the

agent
of

in r u ral

the

re­

the

because

of

a

Federal

without

standards

part

position

by

a request

level

has

an

he

agent

the
areas,

in m a n y

cases.
The
tablish
lati o n

Smith-Lever
services

was

farmers

historical

for

enacted

for

Act

was

rural

through

advanced

never

areas

development

has

alone

pressure

information

intended
but

and

as

since

the

concerning

largely

been

an

that

act
such

desire

to

legis­

of m a n y

agriculture,
of

es­

rural

the

orien­

tation.

S UMMARV
The
s i nce

the

cational

25.

26.

origins

of

education

beginnings
process.

It

of man,
has

indicate
has

b een

also been

tha t

human

dependent

apparent

society,

upo n

tha t

the

since

edu­
the

E d m u n d d e s B r u n n e r and E. H s i n Pao Yang, R u r a l A m e r i c a
and the E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e . N e w York: C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y ,
T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , B u r e a u of P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1949, p. 40.
T h i s is not the c a s e in e v e r y s t a t e but is t r u e in
Michigan.

114

process
ciety
wil l

of

is
be

transmission

characteristic
b est

understood

Themes

of

this

fested

by

the

systems

of

belief

in

cluster
the

such

of

of mass

of

realtionship

to

these

characterized

by

sentiments

and

are

such

a so­

a process
themes.

integrated

mani­
into

ideology.
has

bee n

there

people

characterized

has

als o

been

thinking.

can

be

by

basic

apparent

Nevertheless

dominates;

tion

has

and

much

understood

of

in

the

the

themes

growing
the

former

behavior

light

notions

in

this

co u n t r y .

with

these

must

wilderness,

beliefs

the

and

educational
and

the

adjust

belief

has

the

of

citizen

to his

with

with

of

movement

world
in

this

as

country.

by W i l l i a m

James

the

educa­
knowledge

Since

the

tightly

enmeshed

a vast

frontier

a means

provided

citizenry.

practical

conquering

in e d u c a t i o n

belief

Destiny"

that

environment.

glor­

a movement

this

"American

belief

the

individuals

to

enlightened

the

by

all

led

individualism were

severe

redefined

of

was

that

Along

increasingly

provide
hi m

dream

considerations

a practical

developed

an

Jeffersonian

pragmatic

belief

capabilities

for

of

The

characterized

same

Jeffersonian

help

been

the

called

would

has

individual.

with

process

which

in A m e r i c a

the

the

Associated

the

themes,

within

in

a culture

themes

education

been

which

to

culture

themes.

endowed

with

and

basic

American

ification

has

and

of

dominant

c o 11ectivistic

Education

are

of

change

of

are

Society

individualism

trends

of

nature
people

American
of

and

of

adjusting

a foundation

for

Pragmatism

was

and

John

Dewey.

115

Illustrative
movement

in

colleges,

the

the

tablishment

these

United

of

the

highly

Sentiments

relevant

the

the

relevant

sentiments
such

of

The

problem

structures

found

structure s.

within

been

growth

Extension

pragmatic

expressed
at

has

experiment

the C o o p e r a t i v e

education.
to

beliefs

States.

development

of

a realization

of

hand

makes

more

a social

of

the

Service

such

their

that

Land-Grant
and

the

hav e

led

es­
to

in A m e r i c a n
movements

emergence

meaningful

system

f,L a n d - G r ant ”

stations

beliefs

within
since

the

the
has

become
within

pattern
emerged

of
from

PART

THE

RELEVANT

II

SOCIAL

STRUCTURE

PART
THE R E L E V A N T

The

last

relevant
order.
tain

section.

aspects

of

Historical

patterns

of

and

system were

be

have

a bearing

ed

made

as

an
of

zation

the

for

to

within
basic
be

found

place

the

ing

with

any

set

the

t hat

to

grounds

he

it.
an

of

considers

thi s

this

to be

b een

exhaustive

treatment

relevant

structures

since,

relationships
and

relevancy
of

the

emerge

point

of

necessary

and

scientific

necessity

in

structure

an

attempt

and

the

can

if not

which
pattern­

be

under­

a previous

The

reali­

crucial

necessity

relevant

structure

by

is

an

in

relationships

Once

other

setting

is

emerging

before
again

possible

as

sets

of

arbitrary

justifiable
abstraction.

on

a

it m u s t
when

in a c h r o n o l o g i c a l

from

cer­

structures

system

mentioned

dissertation.

of

relevant

rel a t i o n s h i p s .

manifested

has

growth

system

the

the

normative

section

s o cial

of

with

Also

soci a l

no

of

the

assumption,

social

sentiments

the

the

social
No

the w r i t e r

s y stem,

In

relevant

without

of

what

social

relationships
lated

part

assumption

stated

within

or

described.

to b o t h

emerging

pre-existing

describing

order

the

emergent

analysis,
on

upon

concerned

system

analyzed.
the

been

revealed

were

nature

to d e s c r i b e

sentiments

stood

salient

STRUCTURES

has

which

sentiments

of

will

I,

cultural

themes

sentiments
social

a

S O CI AL

Part

the

II

deal­
sense,

relevant
line
the

re­

117

The

following

description
p l ace

and

tained

of

the

in w h i c h

within

chapter
county
were

a social

concerned

with

primarily

responsible

vey

and

system

whose
yet

will

in w h i c h

found

organizations

members

to be

were

analyzed.

the

concerned
the

The

within

next
the

actors

which

county
of

a brief

survey

chapter

realization

major

with

health

relationships

s y s tem.

for

be

within

were
wil l

which

the

took
con­
be
were

health

the

sur­

social

v

ciiaptfk

DFSCK IPTION

Independence
citizenry
doubtful
deal
the

that

from

the

cultural

ments
and

as

been

the

spirit
which

the

unfit
rapid

had

the

the

were

in

for

land

it d i s p l a y s

b est

of

human

in

made
the

in
new

had

of w e s t e r n
county

bee n

of

It

in

the

who

is

is

a great

mid-west

life
to

its

and

senti­

understood

in A m e r i c a .
accepted

county

who

considered

in

as

a

estab­
the

Although

slow

to

migration,

once

settle­

it was

counties.
at

the

others

frontier

both

varies

Independence

territory

amateurs

and

by

State”.

expressed

habitation.*

the

established
not

of

by

referred

which

advancement

been

early

founders

to

" Independent

Turner

heritage

COUNTY

referred

manifested

are

Jackson

the

a society

as

County

1.

has

independence

entire

in

from

ascendancy
of

the

INDFPCNDCNCE

” independence” frequently

li shed

ment

outsiders

of F r e d r i c k

heritage

past

County

themes

believed

This

in

and

OF

quick

Michigan
The

pioneering

to

and

founders
and

gain
became
of

begin

its
one

this

settlement.

F or

C o m p e t i t i o n in the s e t t l e m e n t of the N o r t h w e s t T e r r i t o r y
r e s u l t e d in c o n s i d e r a b l e m a n i p u l a t i o n and d e c e i t .
The
O h i o T e r r i t o r y w h i c h was s e t t l e d p r i o r to that of M i c h i ­
gan j e a l o u s l y held to a p r o g r a m of i n c r e a s i n g s e t t l e m e n t
in o r d e r to b e c o m e a state.
As a r e s u l t p o l i t i c i a n s of
this a r e a s p r e a d d i s t o r t e d r u m o r s r e l a t e d to the h o s t i l ­
ity of I n d i a n s and the poor q u a l i t y of land in M i c h i g a n .
F o r a short p e r i o d of time they w e r e s u c c e s s f u l in d e ­
l a y i n g the s e t t l e m e n t of this area.

119

the

most

who

had

As

part

already

a result

west

Figure

Independence
that

of

th o u g h

the

dence

pattern

County

of

indicates

in

range

townships

experience

advancement

County.

Mohawk

residents
at

was

of N e w

settling

possible

York

a new

within

State
nation.

this

mid-

2

rapid

1 which

represented

a vast

rapid

territory.
This

the

they

of

were
xvas

the

The

1024
45

settlement

first

and

the

years

settled

the

dates

first

of

illustrated

township

toxvnship
last

was

appears

in

is

to

be

Clark

lengthy,

a period

established

of

by

settlement
settled
in

1069.

all

but

17 years.

in S e p t e m b e r

in

was
Al­
two

of

Indepen­
10,

1822,

3
by

the T e r r i t o r i a l

L aw

I,

335

and

was

organized

November

20,

4

10 26,

by T e r r i t o r i a l
The

to m a n y
growth

settlement
in

the

which

individualism
radically
Table

2.

3.

4.

by

Law

pattern

Northwest

w as
and
any

to

II,

of

strengthen

large
the

the C o u n t y ,

Territory,

establish

I illustrates

292.

the

led

pattern

to

not

sentiments
to be

immigration
of a high

similar

a population

frontier

a heritage

European

although

in

of

changed

later

proportion

years.
of

native

See: W a l t e r E. F r e e m a n , I m p a c t of I n d u s t r y Upon a. R u r a l
C o m m u n i t v . ( u n p u b l i s h e d m a s t e r s t h e sis), M i c h i g a n S t a t e
C o l l e g e , 19 5 2, for an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the rapid a d v a n c e ­
m e n t of this area and xvhat it m e a n t p o l i t i c a l l y , s o c i a l l y ,
and e c o n o m i c a l l y to its i n h a b i t a n t s .
G e o r g e N e w m a n F u l l e r , E c o n o m i c and S o c i a l B e g i n n i n g s of
M i c h i g a n . L a n s i n g , M i c h i g a n : W y n k o o p Llallenbeck C r a w f o r d
Co.. 1916, p. 533.
Ibid.

1 20

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t
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k l
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k

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cy
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L
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w
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v. V
ft*;
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k
t:
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s r

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f

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Dates

Ft*

§

121

TABLE

I

T R E N D S IN N A T I V I T Y
INDEPENDENCE COUNTY COMPARED WITH
1060-1950

Year

Percent
N a t i v e Born

STATE

Negro

Percent
F o r e i c m Born

1950

Ind e p e n d e n c e
State

96.7
33. 4

2.0
9.5

0. 5
6.9

1940

Independence
State

96.0
02.9

3.6
13.0

0. 3
3.9

1950

Independence
State

9 4.0
70. 0

4.6
17. 5

0.5
3. 5

1920

Independence
State

93.9
70. 4

5.6
19.8

0.5
1 .6

1910

Independence
State

92. 1
77.9

7.3
21 . 2

0. 5
0. 6

1900

Independence
State

90.4
76. 0

0.9
22. 3

0. 7
0. 7

1090

Independence
State

08. 0
73. 1

11.2
26. 0

»__
mmm •

1000

Independence
State

30.6
75. 0

11.4
23. 6

~ mmw
» mm

10 70

Independence
State

00. 1
04.5

11.9
15.5

mm_
mmv mm

1060

Independence
State

00.6
00. 1

11. 4
19.9

mm_ —

Source:

Figures obtained
a b o v e years.

from

United

States

Census

...

of

the

122

born

inhabitants,

immigration
It
County

is
is

trends
in

has

been

the

fundamental

is,

therefore,

state

the

face

dence
of

tak e

in

the

by

years

its

County

is

located

that
of
of

for

pride

in

its
this

intense
growth

life.

reputation.
indicate

with

farm

approximately

in

the

have

not

upset

Independence

Also,
that

they

The
center

the

in

approach
in

Indepen­

is a l s o

county
of

Local

caution

Although
it

County

people

considerable

region,

industrialization.*

Independence

individualism.

self-sufficiency.

a productive

large

individualism which

which

historic

County

witnessed

contemporary

organizations

vaunted

which

St a t e s .

of A m e r i c a n

noted

Independence

of

years

United

setting

values

and

considerable

City,

during

setting
A

fostered

agencies

working

in

t his

found.

residents

even

seat.

an

area

Central

county,

is

* A N o t e On R u r a l - U r b a n D i f f e r e n c e s - It w o u l d a p p e a r u n ­
n e c e s s a r y to e m p h a s i z e to any g r e a t d e g r e e the d i f f e r e n c e s
found b e t w e e n rural and u r b a n life s i n c e it is r a t h e r g e n ­
e r a l l y a c c e p t e d that d i f f e r e n c e s do e x i s t and var y a c c o r d i n g
to the r e g i o n or s p e c i f i c area in w h i c h they are found.
B r i e f l y , then, it w i l l be s t a t e d that w i t h i n the r e l e v a n t
s t r u c t u r e t h e r e are to be f o u n d g e n e r a l s e n t i m e n t s w h i c h are
shared by bot h rural and u r b a n p e o p l e and c e r t a i n s e n t i m e n t s
which emphasiz e differences.
In I n d e p e n d e n c e C o u n t y the o v e r a l l c u l t u r a l t h eme is
still d o m i n a n t l y rural.
It m u s t be r e m e m b e r e d that " r u r a l ”
is used a d v i s e d l y s i n c e t o d a y such a c o n c e p t has only r e l a t i v e
m e a n i n g w i t h c o m m u n i c a t i o n and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r e a c h i n g such
complexity.
H o w e v e r , the c i t i e s and v i l l a g e s still r e m a i n
s e r v i c e a r e a s w h i c h c a r e for the needs of the farmer.
They
still r e m a i n c e n t e r s of rural c o m m u n i c a t i o n and they c o n t i n u e
to f u n c t i o n as c e n t e r s for r e t i r e d far m e r s .
Tremendous modi­
f i c a t i o n s h ave o c c u r r e d w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n of i n d u s t r y and
such m o d i f i c a t i o n s h a v e r e s u l t e d in c h a n g e s w i t h i n the c o m p o ­
s i t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n and t h e i r w a y of life.
(See F r e e m a n ,
W a l t e r L. , oj). c i tJ.
P e o p l e w i t h u r b a n o r i e n t a t i o n s have

123

a b out

thirty

miles

from

state

capital,

number

of

miles

from

a major

a fairly

metropolis,

a medium-sized

local

and

some

in

the

concentration

Table
its

II

political

residents

are

residents,

various

s h ows

the

30,070

live

seventy

trade

located

The

the

in

city.
and

of

Of

towns

city,
from

the

There

are

county,

county

Independence
majority

the
and

sixty

a

manufacturing
the

the

great

white.

in

miles

throughout

population

born

industrial

industrial

places

subdivisions.
native

and

national

organizations
principal

large

of

with

seat.
County
the

by

county

c o u n t y ’s 64,6 29
cities,

while

34,551

5

live

in

Central
as

the

City,

a village

area

of

open

f our

country.

the
in
and

county

1836

and

one-half

The
seat.
as

largest
This

a city

square

u r ban

cit y

in

miles

w as

1353.
and

center

is

incorporated
It

includes

a composite

an

trade

e n t e r e d the c o u n t y and have b e c o m e a c t i v e c i t i z e n s in c o m m u ­
nity p r o j e c t s and p o l i c y m a k i n g d e c i s i o n s .
It w as o f t e n the c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the u r ban w a y of life
and the r u r a l w a y of life that set up a r e a s of s e n s i t i v i t y
in the s u r v e y a c t i o n .
In a c t u a l i t y the d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e not
so e x t r e m e as to p r o v i d e for e m p i r i c a l c a t e g o r i z a t i o n t h r o u g h ­
out the d e s c r i p t i o n of the social system.
It will be noted
that w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of C e n t r a l C i t y and Mohawk, the d ominant p h a s e of the s u r v e y w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h the rural areas.
T h i s wil l be e x p l a i n e d s h o r t l y as the r e s u l t of the a c t i v a ­
tion of c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e s in the c o u n t y w h i c h w e r e d o m i ­
n a n t l y r u r a l in o r i e n t a t i o n .
Such d i f f e r e n c e s e f f e c t e d the
p a t t e r n of e x p r e s s e d s e n t i m e n t s w i t h i n the social system.
W h e n e v e r such d i f f e r e n c e s are o b s e r v e d they wil l be e m p h a s i z e d
for the p u r p o s e of d e s c r i b i n g the m e a n i n g of the s e n t i m e n t s
wi th the system.
5.
U n i t e d S t a t e s B u r e a u of the C e n s u s , U n i t e d S t a t e s C e n s u s
of P o p u l a t i o n : 1 9 5 0 . Vol. II, C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
P o p u l a t i o n , P a r t 22, M i c h i g a n , W a s h i n g t o n P. C.:
U.S.
G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1952.

124

and

service

list

area

of

250

square

445

businesses

for

this

The

next

a rea

historically

older

tha n C e n t r a l

about

10 m i l e s

town.

first

eve n

fo r mer.
both

economic

m any

more

perity

that

to

its

including

having

two

appear

that

used

states.

State

for
but

the

of

the

by

In

this

purposes

vacationers

Mohawk

con­

by

though

city

exert

colleges.
small

section

from

pros­

this

towns,
income

particularly

not

has

schoo l s .

the

increasing

trade",

on

advantage

an

recreational
also

some

addition,

county.

City

one C a t h o l i c ,

do

the

improvements,

the

other

'’t o u r i s t

of

many

and

trade

than

of

in

from

the

in

industries

In

ar e a s

Middle

affairs

and

and C e n t r a l

considerable

has

and

a frontier

than

Central

received

and

1824

communities

concern

hospital

industry

as

generosity

however,

cities.

corner

are

the

the

some

derived

to

in

larger

While

Mohawk,
located

Mohawk

two

brought

has

and

prosper

times

the

of

founded

these

Protestant

also

and

has

town

City

between

four

one

There

to

issues.

City,

local

Bradstreet

village

manufacturing

the

upon

are

k een

Through

Central

colleges,

area

is

1930's

additions

northwest

of

early

influence

villages,
being

one

the

It w a s

between

political

officers,

major

the

been

exists

village.

rivalry

it w o u l d
mor e

the

in

latter

industries,
in

this

the

and

is

northeast.

always

s t ill

organized

In

has

though

This

and

the

settlement

Rivalry

City,

cern

to

and

city.

trade

is

the

Dun

largest

which

was

miles.

only

the
by

in

is
the

lake
residents

neighboring

125

TABLE
1950

POPULATION,

II

INDEPENDENCE

of

Number
*
Persons*of

393
600
163
365
567
436
369
1
I 344
1 547
725

025
499
733
179
213

Henry City
Henry To wnship
Cl a y c o m b V i l l a g e (par
Ha son T o w n s h i p
Hay T o w n s h i p
Hart in T o w n s h i p
Mountain City
Oxtori T o w n s h i p
Pont T o w n s h i p
Current Town sh ip
Clifton Townshi p
Bryan V il la ge
Leo T ow ns h ip
Rockville Township
A l b e r t V i l l a g e (part)
S p i r i t B e a c h (part)
Renus T o w n s h i p
S om e r T o w n s h i p
Mohawk T o w n s h i p

990
345
9 03
249
76 7
767
470
5 17
646
229
252
107

111
262
052

020

200

302
236
166

548
77
50

64.629

10.743

V.'ood ley T o w n s h i p
A l b e r t V i l l a g e (part)
S p i r i t B e a c h (part)
TOTAL

*These
Bureau

1950 figures were
of the C e n s u s , by

67
256
745
361
653
303
513
472
432
169
15 2
6 70
00
343
319

000

Mohawk Village

1 9 5 0 U. S. C e n s u s
fictitious)

Number
Households*

5, 563
535
961
751
49 0
169
533
339
4 23
219
365
75
569
110
04 2
oo o
xJkJ (L

13
2
3
2
1

Central City
Center Towns hi p
Eden T o w n s h i p
Eden Vill ag e
Camden Township
Clney Village
Clark Township
Clark Village
Dearborn Township
Dearborn Village
Durham To wns hip
C l a r k V i l l a g e (part)
Fielding To wns hip
riynn T o w n s h i p

Source:

COUNTY

of

Population.

(All

names

r e c e i v e d f r o m the U n i t e d
correspondence, February

are

States
11, 1952.

126

FARM

P1I0PUCTICN
Independence

productive
ties

in

counties

the

in

Midwest.

Agriculture,
the

Count}'

it

principal

Independence

is

the

County

of
is

counties

located

Ohio,

northern

Indiana,

Count}
In

are

1950

farms

there

in
The

southern
almost

the

part

part

of

of

the

is

in

and

Iowa

Illinois,
of

agriculturally

of

the

U . S.

a corn

to m a n y

richer

county;

corn.

In

of

other

the

Missouri,

of

that

this

is,

respect

469

corn

northwestern
southern

farm

income

in

small

grain,

and

farms,

coun­

Department

b elt

Nebraska,

commercial

corn

farm
on

the

While

county.
and

part

Tomatoes

and

Michigan,

Independence
tomatoes.

773

other

In

are

county

but

the

type

sub-marginal

corn

to

to be
area
land.

This

of

in

an

is
is

the

is

the

not

extent

has

good

as
soil,

northwest

a greater
t rue

the

character­

farming

County

found

there

also

such

to

commercially

corner

is

of

Independence

are

this

of

grown

southeast

the

of

soils

principally

of

production
all

confined

extreme

incomes,

the

is

county.

in

productive

of m a r g i n a l

6.

of

south.

the

the

inco m e

poultry',

northeast

high

less

one

similar

2,999

production

concentrated

the

to

most

county.^

The

by

in the

were

farm

the

and

as

sources

dairy,

exclusively

county.
ized

Other

from

of

s t ate

classified

source

Minnesota.

one

According

belt

and

is

amount

particularly

U. 3. b u r e a u of the C e n s u s , JJ*.
C e n s u s of A g r i c u l t u r e :
1 9 G Q t Vol. I , C o u n t i e s and S t a t e e c o n o m i c A r e a s , Part 6,
W a s h i n g t o n P. C.: U . S. G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g Of f i c e , 1952.

127

of

the

part

cern
of

lake

areas

of

the

county.

In

the

more

about

the

siti o n
be i n g

was
done

county.
the

helps

as

For

ng

a - eas

results

in

z belief

for

the

instance,

existence
the

fact

that

Independence

explain

mation

on

the

the
with

nature

this

products

did

At

the

13

other

in
the

sane

in

over

7 million

4 million

In

of

of

the

and

Health
the

oppo­

from

in

the

County

has

the

county

in

independence

agriculture

adequacy

survey

townships

any

con­

services

where

the

organizations.

the

sale

sold

19 44.

19 49.

counties

land.

state

County

time,

farm

degree

less

of

the

which

county

state
the

Additional
the

infor­
will

In

over

This

only

11

figure

three

farm

products

the

farm

income was

1949

the

state.
value

of

dollars,

dairy

products

dollars,

and

livestock

under

There
corn

sold

to

counties

exceed

the

dollars

increased

other

of

of

million

are

alive

in

the

was

reached
was

in

million

425,009

harvested
sold

over

15 m i l l i o n
one

worth

7.

the

United

States

in
in

worth
almost

worth

almost

dollars.

Abo ve figures taken from
A g r i c u l t u r e , J2J2. c i t .

1949.

acres

j

Smillion

next

condition.

Independence

17 m i l l i o n

high

prevent

of

is

in

townships

income

in that

the C o u n t y

productive

the

to

of

most

maintains

f arm

two

there

health

two

h i g h e s t .a g r i c u l t u r a l

demonstrate

providing

were

the

located

farm

a unit
to

wholly

strong

Also,

to

state

almost

sufficiently

co u n t y

of

This

opposition

repartment.

are

productive

h e a lth.

township

a greater

to

which

Census

of

128

Of

the

3,772

electricity;
have

be

2,337

automobiles;

26.4%

have

seen

corn

by

operators

decrease

of

erato r s ,

in

411

the

or 6 3 . 3 %
2,393

or

farm

1945,
by

county:

have
76.8%

is

have

3,227

becoming

and

county,

more

and

While

9 96

as

more

t h ere

have

or 3 5 . 6 %

decreased

Of

the

2,906

commercial

o,
‘f t h e i r

farms

for

or

it can
mechanized,

were

number

1950.

worked

or 9 3 . 5 %

tractors;

in this

operators.
the

3,527

telephones;

Farming

figures,

fewer

0.6%)

only

in

pickers.

these

necessitating
farm

farms

to 3 , 6 3 5

3,976
(a

f arm

100 d a y s

op­

or m o r e

8

in

1950.

farm

Also,

income

onl y

exceeded

shows

the

h igh

dence

County.

level

313
their
of

of

farm

living

TABLE
L e vel of L i v i n g
in I n d e p e n d e n c e

Independence County
The State
North Central Leg i o n
United S t a t e s

So u rce:

3.

these

reported

income.
for

farm

that

The

their

following

families

in

non­
table

Indepen­

III

I n d e x for T a r m - O p e r a t o r
C o u n t y as C o m p a r e d W i t h
Legion, C Kation

Families
State,

1930

1940

1945

195 0

117
04
104
75

136
99
104
79

154
128

156
135
147

100

122

110

F a r m - O p e r a t o r F a m i l y Level of L i v i n g I n d e x e s for
C o u n t i e s in the U n i t e d S t a t e s . 1930. 1940. 1945. and
19 50. M a r g a r e t J a r m a n H a good, U. S. D e p a r t m e n t of
A g r i c u l t u r e , B u r e a u of A g r i c u l t u r a l E c o n o m i c s , May,
1952.

Ibid.

129

The

farm

white,

population

prosperous,

of

Independence County

full

time

is m a d e

middlewestern

up

of

f a r mers.

If one w e r e to ask t h ose w h o live in the
corn belt to c h a r a c t e r i z e it, the p i c t u r e g i v ­
en w o u l d be of its s u p e r l a t i v e s .
They would
r e p l y that it has the r i c h e s t land and the
m o s t u p - t o - d a t e farms in the country; that its
p e o p l e are the most i n d e p e n d e n t , the most d e m ­
o c r a t i c , and the most t y p i c a l l y A m e r i c a n in
all the U n ited S t a tes; that its w e a l t h is more
e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d , and the r i g h t s of e v e r y ­
one to a d v a n c e a c c o r d i n g to their a b i l i t i e s
are more, z e a l o u s l y s a f e g u a r d e d and p r o m o t e d
than iri mos t o t her s e c t i o n s of the country.
A nd if an i n q u i r e r s e a r c h e s for the facts, he
will d i s c o v e r that the corn belt does have the
h i g h e s t p e r c e n t a g e of its land g r a d e d in c l a s ­
ses 1 and 2 , the h i g h e s t p e r c e n t a g e of its
f a rms in the $ 1 , 2 0 0 0 to $-1 , 0 0 0 gross income
group, a,nd the h i g h e s t and e v e n e s t level of
l i v i n g a m o n g f arm f a m i l i e s to be f o und in the
nation.
rle will a l s o find that, as c o m p a r e d
to an}r o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l f a r m i n g belt, a s i m i ­
lar p e r c e n t a g e of the farm o p e r a t o r s do offf a r m w o r k and a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e of all of the
f a r m w o r k is d o n e by f a m i l y labor.
To repeat,
life is not u n i f o r m in the corn b e l t . . , Q
EUSIMiSS

AND

INDUSIK Y

Perhaps
tural

the

enterprise

manufacturing
in

most

19 1 7 . ^

increased

Independence

production

The
from

of

significant

actual
03

to

number

122

County
from

is

the

the

3,122

in

of m a n u f a c t u r i n g

during

upon

a b out

this

this

same

previously

non-agricul­

trebling
1937

of

to 9 , 1 0 2

establishments

period.

The

urban

and

industrial

9.

C a r l C. T a y l o r , jet..
, D u r a I life i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s .
N e w York: A l f r e d A. Tnopf, 1919, C h a p t e r 21, T h e C o r n
Celt, pp. 3 6 0 - 3 6 1 .
b. S. C e n s u s of P o p u l a t i o n , o p . c i t .

10.

impact

workers

fact

agricultural

130

county
of

is

farm

paid

to

indicated

products
the

by

sold

10,426

in

IV

presents

enterprise

by

size

furniture

of

and

the

metal

In

ing

one

or m o r e

and

printing,

is

especially

instance.
how

large

press

additions
dustrial
the

true

time

imported
to

be m a d e

significant

to

and

the

proud

locations

of

for

large

residents
has

so

of

the

employ­

manufacture

their

of

this

new

the
of

their

industries.

establishments.

discuss

in

manu­

when

installed

large

height

in

paper

that

products.

mechanization

developments

bulk

it a c r e d i t

factory

the

seen

fact

with
a v ery
that

buildings.

In­

agriculture

midwestern

county.

BLHAVIOR

Independence
sistently

are

from Germany,

is

the

textiles,
glass

County

1947.

it

up

it c o n c e r n s

aluminum

development,

POLITICAL

when

as

dollars

establishments

consider

selected

Independence

a war

had

They

and

in

dollars

of m a n u f a c t u r i n g

make

in

residents

pride

11.
12.

workers

million

20

Here

are

County

cities

are

there

Independence

towns

For

products

clay

are

the

17 m i l l i o n

employees

stone,

enterprises.

the

distribution

addition

facturing

This

with

and

and

of

establishment.

mantifactnring.
hundred

1949**

manufacturing

Table

food,

a comparison

County

Republican

in

has,

with

few

tjie n a t i o n a l

exceptions,

presidential

been
and

con­

state

U. 5. C e n s u s of A g r i c u l t u r e , ioj3. c i t .
U. S b u r e a u of the C e n s u s , jJ. ,5. C e n s u s of M a n u f a c t u r e s
Vol. Ill, P a r t 22, M i c h i g a n , W a s h i n g t o n P . C . : U . S .
G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1947.

131

gubernatorial
Pa r t y ,

In

elections

this

state

until

s t ate

as

respect

about

a whole

has

sentiment,

publican

stronghold.
the

jorities

for

when

the

state

with

the

election

Table

county

of

the

candidate

received

p a r ties.

the

has

of

rest

of

Governor.

favored

60®' of

the

a Re­

clearly.
high

candidate,

County

the

of R e p u b l i c a n

voted

the

the

while

remained

this

Governor,

63%

the R e p u b l i c a n

how e v e r ,

consistently

a Democratic

with

of

amount

gubernatorial

Independence

major

the

illustrates

a Democratic

1932,

for

V

has

elected

cast.

cast

in

to

time,

Independence County

for G o v e r n o r

gubernatorial

this

fluctuated

candidate
In

creation

similar

Since

the R e p u b l i c a n
has

the

it w a s

1932.

national

Likewise,

since

In

ma­
even
1948

the R e p u b l i c a n
total

20,603

v o tes

the R e p u b l i c a n

total

26,276

votes

132

TABLE
TYPL

OF

MANUFACTURING

INDUSTRY

IV

DY N U M B E R

Independence

Co u n t y ,

KINDS OF M A N U F A C T U R I N G
ESTABLISHMENTS

1

Poo d and K i n d r e d P r o d u c t s
Tobacco Manufacturers
T e x t i l e Mill P r o d u c t s
A p p a r e l and R e l a t e d P r o d u c t s
Lumber, e x c e p t F u r n i t u r e
F u r n i t u r e and F i x t u r e s
Pamper and Allied. P r o d u c t s ’
P r i n t i n g and P u b l i s h i n g I n d u s t r i e s
C h e m i c a l s and A l l i e d P r o d u c t s
P e t r o l e u m and C o a l P r o d u c t s
Rubber Products
L e a t h e r and L e a t h e r P r o d u c t s
Stone, Clay, and G l a s s P r o d u c t s
Primary Metal Indus tr ie s
F a b r i c a t e d M e tal P r o d u c t s
Machinery, except Electrical
Electrical Machinery
Transportation Equipmemt
I n s t r u m e n t s and R e l a t e d P r o d u c t s
Miscellaneous Manufactures

County

Source:

Total

U. S. C e n s u s
Michigan.

of

Manufactures,

OF

EMPLOYEE

GROUPS

194 7

to
19

20

to
99

15

C

1
1
1

0
0

r
2
0
0

o
c.
1
1
0

2
2
0
1
1
1
0
1
0

4

;

100

0 V '

2
0
1
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
1

4

1

9

3
3

4
2
4

0
1

1
1
0
0

1
2
0
0

79

23

20

22
0

o

Vol.

Ill,

Part 29,

133

TA B L E V
COYIPABISl.L
h:i:s I F C E T I A L

OF T H E P R O P O R T I O N OF R E P U B L I C A N V O T E S
E L E C T I O N S FOR I N D E P E N F E N C E COUNTY, ALT

Year

Independence

1923
1932
1936
1940
19 14
19 4 P
19 3 2

The State

County

75%
51%.

7 OR.

n 70
7 OR
7 1R
6 99

39 R
3 OR

4 4%

40%
495
5 5"

^

J 1

S o u rce:

” 1.;l e c t i o n S t a t i s t i c s " , T he V. o r 1 d A l m a n a c And B ook of
F a c t s . N e w Yor k V.'or Id T e l e g r a m , (for a b ove years).

Further
heavy

analysis

Republican

exception

of

divisions

voted

vot e

one

extreme

northwest

some

of R e p u b l i c a n
far

as

the

lar

t r end
The

in

record

significance

and
in

rights,

services

of

at

Midivest

contrast

is

these

being

there

the county,

the

t h ese

precinct

and

voted

sane

in

a n e wly

sub­

the

created

larger
not

to

numbers

appear,

be

any

as

particu­

patterns.

voting
and

results

to

platforms

upon.

This

strong

beliefs

development

state,

does

concerned,

beliefs

indicates

to

one

the

political

1°G2,

considerably

geographical

general

parties

the

in

the

of

19 49 , w i t h
all

In

tow n s h i p ,

others,

of

City,

a generally

City.

cast

analysis

been

In

majority.

country

than

has

townships.

exception

townships

votes

t h ere

in C e n t r a l

to C e n t r a l

terms

to

all

the

lake

present

related

didates

with

adjacent

While

in

that

a Republican

occurred

precinct

shows

precinct

results

is

C A S T IE
T HE S T A T E

this
of

kind
in

study

the

can­

of v o t i n g
local

of g o v e r n m e n t a l

or f e d e r a l

level.

This

coun-

134

ty w o u l d
to

normally

individual

be

and

expected

local

to giv e

community

primary

rights

in

consideration

its

social

plan­

ning.
MEDICAL

SLRV ICES

The

AND

medical

HEALTH

facilities

County

are

s h own

in T a b l e

tists,

osteopaths,

and

to be

VI.

found

The

hospital

in

Independence

numbers

b eds

are

of d o c t o r s ,

shown

for

den­

each

com­

munity.
This
and

gives

hospital

a r eas

of

some

beds

the

indication

available,

counties

in

a County

Health

of

the

physician
the

city

Infant

in

Department

IVhile
in

the

death

to

the

since
1,728

health

facilities

and

care.

ty w as

2 7.4

revealing
longer

in

can
to

1950
be

of d o c t o r s

the

geographical

compare

experience
several

the

with
such

by

to

strictly

rural

counties

the w h o l e

s t ate

is 919,

persons
of

public
counties

rate

with

health
in

per

physician.

infant

deaths

a meaningful

26.3

the

had

persons

for

for

particular

county

It ha s

other

1,621

22

as

of

It has

number

This

ty p i c a l

facilities.

for

used

compared

affected

in

725

i.e.,

often

rat e

to

fairly

1947.

average

s t a t e h as

rates,

to be

its h e a l t h

are

this

number

relation

appears

births,

1000

live

state

compared

state.

a major

in

the

county.

Independence County

per

of

i n dex

of

others

which

work.

The
is

Coun­

State.

disturbances,

state

per

Independence

Middle

infant
u n der

While
it

have

13

is

h ad

a

death

rate

for

2 0 .0 .

13.

J. F. T h a d e n , * D i s t r i b u t i o n of D o c t o r s of M e d i c i n e and
O s t e o p a t h s in M i c h i g a n C o m m u n i t i e s " , M i c h i g a n A g r i c u l t u r a l
E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n S p e c i a l B u l l e t i n 370, 1951.

a

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•

XJ*L fJ

MEDICAL FACILITIES
IN INDEPENDENCE COUNTY, 1950*
Number of persons, doctors of medicine, osteopaths, and hospital beds,
and number of people per M.D. and per M.D. and Osteopaths combined for
C o u n t y , 1950.

