A DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OP SOME
FORMS OP REASON USED BY COLLEGE STUDEMTS

D aniel K enneth S te w a rt

A THESIS

S u b m itted to th e School f o r Advanced G raduate S tu d ie s
o f M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity o f A g r ic u ltu r e and
A p p lied S cie n ce i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
r e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e d eg ree o f
DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS
D iv is io n o f B io lo g ic a l S cien ces
1959

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D aniel Kenneth Stewart

ABSTRACT
H i s t o r i c a l l y , th e p sy ch e h a s “b een d e l in e a te d in to th e th r e e main
fa c to rs o f in te lle c t,

em otion, and w i l l .

The i n t e l l e c t , i n tu r n , h a s been

s u b d iv id e d i n t o re a s o n , c o n c e p tio n , and judgm ent.

The scope o f t h i s t h e s i s

c o n c e rn s i t s e l f w ith t h a t p a r t o f th e p sy c h e h a v in g to do w ith re a s o n ,
and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , th e m anner i n w hich re a s o n may he in v o lv e d i n th e
com m unication o f i d e a s .
Language i s th e c h i e f v e h ic le f o r th e com m unication o f i d e a s .

It

i s n o t th e o n ly v e h i c l e , h u t o f a l l th e ways id e a s may he com m unicated,
la n g u a g e o f f e r s one way which le n d s i t s e l f to
I n o r d in a r y as w e ll

e m p iric a l a n a l y s is .

as s c i e n t i f i c lan g u ag e id e a s a re com bined i n

v a r io u s p r o p o s i t i o n a l form s o r s t r u c t u r e s , and in f e r e n c e s a re made # i i c h
a r e d e te rm in e d to he v a l i d o r i n v a l i d i n term s o f th e law s o f l o g i c .

But

th e law s o f l o g i c , a lth o u g h th e y a r e assum ed to he p r e v a le n t i n a l l do­
m ains o f d is c o u r s e , do n o t o r d i n a r i l y r e c e iv e th e a t t e n t i o n o r exam ina­
t i o n t h a t th e p r o p o s i t i o n s w hich a r e in s ta n c e s o f them r e c e iv e .

I t was

t h e t a s k o f t h i s t h e s i s to

o b ta in d a t a on th e p re s e n c e o f th e s e law s o f

l o g ic in g ro u p s o f c o l l e g e

s tu d e n ts .

T aking a g iv e n number o f l o g i c a l law s, nam ely, Modus P onens, Modus
To H e n s , and S y llo g ism , we sought to d e te rm in e how many o f th e s e were
a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t among Breshmen c o lle g e s tu d e n ts , and, i f p r e s e n t ,
w h e th e r some were more p r e v a le n t th a n o t h e r s .

% th e p r e p a r a tio n o f a

t e s t in s tr u m e n t such t h a t th e l i n g u i s t i c form s in v o lv e d were r e d u c ib le
t o th e law s o f lo g i c d e s c r ib e d , e v id e n c e was th e re b y o b ta in e d f o r th e

-i-

D an iel Kenneth Stewart

e x i s t e n c e o f th e s e law s w ith in th e p o p u la tio n s t e s t e d .
The work o f t h i s t h e s i s p r o v id e s two m ajor c o n t r i b u t i o n s f o r r e ­
s e a rc h o f t h i s ty p e .

One i s th e developm ent o f a t e s t in s tr u m e n t f o r

l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g t h a t shows good r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s , and th e seco n d i s
t h e p r o d u c tio n o f s i g n i f i c a n t d a ta b e a r in g d i r e c t l y on p a r t i c u l a r law s
o f l o g i c , o r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , in v o lv e d i n l o g i c a l re a s o n in g .
b o th o f th e s e f a c t o r s a r e m u tu a lly i m p l ic a tiv e .

Thus,

In o r d e r to o b ta in e v i­

den ce t h a t th e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s w ere e x i s t e n t i n th e p o p u la tio n , an
in s tr u m e n t was d e v is e d t h a t would m easure th e s e p a t t e r n s w ith r e l i a b i l i t y .
The d a t a o f th e r e s e a r c h w ere o b ta in e d i n f iv e s e p a r a te s t u d i e s .
The f i r s t f o u r s tu d i e s r e p r e s e n t s te p s to w ard th e f i n a l developm ent o f
a t e s t in s tr u m e n t t h a t p ro d u ced ev id e n c e c o n s id e re d to be r e l i a b l e , and
th e f i f t h s tu d y was in c lu d e d e s p e c i a l l y to d eterm in e i f th e t e s t i n s t r u ­
ment h a d any p r e d i c t i v e v a lu e .

T hree such p r e d i c t io n s were made, and by

t h e i r i n c l u s i o n e x t e r n a l ch eck s w ere t h e r e ty p r o v id e d f o r th e t e s t in ­
s tru m e n t.
By i n d i c a t i n g t h e e x is te n c e o f l o g i c a l law s w ith in th e p o p u la tio n ,
some b a s ic r e s e a r c h i s p ro v id e d f o r c o n firm in g th e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e
com m unication o f id e a s from one mind to a n o th e r i s a f u n c tio n o f v a r io u s
v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s e x i s t e n t i n th o s e m inds.

-ii-

ACOOTOEDGEMTTS
The w r i t e r w ishes to e x p re ss h i s in d e b te d n e s s
to P r o f e s s o r C h e s te r A. Lawson, Chairman o f h i s Guid­
a n c e Com m ittee, f o r i n t e r e s t a n d a d v ic e i n th e p la n ­
n in g a n d c o ir p le tio n o f t h i s study* S p e c ia l a s s i s t a n c e
an d c o u n e e l g iv e n by P r o f e s s o r s W illiam B* Drew, Du.ane
L* G ibson, D onald K* M a rs h a ll, an d H en rik J . S t a f s e t h
i s a p p re c ia te d #
The fo llo w in g members o f th e D epartm ent o f
H a tu r a l S c ie n c e o f M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity a ls o
re n d e re d v a lu a b le a s s i s t a n c e to th e w r i te r : Dr* John
U. Moore an d Dr. Mary A lic e B urm ester*

TABLE 05’ CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.

PAGE
INTRODUCTION......................

1

II.

HISTORY OF THE PROBLEM..................................................................................

k

III.

MATERIALS AND METHODS....................................................................................

J+7

IV.

DATA AND CONCLUSIONS.......................................................................................

55

V.

THEORY........................................................................................................................ 103
A S tatem en t o f th e BET Theory...................................................
105
BET Theory and V a lid i t y P a t t e r n s .................................................. 117

V I.

DIRECTION OF FUTURE RESEARCH.................................................................... 123

BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................
APPENDIX......................................................................................

132

CHAPTER I

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
B ecause o f th e u n iq u e n a tu r e o f t h i s t h e s i s p roblem , s p re a d in g a s
i t does a c r o s s s e v e r a l f i e l d s o f e n d eav o r, some p r e lim in a r y rem ark s would
seem to be d e s i r a b l e .

In th e f i r s t p l a c e , th e scope o f p u re s u b je c t

m a tte r i n c lu d e s th e f i e l d s o f my academ ic p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e P h .D .;
n am ely, B otany, M ic ro b io lo g y , and Zoology.

However, i t g a in s i t s u n iq u e ­

n e s s th ro u g h th e s p p l i c a t i o n o f th e s e s u b je c t m a tte r s w ith in th e fram e­
work o f l o g i c and p h ilo s o p h y w hich were th e f i e l d s o f stu d y f o r my
M aste r* s d e g re e .
I t i s re c o g n iz e d t h a t i n many m inds s c ie n c e and p h ilo so p h y a r e
v iew ed as b e in g w o rld s a p a r t , and th e more com plete t h i s dichotom y th e
b e t t e r i t i s f o r s c i e n t i s t s and p h ilo s o p h e r s a l i k e .

However, f o r my

p a r t , n o th in g c o u ld be f u r t h e r from what " ought to be" th a n t h i s adm it­
t e d l y common o p in io n .

I t i s my p o s i t i o n t h a t th e r e a l l y g r e a t s c i e n t i s t s

o f h i s t o r y h av e a ls o been g r e a t p h ilo s o p h e r s , and t h a t th e c o n v e rse i s
e q u a lly tru e The m e ta p h y s ic a l f r a m e - o f - r e f e r e n c e o f th e r e s e a r c h may b e s t be
u n d e r s to o d as f a l l i n g w ith in th e p h ilo s o p h ic p o s i t i o n o f Immanuel K ant.
H is s ta te m e n t, "Gedanken ohne I n h a l t s in d l e e r , Anschauungen ohne Beg r i f f e s in d b l i n d " , b e s t d e s c r ib e s my p o i n t o f view among r e c e n t p h i lo ­
s o p h e rs r e g a r d in g th e n a t u r e o f r e a l i t y . ^

1 Immanuel K ant, K r i t i k d e r r e in e n V e rn u n ft, ( B e r lin :
Msyer and M u ller,
1 8 8 9 ), s e c t io n e n t i t l e d " Id e e e i n e r tr a n s c e n d e n ta le n I o g ik " , q u o ta­
t i o n on p . 1 0 0 .

2

T h is im p lie s t h a t a l l o f r e a l i t y c a n n o t he re d u c e d to p h y s ic a l
phenom ena a lo n e any more th a n i t may h e ’ re d u c e d to p s y c h ic a l phenomena
a lo n e .

M oreover, Hi f we "begin hy d e f in in g l i f e a s n o th in g hut p h y s ic o ­

c h e m ic a l i n t e r a c t i o n s , we d e l i b e r a t e l y h lo c k e v e ry avenue t h a t m ight l e a d
to an a d e q u a te and co m p reh en siv e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e l i v i n g , *foole, . n^
Thus, th e more p h ilo s o p h ic a s p e c ts o f t h i s r e s e a r c h may he ex­
p r e s s e d a s an a tte m p t to a r r i v e a t a more ad e q u a te u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e
n a t u r e o f man’ s m ind as i t i s r e l a t e d to h i s o v e r t p h y s ic a l b e h a v io r.
One o f th e fu n d a m en tal t a s k s i n u n d e r s ta n d in g how th e m ind o p e r­
a t e s w ould he to su p p ly f a c t u a l in fo r m a tio n r e g a r d in g th e i d e n t i t y o f
id e a s and t h e i r o r g a n iz e d p a t t e r n s .

However, b e f o r e we can i d e n t i f y a

g iv e n i d e a a s b e lo n g in g to a g iv e n s u b je c t m a tte r some s o r t o f c l a s s i f i ­
c a t i o n sy stem would seem to be n e c e s s a r y .
A d m itte d ly , any sy stem would be a r b i t r a r y t h a t c l a s s i f i e s id e a s
i n t o s u b je c t m a tte r g ro u p s, and, i n f a c t , t h e r e a re more th a n one such
system a v a i l a b l e . ^

B it th e s o le p o in t h e r e i s to adopt one o f them

sim p ly to p ro c e e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n an o r d e r ly m anner.
The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system we have ch o sen i s one c o n s tr u c te d by
P a u l S c h re c k e r.

Mr. S ch reck er h a s c l a s s i f i e d a l l th e v a r io u s k in d s o f

id e a s p e o p le may h av e i n t o s ix g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s .

These a r e (1) id e a s

c o n c e rn in g th e S t a te , (2 ) id e a s ab o u t S c ie n c e , (3 ) id e a s about Language,
(4 ) ab o u t R e lig io n , (5 ) about A e s th e tic s , and ( 6 ) ab o u t Econony.
The p a r t i c u l a r th o u g h t p a t t e r n s sought a f t e r i n t h i s r e s e a r c h f a l l
w ith in t h e p r o v in c e o f Language.

T h is p ro v in c e can be f a r t h e r s u b d iv id e d

2 W. H. W erk m eister, P h ilo so p h y o f S c ie n c e .
(Hew York: H arp er and Bro­
t h e r s , 1 9 4 0 ), p . 358.
3 P a u l S c h re c k e r, Work and H is to r y .
( P r in c e to n , Hew J e r s e y : P r in c e to n
U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 4 8 ).

s
in to th re e g en eral c a te g o r ie s :

grammar, r h e t o r i c , and l o g i c . ^

A ll o f

t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s have some com m unicative f u n c tio n , in t h a t th e p rim a ry
f u n c t io n o f la n g u a g e i t s e l f i s f o r t h i s p u rp o s e .

And, s in c e i t i s th e

l a s t c a te g o r y , d e a lin g w ith th e l o g i c a l (o r r a t i o n a l ) u s e o f lan g u ag e
t h a t we a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n , th e p ro b le m o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s s t a t e d a s
f o llo w s :

w hat a r e th e b a s ic p a t t e r n s o f th o u g h t o f a g iv e n p o p u la tio n

( N a tu r a l S c ie n c e S tu d e n ts ) r e g a rd in g th e u s e o f re a s o n i n com m unication?
The h y p o th e s is i s t h a t th e s e p a t t e r n s a re e x p r e s s io n s o f v a l i d form s o f
in fe re n c e .

Thus, i t i s w ith v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , o r v a l i d form s o f in ­

f e r e n c e , t h a t we a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e rn e d .

The ta s k i s to i d e n t i f y some

o f th e s e w ith in th e p o p u la tio n s exam ined.
M oreover, i n term s o f th e t h e s i s problem , we r e c o g n iz e t h a t S ch reck e r * s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n sy ste m o n ly s e r v e s to p o in t o u t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r a r e a
- o f s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e a r e a s - w ith w hich t h i s work w i ll d e a l.
A lso , th e p o in t i s made t h a t th e u s e o f la n g u a g e a p p lie s to a l l
t h e o t h e r i d e a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s a s w e ll, i n t h a t la n g u a g e i s t h e i r p r i n ­
c i p a l means o f e x p l i c a t i o n .

In t h i s se n se , Language would be a more

fu n d am en tal c a te g o r y th a n any o f th e o t h e r s .

Not o n ly can one have

i d e a s o f Language p e r s e , b u t th e f a c t i s t h a t th e s e same id e a s a r e p u t
i n t o p r a c t i c e when e x p l i c a t i n g th e id e a s w ith in th e o th e r c a t e g o r i e s .
Thus, th e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s t h a t I am s e a rc h in g f o r i n t h i s t h e s i s ,
a lth o u g h f o rm a lly a p a r t o f th e p ro v in c e o f Language, a re c o n s id e r e d to
be more fu n d am en tal th a n j u s t a p p ly in g to t h i s p ro v in c e a lo n e .

They

w ould ex h ib it th e m se lv e s i n th e o th e r p ro v in c e s as w e ll.

4 M ortim er J . A d le r, e d i t o r i n c h i e f , The G-reat Id e a s , A S vntopicon o f
G re a t Books o f th e W estern Uforld. (C h icag o : E n c y c lo p e d ia I r i t a n n i c a ,
I n c . , 1 9 5 2 ), p . 941.

CHAPTER I I

HISTORY OP THE PROBLEM
H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e p sy ch e h a s o f te n been d e li n e a te d in to th r e e
m ain f a c t o r s , nam ely, th e f a c u l t y o f re a s o n ( I n t e l l e c t ) , Iknotions, and
W ill.

The scope o f t h i s t h e s i s d e a ls w ith t h a t p a r t o f th e psyche hav­

in g to do w ith th e f a c u l t y o f r e a s o n , and, i n p a r t i c u l a r ,

th e u s e o f

t h i s f a c u l t y a s a p p lie d i n th e com m unication o f id e a s .
Language i s th e c h i e f v e h i c le f o r th e com m unication o f id e a s .

It

i s n o t th e o n ly v e h ic le a s , f o r exam ple, som etim es a mere g la n c e betw een
two humans a p p a r e n tly s e rv e s to tr a n s m it an id e a .

But th e p o in t i s th a t

la n g u a g e o f f e r s e m p ir ic a lly d i s c e r n i b l e d a ta whereby an a n a ly s is o f com­
m u n ic a tio n may be made.

In e f f e c t , we a r e s e a rc h in g f o r e v id en ce which

may shed some l i g h t on how com m unication ta k e s p la c e when i t i s p e rp e ­
t r a t e d th ro u g h r a t i o n a l m eans.

Language i s th e to o l employed in t h i s

se a rc h .
A lso, lan g u a g e p e r s e i s h e r e re c o g n iz e d as n o t c o n s is t i n g m erely
o f grammar, t h a t i s , m erely th e c o r r e c t g ram m a tica l c o n s tr u c tio n o f sen ­
te n c e s . 5

R a th e r, i n i t s b ro a d s e n s e , Language may be d iv id e d in to what

i s a n a lo g o u s to “ s o c i a l ” , “ e m o tio n a l" , and “ r a tio n a l* ’ u s e s .
P resu m ab ly , t h i s “ s o c i a l ” a s p e c t would be an i m p l i c i t agreem ent
o f th e m a j o r i t y o f E n g lis h sp e a k in g p e o p le in r e g a r d to a c c e p tin g some
v a l i d sy ste m o f grammar.

T his agreem ent i s n e c e s s a r y i n th e sen se t h a t

we a l l must a g re e , more o r l e s s , o r o th e r w is e com m unication w i l l sim ply

5 C. C. J . P r ie s , The S t r u c tu r e o f E n g lis h .
and Company, 1 9 5 2 ), p . 3.

(New York:

H a rc o u rt, B race

5

b re a k down i n th o s e c a s e s where we ch o o se to employ la n g u a g e as a means
o f co m m u n icatio n .

Thus, t h i s " s o c i a l 11 a s p e c t o f Language p e r t a i n s to

i t s g ra m m a tic a l s t r u c t u r e .
"Em otion" c o rre s p o n d s to th e r h e t o r i c a l u s e o f la n g u a g e .

In

p o l i t i c a l u t t e r a n c e s , f o r exam ple, th e ap p eal i s made on an e m o tio n al
l e v e l such as g l i t t e r i n g g e n e r a l i t i e s , t e s t i m o n i a l s , hand wagon, e tc .
We n o t e t h a t t h i s s o r t o f "em otion" i s o f a d i f f e r e n t ty p e th a n , say ,
t h e em otion one m ight d is p la y when r a i s i n g h i s v o ic e i n some k in d o f
d is c o u r s e .
The " r a t i o n a l " u s e o f lan g u a g e c o rre s p o n d s to t h a t w hich i s l o g i ­
c a l.

T h is u s a g e o f la n g u a g e i s t h a t ty p e w hich we th in k o f when we say

su ch and such a p e rs o n "so u n d s r e a s o n a b le ."

We g e n e r a lly mean by t h i s

t h a t th e p e rs o n i s b e in g l o g i c a l .
These th r e e s u b - c a te g o r i e s o f s o c ia l (gram m ar), em otion ( r h e t o r i c ) ,
and r a t i o n a l ( lo g ic ) w ere s e le c t e d a s r e p r e s e n ti n g th e v a r io u s a s p e c ts
o f lan g u a g e b ec au se th e y summarize n i c e l y th e judgm ents o f many o th e r
w o rk e rs who h av e s tu d ie d th e problem s o f lan g u ag e as b e in g a f u n c tio n o f
co m m u n icatio n .^

In no c a s e , how ever, s h o u ld th e y be c o n s id e re d a s a l l

6 Max B la ck , C r i t i c a l T h in k in g . (Hew York: P r e n ti c e - H a l l , I n c ., 1 9 4 7 ),
C h ap te r 9, "The U ses o f Language".
Brand B la n s h a rd , The N atu re o f T hought. (Iondon: The E n p ire P r e s s ,
1 9 4 8 ), Volume I I , C h a p te r 28.
E rn s t C a s s i r e r , The P h ilo so p h y o f Symbolic Ibrm s: Language. (Hew
Haven: Y ale U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1953), Volume I , p. 128.
Sydney H. M ellone, An I n tr o d u c to r y T ext-book o f l o g i c . (Io n d o n :
W illiam Blackwood and Sons, L td ., 1 950), 19 th e d it io n , p . 7 .
W. H. W erk m eister, C r i t i c a l T h in k in g . (L in c o ln , H e b .: John sen Pub­
l i s h i n g Company, 1 9 4 9 ), pp. 4 , 143-145.
W. H. W erk m eister, The B a s is and S tr u c tu r e o f Knowledge. (Hew York:
H arp er and B ro th e rs P u b lis h e r s , 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 19-22.

6

in c lu s iv e .

H e rb e rt E e ig l, f o r exam ple, i n h i s p a p e r •'L o g ical E m piricism "

l i s t s s i x f u n c tio n s o f la n g u a g e , v i z . ,
1.
2.
3.

p u r e ly fo rm al
lo g ic o -a rith m e tic a l
f a c t u a l ( e m p ir ic a l)

4.
5.
6.

p i c t o r i a l (im a g in a tiv e )
e m o tio n a l ( e f f e c t i v e )
v o litio n a l-m o tiv a tio n a l ( d ir e c tiv e )

The f i r s t t h r e e , P e ig l s a y s , have an in f o r m a tio n a l f u n c tio n , and th e l a s t
t h r e e an e m o tiv e -e x p re s s io n and a n n e a l f u n c t io n .*^

However, s in c e " i n f o r ­

m ation" c a n n o t he e q u a te d w ith "com m unication", in t h a t " in fo rm a tio n "
p r e - s u p p o s e s "co m m u n ication", to t h i s l i s t must he added th e f u n c tio n
o f la n g u a g e f o r th e com m unication o f i d e a s .

P resum ably, P e i g l 's 'p u r e ly

form al* and ' l o g i c o - a r i t h m e t i c a l 1 c a t e g o r i e s w ould in c lu d e th e u s e o f
la n g u a g e f o r r e a s o n in g .
Thus, i n re v ie w in g th e h i s t o r y o f t h i s p ro b lem we re c o g n iz e th r e e
i n t e g r a t i n g f a c t o r s , nam ely, la n g u a g e , com m unication, and v a l i d form s o f
in fe re n c e .

The t h e s i s p ro b le m i s b a se d upon an h y p o th e s is r e g a r d in g th e

n a t u r e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e s e th r e e f a c t o r s , to w it, t h a t th e l i n ­
g u i s t i c com m unication o f id e a s i s c o n tin g e n t upon v a r io u s v a l i d form s
o f i n f e r e n c e w hich, p e r s e , a r e a c t u a l l y th e v ery v e h ic le s o f t r a n s ­
m is s io n o f th e i d e a s .

B ut, o f th e th r e e f a c t o r s , i t i s o n ly ev id en ce

f o r v a l i d form s o f i n f e r e n c e w hich i s b e in g sought a f t e r .

Are th ey s i g ­

n i f i c a n t l y p r e v a le n t w ith in th e p o p u la tio n ?

And i f so ,

( I f at a ll? )

w hich o nes a r e they?
A lso , i n s t a t i n g th e background o f th e problem , com m unication i s
u n d e r s to o d as b e in g t h e s u c c e s s f u l tr a n s m is s io n o f d i s c r e t e id e a s from

7 H e rb e rt E e ig l, R ead in g s i n P h ilo s o p h ic a l A n a ly s is , a r t i c l e on " L o g ic a l
E m p iric ism ".
(Hew Y ork: A p p le to n -C e n tu ry -C ro fts , I n c ., 1949).

7

o n e mind to a n o th e r , a s we r e c o g n iz e , f o r exam ple, as "being th e p ro p e r
f u n c tio n o f any te a c h in g s i t u a t i o n .

M oreover, th e s e id e a s o r t h e i r o r ­

g a n iz e d p a t t e r n s a r e e x p l ic a te d in th e p h y s ic a l w orld by la n g u a g e .

Thus,

11when we u s e la n g u a g e we do so i n o r d e r to e x p re ss o u r th o u g h ts." ®

And,

t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n l y o t h e r ways t h a t i d e a s a r e e x p re s s e d i n th e p h y s ic a l
w o rld , h u t th e p o in t i s t h a t among a l l th e ways, lan g u a g e i s in c lu d e d .
I t fo llo w s from t h i s t h a t a n a ly s is o f th e lan g u ag e a c t u a l l y u s e d
by p e o p le s h o u ld y i e l d ev id e n c e o f th e s e o rg a n iz e d p a t t e r n s which th e
d i s c r e t e id e a s p a r ta k e o f in th e m ind.

I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s means t h a t

when la n g u a g e i s em ployed i n th e f u n c tio n o f e i t h e r com m unication o r
r e a s o n in g , i t i s e x p e c te d t h a t an a n a ly s is o f su ch lan g u ag e w i l l p ro v id e
e v id e n c e o f th o s e p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n s employed f o r th e s e p u rp o s e s .

It

i s th e s p e c i f i c i n t e n t o f t h i s t h e s i s to f u l f i l l t h i s ta s k .

P re v io u s work i n t h i s f i e l d which o f f e r s e m p iric a l d a ta on th e
e x i s t e n c e o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s i s n o t i n abundance.

Tbr exam ple, a

l o g i c a l p l a c e w here one m ight e x p e c t to f in d such ev id e n c e would be i n
lo g i c ‘t e x t s .

But I h av e y e t to se e rry f i r s t lo g ic t e x t which o f f e r s

q u a n t i t a t i v e e v id e n c e f o r th e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s e x p lic a te d t h e r e i n .
T h is p o i n t m ight be o v e rlo o k e d i f i t w ere n o t f o r th e f a c t t h a t most
o f th e modern l o g i c i a n s a r e " p o s i t i v i s t s " o r " a n a ly s ts " who a r e d is p o s e d
to th in k o f th e m se lv e s as s c i e n t i f i c p h ilo s o p h e r s . 9

And some even w r i te

® S c h re c k e r, o p . c i t . , p . 89.
9 M ortim er A d ler, B u l l e t i n o f th e Atomic S c i e n t i s t s , a r t i c l e on "The
Q u e stio n s S cien ce Cannot Answer." Vol. X II, No. 9 , November, 1956.

8

"books on t h i s s u b j e c t . 10
S tra n g e a s i t may seem, most o f t h e e m p iric a l e v id en ce which i s
r e l a t e d to th e e x is te n c e o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s h a s come from p e rs o n s n o t
tr a in e d as lo g ic ia n s .

The l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in c lu d e s C. C. J . P r ie s who

i s a gram m arian, C. A. Lawson who was t r a in e d as a " b io lo g is t, W. J . and
A. B. Morgan who a r e p s y c h o lo g i s ts , and L. C. R epucci who i s a p s y c h o lo ­
g is t.

The r e s e a r c h o f s e v e r a l o th e r p s y c h o lo g is ts i s a ls o in c lu d e d .
J u rie s 1 method was to c o l l e c t a c tu a l la n g u a g e u s a g e s on a ta p e

r e c o r d e r and s u b s e q u e n tly to a n a ly z e th e se d a t a . H

H is ev id e n c e in c lu d e s

f i f t y h o u rs o f d iv e r s e c o n v e r s a tio n s by some th r e e h u n d red d i f f e r e n t
sp e a k e rs.

He s t a t e s t h a t h i s work i s d i r e c t e d to th o s e who a re " i n t e r ­

e s t e d i n l e a r n i n g so m eth in g about how th e E n g lis h lan g u ag e acco m p lish es
i t s c o m n u n ic a tiv e f u n c tio n - about th e mechanism o f i t s u t t e r a n c e s . " 1 ^
Thus, a s i s th e c a s e i n t h i s t h e s i s , P r i e s 1 p rim a ry i n t e r e s t i s i n o f f e r ­
in g e v id e n c e w hich h e h o p e s w il l th ro w some l i g h t on how com m unication
ta k e s p l a c e .
A ll d is c o u r s e i s a n a ly z e d in to what he c a l l s " u tte r a n c e u n i t s " .
T hese a re s t r e t c h e s o f sp eech t h a t a r e bounded by a change o f s p e a k e r.
T hese u t t e r a n c e u n i t s a re c l a s s i f i e d by him as fo llo w s :

10 Hans R eich en b ach , The R is e o f S c i e n t i f i c P h ilo so p h y .
(B e rk e le y and
Los A n g eles: U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1951).
P h i l l i p P rank, M>dern S cien ce and i t s P h ilo s o p h y . (C am bridge: Har­
v a rd U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1949).
H P rie s , pp. c i t .
12 I b i d . , p . 7.

9

A.

Com m unicative U tte r a n c e s
( p r e d i c t a b l e re s p o n s e )
Type

I,

Type I I .

i^rpe
B.

III.

S ta te m e n ts ( p r o p o s i ti o n s ) .

R esponse:

a tte n tio n .

(a ) Q u e stio n s )
(b) C a l l s
)
(c ) G r e e tin g s )

R esponse:

o r a l an sw ers.

R esponse:

a c tio n .

R e q u e sts (and. Commands).

R on-com m unicative U tte r a n c e s
(re s p o n s e n o t p r e d i c t a b l e )

Tbr E r ie s , th e t o t a l l i n g u i s t i c m eaning o f any u t t e r a n c e c o n s i s t s
o f (a ) th e d i c t i o n a r y m eanings o f i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s , and (b) th e " s t r u c ­
t u r a l m ean in g s".

The s t r u c t u r a l m eanings a r e a l l th e l o g i c a l l y p o s s i b l e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which c an be made upon any c o n c a te n a tio n o f s ig n s ( f o r
exam ple, w o rd s).

S t r u c t u r a l m eanings a r e d en o te d by s t r u c t u r a l fo rm s.

E r ie s c l a s s i f i e s th e s e form s in to c l a s s e s and s u b c la s s e s .

Tbr exam ple,

C la s s I w ords a r e u n i v e r s a l s , C la s s I I words a r e i n c l u s i o n term s and
q u a n tifie rs .
Thus, E r ie s 1 a n a l y s is i s v i r t u a l l y a l o g i c a l a n a l y s is o f sp eech .
He i s aim ing a t , by h i s s t r u c t u r a l form s, a c l e a r - c u t m ethod to e x p li ­
c a t e th e employment o f u n i v e r s a l s i n sp eech - th o se common form s by means
o f w hich la n g u a g e a c c o m p lish e s i t s com m unication f u n c tio n .

He s t a t e s ,

"o n e o f th e b a s ic a ssu m p tio n s o f o u r approach h e re to th e g ram m atical
a n a l y s i s o f s e n te n c e s i s t h a t a l l th e s t r u c t u r a l s ig n a ls i n E n g lis h a r e
s t r i c t l y fo rm al m a tte r s t h a t can be d e s c r ib e d i n p h y s ic a l term s o f form s,

10

c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e s e fo rm s, and a rra n g e m e n ts o f

o r d e r .

13

(U n d e rlin in g

m in e ).
I n te rm s o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , F r ie s u s e s th e e x p r e s s io n ” fu n c­
t i o n w ords” .

”....I n

o r d e r to re sp o n d to c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r a l s ig n a l s ,

o n e m ust know th e s e w ords as ite m s . . . . s ig n a lly i n g p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r a l
m e a n in g s .”14

P e r e a s S t i e s d e s c r ib e s th e s e ‘i t e m s 1 i n term s o f p a r t i ­

c u l a r w o rds, h e i s , i n e f f e c t , i n t h e la n g u a g e o f sym bolic lo g ic , des­
c r i b i n g w hat i s known a s l o g i c a l c o n s ta n ts , o r , a s we s t a t e above, u n i­
v e rs a ls .

I can n o t r e f r a i n from s p e c u la tin g on what F r ie s c o u ld have done

i f h e o n ly knew so m eth in g o f th e la n g u a g e sy stem o f fo rm al lo g ic .
S p e c if ic exam ples from F r ie s , showing t h e i r c o rre sp o n d e n c e to
fo rm al l o g i c (h e n c e , v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s ) a re g iv e n as fo llo w s :
"The boys and th e le a d e r s were i n v i t e d ”
( lo g i c p a t t e r n )

_____ * _____

” The boys o f th e le a d e r s were in v ite d "
( th e r e a re two f u n c tio n words h e r e , v i z . ,
( lo g i c p a t t e r n )

”o f ” and ”w ere")

D __

( t h i s p a r t i c u l a r form would be ” (x ) * Lx O I*" )
The r e l a t i o n s h i p to v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s i s v e ry s t r i k i n g .

These force

above, when a p p e a rin g i n sp e e c h , would c o n s t i t u t e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .
i s i n t e n d i n g to do more work on " f u n c tio n words” i n t h a t h e s t a t e s ” a

13 I b i d . , p . 58.
14 I b i d . , p p . 106-108.

F r ie s

11

s y s te m a tic tr e a tm e n t o f f u n c tio n words i s r e s e r v e d f o r a l a t e r p u b lic a t i o n . 11*®
Dr. Lawson* s m ethod o f g a th e r in g d a ta was s im i l a r to Dr. E r i e s ’
i n t h a t b o th in v o lv e d an a n a l y s is o f language.*®

Lawson*s o p e r a tio n s

ste m from h i s BET Theory w hich I p r e s e n t fo rm a lly i n C h ap ter V o f t h i s
th e s is .

At t h i s p o i n t , how ever, I w ish to s t a t e b r i e f l y i t s c e n t r a l id e a

and d is c u s s th e d a t a he h a s o b ta in e d r e l e v a n t to v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .
The c e n t r a l i d e a o f th e BET Theory i s t h a t th e mind c o n s id e r s id e a s
i n a s e q u e n t ia l o r d e r i n tim e .

The seq u en ce i s e x p re s s e d by th e fo rm u la

S- M- T, w here ea ch o f th e symbols r e p r e s e n t id e a s o f a c e r t a i n ty p e .
The p a t t e r n i s t h a t a g iv e n id e a S w ill c a u s e th e e l i c i t a t i o n o f an i d e a
M w hich i n tu r n i s fo llo w e d by a t h i r d i d e a T.

AL1 o f th e s e i d e a s may

be d i s c r e t e , com plex, o r m ix tu re s .
I n o b t a in in g d a ta f o r h i s SMT p a t t e r n , Dr. Lawson went to s e v e r a l
d iv e r s e s o u rc e s .

He s tu d i e s i t s e x h i b i t i o n i n (a ) th e G enetic Theory,

(b ) a r e l i g i o u s sy stem , (c ) th e D e c la r a tio n o f Independence, and (d) th e
raw d a t a from a group d is c u s s io n .

I w i l l g iv e p o r tio n s o f th e d a ta from

ea c h o f th e s e a r e a s .

A S c i e n t i f i c Theory
The p o r ti o n I h a v e s e le c te d i s th e a n a ly s is o f T. H. M organ’ s
w ork on se x i n h e r i t a n c e .* 7
One i n v e s t i g a t o r , T. H. Morgan, was s tu d y in g i n h e r it a n c e
i n th e f r u i t f l y , D ro s o p h ila , i n 1910 when he found a

15 I b i d . , p . 92, f . n .
16 C h e s te r A. Lawson, Language. Thought, and The Human Mind.
s in g : M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 ).
*7 I b id ., p . 4 5 ff.

(E a st Lan­

12

s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l w ith w h ite e y e s i n a c u l t u r e o f re d -e y e d
f l i e s . T h is v a r i a n t , o r m u tan t, f l y was a male and was
c r o s s e d w ith a n orm al r e d - e y e d fem ale. The o f f s p r i n g o f
t h i s c r o s s w ere a l l re d -e y e d , th u s i n d i c a t i n g th e domi­
n an ce o f th e r e d eye c o lo r o v e r th e w h ite . C ro s se s made
betw een th e h y b r id i n d i v i d u a l s p ro d u ced b o th re d -a n d white*
ey ed f l i e s i n th e p r o p o r tio n o f
r e d to 4 w h ite , as was
e x p e c te d on th e b a s i s o f M endelian th e o r y . However, t h e r e
was one u n e x p e c te d d i f f e r e n c e . N orm ally b o th dom inant and
r e c e s s i v e form s a r e b o th m ale and fem ale i n a p p ro x im a te ly
e q u a l p r o p o r t i o n s , b u t i n t h i s c a s e a l l th e w h ite -e y e d
f l i e s w ere m a le s. No w h ite -e y e d fem ales a t a l l a p p eared
i n t h i s g e n e r a tio n , no m a tte r how many i n d iv id u a ls were
ra is e d .
Morgan e x p e c te d on th e b a s i s o f d e d u c tio n s t h a t th e
s e x r a t i o w ould be 1 to 1 f o r a l l c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n te d
i n th e o f f s p r i n g (Tc ) . The a c t u a l o b s e r v a tio n o f th e
o f f s p r i n g (TP) d i f f e r e d i n t h a t no w h ite -e y e d fem ales
w ere p r e s e n t ( d ) ......................................................................................
I n term s o f th e SMT fo rm u la, Morgan h a d o p e r a te d
a s f o llo w s :
S-> M-* T
S°-» IP-* Tc
MP-* TP
TCTP • (Tc 9^TP)-> ~ (S°-> MC* T°) • ~ ( S *
w here

T) * d

S* M* T r th e e m p ir ic a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h a t c r o s s e s
betw een m onohybrids w i l l p ro d u ce o f f s p r in g
o f w hich § a re dom inant,
r e c e s s i v e , and
w ith sex e q u a lly d i s t r i b u t e d among both
r e c e s s iv e and dom inant forms
S0* IP-* Tc = th e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f dom inant by re d ­
eyed f l i e s , o f r e c e s s iv e by w h ite -e y e d
f l i e s , t h e i r m atin g , and th e e x p e c te d
co n sequence o f x re d -e y e d f l i e s , J w h ite­
eyed f l i e s and w ith m ales and fem ales i n
a 1 to 1 r a t i o o f b o th eye c o lo r ty p e s
gp.*

TP = th e a c t u a l s e le c t io n o f in d i v id u a l
r e d - and w h ite -e y e d f l i e s , t h e i r m atin g ,
and th e o b s e r v a tio n o f t h e i r o f f s p r i n g
i n which th e r e was a 3 to 1 sex d i s t r i ­
b u tio n among th e re d -e y e d and w h ite -e y e d
flie s

13

TCTP : 1° i s
(T ° ^ T P ) - Tc i s
^

com pared w ith TP
n o t e q u a l to TP

T) x th e n e g a tio n o f ( Sv Mv T)
d = th e r e c o g n itio n o f th e q u a l i t y o r q u a n tity
by w hich TP d i f f e r s from Tc , i n t h i s c a s e
th e ab sen c e o f fem a le s among th e w h ite -e y e d
flie s
M organ's r e c o g n i t io n t h a t Tc d id n o t e q u a l TP h a d th e
i n i t i a l e f f e c t o f n e g a tin g th e e m p iric a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n
t h a t a l l c r o s s e s betw een m onohybrids w i ll p ro d u c e o f f s p r in g
w ith sex e q u a lly d i s t r i b u t e d i n each ty p e .
T his n e g a tio n
was n o t a d e n ia l o f i t s t r u t h i n o th e r i n s t a n c e s , b u t a
r e s t r i c t i o n o f i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . H ere was a c a s e where i t
d id n o t a p p ly .
The v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n in v o lv e d i n M organ's th in k in g can be shown

by i n t e r p r e t i n g Dr. L aw so n 's SMT fo rm u la tio n s i n th e fo llo w in g way:
S0-* lip* Tc
c o rre s p o n d s to
sp*

Tpf

w here ^MP-^ TP^ a re p r e d i c t e d f u tu r e s t a t e s .

That i s , th e com parisons

MPM° and TPT° a r e e x p e c te d to be p o s i t i v e .
The id e a s e x i s t e n t i n M organ's mind a t tim e t]_ were
M=* TC,
SP, and
S* M* T.
S-» M» T i s th e e n p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f M organ's w hich he m o d ifie s due
to th e n e g a tio n o f Sc-* Mc-» TC which i s a s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f th e g e n e r a liz a ^
tio n .
T hus, a t tim e t 2 ,

14

"(S°-» IP * T 0 )*gpl+

D

P

TCTP j . ( T ° £ T P ) i n p l i e g - ( s '1-# IP * Tc)

Q

• ~

Q

D

'•

"*'P

In sym bolic lo g ic t h i s v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n i s c a l l e d Modus T o lle n s .

A R e lig io u s System
To show th e SMT p a t t e r n i n a r e l i g i o u s system , Br. Lawson s e le c t e d
R o lan d H. B a in to n f s b io g ra p h y o f M artin L u th e r, Here I s ta n d — A L if e o f
M a rtin L u th e r .

A p o r t i o n o f th e a n a l y s is i s g iv e n h ere.^ ®

The s to r y o f L u th e r as t o l d by B ain to n i s one o f a
s i n f u l man i n f e a r o f Godf s judgm ent t r y i n g one p r e s c r i b e d
m ethod a f t e r a n o th e r to e n s u re h i s e n tr y in t o h e av en . The
e x p la n a tio n o f L u th e r* s b e h a v io r i n term s o f th e SMT f o r ­
m ula i s g iv e n below , b e g in n in g w ith L u th e r* s ’’u n e x p e c te d
e n c o u n te r w ith d e a th on t h a t s u l t r y J u ly day i n 1 5 0 5 . . . .
when sudden l i g h t n i n g s tr u c k him to e a r t h . In t h a t s in g le
f l a s h h e saw th e denouement o f th e drama o f e x is te n c e .
T here was God th e a l l - t e r r i b l e , C h r is t th e in e x o r a b le ,
and a l l th e l e e r i n g f ie n d s s p r in g in g from t h e i r lu r k in g
p l a c e s in pond and wood t h a t w ith sa rd o n ic c a c h in n a tio n s
th e y m ight s e iz e h i s shock o f c u r l y h a i r and b o l t him in to
h e ll.
I t was no wonder t h a t he c r i e d o u t to h i s f a th e r * s
s a i n t , p a tr o n e s s o f m in e rs, *St. Anne h e lp me! I w ill
become a monk ! 1 "
I n o r d e r to e x p la in L u th e r ’ s b e h a v io r i n term s o f th e
SMT h y p o th e s is , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to assume t h a t L u th er had
i n m ind th e two b a s ic p o s t u l a t e s o f th e C a th o lic system ,
t h a t s in n e r s w ould be ju d g e d by God and s e n t to h e l l and
t h a t th o s e w ith o u t s in would a c h ie v e heaven, and i n a d d i­
t i o n a t l e a s t two o f th e su b sy stem s by means o f -which a
s in n e r c o u ld e s c a p e h e l l . G ra n tin g th e above and a ls o
t h a t th e s tr o k e o f l i g h t n i n g c a u se d L uther to re c o g n iz e
h i m s e l f as a s i n n e r , th e p a t t e r n o f h i s m en tal b e h a v io r
up to h i s e x c la m a tio n " S t. Acme h e lp me! I w i ll become
a monk!" can be e x p la in e d a s fo llo w s :

18 I b i d . , p p . 66 -6 7 .

15

SLP * (S x-» Mj4 T j)
SILc -j. Mx c-* T jc

w here S jp = L a th e r ' s r e c o g n itio n o f h im s e lf a s a s in n e r
S j x s in n e r + God
Mj = Godf s judgm ent
T j x s in n e r i n h e l l
SIL ° - L u th e r ’ s s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f S in c lu d in g h im s e lf
a s s in n e r , and God a s th e o th e r u n i t i n th e
s ta tic re la tio n
Mjc - L u th e r ’ s s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f God’ s b e h a v io r
T jc r L u th e r i n h e l l
I n te rm s o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , th e SMT a n a ly s is above would be as
f o llo w s .

I t i s n o te d t h a t th e a c tu a l d e d u c tio n by L u th er to Tjc , in c lu d ­

in g h i m s e l f w ith in t h i s s u b c la s s ,

was made upon th e a b s tr a c t i o n Sj-* Mj-» Tj

I n te rm s o f o p e r a t i o n a l lo g ic a l l

t h a t was n eed ed f o r

was h i s own s p e c i f i c a t i o n w ith in Sj-* Mj-> T j.

L u th er to re a c h

Thus, th e v a l i d i t y

p a t t e r n e x h i b i t e d by L u th e r i s
g e n e r a l c l a s s seq u en ce

[(S X +
^

^

P

H j.

Tj)

•

s p e c ific a tio n
by L u th er

L u th e r ’s d e d u c tio n o f
h im s e lf i n h e l l

(Sj-»

*ILC

M j)!]

J

*

^

3

Q

*

P

: D

s

I n lo g ic t h i s p a t t e r n i s c a l l e d Modus P onens.

The D e c la r a tio n o f Independence
An exam ple o f t h e SMT a n a ly s is o f t h i s sy stem i s g iv e n a s f o llo w s . 19

19 I b i d . , p p . 9 3 -9 4 .

16

A t h i r d su b sy ste m was th e governm ent r e p r e s e n te d by th e
A r t i c l e s o f C o n fe d e ra tio n .
Tfc>.e r e l a t i o n o f th e su b sy stem s to th e g o a l - d ir e c t e d
s u p e rs y s te m i s i n d i c a t e d in th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n :
. . . t o s e c u re th e s e r i g h t s , Governments a re
i n s t i t u t e d among Men
T hat w henever any
Ibrm o f Government becomes d e s tr u c t i v e o f
t h e s e e n d s, i t i s th e R ig h t o f th e P e o p le
to a l t e r o r to a b o lis h i t , and to i n s t i t u t e
new Government, la y in g i t s fo u n d a tio n on
such p r i n c i p l e s and o r g a n iz in g i t s pow ers
i n such form , a s to them s h a l l seem most
l i k e l y to e f f e c t t h e i r S a fe ty and H ap p in ess.
T h is q u o ta tio n c an be e q u a te d w ith th e SMT fo rm u la o f
th e su p er system as fo llo w s
S4M >T
w here S ~ " . . . t h a t w henever any Tbrm o f Government
becom es d e s tr u c t i v e o f th e s e e n d s . . . "
M r " . . . i t i s th e R ig h t o f th e P eo p le to
a l t e r o r to a b o lis h i t , and to i n s t i t u t e
new Government, la y in g i t s fo u n d a tio n on
su ch p r i n c i p l e s and o r g a n iz in g i t s powers
i n such form , as to th e m ..."
T : " . . . s h a l l seem most l i k e l y to e f f e c t t h e i r
S a fe ty and H a p p in e ss."
I n term s o f th e o p e r a tio n s o f th e SOT form ula, S o f th e
su p e rsy ste m i s i n t e r p r e t e d to r e f e r to any s i t u a t i o n where
th e e x p e c te d co n seq u en ces ( t ) o f th e id e a l form o f govern­
ment (s* m* t ) i s c o n tr a d ic te d by th e a c tu a l co n seq u en ces
( tP ) o f th e governm ent i n o p e r a tio n (sP-^ mP-* tP ) so t h a t
t f tP .
Whenever such a s i t u a t i o n o c c u r s , M o f th e su p er system
d i r e c t s th e p e o p le to n e g a te th e subsystem i n o p e r a tio n ,
i . e . , " . . . t o a l t e r o r to a b o lis h i t , "
" . . . a n d to i n s t i ­
t u t e new G o v e rn m e n t..."
The v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n in v o lv e d in d en y in g th e i d e a l form o f govern­
ment (s-* m-* t ) i s s im i l a r to th a t p a t t e r n shown in th e SOT a n a ly s is o f a
s c ie n tific

th e o r y , nam ely, Modus T o lle n s , v i z . ,

17

£ (s* m-» t ) +

P

( t = tP ) j

D

Q

( t 4 1? ) * ~ ( s-^ m-4 t)

Q

: D :

'P

A Group D is c u s s io n
The g roup d is c u s s io n in v o lv e d th e s t a f f o f a u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t­
m ent.

The d is c o u r s e was o v e r th e c o n te n t and o r g a n iz a tio n o f a p ro p o se d

c o u r s e in n a t u r a l s c ie n c e .

I t was r e c o rd e d on ta p e .

Dr. Lawson d e s c r ib e s

t h e s i t u a t i o n as fo llo w s :
In t h i s group d is c u s s io n where th e o b je c t o f th e d i s ­
c u s s io n was to r e a c h agreem ent c o n c e rn in g th e c o u rs e o u t­
l i n e , th e i d e a s p ro p o sed by v a r io u s members o f th e group
were ju d g e d i n term s o f th e p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p ts each in ­
d iv id u a l had c o n c e rn in g th e p r o p e r t i e s t h a t a c o u rse o u t­
l i n e s h o u ld h a v e . These p r o p e r t i e s were d eterm in e d i n
p a r t by th e g o a l- th o u g h ts o f th e m ajor system (Tgc ) , i . e . ,
by th e e x p e c te d co n seq u en ces o f th e te a c h in g - le a r n in g
s i t u a t i o n . Thus, th e g o a l- th o u g h ts (Tgc ) o f th e m ajor
sy stem (&■» M-*- T) se rv e d as a g u id e f o r th e s e le c t io n o f
c o n c e p ts to be u s e d i n c o n s tr u c tin g o r s e l e c t i n g th e
co u rse o u tlin e .
I f th e p ro p o sed c o n c e p ts im p lie d a p a r­
t i c u l a r g o a l- th o u g h t h e ld by one in d i v i d u a l , t h a t i n d i ­
v id u a l would a g re e to th e i n c l u s i o n o f th e c o n c e p t. On
th e o t h e r h an d , i f a p ro p o se d co n c e p t d id n o t im ply a
p a r t i c u l a r g o a l- th o u g h t th e n th e s u g g e s te d c o n c e p t was
n o t a g re e d t o .2 0
A s p e c i f i c exam ple i s i n d i c a t e d by th e fo llo w in g p o r tio n o f th e
t a p e . 21
2.

B— I th in k t h a t ' s th e b e s t way to do i t . P u t down
th e g e n e r a l th e o ry o f r e l a t i v i t y , s p e c i a l th e o ry
o f r e l a t i v i t y , quantum th e o ry , M axwell’ s th e o ry .
L e t 's s e e , t h e r e a r e two quantum t h e o r ie s , b u t
th e y a r e so f a r o u t we c a n 't u s e them anyhow;
M ax w ell's t h e o r i e s , and th e atom ic m o le c u la r
th e o r y , k i n e t i c th e o r y . I th i n k th o s e a re th e
m ajor o n e s , a r e n 't th ey ? Now we c o u ld add a
w hole l o t o f s u b s id ia r y ones t h a t f a l l u n d e r

20 I b i d . , p . 106.
21 I b i d . , p p . 108-110.

18

th o s e ; th e law s o f o p t i c s , th e law s o f m echanics,
th e law s o f c o n s e r v a tio n , p e r io d ic law , th e p ro ­
p o r t i o n law s i n c h e m is tr y . Of c o u rs e , t h e r e 's
th e law s o f e l e c t r i c i t y , to o .
A re sp o n d e d to B* s s u g g e ste d l i s t o f c o n c e p ts as fo llo w s :
3.

A— I wonder i f th e r e a r e n 't some b a s ic c o n c e p ts
t h a t w ould re d u c e m ost o f th e s e o r n o t re d u c e
them h u t a t l e a s t i n t o which many o f th e s e
c o u ld he c l a s s i f i e d ? . . . i f we d id t h a t i t m ight
n o t he n e c e s s a r y to c o v e r a l l o f th e s e b ecau se
a c t u a l l y we c a n 't p o s s ib ly co v e r a l l o f th e s e
i n a te rm . But on th e b a s is o f a tte m p tin g to
s e l e c t so m ething which would d e m o n stra te t h i s
b a s ic c o n c e p t we c o u ld p ic k p a r t i c u l a r a r e a s .
T h a t's th e o n ly f u n c tio n o f t h i s .
I s n ' t th e r e
one b a s ic c o n c e p t t h a t t i e s i n k i n e t i c th e o r y ,
atom ic m o le c u la r th e o ry , quantum th e o ry in a
se n se and m echanics and th e s e i n th e c o n c e p t
o f th e p a r t i c l e and th e law s g o v ern in g th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e p a r t i c l e s to each o th e r?
Then i s t h e r e n o t a ls o a wave c o n c e p t, which
i s r e l a t e d to th e p a r t i c l e in to which we c o u ld
p u t , f o r i n s t a n c e , some o f o p t i c s , some o f
m ech an ics, and so on? And th e n f i n a l l y i s n ' t
th e r e a f i e l d co n cep t? Bow i s th e r e a n y th in g
e l s e t h a t b elo n g s i n t h i s c a te g o ry ? Are th e r e
any o th e r c o n c e p ts w hich a re as b a s ic as th e se ?

A 's u t t e r a n c e , 3 , can be e x p la in e d in term s o f th e BET
th e o r y i f we assume t h a t A h ad p r e v io u s ly s e le c t e d h i s own
g ro u p o f c o n c e p ts and t h a t h e com pared h i s s e le c t io n w ith
B 's a f t e r B h ad v o c a liz e d h i s p r e f e r e n c e . We must assume
a ls o t h a t A 's and B 's c o n c e p ts d i f f e r e d and t h a t A r e ­
j e c t e d B 's c h o ic e b ecau se o f th e d if f e r e n c e . However,
b e c a u s e A was n o t f r e e to r e j e c t B 's c h o ic e w ith o u t th e
c o n se n t o f th e g ro u p he was r e q u ir e d to d efen d h i s de­
c i s i o n . He d id t h i s by p o in tin g o u t th a t B 's s e le c t io n ,
i f u s e d i n th e m ajor S-*
T system , would le a d to a con­
t r a d i c t i o n w ith th e tim e l i m i t s o f th e system
we
c a n 't p o s s ib ly c o v e r a l l o f th e s e in a term ” ) .
I n term s o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , A 's re sp o n se to B 's rem arks made
u s e o f th e Modus T o lle n s law .

This v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n was u t i l i z e d by A

w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e m ajor S-» M-> T system o f which th e e n t i r e d is c u s s io n
was p r e d i c a t e d , nam ely, t h a t w h atev er o u t l i n e was p ro p o se d i t c o u ld be

19

a c c o m p lish e d 'w ith in th e t i m e - l i m i t s o f th e c o u r s e .

B o ffe r e d s ix

t h e o r i e s , f i v e d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s o f law s, and th e p e r io d ic law .

If B

was o p e r a t i n g w ith in th e SMT system , h e presum ably th o u g h t t h a t a l l o f
th e s e c o u ld he a c c o m p lish e d w ith in a term .

Thus, Af s re s p o n s e was a c tu ­

a l l y a d e n ia l o f t h i s , v i z . , " . . . w e c a n * t p o s s ib ly c o v e r a l l o f th e s e i n
a t e r m .”
The v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n i s s t a t e d as fo llo w s :
[(P
w here P

Q)

r a ll

Q r
~ Q =

th e

• - q] 3 - P
th e c o n c e p ts o f f e r e d by

B

p re su m p tio n by B t h a t th e s e c o u ld be ta u g h t i n one term
th e

d e n ia l o f Q by A

z th e n e g a tio n o f some o f B*s s u g g e s tio n s .
O th e r r e s e a r c h w hich h a s a b e a r in g on v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s in c lu d e s
th e work o f W. J . and A- B. Morgan.
c h o lo g is ts .

Both o f th e s e i n v e s t i g a t o r s a r e p sy ­

T h e ir work in c lu d e s t e s t s f o r l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g as r e l a t e d

to ( a ) t r a i n i n g i n l o g i c ,

(b) sex , (c ) ag e, and (d) h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .22

The Morgan t e s t c o n s i s t s o f s e v e n ty - f iv e t r u e - f a l s e ite m s i n v e r­
b a l form .

There a re t h r e e more i n v a l i d form s th a n v a l i d form s.

th e ite m s a r e s y l l o g i s t i c ,

S ifty o f

s e v e n te e n a r e h y p o th e tic a l o r h y p o th e tic a l

d i s j u n c t i v e , seven a re c o n v e rs io n s , and one i s c o m p a ra tiv e .

The s c o rin g

fo rm u la i s r i g h t m inus wrong, to make allo w a n c e s f o r g u e s s in g .

Three

exam ples from t h e i r t e s t a r e g iv e n a s fo llo w s :

22 W. J . Jforgan and A. B. Morgan, " l o g i c a l R easoning: With and W ithout
T r a in in g ," J o u rn a l o f A p p lied P sy c h o lo g y , Volume 37, Number 5, O cto b er,
1953.
A. B. Morgan, "S ex D if fe r e n c e s i n A d u lts On A T e st o f l o g i c a l R eason­
i n g ," P s y c h o lo g ic a l R e p o r ts , Number 2, 1956, pp. 227-230.
A. B. Iforgan, " D if fe r e n c e s I n L o g ic a l R easo n in g A s s o c ia te d With Age
and H ig h er E d u c a tio n ," P s y c h o lo g ic a l R e p o r ts , Number 2 , 1956, pp. 235240.

20

( l)

Most e x e c u tiv e s a r e c o lle g e g r a d u a te s . The m a jo rity
o f e x e c u tiv e s a r e R e p u b lic a n s . T h e re fo re , most c o lle g e
g r a d u a te s a r e R e p u b lic a n s .

(The t e s t e e re s p o n d s to t h i s by e n c i r c l i n g "L" o r "NL", f o r ’’lo g ic a l" o r
" n o n -lo g ic a l" * re s p e c tiv e ly )
The form h e r e i s
(x ). E x D G x
( x ) * E j D Rx

(*)•

(2) Many women
s tr u n g and
b a r r i e r to
many women

SI 3 l I

a r e h i g h - s tr u n g and e m o tio n a l. A h ig h e m o tio n a l tem perm ent i s f r e q u e n tly a
c l e a r and l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g . T h e re fo re ,
a r e u n a b le to re a s o n l o g i c a l l y .

The form h e r e i s
(x) : Hx • Ex

( 3x)

:W* *

hx

Cx

~ 0T - —'I>x

•

(

3 x)

:^

(

3

IWX * ’Lj; * —Cx

j r )

( 3x)

:^x *

^*3:

* — Lj.

1

(

3 x ).-C x

( 3X) :

(3) Many m isg u id e d b u t s in c e r e i d e a l i s t s a r e Communists. A s in ­
c e r e i d e a l i s t , w h atev er m isg u id ed a c ts he may commit, i s
never a t r a i t o r .
T h e re f o re , n o t a l l Coim runists a r e t r a i t o r s .
The form h e r e i s
( 3 * ) i Mx . I * . Cx
(x) • I * D ~ T X
(x) • Cx *2 ~ Tx

21

The f i r s t and t h i r d exam ples a r e n o t v a l i d .

The second i s v a l i d

p r o v id e d one p e r m its enthymemic argum ent; i f n o t, th e n n o t.
The r e s u l t s Morgan and Mbrgan o b ta in e d by u s in g t h i s t e s t a re
s t a t e d as f o llo w s ;
(a ) c o l l e g e g r a d u a te s w ith t r a i n i n g i n lo g ic o b ta in e d h ig h e r
s c o r e s th a n c o l l e g e g r a d u a te s w ith o u t t r a i n i n g i n l o g i c .
(b) s u b je c ts w ith o u t t r a i n i n g i n lo g ic d id 73^ as w e ll, as a
g ro u p , a s th o s e w ith t r a i n i n g .
(c ) se x showed no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in a b i l i t y to th in k
lo g ic a lly .
(d) t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t male c o lle g e g r a d u a te s w ith
BA and BS d e g re e s , age 30 to 39, who apply f o r governm ent
employment, a r e , on th e whole, l e s s com petent in term s
o f l o g i c a l re a s o n in g th a n younger a p p lic a n ts o f e q u iv a le n t
e d u c a tio n , w hereas m ale a p p l ic a n ts w ith th e m a ste r* s de­
g r e e , age 30 to 39, a r e , g e n e r a lly sp e a k in g , about a s
co m petent as th o se w ith th e m a s t e r 's degree age 20 to 29.
I n t h e i r p a p er " L o g ic a l R easo n in g ;

With and W ithout T r a in in g ,"

Morgan and Morgan s t a t e s e v e r a l tim e s t h a t p s y c h o lo g is ts have n o t done
many e x p e rim e n ts on l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g .
i s b e in g s a id by p s y c h o lo g i s ts .

T h is i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t i t

5 b r exam ple, th e y s t a t e "w h atev er may

be th e r e a s o n s f o r th e p a u c ity o f e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d i e s o f l o g i c a l re a s o n ­
in g , i t

seems to be a f a c t t h a t m a th e m a tic ia n s r a t h e r th a n p s y c h o lo g is ts

a r e c o n c e rn in g th e m se lv e s w ith l o g i c ."

And, a g a in , i n th e same p a p e r,

" I n view o f th e ab sen ce o f to o much e x p e rim e n ta tio n on lo g ic ty psycho­
l o g i s t s , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g to f in d c ro p p in g up some r a t h e r f a r - f e tc h e d

22

n o t i o n s ab o u t th e n a t u r e o f l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g .”
I n re s p o n s e to th e s e rem ark s, I b e lie v e th ey a re c o r r e c t i n s a y in g
t h a t p s y c h o lo g i s t s h av e n o t c o n c e rn e d th e m se lv e s i n o u r age w ith a p p lie d
lo g ic .

T hat m a th e m a tic ia n s a re so co n c e rn e d , I th in k i s f a l s e .