-c
a o ©
m •a
Q •rH
-Q
JHXJ E
© aO
CU a O

by c o m m unities
I n d e p endence

135

136

Consequently,
comparable

although

with

with

the

rates

ilar

but

have

for
a

pendence

County

f o l lows:

1940,

1949,

29.8;
When

an

are

likely
this

in

population

47.1;

to

seat.

evident

many

summer

de n c e s .

d e ath

County

not

is

comparable

economically

health

work.

sim­

Inde­

for

other

y e ars

are

1947,

31.9;

194G,

43.5;

especially
65

1940

and

in

the

the

Sanitation,

enterprise

certain

in

percent

the high

cottages

recognized

rates

is

are

public

communities,

about

With

in

which

of

26.5;

it

in m a n u f a c t u r i n g

r u ral

sanitation

ally

Independence

the state,

counties

1946,

between

increase

for

as

25.2.

instance,

produces

ra lly

infant

to d e v e l o p ,

In

for

other

increase

employees

a great

rate

rate

longer h i s to r y

1951,

new

county

the

the

the

of

health

area

the

number

of

sanitation.
increase

outside

prosperity,
septic

of

the

t h e r e has

tanks,

many

problems

county's

1950 occurred

rural

brings

been

which

o f ten
especi­

problems.

Such

difficulties

are

stream

lake

areas

county,

where

year-round

resi­

have

and
b een

converted

therefore,

health

problem

is

the

in

this

of

the

into

m ost

urgent

and

gene­

county.

SUMMARY
Independence County
region,
Midwest.

typical

of m a n y

the

and

the

many

of

cities

14.

Above figures
Mich i g a n .

a rich

other

Characteristic

trialization

is

of

the

attendant

and

such

towns.

from Vital

and

productive

corn

area,

is

increases
There

belt
the
in

farming

counties
rapid

Statistics

of

the

the

indus­

population

is a c o n t i n u e d

in

in

drain

State

of

of

137

farm

manpower

agricultural
to

be

the

to

in w e a l t h

county.

of w a g e s

and

its

voting

cautious

the

this,

as

record

land,

bu t

t his

Hence

in

of

is

farm

trialization
health,

and

for

the

offset

by

increased

productivity

Many

accepting
at

continues

County

with

the

is
It

ever

its

education.

by

there

is

a continued

industries

in

t he

the

present

States

County

is

and

state

at

they

they

the

increasingly

attendant

are

level

conservative
citizens
to

in

outside
level.

liv e

up

to

noted.
appearance,

productive

heavy

problems

to
so

Midwest

highly

general

Tcderal

continue

thoroughly
has

County

the

cities

a whole.

antagonistic

or

of w h i c h

as

strongly

Independence

activities,

action.

with

from

change
the

farms

Lnited

Independence

ether

the

augmented

individualism

and

along

is

whether

in

from

earnings

behavior.

Independence
character,

and

earnings

intervention,
In

income

This

Politically,

ore

land,

mechanization.

addition

increase

in

th e

high.
In

of

from

impact

of w e l f a r e ,

farm
of

indus­

housing,

CHAPTER

VI

TANGENTIAL ORGANIZATIONS

make
to

In

order

up

the

briefly

which
tiiat

relevant
consider

gives
the

county

good

of

agencies

the

might

to

level

and

the

social
the

meaning

professionals
the

to d i s c u s s

structure,

nature
such

of

public

the

and

organizations
it w i l l

for

a means

m ost

s u rvey

as

by w h i c h

The

arena

be

part

which

necessary

that

It will

the

health

strengthened.

be

tiie a c t i v i t y

structures.

g r o u p w as

viewed

be

tangential

took

remembered,

made

up

necessary

certain
of

p l ace

of

for

county

activity

was

*

i

centered
for

the

tem.
of

Certain

major

the

section

to

give

It m a y

social

be

the

where

relevant

major

them
to

in
the

actors

w ell

system will
with

the

involved

social

major

concerned
the

the

meaning

these

which

to

in the

surv e y

were

attendance

fro m

these

will
For

relation

to

be
the

the

present

is

consider

why

roles

are

instead

of

it

organizations

outside

system

health

from

and

the

members

considered

consideration

in

at

sys­

groups.

inside

structures

reason for this decision

social

system.

l a ter

a nucleus

surv e y

actors

be d i s c u s s e d

social

provided

self

their

representatives

to m e n t i o n

by

system.

of

in

justified

as

necessary

played

actors

which

n ext

council

emerged

meetings

standpoint

order

health

which

organizations

In

the

the

a c t i vi

council

the

around

of
the

played

chapters
this

the

in

roles

social
outside
which

are

section

to be c o n s i d e r e d .

The

major

lies in the nature of the abstracted

139

data*

Although

system

logically

roles
were

were

played

played

tangential
section
ro l e s
that

would

played
will

be

during

the

be d i s c u s s e d

with

such

social

system

system.
this

structure,

that

To
the

will

be

in

such

total

t hem

were
in

analysis
reason

the

roles

observation

isolate

and

the

structure,

roles which

For,this
point

outside

complementary

i.e.,

system,

fro m

actors

relevant

system,

ev i d e n t .

at

the

time

social

to d e t r a c t
the

by

the

the

the

became

within

ciated

played

within

within

within

nature

roles

belong

observed

being

r o les

the

the

apart

a

this

of

the

structure

sentiments

considered

of

of

asso­

from

the

itself.
Figure

II

T A N C E N T I A L O R G A N I Z A T I O N S TO T H E S E L F - S U R V E Y S Y S T E M AND MAJOR
A C T O R S ON T H E C O U N T Y L E V E L W H O P R O V I D E D T HIS T A N G E N C Y

D o c t or Berry
Miss F i e l d . .

COUNTY

Mr. Dali..
Mr s. D i x o n

HEALTH
COUNCIL

Mrs. W e s t .........
D o c t o r B a n e ......
Mr. H o o v e r ........
Doctor Williams..
Mr. S t a n t o n ......
Mr. Lang.
Miss H e l m

Self-Survey

.County Health Department.
. D i s t r i c t N u r s e s Assn.
.Supt. of the J a c k s o n
M e m o r i a l H o s p i t a l . (Mohawk)
.County Extension Office.
. H e a l t h and E d u c a t i o n
C o m m i t t e e (Mohawk).
.P o m o n a G r a n g e .
.County Medical Society.
.County School System.
.County Medical Society.
. C o u n t y and S t a t e
Extension Service.
.County Health D ep ar tm en t
. D i s t r i c t N u r s e s Assn.
.County Health Department

of H e a l t h

140

THE

In
County,
nizing

the

the

that

of

1950,

HEALTH DEPALTHENT

Dr.

Berry

arrived

of

the C o u n t y

Health

Health

Department

was

facts

was

PUBLIC

concerning

a need

for

health

a survey

in

Department.

new

and

that

p r o b lems,

of

Independence

health

he

Recog­

there

were

suggested

conditions

in

c o u nty.

toward

this

ac t i o n ,

ultimately

individual
The

the

of

there

With

was

summer

as D i r e c t o r

a paucity
that

COUNTY

recognition

of

an

introduced

idea

responsible

citizens

structure

initiation

or

of

was

in

need

for

the

action

was

into

self

then,
the

a positive
the

activation

a community

organization,

such

and

county
of

s u rvey

some

of

responsible

Independence

suggestion
which
700

health.
for

County

the
Health

D epartment.
Some
health

attention

activities

m ust

that

be

paid

occurred

to

its

prior

founding

to

its

and

certain

establishment

in the county.
P u b l i c H e a l t h D e v e l o p m e n t P r i o r to
E s t a b 1 i s h n e n t of the C o u n t y H e a l t h
It

would

indeed

be

a

mistake

the
Un i t
to v i e w

public

health

in

Independence

County

of

immediate

implications

in

the

Independence

has

activities.

Such

to be

pertinent

felt

to

the

the

regard

influence

activities

have

analysis

with

of

of

to

the
only
the

structure

a consideration
health

s e v e r a l ‘m a j o r

resulted

in

the H e a l t h

of

such

unit.
health

a way

Department.

as

141

Certain
fluenced

by

activities

organizations

which

took

the

county.

outside

place

were

They

in­

are:

T h e h e 1 1 ogg F o u n d a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o g r a m
in a d j o i n i n g c o u n t i e s has had an i n f l u e n c e
upon h e a l t h d e v e l o p m e n t s in I n d e p e n d e n c e
C o u n t y , t h r o u g h the spread of h e a l t h ideas
from these n e i ghboring counties.
At least
two of the p e o p l e w h o w e r e i n f l u e n t i a l in
the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a C o u n t y H e a l t h D e p a r t rnent had p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h ese h e a l t h a c tivi I ie s .

(2)

T h e M i c h i g a n H e a l t h C o u n c i l has bee n a n o t h e r
sp h e r e of i n f l u e n c e .
Its E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y
m a d e the initial c o n t a c t s w i t h the Pi r e ctor
of the C o u n t y H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t about the
p o s s i b i l i t y of o r g a n i z i n g the I n d e p e n d e n c e
Co u nt y Health Council.

(3)

T h e ' M i c h i g a n S t a t e H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t , as well
as the U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n S c hool of P u b l i c
H e a l t h , have b e e n c o n t i n u o u s l y c o n s u l t e d by
v a r i o u s h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n a l s in the C o u n t y for
a d v i c e a b o u t the c o u n t y h e a l t h program.

(4)

The traditional relationships between Michigan
S t a t e C o l l e g e and the rural p e o p l e of the
C o u n t y t h r o u g h the C o o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n S e r ­
vice has bee n i n s t r u m e n t a l in the d e v e l o p m e n t
of h e a l t h i n t e r e s t in general.

that

County
and

these

(1)

These
fact

of

previous
health

alone

but

developments

planning

has

has

been

also

illustrate

not

the

developed

affected

by

in

important
Independence

outside

agencies

individuals.

Establi shment
Th e
fused

to

County

ever,

this

financial
in

1940,

the C o u n t y
Hoard

approve

Apparently
tive

of

the
was

V epartment

of S u p e r v i s o r s
idea

done

assistance
two

Health

of

for m a n y

a county

despite
from

the

the

organizations

health

years

began

re­

department.

possibility

Kellogg

had

of

coopera­

Foundation.

working

q u ite

How­

142

energetically
set

up

to

a county

persuade
health

Executive

Committee,

and

educational

other

trict

Nurses
In

these

pressure

to L e a r

was

first

extensive
and

by

erable
had

work

by

two

was

the C o u n t y

b u i l d i ag

as

which

been

to

and

jointly

the D i s ­

done
made

Informants
to

up

gain
an

At

of S u p e r v i s o r s

needs

the

was

the

aforementioned

this

meeting,

organization

nurses
drive

through

to

it

of

created
at

this

was

interview

responsible
establish

in

for

by
the

unit

opposition.
dinner

of S u p e r v i s o r s

the

ground

emotion

work

and

feel­

thereafter,

a County

that
free

complete

made

the

the

who

Health

1947.

point

achieved

received

of

Shortly

to a u t h o r i z e

consid­

physicians

Board

a climax

births,

that

a l a rge

upon

achieved.

voted

of

sponsored

laid,

als o

segment

the C o u n t y

suggested

an

support

of

formally

from

indicate

important

were

established

exerpt

opinion

on

Board

this

public

This

statistics

previously

not b e

of S u p e r v i s o r s .

vital

guests.

which

B o ard

brought

public

the

one-of

was

the

health

with

o t her

the.county

about

following

The

throughout

ing

once

superintendents

needs

members

of

school

educational

health

the

lishment

the

to

of

with

It m u s t

was

of

favorable

organizations

Department,

t h ese

combined

two

had

of

largely

these

attending

that

up

groups

diseases.

previously

meeting,

or

One

of S u p e r v i s o r s

administrators.

publicizing

and

Finally

made

upon

presenting

deaths,

unit.

Board

Association.

1946

done

the C o u n t y

the
of

estab­

opposition

support.

the

field

success
wil l

of

shed

The

observer
the
light

on

143

the
tain

feeling

of

dominant

opposition
sentiments

that

existed

mentioned

and

also

in C h a p t e r

reveals

cer­

III.

S h e said that the o r g a n i z a t i o n s that w e r e
m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l in ciettinci the h e a l t h
d e p a r t m e n t in w e r e the M o t h e r ’s clubs, the
P T A ’s, the F e d e r a t i o n of Women, the G r a n g e
and the F a r m Bu r e a u .
T h e y w e r e all w o r k i n g
but the only t r o u b l e w as that they n e v e r
r e a l l y w e n t to the men tvho could say yes or
no to t h e i r idea of g e t t i n g it in.
Even­
t u a l l y ■they w e r e faced w i t h the p r o b l e m of
g o i n g to the s u p e r v i s o r s w ith this and
s e l l i n g t h e m on this idea.
A f t e r all, these
w e r e the men that they s h ould have gone to
in the first place.
She said the y f i n a l l y
w e r e a ble to get t h e m out to this b a n q u e t
we h a v e h e a r d of - a b i t ter, cold night w h e n
t h r e e or fou r h u n d r e d came.
Sh e said that
the v a r i o u s n u r s e s took it upon t h e m s e l v e s
to c o n t a c t the s u p e r v i s o r s at t h e i r homes
and m a k e sure that they w o u l d be at this
banquet.
S h e said that she was g i v e n the
p r o j e c t of c o n t a c t i n g M a t t B e n d e r (an i n f l u ­
e n t i a l s u p e r v i s o r of D u r h a m t o w n s h i p ) . S he
said she w as scar e d s t iff at the idea b e c a u s e
she k n e w tha t he wa s one of the m o s t v i o l e n t l y
o p p o s e d to the h e a l t h d e p a r t m e n t .
Whe n she
t a l k e d to Matt B e n d e r he told her he c o u l d n ’t
c o m e b e c a u s e he had to m i l k his cows.
She
said, ”W e l l if y o u ’ ll come, ’’I ’ll m ilk your
cows for y o u . "
He c h u c k l e d at this and at
l e ast she got him to come.
W h i l e she was
t a l k i n g to me at this time* e x p l a i n i n g how she
had s p o k e n to t h e s e men, she put on an act
j u s t as if I w e r e one of the s u p e r v i s o r s .
It
w as q u i t e i n t e r e s t i n g to note the i n tent in her
v o i c e and the s i n c e r e i t y i n v o l v e d in w h y she
t h o u g h t the h e a l t h d e p a r t m e n t was a good idea...
she w e n t on to e x p l a i n that she c o n t a c t e d the
s u p e r v i s o r in S e n e c a .
Be was o p p o s e d to it
b e c a u s e of g e t t i n g a c o u n t y s a n i t a r i a n .
He
said, " Y o u know, a s a n i t a r i a n c o u l d c ome into
y o u r h o m e and tell you w h e t h e r or not you
s h o u l d d i g a w e l l and w h e r e you s h o u l d d ig it."
S h e a n s w e r e d t his by s a y i n g that she d o u b t e d
v e r y m u c h that the h e a l t h d e p a r t m e n t or the
s a n i t a r i a n w o u l d eve r i n t e r f e r e in p r i v a t e
l i v e s u n l e s s t h e y b e c a m e a m e n a c e to p u blic
h e a l t h and the i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e r e p o r t e d to the

144

health department.
S h e said, " A f t e r all,
if you b e c o m e a m e n a c e to your n e i g h b o r s '
h e a l t h , t h e n you d e s e r v e to be r e p o r t e d and,
of c o u r s e , that is the r e a s o n for the h e a l t h
d e p a r t m e n t . " . . . e v e n w h e n the unit w as v o t e d
in, t h r e e s u p e r v i s o r s voted a g a i n s t it...
S h e said the r e a s o n that M a s o n t o w n s h i p was
o p p o s e d w a s b e c a u s e that up until the e a r l y
f o r t i e s , it had b e e n p r a c t i c a l l y owned and
run by H e n r y Ford.
He had taken care of the
h e a l t h p r o b l e m s by t r a n s p o r t i n g the c h i l d r e n
to the F o r d H o s p i t a l .
He had a l s o taken care
of all the schools.
H o w ever, in the e a rly
f o r t i e s , he m o v e d out and left t h e m high and
dry.
S h e said it w as j u s t plain s t u p i d i t y
that t h e s e p e o p l e d e p e n d e d upon H e n r y Ford
in the f i r s t p l a c e and she s e e m e d to look
d o w n on t h e m for this.
S h e said, however,
that w h e n he m o v e d out. M a son t o w n s h i p was
f o r c e d to p r o v i d e t h e i r own schools.
This
r e s u l t e d in a t r e m e n d o u s a m o u n t of t a x a t i o n
and it w as felt that if a c o u n t y h e a l t h d e ­
partment was established more taxation would
be l e v i e d on the tow n s h i p .
She said for this
r e a s o n they w e r e slow in t a k i n g on any type
of a unit in the c o u n t y as it m i g h t c a u s e m o r e
t a x a t i o n and they w e r e s k e p t i c a l of f u r t h e r
outside interference.
The
of

feeling
the

health

of man y
had

since

public

know

unit

as

its

it

established
and

and

that

the

to

establishment,

existed.
had

yet

to

the
The

by

public

effective
there

unit.
Health

prove

after

resistance

caused

a deterrent

toward

existed

general

interference

apathy

that

apathy

opposition

toward

operated

Also
of

of

had

in

the

the

health

a large

l i ght

of

action.

amount

did

then,

part

activities

health

citizens

Department,

itself

establishment

upon

public
been

Many

the

not

eve n

although
public

resistance.

T HE S T R U C T U R E OF T H E I N D E P E N D E N C E C O U N T Y H E A L T H
D E P A R T M E N T A N D ITS R E L E V A N C E TO T H E S U R V E Y
The
survey

Health

action

Department

since

the

became

original

involved
idea

of

within

the

self

a survey

had

been

145

contributed
tunately
survey,
ea r l y

by

for

in

19 51
of

an

that

idea
in

Nurse

the

favor

of

as

enraged

unit

Health
and

his

unit

were

project,

Acting

Pirector.

those

position

self-survey

had

not

however,

Pirector)

for

took

to

of

in

the

one,

place.

The

tiie su p p o r t

originated.

and

the

a better

of

They

t/ie S u p e r v i s i n g

and S a n i t a r i a n

in tiie o r g a n i z a t i o n

Unfor­

involved

a c tion

committed

individuals

the

became

health

the

health

they

e x i sting,

resigned

before

the

(who

tive l y

both

tnen

the P i r e c t o r

members

were

on a,

survey

were
that

ac­
follow­

ed .
The

effect

r epartment

was

that

the

significant

director

of w h i c h

previous

to P r , P e r r y

a year

and

certain

roles

understaffed,

ly
the

on

of

tne

staff

effective.

1.

See

page

are

feel

Since

to
the

had

its

had
left

been

that

the

lose

III,

is

the
but

not

high

a

director
for

only

position
explains

self-survey.

been

officer
remained

start
and

in

during
permanent­
training

to b e c o m e

few

Health

County

b a dly

mentioned

continually

they

"emerging

county

it has

been

without

Independence

wiio h a v e

them w h e n

salary

the

Health

one

unit

a health

have

unit

a better

standards

without
Those

the

this

in

a reality

they

in

of

members

use

the

the

Tt had

offered

to e s t a b l i s h ,

to

upon

need,

condition

b een

Chapter

it

in

iie w as

existence.

only

79,

no

today

It has

its

directors

is

if we

111.^

the h a l f

by

difficult

fepartment

Chapter

and

before

played

since

badly

Tiie w e a k e n e d

Although
Ue a l t n

it was

a half

elsewhere.

resignation

physicians

Sentiments".

146

have
to

had

fill

been

training
this

one

of

physician

the

Once

the

in

county

the

happen

chief
the

the

with

it

is

extremely

loss

of

a steady

weaknesses

of

the

unit,

county

limited.

the

unit

views

resistance

a qualified

and

the

this

the

liasons

emerges.

a
other

cooperation

handicapped.

Department

This

perceptive

with

the

seriously
Health

has

Without

Without

is

difficult

director

unit.

departmental

are

physician

ag e n c y ,

health

The

physicians,

private

competing

public

position.

heading

physicians
of

in

is

less

physician

as

apt

as

a

to

admini­

strator.
During
n u rses
all

on

me inkers

outcome

the

the

the

been

effect

public

steps

all

program

the

health

of

the

were

survey

survey

movement

Public
local

in

funds.

of

Health

on

With
nor

might

county
loss

in the

of

acccrd

with

the

the

with

upon

level

Since
work,

the

roles

will

be

felt

free

They

s i nce

the

of

philosophy

take

the

over­

considered
objectives

the
of

neither

to

with

of

unit

the

and

entire

health.
is

set

up by F e d e r a l ,

extension

service,

the

described

the d i r e c t o r ,

needs

active

tension.

county.

the

two

clerks.

interfere

imp o r t a n t ,

some

Unlike

of

eventually

meet

public

had

the S a n i t a r i a n

health

today

two

only

overloaded

have

the
the

extremely

would

are

and

were

intra-departmental

people

Nurse

t h ere

sanitarian,

conditions

public

basically

social

of

such

that

of

study

organization

se c t i o n .

the S u p e r v i s i n g
positive

one

one

health

next

of

staff;

of

has

The

in

the

time

it

State,
has

not

and

147

received

the

partially
social
ple

to

the

movement

but

niques

rather
and

success,
fact

full

support
fac t

must

by

health

u n its

healtii

administrators

pendent
the

throughout

u pon

problem

the
t hat

health

has

professional
he

found,

been

cessor.
his

interest

the C o u n c i l
could

aid
He

they
and

in
as

his

felt

a

the

been

in

an

Since

a successful
support

program

well

of

it met

since

can

be

is d e ­

units,
seen.

the

bod y
in

with
of

their

both

lay

and

Independence

Council

efforts

public

which

of

active

his
and

Ultimately

had
prede­

show

he

viewed

personnel

that

county.
the
an

defined
was

in

of v o l u n t a r y
the

the

from

arrived

to b e c o m e

problem

idea

local

how d e p e n d e n t

a Health

h im

the C o u n c i l

The

of

public

program

of

assistance

through

legitimate

with

any d e g r e e

States.

organization.

the

tech­

local

such

with

in

peo­

in e s t a b l i s h i n g

for

entire

the

This

P r . Berry

existence,

an

a

HEALTH COUNCIL

voluntary
When

is due

a novement.

natural

program

group

that

mentioned

a revitalization.
the

U n ited

COUNTY

partially

a

faced

such

from

advance

to a c h i e v e

difficulty

such

upon

approached

were

a general

behind

agree

groups.

was

from

organization

already

Jt

impetous

faces

is

established

its

and

already

program

derived

This

specifically

establishment

Tim

It

people.
been

be

the

local
not

Ultimately,

people

is w i t n e s s e d

has

the

it has

derived

sc i e n c e .

the

t hat

which
one

of

later

survey
inactive

objectives
accepted

objectives

and

idea

since

organization
might
by

the

needs.

provide
members

146

ESTABLISHMENT
The
occurred
Council

OT

of

in

The

1949.

He
wh o

contacted
then

too k

be

been

existence

infant
newly
able
of

this

the

as

that

for

development,

of

in

his

Health

creation

of

the

the C o u n t y
formation
Health

tv:o years

give

local

to

unit

job

in

the

Pepart­

still
that

As

became

had
in

its

the

generate

tepartment.

health

the

epartment

was

and

this

the C o u n c i l .

important

s u pport

Health

and

of

Health

of
l

Council

of

organizing

considered

the

the

in the

the C o u n t y

it was

County

Executive Secretary

than

council

opinion

step

part

lead

no m o r e

Thus,

established
public

by

the

COUNCIL

Independence

the P i r e c t o r

remembered

stage.

HEALTH

initial

Council

It will
in

the

undertaken

[Michigan H e a l t h

ment,

COUNTY

formation

was

State.

THE

favor­

a r e sult
an

original

sponsor of the council.
Independence
Michigan
are

to

establish

thirty-nine

leading

as

County

one

such

health
of

was

the

one

an

the

first

organization.

councils
charter

of

in

the

counties
Today,

state

with

in

t h ere

Independence

groups.

TIIE STL U C I u b E OF T HE ILF E PEN P E N C E C O U N T Y
H E A L T H C O U N C I L A ND ITS L E L E Y A N C E TC THE S O L V E Y
It

has

Council
zation
major

b een

which

has

group.

In

actors

derstand

the

sentiments

the

representative

membership

provided

the

order

understand

within

the

structure

expressed

in

to

social
of

this

its

nucleus

system

of
the
it

the

the

survey

Health
organi­

participation
is

organization

objectives.

of

The

necessary
and

to

certain

original

of
un­

149

objectives
that' it

of

the

should

council,

function

as

according

to

its

charter,

provide

a discussion

and

coordinating

n

-organization

in

the

area

of

health.^

The o b j e c t i v e s of this o r g a n i z a t i o n arc to
c o o r d i n a t e as f c r as p o s s i b l e the t hi n kIug

and planning of all organizations concerned
v.ith c o u n t y h e a l t h t h r o u g h stud} by m e a n s of
a p p r a i s a l s , surveys, i n v e n t o r i e s , and other
fr. c t - l i n d i n g activiti.es; to s t i m u l a t e public
i n t e r e s t in lie a 1th p r o b l e m s and their s o l u ­
tion; to d e v e l o p a c o u n t y h e a l t h p r o g r a m
r e l a t e d to those p r o b l e m s d i s c o v e r e d ; and to
Ivor!; to p r e v e n t o v e r l a p p i n g and d u p l i c a t i o n
in h e a l t h e f f o r t s . 3
IIowe vex,

up

until

tion

has

teen

The

membership

organizations

one

the

time, of

this

project,

its

primary

func­

of d i s c u s s i o n .
of

the H e a l t h

throughout

the

Council

county.

It

consists
sends

of v a r i o u s

no t i c e s

out

to
A

tw e n t y
The

organizations

usual

from

attendance

about

those

until

associated
respondence
Health

2.

3.
4.

six

them

consisted

organizations.

attending
up

inviting

meetings

the

time

appoint

of a b out
The

consists

two

to

assist

of

The

obtaining
results

of

representatives.
representatives

proportion

health

of

in

e i ght

largest

this study,
*
action programs.

with

Department.

to

professionals.

the C o u n c i l
One

the
this

of

had

consisted

s e cond

of

Director

action,

bee n
cor­
of

separate

the
frcm

W. S. G r o o m , "The H e a l t h C o u n c i l , V; hat It Is and IIov: It
W o r k s " , J o u r n a l of H e a l t h and P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n . Vol. 17,
June, 19 46, pp. 3 3 2 - 3 3 4 .
F r o m a l e t t e r w r i t t e n to h e a l t h c o u n c i l m e m b e r s by the
P r e s i d e n t of the o r g a n i z a t i o n , d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 7, 1950.
O r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m b e r s h i p i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g the survey,
that is, the list i n c r e a s e d .
T h e n u m b e r g i v e n here in­
d i c a t e s t he list at the time i m m e d i a t e to the s u r v e y
beginning.

150

similar
cannot

attempts
be

by

other

completely

individuals

assessed,

but

and

a new

organizations,
health

Director

w as

ob ta i n e d .
The
the

need

date,
for

second
for

there

such

project

a

proper

has

been

no

Leading
the

a meeting

of

the C o u n t y

about

The

to b r i n g
of

project
At

The

that
of

At

the
this

as

idea

discussions

the C o u n t y ,

to b u i l d

on
To

extensive

the

deal
the

program,

of

Health
meeting

the

in

the

support

of

meeting
up

of

for

or

Berry

stressed

take
the

"All

were

some

in

might

projects."

again

at ‘a l a t e r

opposition

on a h e a l t h
record

education

meeting

as

certain

educational

the

the m o t i o n

following:

was
be

made
the

and

f i rst

1951."

for d i s c u s s i o n
should

strengthen

we

the H e a l t h

Council

state,

to

attend

the

on w h i c h

public

Council

order

to

county

meeting

of

talk e d

to

needs

carry

the

invited

pressing

discussed

to

in

executive

those

project

The re was

was
He

meeting

meeting

a new

subject

brought

Council

of d i s c u s s i o n ,

Health

next

P r o c r a m -- T h e

their

was

minutes

the

Health

next

Council.

a great

jects w e r e
not

plans

for

Council,

thought, it b e t t e r

seconded

code

Survey

problems

work

survey

program.
"After

the

health

the H e a l t h

members

conduct

Health

minutes

to

advantageously

of

Michigan

revitalizing

membership.

The

real

To The

of

the w ay

to

sanitation

Secretary

urged

been

a code.

Events

group

has

Council,

proposed

concerning

the m

on

for

importance

whether
the

of

next

pro­
or
year.

a health

in

survey
ister

but
of

volved

several

the

(or

county

a group

Th e

opposition

and

final
as

of

members

this

the

the

the

job was

inexperienced

for

the

met

next

idea.
too

people
by

A

large

to

rewording
Council

in h e a l t h . ”

It was

survey

could

be

min­

and

in­

accomplish.

Health

a health

rural

the

proposal

project
felt

was

by m a n y

covered

under

heading.
January,

the

arou n d

the

project

this

that

effectively

that

for

up

opposed

education

formed

brought

of

was

’’p u b l i c

project
At

felt

agreement

stat e d
the

members

purpose

the

meeting

1951

as

of

se v e r a l

structuring

selected

subject

read

of

meeting

at

the

a survey

the

committees
group

previous
again.

were

membership

meeting.
The

berry

minutes

of

follows:

A ver y i n t e r e s t i n g and e n t h u s i a s t i c d i s c u s s i o n
f o l l o w e d r e g a r d i n g the s c <■pe and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of the w o r k to be done by the e d u c a t i o n and
F u b l i c i l y C cr.inittce in r e l a t i o n to a p o s s i b l e
survey.
And

so,

within

vey

received

o c c u rred.
and

acted

the

its

birth

An

idea

upon

by

in

ge n c e

of

certain

tural

system which

It
council

and

of

the

conceived
other

re s u l t e d

peoples'

the

activities

ordered

a p u blic

the

a social

system

health
and

interests

sentiments

and

of

Council,

professionals

of many

significant

Health

emergence

of by

health

convergence

the

orders

f o und

the

director

lay

and

sur­

people,

the

within

existence

emer­
the

of

cul­

these

lives.
is
are

evident
to

be

that
found

within

the

dominant

structure

sentiments

of

the

shared

health
by

all

members
many

and

it

is

conflicting

ization

also

case

sentiments

is d e p e n d e n t

sha*re d i f f e r e n t

the

upon

that

since

and

are

the m a k e u p

members

interests

there

fro m

to be

of

various

are d e d i c a t e d

found

such

an

grou p s

organ­

which

to d i f f e r e n t

goals.
The
each
of

differences

tangential

sentiments
in

meaningful

when

the

in

The
and

to

public,

ilar

viet'jed

this

are

health
and
of

weaknesses

found

difficult

to

people

the

in

are

considerations,

Health
in

the

with

public

active

county

do

not

the

professional.

Such

the

process

survey.

ject,

as

health
regular

the

one w h i c h

needs,

made

Health

ganization.

Also

its
it

awaken

apparent

and

the

The
and

group

an

of

itself

due

most

in
of

one

the

on

same

It

has

bee n

of

the

same

the

lay

way

as

affected

to the

pro­

county

to

tiie part

the

The

the

the w e a k n e s s e s
in

sim­

tc

course,

of

of

devoted

sh a r i n g

referral

people

explicit

health

Department.

since

has,

of

analysis

was

movement.

constant

w ith

to

largely

health

the

field

purpose

tiie concern,

members

implicit

in

Health

are

members,

T he

analysis

system.

reference

found

health

view

an

of

organizations.

a condition

might

Council

the

the

Council

the

relevant

Since

analysis

understandable

dominant
and

an

through

within

tangential

which

secure

of

actors

Council.

the

with

later

terms'of

objectives

vfcnknesses

and

significant

Health

goals

revealed

becomes-more

in

case

sentiments

the C o u n t y

ly

sentiments

education

be

organization

expressed

difference

actor;

will

of

of

the

the

thinking

of

or­
all

153

members
in

was

terms

the

of

improvement

V.'hat e d u c a t i o n
issue w h i c h
tional

remained
was

cerning

health

certain

members

Council
Health

was

of

bee n

The

to

sentiments

system,

in

health

s h ared

the
as

in

education.

of

the

with

to

common

to

issue,
the

an

educa­

sentiments

con­

manner

a strengthened
members

degree,

i n v olve

and

by

belief

actors

in

the

the

lay

the

people

social

in m a n y

cases,

of

strenthening

of

as

meetings.

the

process

as

effort

county
in

Health

project

All-out

the

conflicting

of

the

as man y

attend

various

and

of

different

All

some

them-to
the

important,

and

organization.

to

different

content

that

county.

the

objectives.

level.

viewed,

by

the

major

Education

a clouded

health

belief

the

order

was

a markedly

the

encourage

although

converged
good

then,

in

strengthening

and

since

county

shared

expended

possible

held

important

Council,

a means
had

members

clouded

the

one

in

specifically

concerned

were
of

belief

became

included

process

All

unqualified

education,
the

Health

Council.
'Till- C O O P E R A T I V E

Th e
and

the

roles

in

Extension
local
the

end

was

generated

resulted

of

in

Specialist

county
survey.

the

1950 with
at

E X T C N S ION S E R V I C E

this

in

h e alth

agricultural
Through
the

communication

the

state

level

agent

both

played

crucial

a contact

mad e

by Dr.

berry

Extension

level

at

Health

concerning

between

the

the

Specialist,
survey

specialist

interest

idea
and

at

and

the

154

County
Agent

Agricultural
had

through

not

the

generated
in

the

ment

the

such

of

certain

throughout
by

the

Smith

movements
the

19th

such

the

Lever

which

movements

and

States

Act.

as

and

the

actively
led

to

a result

common

It was
their

an

Service

since

its

the

to

the

but

interest

interested

the

involve­

resulted

in

extension

has

during

part

in

the
pro­

operation

establishment

sentiments

important

been

outgrowth

impetous

Therefore,

play

Health Council

SCRV ICE '

Extension

gained

century.

became

the A g r i c u l t u r a l

itself.

OF T H U

United

the

interest

sentiments

Cooperative

in

time,

specialist

he
an

system

this

part

the

Such

system

G?:r,H:AL S T R U C T U R E

by

contacts,

pr o j e c t .

the

Until

active

made

extension

within

The

an

contacts

from

emergence
gram

played

survey

of

Agent.

of

the

1914

farmers*

the m i d d l e

which

in the

in

emerged

total

of
through

extension

program.
One
County
the

of

major

Agricultural

county

s e r vice
needs

the

l e vel

must

of

the

lege

for

such

levels

of the
tension

local

He

in d i r e c t
It

is the

needed

chief

contact

is he w h o

from w h a t

are

in " e x t e n s i o n ” is

he

with

often

has

he will

the

people

in

the
the

requests

It

i,s c o n s i d e r e d

by

inadvisable

to

enter

without

p e ople.

Although

the

an

area

staff
the

of

may

var y

according

to

county,

most

desirable

is a s t a f f

of

the

administrator

decides

learned
make

that

services.

office

particular

and

people

specialists

State

Agent.

effect.

When

offices

both

the

that

the

various
area.

to

the

col­

Federal
the

county

demands

on

of

and

request
ex­

that

is m a d e

up

of:

a

11

Assistant

Agent

(usually

particular

agricultural

livestock,

poultry,

onstration

Agent.

of

botn

tue

interest

etc.);
This

adult

specializes
t iia t

4-ii C l u b

a

personnel

tiie y o u t h

and

of

in

whatever

county

leader;

is,

and

i.e.,

a

attempts

to

m ee , t

population

of

tiie

tiie

iiome
tiie

Dem­

needs

county.