The o n ly

p r e s e n t day p h ilo s o p h e r s I know who can a ls o be c o n s id e re d m a th e m a tic ia n s
a r e A. IT. W hitehead and B e rtra n d B u s s e ll, a u th o r s o f th e F r i n c i p i a Mathe m a tic a , and, o f c o u r s e , t h i s work i s th e " b ib le " o f modern l o g i c . 23
B u t, w h ereas th e r e a r e d e f i n i t e l y o th e r m a th e m a tic ia n s w orking w ith
l o g i c , I th i n k t h e m a jo r ity o f work i s b e in g done by th e p o s i t i v i s t s .
But th e s e p e o p le a r e n o t c o n cern ed w ith th e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a ta Morgan and M organ's rem ark ab o u t th e " f a r - f e t c h e d n o tio n s ” h e ld
by p s y c h o lo g is ts ab o u t lo g i c was i n r e f e r e n c e to a s ta te m e n t by G-. A.
M il l e r , v i z . , "The f a c t i s t h a t lo g ic i s a form al system , j u s t a s a r i t h ­
m e tic i s a fo rm al sy stem , and to e x p ect u n tr a in e d s u b je c ts to th in k
l o g i c a l l y i s much th e same a s to e x p e c t p re s c h o o l c h ild r e n to know th e
m u ltip lic a tio n ta b le ."
I th i n k t h i s s ta te m e n t by M ille r i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n th e sen se o f
b e in g an o p in io n s h a re d by many p e o p le i n many o th e r a r e a s o f stu d y .

It

i s w e ll t h a t M organ's work, b ased on d a ta , i n d i c a t e s t h i s to be a f a l s e
o p in io n .
I n g e n e r a l, Morgan and M organ's work i s r e l a t e d to th e ty p e o f
r e s e a r c h u n d e rta k e n in t h i s t h e s i s .

They a re co n cern ed w ith th e p re v a ­

le n c e o f l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g w ith in v a r io u s p o p u la tio n s .

The f a c t t h a t

23 A lfre d N o rth W hitehead and B e rtra n d B u s s e ll, P r i n c i p i a M ath em atics.
(C am bridge: Cambridge U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , second e d i t i o n , 1 950).

23

t h e r e a r e a l l to o few i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n t h i s f i e l d le a v e s me w ith n o th in g
h a t p r a is e fo r t h e i r e f f o r ts .
U n f o r tu n a te ly , how ever, i t i s th e c a s e t h a t t h e i r t e s t in s tru m e n t
s u f f e r s s e rio u s d e fe c ts .

One o f th e most s e r io u s d i f f i c u l t i e s i s t h a t

i t i s n o t a t e s t o f l o g i c a l re a s o n in g a t a l l h u t r a t h e r a com parison
te s t.

S ta te d i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e i r t e s t th e y p ro v id e th e t e s t e e

w ith an exam ple o f l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g , v i z . ,
" a l l c a t s hav e t a i l s .
K itty has a t a i l . "

K i tty i s a c a t .

T h e re fo re .

They t e l l th e t e s t e e t h i s i s l o g i c a l and t h a t many o f th e p roblem s a re
lik e th is .

Thus, th e t e s t i s a lr e a d y i n v a l i d a t e d .

“When you p ro v id e t h e

t e s t e e an exam ple o f t h a t which you r e g a r d a s l o g i c a l re a s o n in g , y o u r
in s tr u m e n t m erely becomes a t e s t f o r th e a b i l i t y to make co m p ariso n s - n o t
a t e s t aim ed a t d is c e r n in g th e e x is te n c e o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s w ith in th e
mind o f th e t e s t e e .

I can n o t a g re e t h a t when th e t e s t e e i s t o l d what a

l o g i c a l argum ent lo o k s l i k e t h a t he th e re b y i s a b le to re a s o n l o g i c a l l y
when h e m arks a l l such ite m s a c c o rd in g ly .
Second, th e r e i s no u n if o r m ity a s to th e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s b e in g
te s te d .

Thus, th e r e was no c o n tr o l in any o f th e e x p e rim e n ts.

o n ly one v a r i a b l e i s p e r m itte d i n any e m p iric a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Id e a lly ,
And,

w hereas we re c o g n iz e t h i s i s n o t alw ays p o s s i b le , i t J jb p o s s ib l e i n t e s t s
on l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g a t l e a s t to c o n tr o l th e form .

They h a v e, by t h e i r

own a d m issio n , f i v e d i f f e r e n t form s o f which 50 a re o f one ty p e , 17 o f
24-

two ty p e s , 7 o f a f o u r th , and one o f a f i f t h . ^
U ow here i n t h e i r p a p e r s do th e y show

24

a. b .

fcbrgan, o £ . c i t . , " D if f e r e n c e s i n l o g i c a l R easo n in g A s s o c ia te d
W ith Age And H igher E d u c a tio n ."

24

( a ) a fre q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f each o f th e l o g i c a l form s u se d
i n th e t e s t , n o r (h ) d a t a c o n c e rn in g th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e s e form s.
T h ird , th e r e i s no u n if o r m ity i n th e number o f u n i t - t h o u g h t s p e r
form .

A ccording to th e d a t a o f t h i s t h e s i s , t h i s may make a d if f e r e n c e .

A lthough my r e s u l t s w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h i s r e s p e c t a t th e 1$ l e v e l ,
I e x p e c t to o b t a i n such a d if f e r e n c e i n f u tu r e t e s t s w here th e number o f
u n i t - t h o u g h t s w i l l be in c r e a s e d .

I n any c a s e , I am re a s o n a b ly c e r t a i n

t h a t t h e r e w ould be a d i f f e r e n c e i n re sp o n s e betw een M organ's ite m s M(2 )"
and M(3 )" above - b o th ite m s im ply th e p r e d i c a t i v e S y llo g ism .

They have

p r e s e n t e d no d a t a r e g a r d in g t h i s p o in t r e l a t i v e to t h e i r t e s t .
I b u r t h , t h e r e i s no u n if o r m ity as to th e e x h ib it io n o f an ite m i n
p ro p o s i t i o n a l and p r e d i c a t i v e l o g i c .
J i f t h , some o f th e ite m s in v o lv e enbbymematic argum ent.

How does

t h i s ty p e o f ite m compare w ith o th e r ite m s in v o lv in g th e same form?

In

such arg u m en ts, f o r exam ple, as " ( 2 ) " above, how many o th e r form s o f th e
same ty p e a r e in v o lv e d i n th e t e s t ?
te s te d ?

Have th e s e i m p l i c i t forms been

Morgan and Morgan have p u b lis h e d no d a ta on th e s e q u e s tio n s

r e l a t i v e to t h e i r t e s t in s tr u m e n t.
Whereas a l l o f th e above a r e s e r io u s m ista k e s o f m ethodology, th e
m ost g r e v io u s e r r o r i s th e ab sen ce o f d a t a r e l a t i v e to th e e x is te n c e o f
s p e c ific v a lid ity p a tte r n s .

Any t e s t t h a t p u r p o r ts to d e a l w ith l o g i c a l

t h in k in g must p ro d u ce e v id e n c e on such p a t t e r n s .

I t makes no se n se to

be t a l k i n g ab o u t l o g i c a l re a s o n in g w h ile f a i l i n g to pro d u ce ev id en ce on
t h a t w hich makes th e re a s o n in g l o g i c a l .

25

A n o th er i n v e s t i g a t o r whose work i s re m o te ly r e l a t e d to l o g i c a l
t h i n k in g i s Dr. Lawrence C. R ep u c ci, now a t Wayne S ta te U n iv e r s ity ,
D e t r o i t , M ichigan.

Dr. R epucci i s a p s y c h o lo g is t.

H is a r t i c l e 11Do You

T h in k S t r a i g h t " a p p e a re d i n a Sunday n e w s p a p e r . B e c a u s e t h i s a r t i c l e
was w r i t t e n f o r th e g e n e r a l p u b li c , s t a t i s t i c a l d a ta on h i s t e s t i n s t r u ­
ment was n o t e x p e c te d .
The t e s t in v o lv e d t h r e e s e r i e s o f q u e s tio n s .

In th e f i r s t s e r i e s

h i s m ethod was to p r o v id e th e t e s t e e w ith a group o f ite m s , one ite m o f
w hich d id n o t b e lo n g to t h a t g ro u p .
w hich d id n o t b e lo n g .

The ta s k was to e lim in a te th e ite m

A second s e r i e s o f q u e s tio n s in v o lv e d th e e lim i­

n a t i o n - in o r d e r - o f two ite m s i n a g ro u p .

The t h i r d s e r i e s in v o lv e d

th e e lim in a tio n o f t h r e e ite m s w ith in th e g ro u p .

The exam ple g iv e n

below b e lo n g s to th e f i r s t s e r i e s o f q u e s tio n s .

S et l a
( ) shoes
( ) socks
( ) tr o u s e r s
( ) g lo v e s
( ) hat

The c o r r e c t answ er h e r e i s " h a t" becau se i t i s th e o n ly ite m in te n d e d to
c o v e r a s i n g l e e x tr e m ity .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f R e p u c c i's t e s t to l o g i c a l th in k in g and v a l i d i t y

25 L. C. R e p u c c i, "Do You T hink S t r a i g h t " , D e tr o it P re e P r e s s , Sunday
M agazine, November 20, 1955, p . 2 - S.

26

p a t t e r n s i s f a i r l y re m o te .

However, b ec a u se h e d e s c r ib e s i t i n term s o f

"Can yon t h i n k s t r a i g h t ? ” , ’’c l e a r t h i n k e r ” , ” fu zzy t h i n k e r ” , e t c . , th e
i m p lic a tio n i s t h a t i t i s a t e s t o f l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g , and t h i s i s f a l s e .
I t a c tu a lly i s a t e s t in p re d ic a tio n , th a t i s , in c la s s if ic a tio n
o n ly .

.And, p s y c h o lo g ic a lly s p e a k in g , t h i s i s a m a tte r o f judgm ent b a se d

upon p r i o r e x p e rie n c e o f th e phenomena on which th e judgm ent i s made.
T h is i s c e r t a i n l y one k in d o f th in k in g , b u t i t i s n o t th in k in g in a
lo g ic a l sen se.

l o g i c a l t h i n k in g in v o lv e s in f e r e n c e s and none o f th e s e

a r e so u g h t f o r i n t h i s t e s t .

In 1933, S* H. E. Chant p u b lis h e d a p a p e r ” An O b je c tiv e E x p e ri­
ment On R e a s o n in g .11*^

T h is stu d y was n o t u n l i k e most p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t

m e a su rin g i n t e l l i g e n c e i n t h a t i t was b a se d on a m ix tu re o f v e r b a l - p i c to r a l a s s o c ia tio n s .

A sam ple ite m i s g iv e n as fo llo w s :

C ard 1 .

Arms o f a fa m ily o f Royal D escent
Arms o f an E a rl
A fa m ily o f p o l i t i c a l prom inence
Arms o f a Companion o f th e Bath
The t i t l e was e s t a b l i s h e d one c e n tu r y ago
The t i t l e h a s been d is c o n tin u e d

26 S. H. E. C hant, "An O b je c tiv e E xperim ent On R e a s o n in g ,” American
J o u r n a l o f P sy c h o lo g y , Volume 45, A p r il, 1933, pp. 282-291.

27

There w ere 11 c a r d s a l t o g e t h e r .

The t e s t e e was to d e te rm in e

w hich ite m o f in fo r m a tio n b e lo n g e d to w hich c o a t o f arm s.
A n a ly s is by Chant was i n term s o f tim e , v i z . ,

(1) th e tim e de­

v o te d to t h e o v e r t co m p ariso n o f c a r d s w ith c a r d s , o r o f c a r d s w ith
a n sw e rs, (2 ) th e tim e s p e n t i n e x a m in a tio n o f in d iv i d u a l c a r d s ,
th e tim e s p e n t i n r e c o r d in g an sw ers.

(5)

H is c o n c lu s io n s showed " t h a t t h e r e

w ere two w e ll- d e f in e d m ethods o f re a s o n in g e x e m p lif ie d .. . . th e f i r s t i s
an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e a p p ro a ch , by means o f w hich answ ers a r e d e r iv e d from
p r e v io u s ly e s t a b l i s h e d a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t a r e rem ote from th e e x p e rim e n ta l
s e ttin g i t s e l f .

The seco n d i s a n a l y t i c a l , by means o f which answ ers a re

d e r iv e d by com paring c a r d s o r c a r d s and a n s w e r s . . . . " 2?
The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h i s t e s t to v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s i s q u ite re m o te .
I t s v a lu e l i e s i n i l l u s t r a t i n g th e g e n e r a l n a tu r e o f th e u s u a l i n t e l l i ­
g en ce t e s t .

The f u n c tio n o f re a s o n in g , as u s e d i n t h i s t h e s i s , im p lie s

th e e x h ib itio n o f v a lid ity p a tte r n s .
p r e s e n t e d i n C h a n t's s tu d y .
i t h a s t h r e e b a s ic f u n c tio n s :

No d a ta on th e s e p a t t e r n s w ere

As I u n d e rs ta n d th e n a tu r e o f th e i n t e l l e c t ,
re a s o n in g , c o n c e p tio n , and judgm ent.

W ith in t h i s fram e o f r e f e r e n c e i t i s e v id e n t t h a t C h a n t's "two w e lld e f in e d m ethods o f re a s o n in g " a r e n o t m ethods o f re a s o n in g a t a l l .
R a th e r, th e " i n t e r p r e t a t i v e approach" i s com parable to th e func­
t i o n o f judgm ent i n t h a t th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t h e r e in v o lv e s p red icart i o n , and, th u s , judgm ent in making th e r i g h t p r e d i c a t i o n .
" a n a ly tic a l"

And th e

ty p e o f r e a s o n in g would seem to be a m a tte r o f b o th e m p iri­

c is m and jud g m en t, and, th u s , n o t m u tu a lly e x c lu s iv e from h i s f i r s t ty p e

27 I b i d . , p . 290.

28

o f re a so n in g *

In any c a s e , th e term 11a n a l y t i c a l ” a s u s e d by Chant i s

a l i e n i n m eaning to l o g i c , nam ely, v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .

T h ere a r e s e v e r a l s tu d ie s on re a s o n in g by IT. R. F. M aier.

I w ill

p o i n t o u t t h e a s p e c ts o f h i s work r e l e v a n t to t h i s t h e s i s .
One p h a s e o f M aier*s p a p e r on "R easo n in g and L earning" d e a ls w ith
an a tte m p t to d e fin e " l e a r n in g " , " i n s i g h t " , and " re a s o n in g " i n e x p e r i­
m e n ta l t e r m s .28 o f r e le v a n c e to t h i s t h e s i s i s h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f " re a s o n ­
in g " .

He s t a t e s " . . . ."behavior r e s u l t i n g from r e a s o n in g depends f o r i t s

i n t e g r a t i o n upon th e g o a l o r en d

In r e a s o n in g ( a s i t i s u s e d i n t h i s

p a p e r ) p a s t e x p e r ie n c e s a r e r e o rg a n iz e d .

That th e c o m b in a tio n o f th e

e s s e n t i a l s o f two i s o l a t e d e x p e rie n c e s makes i t p o s s ib le f o r an anim al
to

re a c h a g o a l im p lie s a r e o r g a n iz a tio n i n t e r n s o f th e g o a l.

a b i l i t y th u s makes r e o r g a n i z a ti o n o f any e x p e rie n c e p o s s i b le .

T his
I f two

i s o l a t e d e x p e rie n c e s c a n be o r g a n iz e d i n term s o f th e g o a l, i t th e n f o l ­
low s t h a t two c o n tig u o u s e x p e rie n c e s may be r e o r g a n i z e d .1,28
Thus, r e a s o n in g f o r M aier becomes a f u n c tio n o f th e r e o r g a n iz a ti o n
o f e x p e r ie n c e s i n term s o f re a c h in g s p e c i f i c g o a ls .

Thus, i t i s p o s s i b l e

to i n t e r p r e t M a ie r's work i n term s o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s p ro v id e d th e
p h y s i c a l l y e x p l i c a t e d r e o r g a n iz a tio n e x h i b i t s such p a t t e r n s .
no

d a t a on t h i s e x i s t

In 1937,

However,

in M aier*s p a p e r.

M aier p u b lis h e d a p a p e r on "R easoning i n R a ts and Human

28 IT. R. F. M aier, "R easo n in g And L e a rn in g ," P s y c h o lo g ic a l Review. J u ly ,
1931, Volume 38, p p . 3 3 2 -346.
29 I b i d . , p p . 336-337.

29

B e i n g s . 1*®®

In t h i s p a p e r h i s p u rp o se i s 11to fo rm u la te a th e o ry o f th e

r e a s o n in g p ro c e s s ,* 1 and, a c c o r d in g ly , i t i s m o stly d is c u s s io n .
I n g e n e r a l, i t i s a r e s ta te m e n t o f th e p a p e r above o f 1931, name­
l y , r e a s o n in g h a s to do w ith th e r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f s p e c i f i c e v e n ts r e l a ­
t i v e to some o t h e r e v e n t.

"B|y r e g a r d in g re a s o n in g as a new co m b in a tio n

o f p a s t e x p e r ie n c e s , we d e s ig n a te a mechanism which d i f f e r s from l e a r n in g
and y e t u t i l i z e s what h a s been l e a r n e d . 11®-*'

.Again, as w ith h i s f i r s t

p a p e r , i f th e s e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s e x h i b i t v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , th e n t h e r e
i s re le v a n c y o f Maier* s work to t h i s t h e s i s .

As i t i s , no d a t a e x i s t

i n h i s p a p e r on t h i s p o i n t .

M aier h a s t h r e e o t h e r p a p e rs a l l o f which a r e e n t i t l e d "S e a so n in g
I n Humans" and which were p u b lis h e d i n 1930, 1931, and 1945, r e s p e c t i v e ­
ly .^

He p r o v id e s d a t a to show t h a t e x p e rie n c e and i t s p ro p e r s e l e c t i o n

a r e n o t enough to a c c o u n t f o r th e a p p e a ra n c e o f an o r i g i n a l s o lu t i o n to
a p ro b le m .

I n s te a d , an o r g a n iz in g p r i n c i p l e which h e c a l l s " d ir e c tio n "

i s n e cessary .
a p ro b le m .

T h is r e f e r s to th e manner i n w hich a p e rs o n t r i e s to s o lv e

Thus, "when one g e ts a new *d ir e c tio n * i n re a s o n in g , a new

s e t o f e q u iv a le n t s ti m u l i a r e c r e a t e d ; and i t i s f o r t h i s re a s o n t h a t
'd i r e c t i o n * i n th in k in g s e rv e s a s e l e c t i v e fu n c tio n i n thinking."® ®

N. B. F. M aier, " S e a so n in g In B a ts And Human B e in g s," P s y c h o lo g ic a l
B eview . Septem ber, 1937, Volume 44, pp. 365-378.
31 I b i d . , p . 375.
32 jr. r # p. M aier, " S e a so n in g In Humans: I . On D ir e c tio n ," J o u rn a l o f
C om parative P sy c h o lo g y . Volume 10, .A pril, 1930, pp. 115-143.
W. B. F. M aier, " S e a so n in g I n Humans: I I . The S o lu tio n o f a P ro b lem ,"
J o u rn a l o f C o m parative P sy c h o lo g y . Volume 12, A ogust, 1931, p p . 181-194.
H. B. F. M aier, " S e a so n in g In Humans: I I I . The Mechanisms o f Equiva­
l e n t S tim u li And o f S e a s o n in g ," J o u rn a l o f E x p e rim en tal P sy c h o lo g y .
Volume 35, O c to b e r, 1945.
33 I b i d . , p . 359, (1 9 4 5 ).

30

None o f M a ie r 's p a p e r s show d a t a r e le v a n t to v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .
However, h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f r e a s o n in g - as th e a b i l i t y to com bine i s o l a t e d
e x p e r ie n c e s i n such a m anner a s to overcom e a d i f f i c u l t y - i s n o t n e c e s ­
s a r i l y in c o m p a tib le w ith v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .

I f th e re c o m b in a tio n s ( o r

r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s ) show d e f i n i t e fo rm s, th e s e form s may be, i n f a c t , v a l i d ­
i t y P a tte rn s .

In any c a s e , how ever, M aier p ro d u ced no e v id e n c e on t h i s

p o in t.

In 1945, A. B u rto n and W. J o e l p u b lis h e d a p a p e r e n t i t l e d "A d u lt
Norms I b r th e Wat s o n -G la s e r T e s ts o f C r i t i c a l T h in k in g ".

34

T h is stu d y

p ro d u c e d e v id e n c e to i n d i c a t e t h a t th e norms f o r a d u lt s a re h ig h e r th a n
t h e Wat s o n -G la s e r Norms f o r c o l l e g e s e n io r s .

The c h i e f i n t e r e s t o f th e

s tu d y i s i n r e g a rd s to th e t e s t in s tru m e n t i t s e l f , nam ely, th e W atsonG la s e r T e s ts o f C r i t i c a l T h in k in g .

The fo llo w in g i s a q u o ta tio n from

t h e s tu d y i l l u s t r a t i n g th e t e s t : * ^
The t e s t s a r e a rra n g e d i n two b a t t e r i e s o f fo u r t e s t s
e a c h . B a tte r y I to which o u r r e p o r t i s c o n f in e d c o n s i s t s
o f t h e fo llo w in g fo u r t e s t s :
( I ) G e n e r a liz a tio n s ; (2)
I n f e r e n c e s ; (3 ) D is c rim in a tio n o f Arguments; (4) Recog­
n i t i o n o f A ssum ptions.
The fo llo w in g e x c e r p ts from th e d i r e c t i o n s may i l l u s ­
t r a t e th e n a t u r e o f th e t e s t s , a lth o u g h th e sam ple s t a t e ­
m ents q u o ted a re no i n d i c a t i o n o f th e l e v e l o f d i f f i c u l t y
o f th e t e s t s th e m se lv e s .
T e s t 1.

G e n e r a liz a tio n s (20 5 - c h o ic e ite m s)

A ll
Most
D o n 't Know
c o l l e g e g r a d u a te s .

Rew

No

- d o c to r s a r e

A ll means ev ery one w ith o u t e x c e p tio n .

34

a. B u rto n and W. J o e l , "A d u lt Norms I b r th e W atson-G laser T e s ts o f
C r i t i c a l T h in k in g ", J o u r n a l o f P sy c h o lo g y , Volume 19, Ja n u a ry , 1945,
p p . 4 3 -4 8 .
35 I b i d . , p . 4 4 .

31

Most means d e f i n i t e l y more th a n h a l f h a t n o t a l l , e t c .
T e s t 2 . I n f e r e n c e s (50 5 - c h o ic e ite m s )
F iv e th o u sa n d f i r s t - y e a r h ig h sc h o o l s tu d e n ts r e c e n t l y
a tte n d e d a w eekend c o n f e re n c e , e t c .
The s tu d e n ts w ere a l l betw een th e ag es o f 10 and 11.
T

F (ro b a b ly )T

I ( n s u f f i c i e n t ) D ata

T

PE

You a r e to he c o n c e rn e d n o t w ith th e t r u t h o f th e s t a t e ­
ment o f f a c t h a t o n ly w ith th e t r u t h o f th e in f e r e n c e to
he drawn from i t , e t c .
T e st 3. D is c rim in a tio n o f Arguments (40 2 - c h o ic e ite m s )
I s i t d e s i r a b l e f o r a l l young men to go to c o lle g e ?
No; some c o l l e g e men a r e c o n c e ite d .
S tro n g
Weak
I b r th e p u rp o s e s o f t h i s t e s t r e g a r d th e argument as
t r u e ; th e n d e c id e w h eth er you would c a l l i t s tr o n g o r
w e a k .. . .
T e st 4 . R e c o g n itio n o f A ssum ptions (20 4 - c h o ic e ite m s)
An assu m p tio n i s so m eth in g su p p o sed o r ta k e n f o r g r a n t e d . . .
Each e x e r c is e c o n s i s t s o f a main s ta te m e n t fo llo w e d
by fo u r a l t e r n a t i v e s ta te m e n ts ab o u t th e a ssu m p tio n s in ­
v o lv e d i n th e main s ta te m e n t. Only one o f th e s e a l t e r ­
n a tiv e s i s tru e .
I w ant to he s u r e I don*t g e t ty p h o id f e v e r w h ile
I*m i n South A m erica, so I s h a l l go to my p h y s ic ia n
and g e t ty p h o id i n j e c t i o n s b e fo re I S a i l.
1.

I t i s assum ed in th e s ta te m e n t t h a t m ost p e o p le
who go to South A m erica and do n o t ta k e ty p h o id
i n j e c t i o n s g e t ty p h o id f e v e r , e t c .

T h is t e s t ,

as a m easure o f l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g , s u f f e r s from th e

same f a l l a c i e s as th e Morgan T e st o f l o g i c a l

R

e a s o n

i n

g .

if ^

in v e s ti­

g a t o r i s g o in g to c la im e v id en ce t h a t h i s t e s t i s an in s tru m e n t w hich
m easu res l o g i c a l a b i l i t y , th e n t h a t e v id en ce must be p r e d i c a te d upon
i n f e r e n t i a l a c t i v i t y o f th e m ind.

Morgan, o p . c i t . . p p . 2 0 -2 4 .

When one sp eak s o f in f e r e n c e s , he i s

32

ta lk in g about v a lid ity p a tte r n s .

Thus, any e v id en ce on l o g i c a l re a s o n ­

in g m ust he such as to h e a r d i r e c t l y on th e n a tu r e o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .
The Wat s o n -G la s e r t e s t does n o t do t h i s .
O th e r th a n t h i s m ajo r d i f f i c u l t y , th e r e a r e th r e e a d d itio n a l am­
b i g u i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n th e t e s t .

.A m biguities le a d to f a l l a c i e s o f e q u i­

v o c a tio n .
F irs t,

t h e i r 11T e st 2 H f o r i n f e r e n c e , u s e s " in f e r e n c e " i n a manner

a l i e n to th e f a c t s o f fo rm a l l o g i c .

H i s t o r i c a l l y , " in f e r e n c e " in t h e i r

u s a g e i s c a l l e d "im m ed iate in f e r e n c e ."

And, w h ile a v o id in g th e argum ent

in v o lv e d w ith t h i s n o tio n , I w ish to s t a t e t h a t " in f e r e n c e " i n t h e i r
s e n s e i s n o t th e same as th e in f e r e n c e s o f l o g i c a l argum ent.

M oreover,

any i n v e s t i g a t o r may d e f in e " in f e r e n c e " any way he w ish e s, b u t w hatever
h e d e c id e s up o n , i t s u s a g e m ust be c o n s i s t e n t l y employed w ith in th e t e s t
in s tr u m e n t.

On th e o t h e r hand, i f t h i s p u r p o r ts to be a t e s t on l o g i c a l

r e a s o n in g , th e n i t m ust u s e " in f e r e n c e " a s i t i s em ployed i n l o g i c .
Second, " T e s t 3" p u r p o r ts to t e s t f o r " D is c r im in a tio n o f A rgum ents."
The f a l l a c y h e r e i s i n co n seq u en ce o f th e f a l l a c y o f t h e i r "T e st 2 ".
L o g ic a l argum ents in v o lv e a t l e a s t two p re m is e s .
th e exam ple g iv e n .
in fe re n c e .

T here i s o n ly one in

Thus, a c t u a l l y t h i s would be an exam ple o f im m ediate

And, a g a in , t h i s i s c e r t a i n l y a l l r i g h t , p ro v id e d t h i s i s

w hat i s b e in g m easured.

H ut, in any c a s e , i t must be unam biguously

d e l i n e a t e d as such, and employed c o n s i s t e n t l y th ro u g h o u t th e t e s t i n ­
s tr u m e n t.
T h ird , " T e s t 4" comes th e c l o s e s t to t e s t i n g f o r v a l i d i t y p a t ­
te rn s .

But no d a ta are p r e s e n te d f o r th e s e .

The o b je c tio n h e r e i s t h a t

t h e r e i s no c o n t r o l f o r any g iv e n p a t t e r n i n t h a t th e f a c u l t y o f judgm ent

33

i s in v o lv e d i n d e c id in g among th e f o u r p o s s i b i l i t i e s which i s th e r i g h t
one.

Thus, on t h e b a s i s o f ch an ce a lo n e , th e t e s t e e h a s § chance o f

g e t t i n g th e wrong an sw er.

I p o in t t h i s o u t b ecau se I made th e same

m is ta k e i n one o f my e a r l i e r t e s t s .

H an-F iao Chen p u b lis h e d a p a p e r i n 1937 e n t i t l e d " S tu d ie s on
T h u r s to n e d R easo n in g T e s t s . H e

a p p lie d Thur s t o n e 's t e s t to a group

i

o f C h in ese s u b j e c t s .

Form A was a d m in is te r e d to 162 s u b je c ts and Form

B to 148 s u b j e c t s .
Form A t e s t c o n s i s t s o f 20 s y l l o g i s t i c argum ents w hich d e a l w ith
h e a v y - l i g h t r e l a t i o n s , r e l a t i o n s among r e l a t i v e s , r e l a t i o n o f d e b ts
among t h r e e p e r s o n s , th e r e l a t i o n o f c lu b membership betw een two c lu b s ,
and th e b i r th d a y r e l a t i o n s h i p among th r e e p e r s o n s .
Form B t e s t c o n s i s t s o f 32 s y l l o g i s t i c argum ents, which d e a l w ith
t h e t a l l - s h o r t r e l a t i o n s h i p among t h r e e p e r s o n s , whose a c tu a l r e l a t i v e
h e ig h t r e l a t i o n s h i p v a r i e s from t e s t ite m to t e s t ite m .

For exam ple,

i n one ite m Brown may be t a l l e r th a n Jo n e s and s h o r te r th a n Smith,
w h ile i n a n o th e r th e s e may be in te rc h a n g e d .
A ll th e argum ents i n Form A and B a r e s im ila r i n form b u t no one
o f them i s e x a c tly th e same i n s ta te m e n t.

Chenf s r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e (1)

t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f an argum ent may v a ry w ith th e c o n te n t, d a ta , o r
c a te g o r y o f arg u m en ts, and (2 ) t h a t th e k in d o f r e l a t i o n in v o lv e d in
t h e argum ent i n f lu e n c e s th e d i f f i c u l t y o f th e ite m , and (3) t h a t th e
seq u en ce o f p e rs o n s p r e s e n te d w ith in an argum ent may in f lu e n c e th e

37 H an-Fiao Chen, " S tu d ie s on T h u r s to n e 's R easoning T e s t s ," J o u rn a l o f
G en etic F sy c h o lo g y . Volume 50, 1937, p p . 1 5 -2 5 .

34

d e g re e o f d i f f i c u l t y .
In term s o f th e work o f t h i s t h e s i s , Chen*s stu d y would seem to
he r e l a t e d to th e s y llo g is m v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n .

However, i n r e g a r d s to

th e t e s t in s tr u m e n t, i n Eorm A i t would ap p ear t h a t 5 d i f f e r e n t ty p e s
o f r e l a t i o n s d iv id e d among 20 sy 1 1 - argum ents would he too few f o r r e ­
l i a b i l i t y o f t e s t i n g f o r t h i s form ,

Tbrm B, c o n s is t i n g o f 32 s y l l - a r -

gum ents h a v in g a s in g l e r e l a t i o n , would ap p e a r to he too many.