TiiK L S T A f ‘I. Toil'll: N T 0 T T A b C O O Pl.L A T TV L
L X T L a S il k L L L V IGi: I N I N T T . P L N P L N C L C O U N T Y

ning

establishing

County

a

program

task.
the

successful
liven

though

"Land-rrant”

agencies
a drain
In

and
on

who

preceded

of

established

time.

This

early
time

him

agent

extension

lias

never

requested
were

were

strangers

County,

the

for

last

the
in

largely

program.

each

county

they

remained
was

tiie

aid

reluctant
and

and

and

begin­

been

an

easy

education

from

to

admit

outside

who

would

represent

taxes.

Independence

been

the

who

local

in

within

people

system

agents

the

has

of

tue

Agents

The

the
due

present
fifteen
county
to the

in

the

TAbLL

V TI

a

years
much

but

Agent

tiie

shorter

resistanceshown

following table

remained

Agricultural

indicates

the

agents
period

towards
length

county.

C O U N T Y A G K I G U L T U L Ai. A G L N T S I N I N P L P L N F L N C L C O U N T Y
F k 0 M TUi: L S T A B l . I S i i M L N T O F Till: S L F V I C L T O T1IL P b L S L N T
19 13 - A p r .
1, 1 9 2 0 .
C u r t i s L i n d e n C o f f e e ............... A u g . 23,
b a l p h J o s e p h C a r r . . . . . .............. A p r .
1, 1 9 2 0 - M a r .
31, 1922.
C u r t i s L i n d e n C o f f e e n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'lay If 1 9 2 2 - L a y 1 0 , 1 9 2 6 .
A l f a B u t u s V a n S c h o i k ............... N o v .
1, 1 9 2 6 - N o v .
30, 19 20.
C l a r e n c e L . ii i p p e r ( e m e r g e n c y
Assistant)....Aug.
1, 1 9 3 3 - O c t . 3 1 , 1 9 3 3 .
C l i n t o n P o m e r o y M i l h a m .............. F e b . 11, 1 9 3 4 - f eb . 29, 1 9 3 6 .
L o u i s 0. P a l l ..........................A P r - 6 * 1 9 3 6 '
Source:

O f f i c e of
M ich ig a n .

the

County

Agent,

Independence

County,

156

T H E S T R U C T U R E OF T H E C O O P E R A T I V E E X T E N S I O N
S E R V I C E A N D ITS R E L E V A N C E TO T H E S U R V E Y
Although
in

it

Independence

with

stable

security
the

support

During

the

conflict

of

the

with

Farm

Policy

finally

Review"

of A g r i c u l t u r e *

and

It

position

intact.

illustrates

The
the

of

of

organization
g ive

it

is d e p e n d e n t

this

it

has

obtained.

agitation

had

emerged

and

Administration
its

peak

to

agencies

and

during

established

extension

following

System

service

interesting

the

climate

entire

reached

to g o v e r n m e n t a l

Extension

established

a growing

that w a s
is

the

of r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h

people

the N a t i o n a l

agitation

the

1951

years,

a well

The

local

of

many

lines

stability.

This

mer,

is

lasting

year

resistance

taken

County

and

and

has

by

note

farm

the

in
policy.

"Family

the D e p a r t m e n t
that w i t h

all

the

interfering with

the

far­

service

editorial

its

upon

from

remained
the F a r m

stable
Journal

fe e l i n g .

Y o u hav e p r o b a b l y seen that b e g u i l i n g
d o c u m e n t the " F a m i l y F a r m P o l i c y R e v i e w ”
sent out by the D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e
to g a t h e r o p i n i o n s as to how the f a m i l y f a r m
can b e t t e r be helped.
It is i n t e r e s t i n g to be a s s u r e d that
the D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e w a n t s to s e r v e
the f a m i l y type of farm.
S i n c e a b o u t 9 8 % of
the f a r m s of the c o u n t r y are f a m i l y farms,
we v e n t u r e to say that the D e p a r t m e n t is on
the r i g h t track.
C o m e to t h i n k of it n e i t h e r the p r e s e n t
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n nor USDA o r i g i n a t e d the f a m ­
ily farm.
F a m i l y f a r m i n g in A m e r i c a b e g a n at
J a m e s t o w n w h e n the f i r s t w o m e n a r r i v e d .
The
P i l g r i m s b e g c n f a m i l y f a r m i n g soon a f t e r
t h e i r a r r i v a l w i t h I n d i a n S q u a n t o as the
first "County Agent."

157

S u b j e c t e d , e s p e c i a l l y in V i r g i n i a , to
i n n u m e r a b l e r e g u l a t i o n s f rom London, a g r i ­
culture experienced many difficulties.
In
due time - after A merican freedom was es­
t a b l i s h e d - the f a m i l y farm g r e w in i m p o r ­
ta n c e and in p r o d u c t i v i t y .
U n til w e l l into the 20th century, the
f a m i l y f a r m e r heard l i t t l e from W a s h i n g t o n .
L o w he can spend a d ay in the c o u n t y seat
g o i n g f r o m F e d e r a l office to F e d e r a l office,
and he has to spend at least e v e r y M o n d a y
e a r n i n g his F e d e r a l income tax.
T h e f a m i l y f a r m ’n e v e r t h e l e s s , has a d ­
j u s t e d to e c o n o m i c changes, b e c o m i n g f e wer
in n u m b e r s , f a r g e r in a c r eage.
It made
g a i n s as i n d u s t r y b r o u g h t out new i n v e n t i o n s .
It s e i z e d upon e n g i n e s and e l e c t r i c i t y .
It
a d o p t e d new m e t h o d s as s c i e n c e m a d e them
known.
T h e f a m i l y far m has been served wel l
by the r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t i e s of the D e p a r t m e n t
of A g r i c u l t u r e , and by its e d u c a t i o n a l f a ­
cilities.
F\o o t h e r kind of A m e r i c a n has e n j o y e d
m o r e c o m p l e t e f r e edom, and no o t h e r has been
m o r e v i g i l a n t g e n e r a l l y to m a i n t a i n his f r e e ­
dom.
F a r m e r s have n e v e r been h e r d e d to the
p o l l s to v o t e for m a c h i n e s .
T h e y have v o ted
t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s , right or w r ong.
The "Family Farm Policy Review" program
has b e e n o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h the P r o d u c t i o n and
M a r k e t i n g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and its C o u n t y M o ­
bilization Committees.
It may be an u n d e r - s t a t e m e n t to say
that t h e s e are not e n t i r e l y n o n - p o l i t i c a l
g r o u p s in all i n s t a n c e s .
T h e " i n f o r m a t i o n " w h i c h has been s u b m i t ­
ted to f a r m e r s is i n c o m p l e t e , n a t u r a l l y u n ­
c r i t i c a l , and p e r h a p s in some r e s p e c t s m i s ­
leading.
It r e p o r t s few of the o b j e c t i o n s to
the D e p a r t m e n t ' s p r o g r a m s .
It is a rush job,
t r y i n g .to g a t h e r in a few w e e k s o p i n i o n s that
s h o u l d be s t u d i e d and d e b a t e d for a year.
M o r e o v e r , f a r m e r s have t h e i r own o r g a n i z a t i o n s
to c o n v e y t h eir d e s i r e s to C o n g r e s s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , w e b e l i e v e f a r m e r s s h ould
express themselves.
If you do not, you can be
sure that t h o s e w h o d e s i r e m o r e power, m o r e
jobs, and m o r e pay w i l l put in t h e i r reports.
T h e D e p a r t m e n t can then tell C o n g r e s s that an
o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y w a n t s m o r e of a g r i c u l t u r e
run f r o m W a s h i n g t o n .

156

If the D e p a r t m e n t w i s h e s to be s t r i c t ­
ly e t h i c a l , it tv ill not a c c e p t such a report,
h o w e v e r , on the g r o u n d that its own s e r v a n t s
s h o u l d not be e x p e c t e d to r e f l e c t a c c u r a t e l y
w h a t i n d e p e n d e n t f a r m e r s t h ink and want.
If you w a n t to run your own b u s i n e s s ,
w h y not j u s t say: "Give us t w i c e as much re ­
se a rch, k e e p up a good e x t e n s i o n program,
and then LE-AVF. US A L O N E ? " 4
The
feeling

above
of

many

Sentiments
ments
to

ning

masses

and

apparent
is

in

stability
spread
was

the

for

the
of

at

shown

terms

even
of

of

fac e
the

and

survey

by

the

that
the

such
local

the G r a n g e

emergence

may

call

It

is,

gained

on

the

of

course,
control
senti­
the

the

of w i d e

time

a questionnaire
Farmers
farm

through

the

204

plan­

indicate

various

indicating

senti­

knowledge

Such

Fair*

the

of

people.

farmer,

County

of

and

Turing

of

constraint.

planning

conflict,

concerning

information

and

transmission

of the

Independence
opinions

the

Service.

part

illustration
control

agency.

considerable

o n the

The

outside

a program

outside

Extension

the

and

chapters

of

excellent

indicate

such

limitations

in T a b l e

the

a b ove

an

an

towards

when

other

their

Bureau

This

4.

to

c o u nty.

F arm
is

from

is

education

agitation

t a ken

asked

to

control

subject

me nts

farmers

expressed

related

the

editorial

were

agencies
efforts

in

of

the

f a r m e r s 1 opinions

VIII.
indicates

farmers*

" L e a v e the F a m i l y
O c t o b e r , 1951.

the

support,

stability

such

if w e

to

Farm Alone",

are

a system

believe

editorial,

Farm

has

that

in

such

Journal.

159

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161

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162

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163

COUNTY MED1CAL SOCIETY
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16 4

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165

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167

R E L A X IONS M I P S B E T W E E N T A N G E N T I A L O R G A N I Z A T I O N S
A N D M E M B E R S OF T H E C O U N T Y L E V E L

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of

The

always

fel t

II.''

insofar

than

Department

complete

Agent

School

with

in

in F i g u r e

character

Extension

possible.

eve n

the

organizations

with

had

into
the

cooperation

in

diagrammed

long
estab­

for
manner
cooperate
there

organizations.

has

also

operated

relationship

has

168

not

been

close

since

considerably.
necessarily
the

On

must

the
use

implementation

nurse.

There

relationship
Nor

has

the

any

extent,

the

is

other
the

hand,

channels

of m u c h

not,

has

problems

of

however,

the
of

two

offices

the

public

of

the

the

relationships

schools

public

to b e l i e v e

harmonious

in

differ

Ilealth.Department

reason

participation

existing

the

the w o r k

n e c e s s a r i ly b e e n

joint

of

at

survey

between

health

that
all

for

this

times.

affected,

the

two

to

organiza­

tions.
Prior
between
The

the

Since,
atively

some

by

t io n s h i p ,
tc b r i n g

prior

to

the

the

the C o u n t y
The

the

unit

has

provides
and

two

groups

and

Grange

ether

survey

through

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basic

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out

is

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survey,

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g r o ups.

between

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Medical

School

representation

interest

that

to

which
on

this

serve

in

t e rms

is that,
been

This

no

is

Society

also
and

Commissioner's

continues

organizations

had

the

be,
were

neg­

rela­

will

However,

two

and

viewed

this

survey,

important

be­

county.

sometimes

together.

more

Department.

relationship

possible
of

relationship

Health

these

was,

certain

the

a tangent

the C o u n t y

to

because

of

between

relationships
Agent*s

it

the

direct

and

health

closer

analysis,

no

physicians

public

development

Pomona

the

developed

relationship

of

related

now

was

Society

physicians,

which
the

there

Medical

extent,

many

present

direct

survey,

Council
health

to

of the

the

the C o u n t y

Health

tween

true

to

bot h

Office.

indirectly
tangent

Health

organization

to

Council,
has

in

169

rural
of

p e ople,

it

the G r a n g e ,

County
such

Agent

is

also

many

also

contacts

existed

relationships.as

ever,

t his

Kurses

and

the

Health

Department.

cil

is

a former

president

for

association
direct
other

the

at

time

relationships
organizations

through
It

the

Health

should

be

other

organizations

County School
was

likewise

Society.
future,
directly

It
the

the

except

which
in

the

b een
the

was

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with

Health

of

the

The

There

Nurses

the y

relhted

other

Council

or

Coun­

Superintendent
of

were

have

this

no

Association

were

both

Health

president

survey.

itself

c o u nty.

Health

Council

the
be

or d i s a p p e a r .

limited

this

of

important

to

o t her

and

b een

to

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effected

was
to

a number

to

survey,

not

of

Agent

strong.

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the

Although

the

time

analysis,

the

chapter

problem.

the

to

see

organizations

a result

Council

relate

important

between

Health

the C o u n t y

relationship

as

the

Prior

Offices

extremely

indirectly

that

serves

the

of

should

phase

has

group.

course,

Commissioner's
true

Council,

relationship

president

the

as

of

relationships

and

t his

of

for

survey.

this

between

to g r o w

treat

of

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Except

Health

to b o t h

T he

with

s u r vey.

the

Department

clear,

organization

of

the

members

Council.

is an

relationship

the

membership

Health

the

to

Association

interest

various

relationships

no d i r e c t

in

through

of N u r s e s

and

and

through

through

had

represented

'lhe D i s t r i c t

that,

prior

occur

organization

organizations

„rue

of

the

and
This

Medical

if,

in

the

developed

survey,

span

of

continue

the

research

of F e e d b a c k

will

TAUT

.T H E

III

SOCIAL SYSTEM

PART
THE

The
tomy

of

following
the

structure.

Since

system,
the

a problem

orientation

which

are

found

t h eir

convergence

the

analysis

ning

of

which

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and

aspects

gained

the

its

the

social

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to

of

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its
from

sentiments

system

gained

orientation,

concerned

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the

emergence

converging

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will

with

with

significant

the

patter­

structures

emerged.
general

system

was

predicated

they

system

according

the

relevant

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concerned

dominant

within

system

Since

in the

be

i.e.,

level

through

the

will

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patterned

sentiments

hav e

S O C I A L .SYSTEM

analysis

social

III

in

problem which
on

structure,

a different

a set

such

of

led

to

emergence

sentiments

sentiments

dimension

the

within

will
the

f o und
be

of

with­

found

system

in w h i c h

converged.
The

social

segments:
general
based

system

the C o u n t y

and

upon

overall
the

be

involved

public

education

reached

the

within

Local

of

the

self-survey

survey

proportions

of

that

project

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into

the

notion
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problem

in

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general

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terviewers

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l a rge
in

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end

in

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distinct

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of

numbers

order

problem

two

that

health
of

the

itself.

to

an

was

people
goal

of m o b i l i z i n g

a means

the

end

of

in­
soon

171

Therefore
the

survey

w as

to

be

County

provided

Level

the

blem

the

led

was

in

The

in

and

Level,

initiation

the C o u n t y

the

source

of

activity

solution.

The

certain

conditions

which

concerned
quite
is

was

creation
of

ultimately

found

activated

fore

acted

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a goa l
this

which

by

or

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structure

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often

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as

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made
and

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up

as

pro­

themselves

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problem

vehicles

to

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of

of

attached
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units.
set
fcr

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Local
an

Level
end

ends

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to

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system

itself,

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responsible

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idea

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led

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to

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analysis

nature

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"feedback".

sentiments

goals

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as

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in

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solution

major

the

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upon

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section,

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orientation
of

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ideas

to

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some

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of

the

CHAPTER
THE

This
pl a y e d

chapter

by

tiation
ti f i e d

the

cf
in

is

major

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theory,

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tions

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relationships
and
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informal
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roles
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in

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relationships
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as w e l l

as

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in

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perceived

survey?

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reasons

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county?

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through

ac­

four

county,
the

in

between

people whose

are

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roles
ini­

bee n

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within

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system.

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survey?

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distinctions

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has

fact

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customarily

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in

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of

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bee n

local

h ave
for

for

H ow

did

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health?

necessary,

between

in

als o

contact

in a s e l f - s u r v e y
It

in

initiators

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of

out

system

empirical

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people

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level

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has

analysis

county

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to m a k e

actions

is

an

ascertained

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c ase

other

do

in

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this

the

be

with

a social

between

can

LEVEL

the

relationships

system
is

at

Once

that

between
the

COUNTY

concerned

survey.

VII

first

actors

of

all,

of m a j o r

to d i s t i n g u i s h

significance

on

a further

the

county

level

and

became
The

those

difficult

reason

Health

for

survey,

as

a tangential

on

clear.

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narrow

the

p r o blems,
surv e y
the

the

grounds,

organization
of

had

to

the

collection

members

of

the

Health

the

and

the

had

since

the

of

relevant

are

which
O ne

social

only
system

of d a ­

Council

an

active

or d i v i s i o n
membership

it wa s

activity

not

on

and

would
in

the

diffi­

the

part

members.

members

represent

interested

were

also

difficulty

actors

and

between
the

small,

this

self-survey

been

active

the

designated

this

in

all.

parent

self-survey

which

apparent.

yet

the

Council

organizations

be

at

to

but,

Council

of

can

and

it

that

official

a classification

limits

of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

in an

and

comparatively

county

observation

that

sponsor

such

Health

the

became

the

Council

cult

in

action

Health

to be

located

fact

the

tended

Health

the

involved

Council

Since

from

for

difficult,

various

system

actors

organization,

of the

the

as

strong

to

arose

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of

"arena"

certain

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part

role

an

meaning

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a peripheral

were

organization

considered

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difficulty

social

have

such

analytical

empirical

be

say

although

the

ta w a s

to

provided

of

The

played

this

Council

organization,

could

who

role

initiating

the

the

the

emergence

1.

W h e n s p e a k i n g of the c o u n t y level
a c t i o n , the " i n i t i a t i n g s e t " w i l l

in

county

health

tangential

to

that

during

arose

collection

rol e

played

organizations

played
by

set ^ w h i c h

the

of d a t a

by

an

same

had

a c t o r s in
be used.

the

b een

was

actor

actor

in

activated

terms

of

174

In m a n y
as

cases,' t h e s e

actual
The

description
foliowing

were

or b e c a m e

the

so I f - s u r v e y
Dr.
Mis s

Mrs.

a list

were

- County

r o l e 2; v a r i e d

wa s

of

for

Health

the
as

individual
actual

Dixon

-

of

Dr.

Banc

-

President
Society.

Mr,

Hoover

Dr.

Hi I l i a n s

Mr.

Stanton

Mr,

Lang

- County

the

of

of

observable

11 e a 1 1 h

the

Commissioner

-

the

Each

of

individual

t h e s e 'persons
structural
in

will

and

i.e.,
his

be

position,

Independence

imagery,
actor

County

Education
County

Independence

- C h a i r m a n of the H e a l t h
Pomona Grange.

to

Memorial

Medical

H e a l t h and S a f e t y E x t e n s i o n S p e c i a l i s t
from Michigan Sta te College.

Hatt

paid

units.

- he p r e s e n t a t i v e on the H e a l t h C o u n c i l for
the I n d e p e n d e n c e C o u n t y M e d i c a l S o c i e t y .

Mrs.

others

of

of S c h o o l s .

- S u p e r v i s i n g K u r s e for
Health Department.

to

and

Independence

Helm

ships

who

A g ent.

Miss

their

actors

Mohawk.

- S a n i t a r i a n for
Department.

of

far

Director.

Agricultural

Chairman

as

initiation

- S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of the J a c k s o n
H o s p i t a l in M o h awk.
P r e s i d e n t of the I n d e p e n d e n c e
Health Council.

- County

point

little

concerned.

those

treated

Committee

be

or

events

important

and

field

Dali

of

is

most

Berry

Mr.

positions

how

considered
that

major

Health

Independence

Committee

County*

other

or.her

the

County

is,
Some

from
their

the

the

stand­

relation­

attention

actors

participation

for

in

County

view
the

will

the
survey.

CO UNTY
Pr.

Berry

- County

The

part

survey,

was

shortly

alter

other

It w a s
the
it

that

be

ne

had
the

his

by

this

served

actor,

to

although

Obtaining
f o cus

the

crucial

a new

to

job,

interests

the

lie left

of

several

project.

the

that

Health

effective

not

Pi r e c t o r

duration.

belief

of

more

could

snort

in

position
to

played

of

actors

liealtu

Ll'JV CL A C T O R S

such

a survey

Department

in

certain

be d i s c o v e r e d

in

the

areas

without

would

of

the

reinforce

county
health

aid

of

and

allow

problems

statistical

information.
ilis b e l i e f
support
and

of

cated

the

tile h e a l t h

active

idea

in

Health

unit

was

participation

Council

displayed

and
by

in m e e t i n g s .

a

survey,

even

in

the

the

support

of

the

interest

in

public

on w a s

shown

face

members

of

of

its
his

ability

to

interest

in

Carrying
some

the

through

opposition,

group

towards

it
the

indi­
this

man.
ilis
a program

tiie p r o b l e m s

that

consider

Health

answer
was

nuisance

this

provided
might

the

concern
his

he

f a ced

in

the
os

motivation

achieve

this

a desire
of

he

said,

as

being

to

p i c K up dead

t h e people
towards
coal.

to

events.

a director,

and

educating

and

chapter

Department

complaints

chief

partially

in

health

primarily

in

In

such

viewing

“People
a ero

to

does...”

p u b lic

a health

c a rry

Tt

health

survey

that

that

176

No
toward
the

information
him w a s

Field
The

dent

of

-

Health

president
the

she

the

of

the

Nurses

maintains

are

early

has

lived

in

Mohawk

Dixon

who

a personal

for

is

Dixon,
some

about

for

this

She

is

"Jean

time
the
is

all

in

other

actors

departure

from

also S u p e r i n t e n ­

Mohawk

The

that

never

on

Jea n

it

first

Her

previous
limited
her

in

her
as

tim e

for

and

member

two

positions

her

position

her

is.

for

social

there

own

is

for

be

with

herself

being

known

The

Council

is

no H e a l t h
other

active

human.

She

takes
but

concerned

work
work

horse
she

a good

has

example

Council.”
in

a formal
in

I

to be

actors
on

her

reason

responsibility

a regular

to

The

personally

contacts

Mrs.

I believe

town.

affairs.

would

I had

close.
in

only

According

and tvork.

is

Health

professional
reasons

allow

She

acquaintances
to

has

The

actor was

f i eld.

became

she

years.

major

individual

that

12

person.

hospital

an

the

as

Miss

she

.she

of

last

cool

never

k n own

president

Without

In v i e w i n g

be

Actually

of this.

were

up

friend

will

patient

little
as

of

actually

will

t a kes

friend

we

close

the

a role

before

wrapped

them.

playing

awfully

only

let

for

an

individual

taken

is

responsible

is

each

about

Council

Hospital

largely

citizen

Mrs.

Health

Association.

Mohawk

vey

his

by

President

Memorial

other

and

of

h eld

survey.

She

am

because

Council

Jackson

the D i s t r i c t

that
in

obtained

imagery

co u n t y .

Miss

of

concerning

the

the

sur­

level.

survey.

177

she. s_a i_d^_ _"A1 1 _ of. us
munity
own

health

than

The

im a g e r y
had

lowing

with

her

Nothing

on

comments

when

Miss

appeared

with

All

in

of us

seeing

like

to

is m o r e i m p o r t a n t

improved
be

in

proud

com­
of

our

community

health.”

others,

concerned

interested

facilities.

communities.

activity

are

to

interviewed,

Field

from

be

the

in

the C o u n c i l
were

made

the

revealed

that

personal

standpoint.

light

and

a b out

few w e r e
All

of

the

contacts

people

during

the

survey.

The

fol­

her:

Mr. T a l l - "I d o n 't t h i n k the s u r v e y could have b e e n
d o n e i‘.ithout
her.
Id o u b t if a n y o n e could have c a r r i e d
it a l o n g the w a y she did.
I t h i n k that Miss F i e l d has
d o n e an o u t s t a n d i n g job.
S h e is p o s s e s s e d w i t h g r e a t
i m a g i n a t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a b i l i t y .
S h e can get
p e o p l e to w o r k in a v ery q u i e t but p o s i t i v e w a y . ”
Mr.
t a l l w e n t on to say that he had only known her b e f o r e
t h r o u g h p r o f e s s i o n a l lines.
She had b r o u g h t s t u d e n t
n u r s e s w h o w e r e t r a i n i n g at the h o s p i t a l to his o f f i c e
to show t h e m how the e x t e n s i o n o f f i c e o p e r a t e d .
Mrs.
have

Ilatt - ” I know her t h r o u g h
no o p i n i o n s about h e r . ”

the

Health

Council

but

tr. D a n e - ” Mis s T i e l d a c t e d as a c o n s t a n t f a c t o r in the
survey.
S h e w a s a l w a y s w o r k i n g on it and at all the
meetings.
At least all of the m e e t i n g s I a t t e n d e d .
I
d o u b t w h e t h e r the s u r v e y w o u l d have b e e n d o n e w i t h o u t
her.
S he a c t e d as an i n d i v i d u a l and w a s p r o b a b l y in it
for i n d i v i d u a l r e a s o n s alone, w h e r e a s some of the o t h e r s
w e r e p r o b a b l y a c t i v e for r e a s o n s of the o r g a n i z a t i o n s
they r e p r e s e n t e d . ”
He e x p l a i n e d that he had k n o w n her
t h r o u g h p r o f e s s i o n a l lines for the t h r e e or fou r y e a r s
he had b e e n in the c o u n t y .
Mr. H o o v e r - ” 1 t h i n k she did an e x c e l l e n t job on m o v i n g
the pe o p l e .
S h e w a s not i n d e s p e n s a b l e , no one is inde s p e n s a b l e , and s o m e b o d y c o u l d have t a k e n her place.
It
w o u l d h a v e to h a v e b een s o m e b o d y w i t h drive, f o r e s i g h t ,
and p e r s o n a l i t y .
T h i s p e r s o n w o u l d h a v e to be able to
sell p e o p l e a bil l of g o ods.
I t h i n k all in all she
did a f a i r job.
I have k n o w n her for a b out t h r e e y e a r s
t h r o u g h the s c h o o l s . ”

17 B

Dr. W i l l i a m s - ”5 he r e a l l y s t i m u l a t e d p e o p l e in an
e f f o r t to get the job done, (asked how i n d c s p e n sab 1 e
she w as) P r o b a b l y c o u l d have been d one w i t h o u t any one
person. "
W i l l i a m s had k n own her f o r ' a b o u t six y e a r s
professionally.
He has been l i ving for six years in
the c o u n t y si n c e the war.
Mr. S t a n t o n - "Sh e is a conscientious; n u r s e and h o s p i t a l
s u r e r i n t e n d e r t w h o has g r eat i n t e r e s t in c o m m u n i t y h e a l t h
i m p r o v e m e n t , some a b i l i t y to get e t h e r p e o p l e to w o r k
a l o n g w i t h her, but not the a b i l i t y to n e v e e v e r y o n e .
Sh e is a p e r s o n w h o has had a f o *jd v i t h .'•!? s s Helm.
F i e l d is a p e r s o n v;ho has few r e a l l y c l ose f r i e n d s , ”

Mr. L a n g - " S h e has k e p t the s u r v e y g o i n g .
If she h a d r.’ t
beer, in it s o m e o n e e l s e could h a v e t a k e n over.
That
s o m e o n e w o u l d h a v e h a d to be d y n a m i c .
Mrs. T i x c n c o u 1d
have

taken

her

place."

the H e a l t h C o u n c i l

bang

since

had

it w a s

known

Hiss

organized

Field

through

in 1 9 4 9 .

H i s s H e l m **' ’’S u r v e y c o u l d n ' t have been don e w i t h o u t her.
S he w a s c o n s t a n t l y cell! a g. pec p 1 a on the t e l c p n o n e or
w r i t i n g post cards.
1 n e v f*r knew so m a n j pest cards
could be sent out.
H great deal of c r e d i t s !io a 1 d go to
her."
T h e r e has been a g r e a t deal of r i v a l r y in the
past b e t w e e n Hiss H e l m and *11 ss Field.
The Mohawk com­
m u n i t y has o p e r a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y in I n d e p e n d e n c e C o u n t y
w i t h o u t m u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n for the p o l i c i e s that d i r e c t
the n o t i o n of the h e a l t h unit.
It has been t h r o u g h
this that c o n s i d e r a b l e a n i m o s i t y has g r o w n b e t w e e n the
two.
H i s s H e l m lias k n own Hiss F i e l d for about ten y e a r s
til r o u g h n u r s i n g c i r cles.
S h e b e l i e v e s tuat Hiss F i e l d
"dees not u n d e r s t a n d good p u b l i c health".
ouch
as

a competent

not

her

w o u l d n ’t h a v e
beyond

These
and
Loth

her

were

Hiss

friendship
Miss

Holm

willing

to

indicate

leader

indespcnsable

else

are

statements

in

the

but 'went
b een

much

and

reasons
and

Mrs.

express

Mrs.

and

an

in

with

the

Dixon;
Helm

are

opinion

generally

Some
the

thought

saw
she

her
was

idea

that

"someone

The

two

that

knew

survey

had

mixed

Mrs.

Dixon

for

letter”.

Miss

f ixon

people

survey.

a l ong

relationships
Helm

that

for

without

feelings.
personal

professional

volatile

reasons.

personalities
much

of

prompting.

who

179

They

make

group
has

decisions

feeling

a slower

to g r o u p

t hat
and

rapidly
m ay

more

expression

circumvent

most

they

nay

have

only

The

only

change

suggested
in

within

and

Mrs.

Dixon.

Their

more

strained.

tha n

once

between

had

t a k en

two

n u r ses.

Mr.

Pall

rural

County
During

people

not

been

had

known

When

an

of

tacted

Agent
t his

of

whom

a health
the

he

Health

has

Helm

hel d
he

the
of

in

an

Miss

have

Helm
is

the

been

but

has

trying

heated

when

to

quarrel

latter

between

the

Aoent
his

has

office

for

maintained

county.

before

the

extension

a great
sounded
they

deal

the

survey

respect,

wanted

He
to

of
he

although

had
he

lines.

sociologist
of

sixteen

respect

professional

worthwhile.
had

last

the

the H e a l t h C o u n c i l

by

since

A

it.

seem

to

a

when

between

Field

argument

through

the

J ean

has

idea

that

Miss

Fixon

actors

survey

college

Mrs.

an

that

Department.

and

Field

appeared

that

Mis s

had

is

feels

member

contacted

s u rvey

to

towards

relationships

she

time,

the

opinion

friendship

Agricultural

active

for

by

of

supporting

hand,

sensitive

appears

Miss

any

other

quite

it.

a neutral

the

the

she

admires

Field

throughout

some

he w a s

College,
idea

side

- County

The
years.

the

as

consider

on

is

Dixon

that

Miss

She

Mrs.

" s a b o t a g e ” the C o u n t y

occurred

Fiel d ,

ignoring

previous

action

always

h o w ever,

people

from

considerably

Miss

by

including

not

ma n n e r .

come

Field

to

quiet

opposition

towards

said

exist.

do

in m e e t i n g s ,

tendency

have

and

at
he

had
clear

the
felt

been
with

the
con­
him

100

before
Until

they
this

entered
time,

he

the

area

had

not
it.

he b e e n

concerned

about

man

organized

a meeting

and

this

original

the H e a l t h
many

of

the

Council

them

Few

supervisor
City

friends

w ho

in

his

are
of

for
he

his

late

health

and

has

mately

concerned

mers

and

consci c n t o u s
by

the

and

with

to

with

to

He

his

of

his

one

has

on

of

the

yet
to

involved

he

had

with

k n own

lived

he

f ew

c l ose

has
home.

has

some.
he

activities
b est

level.

has

no

He

suffered

is

k n own

basis.
and

has

in

and

from
not

mos t

He

is

been

is

poor

inti­

by

Agricultural

As

is w r a p p e d

children

Although

informal

the

after

"Louis

recently

down

had

chair­

shortly

personal

his

Dali

has

nor

a temporary

became

study.

work.

and

an

he

their

survey

although

neighbors
on

as

said,

wife."

slow

t hem

be

or

the

of

college

time

members,

years

his

in m o s t

college

the

township

fifties.

with

with

to Dal i

t r ied

deals

lie a c ted

close

Mason

purpose

about

extension

fifteen

garden

heard

this

its

the

his

visits

nov: in

At

and

through

people

Central

up

contact.

for

far­

quite

considered

Agents

in

the State of Michigan.
In
volved

reference
in

the
in

tvhat

does

health
clean
to

is

all
it

poor?

community,

some

his

survey,

essential
eood

to

p e o ple.

he

own

reflections

says,

"G ood

communities.
do

to

take

Sanitation,
etc..
In

general

a cash

a clean

become

health

Without
in

symbols

these

as

it

to w hy

he w as

is

prime

nothing

farming

home,

are

stand

else

crop

clean

which

symbols

the

if

farms,

matters.
your
a

a relic, ion
for

in­

a eood

wav

of

life.

the

problems

inventory
of

them

I was

that

for

then

the

upon

and

I studied

he

he

of

criticism

part

of

original

he was w e a k l y
services

of

gested.

The

members

of

part

his

of

contact
at

Stanton

following

t his

to

been
of

for

the

time
met

comments

selected

of

man

who

o r der

out

group

the

the

find

in

r u ral

out

the

infor­

lack

to

the

and

survey."

p l ayed

areas.
he

used

with

the

people

he

had

towards

imagery

the

Because

survey

held

of

Department.

the

the

about

survey,

of

reflect

f elt

county

health

Health

survey

sym­

a Health

The

a b out

is why

and

this

etc.

a deterrent
the

that

At

to

disappointment

those

has

to

an

severity

also

them.

stock,

find

D ali

came

in

the

Department

help

I first

co-chairman

staffed

Mr.

us

showed

"Their

made

probably

live

help

Mr.

to

through

I guess

Health

crops,

the

was

the

data,

on

Call

i n v o l v e d ."
of

attention

ascertain

solutions.

census

involvement
fea r

area.

could

the

would

concerning

Later

P e o ple,

this

said, '"When

in t lie same way, w i l l
mation."

in

got

statistical,

information

call

position

information

meeting

a survey would

problems,

act

idea

with

that

existed

health

the

this

Council

that

of

and

pathized

I felt

the
sug­

that

the

him:

Miss F i e l d - "Mr. D a l i has d o n e .an o u t s t a n d i n g job.
C o n t a c t i n g p e o p l e and y e t t i n g t h e i r s u p p o r t has b e e n
his c h i e f c o n t r i b u t i o n .
He is w e l l t h o u g h t of.
I don't
t h i n k it c o u l d h a v e bee n d o n e w i t h o u t him in the rural
areas."
S h e had met D ali f i v e y e a r s b e f o r e w h e n she
b r o u g h t a s t u d e n t g r o u p of n u r s e s to his office.
Mrs. D i x o n - "I
trolling factor
peacemaker.
He

th ink he is real nice.
lie's b e e n the con
on a n y t h i n g that has h a p p e n e d .
He is a
has kept e v e r y o n e happy.
Be u n d e r s t a n d s

182

w h a t is g o i n g on.
^ o one else could have brought
t h e r u r a l a r e a in as w e l l as he d i d .
It c o u l d ' h a v e b e e n
d o n e w i t h o u t h i m b u t t h e s u r v e y lias b e e n c a r r i e d b y
Jean F i e l d and h e . ”
T h e f i r s t t i m e t h e y had m e t w a s at
t h e F e b r u a r y H e a l t h C o u n c i l m e e t i n g in 1 9 5 1 .
.Mrs. i i a t t - " H e h e l p e d o r g a n i z e t h e ' s u r v e y .
I don't
t h i n k t h a t Mr. D a l i g e t s o u t as m u c h as he u s e d t o . ”
S h e h as k n o w n Mr. D a l i f or s e v e r a l y e a r s t h r o u g h h o m e
extension club work.
Dr. B a n e - D a l i f u n c t i o n s like Miss F i e l d .
Miss Field
a c t e d as an i n d i v i d u a l w h i l e Mr. D a l i r e p r e s e n t e d t h e
e x t e n s i o n b r a n c h of t h e c o l l e g e .
I t h i n k that he m u s t
h a v e b e e n s t i m u l a t e d by i n v o l v e m e n t of M i c h i g a n S t a t e
College."
IIe m e t D a l i s h o r t l y a f t e r h e h a d c o m e t o t h e
c o u n t } t h r o u g h -his w o r k s i n c e D a l i w a s o n e of h i s p a t i e n t s .
M r . H o o v c - r - " I t h i n k lie w a s r e s p o n s i b l e i n g e t t i n g p e o ­
p l e in m i n d a n d he a l s o g o t t h e s u r v e y u n d e r m o t i o n .
B e y o n d t h a t p o i n t I d o n 1 t t h i n k he d i d a w h o l e l o t . "
He has k n o w n Mr. T a l l fo r a b o u t t w e l v e y e a r s t h r o u g h
professional lines.
D r . V,' i l l i a m s - H i s c h i e f c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s u r v e y h a s
b e e n the s t i m u l a t i o n of people.
be has had q u i t e a
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in s e e i n g t h a t t h e t o w n s h i p s c a r r i e d
through the survey."
ilewcs m e t h i m a t t h e A p r i l 1 9 5 1
Health Council meeting.
M r . S t a n t o n - " H e is a h i g h l y s k i l l e d o p e r a t o r in h i s
a r e a of h e l p i n g f a r m p e o p l e w i t h t h e i r f a r m p r o b l e m s .
He h a s w a y s of n e t t i n g the c o u n t y b o a r d of s u p e r v i s o r s
to a c c e p t his p l a n s , e v e n t h o u g h he d o e s not h a v e c o m I>1 e t e s u p p o r t f r o m a l l o f t h e m a n d a l l a r e a s o f t h e
county."
S t a n t o n m e t D a l i in J a n u a r y o f 1 9 5 1 w i t h t h e
college group.
M r . I -a n g - " H e h a s b e e n t h e b a l a n c e w h e e l o f t h e s u r v e y .
W i t h o u t Pall the survey wouldn't have gone.
He has a
v e r y g o o d s t a n d i n g w i t h t h e r u r a l g r o u p a n d they' a r e
the ones that did the survey.
I got to know him b e t t e r
t h r o u g h t h e s u r v e y a n d b e c a u s e o f it w e a r e w o r l i n g
c l o s e r t o g e t h e r in a r e a s of p a s t u r i z a t i o n , h e a l t h of
herds, rat control, and farm wa ter
supply." He
met Dali
f i v e o r s i x y e a r s b e f o r e w h e n fie c a m e t o t h e c o u n t y
and
has known him through p rof ess ion al
lines.
Miss Helm - "We couldn't have done
w i t h o u t him.
He knew
w h o to c o n t a c t and d i d s o m e c o n t a c t i n g h i m s e l f .
I told
Dr. B e r r y at the b e g i n n i n g tha t L o u i s D a l i w a s the key

183

p e r s o n in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a survey.
gest c o n t r i b u t i o n w i t h the e x c e p t i o n
S h e had k n o w n him p r o f e s s i o n a l l y for
tail's
tine.