The

r e s u l t s o f my r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e t h a t around 15 ite m s p e r v a l i d i t y p a t ­
t e r n w i l l g iv e s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s .
The c h i e f c r i t i c i s m t h a t m ight he made i n r e g a r d s to th e Thurs to n e R e a so n in g T e st i s t h a t i t i s d o u b tfu l A e t h e r anyone can he s a id
to e x h i b i t re a s o n in g a b i l i t y w h ile p r e d ic a t in g t h i s judgm ent upon one
v a lid ity p a tte rn .
In 1953, G a ie r, l e e , and M cQ uitty p u b lis h e d a p a p e r on "R esponse
P a t t e r n s I n A T e st o f L o g ic a l I n f e r e n c e ." 3® The a u th o rs s t a t e t h a t th e
s tu d y a tte m p te d to d e m o n stra te t h a t v a r i a n t s t y l e s o f re sp o n s e c h a ra c ­
t e r i z e t h e p erfo rm an ce o f th e t e s t e e on a t e s t o f l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e .
The t e s t in s tru m e n t was m odeled a f t e r th e L o g ic a l I n f e r e n c e T est de­
s ig n e d by C. C. B rig h a n .

A p o r tio n o f t h e i r p a p e r i s p r e s e n te d h e r e . 39

The f i n a l form o f o u r e x p e rim e n ta l m easure c o n ta in e d
60 p ro b lem s i n i n f e r e n t i a l r e a s o n in g . These problem s
w ere d i v i s i b l e i n t o 20 s e t s o f th r e e q u e s tio n s each, th e
ite m s o f each t r i a d b e in g s im i l a r i n l o g i c a l form b u t
d i f f e r e n t i n s u b je c t m a tte r . Thus each t r i a d c o n ta in e d
t h r e e ite m s h a v in g d i f f e r e n t p re m is e s and c o n c lu s io n s b u t
s h a r in g common form al s t r u c t u r e .
T h is p la n o f ite m c o n s tr u c tio n was fo llo w e d i n o rd e r
to d e te rm in e w h eth er d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f l o g i c a l problem s

38 E. L. G a ie r, M. C. Lee, and L. L. M cQ uitty, "R esponse P a t t e r n s I n A
T e st o f L o g ic a l I n f e r e n c e ," E d u c a tio n a l and Psycho l o g i c a l M easurem ent.
Volume 1 3 , 1953, p p . 550-567.
39 I b i d . , p . 554.

35

te n d to e l i c i t d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e ty p e s o f r e a s o n in g a b i l i t y
. . . . J b r each ite m th e fo llo w in g f iv e re s p o n s e a lte rn a rt i v e s w ere p r e s e n te d : N e c e s s a r ily True (NT), N e c e s s a r ily
f a l s e (NF), P ro b a b ly True (PT), P ro b a b ly F a lse ( P J ), and
U n d eterm in ed (U ). T y p ic a l o f ite m s making up th e t e s t
a r e th e fo llo w in g :
1.

P r e m is e s : - A ll th e boys who go to C e n tr a l High
School l i v e in th e c i t y .
John l i v e s in th e c i t y .
C o n c lu s io n : - John g o es to C e n tra l H igh.
Answer:

2.

NT

NF PT

PP

U

P re m is e s : - N in e ty -se v e n p e r c e n t o f th e p e o p le
i n t h i s town a r e f o r e ig n b o rn .
C o n c lu s io n : Most o f th e p e o p le we m eet on t h i s
s t r e e t w i l l be n a tiv e - b o r n .
Answer:

NT

NF PT

PF

U

Examples o f th e s y l l o g i s t i c ite m s a re as f o l l o w s . ^
1.

S y l l o g i s t i c ite m s :
T ria d A. These ite m s s e t up s i t u a t i o n s i n which
a s i n g l e c a s e i s to be ju d g ed i n r e l a t i o n to p r e ­
m ises m aking an a s s e r t i o n about " a l l 11 o f th e
e n t i t i e s o r e v e n ts b e in g c o n s id e re d . l o g i c a l
a n a ly s is s u g g e s ts t h a t '‘p ro b a b le " answ ers may
i n d i c a t e a judgment in te r m e d ia te betw een " n e c e s­
sa ry " and "u n d eterm in ed " i n t h i s ty p e o f p a t t e r n .
Example:
P r e m is e s :

C o n c lu s io n :

There i s n o t a d is h in E l i z a b e t h 's
t e a s e t which i s n o t n ic k e d o r
c ra c k e d . T h is cup i s b o th n ic k e d
and c ra c k e d .
I t b elo n g s to E L iz a b e th 's t e a s e t .

T r ia d B. In th e s e ite m s a s in g le c a se i s to be
ju d g ed a g a in s t p re m is e s making a s s e r tio n s about

40 I b i d . , p p . 555-556.

36

"some" o f th e e v e n ts o r o b j e c t s in v o lv e d .
The
c o n c lu s io n s ap p ear to he ju d g ed i n t h e i r w ider
c o n te x t a s more o r l e s s p ro b a b le , s in c e th e
p re m is e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y u n r e s t r i c t i v e .
Example:
P r e m is e s :

C o n c lu s io n :

Some la te -m o d e l c a r s h av e automa­
tic s h ifts .
F red h a s a la te -m o d e l c a r .
F r e d 's c a r h a s an au to m a tic
s h ift.

T r ia d C. These problem s demand c o n d itio n a l r e a ­
so n in g from p re m is e s in which th e a n te c e d e n t i s
d e n ie d . ”TJH re s p o n s e s a r e q u ite p o p u la r, and
s u g g e st t h a t r e f e r e n c e i s o f te n made to e x tr a ­
s t i p u l a t e d e x p e rie n c e .
Example:
P r e m is e s :

C o n c lu s io n :

I f a book i s w e ll bound and p r i n t e d
i t w i l l s e l l f o r a h ig h p r i c e , b u t
t h i s book i s n e i t h e r w e ll bound nor
w e ll p r in t e d .
T h is book w i ll n o t s e l l f o r a
h ig h p r i c e .

T r ia d D. The ite m s i n t h i s t r i a d s e t up th e
tra n s fo rm e d p r o p o s itio n a s th e p re m ise and r e ­
s t o r e th e c o n c lu s io n . T h is ty p e o f problem i s
q u i t e d i f f i c u l t and a p p e a rs to e l i c i t extrem e
s k e p tic is m i n th e form o f p r e f e r e n c e f o r th e
"U" r e s p o n s e .
Example:
P re m is e s :
C o n c lu s io n :

A ll o f th e unfram ed p i c t u r e s a re
in e x p e n s iv e .
A ll o f th e fram ed p i c t u r e s a re
e x p e n siv e .

I would l i k e to d is c u s s t h i s t e s t i n term s o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s ,
t h a t i s , a s a t e s t o f l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g .

In th e f i r s t p la c e , i t i s n o t

37

a t e s t o f l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e even though i t i s p u r p o r te d to he s u c h .^ R a th e r , i t i s a t e s t i l l u s t r a t i n g th e v a r i a t i o n s o f .judgments on th e
p a r t o f t h e t e s t e e s r e l e v a n t to th e t r u t h - v a l u e o f v a r io u s p r o p o s i­
tio n s .

Whereas I do n o t deny t h a t a s i n g l e judgm ent i s n e c e s s a r y i n

any t r u e t e s t o f l o g i c a l re a s o n in g , a l l such Judgm ents must he p r e d i­
c a t e d to c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n ts.

T here i s no c o n t r o l i n th e ahove

e x p e rim e n t w ith r e s p e c t to l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e .
T hat th e a u th o r s w ere c o g n iz a n t o f t h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r
rem a rk " th e t e s t t h e r e f o r e d id n o t c o n f in e th e re sp o n d e n t to th e ex­
c l u s i v e e x e r c is e o f fo rm al d e d u c tiv e lo g ic becau se th e answ ers PT and
FP w ere open even in ite m s h a v in g d e te rm in a te s o lu tio n s from th e s t r i c t l y
d e d u c tiv e p o i n t o f v ie w .”

But, i n te rm s o f fundam ental m ethodology, t h i s

a w a ren e ss on t h e p a r t o f th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s o n ly s e rv e s to a g g ra v a te th e
s e r io u s n e s s o f th e f a l l a c y , and, i n no c a s e , can su p p la n t th e n e c e s s i t y
f o r a c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n t.
M oreover, we re c o g n iz e t h a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l phenomena, i n g e n e r a l,
a r e m ost d i f f i c u l t to c o n t r o l, h u t th e f a c t i s t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
phenomenon i s n o t .

V a lid ity p a t t e r n s a r e th e one th in g i n ex p erim e n ts

o f t h i s ty p e w hich do le n d th e m se lv e s to c o n t r o l.

I th in k i t to he a

m a tte r o f b a s ic m e th o d o lo g ic a l p ro c e d u re f o r any t e s t , which p u r p o r ts
to d e a l w ith l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e , t h a t th e p a t t e r n s upon w hich th e in ­
f e r e n c e s a r e to he made m ust he s ta n d a r d iz e d in th e t e s t .

Not o n ly was

no d a t a o f f e r e d to s u p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e s w ere
ta k in g p la c e by th e t e s t e e s f o r g iv e n v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , no a tte m p t was

41 I b i d . , p . 554.

38

made even to s ta n d a r d iz e th e " s y l l o g i s t i c ite m s" w ith in th e t e s t p e r se .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s l i s t t r i a d s A, B, C, and I) as
b e lo n g in g w ith in th e c l a s s o f s y l l o g i s t i c ite m s .

But th e f a c t s a r e

t h a t each one o f th e exam ples g iv e n above d i f f e r a s to form .

The sug­

g e s t i o n t h a t th e y a re in te n d e d as t e s t i n g f o r d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f re a s o n ­
i n g i s i r r e l e v a n t to t h e argum ent.

They a r e p r e s e n te d as b e lo n g in g to

th e c l a s s o f s y l l o g i s t i c argum ents, and t h i s i s c o n tr a r y to f a c t .
In t r i a d A, th e form o f th e exam ple g iv e n i s t h i s :

(x ) : n* • 0
Ac *

• Hx . C*
Cc

As

I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , th e argum ent i s n o t v a l i d , which i s a llo w ­
a b l e - p r o v id e d th e r e e x i s t w ith in th e t e s t in s tru m e n t o th e r form s o f
th e same ty p e which w ere v a l i d .

In th e second p la c e , th e example i n ­

v o lv e s th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l f u n c tio n s o f a b s tr a c t i o n , c o n c r e tio n , as w e ll
a s i n f e r e n c e s in v o lv in g d i s t r i b u t i o n , s im p l i f i c a t i o n , and modus t o l l e n s
la w s .

Kb e x p la n a tio n , n o t to m ention d a ta , was o f f e r e d a s to why a n a ly ­

s e s on th e s e f a c t o r s were o m itte d .
one o f lo g ic a l in fe re n c e .

B ut, y e t , th e t e s t p u r p o r ts to be

M oreover, no m ention was made o f th e ty p e o f

s y llo g is m w hich th e above example i s supposed to be.
The exam ple o f T r ia d B i s n o t a s y llo g is m a t a l l .
be i n f e r r e d from two e x i s t e n t i a l p r o p o s i tio n s .
The form o f th e exam ple o f T r ia d C i s as fo llo w s :

K o th in g can

39

T h is ite m , as a t e s t f o r l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e , s u f f e r s from th e same
o b j e c t i o n s g iv e n f o r th e example o f T r ia d A.

A b s tra c tio n , c o n c r e tio n ,

and o th e r law s o f lo g i c a r e in v o lv e d and o f which no d a t a was o f f e r e d .
I t i s i n v a l i d , o f c o u r s e , w hich i s a l l r i g h t - p ro v id e d th e r e e x i s t
w i t h i n th e t e s t o t h e r ite m s o f th e same ty p e w hich w ere v a l i d .

More­

o v e r , no e v id e n c e was o f f e r e d to show t h a t th e in c lu s io n o f m u ltip le
u n i t - t h o u g h t s i n a g iv e n form made a d i f f e r e n c e i n a b i l i t y to u s e t h a t
form .
The form o f th e exam ple o f T r ia d D i s as fo llo w s :

( x) : ~ S' O ~ Ex

(*) • Tx »

T h is specim en o b v io u s ly does n o t belong to th e c l a s s o f s y l l o g i s t i c
arg u m en ts.

I t in v o lv e s some o th e r law s o f l o g i c , nam ely, t r a n s p o s i t i o n ,

and modus p o n en s.

I t c o n fu s e s "im m ediate in fe re n c e " w ith " l o g i c a l i n ­

fe re n c e " w hich i s l e g i t i m a t e - p ro v id e d th e form er i s what i s b e in g
t e s t e d f o r ; b u t, as we p o in te d o u t, t h e t e s t p u r p o r ts to deal w ith
l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e .

These two u s e s o f " in fe r e n c e " must be unam biguously

d e l i n e a t e d w ith in th e t e s t in s tr u m e n t.

The p o in t i s t h a t th e i n v e s t i ­

g a t o r may u s e " in f e r e n c e " in any way he c h o o se s, but w hatever d e f i n i t i o n

40

h e d e c id e s u p on, t h i s m ust he made c o n s i s t e n t th ro u g h o u t th e t e s t .
I n summary, t h i s t e s t i s n o t an in s tru m e n t w hich m easures th e
a b i l i t y to re a s o n l o g i c a l l y , and, t h e r e f o r e , i s n o t r e l a t e d to th e r e ­
se a rc h o f t h i s th e s is .

We in c lu d e d i t w ith in t h i s c h a p te r o n ly becau se

th e s tu d y o s t e n s i v e l y d e a l t w ith "R esponse P a t t e r n s I n A T est o f l o g i ­
c a l I n fe r e n c e .”

In 1946, .A rthur L e ffo rd p u b lis h e d a p a p e r on "The I n flu e n c e o f
E m o tio n al S u b je c t M a tte r On l o g i c a l R e a so n in g ." 4^

L e f f o r d fs aim i s to

d e te rm in e some o f th e f a c t o r s which i n h i b i t l o g i c a l th in k in g .
The stu d y was b a s e d on a q u e s tio n n a ir e o f 40 s y llo g is m s g iv e n to
a group o f c o lle g e s tu d e n t s .

The t e s t ite m s were d iv id e d in to two

g ro u p s o f 20 each and w hich d i f f e r e d o n ly a s to th e n a tu r e o f th e sub­
j e c t m a tte r .

I n one g roup th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f th e form s was in te n d e d

t o be o f a s o c i a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a tu r e d e sig n e d to e x c it e an e n o tio n a l
r e a c t i o n , w h ile i n th e o t h e r group th e s u b je c t m a tte r was in te n d e d to
b e p s y c h o lo g ic a lly n e u t r a l .
Examples from th e t e s t a re g iv e n as fo llo w s :
No n - emo t i o n a l
1.

Good c i t i z e n s ta k e ad v an tag e o f t h e i r p r i v i l e g e o f
v o tin g . A ll members o f th e N orth End P o l i t i c a l
Club, b e in g c o n s c io u s o f t h e i r c iv ic d u tie s , a r e
good c i t i z e n s . T h e re fo re , a l l members o f th e
N o rth End P o l i t i c a l C lub w i l l v o te on E le c tio n
Day.43

4^ A rth u r L e ffo rd , "The I n flu e n c e o f © n o tio n al S u b je c t M a tte r On l o g i c a l
R e a so n in g ," J o u rn a l o f G eneral P sy c h o lo g y . Volume 34, A p r il, 1946,
p p . 127-151.
43 I b i d . , p . 129.

41

The t e s t e e was i n s t r u c t e d to ju d g e t h i s i n two r e s p e c t s :

(a )

v a l i d o r i n v a l i d , and (h ) w hether th e y a g re e d o r d is a g r e e d w ith th e
c o n c lu s io n .

The one ahove i s g iv e n a s v a l i d .

I t s form i s

I

(* ) * ^x

Tx

(x) * NX D Cx
(x) • n x O vx

T h is ite m was p a i r e d w ith an e m o tio n a lly lo a d e d s y llo g is m , v i z . ,
E m otional
1.

Man, fa c e d "between c h o o sin g betw een l i f e and d e a th ,
i s e n o h le d "by th e e x p e rie n c e . War i s a s i t u a t i o n i n
which man m ust make t h i s supreme c h o ic e . War, th e r e ­
f o r e , i s an e x p e rie n c e e n o h lin g men to th e most ex­
a l t e d d e g r e e .44

T h is i s g iv e n a s v a l i d , and i t s form i s

(x ) ■ Sx O Ex
£>w
®w

A second exam ple o f p a i r e d re sp o n s e s i s g iv e n as fo llo w s .
N o n-em otional
19.

I n s e c t s a r e c h a r a c t e r iz e d "by s i x p a ir e d , j o i n t e d
appendages which a r e a tta c h e d to th e th o ra x .
S p id e rs , how ever, do n o t have s i x p a ir e d , p o in te d

4 4 I M a . , p . 130.

42

[ s ic ] ap p en d ag es, "bat e i g h t .
a r e n o t i n s e c t s . 45
T h is i s g iv e n a s v a l i d .

T h e re fo re , s p id e r s

I t s form i s

<x) • 1 , 3 8 ,
(x) : Dj • ^

~ Sjj • Ej

(x) • 0 * 3 ~

Ix

The above was p a i r e d w ith th e fo llo w in g ite m :
E m o tional
19.

A ll p e a c e s e ttle m e n ts w hich a re to be l a s t i n g
s e tt l e m e n t s m ast s a t i s f y b o th s id e s . 2To p eace
s e ttle m e n t i s e v e r s a t i s f a c t o r y to b o th s id e s .
T h e re fo re , no p e a c e s e ttle m e n t can be a l a s t i n g
o n e. 46

T h is i s g iv e n a s v a l i d , and i t s form i s

(* )

! s * • h i • 3 • Ax

(x )

• Sx 3 —'^ c

(x) • S* D ~ I*

L e ffo rd * s r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d , i n g e n e r a l,

th a t n e u t r a l l y to n e d

s y llo g is m s w ere s o lv e d more c o r r e c t l y th a n e m o tio n a lly to n e d s y llo g is m s .
A lso, t h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e i n ty p e o f s c o re s o b ta in e d when th e emo­
t i o n a l l y to n e d s y l l o g i s t i c ite m s were p r e s e n te d b e fo re th e s e t o f n e u t r a l

45 I b i d . , p . 130.
46 I b i d . , p . 131.

43

ite m s .

He fo u n d t h a t p r e s e n ti n g th e e m o tio n a lly to n e d s y llo g is m s f i r s t

h a d a d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t on th e r e s u l t s o f s o lv in g n e u t r a l s y llo g is m s .
One o f th e m ost o u ts ta n d in g f e a t u r e s o f L e f f o r d 1s p a p e r was h i s
d is c u s s io n on th e d i f f e r e n c e "between " l o g i c a l in fe re n c e " and "p sy ch o lo ­
g ic a l in f e r e n c e " .^

I n l o g i c a l te rm in o lo g y , t h i s i s e q u iv a le n t to a

d is c u s s io n "between " l o g i c a l in fe re n c e " and "im m ediate i n f e r e n c e " .

M-

m i t t e d l y , i t was h e a r te n in g to s e e t h i s d is c u s s io n .
H is o v e r a l l p ro b lem i s s t a t e d w ith in a t h e o r e t i c a l fram ework, and
h e d e s i r e s u l t i m a t e l y to " a n a ly z e th e mechanism o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n f e r ­
ence and to d is c o v e r u n d e r what c o n d itio n s i t may o r may n o t c o rre s p o n d
to a v a l i d l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e . "48

H is p r e s e n t p a p e r was one phase o f

t h i s o v e r a l l p ro b lem , and c o n s is t e d o f a stu d y o f l o g i c a l in f e r e n c e a s
r e l a t e d to th e f a c t o r o f em otion.
I t rmist be s a id t h a t from a l o g i c a l p o in t o f view h i s o v e r a l l
m ethodology was v a s t l y s u p e r io r to o th e r p a p e rs exam ined ov er s im il a r
m a te ria l.

H is r e c o g n itio n f o r th e n e c e s s i t y o f a c o n t r o l l e d ex p erim en t

i n te rm s o f form s, v a l i d i t y , a p p ro x im a te ly e q u a l number o f v e rb a l s i g ­
n a l s , o f a s in g le v a l i d - i n v a l i d judgm ent, h i s aw areness o f th e f a c t t h a t
t h e r e a r e two ty p e s o f " in f e r e n c e " , a re s p e c i f i c exam ples o f n e c e s s a ry
p r o p e r m ethodology.

The i d e a l i s to re d u c e th e number o f v a r i a b l e s to

a minimum, and t h i s p a p e r ap p ro ach es t h i s p o i n t.

C o o p e ra tiv e ly speak­

in g , i t was u n q u e s tio n a b ly th e b e s t work I have seen on t h i s k in d o f
re se a rc h .
T here a r e , how ever, c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s a s s o c i a te d w ith th e t e s t

47 IMd., pp. 144-145.
48 rbid., p. 145.

44

in s tr u m e n t p e r se .

I s h a l l c o n fin e my rem arks to th e a c t u a l t e s t ite m s

p r e s e n t e d above, and to d is c u s s th e s e w ith r e le v a n c e to v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s
l i r s t and fo re m o s t, t h e r e were no d a t a o f f e r e d f o r th e e x is te n c e
o f any g iv e n v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n -

i n t h i s c a s e , th e s y llo g is m p a t t e r n .

T h is m ust h e fo rth c o m in g i f one

i s to sp eak ahout any ty p e o f l o g i c a l

in fe re n c e .

I f one i s t e s t i n g f o r i n f e r e n c e s , he must show th e p a t t e r n

u p o n w hich in f e r e n c e s a r e made, and upon which th e t e s t i s presum ably
p re d ic a te d .
S econdly, th e form s were n o t k e p t c o n s ta n t a s L e ffo rd had sup­
p o se d them to h e.

S p e c i f i c a l ly , i n th e f i r s t p a i r e d s y llo g is m s above,

and i n term s o f fo rm al l o g i c , th e f i r s t ite m i s an exam ple o f th e s y l l o ­
gism law b u t th e seco n d ite m i s

an example o f th e modus ponens law .

He

m ust show e v id e n ce t h a t t h i s i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
In th e second p a i r e d s y llo g is m s , many more l o g i c a l law s were i n ­
v o lv e d th a n j u s t s y llo g is m .

I s h a ll d e m o n stra te t h i s by showing th e

re a s o n in g r e q u i r e d to r e a c h th e r e s p e c tiv e c o n c lu s io n s .
•19. ( n o n -e m o tio n a l) 1
1.

I X D Sx

p r a n is e

2.

D

• Ej.

3.

Dj ^

4.

Dx 3 ^ Sx

from 3 by s im p l i f i c a t i o n law

5.

5
Ix
*
DX . ^ ^ I X

from 1 by t r a n s p o s i t i o n law

6.

Sx

:

p rem ise
from 2 by d i s t r i b u t i o n law

from 4 and 5 ‘by s y llo g is m law

Thus, t h i s ite m n o t o n ly t e s t s f o r s y llo g is m b u t one o f th e d i s ­
t r i b u t i o n la w s, one o f th e t r a n s p o s i t i o n la w s, th e modus ponens law

45

( t h r e e tim e s ) , and th e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n law .

M oreover, w h eth er th e i n ­

f e r e n t i a l p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d h e r e a r e la b e le d i n te rm s o f t h e i r a n a lo g u es
i n sym bolic lo g ic i s n o t th e p o in t - a lth o u g h L e ffo rd does im ply t h i s by
ev en t a l k i n g ab o u t th e s y llo g is m form .

The p o in t i s t h a t i n w hatever

la n g u a g e sy stem one s e l e c t s to t a l k about th e s e k in d o f phenomena some
such e q u iv a le n t m en tal p r o c e s s e s m ust be e x h ib ite d b e fo re th e c o n c lu s io n
c a n be re a c h e d .

And th e s e m ust be t e s t e d f o r , i n d i v i d u a l l y , and d a t a o n

ea ch o f them m ust be e x i s t e n t .

C om parisons f o r s ig n i f i c a n c e must be made

b etw een a l l th e law s in v o lv e d tak en two a t a tim e, th r e e a t a tim e , e t c . ,
an d to show t h a t t h e r e i s no s ig n i f ic a n c e betw een any g iv e n group and
a b i l i t y to re a so n a c c o rd in g to th e s y llo g is m form a lo n e .

I f th is is a

t e s t f o r th e s y llo g is m p a t t e r n , th e n t h a t p a t t e r n must be th e o n ly s ig ­
n if ic a n t v a ria b le p re s e n t.

The o th e r p a t t e r n s t h a t a r e p r e s e n t must be

shown to be n e g l i g i b l e i n p s y c h o lo g ic a l e f f e c t .

The same d i f f i c u l t i e s

a p p ly to th e p a i r e d m ate o f th e above ite m , v i z . ,
*19. (e m o tio n a l)*
1.

sx *

2.

SX D ~ A X

3.

:

p re m ise

:
p re m ise

—- Aj-D *"•' ( Sx • Lx)

from 1 by t r a n s p o s i t i o n law

4.

SX> ^ (SX • Zjr)

from 2 and 3 by s y llo g is m law

5.

Sx • ^

Sx

v

from 4 by in te rc h a n g e

6.

Sx

S x S - 'L x

from 5 by in te rc h a n g e

7.

(Sx • S x )^ ~ L X

from 6 by e x p o r ta tio n law

8.

s x 3 ~ he

from 7 by i d e n t i t y law

A gain, th e e x p l i c a t i o n o f th e s e ite m s i n term s o f form al lo g ic i s

46

g iv e n f o r s i m p l i c i t y p u rp o s e s a lo n e .

The p o in t i s t h a t t h i s i s one way -

o f p o s s i b l y s e v e r a l ways - to t a l k about th e in f e r e n c e p a t t e r n s i n ­
v o lv e d .

In any c a s e , how ever, w h atev er symbol sy stem i s s e le c t e d , d a ta

m ust be fo rth c o m in g which have a d i r e c t b e a r in g on th e r e a s o n in g p a t t e r n s
i n d i c a t e d to be p r e s e n t i n t h i s lan g u ag e system .

Any o th e r lan g u ag e

sy ste m , i f i t p u r p o r t s to d e a l w ith l o g i c a l re a s o n in g , must have p a t ­
t e r n s a t l e a s t e q u iv a le n t to th o s e o f form al l o g ic .

One o f th e s ta n d a rd t e s t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i s The R ev ised S ta n fo rd B in e t S c a le .^9

T h is t e s t i s in c lu d e d becau se i t h a s been u s e d as a

s ta n d a r d to which many o t h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s a r e c o r r e l a t e d , and,
t h e r e f o r e , i t i s s i m i l a r i n d e s ig n .

B ut, a s we have s t a t e d e a r l i e r ,

t h e s e t e s t s c o n s i s t o f v e r b a l - p i c t o r a l re sp o n s e ite m s and do n o t m easure
d e d u c tiv e th in k in g p e r se .

Thus, t h i s ty p e o f t e s t would n o t be g e r -

m aine to th e problem o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .

49 The R e v ise d S ta n fo rd -B in e t S c ale.
1 9 3 7 ).

(C hicago:

Houghton M if f lin Company,

47

CHAPTER I I I

MATERIALS MD METHODS

What fo llo w s i s a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e t e s t p ro c e d u re s u s e d to
o b t a i n d a t a on th e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s p o s s e s s e d by th e p o p u la tio n s t e s t e d
( H a tu r a l S c ie n c e S tu d e n ts ) i n r e g a r d to what th e y th i n k i s l o g i c a l r e a ­
s o n in g .
The m a t e r ia ls c o n s is t e d o f th r e e b a s ic ty p e s o f t e s t s which were
g iv e n i n fo u r d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s :
1.

Type A t e s t

p ro c e d u re : a n a ly s is o f raw d a ta , where th e t e s t e e

was r e q u ir e d to su p p ly r e l e v a n t f a c t s .
2.

Type B t e s t

p ro c e d u re : th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f l o g i c a l q u e s tio n ­

n a ire s .
Hype Bis

r e q u i r e s th e t e s t e e to d e c id e w hether a p a r t i c u l a r
b i t o f d is c o u r s e i s re a s o n a b le o r n o t.

(Type 332:

m u ltip le c h o ic e ty p e o f t e s t .

Ho t e s t was g iv e n

w hich u s e d t h i s m ethod e x c lu s iv e ly .

When mul­

t i p l e c h o ic e ite m s were g iv e n th e y were p r e ­
s e n te d w ith in th e Type B1 t e s t )
3.

Type C t e s t

p ro c e d u re : a n a ly s is o f raw d a ta , where th e t e s t e e

was p r o v id e d w ith r e le v a n t f a c t s .
A ll t e s t s o f a l l s t u d i e s a re in c lu d e d w ith in th e Append!x.

Ex­

am ples o f each ty p e o f t e s t and th e m ethod o f a n a ly s is i s g iv e n as f o l ­
low s.

48

B ecause o f th e “b r e v ity o f th e Type A t e s t i t i s g iv e n i n i t s
e n tire ty , vi z .,
QUESTIONNAIRE
INSTRUCTIONS; T h is q u e s tio n n a ir e alm s to f in d o u t, i n a
g e n e r a l way, what you remember about some o f th e i d e a s
w hich were p r e s e n t e d to you l a s t term i n NS 181. In p a r ­
t i c u l a r , t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e c o n c e rn s i t s e l f w ith th e
i d e a s ab o u t h e r e d i t y .
A lthough we w ould l i k e to h a v e you s ig n y o u r name,
y o u w i l l n o t be g ra d e d on t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e . The
re m a rk s you make w i l l n o t in f lu e n c e y o u r g ra d e i n any
m anner w h a ts o e v e r.
I n one o f th e la b s tu d i e s l a s t term , one o f th e id e a s
we w anted to com m unicate to you was t h a t one u n d e r ly in g
th e mechanism o f dom inance and r e c e s s iv e n e s s o f some
g e n e s . 3&r way o f s u p p ly in g e v id e n c e to s u p p o rt t h i s
i d e a a p e d ig r e e c h a r t was p r e s e n te d i n th e m anual.
T h is c h a r t ( l i g u r e A) h a s b een g iv e n below .

The t r a i t i n q u e s tio n i s e i t h e r dom inant o r r e c e s ­
s iv e , and n o t a b le n d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . What you a r e
a sk e d to do i s to e x p la in why in d iv i d u a l I I - 3 m ust be
re c e s s iv e .

-D

I.
II.

1

2

2

4

O
1

5

f ig u r e A
EXPLANATION;

The th i n g to n o t i c e i n th e fo llo w in g example i s th e m ethod o f
a n a ly s is .

The sam ple d is c o u r s e i s n o t in te n d e d a s t y p i c a l , th e m ethod

49

o f a n a ly s is i s .