There

times
ills

since

calm

people
!crs

helped
the
man

-1 r s . I i x o

The

is,

him

actors

of
to

customary
however,

he

He

lessen

held

for

let

for

in

with

t h ese

at

at
a

dealing

the

people

through

him

leadership was

relationship

role

a

the

c:tor

activities
was

former

principal

forts.

became
with

is

one

and

know

that

sort of

all

premium.
with

various

mem*

he

tilings

that

of

an

mother

active

in

origin
in

Health

the

limited

with

w as
cer-

and

the

Committee

than

of

Her

housewife.

She

been,
in

before

a

survey

large

is

through

president

her
town.

a welfare

maintenance

survey

that

survey.

school

and

Council

the

having

elementary

its

education

mere

concerned

represented

owes

the

Health

professional,

cf

she

which

vith

not

experiences

had time

this

organization

sane

his

did

respect

male

and past

C h a i r m a n of
of M o h a w k

role

fr iencskip

certain

Council.

if

group

5 h 0 u 1 c1.
-

She

this

man and

in

association

the

a

a

Health

V

11

marriage,
The

was

and

t o i i i 1J the

other

been

had
he

with

personality

cf

a busy

more

stature

lie m a d e the b i g ­
of M iss F i e l d . ”
five or six rears.

to

her

ef­

personal

who

resides

in

community.

Mrs.

I ixOii

her

husband

division

of

a

Mohawk.

Jn

1943

cane
who

from
is

thriving
she

Albion,

now

an

Michigan,

executive

refrigerator

became

twelve

with

compressor

concerned

with

the

years

Fresco,
factory
health

n

ago
large

in
records

in

the

school

record
Child

for

of

Club,

school

immunization
m i 11 e e
I'ixon
the

periences
to

the

in

to

mittee

an

and

since

opposition
the

somewhat

half,

it

was

was

it

contact

with

active
for
was

delayed,

responsibility

for
It

welfare
was

her
to

a

of

cases

the
town

From

and

up

a

no

this

Cducat
only

not

?n

handled
past

by

of

these

title

that

she

was

the

Council,

her

interest

Health

county

the
as

ex­

invited

di f f i c u l t

for

the

survey.

co-chairman

of

the

survey

participation.

acceptance

enthusiasm

that

Council.

village

involvement
more

it

in­

of

original

her

made

This

organization

.in c o m m i t t e e

Health

oriented.

of

general

helped
Her

in

the
this

and

of

Che

the

her
Che

com­
also

survey

neutralize

final

contribution

survey.

Although

community

successful

in

the

coverage

county.
her

activity

apparent
but

also

that
felt

over
she

a

period

enjoyed

somewhat

a

of

a

year

certain

inadequate

and

amount

when

a

Com

Mrs.

because

position,

part

of

the

around

o Health
made

was

organized

immunization.

now

positional

of

the

the

she

there

meetings.

her

for

observing
became

is

that

member,

and

community'than

within

the

started

her

a

concerning

c o m n i 11 e c

important

surveyr provided

In

she

ager oy .

involvement

throughout

which

greatly

responsible

idea,

was

more

together

play

children,

president

contribute

did

was

is

the

was

with

Finding

of

Council

the

health

a

welfare

Health

terest,

as

along

Hike

Mohawk.

children

This

acts

c o is n t y

of

program

formed.
who

of

immunization

Study

survey

system

a
of

dealing

185

with

professionals.

because

of

doesn't

carry

group

his

position
much

discussion
The

her

often
but

weight.”

but

following

concerning

She

refused

I'm

is

h .c ld

just

She
to

information

that

said,

by

"Mr.

Call

another

could

do

citizen

and

was

quick

to

respond

rive

talks

or

lead

displays
the

so-me

of

the

this
that

to

the'group.
imagery

group:

M i s s f i e l d - "I f e l t I m a d e a b a d c h o i c e in M r s . D i x o n ,
e s p e c i a l l y in c h o o s i n g h e r f c r t h e c h a i r m a n s h i p of M o ­
hawk,
It is d i f f i c u l t , f o r h e r to w o r k w i t h o t h e r s .
S h e h a s not l e a r n e d t h e t r i c k of a s s i g n i n g o t h e r s to
c a r r y the load w i t h her.
S h e also does not have the
a b i l i t y to get a l o n g w i t h the p e o p l e w i t h w h o m she must
work.
T h e r e w e r e o t h e r s who had this a b i l i t y but w e r e
b u s y at. t h e t i m e .
1 f e e l t h e f a i l u r e o f M o h a w k in t h i s
s u r v e y has b e e n l a r g e l y d u e to my poor s e l e c t i o n . ” 2
Mr, f a l l - " S h e is a g o o d o r g a n i z e r a n d m o b i l i z e r .
She
is a g o o d p r e s s u r e p e r s o n a n d w i l l w o r k .
S h e is a l s o
goo d a r o u n d the r o u n d table, good at p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t s
( e s p e c i a l l y o v e r t h e t e l e p h o n e ) , a n d a g o o d c o g in t h e
gears.
Y o u h a v e to h a v e s o m e p e o p l e l i k e h e r to g e t t h e
work done.
S Ii e i s ’v a l ’u a l l c b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e n o t t o o
many people like h e r . ”
T a l l m e t he r t h r o u g h the s u r v e y
at t h e F e b r u a r y 1 9 5 1 m e e t i n g .
M r s . iiatt - " A l l I k n o w a b o u t h e r is t h a t s h e is c h a i r ­
m a n of the s u r v e y c o m m i t t e e on the H e a l t h C o u n c i l . "
S h e h a d , at an e a r l y d a t e , m a d e m e n t i o n of t h e f a c t t h a t
m a n y of t h e s e v i l l a g e w o m e n w e r e for the s u r v e y b e c a u s e
t h e y w e r e l o o k i n g f o r tilings to k e e p t h e m b u s y .
She
s a i d t h a t r u r a l w o m e n d i d n o t h a v e to- l o o k f o r w o r k
s i n c e it- w a s a l l a r o u n d t h e m . "
S h e m e t M r s . D i x o n in
F e b r u a r y 19 51 at t h e H e a l t h C o u n c i l m e e t i n g .
Dr . B a n c - " S h e h a s a g r e a t d e a l of e n t h u s i a s m .
She
was pret t y good all along.
S h e is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e
she r e p r e s e n t s the lay people w i t h o u t any a f f i l i a t i o n s .
T h e s e p e o p l e a r e at m e e t i n g s b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e p e r s o n a l
r e a s o n s of i n t e r e s t . "
Bane met her through some w e l f a r e
w o r k c o n c e r n i n g t h e H e a l t h a n d E d u c a t i o n c o m m i t t e e of
M o h aw k .
Mr. H o o v e r - " I j u s t k n o w h e r t h r o u g h t h e s u r v e y .
I
t h i n k s h e d i d s o m e w o r k a n d is q u i t e e n e r g e t i c .
Deyond
this I c o u l d n ' t say m u c h . "

2.

This

comment

was

made

prior

to

the

involvement

of

Mohawk.

1D6

Dr. L i l l i a n s - "I h a v e just net her t h r o u g h the s u r vey.
I never knew her before.
A p p a r e n t l y she c o n t r i b u t e s
q u i t e a L i t in m e e t i n g s . "
Mr. S t a n t o n - " S h e is a c o n s c i e n t o u s , c iv i c - n i nd ed Me h a w k
c i t i z e n , w h o f o u n d it d i f f i c u l t to t i e h e r l o c a l c o n ­
c e r n s in w i t h t h o s e o f t h e w h o l e c o u n t y .
(A d i f f i c u l t y
n o t c o n f i n e d t o h e r ).
O n e of t h e o r i g i n a l m o v e r s f o r
the survey,
she gave the impression that Mohawk would
lead the county.
S h e h a s m a n y s k i l l s in h u m a n r e l a t i o n s
b u t s e e m e d in t h e g r o u p o f t e n t o r i s e i r e in o t h e r s . "
S t a n t o n n e t h e r a t t h e I’e b r u a r y l ^ C l H e a l t h C o u n c i l
meeting.

Mr. L a n g - " S h e h a d a n a c t i v e a n d p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t .
She
was active but the survey could have been done w i t h ­
out her."
H e n e t h e r a t t h e Ileal t h C o u n c i l m e e t i n g in
L'ecenlcr o f 1 9 5 0 .
M i s s H e l m - "I t h i n k she m a d e a n i c e c o n t r i b u t i o n .
Her
e n t h u s i a s m f o r t h e g r o u p w a s a s h o t in t h e a r m .
I knew
h e r e v e r s i n c e I ’ v e 1;e e n h e r e .
I met her when I first
came here.
S h e c a m e to me and r e p o r t e d w h a t t h e H e a l t h
a n d e d u c a t i o n C o m m i t t e e h a d d o n e in M o h a w k .
S h e is
public health and civic minded.
I s u p p o s e it c o u l d h a v e
been d o n e w i t h o u t h e r . "
Although

many

tributions,

inost

energy.

was

I'icld
how
to

have

much
do

vey

she

hrs

come

_thc

job.

Mrs.

her

the

appeared

strained

"public

this

said,

I

also

ilatt

-

Chairman

Mrs.

Ilatt

influential

to

limits
aware

before,

In
I

1

of

fifty

farmer.

to

of

her

referring

learned

: ad

a

it

Health
years
She

a

had

enthusiasm

might

part

public

of

of

have

the

health

part

and

question

in

her

con­

Miss

to

amount

good

with

might

mv

sur­

was
interest

curiosity

for

idea."

Committee
old

Dix o n ’s

mindedness"

suppose

certain
was

her

Cue

about
I

Mrs.

relations

civic

Foundation.

thought

is

be

hea l t h and

"A n y t h i n g

that.

the

considerably.

strain.

Delloqc

from

sec

explained

been

with

through

and

As

could

for

and

wife

lived

on

Pomona

of
a

an

farm

Grance

established
all

of

her

1.37

life
no

in

Independence

children

twenty
group

and

of

the

mode

as

a

presented,

raised

years

and

two

of

the

and

the

Ucvcrend

idea

North

(a

county

but

antagonistic

to

the

Health

Department)

When
survey
she

she

still

civil

load.
line

It
of

was

Health

complained

with

and

the

it

that

at

so

this
by

Civil

work

went

ahead

many

of

time

the

that
that

calling

Defense

At

this
the

the

Health

was

a

survey
minister
there
it

who
was

openly
the

the

idea

one

of

a

meeting

were

would

of

add

busy
to

circumvented

were

no

vjorthwhile.

people

just

first

from

February

group

questions

ea r e ­

a

with

survey

now

the

the

had

Committee

not

rural

are

of

opposed

and

have

Publicity

residing

negative.

projects

opposition

Health.

much

Council

remained

defense
was

too

one

rural

the

that

when

of

in

who

from

and

lives

standpoint

was

college

the

husband

wards

il a t t

Education

V. h e n

her

county

Mrs.

with

Council.

she

She

old.

contact

member

Health

longer

have

forty

that

Council

but

County.

Civil

later.added

the
this

lefense
to

the

questionnaire.
Her
terms

of

growing
Her

original

socialized
government

reason

lie

Since

Dali

Nr.

in

gathered

explained

agencies

that

around

her

had

on

the

certain

the

fear

with

survey
of

an

of

record

survey

was

who
as

might

information

expressed

communism,

increase

socialized

suspicion

gone

from
if

to

medicine,

centered

communism

mation

opposition

of

medicine
was

and

and

that

benefit
showed

fear

cf

taxation.

behind

saying

in

fear

of

the

idea.

the

infor­

his

office

that

animal

and

diseases were
bring

prevalent

a vet o r w a r inn
extremely

"is a g o o d

example

problems

and

department

t h e y do f i n d
money"
this
If

1 o c !: o u t

plenty

them

I u sy

privy

their

o n e tic h .

and

there
no

I. i s n e i g h b o r
people

arc

there.

It

so

that

to

vill a g e -women

that

it

will

stay

work,

there

never

disappeared

of

the

This

is

Health

was

tenT
the

crowded

seems

had

certainly

of

th c survey.

me

on

in

fori

less

he

only

that

is

part

wealth

alive.

Aural

Council
due

wanted

women

around

for

several
do

the

little

the

them."

illness
or

meetings

survey,
of

nothing

the

from

the

city

but

in

is

a

her
to

to
to

to

v:cs

do

husband,
with

so
for

opposition

the
not

give

look

iiatt's

after

do

problem

is

have

she

farmer

away

something

Mrs.

keep

enough

survey

don't

will

has

him

this

us m o r e

If a f a r m e r

really

Council

all

to

to

of

if

survey.

a

about

far

to

it

e

♦. a

This would

living

that

it c o s t

C *ty , they

concern.

is

b'hat

or

It s e e m s to me

v: o r r i r d

harm

the

and

Central

n I v; a y s

together

plenty

partly

some more.

the river.

s h o i ’I d ' b c

septic

so

along

T h e y a re

l o o king for

d o v:n h e r e " 1 b i l l

windews

sac

a new o f f i c e

T h e y d o n ’t r v on h a v r t •?.

privies

of

actually

the

goes around

h a s to pay

health' p r o b l e m s

tine,

'‘T h i s ” , she said,

then they build

the t ax pa y e r

is t h e i r j o b .

find

a

find

to

on in L’a s h i n g ten a n d a l l

V.’h a t is t h e h e a l t h T o p a r t m e a t

they

but

is g o i n g

The government

once they

and

o f f i c e f ull

n e g a t i v e t o t h e idea.

of w h a t

the c o u n t r y .

he n i g lit be a b l e

into the e xt en si on

had b e c o m e

over

in t h e c o u n t y ,

decision
present.

but
the

swe
planning

n o

An

attempt

mona

Grange.

with

the

would

It

ctner

follow

that

structure

of

Mrs.
up

at

time

idea.
part
For

this

was

first

idea
of

of

the

they

ivcre

so

apathetic

the

the
that

survey
she

health

3.

See

in

could

pages

decision
had

the
the

Grange

the

Po­
idea

members

manifested

toward

like

this

the

A

.s h c

objections

the

actual

lady

but

on

organization,

was

survey

decision

Grange

went

still

able

to

while

much

fcr
was

the

present

the
all

for

the

most
about.

matter

when

it

on

record

convinced
one

of

get

the

most

as

that

these

it

v;as

people

idea

people

being

were

the

a waste

and

through

for

stated

because

just

plain

it.
Pomona

when

Grange

the

Stanton
her

no

from

Grange.

look

what

remained

were

on

and

165-66.

she

asked

on

she

Grange.

record

as

organization
her

accepted

since

Pomona

gone

Council

Call,

refuse

the

had

Health

township,

hardly

committee

this

of

co-sponsored

subordinate

Pomona

had

made

were

Hatt

the

by

approval

up."

many

survey,

the}'

members

d idn *t

others

Pomona

towards

represented

the

energetic

because

if

the

representative

to

they

m i n o r ! ty

get

thb

Council

understand

brought

Mrs.

a

that

reality

"It

the

reason

that

for

idea

said,

although

to

Grange.0

didn't

time.

In

being

the

hater

felt

Health

the

Many
they

was

made

organizations,

H a 1 1,

brought

been

suit.

vagueness

that

had

to

the

was

be

being
yrcup,

chairman

job.

chairman

She
of

of

said
the

190

Mrs.
other
ent

Matt

actors

had

that

reflection

interviews

few
she

that

was

.Mrs.

certain

to

her

rural

defense
It

was

of

was

with

the

rural

observed

uncomfortable

by

the

of

many

a

tion

"sophisticated”.

in

reference

comments

to

made

indicated

a

they

she

knew

educated

the

Ly

Miss

respect
was

not
by

.people

and

element

future

relations

vey.

There

was

stand

rural

life

and,

as

than

thcy.
As

a

a

result,

the

survey

the

findings

were

and

concerning

the

the

Health

well

they

os

to

revealed,

in

Mrs.

by
to

urban.

re­

in

terns

of

urbaniza­

data

was

not

collected

toward

Dixon
of

Mrs.

at

Mrs.

Ilatt

survey.

she

This

dealt

did

Mrs.

concerning

Hatt
the

with

Central

Grange

in

the
the

quite
urban

had

made

City

can be

of

not

lack

times

the

regardless

they

but

even though

represented
be

h'att

various

possibly

in

the

often

that she

problems

constant

who

understood

end

a

women

M r s . Ilatt

an

reference

felt

had

that

that

often

and

to

worker

and

Matt

Council

too,

felt

came

health

that

Mrs.

had

field

contrasted

village

that

that

the

manifested

position

fact

feeling,
as

of

s u p p o r t i n g the

explained

of

and

the

partly

rural

rural-urban

others

field

for

of

liesearch

imagery

appar­

recognition

inferiority

group

One

neetings

as

the

observers.
at

worker

of

concerning

verbalized

were

life

field

presented
more

higher

of

These

way

around

the

feelings

imagery

the

conclusion

background.

the

to

of

indirectly

concerned
It

had

revealed

she

differences.
Hatt

reflections

sur­
under­

living

more

insight

comments
of

as

knowledge

which

she

191

considered

to

be

the

center

of

health

difficulties

in

the

county.
The
largely

position
the

cation

and

part

of

set

val.

This

actor,

could

not

see

she

Her

such

with

support.

office

she

action

that

the

than

of

the

she

in

the

a

Health

such

in

a

a

survey

member

persisted

position

advantages

the

a

and

made

this

it

when

survey,

in

the

Council
in

her

rural

survey

of

was

which

disappro­

county

would

Edu­

group,

hove

for

the

rural

difficult

her

she

differences
for

her

organization

was

compelled,

organization,

to

were
to

went
by

take

at

continue
on

record

virtue

a

part

of

in

the

the

resulted.

or

survey

theirs

urban

However,

criticism

in

her

that

held

the

survey

survey,

from

actor

Although

Committee

project

charter

ported

and

a

supporting

Her

this

critic.

the

the

feeling

in

of

up

Ly

represented.

play

as

a

Publicity

originally

people

played

and

played

an

important

self-survey

goal.

idea

more

clearly

forced

then

to

more

realistic

part

It

made

aware

sharpen

in

of

the

order

the

formation

those

who

other

interests

objectives

way

in

to

gain

of

the

Medical

Society

representing

the

Medical

Society

sup­

of

the

justification

sponsorship.

IbQctor

bane

-

Although
ginning,

this

society

in

favored

the

group

at

an

the

President

actor

was

Health

idea
early

of

not

an

Council.

the

date,

survey
he

official
Since
and

became

the

representative

it

gained
an

from

was

he,

the

active

be­
of

the

however,

who

support

of

participant.

his

]oo

I octor
resided
year
he

in

old

too!:

where
w hen

Hene
the

bye
his

is

area

for

three

Specialist

was

said,

c o u ntry

a newcomer

medical

there
he

is

Independence

years.

has

training.

come

from

A nn

ii i s i n t e r e s t

need

for

his

believe

that

the

future

expressed

C o unty,

having

iic is a t h i r t y - f i v e

apparent

"I

Lest

who

to

Arbor,

in

this

services,

in m o d e r a t e

where
area,

was

expressed

development

sized

cities

of

this

such

as

Central City and areas such as this county which arc away
from d e n s e
more
ted

and
to

their

more

those

population.

younc;

first

19G1.

cided

where

a Health

work

on

would

Cl

sponsorship
doctor

was

felt

der

to

sent

in

that

this

a letter

Council

Council

Cane

at

in

cn

the

from

their

The
the

in

docto r s .
is

project.

in

his

March.

by

without

group
As

bociety

felt

of

had

Lut

he

all
an

an
had

that

har­
no

official

society,

approach

a r e s ult,

attendance

had

of

practically

this
to

de­

themselves

wa s P r e s i d e n t

Since

a member

correct

requesting

meeting

It was

in M a r c h

Council

Council

the c o u n t y

the

the

Medical

attrac­

chi l d r e n .

committing

time

Health

past.

ccunty
was

this

because

r a ise

meeting

least

at

and

three

or

Society.

the

has

case

being

start

survey,

possible

legitimate

him

Health

be

and

a

the H e a l t h

a 11 e n d cd

survey

yet

the

are

after

it.

Medical

is

a month

dly

every

can

at

representative

and

they

appeared

the

this

professionals

married

official
ever

able

is

on d o i n g

the C o u n t y

I think

Lane

Til is w a s

to f u t u r e

and

places

families."
Le

of

city

at

Miss
the

in

it
or­

Field
next

During
the

the

survey and

ment

as

would

March
said

to v hat

endorse

come

i n t e r e s t e d on

tlii

m i g h t be

s

that
ov; n

the

a

way

would

lie said
he

the

instead

not

and

of

h r. v i n c

make

the

I,ring

attend

representative

were

that

licial

state­

sure

that

that

they

might

was

they
be­

the

fact

that

medicine.

The

fact

interested

some

in- t h e i r

outside

accncv

idea w o r t h w h i l e .

it b e f o r e

Health

^

in

via s

that

socialized

interest

no

he

suggested

county

he w o u l d

would

a new

combat

his

make

say,

alone

certainly

that

could

h e

Me

point

of

expressed

would

it.

to

problems

interfering

assign

one

individuals

health

alt hough

doctors

he

g

although

the

probably

mec ,in

the

Council

he was

doctors

meetings

sure

would

and

he w o u l d

be

an

Society

to

a c-

t ive nenl'cr.
I.ater

he

received

an

CD

from

the

Medical

sponsor the survey, but it was probably more implicit in the
uaders t and i n v
po s i t i o n
were
and

the

occurred

in

er ^ep
some

quost io n e d , many
did

not

a

study

indications

overly

active

bership
T he

of

Mad

understand

Although
such

of

around

following

in

parts

was
to

to

comments

of the

not m a d e

heard

of

of

f i fty
were

the

and

the

the

op-

the d o c t o r s

survey

before

Medical

Society,

that

v:a s not

They

doctors
made

when

about.

the p o s s i b i l i t y
affairs.

since,

county

it v;as all

c i vic

forty

explicit

net even

what

point

body

than

it

have

ranging

about

D ane

active
in

an

mem­

all

ages.

through

i n terv i e w s :
Mr. D a l i - "lie is the only d o c t o r w h o has c o m m u n i c a t e d
m a x i m u m i n t e r e s t in the survey.
It w a s f o r t u n a t e that

194

hr c o u l d represent. the v o u n t y M e d i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n .
lie
is a g o o d p h y s i c i a n a n d a g o o d a n a l y s t .
ile i s a l s o a
good n a n to h a v e a r o u n d a c o n f e r e n c e table.
He can sec
through a ladder without bee onino c o n f u s e d . ”
Tal l had
n e t hi n a b o u t t h r e e y e a r s b e f o r e w h e n he w e n t t o h i m os
a pit i e n t .
M i s s Y i e 1 d - ” 11is e n d o r s e m e n t of t,ie M e d i c a l S o c i e t y
h e l p e d a lot.
He a lso has d o n e w o r k on the p u b l i c i t y
c o n n i t tee and has b e c o m e q u i t e a c t i v e r e c e n t l y ( r e f e r r i n g
to the p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g the survey i t s e l f ) . ”
Miss F i e l d
has k n o w n h i n for a s ho r t time p r o f e s s i o n a l l y .
Mrs. 1 ixon - "lie was very i m p o r t a n t to the survey.
From
the very lie g i n n i n g I felt that the d o c t o r s w o u l d have to
be for the s u r v e y if it was to be done.
Professional
and lay p e o p l e t h i n k in terns of d o c t o r s w h e n it cones
to mat tcrs of health.
lie has d e f i n i t e l y c l a r i f i e d the
M e d i c a l S o c i e t y ’ s p o s i t i o n and they e n d o r s e d it 11*rough
him.
lie is c e r t a i n l y a key p e r s o n . ” ” J have net him
p r o f e s s i o n a l l y w h e n I b r o u g h t kids over to C e n t r a l C i t y
to h a v e t h e i r eyes tested on w e l f a r e c a s e s . ”
Mr. Mo over this t ow n . ”

"I

don't

know

him.

Cnly

as

a member

of

Fr. W i l l i a m s - "He has m o r e time than m o s t d o c t o r s to •
spend on t h e s e sort of things.
He is a s p e c i a l i s t and
at fou r or five his d a y is over.
T h a t ’s when mos t of us
are jus t s t a r t i n g out on our h o u s e calls.
I t h i n k his
b i r«■./ ( e s t i n t e r e s t r i r
n ow is to see that the H e a l t h
V* h t
C o u n c i l d o e s not fall d o w n . ”
Mr. S t a n t o n - ”A p h y s i c i a n w i t h some l i b eral ideas who
is o p e r a t i n g in a c o u n t y w h e r e he w a n t s to be a c c e p t c d
by o t h e r p h y s i c i a n s as well as patients; who t h e r e f o r e
p r o c e e d s v e r y c a u t i o u s l y in any new h e a l t h p r o g rams.
M i g h t not: he is c o n c e r n e d w i t h s e e i n g that the f i n d i n g s
of the s u r v e y arc not m i s h a n d l e d . ”
S t a n t o n met C are
at the M a r c h 1951 m e e t i n g .
Mr. L a n g - ” 1 met him a b out three y e ars age w h e n I had
my g l a s s e s c h a n g e d .
Th e s u r v e y c o u l d n ’t have bee n d o n e
w i t h o u t him.
T h e r e are not e n o u g h m e d i c a l men i n t e r e s t e d
to sell the idea of a s u r v e y or a n y t h i n g like it to the
doctors.
He has a lot of good ideas.
He should be in­
v o l v e d in the H e a l t h C o u n c i l and b r o u g h t up to d a t e on
Hut 1 ic H e a l t h . ”

195

M i s s H e l m - "He got the c o o p e r a t i o n of the M e d i c a l
Society.
W i t h o u t t h e i r b a c k i n g the H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t
w o u l d n ’t h a v e b e e n b e h i n d it.
He is a man of i n t e g r i t y
and i n f l u e n c e .
I hav e known him p r o f e s s i o n a l l y s i n c e
he has b e e n h e r e . "
During
but

the

early

occassicnally

"just
more

soy

to

co m i n g

to

He

become

had

an

concerning
Lut

also

dropped

hollo

interested

of
by

the
at

survey,

several

and

see

how t h i n g s

around

the

end’ of

end

in

some

active

the

part

on

project

growing

areas

wer e

and

this

opposition

in

not

going".

w h e n the

still

the A d v i s o r y

was

active

Health Council

1951

and

Bane

He

meetings
became

survey

was

going

on

in

Committee

at

the C o l l e g e

probably
certain

played

a r eas

others.

some

began

part

to

concern

him.
Dan e

indicated

his

interest

the

idea.

that

active.
up

on

the

to

had

become

the

idea

Bane

in

of

the

some

of

the

"individual

he

two

factors

probably
that

he

had the

suspicion

represented

Council

the

year

meetings

just

represented.

by

getting

the

the

b e fore,
felt

as

governed

started

had

V* i 1 1 i a m s he

that

got him

who

being

a check

During
Medical

Medical

had

that

this

with

he
to

not

b een

should
see

if his

period

Society

to

he

sponsor

survey.
factor

survey

representative

said

the

involved

other

all

doctor

of

were

and

appointed

was

the

there

survey

Health

I'.'hcn he

organization

The

the

First

Hamilton,

Society

show

in

that

on

effort

and
the
on

which

probably

explains
Health
the

his

governs
original

Council,

oart

of

the

is

his

people

the

action

interest
belief
who

of

in

a

in

this

in

live

19 6

a r c r . 11.
the

Me

said

that

survey

v;ere

not

that

he

believed

area

to

take

also

felt

which

Council
lusioned

by

that

he

this

■-roup.

had

people
local

to
to

on

dicated

an

idea
of

reflections

concern

from

each

people

marri e d ,

to

as

part

an e

and

is

the

in

the

Health

somewhat

disil­

makes

this

in

in

its

a lout
uosk

and

the

him

feel

interest

Society

any

the

(maintaining
sec

develop)
who

are

who

in

was

comments
he

had

sold

i n d i v id u a 1

has

one

the

a net

Me

and

would

This

T or

in­

that

take

the

load

since
be

wc u 1 d

character

in­
v.h i c h

off

of

attending.

of S c h o o l s

Superintendent

family

felt

he

representative

individual

constantly

County

child.

Council,

ever}- year.

and

is C o u n t y

influential

Health

membership.

organization

Independence

and

of

!ie

effort.

Me d i c a l
to

this

said

stimulating
of

in

He

belief

s e n s i t i v e

- Court I x J L u o c r i n t e n d o n t

Hoover,

well-known

in

r e p r e s e n t e d , that

individuals

lived

h o c

T his

lie said

ability

expressed
he

f rom

it.

specific

has

was

started

the

problems.

part

surv e y

ho

has

(al t h o u g h

active

findings

thcnsclvcs.

( f c 1 1 o v: c o l l e a g u e s )

like

Mr.

in

the

do v: i t h M o u t s ic'r i n t e r f e r e n c e ” , since

his

Hoover

health

ability

rot

idea

he w o u l d

Mr.

in

individual
own

ver y

take

further

mere

pcrhans

ineffectiveness).

•cr a n ni z a t i o n s are

volve

his

survey

the

r ppo i n t cd

the

believes

t itc

nature
In

that

important

lie sav; the

the

committed
that

its

should

Cnee

of

this
he

felt

too

tha t

care

that

he

all

his

line.
many

life
He

years

is

of S c h o o l s ,
end

is

f rom

a

thirty-nine,

he was

a teacher

and

principal

leader.

People

have

mixed

sort

of

but
he

living

feelings.

his

is

net

19 45,

appointment

and

position

the

fir st

not

he

little

has

school

boards

His

often

active

and

lived

is a fine

and

jolly

is

think,

few w o u l d
by

4 II club

he w o r k e d

he

a jolly

sort

however,

that

deny

his

he wa s

Although

first,

a mediator

that

own

much

desire

for

opposition

He

in

survey

occurred
for

the

of

he

til at

determines

the

village

in

in
the

assigned
but

found

was

rural

s c hool

arise

near

a cr u c i a l

the

end

tiie a c t i v a t i o n

active

superintendents

be

the

little

two

to

on

gave

in A p r i l

policies

of

a political

Although

in d i s p u t e s

as

clearing

sponsibility.

and

record

been

it b e c a m e

office.

on

for

had

Superintendent

sys­

between

teachers.

responsible

he

that

jurisdiction

contribution

he w e n t

year

organization

is

and

of C o u n t y

elected

participation

largest

proved

an

the

He

meeting

to

influenced

the

extent

tems.

He

"he

that

seen
and

an

gain.

in

s c h ools

that

admit

All

sociability

some

area

feel

nature

Schools

very

where

others

sincerity.

lie r e c e i v e d

when

the

by

personal

his

and

a politician

of his

to

in

Township

Some

a f e l l o w ” and

doubt
is

in F i e l d i n g

one

being

four
it

and

for

the

of C e n t r a l

the

support.

are a

survey

for

of

one

idea,

at

He was

to

organize

impossible

to

take

one

contact

a failure

and

he

in D e a r b o r n

accompanied

City.
the

one

or

village.

townships

made

survey

responsible

interesting

their

but

the

on

that
Health

at
this

the
re ­

ultimately
Extension

19C

Specialist
of

the

four

without
never
at

to C x t o n

townships

any

did

where

involved

assigned

difficulty

it.

they

It w as

or

to

opposition

felt

by

some

this

time

was

partly

in this

area

and

o w ned

land

in

a long

tim e

had

He
at

the

had

for

Health

antagonist
most

of

the

been

through
He

her

to

between

his

results

to

more.

Had

People

in

have

pushed

it

since

they

needed

a Director
approval

office

on

the

in

schools

tion

more

l o cal

was

survey

o t hers

of

cooperation

the

people

with
is

Miss

Helm

actually
feels

an

this.

11e

Health

Department

has

on

survey

said,

survey.

himself

not

very

su p p o r t

of

This

organizational

in

for

I would

t ime

and
by

greater

actor

that

local
the

have

b a sed

the

where

said

but,

actor

on

local

areas
county

course,
staff."

and
of

for

of

clearance

the

survey

interest
the

level,

organizations,

it was
s h ould

of

t ime

acceptance

n i ght

I didn't

Department

implementation

channels.

but

a full

and

busy

survey

the m

this

local
on

I was

going

the H e a l t h

in m a n y

the

a school

up,

R e l a t i o n s hips

active

office

thing

survey

for

important

the

his

the

Knew

he

but

concerned

the

the

allowed

of

school

of

level.

it

at

have

it b o o n

my r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

his

the

the

Cut

townships.

that

efforts

the

come

from

would

yet

hav e

Harly

and

did

lach

he

the

he d e n i e s
he

his

difficulties

I should

I t r ied
do

of

one

tv;c of

since

f e els

limited

everything

here.

time

while

and

township.

personality.

recognized

and d a y

school

unit

trouble

"I d i d n ’t do

have

the

one

She

only

that

responsible

Department.

of

him

this

execu­
although

provided
existing

the

199

It
dent

was

felt

played

lize d

a»d

an

Ly

m a n y of

the

important part

justified

members

at

objectives

the

that

that

the

meetings
night

be

superinten­

where
met

he

verba­

by

such

is

mo r e

a

project.
1n
iust

his

classroom

a 1 s ci a t
t. c r e s t

out

o v. n

I

in w e I fare
far

are

of

advances

hove

bee;:

The
p

tain';
of

school

I’c o p i e

I

lie s t

activity.

stahe.

t o d ay

the

words

mu r c

The

you

Dc^rlo

affairs

conscious
in

welfare

t(d a

the

have

at

that

cf

health.

" h j uca t ic n

» that,

the

Quite

1arrr.

community
an

think

is

the

will

have

c o a f r e ; t I iu;

this

is

increased

P v cr Ic

t h e \ w r u 1d n ’ t

pr ob 1em s
I

of

os

;a ti

in-

turn

before .
an d

reason

also

t na t

interested."

f o 1 1 ow in o

L h c ui; n t

about

comments
hr.

illustrate

iioo\ nr:

v. h a t

ta is

selected

1

h r . I; a 1 1 - ’M e w a s d i f f i c u l t t o p i n d o w n t o a n y g r e a t
responsibility.
be d i s p l a y e d a b i l i t y and i d e a s w h e n he
v as w i t h us t h a t w e re h e l p f u l .
h e v. e r e n o t a b l e t c g e t
the m a x i m u m f r o m him.
I d o u b t if he s e e s f u l l } t hr o b ­
j e c t i v e s of the surv o \ .
T h i s h a s beer, a d i s a ; p o i n t n c n t . "
b a l l h a s h n cv;n h i m f o r a b o u t t e n
te fifteen jeers.
be
o r i g i n a l l y m o t h i m t. !i c n h e w a s a
4 bc l u b 1 c a d e i .
1 hc
C O ti t a c t s t h e y h a v e h a d h a v e c a 1 y b e e n p r o f e s s i o n a l o n e s .

h.

T h i s i n a g e r y w a s ma n i f <: s t ed p r i o r t o t h e i u v o 1 v e mc n t o f
C e n t r a l C i t y , m a d e p o s s i b l e b y H o o v e r ' s i :i f 1 u o n c e a n d c o n ­
tacts through the school system.
b e c a u s e of t h i s
he g a i n e d
c o n s i d e r a b l e p r e s t i g e in t h e g r o u p .
Central City
h a d beer,
"a h a r d n u t to o r a c h ” a n d h i s a b i l i t y in " p u l l i n g t h i s m.e
o f f " v, a s v i e w e d a s n s o l i d c o m m i t t m e n t t o t h e s u r v e y i d e a .
A f t e r t h i s e v e n t it a l s o b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t ho w a s f i n d ­
i n g m o r e i n t e r e s t in s u r v e y a c t i v i t i e s a n d t h e g e n e r a l
Health Council program.
It w a s n o t l o n g a f t e r t h a t h^ v a s
n om i na t ed f o r the p o s i t i n g of H e a l t h C o u n c i l [''resident,
ile a c c e p t e d a n d a f t e r b e i n g e l e c t e d t c e k o v e r t h e ° f i i c e
that Miss field hac previously held.

200

Miss F i e l d - ” 11is h e l p has been of the vocal sort.
He
a t t e n d e d a few m e e t i n g s .
He has been a c t i v e in his
s u p p o r t t h o w e v e r , and has kept the s c hool p e o p l e for the
idea.”
S h e f i rst met him at a H e a l t h C o u n c i l m e e t i n g .
Mrs. F i x o n - ” 1 met him at the H e a l t h C o u n c i l m e e t i n g s .
T h e t e a c h e r s c o u l d have c h o k e d him w h e n he said, 'let the
t e a c h e r s do it*.
O u t s i d e of that I know n o t h i n g a b o u t
him. ”
Mrs. Ilatt - ” 1 have heard him say, 'It c e r t a i n l y w o n ' t
do any h a r m ( r e f e r r i n g to the survey) and it m i ght do
some good*.
He d o e s n ' t have to do a n y t h i n g so it isn't
a bad idea for h i m . ”
Dr. D a n e - ” T d o n ' t
know h i m . ”
Dr.

VI i l l i a m s

-

know

"I d o n ' t

of

know

anything

him

or

he did.

anything

1 don't

about

him."

Mr. S t a n t o n - "A p o l i t i c a l a p p o i n t e e w h o mav do a f ai r
jcl of s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n but w h o s e first and last
c o n c e r n is to do t h i n g s w h i c h are p o l i t i c a l l y e x p e d i e n t .
I r e j o i c e d in how L o u i s F a l l got me to get M o w e r on the
spot last S e p t e m b e r w h e r e he had to p u b l i c l y su p p o r t the
s u r v e y at a m e e t i n g . ”
S t a n t o n met H o o v e r at the j o i n t
m e e t i n g w i t h the c o l l e g e and c o u n t y on J a n u a r y 27, 1951.
Mr. L a n g - "I met H o o v e r w h e n he w e n t into o f f i c e in
19 49.
Wc w o r k e d close f r o m 1949 on.
I d o n ' t t h i n k he
c o n t r i b u t e d m u c h of a n y t h i n g to the survey.
He p r o b a b l y
offered suggestions.
Milt is a b r i l l i a n t man.
I have
b e e n a b l e to w o r k c l o s e l y w i t h him.
lie s t ands up for
w h a t he f e e l s is r i ght in the schools.
The nursing d i­
v i s i o n n e v e r c o u l d get a l ong w i t h him.
N o b o d y has taken
time to e x p l a i n to him the c o n t r i b u t i o n of the n u r s e s in
the H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t .
S a n i t a t i o n is visual, not n u r ­
sing.
Of course, t h ere is a p e r s o n a l i t y c l a s h b e t w e e n
Miss H e l m and H o o v e r but on the o t h e r hand, Miss H e l m
clashes with everyone."
Miss H e l m - "lie g a v e s u p p o r t to the survey.
lie r e p r e ­
s e n t e d s c h o o l su p p o r t .
lie helped i n t e r p r e t the H e a l t h
C o u n c i l to the school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
In a r eas w h e r e
he did any w o r k on the s u r v e y it w a s n ' t too s u c c e s s f u l .
I hav e k n o w n him t h r o u g h the H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t s i n c e he
has b e c o m e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t . "
In
valuable

the
but

minds
few

of m o s t
felt

that

people
he

had

Hoover's
done

any

support
active

has
work

bee n
on

the

201

survey.

There

rest

of

Yet,

after

and

he

the

was

group

from

involving

ultimately

looter

little

became

six

years.

son

of D o c t o r

and

influential

slowly

He

in the

open

t o w ards

the

standpoint
City,

of

his

President

a young

of

man

a pediatrician
married

and

Williams,

member

ove r

his

opponent

Health

past.

health

work

interest,

of

has
also

this

together

any

the

with

common

social

the

objectives.

capital

Health

of

increased

Council.

in

thirty-seven

the

two

county

of

for

children.

area.

Young

tiie H e a l t h

who

has

the

last

ile is

a pediatrician

f a t h e r ’s p r a c tice.

when

but

he

and

he wa s

in A p r i l

of

never
in

f rom

bac k

to d e a l

time

in

his

interacted

his

only

and

old

lias b e e n

iiis f a t h e r
since

the

an

’
Williams

Council

19 51.

j ob

He
to

of

on

s h are
and

be

his

has

father's

tried

a personal

it

has
has

been

standpoint

his

medical

with

animosity

to wor k

bia s

the

with

against

that

is

not

experience

in

the

problems

as

them

public

it

sanitation

his

a most

career.
with

very

connection

appointed

seemed

the

admitted

mostly

had

net

Department

tie looks

Williams
Council

doe s

lie has

disagreeable

part

is

is

Williams

in the

but

Hoover

county.

Doctor

after

as

A.C.

taking

an

army

tied

Williams

practicing

been

the

Central

Footer Williams
been

that

fe\^ m e m b e r s

with

most

representative
attended
too

for

of

enthused

organization.

them

the

the m e e t i n g s
nor d id

of

Health

occurred

Medical

quite
he

the

Society

regularly

take

an

active

202

As
quite

of

jcb

of

started

enthusiasm

appointed

the

zing

tabulations

a bit

He was
had

the

chairman

patting

to

towards
of

the

the

ccme
the

in

he

began

results

publication

information

of

to

the

show

survey.

committee,

together

and

which

publici­

it.
i.’hen

questioned

s a id , *'l f^el
ter

it

far

future

ested

got

In

that

started
health

the

Comments

the

his

cwn

pr o j e c t

I could

sec

by

and what
people

Interest
is

of

how we

activities.

results
made

on

in

community
could

I ruess' I am
car
in

the

I c dene

t It i s g r o u p

use

surv e y

he

be n e f i t .

Af­

information

primarily

inter­

with- t h e m . *'
are

as

follows:

.hr. b all - fT r ., i*i 1 1 i c n s will be of v a l u e only in in­
t e r p r e t i n g re s u l t s .
be had no d e s i r e or a b i l i t y to noM 1 ize C e n t r a l C i t y (for a w h i l e it vas thought that he
m i g h t be able to a c h i e v e this goal).
lie d o e s n ' t have a
r e s e a r c h mind.
He w a n t s to see wha t it looks like.
1
don! t w h e t h e r he can h a n d l e people.
be is a fine C h i l d
Specialist."
b a l l met him at the H e a l t h C o u n c i l m e e t i n g s .
hiss hi eld - "He was the second a p p o i n t m e n t from the
heb 1 c a 1 f oe icty,
be has been mor e a c t i v e than his p r ed e '■e s a r .
lie has b een w o r k i n g on the p r o b l e m s of p u b ­
lication."
h i s s F i e l d has know j: h i m a short w hi lc
professionally.
„iu, P i x o n - " I d o n ' t know him or a n y t h i n g a L o u t him e x ­
cept that he comes to t ftc m e e t i n g s . "
Che met h im a t
nealth C ou nc i l meetings.
b i . L a n e - "I a p p o i n t e d h 1:v; r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
I d o n ’t k n on
vb.al he has d o n e on the s u r v e y e x c e p t for the b r o a d c a s t
he was on in the Summer.
1 bnov. him p r o f e s s i o n a l l y and
hr: is a f r i e n d . ”
mr. H o o v e r - "He had an a c t i v e part in the survey.
lie
was in on the f i rst m e e t i n g s .
He s t a r t e d off w i t h in­
t e r e s t but I w a s n ' t a r o u n d a f ter that.
I have known
the n a m e for s e v e r a l y e a r s . ”

203

Hr . o t m i v O n - "A y o u n g phys i c i a n , son of a r e a c t i o n a r y
HD.
iCuiHj W i l l i a m s is net p o s s e s s e d c f all of his
f a t h e r ’s p r e j u d i c e s .
lie seems busy in his w o r k tut
ready to s p end time a v a i l a b l e on such a new thine as the
s u r v e y and not so c o n c e r n e d as Banc v: i t h b e 1 1 1 i n y up the
r e s u l t s u n t i l it is e x a c t l y as p h y s i c i a n s want it p r e ­
sented.”
Has k n own him t h r o u g h the ileal th C o u n c i l .
Mr.

La tie. -

"He

helped

.hay township.

on

our C h i l d

Clinic

Iie can be interested

v. c r t h w h i 1 c . "

Lan g

has

known

him

program

in

in most anything

a few

years

professional-

Miss iie 1 m - " S a n e as Dr. Bane.
W i t h o u t the ”.c d i c a 1 S cc i c t y L a c k i n g this idea, the H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t w o u l d n ' t
have been b e h i n d it.
I have known him since he has
practiced h e r e . ”
The

a c t i v i ty

the

actors

the

survey.

en t i r e
an

image

of

as

stage

of

provides
he

is

order

actor
its

knew

or

him

the

with

many

chance
he

by

history

of

active

over

the
of

have

had

more

Actually

this

wa s

not

some

a crucial

minor

the

contacts

element

of

or

the

group.
extension
in

Since
state

the

m ade

to

through

from

in

remained

expected

involved

of I n d e p e n d e n c e C o u n t y ,
survey.

of

observations

later

who

and S a f e t y

on

the

others.

development.

original

be

sponsoring

became

activity

an

those

miyht
the

- Health

acquainted

Through

than

either

Stanton
This

time

and

developed

a representative

legitimate
Mr.

group

a result,

of

h im

Most

him

this
As

period

case.
saw

of

of V. ili iams

the

his

level

areas

in

encounter
first

Specialist

survey

at

an

position

is

one w h i c h

of
the

extension
s t ate

with

became

the

active

early

services,

of M i c h i g a n .
Health
in

the

Director
health

204

from

The

primary

the

f act

survey
was

was

that

countv

an

of

have

tension
ilea 1th

System
and

problems

had

been

an

survey,

the

realized

at

Independence
Stanton*s

in the

his

contacts

ings
of

of

and
to

It w a s

the

a project

being

Foundation

and

major

the

In

resulted
with

the

interest

people

this

man w h o

and

of

he was

in

entered
1949.

thoroughly

came

the
ful­

the

Ex­

lie is

concerned

fro m T e x a s

H e r i ( fro m

offer

time

that
his

a

with

A <S M w h e r e

here.

unique

he

a.good

be

the S o c i a l

the m a j o r

college

This

is

the

and

extension

Research

He

a ; ear

part

his

he

of

his

and

regular

job.

a unique

has

maintains

office

many

staff

one

of

meet­

the

position

him

to

wo r k e r .

which

between

that

pa. . of

and A n t h r o p o l o g y

attend;

a health

system.

is r a t h e r

because

Coun­

explaining

for

position

developed

services,

to do

that

Department
as

he w i s h e d

extension

the

He

Independence

the

would
at

he

in

of S o c i o l o g y

as w e l l

this

that

of .'.lie trig an

functions

the S o c i o l o g y

helping

His

survey.

heard

se r v i c e .

occur

sociologist

met

position

in the D e p a r t m e n t

and

actor

office.

He

project

extension

a way

this

in S o c i o l o g y .

first

his

of

work.

married

s t ate

job.

quick

of

his

Specialist

Department

on?

such

a young

his

had

he w as

this was
hardly

of

in

of

the

part

assistance

successful

is

in

the

extension

instructor

ae

ty H e a l t h

a

Safety

the

'..hen

his

obligation

I.ir. S t a n t o n

on

offerino

performine

might

filling

t hat

part

of

int_e_EcJst

the

allowed
Health

Service

hea r

of

Information

which

is

an

adjunct

2CC

to the L e p r r t m e n t of j o c i o l o r y
v:as

aimed

survey
he

of

Le

proved

cn

he w as

p 1 ayed
list

in

t he

veloping.

that

in

was

He

mad e

its

own
time,

County
that

o r der

his

to

area

followed

between

repeated

in

project

this

events

were

could

of

b t a n ton

department,

to

only was

a member

to

it

created

fail

the

offer

help

the

the

policies

To

to

handle

research

facilities
advice

in the

research,

and

the

general

at

college.

on

to

he
de­

analytical

were

the
of

poli­
such

observations,
or

it mer e
the

specialist
explicitly,

survey

if he

as well.

many

the

put

a specia­
staff

Since

occur

influence

this

as,

as

that w e r e

consultant

once

such

Stanton

the S o c i o l o g y

problems.

the

to

that

assisting

v;as c o n f i n e d

consultant

as

role

v:as to

researcher.

made

from

role

that

separate

the

use

of

difficult

research

was

he

too

researcher

attempt

the

not

the

of

in

research

research

the

continued

the

The

Stanton

he

before

Independence

arrangements

the

the

t:le role

separate

the

in

the

that

An

as

all

role

played

v:a s d o i n g

Berry

study.

occurred,

practice

important

could

the

Sot

but

it. b e c a m e

how

that

capacity

county.

This

but

from

and

from

the C o u n t y .

involved

behind

nature

and

for

development

i.a s e q u a l l y

cies

correct

t hic area,

gr o unds

heard

which

T he

a specialist.

new
in

spot

in w h a t e v e r

as

a c o n n unity

information

service

assi s t

A

the

of

Having

a lilely

Be search

county

a study

health.

passed

might

Ic

at

and A n t h r o p o l o g y .

of

difficulty

was

realized

commitments

available
e x p erts,

research

to
the

him

as
in

latest

machinery

to

possible.
the
findings

available

2 Of

Stanton's
the

berjinninr

rave

such

a role

with

non-rural

Stanton's

identification

had

h im

certain

time

for

tiveness

in man}'
in

himself

with

It b e c a m e
on

the

more

size

Stanton
p eople

he

some

came

in

just

his
Cal l

n e eded

and

the

fact

that

resulted

from
but

effectiveness
mos t

there

in his

of
were

ineffec­

another

one

of his

job.
into

contact

with.

this

ple,

(for

they

could

not

give

work,

such

as,

organization,

ments

developed

his

the

but

general

feelings

of his

time

to

t r a i ning,

etc.

and

for

them

the

it.

of

in for

help

along

on

iden­

took

involved,

difficult

assistance

feeling

so

It was

just

to

functions

In b e c o m i n g

much

motives
some

appeared

people working

time

putting

involvement,
the

if he wa s

in

to

people

Mr.

role

of

insight

selfish

as

rural

and

sec,

no

the

office

areas.

su rvey

a full

of

extension

that

contacts

process

the

than

of

lost

his

fact

to C a l l ' s

urban

Stanton,

su p p o r t

The

rural

counterparts

the

implications

p e o ple.

no urban

tify

the

wit h

out)

of

the

people

that

t hey

to
peo­

why

of his

Certain

some

him

these

lines

to w a r d s

the

resent­

major

ac ­

tors.
It

might

their

lack

it by

saying

whereas
at an
kind
could

be

of

effort
that

I have

early

receive

for
at

was
aid

had

job

made

wha t
from

t h ese

t i mes

"Stanton

another

date

of w o r k

said

often

is

payed

to

handle

comments

he was
the

but

paid

for

as
for

extension

recognized

t hey

c o uld

this

kind

as w e l l . "
to
and

the

service

at

of w o r k

Since

fact

that

rationalize

that

the
any

Stanton
this

people
t ime

along

?D7

these

linos,
The

paper

it

was

following

indicate

difficult
comments

reflections

by

for
the

towards

this

opinion

croup
the

to

be

mentioned

role

of

changed.

in

the

Stanton

in

the

survey:
ii i s s f i e l d - f,T h c s u r v e y c o u l d n ’ t, h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e
w i t h o u t ’‘i n .
So did the g r o u n d w o r k .
I an v e r y g r a t e f u l
for all t
t he has done.
Any misunderstandings that
h a v e o c c u r r e d in h i s ivnrl w a v c b e e n o u r f a u l t .
In t h e
c a s e o f t u e IId c r e n p o s i t i o n , n o o n e w e n t w i t h h i m . " ■
A r . I n 1 1 - " ! u o l o n g e r y o u !•: •; r w I a v e t h e b e t t e r y o u 1 i I: e
him.
V e ii r e v a l u a t i o n o f u im g e e s u p w i t h e a c h c o n t a c t .
II i s p o s i t i o n i n l o c a l m e e t i n g s w a s f i n e i n t h a t h e r o t
d e V' r t o t !i e l o c a l p e o p l e a n d t a l k e d t h e i r 1 a n g u a g e .
lie
c o i; 1 d o u t l i n e o b j e c t i v e s .
b i s p a r t in d e v e l o p i n g t h e
s u r v e y w a s g r e n t e r t h a n n v owr, e f f o r t .
11 w o u l d h 0 v e
bee n d i f f i c u l t to do w i t h o u t him.
I would have needed
a n 1 h e r a g ^ ,t . "
A r c . r i v e r ' - " H e v: a s v e r y o v a s i v e .
I n e v e r !•:n c-w e >: a c 1 1 y
w u :t he w a s t a l k i n g a b o u t .
He never really said any­
thing.
ii c h a s d o n e a l o t b u t i T m n o t s u r e w h a t . "
A r c . II a t t - "lie o r g a n i z e d
t‘
,iv t c r s i o r o f f i c e . "

the

survey

and

works

through

f r . A a n e - " H r i s id c nt i f i c d w i t h t h e c o l l e g e an d t h e r e ­
f o r e an o u t s i d e r .
He probably, o r i g i n a t e d s o m e of the
opposition.
It is i m p o r t a n t to r e m c n l e r t h a t he w a s
d cy: u
o r o b e c a u s e h e is p a i d a s a l a r y f o r t h e s e s o r t o f
thing s.
lie p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t b u t I ' m s u r e t h e
survey could v a\c been done without him."
A r . H o o v e r - *'T t h i n ! : h e d i d a g o o d j o b .
As I think
lack, he s h o u l d h a v e *ad mc r ^ d r i v e but I d o n ’t t h i n k
t h a t w a s t h e i n t e n t i o n of t h i s t h i n g .
If he h a d put
m o r e d r i v e i n t o it p e o p l e m i ^ k t h a v e r e s e n t e d it.
Ccme
to t h i n k o f it h i s a t t i t u d e m a s g o o d .
II c d i d n ’ t
get
excited.
I f I g e t i n t o it, I w o u l d h a v e g o t e x c i t e d . "
I r . A i l l leans - " H e c o n t r i b u t e d t h e m o s t t o t h e s u r v e y .
H o a c t e d in n g e n e r a l s u p e r > i s c r y c a p a c i t y .
be might
not
a t e g o n e n s f o r w i t h e i: t h i m . "
Ar. Lang
- "P a v e w a s a k e y f i g u r e in t h e s e t up.
w o u l d h a v e h a d to t a k e s o m e o n e w i t h h i s a b i l i t y
ledeo.
An outsider.
A c o n e in t h i s c o u n t y h a s

V.’e
an d kneve
the

208

ability.
It
ond o u t l i n e s

hod to Le s o meone
of s u r v e y s . "

who

kne w

the

principles

r.Ii s s IIc I n - " I t h i n k ^ c did a c r est do a 1 .
If he h a d n ' t
r one out and m a d e c o n t a c t s , I d o n ' t know w h o could have.
I d o n ' t t h i n k it c o u l d have been d one w i t h o u t him.
The
tine e l e m e n t w a s a l w a y s there and when, we felt we c o u l d n ' t
do it b e c a u s e w e w e r e busy, L a v e w a s there to b r i d g e
the g a p . "
All
Council

during

In
the

these

final

county

flection

as

hr

scientious
as

an

did

the

had

yea r

of

Stanton**s

a whole,

it

is

towards

to

iioovcr,

couatj
iio

He a l t h
feel^
on

his

is

unit

more
way

established

part

of

as

Mr

in

in

this

gr c u p ,

said,

irked

at

dees

the

t i m e s by

not

re­

"a

first

b u t v u o , in

and

the

con­

experience
the

readily accepting such

main,

new

Helm,

think this

seri­

survey,"

his

o f fice

conviction
of

make

public
it

self

publicizing
has

bee n

for

the

Health

the

ccunty

they

do.

in

the

that

count}'

the

health

public

in

order

for

the

m ust
for

secure.

the

than

to w h a t

He

survey

Ler a r t men t Gan it aria n

to

only

people

or

functions

the

of the

errors

but

held

is

interested

Lcpartment
that

It

the

health

group,

has

position.

11° w a s

Health

years.
in

own

made

efforts

o Sanitarian

be e d u c a t e d
the

the kdcr.

Lar.c - Conn. tv

five

observe

not

Anil,

last

to

count)

health survey.

I

significant

in a

as

dr.

the

survey

id c a s

Health

in

health

jo!

the

role

a

good

ous! } h a m p e r e d

his

who

through

1951.

of

consultant

a

mot S t a n t o n

analysis

held

advisor

a

people

d one

activities
in

the

of

the

past.

He

Lcpartment

machinery
This,

he

is

the

feels,

to b e c o m e
education
means

"advertising

in such a v.ay that the people arc made constantly

'aware of what

the unit docs

As a member
the criticism
towards

of the Health Department

that exists

this

service.

had powerful

critics,

is aimed

and can do."

in various

parts

of the count}'

Since the Health Department
much

of his interest

has always

in public

education

in this direction.

In many areas of the county,
is referred

especially rural,

r . bang

to Ly some as the "shit-house engineer".

people felt that

his j 0 L which

been neglected Ladly.
v;herc people

live

They

in filth

pc in t to the sc ivage that
swim.

he is. sensitive to

His answer

with problems

is along

sanitation

point to individual
and

Heme

lines has

family shacks

in one recreation area

they

is contaninati a g a la V.c v;here children

tc these criticisms appears to Le concerned

of jurisdiction.

He said,

"The Health Depart­

ment cannot force a family

to clean

it has been proven without

a doubt through court action

they are a puLlic menace.

Since none of the complaintants

arc usually willing
powerless."

up their property unless

to go to court,

In the lake question,

the Health Department
the Health lepartnent

been trying for the last few years to find a sample
taminated water.
still

tested

Even though

pure and

from condemning
Criticisms

that

sewage was

this prevented

observed

is'
has

of con­

the v.atcr

the Health Department

the area.
of this

of the Health Department

sort have made him and other members
cautious

in their dealings with

the

210

public*

It

is

activity

on

the

that

opposition

the

flect

on

a minor
should
our

the

In
must

Lang
under

by

help

cularly

that

and

becomes

following

to

Lang,

the

has

in the

the H e a l t h

members

have

his

and

to

of

modified

survey.

Department

this

"The

survey.

unit

Health

If we

hopped

on

it.

interest

in

the

good

the

has

Fearing
might

tried

to

re­
play

Department

had

This

his

really
was

entered

for

the

keep

he

said.

progressive.

wel l

with

the

n u rses*

indicated

that

her

personality

office

from

of C o u n t y

along
is

to

survey,

"We
The

t h i s ."

cooperation

gets
it

countv

operate

to g a i n

thinks

better

The

of

he

and

that

people."

but

through

feels

of

achieve

Helm

difficult

county

the

appears

Miss

the

would

a clean

ma v

towards

out

speaking

have

s u rvey

He

kep t

position

Council

According

opposition
and

this

Health

survey,

part.
have

pe o p l e

it

largely

onl y

well

other agencies,

School

with

a matter

division

parti­

Superintendent.

o t her
of

made

groups

time

in

before

the
the

unit

established.

reflections

of

others

toward

h im

are

included

in

the

comments:

Miss F i e l d - "Mr. Lang was v e r y hel p f u l .
He set up the
s a n i t a t i o n q u e s t i o n s for the q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
He has a l s o
spent a g r e a t deal of time r u n n i n g off the m i n u t e s of
H e a l t h C o u n c i l m e e t i n g s on the m i m e o g r a p h m a c h i n e at the
Health Department."
S h e has known h im s i n c e he c a m e to
the c o u n t y t h r o u g h p r o f e s s i o n a l lines.
Mr. D a l i - " C h a r l i e has had the same d e t e r r i n g i n f l u e n c e
that b o t h e r s M i s s Helm.
He has added i n f o r m a t i o n and
"know how"
in s a n i t a t i o n for the n e e d s of the survey.
His a c t i o n
in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the p r o g r a m has b e e n l i m i t e d .

211

L i k e H o o v e p , w h e n you get him w o r k i n g it's* w o r t h s o m e ­
thing, _if y o u c an get h i m w o r k i n g . ”
He has known Lang
t h r o u g h his s a n i t a t i o n w o r k in rural areas.
Mrs. N i x o n - "He k n o w s w h a t he is t a l k i n g about.
With
M i s s H e l m he has h e l d the C o u n t y H e a l t h Department, t o ­
ge t h e r .
He s u p p l i e d q u e s t i o n s for the s u r v e y .and k n e w
w h y he w a n t e d i n f o r m a t i o n and how to get it.
I wonder
if h e ' l l e v e r get it (the h e a l t h i n f o r m a t i o n ) ? ”
She
has k n o w n h i m t h r o u g h her c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the H e a l t h
D e p a r t m e n t s i n c e he has b e e n in the c.ounty.
Dr, B a n e - ” 1 m et h im at the H e a l t h C o u n c i l m e e t i n g s .
d o n ' t k now w h a t he has d o n e on the s u r v e y . ”

I

Mr. H o o v e r - "I t h i n k he did w h a t he could.
He has c o ­
o p e r a t e d 1 0 0 % w i t h the schools.
W i t h us the H e a l t h
D e p a r t m e n t is Mr. Lang.
He has h e l p e d us get b e t t e r f a ­
c i l i t i e s , such as r u n n i n g water, he a t i n g , etc.
If s o m e ­
one had d e s i g n a t e d Mr. Lang to s p e a r h e a d the survey, he
would have done it . ”
Dr. W i l l i a m s - ” I met
I don't know anything

Mr. Lang t h r o u g h the H e a l t h
a b out his a c t i v i t i e s . ”

Council.

Miss H e l m - "He d e s e r v e s a g r e a t deal of c r e d i t for the
i n t e r e s t he s h o w e d f r o m the b e g i n n i n g .
He gave p r o ­
f e s s i o n a l h e l p and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
W i t h o u t him there *
w o u l d not h a v e b e e n any m i n u t e s for the H e a l t h C o u n c i l
meetings.
He is a v e r y c i v i c m i n d e d p e r s o n . ”
S h e has
k n o w n h i m t h r o u g h the D e p a r t m e n t s i nce he has been in
the c o u n t y . ,
It w o u l d

appear

with

s u r vey,

the

. gave

to

the

c ase

the
of

that

although

for w h i c h

survey
these

as

muc h

others

somewhat

he g a v e d e f i n i t e
time

his

as m a n y

lack

of

explained.
Miss

ation

of

in his

reasons,
the

activity
L ang

others.

participation

had

As
to

in
be

x

Helm

- Supervising

This

actor

at

limited

the

Department,

was

time
and

of

Nurse

of

the C o u n t y

President

of

the

the

a member

survey,
of

Health

District

Department

Nurses

a professional

the H e a l t h C o u n c i l .

in

Associ­

the

S he

Health

recently

212

became

a member

helping

and

Miss

Although

much

evidence
to get

along

Field.

the

it

It w o u l d

teristics

which

shared

seem

discussed

Miss

of

the

Helm

purpose

of

Health
from

of

when

Department.

Miss F i eld,

find

her

somewhat

are

extent

a different

these women
but

leadership

some

and

people

course,

both

to

resulted

many

is,

that

in

by

the

survey.

h as

that

This

aid

been

for

c o n f l i c t ” w ith

clear

w i th.

Council
the

trouble

health

makes

on

already

"Mohawk
of

of

Health

advice

has

the

philosophy

the

giving

Helm

mentioning

of

other

difficult
true

have

of

Miss

charac­

competitive

by

na-

ture.
Miss
and

had

r eason

Helm

only
for

r e ctor w h o

by

this

Department

the
w as

and

been

not

unit.
it

She

parent

had
of

be

Another

reason

Miss

that

Helm

there were

started.
concern

the

of
over­

Health

Di­

the

ones

that

the

Health

Council

gave,

The

were

interference

enough

Council

Health Council

felt

Health

given,

the

beginning

always

the

should

felt

been

the

the

s u rvey

the S a n i t a r i a n

help

She

the H e a l t h

the

had

having

From

and

of

after

attendance

in

unit.
the

a member

meetings
of

organized

represented

ships.

lack

Department

represented

avoided.

not

attended

this

the H e a l t h

guidance

had

and,

nurses

although

shou l d

concerned

who

be

member­

represented

the m e e t i n g s .
Miss
years.
Health

Helm

She

was

has

been

hired

Department

was

as

in

the

county

Supervising

f o u nded.

Dr.

for

about

Nurse
Harris,

at

f ive

the

or

time

president

six
the

of

at

213

Central

City

health

unit

He

known

had

before

and

College,

who

had

accepted,

was

responsible

h er

through

co u n t y .