The " e x p la n a tio n ” ■which i s ask ed f o r m ight ap p ear a s

f o llo w s :
Sample D isc o u rse
I n sim p le dom inance, th e t r a i t s which a r e p a s s e d on
to th e o f f s p r i n g a r e e i t h e r dom inant o r r e c e s s i v e h a t
n o t h o th . T h is w ould he l i k e a lb in is m , brown ey es, o r
ta lln e s s in peas.
th e

And we know i t to he t r u e t h a t th e t r a i t a p p e a rs
h a t n o t i n e i t h e r p a r e n t, v i z . ,

in

o —-T— a
<s>

How assum e t h e t r a i t to he dom inant. I f t h i s i s
t r u e , th e n i t m ust a ls o he tr u e t h a t th e p a r e n t s are
r e c e s s i v e f o r t h i s t r a i t , b ecau se t h e i r ph en o ty p e d i f ­
f e r s from th e
i n d i v i d u a l . B u t, i f th e t r a i t were
dom in an t, th e n th e p a r e n ts m ust a ls o he dom inant a s no
r e c e s s i v e p a r e n t s can y i e l d dom inant o f f s p r i n g .
T h is im p lie s t h a t upon th e assu m p tio n tha,t th e t r a i t
i s dom inant, we a r e l e d to th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e
p a r e n t s a r e b o th dom inant and r e c e s s i v e .
Since t h i s
c o n c lu s io n i s im p o s s ib le , i t fo llo w s th a t th e c h a ra c ­
t e r i s t i c i n q u e s tio n i s n o t dom inant. And s in c e th e
t r a i t m ust he dom inant o r r e c e s s i v e , i t fo llo w s t h a t
t h e t r a i t must he r e c e s s iv e . Here we have an in s ta n c e ,
th e n , w here th e p h en o ty p e o f th e f^ d i f f e r e d from h o th
p a r e n t s and t h a t i t s g en o ty p e h a d to he homozygous
re c e s s iv e .

A l o g i c a l a n a l y s is o f th e above d is c u s s io n shows t h a t two v a l i d
form s o f i n f e r e n c e were u s e d to com m unicate th e id e a .
t h e l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e a p p e a rs as fo llo w s :
1.

PVR

2.

P D (P* ~ F )

S.

— ( F .~ F )

4.

p

In a b b r e v ia te d form

50

5.

£ - D 3 h]

6.

E

The two v a l i d form s o f in f e r e n c e a r e :
1.

Modus T o lle n s :

P

D

Q

-Q
^ P
2.

P OQ

Modus P o n en s:
P

Q
T hese v a l i d form s o f in f e r e n c e r e p r e s e n t v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s ,

And

th e s e a r e th e ty p e s o f p a t t e r n s so u g h t f o r among th e N a tu ra l S cien ce
s tu d e n t s .

In th e Type B t e s t , a s i n th e Ofype A, l o g i c a l q u e s tio n n a ir e s were
c o n s tr u c t e d in such a f a s h io n a s to o b t a in
p e r s o n w ith r e s p e c t to what he ta k e s to

th e v a l i d i t y
he re a s o n a b le d

p a tte rn s o f
is c o u rs e .

50

a
Two

ty p e s a r e g iv e n .
Type B l.
EXPLANATION: These problem s a r e d e sig n e d to h e lp u s
f in d o u t some th in g s about o u r m ethods o f te a c h in g you a
few i d e a s ab o u t N a tu r a l S cien ce l a s t term .
We a l l know t h a t some o f you g o t Af s
and some o f you g o t low er th a n Af s. We
com m unicated to a v ery h ig h d eg ree w ith
r e c e iv e d A’ s, and c o r re s p o n d in g ly , have
m u n ic a te d to a l e s s e r d eg ree w ith th o s e
c e iv e d l e s s th a n A.

f o r th e c o u rse
have a p p a r e n tly
th o s e o f you who
a p p a r e n tly com­
o f you who r e ­

50 iphis p a r t i c u l a r ty p e o f q u e s tio n n a ir e i s analogous to th e q u e s tio n ­
n a i r e o f Morgan and Morgan (page 19 a b o v e ), and L e ffo rd (page 40
a b o v e ).

51

We w ant to f i n d o u t i f t h e r e i s som ething i n o u r manner
o f p r e s e n t a t i o n w hich w ould p o s s ib ly ac c o u n t f o r t h i s
v a r i a t i o n i n com m unication.
A lthough we w ould l i k e to h av e you s ig n y o u r name, you
w i l l n o t he g ra d e d on t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e . The rem arks
you make w i l l n o t i n f l u e n c e y o u r g ra d e i n any manner
w h a ts o e v e r.
B ecause o f o u r alm o st c o n s ta n t ex p o su re to th e s u b je c t
m a tte r o f N a tu r a l S cien ce we a r e som etim es i n c l i n e d to
make s ta te m e n ts w hich ap p ear r e a s o n a b le to u s b u t y e t
a p p e a r u n re a s o n a b le to you. We f e e l t h a t th e d e g re e o f
c o rre s p o n d e n c e betw een what we ta k e to be re a s o n a b le
d is c o u r s e and what you ta k e to be re a s o n a b le d is c o u r s e
i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to th e amount o f com m unication
w hich i s ta k in g p la c e .
DIRECTIONS: The s ta te m e n ts below r e p r e s e n t h y p o th e tic a l
l e c t u r e o r l a b d is c o u r s e . C o n sid er each s e t o f s ta te m e n ts
as c o m p le te u n i t s o f d is c o u r s e .
I f you th in k th e p o in t
b e in g made i s p r e s e n t e d i n a re a s o n a b le m anner, b la c k e n
y o u r answ er s h e e t in th e f i r s t sp a c e . I f you th in k th e
p o in t b e in g made i s p r e s e n te d i n an u n re a s o n a b le m anner,
b la c k e n th e seco n d sp a c e .
1. "You r e c a l l t h a t H ardin ( t e x t ) s a id t h a t th e c a t e s b e ia n a were f r o g s . And to d ay i n l e c t u r e we have ta lk e d
ab o u t f r o g s . Among o th e r th in g s , we s a id t h a t f ro g s w ere
s e x u a l. P u t t i n g th e s e b i t s o f in fo r m a tio n to g e th e r , we
a r e now i n a p o s i t i o n to say t h a t th e c a te s b e ia n a a re
s e x u a l."
A l o g i c a l a n a l y s is o f th e above d is c o u r s e shows t h e u s e o f a s y l l o ­
gism to com m unicate th e i d e a t h a t " c a te s b e ia n a a r e s e x u a l."

I f th e d i s ­

c o u rs e was m arked " r e a s o n a b le " , t h i s would i n d i c a t e t h a t th e t e s t e e
p o s s e s s e d th e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n o f s y llo g is m .
i s e x p re s s e d as f o llo w s :

I n t h i s c a s e , th e p a t t e r n

52

2.
" Ih e n we w ere w orking i n o u r la b m anuals we hypo­
t h e s i z e d as to what th e "gene" a c t u a l l y was.
Some o f
you s a id i t was c a r r i e d ^ n th e chromosome and o t h e r s
o f you s a i d i t was th e chromosome. Now you r e c a l l t h a t
y o u r l a h i n s t r u c t o r d id n o t d e c id e f o r you w hich o f
th e s e was th e c o r r e c t h y p o th e s is .
O f a l l th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s c o n c e rn in g th e n a tu r e o f
th e g en e, i t a p p e a re d to u s t h a t th e above two were
th e m ost l i k e l y - i t was e i t h e r one o r th e o t h e r .
A f te r w orking f o r two o r th r e e weeks on h e r e d i t y , we
d is c o v e re d i n th e la b o r a to r y t h a t g en es and chromosomes
w ere d i f f e r e n t th i n g s . Upon f in d in g t h i s o u t we c o u ld
r e a s o n a b ly say t h a t g en es w ere c a r r i e d in. th e chromo­
som es."
An a n a l y s is o f t h e above shows th e u s e o f a v a l i d form o f i n f e r e n c e
known a s Modus P onens, v i z . ,
1.

C VI

2.

~C 3 I

3.

—C
I

3.
" In g e n e t i c s i f b la c k was dom inant to w h ite , and
brown ey es was dom inant to b lu e e y e s, th e n a c r o s s in g
betw een two homozygous b la c k c a t s sh o u ld n o t g iv e any
■white o f f s p r i n g .
B ut, su p p o sin g we d id g e t some w h ite
o f f s p r i n g . I t i s c o n s is t e n t to say , i n t h i s c a s e , t h a t
b la c k i s dom inant to w h ite , and t h a t brown eyes i s domi­
n a n t to b lu e e y e s ."
The c o r r e c t answ er to t h i s i s t h a t i t i s n o t r e a s o n a b le .
shows th e Modus T b lle n s law to be in v o lv e d , v i z . ,
(d •

b)

. 3 . ~ vr

w
~

(D • B)

Type 52. (same E x p la n a tio n a s i n Type B1 above; t h i s
k in d o f ite m was g iv e n o n ly a s a p a r t o f th e Type B1
te s t)

A n a ly s is

53

EIRECTIONS: In th e p ro b le m s g iv e n below* you a r e ask ed
to i d e n t i f y u n s t a t e d a ssu m p tio n s in an argum ent. I f th e
l e t t e r c o rre s p o n d in g to th e assu m p tio n you ch o o se f o r an
argum ent i s l i s t e d a f t e r th e argum ent, draw a c i r c l e
aro u n d i t .
I f t h a t l e t t e r i s n o t l i s t e d , draw a c i r c l e
aro u n d "none o f t h e s e ."
ASSUMPTIONS
A. P r i m i t i v e an im a ls a r e s e x u a l a n im a ls.
B. Sexual a n im a ls a r e p r i m i t i v e a n im a ls.
C. P r im i t i v e an im als a r e f r o g s .
D. S exual an im a ls a r e f r o g s .
ARGUMENT
P ro g s a r e s e x u a l f o r i t i s w e ll known t h a t th e y a r e
p r i m i t i v e a n im a ls.
R e q u ire s assu m p tio n A B

0

D None o f th e s e .

The assu m p tio n n e c e s s a r y f o r th e v a l i d i t y o f th e above argum ent i s
assu m p tio n A.

I f m arked a c c o r d in g ly , t h i s would i n d i c a t e t h a t th e m arker

p o s s e s s e d th e law o f s y llo g is m a s a v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n .

I n t h i s c a s e , th e

p a t t e r n a p p e a rs as fo llo w s :

^x

®x

ASSUMPTIONS
A.
B.
C.
D.

Unseen t h in g s may e x i s t .
U n o b serv a b le th in g s a r e im a g in a ry .
U nseen t h in g s w hich may e x i s t a r e im a g in a ry .
Im ag in ary th in g s a r e u n o b s e rv a b le .

ARGUMENT
S in ce gen es have n e v e r been seen i t fo llo w s t h a t
th e y a re im a g in a ry .
R e q u ire s assu m p tio n A B

C

D None o f th e s e .

54

The a ssu m p tio n
is

a n o th e r exam ple o f

n e c e s s a r y f o r t h i s argum ent i s assu m p tio n B.

T h is

th e s y llo g is m , and i t s form a p p e a rs a s fo llo w s :

<3* ^
I*
G* 3

*x

In th e Type C t e s t , th e m ethod o f a n a ly s is was th e same a s f o r
Type A.

The Type C t e s t d i f f e r e d , how ever, i n p ro v id in g th e t e s t e e w ith

th e n e c e s s a r y r e l e v a n t f a c t s r e q u i r e d to re a c h th e r e q u e s te d c o n c lu s io n .
I n Type C, th e t e s t e e was rem inded o f
he

h a d h ad i n g e n e t i c s udiere th e id e a o f

a p r e v io u s la b o r a to r y stu d y

th e stu d y in v o lv e d th e two e p i-

s t a t i c g en e s w hich c o n t r o l th e p ig m e n ta tio n g en es.

At t h a t p o in t i n h i s

s tu d y , th e t e s t e e was u n d e r th e im p re s s io n t h a t th e e p i s t a t i c genes were
t h e g en es f o r p ig m e n ta tio n .

The t e s t e e was ask ed to e x p la in how i t was

t h a t “ a g iv e n i n d i v i d u a l must have two g en es f o r s k in p ig m e n ta tio n ."
He was p r o v id e d w ith a p e d ig r e e c h a r t he had h a d i n th e p r e v io u s la b o r a ­
t o r y stu d y a s w e ll as th e n e c e s s a r y g e n e tic p r o p o s itio n s r e q u ir e d to
e x p l a i n t h e r e q u e s te d c o n c lu s io n .

Thus, Typ© C t e s t was th e same as

Type A, e x c e p t in Type C th e n e c e s s a r y f a c t s were p ro v id e d w ith in th e
te s t its e lf .

The above t e s t s and m ethods c o n s t i t u t e th e p ro c e d u re s employed f o r
g e t t i n g a t th e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s o f th e s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n s i n N a tu r a l
S c ie n c e r e g a r d in g what th e y th in k i s l o g i c a l re a s o n in g .

CHAPTER 1 7

DATA AND CONCLUSIONS

The d a t a i n t h i s r e s e a r c h w ere o b ta in e d i n f iv e d i f f e r e n t s t u d i e s .
Each o f th e f i r s t fo u r s tu d i e s r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t a tte m p ts to o b ta in
r e l i a b l e in f o r m a tio n r e g a r d in g th e e x is te n c e o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s w ith in
t h e p o p u la tio n s i n v e s t i g a t e d .

The f o u r th stu d y employed a more r e f i n e d

t e s t in s tr u m e n t fo rm u la te d upon th e r e s u l t s o f th e f i r s t th r e e s t u d i e s .
The f i f t h stu d y p r e s e n t s a com parison o f th e r e s u l t s o f a lo g ic t e s t
g iv e n i n Study 3 b u r - I w ith th e t e s t e e s R eading C om prehension, V erbal
A b ilitie s ,

and Grade P o in t A verages.

There w ere a t o t a l o f 1390 s tu d e n ts in v o lv e d i n th e r e s e a r c h ,
and a t o t a l o f 23 d i f f e r e n t t e s t in s tr u m e n ts .

Tw> o f th e t e s t i n s t r u ­

m ents w ere o f th e Type A and C t e s t s , tw en ty -o n e were v a r i a t i o n s o f th e
Type B t e s t .

A ll forms o f th e Type B t e s t were c o n s tr u c te d w ith in th e

fram ew ork o f th r e e p a r t i c u l a r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , nam ely, Msdus Ponens
(MP), Modus T o lle n s (MT), and S y llo g ism ( S y l l ) .

Type A and C t e s t s

w ere em ployed in Study One, and Type B t e s t s were u se d i n S tu d ie s Two,
T h re e , and I b u r.
The work o f t h i s t h e s i s can be view ed as p r o v id in g two m ajor
c o n t r i b u t i o n s f o r r e s e a r c h o f t h i s ty p e .

One i s th e developm ent o f a

t e s t in s tru m e n t t h a t f i n a l l y showed r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s o f s ig n i f i c a n c e
i n Study Tbur, and t h e seco n d i s th e p r o d u c tio n o f s i g n i f i c a n t d a ta
b e a r in g d i r e c t l y on p a r t i c u l a r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s in v o lv e d i n l o g i c a l
r e a s o n in g .

Both o f th e s e f a c t o r s a r e m u tu a lly i m p li c a tiv e .

In o r d e r

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to o b t a i n e v id e n c e t h a t v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s a r e e x i s t e n t i n th e p o p u la tio n ,
an in s tr u m e n t m ust he d e v is e d t h a t w ill m easure th e s e p a t t e r n s w ith r e ­
lia b ility .

Thus, each o f t h e t e s t in s tr u m e n ts em ployed i n S tu d ie s One

th ro u g h I b u r w ere c o n s tr u c t e d i n th e l i g h t o f e i t h e r d e f i c i e n c i e s o r
o u t r i g h t m is ta k e s o f t h e p r e v io u s t e s t .
Study One, f o r exam ple, em ployed t e s t in s tr u m e n ts t h a t c a l l e d
f o r l o g i c a l a n a ly s is o f raw d is c o u r s e .

I s t a r t e d o u t w ith t h i s ap p ro ach

b e c a u se I f e l t , and s t i l l f e e l , t h a t i f any i n v e s t i g a t o r i s g o in g to
a s s e r t t h a t p a t t e r n s o f l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g e x i s t in th e p o p u la tio n , th e n
t h e s e p a t t e r n s must be p h y s ic a ll y e v id e n t i n a c tu a l d is c o u r s e .

However,

t h e r e s u l t s o f Study One q u ic k ly ta u g h t me t h a t t h i s was to be c o n s id e re d
as an i d e a l , and, a lth o u g h i t was much to be d e s ir e d , i t s u f f e r e d from
two n o te w o rth y d i f f i c u l t i e s .

One was grammar, th e o th e r th e p re p o n d e r­

ance o f argum ents h a v in g u n s t a t e d b u t n e c e s s a r y p re m ise s ( to w it, enthymemic arg u m e n t).

Both o f th e s e p la c e d a burden upon th e i n v e s t i g a t o r

w ith r e s p e c t to i n t e r p r e t i n g what i t was t h a t th e t e s t e e in te n d e d to say
i n h i s d is c o u r s e .

Thus, i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r te n d s to

become a f a c t o r i n th e d a ta .

Two exam ples a r e g iv e n below as an i l l u s ­

t r a t i o n o f th e ty p e s o f r e s p o n s e s o b ta in e d on th e raw d a t a t e s t s .
The f i r s t i s an a c t u a l example o f a t e s t e e 's re s p o n s e to th e ly p e
A te s t.

I t i l l u s t r a t e s some grammar d i f f i c u l t y i n i n t e r p r e t i n g th e i n ­

t e n t o f th e t e s t e e .

I n t h i s t e s t th e t e s t e e was rem inded o f a p r e v io u s

l a b o r a t o r y stu d y h e h a d e x p e rie n c e d i n g e n e tic s where th e id e a o f th e
stu d y was c o n c e rn e d w ith th e mechanism o f dominance and r e c e s s iv e n e s s
o f some g e n e s .

The t e s t p ro v id e d th e t e s t e e w ith a p e d ig re e c h a r t and

h i s t a s k was to e x p la in why one o f th e f i in d iv i d u a ls m ust be r e c e s s i v e . 51

51 The c o m p le te t e s t i s g iv e n on p ag es 48-49 above.

57

The w ords e n c lo s e d i n b r a c k e ts a r e mine.
I t can o n ly he a r e c e s s i v e ^ co n clu sio n ) , becau se a
r e c e s s i v e i s c a r r i e d by b o th P a r e n ts and t h e i r C h ild re n
Can o n ly c a r r y t h e same t r a i t as th e p a r e n t.’ I f th e
p a r e n t were C a rry in g r e c e s s iv e gene o n ly th e n Can o n ly
tr a n s m i t r e c e s s i v e gene to t h e i r C h ild re n . In t h i s c a s e
b o th p a r e n t s h av e a dom inant gene. I I 3 h a s to be r e ­
c e s s i v e i n t h a t i t C a r r ie s o n ly r e c e s s i v e g en es one from
e a c h P a r e n t . I f i t C a r r ie d one o r two Dominant genes i t
w ould be th e same a s b o th p a r e n t s (p re m is e ^ . When th e
o f f s p r i n g C a r r i e s r e c e s s iv e genes i t h a s a d i f f e r e n t
a p p e a ra n c e th a n e i t h e r o f th e p a r e n t s (p re m ise ^ .
L o g ic a l a n a l y s is o f t h i s d is c o u r s e i n d i c a t e s th e MP law to be
p re s e n t:

( t h i s s ta n d s as an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f i n t e n t by th e s tu d e n t)

I f th e o f f s p r i n g a r e d i f f e r e n t i n phenotype from th e
p a r e n t s , th e n th e o f f s p r i n g a re r e c e s s i v e .
(p re m is e i)
I I - 3 i s d i f f e r e n t i n p h en o ty p e from th e p a r e n ts .
(p re m ise 2 ) T h e re fo re , I I - 3 i s r e c e s s i v e .
(c o n c lu s io n )
In sym bolic form i t would lo o k l i k e t h i s :

P n -3
R lI -3
The fo llo w in g i s an exam ple o f a t e s t e e 's re s p o n s e to th e Type C
te s t.

I t i l l u s t r a t e s th e p o in t t h a t enthymemic argum ent was f re q u e n t in

t h e raw d a t a ty p e o f t e s t .

I n th e Type C t e s t th e ta s k o f th e t e s t e e was

to e x p la in how i t i s t h a t a g iv e n in d iv id u a l must have two genes f o r s k in
p ig m e n ta tio n .

He was p r o v id e d w ith a p e d ig r e e c h a r t h e h a d been exposed

to i n a p r e v io u s l a b o r a t o r y s tu d y as w e ll as p r o v id e d w ith th e n e c e s s a r y
g e n e tic p r o p o s i t i o n s r e q u i r e d to re a c h th e r e q u e s te d c o n c lu s io n .

H is

d is c o u r s e was th e n a n a ly z e d to see i f i t c o n ta in e d any v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s . 52

52 The Type C t e s t i s d e s c r ib e d on page
f u l l i n th e A ppendix.

54

above, and p r e s e n te d i n

58

The words e n c lo s e d i n b r a c k e ts w ith in th e d is c o u r s e a re m ine.
Each i n d i v i d u a l i n F ig u re A, a s w e ll a s e v ery in d i v i d u a l ,
m ust h av e two g en e s f o r s k in p ig m e n ta tio n [co n clu sio n ] .
T h is i s b eca u se each p a r e n t g iv e s to i t s o f f s p r i n g one o f
h i s g iv e n g e n e s, th u s m aking him an a lb in o o r a w h ite
[p o s s ib le p rem ise] . I f each p e rs o n o n ly had one gene f o r
s k in p ig m e n ta tio n , th e norm al p e o p le would more o r l e s s
make a lb in is m e x t i n c t
[premise] . The one gene f o r a l ­
b in ism o r s k in p ig m e n ta tio n i s bound to be r e l e a s e d in
some manner th r u 1 g ene.
l o g i c a l a n a l y s is o f t h i s d is c o u r s e i s g iv e n as fo llo w s .
I n th e " p o s s ib le p rem ise" i t i s n o t c l e a r i f th e t e s t e e w ants to
h av e t h i s rem ark s ta n d as an a n te c e d e n t to h i s " c o n c lu s io n " , o r i f he
means i t to s ta n d a s an a n te c e d e n t to " th u s making him an a lb in o o r a
w h ite ."

The l a t t e r i s what he a c t u a l l y s a id .

However, he d id u s e th e

words " t h i s i s b ecau se" which im p lie s t h a t t h i s was to s ta n d as th e
r e a s o n f o r h i s " c o n c lu s io n " .
A lso , i f we i n t e r p r e t th e " p o s s ib le p rem ise" a s a p r o p o s itio n
i n t e g r a l to th e argum ent, i t must be i n t e r p r e t e d to mean " i f each p a r e n t
c o n t r i b u t e s an a lb in o gene to t h e i r o f f s p r i n g , th e n th e o f f s p r i n g w i l l
be an a lb i n o ."

However, f o r t h i s to have l o g i c a l f o r c e , a n o th e r p re m ise

m ust be assum ed, nam ely, t h a t " th e s e p a r t i c u l a r p a r e n ts d id c o n tr ib u te
an a lb in o gene to t h e i r o f f s p r i n g ."

But th e f a c t i s t h a t th e t e s t e e

s a i d n e i t h e r o f th e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s .

M oreover, even i f we i n t e r p r e t th e

t e s t e e to mean " i f each p a r e n t c o n t r ib u t e s an a lb in o gene to t h e i r o f f ­
s p r i n g , th e n th e o f f s p r i n g w il l be an a lb in o " , th e p r o p o s i tio n " th e s e
p a r t i c u l a r p a r e n t s d id c o n t r ib u te an a lb in o gene to t h e i r o f f s p r in g "
s ta n d s a s enthym em ic.

ALso, th e t e s t e e s t i l l h a s n o t a c t u a l l y s t a t e d

t h a t th e o f f s p r i n g w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , have two genes f o r s k in pig m en ta­
tio n .

As t h e in v e s tig a /to r , I w ould say t h a t t h i s i s im p lie d h e r e , b u t

59

th e p o i n t i s I w ould he m aking th e i m p lic a tio n n o t th e t e s t e e .

The

s ta te m e n t m arked a s a ’’p re m is e 11 i s e x p re s s e d i n l o g i c a l sym bolism a s
f o llo w s :
0 3 E
But f o r t h i s to hav e l o g i c a l f o rc e , we m ust assume th e t e s t e e to have
u n d e r s to o d th e fo llo w in g p r o p o s itio n s w h ile n o t b o th e r in g to w r ite them
down:
1.

0 3

E

2.

p re m ise
( a lb in is m i s n o t e x t i n c t )

3.

0

( t h e r e f o r e , p e o p le do n o t have o n ly one gene)

4. ~ o ^

T

( i f p e o p le do n o t have one gene f o r s k in pigmen­
t a t i o n , th e n th e y have two g en es)

5.

T
(p e o p le have two genes f o r s k in p ig m e n ta tio n )

Thus, t h e p o in t o f t h i s second example h a s been i l l u s t r a t e d ,
n am ely, th e e x is te n c e o f enthymemic argum ent i n th e raw d a ta ty p e o f
te s ts .
The raw d a ta ty p e o f t e s t in s tru m e n t h ad th e two d i f f i c u l t i e s o f
grammar and enthymemic argum ent a s s o c ia te d w ith i t .
te n d e d to make th e

Both o f th e s e f a c t o r s

i n v e s t i g a t o r an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e d a ta by p la c in g a

b u rd e n on him i n t r y i n g to i n t e r p r e t what i t was t h a t th e t e s t e e a c t u a l l y
m eant.

But th e f a c t i s t h a t what I i n t e r p r e t th e t e s t e e to mean and what

h e a c t u a l l y m eant may be two d i f f e r e n t t h in g s .

The o n ly a c tu a l f a c t s th e

i n v e s t i g a t o r h a s to work w ith a re th e v e ry words th e t e s t e e u t t e r s ( o r
w r ite s ) .

When th e

i n v e s t i g a t o r s t a r t s making judgm ents ab o u t ’’w e ll, t h i s

i s what h e m eant” ,

th e n I t h i n k we a r e no lo n g e r i n th e re a lm o f s c ie n c e .

M oreover, i t i s a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t t h a t none o f th e p r e v io u s r e ­
s e a r c h on l o g i c a l r e a s o n in g by o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a s u t i l i z e d th e raw

60

d a t a ty p e o f t e s t in s tr u m e n t.
c e p t i o n to t h i s r u l e .

The work o f Dr. Lawson was th e o n ly ex­

But i t m ust be rem em bered t h a t he was w orking

w ith a g ro u p o f h ig h ly e d u c a te d i n d i v i d u a l s employed a s members o f a
u n iv e r s ity fa c u lty .
The Type A t e s t was g iv e n to

a p o p u la tio n o f 24 s tu d e n ts .

Only

two k in d s o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s w ere e v id e n t from th e d a ta , nam ely, MP
and MT.

E ig h t s tu d e n ts o u t o f tw e n ty -fo u r e x h ib ite d th e s e form s (33$

o f th e p o p u l a t i o n ) , f i v e e x h ib it in g
The nype C t e s t was g iv e n to

MP and th r e e e x h ib it in g MT.
a p o p u la tio n o f 28 s tu d e n t s .

o n ly th e two v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s o f MP and MT were

Again,

e v id e n t from th e d a ta .

T here was an i n c r e a s e , how ever, i n th e p e r c e n ta g e o f s tu d e n ts who d i s ­
p la y e d th e s e fo rm s, to w it, 50$ o f th e p o p u la tio n .

Thus, th e r e was an

i n c r e a s e i n th e q u a n tity o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s o v e r th e Type A t e s t r e ­
s u lts .

The Type A t e s t ask ed th e s tu d e n t to e x p la in a g iv e n c o n c lu s io n

w h ile n o t p r o v id in g th e n e c e s s a r y f a c t s .

The Type C t e s t gave b o th th e

c o n c lu s io n and th e f a c t s , and asked th e s tu d e n t to p u t them to g e th e r
lo g ic a lly .
Thus, w h ile th e raw d a ta ty p e o f t e s t in s tru m e n t h a s c e r t a i n d i f ­
f i c u l t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith i t ,

th e fo llo w in g s p e c i f i c c o n c lu s io n s can be

drawn from th e d a ta o b ta in e d

i n Study One.

1.

Only two v a l i d i t y

la tio n s te s te d .

p a t t e r n s , MP and MT, a p p e a re d in th e popu­

The p a t t e r n s o c c u rre d more f r e q u e n tly w here th e n e c e s ­

s a r y f a c t s w ere g iv e n th a n where th e y w ere n o t.
T h is r e s u l t s u g g e s ts th e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f ne­
c e s s a r y id e a s i s an i n t e g r a l

f a c t o r i n th e a b i l i t y to e x h i b it a g iv e n

v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n r e l a t i v e to

some c o n c lu s io n . T h is h y p o th e s is i s

61

I n d i c a t e d to "be t r u e a s shown "by r e s u l t s o f th e Type C t e s t o f Study One,
a s w e ll as th e r e s u l t s o f S tu d ie s Two, T hree, and I b u r .
th e h y p o th e s is i s

And, w hereas

a n y th in g h u t s t a r t l i n g , I th i n k t h i s i s th e f i r s t

tim e

t h a t d a t a h a s been p r e s e n t e d in i t s b e h a lf .
2.
p la y e d .

I t i s n o te w o rth y t h a t o t h e r form s o f in f e r e n c e were n o t d i s ­
W hile t h i s t e s t a lo n e does n o t, i n any s e n se , c o n firm th e p o s­

s i b i l i t y t h a t th e r e a r e o n ly a c e r t a i n few forms o f v a l i d in f e r e n c e em­
p lo y e d i n r e a s o n in g , nam ely, MP, 1®, and S y ll, th e d a ta do p r o v id e one
i n s t a n c e w here t h i s may be t r u e .
3.

The f a c t c a n n o t be av o id e d t h a t when th e s tu d e n t was assum ed

to have th e s u b je c t m a t t e r (a s i n th e Type A t e s t ) o n ly 2 q$ o f th e popu­
l a t i o n showed a b i l i t y f o r th e MP form o f in f e r e n c e .

But when t h i s know­

le d g e was p r o v id e d f o r him (a s i n th e Type C t e s t ) , th e t e s t s showed an
i n c r e a s e o f MP up to 46$.

And when we lo o k a t th e r e s u l t s o f Study

t h e e x h i b i t i o n o f MP in c r e a s e d to 100$.

That i s , no s tu d e n t f a i l e d

Two,
to

g e t a t l e a s t 30$ o f t h i s ite m r i g h t , and 26$ o f th e p o p u la tio n g o t 80$
c o rre c t.
4.

A n a ly s is o f th e raw d is c o u r s e from Type A and C t e s t s showed

a p re p o n d e ra n c e o f enthymemic argum ent among th o se t e s t e e s who d is p la y e d
v a lid ity p a tte rn s .

A lso, som etim es th e gram m atical c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e

t e s t e e 1s s e n te n c e s c a u s e d d i f f i c u l t y i n th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f i n t e n t .
P r im a r i l y b ecau se o f t h e s e two f a c t o r s , su b seq u en t t e s t s employed th e
Type B form i n th e hope o f g a in in g an in s tru m e n t w ith g r e a t e r r e l i a ­
b ility .

In Study Two th e t e s t in s tru m e n t c o n s is te d o f a l o g i c a l q u e s tio n n a ir e

62

( th e Type B t e s t ) .

The t e s t e e was p r e s e n te d w ith a s e r i e s o f s ta te m e n ts

i n eac h t e s t ite m and h i s t a s k was to d e c id e , i n each c a s e , w hether th e
d is c o u r s e was •'re a so n a b le " o r " n o t r e a s o n a b le " .

T here w ere 30 ite m s on

t h e t e s t . 53
The t e s t in c o r p o r a te d th e t h r e e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s o f MP, MT, and
^ rll.

T here were 10 ite m s p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n .

was 362 s t u d e n t s .

The p o p u la tio n s iz e

The p ro b lem , a s i n a l l th e s tu d ie s , was to d eterm in e

t h e fre q u e n c y o f each o f th e s e p a t t e r n s i n th e p o p u la tio n .
The t e s t in s tr u m e n t o f Study Tm was nqy f i r s t a tte m p t a t th e con­
s t r u c t i o n o f a l o g i c a l q u e s tio n n a ir e .

Even though I made s e v e r a l m is­

t a k e s i n fo rm u la tin g t h e in s tr u m e n t, s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t s were d is ­
c l o s e d by t h e d a ta .
Only one s tu d e n t f a i l e d to o b ta in a t l e a s t one c o r r e c t answ er f o r
t h e MT form o f in f e r e n c e , w h ile a l l s tu d e n ts d e m o n stra te d some a b i l i t y
to u s e th e MP form .

T w e n ty -six p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n o b ta in e d a

maximum s c o re o f s i x t y p e r c e n t f o r MT and e ig h ty p e r c e n t f o r MP.
As i s i n d i c a t e d by th e means (x) in T able I , i t i s n o te d t h a t th e
se q u en c e in number o f c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s to th e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s p la c e s
MP f i r s t , MT second, and S y ll l a s t .
TABLE I
STATISTICS TOR EACH DISTRIBUTION OF STUD5T TWO
V a lid ity P a tte r n

53

Mean

S ta n d a rd D e v ia tio n

MP

7 .1 1 9

1.456

MT

6.129

1 .539

S y ll

4 .9 5 0

1 .8 6 0

a d e s c r i p t i o n o f T e st B i s g iv e n on p a g e s 50-54 above, and p r e s e n te d
i n f u l l i n th e A ppendix.

63

The f a c t t h a t Siyllogism showed th e lo w e st s c o re s would seem to he
c o n t r a r y to th e o p in io n t h a t i t i s th e one g r e a t law o f th o u g h t.

How^-

e v e r , th e a d d i t i o n a l e v id e n c e o b ta in e d i n Study T hree i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e
lo w ^ r l l s c o r e s h e r e were due to th e f a c t t h a t 5 o f th e t e s t ite m s f o r
S y ll were o f a m u l t i p l e 6 -c h o ic e ty p e .

Thus, each one o f th e s e ite m s

in v o lv e d 6 s e p a r a te ju d g m en ts by th e t e s t e e .

On th e o th e r hand, a l l o f

t h e MP and MT ite m s a sk e d th e t e s t e e to make one judgm ent on w h eth er th e
d is c o u r s e was r e a s o n a b le o r n o t, o r , i f a c o n c lu s io n fo llo w e d from th e
p re m is e s .

T h e re fo re , in th e m u ltip le c h o ic e ty p e o f ite m , th e t e s t e e h a d

1 /6 c h an ce o f g u e s s in g r i g h t .

In th e " re a s o n a b le ” - " n o t r e a s o n a b le ”

ty p e o f ite m , h e h a d l / 2 ch an ce o f g u e s s in g r i g h t .

M oreover, a s id e from

t h e f a c t o r o f g u e s s in g , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t w ith th e in c r e a s e d number o f
ju d g m en ts r e q u i r e d th e r e was an i n c r e a s e i n th e number o f e r r o r s .
The c h i e f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e s t a t i s t i c s t h a t com pared th e d i f ­
f e r e n c e s betw een t h e means o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h a t th e y p r o v id e e v i­
d ence t h a t th e r e i s a g e n u in e d i f f e r e n c e i n a b i l i t y to th in k l o g i c a l l y
r e l a t i v e to g iv e n forms o f in f e r e n c e , and t h a t some form s a re more common
th a n o t h e r s .

These co m p ariso n s a re g iv e n i n T able I I .
TABLE I I

VALUES NOR SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN THE MEANS NOR
THE VALIDITY PATTERNS ON STUDY TWO

MP and MT

8 .5 8 4

s ig n i f ic a n t

MT and S y ll

9.357

s ig n ific a n t

MP and S y ll

9 .663

s ig n ific a n t

64

B ecause th e s e v a lu e s f o r s ig n i f i c a n c e a re g r e a t e r th a n 2 .5 8 (<T5-),
th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een e a c h o f th e means i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e 1$ l e v e l
o f chance.

Thus, th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e means a r e s a id to be ’’r e a l "

an d n o t a t t r i b u t a b l e to a c c id e n ts o f sam p lin g .
S p e c if ic c o n c lu s io n s t h a t may be drawn from th e r e s u l t s o f Study
Two a r e a s fo llo w s :
1.
tio n .

The MP form o f i n f e r e n c e was th e most p r e v a le n t in th e p o p u la r

I t was fo llo w e d by MT and S y ll in t h a t o r d e r o f fre q u e n c y .
2.

I t i s n o te d t h a t i n t h i s ty p e o f t e s t (Type B), where th e f a c t s

and c o n c lu s io n were b o th g iv e n , t h a t th e r e was a marked in c r e a s e i n r e ­
sp o n se o f b o th MP and MT forms o f i n f e r e n c e .

The s tu d e n t was to d e c id e

w h eth er th e f a c t s and c o n c lu s io n s w ere p u t to g e th e r l o g i c a l l y .
3.
fo r

syll.

I t was a m ista k e to in c lu d e th e m u ltip le c h o ic e ty p e o f ite m s
T h is h ad t h e e f f e c t o f in tr o d u c in g th e f a c t o r o f h a v in g a

d i f f e r e n c e in number o f judgm ents r e q u ir e d o f th e t e s t e e .

In th e MP

and MT ite m s o n ly one judgm ent was r e q u ir e d p e r ite m , w h ile in th e S y ll
ite m s s i x ju d g m en ts w ere r e q u ir e d p e r ite m .

Thus, on th e b a s is o f ch an ce

a lo n e , t h i s would e x p la in why th e d a ta from t h i s t e s t showed S y ll to be
t h e l e a s t e x h ib ite d .
4.

In r e g a r d to th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e t e s t in s tru m e n t u s e d i n

Study Two - t h i s i s a n o th e r m a tte r .

Htfhether any t e s t o f l o g i c a l re a s o n ­

in g can be c o n s tr u c te d w hich would be a b s o lu te ly r e l i a b l e i s a q u e s tio n
n o t e a s i l y answ ered.

T?br exam ple, th e r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s o f th e above

t e s t f o r MP, MT, and S y ll were .0 7 , .0 0 , and .3 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
t h i s mean t h a t t h i s t e s t was w ith o u t v a lu e ?
cru estio n i s e a s i l y answ ered.

Does

Again, I do n o t th in k t h i s

65

On th e f a c e o f i t ,

th e s e i n d i c e s would ap p ear to he a la rm in g ly

s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t th e y seem to say t h a t th e t e s t in s tr u m e n ts employed
i n Study Two do n o t m easure what th e y a r e supposed to m easure.

In d i r e c t

c o n t r a d i c t i o n to t h i s i m p l i c a tio n , how ever, a re th e judgm ents h e l d "by
i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n th e f i e l d s o f p sy ch o lo g y , s t a t i s t i c s , and s o c io lo g y ,
( i b u r a u t h o r i t i e s a r e q u o ted b e lo w ).

In any c a s e , some e x p la n a tio n i s

in o rd e r.
M r s t and fo re m o s t, i t must he re c o g n iz e d t h a t th e s t a t i s t i c a l
fo rm u la s em ployed f o r o b ta in in g r e l i a b i l i t y numbers a r e p r e d i c a t e d upon
t h e n o rm al c u r v e .

The f a c t may be, how ever, t h a t th e d e c id e d ly psycho­

l o g i c a l phenomena t h a t a re s p e c i f i c a l l y b e in g t e s t e d f o r in t h i s r e s e a r c h
do n o t f o llo w th e norm al d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n .

The assu m p tio n o f th e

n o rm al d i s t r i b u t i o n o f com plex m en tal a b i l i t i e s h o ld s no n e c e s s a ry

re ­

l a t i o n s h i p w ith known i n e q u a l i t i e s r e g a r d in g th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s p e c ia l
a b ilitie s .

The p o in t i s t h a t some p e o p le a r e sim ply "sm arter*1 th a n o th e r

p e o p le .
However, t h i s p o i n t i s more f o r c e f u l l y p r e s e n te d by th e fo llo w in g
in v e s tig a to rs :
( a ) H. E. G -a rre tt, P r o f e s s o r o f P sy c h o lo g y , Colum bia tT n iv e rs ity .
But th e s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y o f o b ta in e d and p r o b a b i l i t y d is ­
t r i b u t i o n s sh o u ld n o t le a d u s to c o n clu d e th a t a l l d i s t r i b u t i o n s
o f m en tal and p h y s ic a l t r a i t s which e x h ib it a sy m m etrical form
h av e n e c e s s a r i l y a r i s e n th ro u g h th e o p e r a tio n o f th o s e p r i n c i p l e s
w hich g o v ern th e a p p e a ra n c e o f d ic e o r c o in c o m b in a tio n s. The
f a c t o r s w hich d e te rm in e m u sic a l a b i l i t y , l e t u s say, o r m echani­
c a l s k i l l a r e to o l i t t l e known to j u s t i f y th e assu m p tio n , a
p r i o r i , t h a t th e y com bine i n th e same p r o p o r tio n s as do th e
h e a d and t a i l c o m b in a tio n s i n "chance" d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f c o in s .
M oreover, th e p s y c h o lo g is t u s u a ll y c o n s tr u c t s h i s t e s t s w ith
t h e norm al h y p o th e s is d e f i n i t e l y i n m ind. The r e s u l t i n g sym­
m e t r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s to be ta k e n , th e n , as ev id e n c e o f th e

66

s u c c e s s o f h i s e f f o r t s r a t h e r th a n as c o n c lu s iv e p ro o f o f th e
"n o rm a lity * 1 o f t h e t r a i t "being m easured. The s e le c t io n o f th e
n orm al r a t h e r th a n some o th e r ty p e c u rv e i s s u f f i c i e n t l y war­
r a n t e d hy th e f a c t t h a t t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n g e n e r a lly does f i t
th e d a t a b e t t e r , and i s more u s e f u l . 5 4
(b ) D. C. J o n e s , fo rm e rly l e c t u r e r i n m ath em atics a t Durham U n iv e r s ity .
" . . . . A f t e r a l l , th e r e a l and o n ly j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r ch o o sin g
one c u rv e r a t h e r th a n a n o th e r to f i t any g iv e n o b s e r v a tio n s i s
t h a t i t does su c c e e d i n f i t t i n g them b e t t e r . But when th e f u r ­
t h e r q u e s tio n i s ask ed why th e norm al cu rv e sh o u ld su cceed in
d e s c r ib in g some r e s u l t s so w e ll, we m ust n o t be tem p ted by
an a lo g y to ru s h to th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e c a u s e s a t work a r e
n e c e s s a r i l y in d e p e n d e n t, and e q u a l, and so on. In s h o r t, th e
t h e o r e t i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n and th e e m p ir ic a l u s e o f th e norm al
c u rv e a r e two q u ite d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r s . 55
( c ) A. H. Hobbs, P r o f e s s o r o f S o cio lo g y , U n iv e r s ity o f P e n n s y lv a n ia .
I t h a s n e v e r been d e m o n stra te d t h a t th e assumed d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f la r g e num bers o f c a s e s o f d i s c r e t e , i n f i n i t e l y d i v i s i b l e
q u a n t i t i e s i s a p p lic a b le to human b e h a v io r. Many s o c i a l s c i ­
e n t i s t s lo o k down t h e i r n o se s c o n d e sc e n d in g ly when norm al human
b e h a v io r i s m e n tio n e d . An i n d i c a t i o n o f t h i s a t t i t u d e i s found
i n te x tb o o k s w here n o rm al, as a p p lie d to human b e in g s, i s f r e ­
q u e n tly p la c e d w ith in q u o ta tio n m arks. Yet th e s e same p e o p le
a c c e p t "norm al" c u rv e s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n as b e in g som ething r e a l .
The "norm al" c u rv e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f human b e h a v io r t r a i t s h a s
n e v e r been e s ta b li s h e d , and even fo r s p e c if ic q u a n t i t i e s i t i s
an a b s t r a c t i o n , b a s e d l a r g e l y on a f a i t h t h a t i t must be s o . . . .
B e fo re c o r r e l a t i o n s can have much m eaning, a number o f s te p s
m ust be ta k e n . The u n i t s in v o lv e d must be p r e c i s e l y d e fin e d
and th e y m ust be re d u c e d to q u a n t i t a t i v e , homogeneous, m easur­
a b l e te rm s . Human b e h a v io r sim ply h a s n o t been re d u c e d to such
te rm s . 'Wherever d e s i r e s , whims, h u n ch es, i n t u i t i o n s , h o p es,
f e a r s , em o tio n s, o r p r a c t i c a l l y any o th e r human t r a i t s a r e in ­
v o lv e d , th e r e i s no w a rra n t f o r s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t b ased on
p ro b a b i l i t y . 5 6
(d ) E. L. T h o rn d ik e.

54 Henry E. G a r r e t t , S t a t i s t i c s In P sy chology and E d u c a tio n . (Hew York:
Longmans, Green and Company, 1947), p . 112.
55 p. c. J o n e s , A T i r s t C ourse In S t a t i s t i c s . (Iondon: G. B e ll and Sons,
L t d ., 1 9 2 1 ), p . 233.
56 A. H. Hobbs, S o c ia l P roblem s and S c ie n tis m . H a r ris b u rg , P e n n s y lv a n ia :
The S ta c k p o le Company, 1953), pp. 229-230.

67

T here i s n o th in g a r b i t r a r y o r m y s te rio u s about v a r i a b i l i t y
w hich makes t h e s o - c a l l e d norm al ty p e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n a n e c e s ­
s i t y , o r any more r a t i o n a l th a n any o th e r s o r t , o r even more
to be e x p e c te d on a p r i o r i g ro u n d s. N a tu re does n o t abhor
i r r e g u l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n s .57

A n o th er p o in t c a n be made w ith r e s p e c t to th e " r e l i a b i l i t y "
p er se.

fo rm u la

I t would ap p ear t h a t one re a s o n f o r th e low r e l i a b i l i t y numbers

i n Study Two was b ecau se o f th e v a r ia n c e o r s p re a d o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
to be p r e c i s e , th e sq u a re o f th e s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n
outcom e o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y

Thus, th e

( r ) v a lu e s would seem to be more a f u n c tio n

o f th e s t a t i s t i c s in v o lv e d r a t h e r th a n th e d a ta

a lo n e .

To e x te n d any

t e s t on l o g i c to th e p o i n t where one would g e t a g ra d u a l f a l l i n g o f f a t
b o th s id e s o f th e mean (x ) - th u s , g e t a l a r g e r s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n , may
a c t u a l l y be more u n r e l i a b l e , i n term s o f th e f a c t s in v o lv e d , th a n any
a r t i f i c i a l l y o b ta in e d " r e l i a b l e " number o b ta in e d by so d o in g .
B e r tr a n d R u s s e ll makes th e p o in t somewhere t h a t "m ost p e o p le would
s o o n e r d ie th a n t h i n k - i n f a c t th e y d o."

H is p o in t i s t h a t th in k in g

a c t i v i t y i s p ro b a b ly th e most d i f f i c u l t th in g f o r man to do.

Ind., t h e r e ­

f o r e , th e s u g g e s tio n i s s tr o n g ly made t h a t beyond a c e r t a i n p o i n t , i n ­
t e l l e c t u a l f a t i g u e w ould q u ite l i k e l y s e t i n .

However, j u s t where t h i s

" c e r t a i n p o in t" o c c u rs would be most d i f f i c u l t to d is c e r n q u a n t i t a t i v e l y .
I n any c a s e , th e s u g g e s tio n i s made t h a t by a r t i f i c i a l l y f o r c in g an ex­
te n s i o n o f th e d a ta to th e p o in t where we c o u ld produce a s t a t i s t i c w hich
s a i d o u r d a t a were " r e l i a b l e " , t h i s s t a t i s t i c may be, i n f a c t , most un­
r e l i a b l e i n r e g a rd to what i s a c t u a l l y bein g t e s t e d f o r .

57

e.

l.

T h o rn d ik e, Theory o f M ental and S o c ia l M easurem ents.
T e a c h e rs C o lle g e , C olum bia U n iv e r s ity , 1919), pp. 8 8 -8 9 .

(New York:

68

Thus, even w h ile th e work o f t h i s t h e s i s i s s p e c i f i c a l l y com m itted
to th e p r o d u c tio n o f an in s tr u m e n t t h a t w i l l m easure v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s
r e l i a b l y , th e p o in t i s made h e re t h a t th e r e e x i s t t h e o r e t i c a l d if f e r e n c e s
i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l phenomena b e in g i n v e s t i g a t e d .
The r e l i a b i l i t y

s t a t i s t i c i s one such t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t, which g a in s

i t s v a l i d i t y by assum ing th e e x is te n c e o f a norm al cu rv e and w hich may
n o t be a p p lic a b le a t t h i s l e v e l o f e x p la n a tio n .

In th e f i r s t p la c e , i t

d epends on how one r e g a r d s th e n a t u r e o f th e m ind.

I f "mind" were

e q u iv o c a te d as b e in g o f p h y s ic a l m a tte r , nam ely, b r a in , th e n p e rh a p s
th e a ssu m p tio n o f th e n o rm al c u rv e would be v a l i d a t t h i s l e v e l .

But

th e n t h i s w ould be neu ro p h y sio lo g y n o t p sy ch o lo g y .
T h e re fo re , t h i s d is c u s s io n i s p r e s e n te d more in th e s p i r i t o f a
c a u tio n a r y n o te r a t h e r th a n any s o r t o f r e b u t t a l to th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f
r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s .

F o r have we f o r g o tte n o u r commitment to th e p ro d u c­

t i o n o f a t e s t in s tru m e n t t h a t does h av e s i g n i f i c a n t r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s .
Even so , i n k e e p in g w ith th e Judgm ents o f th e a u t h o r i t i e s q u o ted above,
i t i s b a r e ly p o s s i b l e t h a t th e ty p e o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l phenomena b e in g
i n v e s t i g a t e d h e re sim ply may n o t be a f u n c tio n o f th e i d e a l i z e d "norm al"
c u rv e .

In c o n s tr u c t i n g th e t e s t in s tr u m e n ts o f Study T hree, th e r e were
two p u rp o s e s i n m ind.

One was to see how few ite m s p e r form c o u ld be

i n c o r p o r a t e d w ith in a t e s t and s t i l l have t h a t t e s t g iv e s i g n i f i c a n t
r e s u l t s , and th e seco n d p u rp o se was to se e i f i t would be more d i f f i c u l t
to r e a s o n w ith a g iv e n v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n h a v in g an in c r e a s e d number o f
p r o p o s i t i o n s ( id e a s ) as com pared w ith th e same v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n h a v in g

69

a l e s s e r num ber o f p r o p o s i t i o n s ( i d e a s ) .
Study T h re e-1 i l l u s t r a t e s th e e f f e c t s o f re d u c in g th e number o f
i te m s p e r form , and Study T h r e e - I I shows th e e f f e c t o f d if f e r e n c e s in
num ber o f p r o p o s i t i o n s p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n .

Both p a r t s employed th e

u s e o f l o g i c a l q u e s tio n n a ir e s ( th e Type B t e s t ) .

The ta s k o f th e t e s t e e

was to d e c id e w hether a p a r t i c u l a r b i t o f d is c o u r s e was re a s o n a b le o r
n o t.
As i n Study Two, Study Three t e s t e d f o r th e t h r e e v a l i d i t y p a t ­
t e r n s o f UP, MT, and S y l l .

The p o p u la tio n s iz e s c o n s is t e d o f 333 s tu ­

d e n ts i n Study T h re e -I and 313 s tu d e n ts i n Study T h r e e - I I .
A c tu a l d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e t e s t in s tru m e n t o f Study Tvro and
t h a t o f Study T hree c o n s is t e d i n a r e d u c tio n i n th e number o f ite m s from
10 p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n in Study Two to 8 p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n i n Study
T h ree.

A nother d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e s e two t e s t s was th e e lim in a tio n

i n Study T hree o f t h e m u ltip le c h o ic e ty p e o f ite m f o r th e S y ll p a t t e r n .
The r e s u l t s o f re d u c in g th e number o f ite m s p e r form a re g iv e n in
T a b le I I I .

N o tic e t h a t th e mean o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r S y ll i s 6 .7 4 2 .

T h is i s g r e a t e r th a n th e mean f o r th e same form in Study Two There 10
ite m s p e r form were u s e d .

T h is in c r e a s e in c o r r e c t re sp o n se to S y ll

s u g g e s ts t h a t i t was th e m u ltip le c h o ic e ite m s o f Study Tto w hich cau se
th e low S y ll s c o re s i n t h a t t e s t .
TABLE I I I
STATISTICS K)R EACH DISTRIBUTION OP STUDT THREE-1
V a lid ity P a tte rn

Mean

S tan d ard D e v ia tio n

MP

6.673

1.229

MT

5 .8 2 6

1.262

S y ll

6 .7 4 2

1 .2 2 0

70

T a b le IV, below , shows th e r e s u l t s o f com paring th e d i f f e r e n c e s
b etw een t h e means o f MP-MT, M T-Syll, and M P-Syil.

I t i s n o te d t h a t th e

v a l u e s f o r MP-MT and M T-Syll a re s i g n i f i c a n t w here t h i s i s n o t th e c a s e
f o r M P-S yll.
TABLE IV
VALUES EOR SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN THE MEANS TOR THE
v a l id it y patterns oe stuiy three - i

MP and MT

8 .916

s ig n ific a n t

MT and £3yll

9 .6 4 2

s ig n ific a n t

MP said S y ll

.775

n o t s ig n ific a n t

E xcept f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e v a lu e betw een MP and
h e r e c o n firm th e d a t a o f Study Two.

Syll,

th e r e s u l t s

The e v id en ce i s a g a in s u g g e s tiv e

t h a t t h e r e i s a g e n u in e d i f f e r e n c e i n a b i l i t y to th in k l o g i c a l l y i n
tern ® o f th e s e t h r e e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .

As to why th e d i f f e r e n c e in

r e s p o n s e to MP and S y ll w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t seems to be r e l a t e d to th e
s m a ll num ber o f ite m s u s e d i n th e t e s t o f Study T hree.
Study T h r e e - II was a tte m p tin g to s e e what th e e f f e c t s w ould be i f
th e number o f p r o p o s i t i o n s p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n were in c r e a s e d .

The t e s t

in s tr u m e n t o f Study T h r e e - I I c o n ta in e d th e same number o f ite m s p e r va­
l i d i t y p a t t e r n as d id Study T h re e -1 .

However, fo r each group o f 8 ite m s

i n Study T h r e e - I I , 4 ite m s c o n ta in e d a minimum o f p r o p o s it io n s ( id e a s )
p e r form and 4 ite m s c o n ta in e d an in c r e a s e d number o f p r o p o s itio n s ( id e a s )
p e r form .
form .

Thus, e v e r y th in g was c o n s ta n t e x c e p t th e number o f id e a s p e r

A con$>arison was th e n made betw een th e s c o re s o f th e s e two 4 -

ite m e d g ro u p s.

The r e s u l t s a re g iv e n in T ab le V.

71

TABLE V
STATISTICS OF STUDY THREE I I SHOWING VALUES TOR SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN
THE MEANS OF CORRESPONDING VALIDITY PATTERNS WITH MINIMAL IDEAS (M)
AND INCREASED IDEAS ( l )

Modus Ponens (M) and Modus P onens ( I )
Modus T o lle n s (M) and Modus T o lle n s ( I )
S y llo g ism (M) and S y llo g ism ( I )

3 .4 6 0

s ig n ific a n t

10.738

s ig n ific a n t

3 .4 0 0

s ig n ific a n t

T hese v a lu e s i n d i c a t e t h a t i n c r e a s in g th e number o f id e a s w ith in
a form c a u s e s an i n c r e a s e in d i f f i c u l t y in u s in g t h a t form .

The s iz e o f

th e s i g n i f i c a n c e v a lu e f o r th e MT com parison was c a u s e d by two u n r e l i a b l e
ite m s i n th e MT (M) t e s t .

B e fo re I p r e s e n t th e t e s t in s tru m e n t and d a ta o f Study Tbur, I
would l i k e to make some p e r t i n e n t rem arks d e a lin g w ith two p a r t i c u l a r
p ro b le m s.

One o f th e s e

a r o s e when th e d a ta o f S tu d ie s Two and Three were

com pared, and th e o t h e r c o n c e rn s i t s e l f w ith th e d a t a o f Study T h r e e - I I .
The f i r s t p ro b le m i s to e x p la in why th e r e was an in c r e a s e d number
o f c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s f o r th e S y ll ite m s o f Study T h re e -I (T able I I I )
h a v in g 8 ite m s f o r t h i s

form a s com pared w ith th e S y ll ite m s o f stu d y

Two h a v in g 10 ite m s f o r

t h i s form (T ab le I ) .

The h y p o th e s is o f f e r e d to e x p la in t h i s i s t h a t i n Study Two, 50^
o f th e S y ll ite m s (ite m s 2 6 -30) were p r e s e n te d i n th e form o f a 6 -c h o ic e
k e y , r e q u i r i n g th e t e s t e e to p ic k o u t th e n e c e s s a ry p re m is e .
n o t done i n Study T h r e e - I .

T h is was

Thus, th e h y p o th e s is i s t h a t th e m u ltip le

72

c h o ic e ty p e o f ite m i n Study Two was th e c a u se o f th e low s c o re s f o r
S y ll i n t h a t t e s t .
To t e s t t h i s h y p o th e s is , sam ples w ere ta k e n o f th e m u ltip le c h o ic e
form s o f S y ll and co m p ariso n s made "between th e means w ith th e s t r a i g h t
11r e a s o n a b le " - " n o t r e a s o n a b le " ty p e o f S y ll ite m .
co m p a riso n gav e a s i g n i f i c a n c e v a lu e o f 9 .9 8 7 .

The r e s u l t o f t h i s

T h is v a lu e i n d i c a t e s

t h a t i t was t h e m u l t i p l e c h o ic e ite m s which c a u sed th e low s c o re s f o r
t h e S y ll ite m s i n Study Two.
The seco n d p ro b le m i s to e x p la in why, i n Study T h r e e - I I , th e r e
were a g r e a t e r number o f c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s f o r th e MT ite m s h a v in g an
in c r e a s e d num ber o f p r o p o s i t io n s a s com pared w ith th e MT ite m s h a v in g
a l e s s e r number o f p r o p o s i t i o n s .

N orm ally, we would e x p e c t t h a t i t would

be more d i f f i c u l t to u s e th e MT form o f i n f e r e n c e h a v in g th e g r e a t e r
number o f p r o p o s i t i o n s .

T h is u n e x p e c te d d if f e r e n c e i s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b le

71.
TABLE 71
DATA OE STUDY THREE-II SHOWING- MEAN 7ALUES TOR DISTRIBUTIONS OE 7ALIDITY
PATTERNS HATING MINIMAL AND INCREASED IDEAS
T e lid ity p a tte rn s

mean o f p a t t e r n s
h a v in g m inim al id e a s

mean o f p a t t e r n s
h a v in g in c r e a s e d id e a s

MP

3 .3 7 4

3.128

MT

2 .4 5 4

3.195

S y ll

3.441

3.227

T h is d i f f e r e n c e i s a c c o u n te d f o r by two ite m s i n th e Modus T o lle n s
(M) t e s t , nam ely, ite m s 5 and 11, w hich were shown to be p o o r ite m s as

73

f o llo w s ;

a co m p ariso n was made o f s c o re s on MT in th e t e s t o f Study

T h re e -I (ite m s 1 , 5, 11, 18) w ith th e s e same ite m s i n th e t e s t o f Study
T h re e -II.

T here was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e "between th e means o f th e s e

d i s t r i h a t i o n s as i s shown i n T ah le 711.
TABLE VII
COMPARISON OP MEANS OP THE SAMPLE DISTRIBUTIONS
mean v a lu e o f 4
MT ite m s from
Study T h re e -I

mean v a lu e o f 4
MT ite m s from
Study T h r e e - II

2 .3 8 4

v a lu e f o r s ig n i f i c a n c e
betw een th e means

2 .4 5 4

.986

B ecause th e v a lu e .986 i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e
two sam ple p o p u la tio n s were drawn from th e same u n iv e r s e .

T h is b e in g so,

a co m p ariso n was made betw een ite m s 5 and 11 ( P a r t I ) w ith ite m s 15 and
21 ( P a r t I ) .
sc o re s.

Item s 5 and 11 were th e two h y p o th e siz e d to c a u se th e low

Ite m 5 h ad th e same form a s ite m 15, and ite m 11 h ad th e same

form a s ite m 21.

The two s e t s d i f f e r e d , how ever, i n s u b je c t m a tte r.

T a b le V III shows t h a t b e t t e r s c o re s were o b ta in e d on ite m s 15 and 21
w hich i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t was th e s u b je c t m a tte r i n ite m s 5 and 11 and n o t
th e form o f i n f e r e n c e w hich c a u se d th e low s c o re s .
TABLE V III
COMPARISON OR MEANS OR " DIFFICULT" AND "NON-DIFFICULT" ITEMS
mean o f 11d i f f i c u l t "
ite m s (5 , 11) from
S tudy T h r e e - I
.757

mean o f " n o n - d i f f i c u l t "
ite m s (15, 21) from
Study T h r e e - I
1.820

v a lu e f o r s i g n i f i can ce betw een th e
means
22.146

74

The v a lu e 22.146 i s d e f i n i t e l y s i g n i f i c a n t and i n d i c a t e s th e r e i s
a " r e a l " d i f f e r e n c e b etw een th e tiro s e t s o f ite m s .