Since

tors

during

she

and
had
The

to

as

run

this
the

a friend
his

and

time
times

there
when

comments

active

able

suggestion

the D e p a r t m e n t

following

been

she

have
the

in g e t t i n g

for

her

nurse
came

bee n
unit

three
has

appointment.

for
to

the

many

years

Independence
Health

been

Direc­

without

one,

herself.

reveal

imagery

of

others

towards

**er:
Miss F i e l d - "I hav e k n own her for ten years.
I kne w
her b r i e f l y in W a s h t e n a w C o u n t y t h r o u g h the R e d C r o s s
Home Nursing Institute.
He part in the s u r v e y has b e e n
r a t h e r small.
S h e had a t t e n d e d m e e t i n g s and o f f e r e d some
suggestions.
S h e has b e e n b u s y w i t h o t h e r t h i n g s . ”
Mr. D a l i - ”S h e has d o n e g o o d w o r k in m e e t i n g s and in
c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n to o b j e c t i v e s of the survey.
Her fear
of c r i t i c i s m w a s a d e t e r r e n t factor, o t h e r w i s e she c o u l d
have been more useful.
I h ave known her for six y e a r s
through professional li n es .”
Mrs. D i x o n - " I ' v e a l w a y s l i ked her.
E v e r y o n e l i k e s h e r.
I d i d n ' t k n o w t h e r e w as f e e l i n g a b o u t the H e a l t h D e p a r t ­
m e n t t h a t w a s n e g a t i v e but a p p a r e n t l y t h e r e is.
They
h a v e b e e n c o n s u l t e d by the H e a l t h C o u n c i l and then ig­
nored.
M i s s H e l m t r i e d to get some q u e s t i o n s in to the
q u e s t i o n n a i r e and t h e y w e r e i g n o r e d at one m e e t i n g .
I
met her w h e n she f i r s t c a m e to the co u n t y .
She worked
w i t h the s c h o o l s t h e n . ”
Mrs. H a t t - ” 1 h e a r q u i t e a bit a b o u t her.
She
in the h e a l t h of the c o u n t y .
As for the s u r v e y
t h i n k she has b e e n a c t i v e . ”

is a c t i v e
I don't

Dr. B a n e - "I d o n ' t kno w m u c h a b o u t her c o n c e r n i n g the
su r v e y .
S h e has b e e n one of my p a t i e n t s and I k n o w h er
that w a y . ”
Mr. H o o v e r - ” 1 d o n ' t k now w h a t she has d o n e on the s u r ­
vey.
I h a v e k n o w n her t h r o u g h the H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t for
the las t f i v e y e a r s . ”

214

Pr. W i l l i a m s - "I h a v e known Her for the last t h r e e or
four years.
S h e h e l p e d me w i t h the W e l l B a b y C l i n i c in
May T o w n s h i p .
S h e has a t e n d e n c y to be p e s s i m i s t i c a b o u t
t h i n g s m o r e than o t h e r s .
I d o n ’t know w h a t she has d o n e
on the s u r v e y . "
Mr. S t a n t o n - "A c o n s c i e n t i o u s p u b l i c h e a l t h n u r s e
s u p e r v i s o r w h o has w o r k e d h ard on he r h e a l t h c o n c e r n s
and m e a s u r e s m o s t of her a c c e p t a n c e of o t h e r h e a l t h p r o ­
g r a m s in t e r m s of' how it w i l l aid or b o t h e r her r e g u l a r
health program.
S h e d o e s n ’t see m to k now muc h about
how to w i n f r i e n d s and i n f l u e n c e p e o p l e . "
He met her
d u r i n g the e a r l y part of 1951.
Mr. Lang - " S h e d i d n ’t c o n t r i b u t e m u c h of a n y t h i n g to
the s u r v e y .
I h a v e k n o w n her i n f o r m a l l y s i nce I h a v e
b e e n here.
S h e is a hard p e r s o n to get a l o n g with.**
As
by

the

in

belief

partment
members

In

case
that

might
of

She
"As

the

in

in

health

our

interested

in

survey,

them
then,

having
do

and

were

the

became
her

find
about

same

of

own

ones

the

was

the

active

in

interest

is

getting

teaching
health

if

survey,

this

survey.

health

ac t i o n .

their

it.

objectives

as

the

Health

survey.

the

out w h a t
The

De­

the

the

in
in

limited

Health

survey

interested

purpose

then

part

toward

too

I became

people

something

failure

to

primary

communities

have

the

person.

her

opposition

reference

organizing

and

Sanitarian,

organization

a professional
public

the

existing

result

this

said,

of

and
We

problems
of

are

are
the

D e p a r t m e n t .**

SUMMAKY
This
actors
between
survey

on

chapter

the C o u n t y

major
were

tionships

has

of

were

actors

been
Level.
on

a formal
not

concerned
The

extensive

an

analysis

relationships

the C o u n t y
and

with

L e vel

professional
prior

to

the

prior

that
to

nature.
s u r vey.

of

the

existed

the

health

These

rela­

However,

215

certain
may

other

serve

to

interested

relationships
bring

in

developed

together

health

and

still

health

out

other

of

the

active

problems

of

survey

people

which

who

are

Independence

County.
Those
did

so

with

who

for

a variety

their

certain

own

Three

to

of

act

held

as

in

others
cles,

the

they

actors

provided
but

all

of

the

gentially

set

in

other

out

and

and

and

positions

It w i l l

now

become

necessary

standing

of

these

analysis

of

the

associated

be

expected,

importance

to

the

to

and

itself.

greatest

importance.

set

enabled

were

strength

which

most

nature

while

tha t

certain

to

provide

therefore

the

of

ini­
of

of

relate

the

of

obsta­

important

county

analyze
which

to

by m e m b e r s

served

they

the

essential

of m a j o r

chapter

relationships

structure

might

sometimes

organizations

this

were

Second,

occupied

a number

in

of

perhaps

survey

actors

activities

positions

became

the

by

as

initiating

to

expressed

As

greater

certain

resources

the

of

additional

Finally,

of

of w h i c h

structure.

utilized

action.

initiating

the
of

provided

were

nature

in

Level

others.

stand

social

fewer

as

than

because

existing

mos t

interests.

considered
survey

did

the C o u n t y

reasons

however,

positions

tiation
all,

the

f a cts,

the

certain

were

of

all,

of

in

professional

actors

development

First

participated

the
tan-

gr o u p s .
sentiments
an

allow

under­
for

an

CHAPTER
AN

In

the

prevailing
These

A N A L Y S I S OF S E N T I M E N T S E X P R E S S E D
BY A C T O R S ON T H E C O U N T Y L E V E L

last

sentiments

for

involvement

the

latter

in

the

to

the

and

the

s y stem,

The

were

pattern

displaying

of

chapter

sentiments

important

an

attempt

of

actors

expressed

in

the

hel d

important

reasons

process

regarding

the

part

t his

ments

he

ments

reveals

the

qualitative

ex ist

between

the

actor

manifests,

ficance

of

between

sentiments

the

tures,

such

case
It

of
now

differences
structure
of

or

emergence

do

an

be

analysis

and

shared

sentiments

not

social
t hat

he

of

total

of

the

sentiments

played
in

and

in

s o cial

the

terms

such

of

he

of

senti­

relationship

s e eks

and

and

the

within

the

upon

ar e

a body

within
the
of

similarities

result

signi­

just

relevant

either
of

sentiments

that

differences

displayed

such

system.

senti­

a pattern
of

intent

the

apparent,

but

is

position

nature

Similarities

chance

Although

involvement.

goals

tha t

Level.

imagery,

become

by

system

calls

for

with

actors

evident

occur

another.

actor's

conditions

the

by

one

pattern

understood

relationships.

becomes

the

explains

Since

in

can

is

each

the C o u n t y

the

of j u s t i f i c a t i o n

concerned

of

to d e s c r i b e

on

form

toward

sentiments,

manifest

process

made

by

understanding

involvement

wa s

expressed

imagery

most

the

actor

VIII

as

struc­

and

the

relative

the

process

relative

217

to

tHe

upon

cultural

c h a nce,

ditions

related

is

not

particular

of

tHe

will

ganizational
body

nature
cess

of

of

of

c H a pter,
of

s uc H

of

tHe

it

Of

become

tHe

tHe

as

At

"people

of

is

sHould

of

unique

con­

Historical
at

a particular

as

is H o w

a

or

converged

witHin

f o und

expressed

in

terms

analyzed

in

terms

all

be

be

system.

on

tHe

Later

basis

a consideration
in

order

found

in

tHe

to

of

of

an
or ­

tHe

assess

continuing

tHe
pro­

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219

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224

TABLE

IN

IX

R E A S O N S GIVEN FOR INVOLVEMENT
T HE S U R V E Y BY THE C O U N T Y LEVEL ACTORS

S p e c i f ic R e a s o n

Selections*

Educating people
C o m m u n i t y or c o u n t y i m p r o v e m e n t
G o o d h e a l t h as i m p o r t a n t
W o r k i n g on f u t u r e p r o g r a m s c o n c e r n e d
with health
St re ng th en Health Department
To e n c o u r a g e i n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n
toward health
Past e x p e r i e n c e
Part of my j o b or r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

4
4
0

n
9

1
1
1

* S o m e s e l e c t i o n . s w e r e m a d e by t h e same p e r s o n ,
i.e.,
an a c t o r m i g h t h a v e e x p r e s s e d m o r e than one r e a s o n
for involvement.
A l s o a c t o r s s h a r e d r e a s o n s for
i n v o l v e m e n t t h a t t h e y d i d n o t e x p r e s s ivnen a s k e d in
t e r m s o f t h e i n f o r m a l i n t e r v i e w i n g m a d e B y ta e f i e l d
worker.
Through observation over a two year period
it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t n a t c e r t a i n a c t o r s s n a r e d s e n t i ­
m e n t s that w e r e not e x p r e s s e d d u r i n g tnc time the
data were collected.
O p e r a t i o n a l l y tn i s e x p l a i n s
the t r e m e n d o u s e m ph asi s upon the relevant structure
t h r o u g h o u t this a n a l y s i s and the p r e v i o u s chapt e r s .

Such

a

types
this
p

1.

typology
1

and

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the

dissertation

ssible

be

considered

,
health
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alternatives

interests
not

of

For a more detailed
see: H o w a r d B e c k e r ,
C h a p t e r II, T u r n am,
1950.

be

such

in

respect

.
wnica

are

considered

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types.

has

It

to

’’c o n s t r u c t e d

. . .
m e n t i o n ec w i t n m
exhausting
been

the*

stated

that

d i s c u s s i o n of the c o n s t r u c t e d type
T h rougii V a l u e s T o S o c i a l
Interpretation.
North Carolina:’ Puke University Press,

ail

shored

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226

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229

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together

of

who

execution
of

the

among

the
developed

through

belonged

of

the

survey

because

of

sanctions

for

the

which

survey.
both

lay

henc e ,

beyond
they

problems

of

to

the

survey

and

and

At

their
Gut

became
the

began

the

s t rong

survey.

they

the

tii e g r o w i n g

their

county

set,

as

findings.

the

initiating

members

change

of

goals

to

first,

doctors,

structure

in

considerable

included

certain
in

relationships

about,

the

were

social

active

t h eir

the

county,

interpretation

obtain

of

set,

a growing

developed

part

however,

This

people

initiating

progressed,

With

the

the

accomplishment.

set

group,

the

as

of

of

group

objective.

interested

leadership

and

members

That

concern

and

these

among

respects,

survey

County

but,

observed

survey

pride

initiating

be

the

they

tii e

interest

l e tter

as

a common

in

or

less

possible.

meetings

could

relationships
apparent,

survey

these

even

business.

there was

to

theoretically

telephone

Although
of

was

t h e r e w as

as

more

immediate
to

assume

completing

the

236

survey

in

arriving

areas
at

a

publication,
In
noted
he h ad
With
spect
grow
in

original

such

leadership.

Mis

dealth

Council

gav e

in

s y s tem.

It

the

initiating

set

but

with

tne

c am e

the

more

final

is

City

strength

that

him

School

this

an

been

development

in

tne

part

the

in

analysis,

to

to

h is

and

efforts,

physicians

prominant

in

of

the

position

l e a d e r sii ip of

the h a n d s

male

re­

structure

the

that

felt

survey.

presidency

note

survey,

the

relevant

the

it was

actors

in

rivaled

originally

of

m ost

through

important

interesting

had

that

actor

election

tne

and

Superintendent,

ineffectual

of C e n t r a l

successful

findings.

suggested

not

and

been

concerning

tii e surv e y

if

extent

yet

problems

imagery

ability
an

not

tne C o u n t y

a minor

his

to

of

of

activation

for
to

use

case

played

the

it had

solution
and

the

that

where

of w o m e n

leadership

be­

apparent.

SUMMARY
It h a s
expressed

bee n

by

actors

in

a totality

to

converge

ments
in

of

terms

demonstrated

of

in

agreement

the

Certain
siderable

and

content

The

source

of

relevant

sentiments

public

were

structure
emerged

health

of d i s a g r e e m e n t

were

with

which
and

could

public
once

s h ared

general

senti­

their

was

be

meaning

system.

there

health

again

all

appeared

cultural

o ver w h i c h

sentimen.ts

which

find

disagreement
and

that

not

sentiments

concerned

health

This

chapter

L e vel

Tnose

good

disagreement.

the

this

the C o u n t y

agreement.

education
of

on

in

was

con­

expressed

in

interests.
traced

to

the

237

relevant
wa s

structure

expressed

Federated
what

in

Type,

extent

the

continuity

of

the

thi s

end

of

Imagery
reflected
changes

three

variation

professional

and

fected

imagery,

This

of h e a l t h

Type,

in h e a l t h

The

int e r e s t :

Individual

interest

relationships

disagreement

will

The

Type.

effected
be

To

the

considered

at

section.

expressed

L e vel

system.

typologies

The Community

occurring

were

cultural

structural

County

turn

and

in
to

the

and

actors

revealed

relationships.

the

it m a y

effected

by

relationships
degree

be

that

suggested

ch a n g e d .

that

There
that

these
that

m ost

were

images

apparent

existed

on

relationships
the

sentiments

the
ef­
in

CHAPTER' IX
THE

This

chapter

chapters

of

terms

of

organizational

ments

expressed

process
tem.

Part

is,

III.

within

by w h i c h

Since

patterns

the

of

type

sentiments

such

the

obstacles

tion

from

of

were,

the

survey

and

a

not

people

the

fessional

approach

tha t
on

facts

a broad

tend

to

take

action

became
actors

which

to

the

upon

part

of

utilized

the

local
to

the

previous

be d e s c r i b e d

level

and

the

in

senti­

the

involvement

the

s o cial

sys­

pre-existing

areas,

it b e c a m e

a great

degree

the

county

level,

cer­

toward

needed

view health

in

obvious

the
for

difficult

way.

the

for

county

and

that
The

the

the

c o uld

health
to

health

needs,

and

the

process

in h e a l t h
local

difference

the

The

survey

planning,

pro­
assumed

especially

l o cal

framework,
any

ac­

stimulate

hand,

on

of

the C o u n t y

survey.

other

action-curative

on

interests

primary

leaders

flow

viewed

effective health
Cn

the

Actors

Their

kind

action.

basis.
an

the

organizations

exactly

of

made

on

localities.

particular

countywide

on

this

determined

justification

were

will

dependent

developed

county

concerned

Level

upon

expressed.

county

in

dependent

since

are

Level

appeared

however,

leaders

units

patterns

represented

the

Local

self-survey

tain

Level

The

relationship within

that

As

course,

actors

County

LEVEL

of

it

local

evident
of

LOCAL

people

i.e.,

visible

to

threats

239

to

the

g ood

interest

health

provided

It w a s
already
These
at

of

necessary

existing

local

result.
used.

These

various

provided
in

such

appeals

directly.

Father,

any

verbal

The
of

local

level.

to

sentiments

certain

faced

the

with

the

area,

of

procedure
At

the
in

best
each

will

township

involving

people

self-survey

would

other

appeals

were

with

organizations,

appeals

were

a s ked

of

be

paid

pre-existing
in

then.

rarely

the

made

to h e l p w i t h o u t

up

to

the

approach

this

on

events

w h ich

served

to

person

the

r e l a t i o n ships.
as

county

the

establish

be

the

place

the

well

These
as

the

r e veal

was

units

basic

type

committees.

it was

contact
call

level

township

some

survey

meetings

would

of

took

sentiments

all

local

Council

analysis

process.

on

activating

an

chapter

These

committee

necessary

have

this

involvement

of

setting

and

be

to

the

dealth

wil l

will

with

of

it was

possible

local

the

localities.

associated

that

analyzed

problem

earlier

varied,

often

chapter

organization

for

the

developments

sets
be

level

the

in

were

this

associated

symbolic
As

of

Attention

relationships

the

people

for

sentiments

Such

utilize

in v a r i o u s

that

l o c ality,

etc.

organizational

activate

at

to

appeal.

purpose

types

group

basis

in h e a l t h

about, the

friendship,

the

in h e a l t h

action.

county

a way

a i med

community,

direct

the

to

Fifferences

relationships

interests

beliefs

bloc k s

for

social

level

Since

community.

c'ertain

relationships

the

the

agreed
a key

a meeting

that

person
to

organize
in

the

representatives

township.

be m o r e
were

the

natural

units

accustomed

units.

This

formal

plan

suggested,

m an y

rural

plan

was

for

fairly
were

majority

the

County

Jealth

contact

call

a

t h ese
they

were

s h ips

of

local

For

and

cerned,

equal

scho o l

districts

districts

especially
affairs

as

would

people

through

these

realistic

than

to h a v e

communities

take

over

the

organization^

had

Association

but w h e n

it was

revealed

that

P T A *s it was

seen

that

such

It was

too,

that

if

job,

felt,

they w o u l d

in

each

people
had

were

not

represent

local

the

together

The

only

upon

were

City.*

representation

who

a

or­
the

in

the

the

time,

as

township

cities

and

Mountain

both

or

in w h i c h

villages

for

plan

to w h e t h e r

towns

City,

other

however,

township

arose

between

planned

turn w o u l d

there were

for U e n r y

Wherever
was

this

specific

assignments

in

By

question

division

that

area

wherever

with

so

given

observed

i n s tance,

set

were

together.

been

involved

decided

Central

26 m e e t i n g

representatives

work

located.

finally

the

person

could

Mohawk,

1.

Council

villages

u n its

various

Teacher

the A p r i l

complications

s i zed

the

more

school

people.

organization.

good

the

community

not h a v e

to do

key

a group

certain
of

at

on

instance,

did

various

organization,

unrealistic.

ganizations

Plans

in

the

that

considered

Parent

areas

of

of

was

organizations

been

felt

to w o r k i n g

responsibility.

to

w as

Xt

fro m

were

the

T h e l a t t e r two w e r e not c o n t a c t e d for over a y e a r
the A p r i l 26 m e e t i n g and thus w e r e a n a l y z e d a f t e r

town­
City,
con­

village

following
the o t h ers.

241

and

rural
As

the

elements,
explicit

pattern

areas

that

changes

On

since

in

part
and

of

making

Council.
of

For
the

the

of

areas,

had

most

turn

knew

made
of

As
the

county

strategy
tinct

2.

quite

contact
school

the

names

the

Th e

of

local

organized

county

differ­
county

health
southern

Agent

Specialist
knew

especially

in

the

structure.

in

social

the

the

These

township

areas ‘in w h i c h

the

this

the

health

County

suggested.

people

the

survey

these

lines.

the

to

Even

for

the

the

extension

and,

he

in

it.

f rom

of

in

related

contacts

Agent.

w ell

other

was

townships,

given

township

factor

units.

these

largely

rural

people
by

the

in

sciiool
men

around

tii e

districts.

TYPES

analyzing
they

were
the

by

parts

and

the

arise

representing

knowledge

a result

ORGANIZATIONAL
In

made

reason

some

major

the

single

followed

would

lines,

contact,

Agricultural

mos t

districts.
initiated

were

area

in

another

part,

operational

contacts

local

the

this

One

that

as

utilizing

entirely

organization

local

county

Most

county

hand,

for

changed.

districts

lines,

organized

n e ver

confusion

school

local

were

plan was

w ay

the

County

people

the

other

t ype

the

this

state

the

they

organization

began

overlapped

person

as

concerned

division,

ence

of

but

the

employed

empirical

types

appeals
to
were

made

mobilize
derived.

F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of a n a l y t i c a l
T a l c o t t P a r s o n s , Th e S t r u c t u r e
I l l i n o i s : F r e e Press, 1 9 SO, p.

by

organizers

interviewers,

2

These

types

and
four

the
dis-

are

and e m p i r i c a l c o n c e p t s see:
of S o c i a l A c t i o n , G l e n c o e ,
34.

242

empirical

representations

organization
period

of

tained

within

each

the

activities

be

concerned

took

place

and

* TEE
This

was

groups.

divisions

common

activity.

took

the

the

an

of

such

r u ral

A n i n f l u e n t i a l or
c o n t a c t e d and the

during

element

elements

following

is

of

the

no;

sense
around

con­
but
which

analysis,

activities

then,

that

activities.

SCHOOL DISTRICT

based

elements

exhaustive

of

The

characterized

this

county

organizational

elements
-

constant

Each

in

place.

It was
to

within

a configuration

TOWNSHIP

type

the m o r e

mentioned

with

the

community

1.

found

type

represents

will

TYPE 2

were

organizational

t ype

specific

that

of

by

upon

TYPE

rural

neighborhood

geographic

and

or

political

area.

key person
survey was

of the t o w n s h i p was
e x p l a i n e d to him.

2 . He

w as a s k e d if he w o u l d call a m e e t i n g of school
d i s t r i c t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , at w h i c h time the E x t e n ­
s i o n . H e a l t h S p e c i a l i s t and p o s s i b l y some other
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the H e a l t h C o u n c i l w o u l d be p r e s e n t
to e x p l a i n the o b j e c t i v e s of the s u r v e y and see
w h e t h e r t h e s e p e o p l e w o u l d be w i l l i n g to do the
s u r vey.
He was s o m e t i m e s g i v e n a list of p e o p l e to
c o n t a c t , such as the s c h o o l . d i s t r i c t d i r e c t o r s .

3.

A m e e t i n g wa s c a l l e d of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f r o m each
s c h o o l d i s t r i c t to meet at some c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n
such as the t o w n s h i p hall, a school house, or a
g r a n g e hall.

1.

At this m e e t i n g , the E x t e n s i o n H e a l t h S p e c i a l i s t
p r e s e n t e d the g e n e r a l plan of t h e . h e a l t h survey,
g i v i n g the h e a l t h i m p l i c a t i o n s .
then asked the
s c h o o l d i s t r i c t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s p r e s e n t w h e t h e r or
not t h e y would' a c c e p t the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of s e e i n g
that the s u r v e y w as c o m p l e t e d in t h e i r areas.
They
w e r e not n e c e s s a r i l y a s ked to do the i n t e r v i e w i n g
t h e m s e l v e s , but to see that it w a s d o n e in t h e i r
school districts.
If the g r o u p c o n s e n t e d , a p e r ­
m a n e n t c h a i r m a n w as a p p o i n t e d .
T h i s p e r s o n w as
u s u a l l y not the one w h o c a l l e d the m e e t i n g .

243

r>. T h o s e w h o a t t e n d e d the m e e t i n g w e r e told that w h e n
the s u r v e y p r o j e c t was r e ady for a c t i o n they w o u l d
be c o n t a c t e d by t h e i r new c h a i r m a n for a t r a i n i n g
m e e t i n g on h o w to do the survey.
6 . Later,

when, the s u rvey was ready to move, the
E x t e n s i o n H e a l t h S p e c i a l i s t c o n t a c t e d the v a r i o u s
local c h a i r m e n and had them call t r a i n i n g . m e e t i n g s .
In m a n y i n s t a n c e s , these m e e t i n g s w e r e for m o r e than
one t o w n s h i p .

7.

At this m e e t i n g the o b j e c t i v e s w e r e r e p e a t e d and
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s passed out.
A t r a i n i n g period then
took p l ace w h e r e the i n d i v i d u a l s p r e s e n t w e r e in­
s t r u c t e d in the m e c h a n i c s of i n t e r v i e w i n g .

S.

T h o s e not p r e s e n t at t h ese m e e t i n g s wer e later c o n ­
t a c t e d by the c h a i r m a n or a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e from the
g r o u p and g i v e n the q u e s t i o n n a i r e forms.
This per­
son e x p l a i n e d some of the t r a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and
c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to the i n s t r u c t i o n siieet.

9 . The
The T yp e

j ust

organization
which
ral

that

used

took

to do

by

each

second

type

A s s o c i a t i o n a 1 Type.
a community

this

generally
place

the
of

in

point.

represents

nine

survey.
these

in

soring

organizations
to

their

of

the T y p e

twenty-two

Figure

III

of

town snips

shows

the

gene­

townships.

typ e

In

local
this,
the

community.

carrying

Tii is

of

accepted

survey

tomed

at

I I - ASSOC IATI0NAL TYTb
The

in

commenced

described

organized

plan

TYIT;

survey

on

were

organization
one

responsibility
In

these

active

community

consists

of

or m o r e

the

and

is

c a lled

formal
for

the

organizations

completing

the

communities,

the

spon­

influential,

and

accus­

activities.
following

elements

and

procedures:
1.

The County
e i t h e r one

Health Council r e pr e se nt at iv e contacted
or se v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l s w h o w e r e m e m b e r s

244

Fi gure
TYPE

III

I - TOWNSHIP-SCHOOL

DISTRICT

TYPE

AT T H E R E Q U E S T OF S O M E F O R M A L OR I N F O R M A L S P O N S O R I N G G R O U P S ,
A L O C A L I N D I V I D U A L A C C E P T E D R E S P O N S I B I L I T Y FOR O R G A N I Z I N G T H E
S U R V E Y , A N D USED L O C A L S C H O O L D I S T R I C T LINES CF O R G A N I Z A T I O N
( E ITHER F O R M A L , OR I N F O R M A L AS A N E I G H B O R H O O D ) .
Two

k i nds of r e s p o n s i b i 1 i t y :
1. To call a d e c i s i o n m a k i n g
2. To o r g a n i z e the survey.

meeting.

T own sh ip

H o w c o n t a c t was
made from County
Health Council

H o w d e c i s i o n was
m a d e for surv e y
to be don e

Wh o accepted
responsibility
to o r g a n i z e
survev

H en r y

Dali

and

Stanton

At
by

W o m a n school
district repre­
s e n t a t i v e (not
sch ool o f f i c i a l )

D u rii am

Pall

and

Stanton

At m e e t i n g c a l l e d
by farmer, school
district Director.

W o m a n school
district offi­
cial, E x t e n s i o n
club r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

Central
City

Dali

and

Stanton

At
by

W o man, u n o f f i c i a l
school d i s t r i c t
representat i ve,
teacher

C urrent*

P all

and

Stanton

Same
At meet ing c a l l e d
by T o w n s h i p S u p e r ­
visor, f a r m e r

. Dal i

and

Stanton

At m e e t i n g
by f a r m e r

Somer

Dali

and

Stanton

At m e e t i n g c a l l e d
by S c hool D i s t r i c t
Director, farmer

At first, by man
who called meeting.
L a t e r c a r r i e d out
by E x t e n s i o n C l u b s .

Oxt on

H o o v e r and
Stanton

At m e e t i n g c a l l e d
by w o m a n , w i f e of
farmer

S a m e w o m a n w ho
called meeting

Martin

m eet ing
farmer

meeting
farmer

c a l 1 ed

called

called

Woman
bo a r d

man

school
member

245

F i g u r e III
( c o n t i n u e d fro m page

244)

T o w n sh i p

H o w c o n t a c t w as
made from County
Health Counc i1

Ho w d e c i s i o n was
m a d e for s u r v e y
to be d o n e

Who accepted
responsibility
to o r g a n i z e
survey

U emu s

Pall

and

Stanton

At mee t ing cal led
by y o u n g w o m a n
a c t i v e in Gr a n g e ,
d a u g h t e r of f a r ­
mer.

Same woman who
c a l l e d m e e t ing

May

Pall

and

Stanton

At meeting called
by wornan. G r a n g e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on
C ounty Health
Council-.

S a m e w o m a n w ho
c a l 1 ed m e e t i ng

Pont

Pall

and

Stanton

At m e e t i n g c a l l e d
by w o m a n sch ool
district secretary
extension Club
1 ead e r .
Decision
m a d e later.

Sam e w o m a n w h o
called meeting

* Survey

not

completed

of a c e r t a i n o r g a n i z a t i o n .
H e r e t h e r e was the b e l i e f
that it w o u l d be b e t t e r to w o r k t h r o u g h this g r o u p
r a t h e r tha n to try the s c hool d i s t r i c t lines.
In
some c a s e s d o i n g the s u r v e y p r o j e c t p r o v i d e d a m e a n s
of s t r e n g t h e n i n g an o r g a n i z a t i o n .
A f t e r h e a r i n g the
o b j e c t i v e s of the survey, the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the
local o r g a n i z a t i o n a g r e e d to b r i n g it b e f o r e the
g r o u p for d e c i s i o n .
In m o s t c a s e s the p o s i t i o n s h e l d
by t h e s e p e o p l e a s s u r e d a g r e e m e n t f r o m the club
m e m b e r s s i n c e they w e r e for the m o s t part o f f i c e r s or
leading members.
2.

The survey
officially
tion.

idea w a s
accepted

b r o u g h t b e f o r e the g r o u p and was
as a p r o j e c t for the o r g a n i z a ­

246

3.

T h e i n d i v i d u a l s o r i g i n a l l y c o n t a c t e d t r a n s m i t t e d the
d e c i s i o n to the H e alth C o u n c i l R e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
In
s o m e c a s e s the E x t e n s i o n H e a l t h S p e c i a l i s t met w ith
the g r o u p and e x p l a i n e d the o b j e c t i v e s of the survey.

4.

T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w e r e told that
w o u l d be c o n t a c t e d w h e n the s u r v e y w as r e ady to
at w h i c h t i m e a t r a i n i n g m e e t i n g w o u l d be held.

5.

W h e n the s u r v e y time wa s ready, the E x t e n s i o n H e a l t h
S p e c i a l i s t a r r a n g e d a d a t e for the t r a i n i n g m e e t i n g s .

6 . Training

as

meetings were organized
the p r e c e d i n g type.

the

same m a n n e r

It w as e x p e c t e d in this c ase that for the m o s t part
the o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s m e m b e r s w o u l d do the i n t e r v i e w i n g ,
so as m a n y club m e m b e r s as p o s s i b l e w e r e urged to
attend.
T h o s e not p r e s e n t w e r e c o n t a c t e d later, in
the same m a n n e r as T y p e I.

0,

The

were
of

survey
six

commenced

local

units

organization.

in F i g u r e

third

t ype

the

local

community

relationships.
Council

Except

dent

the S u p e r v i s o r
It

1.

by

of

this A s s o c i a t i o n a l

t h ese

plans

are

shown

FR IENDSH IP- A.CGUA I N T A N C E S H IP T Y P E

more

and. w a s

for

one

representatives

nurses,

ment.

details

utilized

trained
or

afterwards.

IV.

The

Health

shortly

represented

Some

TYP E III - T H E I N D I V I D U A L
OF O R G A N I Z A T I O N

into

in

7.

There
type

for

they
begin

these

consists

of

being

b a sed

making

either

for

following

in

the

the

lines

upon

instance

of N u r s e s
the

personal

of

more
this

intimate
Type,

contact

Health

influence

were

Council

the C o u n t y

Health

the
both
Presi­
Depart

elements:

The C o u n t y Health Council re pr es en ta ti ve contacted
an i n d i v i d u a l in the t o w n s h i p or town (often they
w e r e f r i e n d s or a c q u a i n t a n c e s ) .
T h i s person, as wit h
the o t h e r T y p e s , u s u a l l y h a d b e e n s u g g e s t e d at the
A p r i l 26 c o m m i t t e e m e e t i n g d e s c r i b e d in an e a r l i e r
ch a p t e r .

247

There

2.

T h e s u r v e y w a s e x p l a i n e d to this person, w h o then
a s k e d to h e l p take the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for g e t t i n g
the t o w n s h i p or town surveyed.

3.

A f t e r the i n d i v i d u a l had a c c e p t e d the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
of o r g a n i z i n g the area, he a g r e e d to i n v o l v e enough
p e o p l e to do the s u rvey w n e n it w a s ready to launch.
S i n c e in this type there had e v i d e n t l y been no e m ­
p h a s i s on any o r g a n i z a t i o n a l lines t h e r e a p p e a r e d to
be no need for the a p p r o v a l of a n y o n e but the i n d i ­
vidual contacted.
As a r e s u l t no d e c i s i o n m e e t i n g s
w e r e h e ld.

4.

At the tim e that the s u r v e y was r e a d y to b e g i n and
s o m e t i m e s ea r l i e r , the p e o p l e w h o w e r e thus c o n t a c t e d
e i t h e r a c t e d as c h a i r m e n and o b t a i n e d i n t e r v i e w e r s
or i n v o l v e d a f r i e n d or a c q u a i n t a n c e w h o a g r e e d to
take the o r g a n i z i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
T he i n t e r v i e w e r s
w e r e r e c r u i t e d f r o m the r a n k s of f r i e n d s and a c q u a i n ­
t a n c e s of the p e o p l e a l r e a d y involved.
In some c a s e s
they w e r e a l s o s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e of t h e i r l o c a t i o n in
the to w n s h i p , i.e., they had a c c e s s to c e r t a i n a r e a s
of the t o w n s h i p t h r ough f r i e n d s and a c q u a i n t a n c e s
b e c a u s e of n e i g h b o r h o o d ties.

G.

T h e s e p e o p l e w e r e n o t i f i e d through the c h a i r m a n that
a t r a i n i n g m e e t i n g w o u l d be h e l d at a c e r t a i n time.
T h o s e p r e s e n t r e c e i v e d the same' t r a i n i n g as t h ose in
the p r e c e d i n g types.
T h o s e not p r e s e n t w e r e c o n t a c t e d
in the same m a n n e r as the p r e c e d i n g types.

were

zation.
TYPL

See

is

Figure

in

Type
a

ble

is

sense

characterized
only

local

units

represented

by

represented
importance

zational
contained

plan.
over

found

in

this

type

of

organi­

the
by

same
one

since
Also

it

TY PF

only

-a r e s i d u a l

180

by

V.

IV - Til LT UR B A N - P R E C I N C T
This

It

six

type

one

instance,

since

no

organizational

local

unit,

represents

it m u s t

be

interviewers.

this

the

other

county

units

seat.

were

elements.

Although

type

considera­

is

a typically

remembered

that

of

urban
this

organi­
unit

240

F i ciur e
TYPL

II -

IV

ASSOC IATIONAL TYPL

R e s p o n s i b i l i t y for c o n d u c t i n g
local o r g a n i z a t i o n .

the

local

survey

accepted

by

a

T o w n or
T o w n sh ip

Ho w c o n t a c t was
made from County
ilea 1 th C o u n c i l

How d e c i s i o n was
mad e for s u r v e y
to be d o n e

Who accepted
res pon s i b i l i t y to
organize survey

Rockville
Townsii i p

C o n t a c t m a d e from
local G r a n g e to
C o u n t y iJealth
Council.

At T own sh i p
Grange meeting.

R o c k vi l le Town
ship G r a n g e .

Mountain
City

At m e e t i n g of
C ou nt y Health
se v e r a l w o m e n s '
De pt. S u perv i s or
of N u r s e s to w i f e clubs c a lled by
of local physician p h y s i c i a n ’s w i f e

Fielding
Tow n shi p

C o u n t y A g e n t and
Ex te n si o n Health
Specialist

At m e e t i n g c a lled L x t e n s ion C 1 ubs
by e x t e n s i o n C l u b exce pt for one
local area, o r ­
i r e s . , w i f e of
g a n i z e d by one
county official.
All in a t t e n d a n c e woma n .
were extension
Club women except
one w n o was an
influential woman
in one local area

C amd e n
T own sn i p

C ou nt y School
S u p ' t to local
Sup't., followed
by E x t e n s i o n
H e a 1 th S p e c i a ­
list

Lo cal s ch ool S u p't
m a d e d e c i s i o n to
accept r es po ns i­
bility.

S c h o o l S u p ' t . took
re s pon s i b i l i t y .
Used FTA and ot her
school and c o m m u n i t y
m i n d e d people.
Made
c o n t a c t s as i n d i v i d u a l s ,
not as o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

Dearborn
T own sh ip

C o n t a c t m a d e to
local school
S u p ’t from:
a .C o. H e a l t h
De p t . & b. Co.
S ch ool S u p ' t

D ecision made
at FTA m e e t i n g

PTA

Moil aw k

C o - c h a i r m a n of
U e a 1 th C o u n c i l
S u r v e y Comm i t t e e .
Lea d i ng m e m b e r
of town.

D ec is io n made
at s e p a r a t e c l u b
meetings

Service
Mohawk

Child

Study

Club

organization

clubs

of

Figure
TYl’L

ill

-

V

I N D I V I D U A L Fk T L-iNPS H I P - A Cg UA INTANC LS H IP T Y P L

(' n e i n d i v i d u a l a c c e p t e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r g e t t i n g l o c a l
survey done;
used f r i e n d s h i p and a c q u a i n t a n c e s h i p l ines of
organ ization.

T o w n or
T own sti i p

H o w c o n t a c t was
mad e from C o u n t y
Heal tii C o u n c i l

How d e c i s i o n was
m a d e for local
s u r v e y to be
don e

V.ho a c c e p t e d
re s pon s i b i l i t y
to o r g a n i z e
surv e y

.1e n r y
City

Th e local H e alth
Association,
v.'h icii has been
a s s i s t e d by the
He a l t h Pe pa r t m c n t
Sup't.
of Nu r s e s ,
s o r: t rep. t.o
Iea 1 th C o u n c i l ,

A t c omm unity
m e e t i n g c a lled
by w o m a n wh o
attended County
Health Council
me e t i n g .
She, a
C a t h o l i c , also
inv o l v e d a P r o ­
testant minister
to call m e e t i n g .

Two people who
called original
meet ing.

Vio od 1 e y
Township*

Rockville
Master.

b y farmer origi­
nally c o n t a c t e d .

By same
individual.

F 1 y nn
T o w n s ii i p

Health Council
President.

P.y t r a i n e d
n u r s e living in
community, wife
of f a r m e r .

B y same
in d i v i d u a l .

Cl i f t o n
T own s ii i p

Mrs. P i x o n and
Health Council
President.

Made by i n f l u e n ­
tial w i f e of
local p h y s i c i a n ,
also re pre sen ta t ive to C ounty
Health Council.

B y same i n d i v i ­
dual.
B e c a m e ill
d e l e g a t e d to
a n o t h e r w o man.

Ka son

T o w n s h ip5|;

Health Council
President.

b y w i f e of t o w n ­
shi p superv i s o r .

By same i n d i v i ­
dual w h o did h a l f
of in terv iewing,
and obt a i ned
a ss i s t a n c e of
a n o t h e r w o m a n to
do the o t h e r h a l f

Clark
T own sh ip

Hea 1 th C o u n c i l
President.

K: S u r v e y

not

Grange

completed.

250

This

type

consists

following

elements:

T h e f o r m of c o n t a c t i n i t i a l l y m a d e w a s t h r o u g h the
e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n n e l s of the C e n t r a l C i t y c o m m u n i t y .
T h e C o u n t y S c h o o l S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , a c q u a i n t e d with
w o m e n a c t i v e in the PTA g r o u p s t h r o u g h o u t the city,
w a s a b l e to r e c e i v e the su p p o r t of two c i v i c a l l y
a c t i v e m o t h e r s of school c h i l d r e n w h o a g reed to
o r g a n i z e the c o m m u n i t y in the mos t e f f e c t i v e m a n n e r
k n own to them.

2.

A w a r e t h a t m o s t l a rge s c a l e social a c t i v i t i e s w e r e
c a r r i e d on by o r g a n i z e d c a m p a i g n s , l o c a l i z e d by
p o l i t i c a l p r e c i n c t d i v i s i o n s , they c o n t a c t e d by
t e l e p h o n e w o m e n w h o w e r e w i l l i n g to take on the
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of o r g a n i z i n g t h e i r own p r e c i n c t for
the s u r v e y proje c t .