And, a c c o r d in g ly ,

s u g g e s ts t h e re a s o n why, i n Study T h r e e - I I , th e MT v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s
h a v in g m inim al id e a s showed low er s c o re s th a n th e s e same p a t t e r n s h a v in g
i n c r e a s e d i d e a s (T a b le V I).
W hile w orking o u t th e p o s s i b le c a u s e o f why th e r e were a g r e a t e r
num ber o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s f o r th e MT form s h av in g an in c r e a s e d number
o f id e a s a s o p p o sed to th e same form s w ith a minimum o f id e a s , I won­
d e re d what th e co m p a riso n s f o r th e th r e e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s m ight show
i f th e Modus T o lle n s (M) form s h ad been f r e e o f th e two p oor ite m s .
To o b t a i n

MT (M) ite m s t h a t were c o n s id e re d as b e in g good ite m s ,

I u s e d f o u r MT (M) ite m s from Study T h r e e - I.

Thus, th e co m parisons t h a t

w ere s u b s e q u e n tly made betw een id e a s w ere b a se d upon a "h y b rid " d i s t r i ­
b u tio n s in c e th e MT (M) form s came from Study T h re e -I.
The c o n s tr u c t i o n o f t h i s h y b r id d i s t r i b u t i o n was done fo r two
reaso n s.
1.

I t was f e l t t h a t a com parison o f such a d i s t r i b u t i o n w ith th e

MP (M) and S y ll (M) d i s t r i b u t i o n s may r e p r e s e n t a more a c c u r a te d e s c r ip ­
t i o n o f th e t h r e e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s in v o lv e d th a n what h a s been g iv e n
from th e t e s t s o f Study T h r e e - I I a lo n e .

A cco rd in g ly , t e s t s f o r s i g n i f i ­

c a n c e b etw een th e th r e e form s may a ls o be more a c c u r a te .
2.

A lso, t h e t e s t f o r s ig n i f i c a n c e betw een th e s e h y b r id

MT (M)

form s from Study T h re e -I h a v in g m inim al id e a s and th e MT ( I ) form s o f
Study T h r e e - I I h a v in g in c r e a s e d id e a s may be more a c c u r a te .
The work in v o lv e d h e re depends on t h e assum ption t h a t th e two
sam ple p o p u la tio n s w ere drawn from th e same u n iv e r s e .

T h is i s n o t

75

n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e , o f c o u r s e , Tout i t was i n t e r e s t i n g , n e v e r t h e l e s s , to
s e e what k in d o f c o m p a riso n s d id r e s u l t ; and, p a r t i c u l a r l y ,

to com pare

t h i s r e s u l t w ith th e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o b ta in e d i n Study Tbur.

Study Tbur

w i l l a c t u a l l y t e s t th e v a l i d i t y o f t h i s assu m p tio n , and th e o n ly re a s o n
we a r e m aking th e s e c o m p ariso n s h e r e i s to see what we m ight have g o t te n
i f th e two u n r e l i a b l e

'MT (M) ite m s h ad n o t been i n th e t e s t o f Study

T h re e -II.
The d a t a i n T ab le IX i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e r e i s an in c r e a s e d d i f f i ­
c u l t y i n u s in g th e MT (M) form h a v in g in c r e a s e d id e a s as com pared w ith
t h i s same form h a v in g a minimum o f id e a s .
TABLE IX
COMPARISON OF MEANS OF HYBRID MT (M) !H)RMS FROM STUDY THREE-I WITH THE
MT ( I ) FORMS FROM STUDY THREE-II
mean o f MT (M)
form s from
S tudy T h r e e - I

mean o f MT ( I )
form s from
Study T h r e e - II

3 .4 4 7

3 .1 9 5

v a lu e f o r
s ig n if ic a n c e
betw een th e means
4 ,0 0 0

Thus, th e v a lu e 4 .0 0 0 i n d i c a t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e w ith in
th e p o p u la tio n i n a b i l i t y to re sp o n d to th e MT p a t t e r n when t h i s p a t t e r n
e x h i b i t s an i n c r e a s e i n i d e a s .
I t i s d e b a ta b le , o f c o u r s e , w h eth er th e s e s t a t i s t i c s in v o lv in g th e
h y b r id Modus T o lle n s (M) d i s t r i b u t i o n a s w e ll as th o s e f o r th e “ d i f f i ­
c u l t ’' - " n o n - d i f f i c u l t " d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e t r u l y m e a n in g fu l.

In th e

f i r s t p la c e ,, th e y in v o lv e o n ly fo u r ite m s i n t h e c a s e o f th e Modus
T b lle n s form s, and two ite m s f o r th e “ d i f f i c u l t " - " n o n - d i f f i c u l t "

76

d i s t r i " b u t to n s .

B u t, i n any c a s e , th e y a r e n o t o f f e r e d as c o n c lu s iv e

e v id e n c e f o r a n y th in g , h u t r a t h e r sim ply to i n d i c a t e what th e com pari­
so n s m ig h t he i f th e s e u n r e l i a b l e ite m s h ad n o t heen i n th e t e s t o f
S tudy T h r e e - I I .
The s ig n i f i c a n c e v a lu e o f 22.146 betw een th e " d i f f i c u l t ” and
" n o n - d i f f i c u l t ” ite m s does i n d i c a t e t h a t som ething h a s heen o p e r a tin g
to u p s e t th e Modus T o lle n s d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f Study T h r e e - I I .

P ro b a b ly

t h e m ost im p o rta n t p o i n t o f t h i s i s t h a t I le a r n e d n o t to make th e same
m is ta k e when I c o n s tr u c te d my t e s t s f o r Study Pour.
Graph A, below , i s a h is to g ra m mfoich i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t th e r e i s
a d e c re a s e in re s p o n s e to a g iv e n v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n when t h i s p a t t e r n
c o n t a i n s an in c r e a s e d number o f id e a s .
S p e c if ic c o n c lu s io n s t h a t may be drawn from Study Three can be
sum m arized as fo llo w s .
1.

T here was an in c r e a s e d d if f e r e n c e i n th e number o f c o r r e c t

r e s p o n s e s f o r S y ll i n Study T h re e -I as com pared w ith Study Two.

In

S tudy Two 50$ o f th e S y ll ite m s were p r e s e n te d in th e form o f a 6 - c h o ic e
key.

The t e s t e e was r e q u i r e d to p ic k o u t th e n e c e s s a ry p re m is e .

In Study

T h ree a l l th e ite m s w ere o f th e " re a s o n a b le ” - " n o t-re a so n a b le ? 1 ty p e .
T h e re f o re , th e m u ltip le c h o ic e ite m f o r S y ll was more d i f f i c u l t to
answ er th a n th e " re a s o n a b le " - " n o t-r e a s o n a b le " ty p e .

The c r i t i c a l f a c ­

t o r h e r e w ould seem b e s t e x p la in e d i n term s o f th e mind b e in g a b le to
d i s c r i m i n a t e s u f f i c i e n t l y w e ll betw een a l t e r n a t i v e c h o ic e s o f f e r e d to
it.

To e x p la in i t on th e b a s is o f p r o b a b i l i t y i s to assume th e t e s t e e s

&

s^u^uoq^ - u t m 9

s^a»nou^-'V ftin fr

B ^ q S n o iN -^tm 9

tiq 9 n o q )-)'x u x t't-

«

esuodeeg ^ooajOQ umni'txwR ^ueo ae^

HIST08RAM THOM DATA OF STUD! THREE SHDWIH3 DECREASE
VALIDITT PATTXRHS HATIHO AH IHCHSASE 07 IDEAS

jira 9

GRAPH A.

s ^rauotfl,

IE RESP083E

TO

77

?8

w ere g u e s s in g .
2.

I n c r e a s in g t h e number o f i d e a s p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n h a s th e

e f f e c t o f d e c r e a s in g t h e a b i l i t y to u s e t h a t p a t t e r n .
3.

The u s e o f a v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n by th e m ind i s i n h i b i t e d by

a m b ig u ity and w ords n o t u n d e r s to o d .
T h r e e - I I w ere o f t h i s ty p e .

The MT (M) ite m s ( 5 ,1 1 ) o f Study

Thus, l o g i c a l th in k in g i s i n h i b i t e d by

th e se f a c to r s .
4.

R e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s f o r th e t e s t in s tr u m e n ts o f Study Three

a re g iv e n i n T a b le X.
TA3LE X
RELIABILITY VALUES FOR THE TEST INSTRUMENTS OP STUDY THREE
p a rt I

p art II

p art III

S y ll

.3

.0

.2

MP

.3

.0

.4

MT

.0

-.1

.0

One o f th e p u rp o s e s o f Study Three was to f in d o u t j u s t how few
ite m s w ere n e c e s s a r y to g iv e r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s .

These low v a lu e s i n d i c a t e

t h a t th e t e s t in s tr u m e n t c o n ta in e d to o few ite m s p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n .
T h e re f o re , we le a r n e d t h a t o u r t e s t in s tru m e n t fo r Study Ib u r must have
a g r e a t e r q u a n tity th a n 8 ite m s p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n .

As was m en tio n ed a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h i s c h a p te r , one o f th e m ajor
c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f t h i s t h e s i s was to p ro d u ce d a ta f o r th e e x is te n c e o f
v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s w ith in th e p o p u la tio n .

So f a r , a l l o f th e t e s t s have

79

i n d i c a t e d t h i s to be t r u e .
p ro d u c e d r e l i a b i l i t y

However, none o f th e p r e v io u s t e s t s h av e

( r ) v a lu e s w ith in a c c e p ta b le r a n g e s .

Y et, a c c e p t­

a b le r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s and e v id e n c e f o r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s a re m u tu a lly
i m p l i c a t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s i n th e s e n se t h a t to have one you must h av e th e
o th e r.

Thus, th e p r o d u c tio n o f a t e s t in s tru m e n t i n Study

Pour t h a t

e x h i b i t e d h ig h r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s was t h e second m ajo r c o n t r ib u t i o n o f
t h i s t h e s i s to r e s e a r c h o f t h i s ty p e .
The t e s t in s tr u m e n t o f Study Tbur was b a se d on th e e x p e rie n c e s
an d o u t r i g h t m is ta k e s o f th e p r e v io u s s t u d i e s .

Study One ta u g h t me t h a t

th e f r e e re s p o n s e (raw d a ta ) ty p e o f in s tru m e n t was n o t s u i t a b l e f o r
Preshm en c o l l e g e s tu d e n t s .

In t h a t ty p e o f t e s t in s tru m e n t th e in v e s ­

t i g a t o r te n d s to become an i n t e g r a l f a c t o r w ith in th e d a t a i n term s o f
i n t e r p r e t i n g th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n t e n t o f th e t e s t e e .

Study Two was ny

f i r s t a tte m p t a t th e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f a l o g i c a l q u e s tio n n a ir e .

H ere, I

made t h e m is ta k e o f in c lu d in g m u ltip le c h o ic e ite m s w ith in th e t e s t i n ­
s tr u m e n t.

I t i s t r u e t h a t th e r e i s n o th in g i n t r i n s i c a l l y wrong w ith t h i s

a p p ro ac h b u t i t c o n s t i t u t e d a v a r i a b l e o t h e r th a n v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s w ith in
th e t e s t in s tr u m e n t.

T h is f a c t , o f c o u rs e , c o u ld n o t r e a d i l y be f o re s e e n

p r i o r to th e a c t u a l g iv in g o f th e t e s t .
t h e s e ite m s i n Study I b u r .

I le a r n e d , h e r e , n o t to in c lu d e

A lso, th e t e s t in s tru m e n ts o f b o th S tu d ie s

Two and T hree h ad v ery low r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s .

I a t t r i b u t e t h i s f a c t to

t h e low q u a n tity o f ite m s employed p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n .
The p o in t i s t h a t i n Study I b u r, I made u se o f th e e x p e rie n c e s and
r e s u l t s o f th e p r e v io u s s tu d ie s i n th e h o p e o f c o n s tr u c tin g a t e s t i n s t r u ­
ment t h a t would y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t d a ta .

The f a c t t h a t th e t e s t i n s t r u ­

ment em ployed i n Study Ib u r a c t u a l l y p ro d u ced r e l i a b l e d a ta would seem

80

to e s t a b l i s h t h e hypo t h e s i s u n d e r ly in g t h i s t h e s i s , nam ely, t h a t c e r t a i n
v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s a c t u a l l y e x i s t w ith in th e p o p u la tio n .
M oreover, to e s t a b l i s h f u r t h e r t h i s hypo t h e s i s th e t e s t in s tr u m e n t
was com pared w ith t h r e e e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s , nam ely, s c o re s f o r R eading Com­
p r e h e n s io n (RC), V erbal a b i l i t y (V ), and a l l c o lle g e g rad e p o in t a v e ra g e s
(G -.P.A .) .

These co m p ariso n s c o n s t i t u t e d th e work o f Study R ive.

They

a l l showed p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s to th e t e s t in s tru m e n t o f Study Tbur,
and, th u s , h e lp e d to e s t a b l i s h i t s v a l i d i t y .

W hile p r e p a r in g th e t e s t in s tru m e n t o f Study Tbur, a p r e lim in a r y
t e s t i n g p ro g ram was c o n d u c te d i n th r e e s e c tio n s o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g a
c o u r s e i n N a tu r a l S c ie n ce a t M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity .
c o n ta in e d ab o u t 30 s tu d e n ts p e r s e c tio n .

These s e c tio n s

The p u rp o se was to d e te rm in e

a s c o r in g fo rm u la w hich would y i e l d th e g r e a t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s f o r
th e t e s t in s tr u m e n ts .

As a r e s u l t o f t h i s p r e lim in a r y stu d y , th e f o r ­

m ula s e l e c t e d was R ig h ts m inus Wrongs.

T his fo rm u la makes a llo w an ces

f o r g u e s s in g i n t h a t i f a t e s t e e i s g u e s sin g th ro u g h o u t, h e sh o u ld g e t
a zero s c o re , o th e r th in g s b ein g e q u a l.

I f a p e rso n does n o t know how

to r e a s o n l o g i c a l l y , h e would have to g u ess on e v e ry ite m , and we would,
a c c o r d in g ly , esqpect him to g e t a s c o re o f zero .

Thus, th e s e le c t i o n o f

a s c o r in g fo rm u la which made a llo w a n c e s f o r g u e s s in g c o n s t i t u t e d a d i f ­
f e r e n c e i n t h i s stu d y from p re v io u s s tu d i e s .
A seco n d d i f f e r e n c e was a marked in c r e a s e i n th e number o f t e s t
ite m s o f g iv e n v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n , nam ely, 15 p e r form .
A t h i r d d i f f e r e n c e was a d e c r e a s e i n th e s iz e o f th e p o p u la tio n s .
In a l l p a r t s o f Study T bur, p o p u la tio n s s iz e s a r e o v er 94 b u t l e s s th a n

81

132.

Jn Study T hree s i z e s o f th e p o p u la tio n s went as h ig h as 333 p e r

t e s t w hich i s now f e l t to he u n n e c e s s a ry .
A f o u r t h d i f f e r e n c e was to t e s t th e e f f e c t s o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s
f o rm u la te d i n th e p r e d i c a t i v e lo g ic as com pared w ith th e p r o p o s i t i o n a l
lo g ic .
T h ere were t h r e e p a r t s to Study Spur, some o f them r e - t e s t i n g th e
m ajor a s p e c ts o f Study T hree, v i z . ,
P a r t I , t e s t s f o r propo s i t i o n s i form s o f MP, MT, and Siyll w ith
m inim al i d e a s .
P a r t I I , t e s t s f o r p r e d i c a t i v e form s o f MP, MT, and Siyll.
P a rt I I I ,

t e s t s f o r propo s i t i o n a l MP, MT, and S y ll w ith in c r e a s e d

id e a s .
In P a r t I I , a l l th e p r e d i c a t i v e form s in v o lv e d a p r e d i c a t i o n , th u s ,
f o r a l l v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s e v e ry th in g was c o n s ta n t ex cep t th e form .
W ith one e x c e p tio n , a l l th e t e s t s o f Study Pour in d i c a t e d t h a t
t h e r e i s a g en u in e d i f f e r e n c e i n a b i l i t y to u s e th e th r e e form s o f i n ­
f e r e n c e MP, MT, and S y ll.

E vidence f o r t h i s i s g iv e n in Table XI.

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TABLE XI
values pop s ig n if ic a n c e between the means bob v a lid ity patterns o p

STUEY FOUE

Study F b u r -I ( p r o p o s i ti o n a l MP, MT, and S y ll w ith m inim al id e a s )
MP and MT

7 .9 1 0

s ig n ific a n t

MT and S y ll

3 .8 5 5

s ig n i f i c a n t

MP and S y ll

3 .5 4 7

s ig n i f i c a n t

Study F b u r -I I ( p r e d i c a t i v e MP, MT, and S y ll)
MP and MT

.520

n o t s ig n ific a n t

MT and S y ll

3 .9 0 0

s ig n i f i c a n t

MP and S y ll

4 .2 3 1

s ig n if ic a n t

S tudy F b u r - I I I ( p r o p o s i ti o n a l MP, MT, and S y ll w ith m inim al id e a s )
MP and MT

10.557

s ig n ific a n t

MT and S y ll

4 .6 0 7

s ig n ific a n t

MP and S y ll

5 .0 7 0

s ig n ific a n t

Thus, a l l o f th e co m p ariso n s i n Table XI, ex cep t one, i n d i c a t e a
d i f f e r e n c e i n a b i l i t y to u s e th e th r e e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s in v o lv e d .

The

lo n e a p p a re n t e x c e p tio n to t h i s c o n c lu s io n i s th e com parison betw een th e
means o f t h e p r e d i c a t i v e MP and MT forms i n P a r t I I .
P e rh a p s th e e x p la n a tio n o f t h i s l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t th e con­
s t r u c t i o n o f t e s t s f o r p r e d i c a t i v e form s in v o lv e few er words th a n do th e

83

t e s t s f o r p r o p o s i t i o n a l fo rm s.

Thus, a lth o u g h th e m echanics o f p r e d i ­

c a t i v e l o g i c i s a h le to t r e a t id e a s i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l th a n th e p ro p o s i t i o n a l l o g i c , i t r e q u i r e s l e s s v e r b a l s ig n a l s to e x p lic a te p r e d i c a t i v e
fo rm s, a t l e a s t to th e p o i n t t h a t t h e i r d if f e r e n c e in form would be
s t a t i s t i c a l l y h id d e n .
The d a t a i n T ab le XII i n d i c a t e t h a t th e o r d e r o f m en tal a b i l i t y
to u s e th e p r o p o s i t i o n a l form s o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s i s MP, S&rll, and MT,
w h ile th e o r d e r f o r p r e d i c a t i v e form s i s MP, MT, and S y ll.
TABLE XII
COMPARISON OE MEANS OE THE DISTRIBUTIONS OE STUDT EOTIR
p r o p o s i t i o n a l (M)
form s from P a r t I

p r e d i c a t i v e form s
from P a r t I I

p ro p o s itio n a l ( I)
form s from P a r t I I I

MP

9 .4 9 5

9 .9 3 1

9.885

MT

5 .3 5 8

9 .672

4 .7 1 2

S y ll

7 .5 0 5

7 .7 1 8

7 .2 6 9

I n T able X II, th e p o s s i b l e e x p la n a tio n f o r th e change i n sequence
i n th e p r e d i c a t i v e form s as com pared w ith th e propo s i t i o n a l forms i s
t h a t i t r e q u i r e s l e s s w ords, o r v e r b a l s ig n a l s , to e x p lic a te a g iv e n
v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n i n th e p r e d i c a t i v e lo g ic th an i t does to e x p li c a te t h i s
same p a t t e r n i n th e propo s i t i o n a l l o g i c .

Thus, f o r a g iv e n v a l i d i t y

p a t t e r n , when t h i s p a t t e r n i s t e s t e d f o r in th e p r o p o s i t i o n a l l o g i c ,
th e p a t t e r n m ust ta k e co m p lete d e c l a r a t i v e s ta te m e n ts ( p r o p o s itio n s )
a s a rg u m en ts.

C o n seo u e n tly , i t ta k e s more words, o r v e r b a l s ig n a l s , to

e x p re s s th e s e s ta te m e n ts th a n i t does to t e s t f o r th e same form i n th e

84

p r e d ic a tiv e lo g ic .
H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h i s was th e v e ry re a s o n why th e p r e d i c a t i v e lo g ic
was d e v e lo p e d .

Many l o g i c a l argum ents, w hich a c t u a l l y a r e i n v a l i d in

t h e p r o p o s i t i o n a l l o g i c , c an he shown to he v a l i d hy u s in g th e t o o l s o f
th e p re d ic a tiv e lo g ic .
A ll o f th e r e l i a b i l i t y

( r ) v a lu e s f o r th e 9 t e s t s o f Study Ib u r

w ere s tr o n g enough to c o n c lu d e t h a t th e t e s t s were m easu rin g what th e y
were su p p o sed to m easu re, nam ely, v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .

These v a lu e s a re

g iv e n i n T able X I II .
TABLE X III
RELIABILITY VALUES E3R THE TESTS OE STUDY FOUR
P a rt I

P art II

P art I II

MP

.788

.870

.721

MT

.7 8 3

.821

.835

S y ll

.831

.848

.840

Thus, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s shown i n Table X III a r e q u ite r e s p e c t ­
a b le .

We may co n c lu d e t h a t in c r e a s in g th e number o f ite m s p e r t e s t to

45 h ad th e e f f e c t o f in c r e a s in g th e v a r ia n c e o f th e p o p u la tio n s .

S ince

h ig h r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s a re d i r e c t l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith v a r ia n c e , th e r e ­
l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s above may be acco u n ted f o r by th e in c r e a s e in number
o f ite m s to 15 p e r form p e r t e s t .
O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s th e r e s u l t s o f th e t e s t s fo r s ig n if i c a n c e
b etw een th e p r o p o s i t i o n a l form s o f P a r t I and th e s e same forms h a v in g an
in c r e a s e d amount o f id e a s ( P a r t I I I ) .

See Table XIV.

Hone o f them showed

85

t h a t t h e r e was any " r e a l 11 d if f e r e n c e in a b i l i t y to u s e a g iv e n form .

In

o t h e r w ords, i t s u gge s t s t h a t i f a p e rs o n p o s s e s s e s a form , i n c r e a s i n g
th e number o f d i f f e r e n t m inim al id e a s by one w i l l n o t i n t e r f e r e w ith
a b i l i t y to u s e t h a t form .
TABLE XIV
STATISTICS OF STUDY FDUR SHOWING VALUES FOR SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN THE MEANS
OF CORRESPONDING VALIDITY PATTERNS WITH MINIMAL IDEAS (M) AND INCREASED
IDEAS ( I )

Modus P o n en s (M) and Modus Ponens ( I )
Modus T o lle n s (M) and Modus T o lle n s ( I )
S y llo g ism (M) and S y llo g ism ( l )

.801

not s ig n if ic a n t

1.230

not s ig n ific a n t

.403

n o t s ig n ific a n t

The c o n c lu s io n to be drawn from T able XIV i s th a t th e r e i s no
" re a l"

d i f f e r e n c e i n th e a b i l i t y to u se a g iv en form h a v in g m inim al and

in c re a s e d id e a s .

At l e a s t , t h i s a p p e a rs to be t r u e w ith r e g a rd to i n ­

c r e a s i n g t h e number o f d i f f e r e n t m inim al id e a s by one, which we d id i n
th is te s t.

In o th e r w ords, th e d a t a h e r e s u g g e s t t h a t i f a p e rso n p o s ­

s e s s e s a g iv e n form , in c r e a s in g th e number o f id e a s by one w ill n o t i n ­
t e r f e r e w ith a b i l i t y to u s e t h a t form .
W hether i n c r e a s i n g th e number to two d i f f e r e n t id e a s p e r form (o r
t h r e e , e t c . ) w i l l c a u se a d if f e r e n c e i n re sp o n se i s a problem f o r f u tu r e
re se a rc h .

I t i s n o te d , how ever, by o b s e r v a tio n o f th e s e p a r t i c u l a r t e s t s ,

e s p e c i a l l y th o s e o f P a r t I I I ,

t h a t th e in c r e a s e d number o f w ords, o r

v e r b a l s i g n a l s , f o r e a c h t e s t ite m would be a c r i t i c a l f a c to r i n such a
s tu d y .

T h e re f o re , t h e r e w ould alw ays be doubt a s to w h eth er th e d i f f e r e ic e

86

(when o b ta in e d ) would he c a u s e d by (a) th e a b i l i t y to u s e th e form w ith
an i n c r e a s e o f id e a s , o r (b) sim ply d i f f i c u l t y i n w ading th ro u g h th e
amouht o f w ords r e q u i r e d to e x p re s s th e in c r e a s e d id e a s .
A lso , i t i s n o te d t h a t th e r e s u l t s o f Study Ib u r (T ab le XIV)
c o n t r a d i c t th e same c o m p a riso n s o f Study Three (T ab le V).
p l a i n e d by two f a c t s :

T h is i s ex­

some o f th e ite m s o f Study Three were s t a t i s t i ­

c a l l y d e te rm in e d to be p o o r ite m s , and se c o n d ly , th e r e were too few ite m s
em ployed p e r v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n in Study T hree such t h a t th e t e s t i n s t r u ­
m ents d id n o t g iv e r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s .
One o f th e p u rp o s e s o f Study Ebur was to t e s t th e e f f e c t s o f
v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s fo rm u la te d i n th e p r e d i c a t i v e lo g ic and to compare
t h e s e w ith th e p r o p o s i t i o n a l form s.

The r e s u l t s o f th e s e com parisons

a r e g iv e n i n T a b le XV.
TABLE XV
values tor s ig n if ic a n c e between the means o f pr o po sit io n a l

FORMS ( STUDY TOUR-1) AND PREDICATIVE EDRMS (STUD? TOUR-II)

P ro p o s itio n a l

MP and P r e d ic a t iv e MP

.832

P ro p o s itio n a l

MT and P r e d ic a tiv e MT

8.680

P ro p o s itio n a l

S y ll and P r e d ic a t iv e S y ll

.380

not s ig n ific a n t
s ig n ific a n t
n o t s ig n ific a n t

Thus, th e d a t a i n T able XV s u g g e st th a t i f a p e rs o n p o s s e s s e s a
g iv e n v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n ,

e x p re s s in g t h i s p a t t e r n in e i t h e r p r e d i c a t i v e

o r propo s i t i o n a l lo g ic i s o f no consequencet h i s i s th e MT form .

The a p p a re n t e x c e p tio n to

I t would be f a i r l y d i f f i c u l t to d e term in e in a

87

q u a n t i t a t i v e m anner th e re a so n why th e MT form sh o u ld make a d i f f e r e n c e .
I r a t h e r s u s p e c t, how ever, t h a t i t h a s som ething to do w ith th e d i f f e r ­
en ce i n num ber o f v e r b a l s i g n a l s i n th e s e form s c o u p le d w ith th e f a c t
t h a t th e MT v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n in v o lv e s th e p r o c e s s o f n e g a tin g th e con­
se q u en c e o f one o f th e p re m is e s .
At t h i s p o in t I w ould l i k e to p r e s e n t th r e e g ra p h s (B, C, and D).
These g ra p h s i l l u s t r a t e what may be somewhat p ic tu r e s q u e ly d e s c r ib e d as
th e r a t i o n a l i t y c u rv e s o f Study J b u r.

Each g rap h i s a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

th e t o t a l s c o r e s t h a t t h e t e s t e e s o b ta in e d on th e th r e e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s
MP, MT, and S y l l .
The g ra p h s B, C, and D p ro v id e u s w ith a c o l l e c t i v e p i c t u r e o f
t h e p r e s e n c e o f th e t h r e e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s MP, MT, and S y ll w ith in th e
p o p u la tio n s t e s t e d .

Thus, th e y i n d i c a t e th e d eg ree o f a b i l i t y to th in k

l o g i c a l l y w ith in th e sco p e o f th e s e th r e e p a t t e r n s .

More th a n t h i s ,

how ever, th e c u rv e s w i l l p ro v id e u s w ith a s in g u la r b a s is o f com parison
w ith o th e r p o p u la tio n s , f o r exam ple, m en tal p a t i e n t s .
The means o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s shown i n Graphs B, C, and D a re
p r e s e n t e d i n T able XVI.

The com parisons i n d i c a t e t h a t th e p r e d i c a t i v e

form s a r e more p r e v a le n t w ith in th e p o p u la tio n s th a n th e p r o p o s it io n a l
fo rm s.
TABLE XYI
COMPARISON OE MEANS OE RATIONALITY DISTRIBUTIONS OE STUDY TOUR
p r o p o s i t i o n a l (M)
form s
2 2 .3 5 8

p r o p o s i tio n a l ( I )
form s
2 1.875

p re d ic a tiv e
form s
27.328

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FORMS OF STOUT POOR- 1

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CURTS

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88

89

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CURTS

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91

One o f th e m ost im p o rta n t ways to d e te rm in e th e v a lu e o f a t e s t
in s tr u m e n t i s i n term s o f i t s p r e d i c t a b i l i t y .

And, i f t h i s i s t r u e , a

lo g ic t e s t i s n o t u n l i k e a th e o ry i n t h a t you p ro v e i t s m e rit i n term s
o f i t s c o n firm a b le c o n se q u e n c e s.

I t was j u s t f o r t h i s v e ry r e a s o n t h a t

t h r e e such p r e d i c t i o n s and t h e i r outcom e were in c lu d e d i n t h i s t h e s i s .
T h is was th e work o f Study H v e .

Study l i v e was in c lu d e d p r im a r ily to

d e te rm in e i f th e t e s t in s tr u m e n t d ev elo p ed i n Study Ib u r h a d any p re ­
d i c t i v e v a lu e .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , i f th e lo g ic t e s t s p ro v id e d i n t h i s t h e s i s a r e r e ­
l i a b l e , what i m p lic a tio n s do th e y h o ld f o r g e n e ra l re a d in g com prehension,
v e r b a l a b i l i t y , and t h e a b i l i t y to a c h ie v e good g ra d e s i n c o lle g e ?

One

w ould h y p o th e s iz e t h a t i f th e s e t e s t s have m e r it, th e n th e r e sh o u ld be
a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een a p e r s o n ! s a b i l i t y to e x h ib it v a l i d i t y
p a t t e r n s and (a ) h i s re a d in g com prehension, (b ) h i s v e r b a l a b i l i t y , and
( c ) h i s a b i l i t y to a c h ie v e h ig h g ra d e s i n c o lle g e .