3.

C o n t a c t s as a rule w e r e
casual acquaintances.

4.

R e s p o n s i b i l i t y was a c c e p t e d
of c i v i c o b l i g a t i o n .

5.

O n e - t h i r d of the i n t e r v i e w e r s w e r e t r a i n e d at a
m e e t i n g in the C o u n t y C o u r t iiouse lo c a t e d in C e n t r a l
City.
M any w e r e not trained, h o w e v e r , and w o r k e d
f r o m w r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s or s u g g e s t i o n s m a d e by the
precinct chairmen.
survey
meeting.

The

emphasis

organization
ences,

and

however,

commenced

for
the

in

and

the

community

of

the

by

either

after

just

involvement.

the

matter.

The

Type,

as

a matter

There

was

are

and

present

at

on

differ­

acceptance

decision-making

people

or

training

mentioned

of d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g
first

strangers

individually

shortly

areas

In

made

four T y p e s

means

the

o
responsibility.^

a group

3.

the

1.

6 . The

of

of

w as

these

F o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of the " d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s "
see: Paul A. M i l ler, "A C o m p a r a t i v e A n a l y s i s of the
D e c i s i o n - M a k i n g Process With Communit y O r g a n i z at i on
T o w a r d M a j o r H e a l t h G o a l s " , U n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
M i c h i g a n S t a t e C o l l e g e , 1953.

251

meetings

were

made

aware

the

tha t

they

represented

fac t

district.

Therefore

others

might

who

The
left

second

less

up

contacted
t i ons

to

able

by

the

group.

at

the

same

health

organized
ters.

made

one

refuse

an

to

to h e l p

the

practical

on

any

Type

but

opposition

project

was

or

A

hardly,

group,

accept

school
include

this

and

re­

organiza­

being

this

upheld

officer,

to m a j o r

to w o r k i n g

on

contacted

embodied

this

decision,

t h eir

himself

time

in

re ­
the

were

t h eir

committed

nature,

once

char­

the
it had

organization.

upon
friend
in

of

originally

decisions

groups

dependent

could

in

pur p o s e s ,

of

contacted.

group

enough

his

of

also

must

individuals

goals

project

t hem

as d e c i s i o n

far

various

for

their

as

own

service

in

to

committing
his

and

survey.

their

certain

approved

third

also

by

had

geared

influential

giving

all

people

the

The

on

they

made

influencing

was

individual

provide
in

so

Also,

to w o r k

The
the

for

These,

members
been

and

survey.

individual

to d e p e n d

time,

sponsibility

although

were

In

the

by

concerned.

usually
be

involved

the

were

a choice

a decision

T y pe,

to

sponsibility

be

of

the

decision

or

of

only

acquaintance

a collective

responsibility

way,

c o uld

either

for w h a t

happened

three

the

th e su r v e y .
Although

Type

elements

of

accepted

individual

survey,

it

fou r

corresponds

organization,

that

is,

responsibility

nevertheless

differed

to T y p e
people
for

the

that

in

were

contacted

completion

considerably

in

the

of

the

nature

252

of

obligation.

were

mostly

patterns
reasons
within
rural

either

of
or

of

mere

community

village
VI

group was

made

acquaintances
were

more

loyalty.

g r o u p w as

Figure
types

this

obligation

this
and

Since

more

or

up

toward

content

typically

people

str a n g e r s ,

directed

The

of

urban

of

who

the

personal

relationship

than

the

other

four

empirical

groups.

demonstrates

organization

by d i a g r a m

that h a v e

been

the

described

in

this

ch a pter.
SENTIMENTS
The

OF

empirical

structured
on

the

INVOLVEMENT

from

Local

the

elements

Level.

with

involvement

that

such

zation

typologies,

When

of

the

sentiments

in w h i c h

following
tabulation
that

w as

(See

Table

of

I,

p a nts

indicated

being

most

since

s hip

in

at

the

actors

found.

the X
the

2

that

to

This

the

test

one-tenth

t y pes

of

of

out

In

showed

concerned

be h y p o t h e s i z e d

is b o r n e

pat t e r n s .

bee n

occurred

sentiments

it w o u l d

correspond

have

organi­

by

the

a c r oss

a relationship

one

percent

level

X).

In T y p e

that

organization

involvement

sentiments

significant

relative,

local

would

of

of

presented,

examining

they w e r e

analysis

just

the T o w n s h i p - S c h o o l
loyalty

important
or

the

while

neighbor

the T y p e
rural

or

r a ted

I was

District

Type,

obligation

to

loyalty

obligation

second.

organized

neighborhood

and

or

their

It ma y
around
since

be

community
to

as

a friend,

explained

lines

the

partici­

of

rural

relation­
school

k

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254

district
in

such

is

a familiar

areas,

community

and

In T y p e
mentioned
zation,

sentiments
friends

II,

reason

with

members

to

reasons

for

of

which

would

be

and

community

evoked
expected

to

Type,

for

was

participation
to

service

community

a person

in

activity,

participation

the

towards

highest.

most

loyalty

frequently

to

an

place.

whose

it was

would

rate

second

organizations

demarcation

obligation

the A s s o c i a t i o n a l

loyalty

involvement

political

organi­

With

ciiarters

committed

natural

that

the

around

this

type

center

major
of

obii g a t i o n .
In T y p e
of

the

be

expected

used

TH , t iie A c q u a i n t a n c e sn i p - 1'r i e n d sn i p Type,

participants

to

since

involve

In T y p e

mentioned

the

personal

IV,

to

corresponds
of

the

the

h r b a n - P r e c i net

sents
that
of

the

lines

exist

in

that

this

for

involvement

in

of

a friend

w h ich

relationship

would

were

I since

the

j ust
rural

ranks

reasons
would

u r ban

or
is

the

be

life.

urban

most

frequent

the

areas.
than

It

is

the

numerous

type

counter-part
repre­

relationships

school

involvement
tne

This

organization

neighborhood

as do

higher

for

the

n e i ghbor.

5rban-Precinct

city,

type

this

it

interrelated

in

Type,

to the community and second,

rel a t i v e ,

The

of

the

idisyncratic

planation

Type

type.

relationship

note
of

a friend,

w ith

rural

lines

to

people.

reason given was obligation
obligation

loyalty

most

district

interesting
others

and

in

lines
to

terms

a possible

alternatives

ex­
for

TAF.LL X
SLOT 1MOOTS

Type

of

IF

IXVCPVOMFLT

oxp r ossor rY L O C A L

Sentiment

i.LVLI

Organization

ACTOR S

Type

T

IT

T1I

TV

0

0

c

0

O b l i g a t i o n to Friend,'
X e ig h b o r , or k e l a t i v e

44

30

O b l i g a t i o n to
Organization

10

46

00

O b l i g a t i o n to a n
Individual because
o f n is P o s i t i o n
Idiosyncratic
l^easons

Obligation
Community

of

interest
the

expressing
w ill

*

0

30

26

41

9

10

17

7

9

11

16

23

106

60

150

1 24
P >

. 001

T a e a b o v e i n f o r n o t i o n a n d t n e f o l l o w i n g d a t a i n tii i s
c h a p t e r a r e b a s e d upon P 2P i n t e r v i e w s t a k e n of l o c a l
actors during
1921 a n d 1 9 5 2 .

bone

reason

0

to

X1 s

of

26

an

X ' s*

Source:

09

not

be

the
in

organizational

health

f o l l o w ing
interest
broken

as

types

reasons

data, •w n i c h
in h e a l t h

down

into

and

for
is

indicated

any

involvement.
concerned

the

organizational

For

with

objectives

high

of

degree

this

sentiments
tiie survey,

types.

A b o v e r e s p o n s e s e x c e e d 1 0 0 ? in m o s t c a s e s since m o r e than
one r e a s o n for i n v o l v e m e n t was i n d i c a t e d by many r e s p o n d e n t s .
S l i g h t l y less than 100? in T y p e TV is c a u s e d by e l i m i n a t i o n
of an " o t h e r " c a t e g o r y .

256

SENTIMENTS

EX P R E S S E D

It h a s
Level

expressed

interests.
asked

-

no

This

problems

problem
The

and

general

county

all.

only

be m o r e

terms

7 .2%

of

40% w e r e

were

any h e a l t h
of
as

a neutral
40% w e r e

Table

the

problems
local

serio u s .

category.

but

is

on

in

The

the

the

concerned
either

on

with

was

health

the

believe

health

neutral

or

a serious
at

all.

in

tiie
actors.
to
on

however,

On

there
the

other

community
actors

health

fell

level

problems
not

or

recognized

not

local

that

appeared

note,

local

when
you

the local

to

certain

the

do

a problem

community.

of

that

problems

health

problem

health

indicated

p r o b l e m s there

viewed

rest

fact

LEVEL

Local

through

90%

of

LOCAL

the

a w h ole,

part

or did

Therefore,

60%) w e r e

it was

their

actors

as

that

interesting
of

the

concerning

lists

either unaware

seriously

community

that

health

XI

by

TH E
on

onl y m o d e r a t e

expressed

level. It

that

problems

stated

actors

problem?,

2.5°' felt

community

concern.

40%

of a

ON

involvement

County

t h ere w e r e
Only

that

supported

little interest

community

hand,

much

sentiments

showed

In

the

at

of

Independence

that

EDUCATION

mentioned

further

to be

felt

AN D

sentiments

is
at

health

either

been

few

Looking

consider
they

already

IN H E A L T H

at
in

into

least
t h eir

concerned

at

all.
Of
was
tion

the

asked
of

as

the

60%

that

recognized

to - K h o

shou l d

problems?

Table

health

set

the

X U

ranks

problems,

standards
the

the

for

order

of

question

the

solu­

selections.

257

t a b u

:

xi

W H A T P R O B L E M S OF C O M M U N I T Y
A R E M O S T I M P O R T A N T IN T H I S

P r o b 1 em

H E A L T H DO YO U F E L L
T O W N OK T O W N S H I P ?

N u m b e r of
Responses

No p r o b l e m or d o n ' t know of any
San i tat i on
Nee d for c o n t a g i o u s d i s e a s e c o n t r o l
S 1 um s
Need for m o r e h e a l t h p e r s o n n e l
Need for m o r e h e a l t h e x a m p r o g r a m s
Need m o r e h e a l t h f a c i l i t i e s
Need for c o n t r o l of m i l k supply
and a n i m a l d i s e a s e s
Need for m o r e h e a l t h e d u c a t i o n
Mental health
Other
No r e s p o n s e
To t a l

TABLE
WHO

Percent

40.0
33. 1
4. 4
4. 2
3. 2
2.5
2 .1

211

175
23
22

17
13
11
8

1

1.5
.n
.4
7. 7
.2

520

1 0 0 .1

4
2

41

XII

S H O U L D S E T THE S T A N D A R D S FOR
S O L U T I O N OF THE P R O B L E M ?

THE

T h e C o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e .................3 3.5%
T h e C o u n t y (and c o u n t y a g e n c i e s )
3 0.4%
I n d i v i d u a l s or F a m i l i e s .................... 12.5%.
O r g a n i z a t i o n s . . . , .......................... 12.5%
T h e S t a t e ..................................
0. 5%
N e i g h b o r h o o d ...............................
1.9%.
F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t ............... . ............ 6 %
D o n ' t K n o w . ....... .......................... 6 . 6 %
No R e s p o n s e ................................. 5 . 0 %

111.5%*
* Multiple Responses

258

There
the

appeared

solutions

level.

health

An

for

Community
related

the

solution

would

appear

advice

Of
stated
as

of

local

that

a result

be d o n e

and

5 28

the

of

aid

did

who

believed

the

result

education

of

who

shou l d

set

the

community
the

manifested

in

the

feel

of

actors

are

solution

a general
survey.

would

occur

ind i c a t e s ,

willing
they

for

It

to

are

accept
willing

them.

anything
thought

sense
Only

result.

beliefs

before.

the

happen

nothing
There

would

be

something

11.5?.

12.3?

3d.5?

would

be done.

something

and

and

responsible

than

need

who h o p e d

XIII

interviewed

13.3?

nothing

would

mor e

of

who w e r e

while

be

mentioned

problems

the

people

Table

should

know w h e t h e r

that

in

problem.

problems

the

actors

in h e a l t h
the

those

was

actors

2.5?4 fel t

and

improvement

12.5?, r e p r e s e n t e d
recognized

local

the

interest

survey,

local

as

of

Type

actors

now

the

occur

the

Individual

of

in

1 1 . 7 ?u of

6,4%

interests

outsiders

their health

the

on

the

local

local

they

health

solved

that

of

the h e a l t h

that

be

believed

while

indication

solution

actual

the

that

of h e a l t h

concerning

to a c c e p t

9.1/r of

who

solution.

greater

the

c o uld

represented

Only

their

the

who

percentage

problems

believed

Types

to

rank,

these

Type.

even

a strong

( C h a p t e r VIII),

problems

standards

be

actors

Type

Individual

by

to

These

Community

to

t h o ught

believed

would
were
done
would
any

that

259

TABLE XIII

WHO

SHOULD
FOR

BE MOST R E S P O N S I B L E
THE P R O B L E M ?

I n d i v i d u a l F a m i l i e s .................3 7.9%
Tiie C o m m u n i t y .........................33.5/*
Ne i gh borii o o d ......................... 1 0 . 0 ?,.
C o u n t y ................................. 9 . 1 %
State
* . . . 4.1 %
F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t ...................... 9%
0 tii e r ........
6%
D o n ’t K n o w
9%
No R e s p o n s e ..........
2.3%
99. 0 %.

SUMMARY
Tiie C o u n t y
Level
with

by

is

activating

them

units

related

health

many

the

County

p l ans

who were

not

cases

of

organized
to

actors

for

with

were

the

concerned

interested

and

ments

which

representative

type
the
in

health
most

the

part,

hands

concerned

interests.

of

the

The

solution

individuals

T he w ay

in
of

local

the

of

from

local

the

in

long

Local

which

community
health

range

Level

picture

and

actors
in

health.

displayed

believed

problems

local

local

typology

the C o m m u n i t y
people

carried

involvement.

county

local

of h e a l t h
or

til e Local

in w h i c h

empirical

total

with

on

relati o n sh ip which

interested

differed

Those

were

an

actors

sentiments

actors

therefore

not

of

obligation.

expressed

concerned

were

sets

allowed

Level

and

involved

previous

sentiments

were

The

Level

and

Individual

that,

s h ould

community.

senti­

be

for
left

260

In
hoped

regard

by

public

to/ objectives

the C o u n t y

health

and

p r o ject.

Few

after

survey

the
It

is

described

w il l

be

tae

the

system

this

it

shared
had

effect
kind

action

belief

been

completed.
the

up
the

that
has

of m any

the

upon

on

social

next

the

people would

this

that

of

that

health

is m a d e

burden

feedback,

wii i cn

that

apparent

been

of

Level

concerning

would
the

be

result

Local

conflicting

action

from

Level,

has

in
the

even

j ust

elements.

to vie w

manifested

relevant

it was

educated

system which

chapter

the

survey,

the

It

concept

of

in a social

structures

from

emerges.

\

iJAi; T

IV

Ft-l r r.AC

\<

CiiAPTLK X
F LLP HACK

The
with
It

in

regard

calls

ered
Vet

concept

in
it

ior

is

the

relationships
are

found

of

of

the

theoretical

analytically
an

which

of

emerge

who

Tn o

illuminating

the

social

continuity

concept

uses

it

this

has

dissertation.

which

expressed

syst e m
when
been

when

cannot

relevant

to deal

within

structure
that

d e alt

is an

electrical

w i th

.iomans,

George

C.,

op.

cit.

in

from

one.

circuit

as f l o w i n g in a d e f i n i t e d i r e c t i o n : from the p o s ­
itive side of the b a t t e r y or g e n e r a t o r through
the c i r c u i t to the n e g a t i v e side.
Many e l e c t r i ­
cal c i r c u i t s are, m o r e o v e r , so a r r a n g e d that,
w h e n tiie c u r r e n t r e a d i e s a c e r t a i n point in the
c i r c u i t , part of the c u r r e n t is, as the e l e c t r i ­
c i a n s say, "fed b a c k " by some a p p r o p r i a t e n o o k u p
to an e a r l i e r point in the c i r c u i t - e a r l i e r as
d e f i n e d by our a s s u m p t i o n that tiie c u r r e n t is
f l o w i n g in a d e f i n i t e d i r e c t i o n .
T h i s kind of
a r r a n g e m e n t may be used to a c c o m p l i s h some useful
p u r pose; it may a l l o w the c i r c u i t to "bui l d up"
m o r e rapidly- to its full load or to carry its
load w i t h o u t f l u c t u a t i o n .
bven w h e n e v e r y part
of til e c i r c u i t is fully e n e r g i z e d , we still think
of f e e d b a c k and b u i l d - u p as g o ing on c o n t i n u o u s l y .

1.

and

provide

b o r r ow e d

in an electrical

consid­

be inet.

analogically.

analogy

We think of the current

of

system,

sentiments

within

structural

design

difficult

demonstration

w i tJi i n the

" f o e d b a c k ".

more

of

tn e most

closed

empirical

description

<^e cj i:^ v C . .io !ia 11^
A

" f e e d b a c k ” is

convergent

understanding
term s

to

an

terms

of

an

T h e c i r c u i t ha s a t t a i n e d a steady state, but we
t h i n k of that s t ate as being m a i n t a i n e d by a
c o n t i n u o u s , c i r c u l a r , end d y n a m i c process.
We
can a l s o tti i nk of the b e h a v i o r of a g r o u p as
this kind of process, and if in d e s c r i b i n g the

process,

we choose to begin with the

external

system,
ve can say that the i n t e r n a l
s y s t e m is
continually' e m e r g i n g out of tli e e x t e r n a l and c o n ­
t i n u a l l y f e e d i n g back to m o d i f y the e x t e r n a l s ys­
tem or,
rather, to build up the social s y s t e m as
a w h o l e into s o m e t h i n g more
than the e x t e r n a l
s y s t e m we s t a r t e d w i t h . 2
Jomans
much
and

uses

in

the

social

i e re n ee
the

the
same

way. as

system

have

being

cultural

system

and

sy s t e m

in

exact

in

tne

useful

system

problem.

structure

of hi s

cultural

system-relevant

and

the

burden

of

"feedback"

relationships
become

I b i d . , p.

of

relevant
system

of

this

much

of

this
has

found

sucli

apparent

structure

liomans

as

same

domans

as

is

the

the

dif

views

tiie e x t e r n a l
the

comparisons

provides

social
are

not

operating

from

similarity

a concept

allows

which

is

dissertation.
for

a change
system

sentiments
chapter

occurred

within

the

sy s t e m s

dissertation,

reference,

cultural

of

this

a n a l ysis.

since

of

internal

structure

Although

total

that

153.

in

" f e e d b a c k ” and

patterning

is

used

scope

" f e e d b a c k ” c a lls

it

2.

the

frame

tiie d e s i g n

particular
the

and

of d e f i n i t i o n ,

different

use
in

and

this
terms

external

the

in t e r n a l

Since

will

largely

of

been

the

a son own at
for

concepts

tne

in

relevant

as

a result

of

within

a social

system,

to d e m o n s t r a t e
as

the

a r e s u l t 'of the

self-survey

immediately

the

that

any

process
system

of h e a l t h .
complete

the

of

It

description

263

of

” feedback*'

as

tiowever, some
in

the

the

within
this

An
quences
action
have

of

probable

effect

will

be

treated

or

as ilomans d e f i n e s

it

in

s tructure.

attempt
order

of

provide

a temporary

structural
will

of

process

this

now

emphasized
are

in

either

some

nature

of

"bui l d

the

some

difficulty,

effects

understanding

pe r s i s t

up"

of

the

of h o w

through

time

and

continuity.
be

here

Regardless

to d e m o n s t r a t e

to

mad e

to view

terms
since

the

of h e a 1 1 h
other

outside

empirical

action.

activities

tiie scope

of

conse­

Heal t h

which

might

relevance

or

obs c u r e .
THE

In

the

spring

Independence
action

that

Action

in

followed
any

impossible,

"feedback"

attempt

occurred

is

to d e m o n s t r a t e

their

is

system

is als o d i f f i c u l t

systems

maintain

cultural

It

wil l

process

action

the

chapter.

relevant

chapter

above

are

of

the

effects

considerations

summary

effect

it

survey
attempt

County
might

the
for

program

sued.

The

talk e d

to

have

a more

PICTURE

a field

observer

purpose

of d i s c o v e r i n g

occurred

a y ear

in
but

which

be d o m i n a n t
intensive

observer
the

thc

and

in h e a l t h
to

19 33,

for

county
over

seemed
at

of

LOCAL

sampled

organizers

on

the

as

a result

various

the

have

til rough out
search
various
the

for

the

to

any h e a l t h
survey.
had

been

non-existence

been

related

the

county.

activity

a r eas

local

of

sent

localities

apparent

might

was

of

level

the

was

to

the

Tiie
then

county

as well

of

as

pur­
and

those

26 4

who held

county

the

spent

of

time

organized

vey,

w as
two

where

action
Two

this

of

survey

and

another

committed

and

were

which was

as

to

survey.

that
by

then

activity,

was

to

made

sort was

had f o r m e d

t a king
had

but

the
in

from

sense

the

sur­

emphasize

the

county

at

level

place.
taken

a local

a highly organized
project

in

to

approach

chosen: one w h ich

the

Concluding

participation

decision

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as a r e s u l t

itself

activity

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villages

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stimulated

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during

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occurring,

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up

at

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least

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health

community

apparently

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council
and

with

had

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follow

a result.

FCAKFOKN
The
and

village

central

County.

part

It

is

historically

of

it has
It

been

never

attempted

to

urbanize

Nevertheless

it

now h a s

from

those

areas.

living

This

frigerators
is

the

in

industry
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adds

"refrigerator

Fearborn
and

is

one

time

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located
the

in

a rea

is

located

Independence

incorporated

productivity.
it

of F e a r b o r n

and

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has

town

and

the

belief

capitol

rich

which

units

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extreme

borders

pioneer

of

for d e e p
that

in

72C .

size

and

rural

nor lias

industry.

employs

living

of

east

Sheridan

growth

great

large

which

600

people

neighboring

freezers

Independence

and

re­

County

the w o r l d ” .

oriented

and

and

to any

sense

those

the

a population
of

industry

essentially
the

scene

the

builds
to

has

aspired

in
an

County

in

to

agriculture,

productive Raisin

surrounds

and

occupies

however,

v a l ley.

Fearborn

At
was

settled

by F r e n c h

tangular
this

farms

farmers

perpendicular

tradition

has

prosperous

may

still

be

T he

religious

group
to

found

still

the

area.

the

children

town.
of both
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which

was
Some

to

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ment

in the

long

in

an

introduced

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run
no

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l a rge

of

but

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dominates

absorbed

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the

of

influential

influence

school

p u blic

effort

school

land.

inclusion

has

and

influence

plots

a small

attend

in

early

the

a cooperative

Protestant

active

tha t

to

the

into

and

school

on

affairs

the

in

part

as w e l l

as

trying

private

County

to

form

village

in

in

the

and

it w a s

survey

this

project

19 52.

prior

to

the m o b i l i z a t i o n

discussed

at

this

accomplishment
systems

of

of

the

point

surv e y

sentiments

in

w as

order
largely

shared

by

members.

survey,

of

in v o l v e d

PTA s h o u l d be
the

organization

of e v e n t s

pre-existing

groups

PTA

became

understanding

the

is

of

rec­

picture.

has

upon

with

long

River.

and

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resulted
and

the

attracted

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community

had

has

r e a s o n there

ultimately

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began

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g r owth

families

p a r ents

understand

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the

farms,

catholic

Dearborn

dependent

with

of

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of

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civic

group

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up a s y s t e m

the C u r r a n t

old

Catholics.

Catholic

total

a few

e x t e n t but

For

This

in

remains

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to

middlewest

influence

of G e r m a n

set

disappeared

typically

French

w ho

as

e a rly

to e n c o u r a g e

citizens

independent

in

the

health

as

1950,

the

the

growth

various
councils

Health
of

parts
which

Fepart-

small
of

voluntary

Independence

might

work

266

as

local

and

u n its

serve

as

the h e a l t h
vising

a

Superintendent

of

al o n g

lines.

de
point

view

sponsible
get

one

were

program

work

on

started
in,

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upon

a

found

problem

objectives.
terest
not

in

only

would

the

creation

of

view

that

that

faced

It was

not

survey,

the

of

and
the

interested

from

I felt

t o get

would

the

I was

re ­

if

I c o uld

a dentist

in
problems

a dent a I

like

program

h im

from

oca 1 th

time we h a v e

.Jealth

help
tne

and

to b r ing

none."
in health,

and

a

Prpartment

the

b is

a reservoir

efforts

Superintendent

surprising,

since

with

a health

we

a planned
for

City

super­

planned
and

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i n t e rests.

voluntary

him

of

The

t h e c o rnm u n i t y

1 ik e

and

capacity

interested

wn a t our

als o

present

need

both

common

coincided

allow

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had

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help

find

community

particular

Obtaining
was

at

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to

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c o u ncil

We w o u l d

this

and

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it w o u l d
us

use

in d e a r y

Where

a health

them.
in

with
a

community.

problems

cooperation

at P e a r b o r n

enable

s i nce

program,

tendent

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health

in w h a t e v e r

to

su c c e s s

received

h e r e that

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a dentist

dental

the

help

necessary
some

Sc Jicols

starting

started

and

based

of

for

general.

sol vino

d u r i n g an i n t e rview,

said

of

find

had

of

voluntary

achieved

nurse

tiie same

purpose
of

might

h ad

staff

the

source

unit

nurse

another

for

then,

tiie very
but
of

co u n c i l .

of

in

that

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to m o b i l i z e

for

people

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It was

for

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p e ople

achieving

these

he

in­

of

showed
tne

s u rvey

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from

for

reas o n

tiie
that,

267

when

lie had

committed

he

appointed

of

a health

survey.
that

an

acting

council

The

very

tant

wit h

chairman

for

of

the

facts

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project

to

in m i n d

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initial
call e d

organization,

for

purpose

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of

survey

lies

concerning

health

would

that

to work,
of

the

formation

a health

the

on w h ich
was

the

immediate

legitimation

a collection

council

himself

in

fact

provide

Obviously

dental

the

one

program

a

impor­

just

mentioned.
At
an

the

active

other

Health

organization

have

Council

The}'

townspeople
approval

of

at

this

of

before

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Department.
they

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around

to

induce

a dentist

certain

Dearborn,

t h ese

common
to

it h a s

fluoride

in

could

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efforts

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to

with
be

an

be

in

own.
program
with

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with
small
an

tne
in

the h e a l t h

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number,

organized
They
in

group

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a movement

effective

County

publ i c

a practice
to

fre­

and

establish
proved

the

convinced

cooperation
are

at

contact,

promoted

projects

They

treatment

and

is

represent

interest

their

in he a l t h .

concerned

proven

considerable
as

Council

village.

problems

tiie s u r v e y

people

also

who

attendance

publicity

successful

people

of

have

in

the

as well

skeptics

They

of

Although

take

level

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Although

represent

and

health

members

within

members

considerable

Tearborn

twelve

a successful

i io ino e c o n o m i c s

and

the

meetings

boast

required

with

the

associations

some

activities

which

observation

interested

quently

the

last

plan

community.

on

tiie part

problems
instrument

in
for

26fi

consolidating, major
problems.
provided
for

the

In
by

all

the

and

Independence
any

of

be

council

of

most

the

not

to

note

s e nse

a taking

that

not
the

to v i e w

community

largely

responsible

for

are

in

this

the

apathy

rule
had

in
acted

partici­

p r o b l e m which

assures

the

were

basis.

them

units

Tt

is

la r g e l y

Tt will

of m a n y

a

Tn e

other

v i ewed

was

of

a dentist.

in

part

being

not

difference.

wide

been
used

now

survey

better

problem

problems

on

be

tiie o r g a n i z a t i o n

a local

the

the

obtaining

a county

the

of

has

ones.

units

result

a surv e y
of

new

to

local

but

degree

failure

health

that

upon

snored

health
on

projects

the

of

aim

and

will

for

t h ese

which

dat a

c a ses

as

of

survey

exception

important

that

and

an

solution

information

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acted

a considerable

later

su rvey

as

primary

the

suggestions

problem
had

and

of

In m ost

essential

to

important
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in

any

explains

shown

unit

the

certain

out

County.

to

success

lack

stands

This

' c o n s idered

of

provide

particular

pation.

health

publication

also

Pearborn

towards

probability

justification

discussed

upon

efforts

be

county

and

personal

way

that

occurred

during

in

people

was
the

action.

Tiie next
as do

other

shown

that

has

the

not

acted

community

localities
this

yet

is

for

be

discussed

throughout

particular

reputation
as

to

community

being

part

of

the

highly
the

contrasts

county.
is w e l l

civic

following

Vet

with

it will

organized

mi n d e d .

Pearborn

Why

description.

be

and
it has

269

MOHAWK
Tiie v i l l a g e
of

the

county.

4,020.
most

It

is

members

the

first

the

earliest

largely
and

of
It

is

a town
of

the

with

a rich

to be

by

and

located

incorporated

settlements

supply

is

community

community

determined

power

Mohawk

its
its

are

the

the

and h a s

proud
in

past;

tiie c o u n t y
Its

accessibility

the

of

and

one

of

was

adequate

r o ute

that

It was

location

to an

along

corner

a past

to d i s p l a y .

state.

location

northeast

a population

historical

s e t tled
in

in

water

between

t

Sheridan

and

traffic.
States,

stagecoach
indian

Mohawk

gifted
rich

in

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remained
urban

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r a pid

gone

terms

tillable

years

dollars.

ago

the

employing

f l o urish.

over

It was

i n d u s t r y was

Products
From

as

when

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in

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years

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it

large

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founded

a factory

United

surrounded

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Company

it has

3 5 0 0 men

the

the

not

a hundred

in growth.

e a rly

during

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For

change

along

It was

were

of $ 8 0 0
o ver

in

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worth

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Mohawk

for

during

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in

stopover

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land.

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and

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pioneer

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lishment

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routes

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Seventeen
of

made

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previous
that

Chicago

the

h as

u n der

estab­

manufactures
by

size

a few
to

s e v eral

men

a l a rge
million

270

Changes

which

have

been

industrial

impact

are:

for

a more

modern

business

the

tow n

must

have

accomplishments
and

rapidly
With

maintain
■ town,
h as

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come

nant
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in

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in

p l ant

and

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past.

have

largely

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of

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those

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st r o n g

period

have

of
Yet

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joined

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future

have

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Mohawk.

civic

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desire

agreement

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that

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timers

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rationally

It

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imagine

75 m i l l i o n

dollars

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part

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Com­

community

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town
These

service
is

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newcomers

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pro g r a m s .

regarding

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t i mers

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to

to

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dominate

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each

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old

although

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in m o s t

planned

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another

past.

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with

ha s

Both

reside

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people

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for

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of

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numbers

changes.

throughout

other
with

policy

oriented,

cultural

conservative

active

in

u r ban

policies.

promises
ha s

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large

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part

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over

the

adjusted

maintained

terms

of

Through

have

f rom

population;

of g o v e r n m e n t ;

people has

g r o u p ha s
b een

type

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hospitals.

a contrasting

newcomers

in

district;

introduction

type

the

growth

as

community health,

growing

the

the

noted,

and

have
face

programs

groups

selected

by

found
an

271

organization
support

of

When

it

otiier

to

receive

.Mrs.

Pixon

for

19 4 3,

been

had

chairman

was

support

(mentioned

sponsible

of

a

the

county
as

and had

cooperated

with

tne

was

support

til c c i v i c
the

me n ' s

groups

of

tiicse w h o

8%

of

male

the

t o tal

structure

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consequence
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of

The

Mohawk

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men

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project
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in the

Mohawk.

on

organization.

and

other

took

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parts

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in
were

active

receive

of

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part

in

county,

One-third
only

represented

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is

was

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activity
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rather
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a contrast

as

tiie

a

village^

l o c ally.

As

action,

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to

tiie c o u n t y

obligation.

civic

some

two-thirds

participated.
while

also

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for her

Over

in

projects

organizations,
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re­

as

She was

in wortliwn ile

did

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Council

in

s u rvey

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health

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men

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again

tneso

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contrast

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active

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approval

In

committee

man y

organizations

survey.

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Mohawk

the

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being

a member,

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organization

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into

through

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successful

was

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usually

so

The

largely

members

their

people

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of
to

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service
take

part

in

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than

It w as

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viewed

were

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in

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ran

to

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survey,

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community

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letter
chairman
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number

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The

by

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were

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part

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Kiver

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building

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It was

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part,

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people who

felt

physicians

corrected

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light.

sewage

them.

Mohawk

It was

it was

of

community,

solve

problems

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serious

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T he

not

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to

rather

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taken

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in

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nature.

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contamination

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did

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importance.

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health

had

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tiie

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health.

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results

of

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already

community

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b een

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nature

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wer e

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town

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problems

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and

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community

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town

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tists

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to

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rest

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of

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ph y s i c i a n s h a d
immunization
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them

in

nothing

become

pend

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survey
to

uad

immediate

quarry

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po o 1

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water

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year

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gedy
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a
It

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to

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taut

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and

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met

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service

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Mohawk

rt o 1 i-

sourre

public
week

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swimming

to

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stone
located

guard

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the

urn i c n

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after

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community

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year

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people

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d r ovc n e t 1 i n a

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the

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was

problem

Mchnwk

the

stone

considered

employees
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in

was

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quarry

up

pool

$67, 000

girl

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swimming

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part

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furt a e r

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years.

yea r ,the

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tne

a

great

problem.

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b e l iefs.

that

symbols
area

as he

values

i n d i vidual

to

indecision.

sacred

tiiis

tiie farmer

public

wish

nold b u r e a u c r a t i c

the

neighbor

economically

in

do

irresponsible

growing

w ho

and

Tiie b e l i e f

both

been
belief

communicable

with

program

survey

problems

t h ese

lack

any

the

wno

freedom

it

growing

for ii i s own

as

on

science,

is an

is e q u a t e d

system

mad e

selves

core

care

individual

these

health

T he

sacred

farmer.

to

against

continue.

upon

of

important

such

has

to his

Tne

still

health

members

midwest

tiie c o n t r o l

snou l d

health

threat

and

of

health

live

maintain.

prevention

of

symbols.

of m e d ical

equally

immunization

sucJi

no

the

tiie g r o w t h

become

one

of

to

Public

property,

provides

have

tii at

many

own

he

difficult

past

of

to

more

related

tiie s e c u l a r i z a t i o n

resistance.

ideal

With

in

efforts

the
with

people

283

S T R L N C T H L N I N G OF T H E C O U N T Y H E A L T H PE PART MEN T
AM : T a x C O U N T Y iIlaA LTil C O U N C I L

This

objective,

importance

to

level,

probably

The

growing

cause
for

has

of

survey

has

a

previous

county.

It had

area.
and

Old
had

founding

the

considerable

survey
met

which

increased

At

part

of

the

outspoken

this

school

unit

on

the

than

have

county

any

other.

resulted

s t r ength

and

weaknesses
it w o u l d
was

be­

prestige

idea

had

along

been
with

and

the

of

the
at
the

the

in

position

time

in

of

its

Obvious

to

excellent

the

of a h e a l t h

unit.

expensive
an

to

powerless

s c o ffed

at

the H e a l t h

be w i s e

its

opposition

children

not

of

strenghthening

advocates

VP w h i c h

for

point

tiie iieal th

who had

and

basic

this

timers

now

of

the

steadily

responsible

the

county

program

improvements

of

in

the

buildings.

There

was,

appeared

to be

unit

also

and
in

an

however,
totally

a

their

To w h a t
of

in

successfully

meant

been

in TB

the h e a l t h

more

that

been

were

decreases

spoken

more

chapter

again

clear

school

part

of

rLFAimibNT

make

were

certainly

of r e l a t i o n s h i p s

were.given.

unit

took

been

Pepartmcnt

the

was

organizations.

TiiL H E A L T H
In

who

pattern

the

both

those

w h ich

l a rge

a large

unaware
number

criticisms

extent

awareness

h as
of

the

of

of

of

se g m e n t
the

of

the

services

people who were

this

survey

the h e a l t h

society
of

that

the h e a l t h

equally

out­

unit.
provided

the

unit

to w h a t

and

public

with

extent

204

nave

tae

cult

to

ilealth
zens
for

answer

last

importance
viewed

in

participate

an

active

tivity
tacts
self

tJi

the
idea,

would

these

e J e alth

is

have

Although

advisory

T he

due

primarily

allow

for

m ore

questions

to

people
and

it

Its

the

for

the

public

of
snou l d

its

actively
part

tne

in

the

schedule,

that

to e x p e r i e n c e

give

of

reluctance

belief

believe

then

part

took

to

aware

survey

not

citi­

in h e a l t h

mor e

as

the

the

reasonable

it did

role.

to

program

become

activities

is d i f f i ­

Since

p r e sent

Department

furnished

problems

it

efforts.

was

health

to

enlightened

people

survey

question

relationship.

years,

county.

a general

part

with

of

the

an

the

to

This

attempting

a half

extent

the

d i rect

County

and

within

in

a c t e d

of

been

is due

in

of

c o n c e p t i o n
a n d

h as

terms

program

neutralized?

t e rms

five

to w h a t e v e r

total

been

Independence

the

its

in

repartment

of

that

be

opponents

to

lay

take
ac­

direct

con­

a f e e ling

of

direction.
There

are

no

I c part m e n t

are

less

clashes

any

significance

other

of

group

of

indications

that

antagonistic,

individuals

tne
but

between
in

the

critics

of

there h a v e

this

county

the

.lea 1th

been

no

organization
during

the

and

last

any
two

years.
There
that

they

zenry.
for

a belief

are

V.nen

them

where

is

to

dealing
they

spend

problems

on

the

with

f i rst
much

existed.

part

the hea 1th

a progressively

entered
of

of

their
Today

the
time
they

county

Department

enlightened
it was

investigating
receive

citi­

necessary
the

requests

are as

for

their

2D 5

services
boards,
lieve

from

parents,

til a t

tne

development
was

felt

people

of

that

was

home

this
tne

project

more

aware

on

the

of

water

supply

Department

had

found

it

busy

in

q

ue st

possible

problem

bqually
lines

of

worked

the

survey,
in

future

plans

one
was

one

of

area

to

Today

up b y

with

the

the

otner

county

personnel

g r o u p was
of

were

.School

tne health

a sympathetic

equally

informant
t n e

areas
far

m o r e

investigating

group

of

always

to

the

dependent

its

necessity

have

more

unit

been

the

they

previous

to

acquainted
Medical

and

importance

in

the

private

with

to

county

physicians,

difficult.

important

support

'assistance w h e n

it

A

A 1 t.n o u <j h

of c o n s i d e r a b l e

a non-professional

to

than

System,

of

people

are

offices

far

Relationships

is

they

survey.

made

health

tne

tne

time

various

Department

be

Public

the

this

w a t e r -t e s t i n g

f o r

would

were

whether

inspect

s o u r c e s .

for

services.

Until

to

in

be­

p a r t i c u l a r 1),

responsible

as

sen oo 1
Tney

instrumental

tneir

tne heal t h

set

effectiveness

people

lay

of

latter

without

restaurantors.

r e c e n t l y .

Lx tens ion O f f ice,

The

future

because

to

effectively
most

In

from

areas.

important

the

Society,
tne

requests

problems,

been

necessary

e water

relationship

had

those

i o n a b 1

answering

has

schedule

nis

ii a d

and

schedule

tested

that

sewage

condition.

survey

asked

witu

builders,

survey

becoming

question
had

communities

programs

lay

strength

upon

of

groups
the

a voluntary

in the

emphasized

or

this

of

unit.

group

of

county

and

o f fer

need.

This

was

one

286

of

the

and

reasons

projects

referred

to

felt

that

work

and

it

help

or

would

continue

encouragement

had

not

in

time

the
on

names

they

many

list",

the

survey

the

called

s u rvey

maybe

that

These

this

programs

the

people

Pepartment

names

group
can

It

activity
to

of

and w h e t h e r

upon.

willing

some

councils

who were willing

projects.

in h e a l t h

are

the h e a l t h

the H e a l t h

people

assumption

to h e l p

observed

that

in

of

Although

of

future

their

as

them.

"sucker

participated

tnose wh o

is

and

offer

were

of

people
be

t e sted

belief

interviewed

t h eir

of

they w e r e

only
the

to

of
t h ese

assistance

in

f u t ure.
The

ac t u a l
has
of

the

them

r i ght

tne

as

they

who

people

the

surrounding

those

th r ough

for

Health

findings

been
this

ful

county

than

in

make
if

The
aiding
gration
health

intend

at

been

but

This
finds

as well.

more

and

said

programs

tiie d a t a
that

are

concerned

vagueness
itself

Although

effective

use

less

that
in

for

they

in

verbalized

the
goals
terms
an

a project would

county,

future

already

of h e a l t h

manifested

such

the

with

it

is d o u b t ­

plans,

other

underway.

COUNCIL

County

the

before

to

has

survey.

findings

unit

support

THE H E A L TH

the

office

tne

the

they

to

of

discussed

interest
help

Department

Health

health
the

survey

strengthening

C o u n c i 1,organized

unit,

beginning
was
this

hoped

was
of
to

in

a stage

19E1.
be

one

organization.

The
of
Not

of

for

the

complete

proposed

the

purpose

only w o u l d

disinte­

project

solutions

of

of

the

for

such

a project

207

meet

the

that

more

b r ine
was

objectives
people

more

attendance,
in

the

but

active

meetings

apathy
goal

was

At

had

the

it w as

the

t ime

a minimum

p r imary

orientation

further hoped

in a p r o j e c t w h ich

the ."fold” •

council

and

charter,

become

into

general

attendance,

its

would

members

proposed

of

the

s u rvey

of m e m b e r s

condition

appeared

would

to be

of

the

in

those
major

pr o b 1 e m .
In
the

time

changes

tne

observation

of health

of

tiie survey,

it has

been

ob v i o u s

p l ace w h ich

nave

added

nave

prestige
to

the

in

tak'en
the

survey

area.

These

project which

council

changes
was

activities
tuat

to

show

its

direct

undertaken

by

since

certain
st r e n g t h

and

r e l a t i o n sii ip

tJi i s o r g a n i z a ­

tion.
One
the

of

the

composition

attended

health

or

and

seven

attendance.
was

more

made

nurses.

of m e m b e r s h i p .
council

meeting

This

g r o u p was

the C o u n t y

only

dealth

in

the
the

been

a gradual

til e s u r v e y

has

b een

undertaken.

the
in

meetings

meetings
the

for

county.

core

of

larger

been

1951

those

numbered
same

the

related

to

w ho

mor e

than

people

six

in

organization

and

proportion'being
those

connected

with

Department.

has

the

has

the

attendance were

There

at

rarely

u s u a l l y ha d

of w o m e n ,
men

ch a n g e s
In early

meetings

each

up m o s t l y
The

outstanding

as

various

in this

condition

more

new

localities

sent

representatives

many

concerning
of

the

new

survey

faces

since

Many

information
Although

change

were

seen
to

organization

faces were

only

seen

once

or

twice,

numbered

some

among

More

tne

continued

was

change

in m e m b e r s h i p

people

were

although

tne

new could
their
ness
not
of

take
tuo

was

were

up

of

been

tne

nospital

men

of

active

have

are

continued

before

the

same

apparent

that

each

of

may

meeting

appear

viewed

as

someone

time

number

this

that

people

members
by

the

together

their

assumption
rarely

did
most

council

different

where

attending!

a weak­

not contain

that

meetings

be

a success

realized

suppose

to

attending

problems did

to

by

t h eir

o r i e n t a l ion

interests

and

3t

bringing

to c e r t a i n

more

school
given

to

of

attendance
m ost

of' p r o f e s s i o n a l
lay

interest

technicians,

tendents,

t o day

around
the

people

interests

seemed

dropped

to
as

low

before.

the

interests

of

became

regular

it was
of

natural

conspicuous

past

the

purpose

the

this

actually

a period

s i nce

and

The new people rarely repeated

glance

build

it

present

Since all

it was

itself

the

tne

V'iioteas

meetings,

It- was

Over

it aad

found

The

for

met.

around
tne

large

attracted

Also
In

all

first

problems.

be

prove

attendance.

deal th Council' since

appeal

would

At

place.

certain

as

a

f orned

same

characteristic

seen as well.

visits.
since

at

the

" r e g u l a r s ” were

be

attendance

" r e g u l a r s ’*.

important

scon

in

members,
of

water

teachers
the

were

meetings

mal e

members.

meetings

had

been

women.

No w

a l ong

mentioned

various
works

were

men.

Doctors,

officials,
among
a more

above,

school

those

centered

w as

with
to

be

dentists,
superin­

attending.

businesslike

209

procedure,

fecisions

policy

discussed

In

past,

the

decision

male

i d ent

without

for

20

in

tae

last

more

strength

newly

As

(tiic

of

than -had

been

the

some
the

meeting

to

been
of

the

men
A

and

case

reluctant

society,
by

tne

w ho

pul) lie

b e f ore.

to m a k e
o f ten

further

the'election

meetings

membersnip
people

assurance.

a result

council

easily

of

any

held

indication

a male

pres­

1 9 b 3.

consider

comment

more

evidenced

This

and

invitations

recent

in

interested

council

member.

A

year

"regulars**

iiea! Ui

and

was

be m a d e

always

consulting

attendance.
of

all

nad

observation

voir

to

freely

positions

control

At

more

the w o m e n

superordinate
of

seem

anyone
or

the

each

made

shows

president),

is

an

with

given

between

lb

a large

reser­

the C o u n c i l

interesting

that

u a s been
in t e r e s t

membership
meeting

by

along

has

It

average

list

become

tae C o u n t y

to

in

it

to

continues

increasingly

the

all

that

to

a

be

a

to g row

Superintendent

illustrates

much

note

invited

and

larger.
of S c h o o l s

inclusive

nature

o f rne inb e r s a i p .
The
had

been

On e

of

health
right

Superintendent,
discussing

those

council.
and

all

ile e x p l a i n e d
sent
The

present

and

that

At

of

you

in

a health

this
are

time

who

the

r est

were

bee n

that

had

a group

related
it

be

members

worked

on

essentially

that

of

to

this

b'lA men 1>er s ,

the

referred

the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t

actually

many

has

problem

suggested

that

implication

addressing

of
tne

schools.
to

tine

said,

"That's

tne h e a l t h
survey

potential

organization

were

C o u n c i l ’',
pre­

members.

belongs

to

all

290

the

interested

citizens

membership

is m o r e

The

of

future

degree
is

the

to w h i c h

onl y

organization

in

which

dedicate

themselves

ready

been

better
and

will

in

values

progress

the

can

growth

to

the

in m a n y

respects

lies

in

in

more

of m o r e

stage

county
of

their

t e rms

clearly
clearly

of

which

this

position

inherent

be m a d e

stronger.

programs

Until

a r e s ult,

somewhat

to g r o u p s

acquiring

As

and

becomes

appeal

discussed.

understand

the

defined

membership

possible

difficulty

Independence County.

loosely

jectives

The

of

have

of

defined

meaning

to

ob ­
to

has

individuals

locally

clearly

This

them.

of d e v e l o p m e n t

positions,

the

defined.

people willing

oriented

the

in

minded

little

defined

al­
can

people

actual

goals

and

objectives.
The
to

the

people

above

strengthening

survey

project.

in

county

the

activity.

More

function.

A

suggestion

of

be
the

has

people

good

The

of m e m b e r s h i p
overall

been

are

made

aware

illustration

general

found

in

a crisis

Fall

of

1952.

growth
that

in

in

for

the

council
and

the

related

the m a n y

through

factor

prestige

TINNER

wit h

the h e a l t h

this

occurred

ANNUAL TURKEY

contact
possible

of

of

is d i r e c t l y

survey
and

its

a final
group

Independence

is

to

County

in

BACKFIRES3

It is a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d c u s t o m f o r the L a d i e s A id
of the E p i s c o p a l C h u r c h at C a m d e n J u n c t i o n to s e r v e
t u r k e y d i n n e r s as a m o n e y - m a k i n g p r o p o s i t i o n .
It is an

3.

T h e a b o v e d e s c r i p t i o n of the
d e n c e C o u n t y w e r e w r i t t e n in
W i n t e r , 1953.

e v e n t s o c c u r r i n g in I n d e p e n ­
a r e p o r t by J. F. T h a d e n ,

291

a n n u a l e v e n t d u r i n g the m o n t h of N o v e m b e r .
Camden
J u n c t i o n ( l i s t e d as C a m d e n on m o s t maps) is. a
c r o s s - r o a d s place in*northwest Indepe n d en ce County.
R e s i d e s an E p i s c o p a l - C h u r c h t h e r e is a s t o p light,
a c o m b i n a t i o n g r o c e r y and o'il st a t i o n , and a giftn o v e l t y store.
It is the j u n c t i o n of U. S. H i g h w a y
112 and S t a t e H i g h w a y 50,
It is too small even to
h a v e a post o f f i c e and for this r e a s o n n e w s w o r t h y
e v e n t s that t a k o p l a c e h e r e are c o m m o n l y c r e d i t e d
to e i t h e r N e w t o n of A n t o n , the two n e a r e s t post
offices.
T h e a n n u a l t u r k e y d i n n e r p r e p a r e d by the
L a d i e s A i d of this c o u n t r y church h a s a c q u i r e d an
e n v i a b l e and f a r - f l u n g r e p u t a t i o n o ver the years.
Y e a r l y an i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e r n u m b e r - o f p e o p l e
from a grad ual ly lengthening radius treated them­
s e l v e s w i t h a s p e c i a l t r i p to C a m d e n J u n c t i o n for
a t u r k e y d i n n e r . . T h e One in 1952 w i l l be r e m e m b e r e d
w i t h r e g r e t s b e c a u s e 161 p e o p l e got sick f r o m e a t ­
ing the t u r k e y , of w h o m 40 w e r e h o s p i t a l i z e d , and
two died.
T h e c a u s e . . .S a l m o n e l l a t y p h i m u r i u m .
T h e p r o c e d u r e s that the L a d i e s Aid u n d e r t o o k
in 1952, in p r e p a r a t i o n for this event, w e r e
e s s e n t i a l l y the same as in p r e v i o u s years.
How­
ever, in 1 9 5 2 the e v e n t w a s a d v a n c e d to the m i d d l e
of O c t o b e r , a month e a r l i e r than usual, and t h e r e b y
h a n g s part of the t r a g i c a f t e r m a t h of the b o u n t i f u l
feast.
O t h e r years, the m i d d l e of N o v e m b e r w as
s a t i s f a c t o r y to l e a v e s t u f f e d turkey, r e a d y for the
oven, o v e r n i g h t in the cold o u t d o o r s .
This parti­
c u l a r w e e k e n d in O c t o b e r w a s an a b n o r m a l l y mil d one
and not i d e a l l y s u i t e d for o v e r - r e a d y t u r keys.
The
t u r k e y s w e r e d r e s s e d and s t u f f e d r e a d y for oven one
day, h e a t e d the next day at a very hig h t e m p e r a t u r e
for a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t time, and r e h e a t e d and served
the t h i r d day.
T h e t u r k e y s s h o u l d h a v e b een h e a t e d
for a l ong t i m e in o r d e r to permit the f i l l i n g to
b ecome thorou ghl y heated.
If this h a d been d o n e
p r o b a b l y no one w o u l d h a v e b e c o m e sick.
U n d e r the
c i r c u m s t a n c e s the f i l l i n g of the t u r k e y b e c a m e an
e x c e l l e n t e n v i r o n m e n t for the d e v e l o p m e n t of b a c ­
t e r i a and w h i c h w a s the c a s e of i l l n e s s e s that
followed.
Many turkeys have salmonella infection,
p i c k e d up f r o m e a t i n g the m i c e and rats a b o u t the
f a r m yard.
T h e o n s e t of the i l l n e s s v a r i e d f r o m six to
s e v e n t y - t w o h o u r s , so that v i r t u a l l y all h ad r e ­
t u r n e d to t h e i r h o m e s b e f o r e they b e c a m e ill.
Very
y o u n g c h i l d r e n and e l d e r l y p e r s o n s are g e n e r a l l y
a f f e c t e d m o r e s e r i o u s l y by s a l m o n e l la t vph imur i urn

29 2

than others.
E v e n so, it is the c o n c e n s u s of
d o c t o r s that the d e ath of the two e l d e r l y p e r s o n s
m i g h t h a v e b e e n p r e v e n t e d if they had been t r e a t e d
in the e a r l y s t a g e s with c h l o r o m y c i n .
S o m e p e o p l e in and a r o u n d the l i t t l e v i l l a g e
of A n t o n r e s e n t t h e . a d v e r s e p u b l i c i t y it r e c e i v e d
f r o m this a f f a i r .
S o m e d a i l y p a p e r s g a v e the im­
p r e s s i o n that this t u r k e y feed t o o k p l a c e in
Anton community.
Normally, Anton people commonly
c l a i m C a m d e n J u n c t i o n as a part of the A n t o n
c o m m u n it y .
S o m e p e o p l e are r e s e n t f u l of the S c h e n k
f a m i l y f r o m w h o m the E p i s c o p a l l a d i e s b o u g h t the
turkeys.
T h e y say that t h ose t u r k e y s s h o u l d not
h a v e b e e n sold so soon a.fter they i n o c u l a t e d a g a i n s t
blackhead.
M e d i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s say that t h e r e is no
j u s t i f i c a t i o n for this a t t i t u d e , that illness could
not h a v e been c a u s e d b e c a u s e of the i n o c u l a t i o n ,
h o w e v e r r e c ent.
A n o t h e r t r a g i c a f t e r m a t h of this a f f a i r is
that v e r y p r o b a b l y f our to seven p e r s o n s of the 161
p e r s o n s w h o b e c a m e ill w i l l be " c a r r i e r s " of this
disease.
T h e r e is e v e r y l i k e l i h o o d that o t h e r s
w i l l b e c o m e i n n o c e n t v i c t i m s of s a l m o n e l l a
typh i m u r i u m b e c a u s e they w i l l be e a t i n g food h a n d l e d
by t h e s e ’b a r r i e r s " .
Shortly
Health

Council

woman

of

early

Health

although
and

after

had

since

for

of

Health

ha d

explained

of

poultry

this

efforts

time

time

she had

this

the

meeting
the

t hat

community
raisers.

w as

been

"to

part

problem

active

in

to

the

prominent

the

group.

bring

of

survey,

the
Her

the

in

project
expressed

attention

of h y s t e r i a

which

crisis".

first
had

no

county

immediate

above

a socially

activating

taken

the

meeting

S h e ha d

towards

m e e t ing w ith

from

to h e r

At

a monthly

in a t t e n d a n c e .

Council

spread
the

this

making

resulted
She

was

been

tragedy,

held.

Council

reason
the

was

Mohawk

not

this

of

all

seriously

People

were

the

rumors

threatened
refusing

that n ad
the

to buy

business
turkeys

293

and

with

Thanksgiving

business
and

would

present

also
held

usually

counted

funds

which

related

to

by m a n y

the

ment

concerning

so

ilealth
The

the

the

cause

it w a s

the

the

bacteria
been

future

for

the

from

and

of

such

these

farmers

the
had

might

that

dinners

it w as
could

Department

and

an

state­

indication

of

statement

was

the

many

rumors

that w e r e

in

and

problems

Sanitarian
apparent

They
no

of

made

public

also

that
the

save

statement

the

that

and

any h a r m f u l

turkey

that

fault

of

the

turkey
risk

said

though,

say

no

that

concerning

They

to

wit h

De­

were

statement

prepared,
in

they

on

be h e l d

to

the ilealth

food h a n d l i n g ,

prisent

went

of

determined.

properly

been

but

embarrassment.

not be

no

functions

make a public

was

with

public

made

They

the

were

some

result

have

dinners

that

above

been

annual

welfare.

H e alth

poisoning

future

could

on

social

to

the

organizations

carrying

the

of

These

such

group

it was

had

g r o ups.

and

this

of

Nurse

this

destroyed.

statement

for

defensive.

dinner

that

of

to q u i e t

Department
since

loss

problem

supply

church

felt

causing

definitely

if

She

present

on

to

criticizing

Department

immediately
Health

the

cause

only

and

were

the

order

of

the

church

necessary

Supervising

partment

the

reluctance

not

circulation

that

in

incompetence.

necessary,

hardships

t h e r e -was

of

ivere a l s o

that

the

on

Were

f elt

have

that

support

People

that

tremendous

the

'

said

dinners

the

approaching,

businessmen,
She

its

season

they

if

would
could

raiser
proper

make

and

precautions
tha t

he

would

planning
to

The
the

t and
was

of
of

the

entire

Mohawk,

to

given

at

the h o s p i t a l

S uc h

an

event

f el t

and

was

the

the

survey

tacts

problem
h ad

the

statement

public

the

by

woman
if

in

order

was

both

increased

and

as

planned

in

food

of

an

handling

The

she

in

not h a v e

for

directly

to

and

been

more

responsible

people

to

contacts

an

w ith

the

the

in

for

origination
De­

to m a k e

terms

of

present.

extending
Officials

extent
the

con­

Health

members

the C o u n t y
such

affair,

reluctant

sanctioned
official

Although

this

the

and

had

previous

g one
have

fro m

received

attended

from

been

woman

Department

part

bee n

Health

effective

resulted

lay

the

effectiveness.

socially

more

held

that

r el a t i o n s h i p with
l o cal

to be

not

social

and

l e ast

c l ass

charter

indirect

of

Council

then

at

cooperation

would

would
not

that,

were

the H e a l t h

it had

she h a d

with

the

has

ship has

said

that w as

problems

problems.

and

an

organization
If

the

health

only

officials

meetings

a special

survey

ilealth

group

w as

dinners

considerable

meeting

which

discussion

The
lines

any

Sanitarian

the S a n i t a r i a n .

Council

with

project.

partment

The

handling

organization

impressed

that

the

by

public

played

council
w it h

the

food

annual

dinners

the

Health

certain

health

taken.
with

re-enphasized

for

quite
the

met

these

showed

board

both

is

to meet

discuss

previous

Mohawk

a

and

Were

safety.
result

sounding

of

handling

be w i l l i n g

village

Council

it

food

a dinner

assure

in

in

that

public

the
of

the

member­

made.

V i th
and
in

increased
has

contacts

it has

bee n

utilized

more

increased

prestige

in

Although
the

goals

of

the

(See C h a p t e r
and

have

th ese

still

VI

given

goals.

volvement

made

Health

Council

zation

are

this

the

as

to

The

action

only

conditions

resulting

objectives,
by

Organizations),

members

can

of

future

application

be.

publicity

expressed

aware

future

have

terms

the

be m e a s u r e d

of

charter
been

met

concerning

of

social

of w h a t

activities

by

many

its

efforts

in

more

to be d e t e r m i n e d

Success

future

terms

impetous

must

still

findings.

in

- Tangential
more

both

favorable

county.

organization,

Practical

has

often,

the

vague

received

of

analysis
in t e r m s

an

effective

the
of
of

in­

organi­
their

the

course

takes.

S UT.IMALY
The

difficulty

evaluate

the

in

of

terms

nature
from
as

the

to

the
been

of

success
the

rest

to

In

In

the

we

groupings

which

were

lizations

concerning

have

should

the

its

to be

one

of

total

as

effect
upon

stated,

have

of

action

action
never

in

process

the

be

certain
has

survey,

upon

upon

it ha s

Independence

the

organized

the

survey,

limited

that

to

process

a process

been

however,

attempts

f o und

can

such

a result

effectiveness

an

or

the h e a l t h

concentrated

formed

be

is

effect

case

which

project

isolating

activity,

of

assess

Because

It

particular

objectives,

nature

society.

dimension.

a

societal

tii e a c t u a l

County.

of

generalization

p r o cess.

of

difficult

any

stated

social

total

in

to

a total

genera­
this

296

knowledge

of

effect

in

approximated

at

governed

collection

of

observation

the

action

ti o n s

have

to

other

safe

large
that

to

"fund

of

in

community
greater

will".

terms

value

t han

In
as

activities.
good

fication

of

viewing

a result

conclusions

of

of

related

people

pected

action

as

stated

that

as

since

health

f a i led.

perceived

of

are

have

as

been

moreover,

projects

mobilize

civic

"good",

source

referred

to

this

possible

s u r v e y w as

for
as

a

quali­

that
even

sug g e s t s .

that

of

may

some

is

are a

speculate

to m e n t i o n
it

the

generaliza­

It may,

be

which

chapter

a future

may

be

analysis

only

that

of

important

local

result

survey

clearly

remain

failure.
to

this

such

purpose

from the

design

limited

can

where

took

place

participation,

to

related

O ne

a source

is

action

people

the

the

appraisal

county

of

for

of

survey.

c a ses

onl y

Therefore,

body

the

can

systematic

relationship

evaluation

an

the

the

of

It

survey

the

realized.

in

received

such

be

Such

4

originally

a more

in

action

theoretical

relevancy.

that

groups

the

data

social

people

social

that

result

suggest

certain

community

of

the

bodies, of

of

made
of

of

that

could

been

patterns
as

and

order

problems

established
be

in

process

that

limited
to

the

best

terms

we

Since
action

are
the

were

in

goals

was

the

lack

on

d.

T h i s c o n c e p t w a s i n t r o d u c e d by John
by the r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t r e s p o n s i b l e

with

objectives

certain
of

those which
it

largely

the

localities

faced

participation,
This

the

part

can

ex­

be

caused
of

the

by

county

B. H o l l a n d and used
for this study.

29 7

people
Also

who

were

operating

apparent

lack

minds

the

of

the

minds

not

to

was

made

as
of

any

people

of

these

of w e l l

immediately

who were

as

upon

with

people

may

times

published

and

that

become

there

evidence

In

viewing

health

survey

denced

by

it

proved

pointed
in

to

out

the

proved

local

s t r eng tJi en i ng

is

of
be

that

strengthening

of

be

two

primary

survey

these

a causative

seemed

established

in

in the

support

local

health

agencies

rather

sense,
the

the

minds

is

a

of

local

statistical

result

seen

unless

in

of

than
value
the

that

than w a s
in

of

evi­

county,
it w a s

a general

being

the

the

the

Although

part

of

act

future

minds

instrument

often

to

case

also mentioned

it w a s

successful.
wa s

the

need.

effective

an

in

assures

of

w ill

and

action

planning

difficult

action

more
As

agencies

in

be

far

extent

It w as

implications,

considerably
the

the

that

developments.

instrumental
to

by

that

structure

now

in

feeling

a tendency

m ade

immediate

county
to

h as

projects

unlikely

is

the

survey

toward

extreme
noted

stress.

legitimized

It

some

of

the

in

l o c a l 'o b j e c t i v e s

a certain

results

certain

information.
is

there

the

problem

planning

further

existing

in

to

units.

w as

Since

any

the

stability

planning

It w as

of

to

certain

of

lack

and

since

lack

future

local

action

health

related

crises

a minimum

the

activated.

was

the

future

local

communities,

at

that

to

a whole,

problems.

organized

activating

immediate

people

difficult

local

in

a deterrent

tiie c o u n t y

toward

held

successful

effort

directly

such

members

a project
of

these

29 ft

organizations.
P epartment
and

more

and

Also

Today

of

the

has

the

County

X-raying

is

Health

witn

school

educate
to

lines.
in

Ilealth

people

in

limitations

are

related

a

community

sacred

autonomy

and

prevention
fessional
health

nature

and

finds

planning,

it

the
its
is

before

the

to

h ave

the

natural

had

program

the

Office

food

the

is

s u rvey

nave

been

towards

future

health

serious

call
which

problems

has

of

coopera­

classes

and

for

or

in

for

individualism
for

a gap

area

it w i l l

between

between

of

the

the

pl a n n i n g ,

even

failure

the

and

These

f i eld

sentiments
local

health

a self-survey

suffer

from

of

control,

professional

to

failure

planning.

conflict

Since

the

the

Th e

call

produce

that

in TB

a direct

health,

in

Te-

emphasizing

handling

public

to

in

direction

system

either

health.

survey.

community.
origin

in

county

the H e a l t h

planned

School

organi­

a program

of

which

continue

Ilealth

stronger

county

in

of

through

County

h e alth.

sentiments

s t ate

extension

The

o t her

support

The

terms

people

of

now

planning

county

of

the

and

are

they w e r e

by

the

to

motivate

public

A

projects

limitations

the

the C o u n t y

interest

is

the

Pepartment

relationship

Chief

than

overall

receiving

on

All

that

Council

taken

Society

of milk.

cooks.

indirect

an

Pepartment.

the

Health

interest
in

these

pasteurization
ted

is

going

doubt

survey.

Medical

and

along

the

the

general

partment

little

organizations

resulted

Immunization

is

the C o u n t y

effective

introduction

zations

There

pro­
of

health

such

a

and

299

condition.
own

health

Convincing
problems

'"do- g o o d e r s ”
a community
must

include

surveys

can

is o n l y
are

and

not

half

thoroughly

collective
ever

people

reach

that

being

the

they

the d u p e s

battle.

convinced

action,
a high

it

are

is

degree

Until
that

acting
of

their

outside

the

members

preventive

unlikely
of

upon

that

success.

of

health
self­

CHAPTLk
SUMMARY

The

previous

emergence
for

a

which

social

process

set

of

social

and

described

as

a

social
These

dimension

assumed
system

these

relationships,

interaction.

which

which

Part

relationships,
gave

since

included

a

the

to

of

the

the

actors

out

the S o c i a l

patterns

meaning

between

bel i e f s ,

developed

III,

action
the

between
and

the

it met

r e l a t i o n s hips

interaction

of

of m e a n i n g

that

requirements

system,

equipment

a process

of

sen­
and

System,

interaction

system

of

action

resulted.
the

on

of

system

the
is

the

of

dissertation

qualities

analysis
level

to d e v e l o p

the d e s i g n

which

an

a symbolic

process

understand

of

persistent

through

necessary
the

problem

the

temporary

tion

the

sentiments

explained

as

It w a s

interdependent

symbolic

these

explain

was

of

this

Since
and

was

demonstrated

a certain

of d e f i n i t i o n .

to m a i n t a i n

reinforced

that

process.

actors

timents,

the

action

observed

CONCLUSIONS

have

provided

functionally

necessary

and

chapters

has

being

requirements

ANT

XI

the

of

of

of

continuity

expanded.

to d e m o n s t r a t e

relationships

a body

a theoretical

analysis

was

design
The

sentiments
of

considered

a model

process

of

structural

continuity
and

problem

it

VII)

descrip­

by w h i c h
in

which

system,
Figure

following

be

temporary

the

(See

may

essentially

intended

one

may

a social
oriented.

-301

V. \y I
/ VJ.

-

302

Found
a re

basic

people

in

the

themes

and

found
from

within
these

process

is

of

not

of

changes

of

of

structures

of

give

own

terms

of

structures
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tures
system
it

in

in

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to

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structures

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within

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are
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from

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structure
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or a s s o c i a the

new

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as

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social

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emerged

responsible
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of

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process

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structures

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system.

a reciprocal

activities

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systems

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associationa1

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t i o nal,

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sets

t e rms

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tiie c u l t u r e
new

order

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the

Patterns

to

emergence
by

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tend

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analytically

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303

s t and

as

social
for

explanation

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the

ments

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problem

system

to

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tionships
'm e n t s .

or

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any

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to

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stage

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within

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all

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If

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of

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nature

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persistency

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structure

within

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curcial.
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relevant

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of

itself.

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ships

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orientation

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extreme
and

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themes

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explained

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orientation

observed

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system

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problem

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years.

health

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conflicted
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importance
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was

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system.

304

The

process

of F e e d b a c k

persistence,
orientation
not
to

kind

The

which

process

very

nature

emerge

through

timents,

redefine

of

life

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the
the

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of

and

of

of

in

its

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themes
then

allow

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back

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it Self.

can

be

understood

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in

society

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sentiments
for

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system

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solution

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change,

of

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existence

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of

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quality

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terms

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of

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in

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the

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provides

sentiments.

IMPLICATIONS
The
posed

is

major

tiie all

propositions.
of

emergence,

to

the

point

behavior

it

The
the

broad

human

to

the

inclusive

Tn

is

necessary

a precise

is d i f f i c u l t .

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a study

to d e f e n d

by

such

In

of

design
of

the

to mee t

to b r o a d e n

the
of

in m o t i v a t i o n
in d e c i s i o n

jus t

pro­

concepts

the

and

requisites

analytical

scope

action

human

in

making

and

the

social

would

be

a model.

a theoretical

interpretation

interaction.

a design

study

or

of

of m a n y

consideration

sense

value

theoretical

nature

structuring

tha t

psychological
difficult

drawback

approach

meaning

a purely

f o und

such
in

formalistic

as
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this

lies

content

approach

one

of

in

305

frequently

loses

activity.

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find

such

by w h i c h
Yet

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plete

analysis
standpoint

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and

loses

rejection

contribution
- the

iiistorical

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tiieir

cessful

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unnecessary.

cultural

meaning

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a com­

distinct

incorporation

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of

area

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sociology

and

in

lies
social

of

analysis

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tiie c o m ­

means

action

emphasized

understanding

in

the

organization.

expedient

community
have

in

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the

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organization

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consequences

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in

s t udy
the

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an

the

action

of

levels

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behavior

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then,

human

the

with

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in

crucial

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nally

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into

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munity
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society

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tionalist's

sight

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be

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is

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to

note

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arise

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nication
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to

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agreement

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goals

and

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clarified
This
goals

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1
orientation.

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to

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GOODVV I L L " N I X O N S IPhRIT

Action

action

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objectives

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tation

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"FLINT CF

difficult

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by

307

existing
and

structures

sentiments

cular

programs

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stands

only

provides

blood"
back

from

eacii

formation
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manifested

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the

person

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the

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pervasiveness

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a commonality

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becomes

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time

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of g o o d w i l l "

process

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parti­

c o m m u n i t y not

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obligation

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als o

since

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in

action,

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or

potential

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societal

for

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changing

the

groups

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initiated.

existing

for

as

and

from

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s e rve

for

new

values

has

provide

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those

in

one

to

way

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of

collectivism.

it w a s

further

of

autonomy

the

sult

of

the

autonomy
t hat

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tiie m a n y

wnich

of

to

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Community

tiien,

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was

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affirmed
of

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tightly
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for

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of the

actors
into

turned

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been

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preserves
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study

to be

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frequently

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to a ritual

with

in m a n y

specific
by w h i c h

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cases,

end

in

each

actor

affirmation

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latent

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in

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at

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for

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of

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pr o g r a m .

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community

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viduals

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beliefs

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ac t i o n .

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relationship

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attempt

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The

an

has

It w o u l d

action

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course,

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observed

of A m e r i c a n

VIII

action

individual.

opposed.

itself,

belief

actors

appeared

in C h a p t e r

community

general

of

guarantee

mentioned

with

goodwill"
Certain

provided

insight

309

The

reason

for

discussing

summary

and

including

it

lies

the

fact

the

in

p o sed

in

process
to

the

the

thi s
of

of

process.

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of

force

munity

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aware

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it

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continuity

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patterns

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for

as

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of

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revealed

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instead

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co m e s

and

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outcome

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B IBLIOGRAPHY

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