M oreover, th e c o r o l ­

l a r i e s o f th e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s sh o u ld a ls o be p o s i t i v e .

That i s , th e r e

s h o u ld be p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een low lo g ic s c o re s and each o f
th e s e a b i l i t i e s .

T h e re fo re , o u r p r e d i c t io n s were t h a t th e s e r e l a t i o n ­

s h ip s would h o ld , and, i n so d o in g , we would be p r o v id in g o u ts id e checks
f o r t h e v a lu e o f th e t e s t in s tru m e n t d ev elo p ed i n Study Sbur.
Two g roups o f s tu d e n ts were s e le c t e d from th e lo g ic t e s t admin­
i s t e r e d i n Study !Sbur-II o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , nam ely, th o s e h a v in g h ig h
lo g ic s c o r e s and th o s e w ith low lo g ic s c o r e s .
w ere com puted f o r each group f o r
(a )

h e a d in g Com prehension (RC),

(b)

V erbal A b i l i t y (V ), and

T e sts f o r s ig n if ic a n c e

92

(c )

Grade P o in t A verages (GPA).

The s o u rc e o f t h e r e a d in g com prehension and v e r b a l a b i l i t y s c o r e s
w ere from th e M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity e n tr a n c e ex am in a tio n s t h a t a l l
s tu d e n t s ta k e when e n t e r i n g s c h o o l.

The t e s t s in v o lv e d were th e MSU

R eading T e st (R ead in g Com prehension) and The C o lle g e Q u a lif ic a tio n T e st
(V e rb a l A b i l i t y ) .

The g ra d e p o in t a v e ra g e s were o b ta in e d from th e g ra d e

r e c o r d s o f s t u d e n t s re c o rd e d a t th e A d m in is tra tio n B u ild in g a t M ichigan
S ta te U n iv e rs ity .
The l o g i c t e s t upon which th e t e s t s f o r s ig n if i c a n c e was made was
ta k e n from Study T b u r - I I .

Only th o s e s tu d e n ts w ith an av erag e o f 87$ o r

b e t t e r on a l l t h r e e form s were s e le c te d f o r th e uHigh lo g ic Group” , w h ile
o n ly th o s e w ith an av e ra g e o f 33$ o r l e s s on a l l th r e e form s were se­
l e c t e d f o r th e ” Lo w Logic Group” .
I employed th e in s tru m e n t d e a lin g w ith th e p r e d i c a t i v e form s be­
c a u se th e y seemed to be more u n i v e r s a l l y p r e v a le n t w ith in th e p o p u la tio n
th a n th e p r o p o s i t i o n a l form s (a s th e means o f Table XVI i n d i c a t e ) .

A lso,

t h e r e l i a b i l i t y v a lu e s w ere s l i g h t l y h ig h e r f o r t h i s in s tru m e n t th a n were
t h e v a lu e s f o r P a r t s I and I I (T a b le X I I I ) .
The fu n d am en tal q u e s tio n i s t h i s :

do th o s e p e o p le who do b e t t e r

on th e lo g ic t e s t a ls o do b e t t e r on th e RC and V t e s t s , and g e t b e t t e r
g r a d e s , as com pared w ith th o s e s tu d e n ts who g e t lo w er lo g ic sc o re s?

If

th e y do, th e n i t can be s a id th a t th e r e i s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p be­
tw een a b i l i t y to e x h ib it v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s and re a d in g com prehension,
v e r b a l a b i l i t y , and g ra d e p o in t a v e ra g e s .

I f a p e rso n g e ts a h ig h lo g ic

s c o re , h e w i l l l i k e l y be h ig h i n th e s e o th e r

fa c to rs .

I f he g e ts low

l o g i c s c o re s , h e w i l l l i k e l y be low in th e s e

o th e r f a c to rs .

93

I n th e High Logic Group th e r e were a t o t a l o f 16 s tu d e n ts .

Two

s tu d e n t s w ere o m itte d from t h i s group - one b ecau se he h ad no s c o re s
f o r t h e RC and V t e s t s ,

and a second b ecau se th e r e was no name on h i s

answ er s h e e t o f th e lo g i c t e s t .
I n th e
s tu d e n t s w ere

low lo g ic Group t h e r e w ere a t o t a l o f 21

s tu d e n ts . Two

o m itte d from t h i s group - one b ecau se he was a t r a n s f e r

s tu d e n t , and a seco n d b e ca u se h e h a d no s c o re s f o r th e RC and V t e s t s .
The e x am in ers o f th e RC and V t e s t s s t a t e th a t th e s c o r e s f o r t r a n s f e r
s tu d e n t s "m ust be i n t e r p r e t e d w ith c a u t i o n . ”

As a m a tte r o f f a c t , be­

g in n in g w ith th e t e s t s f o r F a ll Term 1958, t r a n s f e r s tu d e n ts were n o t
u s e d i n s e t t i n g th e norms o f th e s e t e s t s .
The RC
T h is

and V s c o r e s a re d e r iv e d s c o re s and ra n k ed from 1 to 10.

s c a le i s i n t e r p r e t e d to mean t h a t a p e rso n w ith a s c o re o f 9, f o r

exam ple, ra n k s a t a p o s i t i o n such t h a t 96$ o f th e Freshmen a t MStJ would
h av e a lo w e r s c o re .

D eriv ed s c o re s l e s s th a n 9 would have c o rre s p o n d in g

l e s s e r p e r c e n ta g e s .
T ab le XVII com pares t h e means o f th e two lo g ic groups r e l a t i v e to
t h e RC, V and GPA s c o r e s a c h ie v e d by th e s tu d e n ts w ith in th e s e g ro u p s.
TABLE XVII
COMPARISON OF MEAN'S OF RC, V, and GPA SCORES ACHIEVED BY HIGH JND IOW
LOGIC GROUPS
RC mean o f High lo g ic Group

6.875

RC mean o f Low lo g ic Group

4 .7 1 4

V mean o f High lo g ic Group

6 .9 7 3

V mean o f Low lo g ic Group

4 .7 6 2

GPA mean o f High lo g ic Group

2.745

GPA mean o f Low Logic Group

1.888

94

The d a t a i n T a b le XVII p ro v id e ev id en ce f o r showing t h a t a p o s i­
t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s betw een a b i l i t y to th in k l o g i c a l l y and (a )
a b i l i t y fo r re a d in g co m p reh en sio n , (b) v e r b a l a b i l i t y ,
to a c h ie v e a g ra d e p o i n t a v erag e around 2 .7 5 .

and (c ) a b i l i t y

I n te rm s o f th e g ra d in g

sy stem em ployed a t M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity , t h i s v a lu e i s i n th e
u p p e r C g ra d e ra n g e .
The c o r o l l a r y to t h i s was a ls o shown, nam ely, t h a t t h e r e was a
p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een a la c k o f a b i l i t y to th in k l o g i c a l l y and
(a ) a b i l i t y f o r r e a d in g com prehension, (b) v e r b a l a b i l i t y , and (c) th e
a tta in m e n t o f a g rad e p o i n t a v erag e around 1 .8 9 .

T h is l a s t v a lu e i s i n

t h e u p p e r D g ra d e ra n g e .
To d e te rm in e w h eth er th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e mean v a lu e s g iv e n
i n T a b le XVII were m e a n in g fu l, t e s t s f o r s ig n i f i c a n c e were c a lc u la t e d and
th e r e s u l t s a r e g iv e n i n T able X V III.
TABLE XVIII
VALUES K)E SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN THE MEANS OF EC, V, AND GPA SCOPES
ACHIEVED BT HIGH AND IOW IOGIC GEOTJPS

S ig n if ic a n c e v a lu e

f o r EC means

4 .4 9 3

s ig n ific a n t

S ig n if ic a n c e v a lu e

f o r V means

4 .0 1 3

s ig n ific a n t

S ig n if ic a n c e v a lu e

f o r GPA means

4 .8 6 9

s ig n if ic a n t

Tjy d e te rm in in g th e s i g n i f i c a n c e betw een th e means o f EC, V, and
GPA s c o re s a c h ie v e d by th e High and Low Logic Groups (T ab le XVTII) e v i­
den ce i s p ro v id e d f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een

95

a b i l i t y to t h i n k l o g i c a l l y and
(a ) a b i l i t y f o r re a d in g com prehension,
(b ) v e r b a l a b i l i t y ,

end

(c ) g ra d e p o i n t a v e ra g e s .
Thus, th e p r e d i c t i o n s t h a t w ere made upon th e b a s is o f th e t e s t
in s tr u m e n t o f Study I b u r were c o n firm e d , and in so doing, p ro v id e o u ts id e
c h e c k s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g th e m e rit o f th e in s tru m e n t p e r se .

Because i f

th e s e c o m p ariso n s h ad tu r n e d o u t o th e r w is e , s p e c i f i c a l l y , i f th e d i f ­
f e r e n c e s betw een th e means had tu r n e d o u t to be n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , th e n
l i t t l e c o u ld be s a id f o r th e d is c r im in a to r y a b i l i t y o f th e t e s t i n s t r u ­
ment by f a i l i n g to show a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e i n th e means o f h ig h
and low l o g i c g ro u p s f o r EC, 7, and GPA s c o re s , as w e ll as f a i l i n g to
e s t a b l i s h a p o s i t i v e co m p arison o f t h e r e s u l t s o f th e in s tru m e n t w ith
th e r e s u l t s o f o th e r lo n g e s ta b lis h e d t e s t s .
Thus, th e " c h ip s were down", so to speak, when th e s e p r e d i c t io n s
w ere made.

The f a c t t h a t th e y w ere co n firm ed p r o v id e s ev id en ce f o r th e

m e r it o f th e t e s t in s tr u m e n t.

At t h i s p o i n t , I would l i k e to p r e s e n t a d is c u s s io n - which i s
o f f e r e d as an h y p o th e s is - f o r th e e x is te n c e o f o n ly t h r e e law s o f
th o u g h t, nam ely, MP, MT, and S&rll.
T here a r e two r e a s o n s fo r p r e s e n tin g t h i s d is c u s s io n a t t h i s tim e :
firs t,

b ec a u se I am s u r e i t must seem p e c u l i a r to some th a t my t e s t i n ­

s tru m e n ts o n ly employed th e th r e e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s MP, MT, and S ^ ll,
and s e c o n d ly , b ecau se h i s t o r i c a l l y th e t h r e e law s o f th o u g h t have a l wgys been ta k e n to be th e law s o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n , i d e n t i t y , and e x clu d ed

96

By th e f o llo w in g d is c u s s io n I hope to p ro v id e j u s t i f i a b l e

m id d le .

r e a s o n f o r s u p p o sin g t h a t th e MP, MT, and S y ll v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s may
he th e o n ly ttlaw s o f th o u g h t11, and
tity ,

t h a t th e law s o f c o n t r a d i c t io n ,

and e x c lu d e d m id d le s ta n d as g o v e rn in g p r i n c i p l e s to

id e n ­

l o g i c a l th in k ­

in g i n s t e a d o f 11law s o f th o u g h t11 p e r se .
The fu n d am en tal u n i t o f any re a s o n in g p ro c e s s i s th e im p lic a tio n
s ig n w ith i t s two arg u m en ts.

Thus, i n th in k in g a c t i v i t y co n cern ed w ith

i n f e r e n t i a l a c t i v i t y ( t h a t i s , r e a s o n in g ) , a s d i s t i n c t from o th e r ty p e s
o f th in k in g , nam ely, judgm ent and c o n c e p tio n , alw ays th e r e i s p r e s e n t
some i m p l i c a t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n .

Always th e r e a p p e a rs to he one u n i t -

th o u g h t im p ly in g some o t h e r u n i t - t h o u g h t .

Thus, P 5 Q, where P and Q,

a r e g e n e r a l o r p a r t i c u l a r , u n iq u e o r com plex.
M oreover, th e r e a p p e a rs
to

to

he o n ly c e r t a i n th in g s which can happen

t h i s seq u en ce o f u n i t - t h o u g h t s from th e s ta n d p o in t o f v a l i d in f e r e n ­

t i a l a c tiv ity .
( a ) i t s a n te c e d e n t c a n he a ffirm e d ,
(h) i t s co n seq u en ce d e n ie d , o r
( c ) i t s co n seq u en ce im p lie s some t h i r d u n i t - t h o u g h t .
Thus, th e s e c o n s t i t u t e th e fundam ental form s o f v a l i d in f e r e n c e .

And

w here com plex argum ents a r e e n t e r t a i n e d by th e S e lf, any o r a l l o f th e s e
form s may he em ployed to a r r i v e a t a g iv e n c o n c lu s io n .
To e x p l i c a t e t h i s p o in t p h y s ic a lly , th e to o l o f sym bolic lo g ic may
he

used.

A word o f c a u tio n i s i n

o r d e r , how ever, in th a t one does n o t

c o n fu se th e a r t i f i c i a l l o g i s t i c m a n ip u la tio n o f th e symbols w ith th e
m en ta l a c t i v i t y th e y a r e in te n d e d to p o r tr a y .

97

In l o g i c , t h e r e a re s ta n d a r d p ro c e d u re s f o r s o lv in g c e r t a i n
p ro o fs:
Case I

(w here we w ish to r e p la c e one elem ent o f a sequence "by
i t s im p l i c a t e i n a seco n d sequence)
to p ro v e :

A • ^ • B O C

g iv e n :

A •

and

D D C

• BOP

p ro o f

Case I I

1.

A *^ * B 3 P

p re m ise

2.

p t> C

p re m ise

3.

DDC:3:

4.

B 3> P • ^ • B 3 C

from 1 and 3, MP and In fe re n c e

5.

A *3

from 1 and 4 , S y ll and I n fe r e n c e

B D D - 3 - B3C

* B^ C

s u b s t i t u t e P /q,
C /r , B/p
in q a m : p ^ q *3 • p q r

(w here we w ish to r e p la c e one elem ent o f a sequence by
i t s im p lic a n t in a second sequence)
to p ro v e :

A •

• B

C

g iv e n :

A •^• P

C

and

BO P

p ro o f
1.

A •^ • P ^ C

p re m ise

2.

B^ P

p re m ise

3.

BOP: 3:

4.

P 3 C *^ • B sC

from 2 and 3, MP and In fe r e n c e

5.

A *

from 1 and 4 , S y ll and I n fe re n c e

P?C

• B I> C

• 3 • B 3 C s u b s t i t u t e B/p,
P /q , C /r
in p q: : q r • . p r

The p o in t i n i l l u s t r a t i n g th e s e two c a s e s i s t h a t th e y a re s ta n d a r d

98

form s o f p ro c e d u re o r m ethods i n a r r i v i n g a t d e s ir e d c o n c lu s io n s o f a
g r e a t many l o g i c a l p r o o f s .
fo rm s.

There a r e many v a r i a t i o n s o f th e s e s ta n d a rd

B ut, n o t i c e t h a t a l l o f them in v o lv e d two p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n s o f

v a l i d i n f e r e n c e , nam ely, th o s e form s we c a l l MP and S y ll.
T h is f a c t o f t h e r e "being th r e e m ajo r form s o f v a l i d in f e r e n c e was
b ro u g h t o u t when I t r i e d to
As

t e s t f o r th e t r a n s p o s it i o n law (PD Q .O .~ Q 3~ P ).

th e ite m s were a l l s i m i l a r i n form, a

sam ple w i l l i l l u s t r a t e th e p o i n t :

I f g ra s s h o p p e rs d o n 't have c r e a t i n e p h o sp h ate i n t h e i r
m u sc le s , th e n th e y a r e n o t c h o r d a te s .
Q u e stio n :

Does t h i s mean t h a t i f th e y a r e c h o r d a te s ,
th e n th e y have c r e a t i n e p h o sp h a te in t h e i r
m u scles?

The form o f in f e r e n c e in v o lv e d h e r e i s a c t u a l l y MT, v i z . ,
Po ^ C
C

P
But n o t i c e -

and t h i s i s to th e p o in t - even i f th e form was as fo llo w s
^ P) ^ C : 3 : C 3

P

( tr a n s p o s i t i o n law)

-w p 0 ~ c

C O P
t h e form o f i n f e r e n c e w ould a c t u a l l y he an i n s t a n t a t i o n o f MP.
Thus,
used

th e t e s t f o r th e autonomy o f th e th r e e forms o f in f e r e n c e

i n t h i s t h e s i s a p p e a rs to he n e g a tiv e i n th e se n se t h a t nobody h a s

99

p ro d u c e d exam ples to th e c o n tr a r y .

The o n ly d e fe n se i s t h a t we have no

i d e a what i t w ould he l i k e to th in k i n f e r e n t i a l l y ex cep t i n acco rd an ce
w ith th e s e form s.
I f t h i s h y p o th e s is i s h o m e o u t i n f iitu r e r e s e a r c h , i t im p lie s
t h a t t h e s e form s a re th e t r u e law s o f th o u g h t - as t e s t i f i e d hy th e
f a c t t h a t th e y ( a t l e a s t o ne) m ust he p r e s e n t f o r any in f e r e n c e to ta k e
p la c e .

Any o t h e r law u s e d i n l o g i c a l th in k in g - where an i n f e r e n c e i s

in v o lv e d - a p p a r e n tly alw ays ta k e s one o f th e v a l i d form s o f in f e r e n c e
ahove.
T h is im p lie s f u r t h e r t h a t th e s o - c a l le d "law s o f th o u g h t” , h i s ­
t o r i c a l l y s p e a k in g , c o n t r a d i c t i o n , i d e n t i t y , and ex clu d ed m id d le , would
a c t u a l l y , and fo rm a lly , he a p a r t o f th e m etalan g u ag e o f any i n f e r e n t i a l
a c t i v i t y o f th e m ind.
F i n a l l y , t h i s h y p o th e s is im p lie s t h a t what a r e known i n lo g ic as
d e f i n i t e law s a re a c t u a l l y v a r i a t i o n s made upon th e i n i t i a l s in g u la r
i m p l i c a t i o n s ig n from w hich th e s e th r e e form s o f in f e r e n c e may o p e r a te .
B it, y e t , i n a p p a re n t c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to th e ahove h y p o th e s is
r e g a r d in g j u s t t h r e e form s o f in f e r e n c e (MP, MT, and S y l l) , a c c o rd in g to
R u s s e ll and W hitehead, in f e r e n c e fo llo w s t h i s p a t t e r n :
w here P O Q i s a s s e r t e d a s t r u e , and P i s a s s e r t e d as t r u e ,
we may th e n a s s e r t Q a s tr u e
T h is

would im ply t h a t th e forms o f in f e r e n c e MT and S y ll,
P D Q

? 3 Q,
and

/v* Q

Q2 £

v iz .,

100

w ould n o t be form s o f i n f e r e n c e a t a l l , r a t h e r th e law s o f th e s e would
h av e to he p r e s e n t b e f o re i n f e r e n c e c o u ld o c c u r, t h a t i s ,
P o q • *v q i o : ~ P
P ? Q •

e tc

Q

w p

B ut, y e t , John Cooley does speak o f MP, MT, and Sty’l l as b e in g d e f i n i t e
form s o f i n f e r e n c e .
A cco rd in g to th e P r i n c i p i a . th e r e f o r e , th e form s above o f MT and
Sty’l l w ould n o t be forms o f

in feren ce.

^8

B at, a c c o rd in g to Cooley th e y

w ould. ^
B a t, f o r a l l o f t h i s , th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l problem i s which way does
th e mind work i n p r a c t i c e ,

th a t i s ,

does i t i n f e r i n th e fo rm al way o f

th e P r i n c i p i a - a c t u a l l y la y in g o u t th e law s - o r does i t u s e th e forms
t h a t C ooley sp eak s ab o u t?

O b v io u sly , t h i s problem i s n o t e a s i ly answ ered.

What i s a t s ta k e h e r e i s a c o n s i s t e n t d e f i n i t i o n o f in f e r e n c e .

As i t

s ta n d s now we have so m eth in g l i k e t h i s :
I n fe r e n c e

( th e P r i n c i p i a )
P o

P

. P . ^ . q

P 3 Q - P

P

~ Q
Q

^P

58 W hitehead and H a s s e ll, 0£ . c i t . , pp. 8 -9 .
59 John C. C ooley, A P rim e r o f Fbrmal L o g ic .
Company, 1 9 4 9 ), p . 14.

3

Q 3 E
F 3 P

(Hew York:

The M acm illan

101

I n te rm s o f t h i s t h e s i s we have assum ed th e p o s i t i o n o f th e
P r i n c i p i a . and i t i s b ec au se o f t h i s t h a t we have spoken o f MP, MT,
and § y ll in te r c h a n g e a b ly as r e f e r r i n g to th e form s o f in f e r e n c e and
t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e la w s .

In th e t e s t ite m s we have u s e d o n ly th e th r e e

fo rm s, w h ile assum ing t h e e x is te n c e o f th e law i n th e m ind o f th e t e s t e e .
M oreover, i t i s g r a n te d t h a t th e e n t i r e q u e s tio n i s somewhat
r e c o n d i t e , b u t t h i s a l t e r s i n no way i t s n e c e s s a ry answ er f o r any s ig ­
n i f i c a n t p sy c h o lo g y .

What h a s to be done i s to c o n s tr u c t a t e s t which

w ould e m p ir ic a lly d is c r im in a te a g iv e n law from th o se u n i t- th o u g h ts
w ith in th e law when th e l a t t e r a r e c o n s id e re d a p a r t from th e law.
In summary, th e d a t a o f S tu d ie s One th ro u g h Ib u r showed co n firm a­
t i o n o f th e h y p o th e s is r e g a rd in g th e e x is te n c e o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s .
The p a t t e r n s s p e c i f i c a l l y t e s t e d fo r in t h i s t h e s i s were th o se p a r t i ­
c u l a r k in d s em ployed i n l o g i c a l th in k in g , and o th e rw is e known as v a l i d
form s o f in f e r e n c e .
Each o f th e s t u d i e s r e p r e s e n te d s te p s tow ard th e f i n a l developm ent
o f a t e s t in s tr u m e n t t h a t p ro d u ced ev id en ce c o n s id e re d to be r e l i a b l e .
T h ree p r e d i c t i o n s were made from t h i s in s tru m e n t to e s t a b l i s h f u r t h e r
i t s m e r it.
3*7 i n d i c a t i n g t h e e x is te n c e o f v a l i d form s o f in f e r e n c e , th e

b a s ic r e s e a r c h h a d been p ro v id e d f o r c o n firm in g th e h y p o th e s is th a t
com m unication o f id e a s from one mind to a n o th e r i s a f u n c tio n o f v a r io u s
v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s e x i s t e n t in th o se m inds.

I t i s c l e a r t h a t b e fo re one

can sp e ak ab o u t v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s r e l e v a n t to com m unicable d is c o u r s e ,
e m p iric a l e v id e n c e m ust be e x i s t e n t r e g a rd in g such p a t t e r n s .
s e a rc h h a s p ro d u c ed such e v id e n c e .

T h is r e ­

102

S p e c i f i c a l l y , what h a s been shown i s t h a t c e r t a i n d e d u c tiv e form s
o f i n f e r e n c e a r e e x i s t e n t i n th e p o p u la tio n .

5br th e problem o f commu­

n i c a t i o n , t h i s e v id en c e i s most e n c o u ra g in g .

B ecause i f th e ev id en ce

h ad tu r n e d o u t to he o th e r w is e , t h a t i s , i f i t had shown t h a t th e s e
form s o f i n f e r e n c e w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y p r e v a le n t i n th e p o p u la tio n ,
th e n t h e h y p o th e s is r e g a r d in g th e n a t u r e o f com m unication would have
b e en n e g a te d .

5 br i t i s o u r c o n te n tio n t h a t th e com m unication o f id e a s

fro m o n e m ind to a n o th e r ta k e s p la c e v i a d e d u c tiv e s y s te m s - o f -th o u g h t,
and, v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , o f c o u rs e , c o n s t i t u t e th e b a s is o f such sy stem s.

CHAPTER V

THEORY

I n t h i s c h a p te r I would l i k e to show th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e above
d a t a to th e t h e o r e t i c a l fram e o f r e f e r e n c e from w hich i s d i r e c t e d th e
e n t i r e r e s e a r c h program .
Thus f a r , I have s t a t e d my p o s i t i o n to be t h a t la n g u a g e , communi­
c a t i o n , and v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s a r e i n e x t r i c a b l y r e l a t e d .

The w orking hy­

p o t h e s i s o f t h i s t h e s i s h a s been t h a t th e l i n g u i s t i c com m unication o f
i d e a s i s c o n tin g e n t upon v a r io u s v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , th e l a t t e r o f which
a r e a s s e r t e d a s c o n s t i t u t i n g th e v ery v e h ic le s o f tra n s m is s io n o f id e a s .
I t was th e s e " v e h i c l e s ” t h a t we were a f t e r i n th e work o f t h i s t h e s i s .
The t a s k now, how ever, i s (a ) to s t a t e a few g e n e r a l rem arks ab o u t
th e th e o r y ,

(b) to s t a t e fo rm a lly th e th e o ry , and (c ) to show su b se q u e n tly

w here th e d a t a o f t h i s t h e s i s c o n firm c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f i t .
I t i s c a l l e d th e BET

T h e o ry .

60

B ecause i t i s o f f e r e d as an ex­

p l a n a t i o n o f th e mind, i t i s a th e o r y o f p sy ch o lo g y .

As a p s y c h o lo g ic a l

th e o r y , i t s u n iq u e n e s s l i e s i n th e f a c t t h a t i t t r e a t s o f th e mind a s a
p s y c h ic a l e n t i t y com posed o f o rg a n iz e d p a t t e r n s o f d i s c r e t e id e a s .

These

o r g a n iz e d p a t t e r n s e x h i b i t a s in g le g e n e r a liz e d sequence d e s c r ib e d a s SMT.
D is c r e te i d e a s o r t h e i r o r g a n iz e d p a t t e r n s a re r e f l e c t e d in th e p h y s ic a l
w o rld by la n g u a g e .
Thus, th e BET Theory assum es t h a t th e r e e x i s t s a mind, t h a t a

60 Lawson, op., c i t . . C h a p te r two.

104

p h y s i c a l w o rld e x i s t s o u t s i d e o f mind, t h a t lan g u a g e i s a p a r t o f t h i s
p h y s i c a l w o rld , and t h a t an a n a ly s is o f la n g u a g e sh o u ld y i e l d e v id e n c e
o f th e o r g a n iz e d p a t t e r n s w hich th e d i s c r e t e id e a s p a r ta k e o f i n th e
mind*

Such an a n a l y s i s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n s t i t u t e s th e b a s ic w orking hypo­

th e s is o f th is th e o r y .^
I n th e BUT Theory an " id e a " i s c o n c e iv e d a s a 11s t a t i c u n i t - t h o u g h t 11
h a v in g th e p r o p e r ty o f an u n ch an g in g e n t i t y .

We r e a l i z e , how ever, in

d e c la r in g t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , t h a t t h e r e a r e many o th e r h y p o th e se s r e g a rd ­
in g th e n a t u r e o f i d e a s .

I b r exam ple, Brand B la n sh a rd l i s t s e ig h t p o in ts

o f v iew h e l d by em inent p e o p le c o n c e rn in g them, v i z . , 62
1.

The copy th e o r y , o r id e a s a s im ages.

(Locke, B erk e le y , and

Hume).
2.

Id e a s a s s e n s a tio n s .

A b s tra c t id e a s , b e l i e f s , em o tio n s, de­

s i r e s a r e a l l r e d u c ib le to s e n s a tio n s .
3.

(B. R u s s e ll ) .

Id e a s re d u c e d to r e a c t i o n s o f th e body (b e h a v io rism , o r id e n t i ty -m a te r i a l i sm ).

4.

I d e a s a s in s tr u m e n ts to p r a c t i c a l ends (p rag m atism ).

5.

I d e a s a s "m e n ta l a c ts " (th o ro u g h g o in g r e a lis m ) .

6.

Id e a s a s e s s e n c e s ( c r i t i c a l r e a li s m ) .

7.

Id e a s c o n s i s t o f th r e e a s p e c ts ; im ages, c o n te n t, and m eaning.
(P . H. B ra d le y ).

8.

Id e a s as p a r t i a l l y r e a l i z e d p u rp o se s (B rand B la n s h a rd ).

I b r my p a r t , I am n o t su re I a p p r e c ia te th e l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n
betw een a l l o f th e s e , b u t, i n any c a s e , th e s o le p o in t i n l i s t i n g them

61 I b i d . , p p . 1, 2.
62 B la n s h a rd , p £ . c i t . , Volume I , Book I I , C h ap ter 15.

105

i s sim p ly to show, i n t h e i r number, t h a t n o t much i s r e a l l y known about
th e n a tu re o f id e a s .
I b r u s , id e a s ( o r u n i t - t h o u g h t s ) a re s t a t i c , p o s s e s s b e in g , a r e
a b s o lu t e .

An i d e a a t tim e t^ i s i d e n t i c a l w ith i t s r e c o l l e c t i o n a t tim e

t 2 , c o n tin g e n t o n ly upon th e f a l l i b i l i t y o f th e memory.

The p h ra s e

" c h a n g in g o f o n e 's id e a s " can o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t l y mean th e a d o p tio n o f
a new and d i f f e r e n t i d e a ( o r b e l i e f ) r e g a rd in g th e same s u b je c t m a tte r ,
a s i n " I u s e d to b e lie v e such and such ( id e a ^ ) ab o u t so and so, b u t now
I b e lie v e t h i s and t h a t ( id e a s ) about so and s o ."

I t i s hoped t h a t by

o b s e rv in g th e co n seq u en ces o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f id e a , w ith in th e fram e­
w ork o f th e BET Theory, we w il l come to a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g r e g a r d in g
them.
A lso, " id e a s " a p p a r e n tly can be o rg a n iz e d o r grouped a c c o rd in g to
t h e i r d e g re e o f a b s t r a c t i o n o r o r d e r , a s , f o r exam ple, th e co n cep t o f
" r e l a t i o n " w ould be o f a h ig h e r o r d e r th a n th e c o n c e p ts h o ld in g argum ent
p o s i t i o n i n a g iv e n r e l a t i o n .

"S alm o n ella" i s an argum ent to th e re la r-

t i o n a l p r e d i c a t e " b a c t e r i a " , as i n " S a lm o n e lla a r e b a c t e r i a ."

In th e BET Theory, th e mind c o m p rise s a system w hich in c lu d e s ( a t
le a s t)
1.

A " p la c e " w here a c tiv e th o u g h ts and p a t t e r n s o f u n i t- t h o u g h t s
a r e g iv e n a t t e n t i o n by th e i n t e l l e c t ,

2.

U n it- th o u g h ts ( i d e a s ) ,

( in t h i s th e o ry th e term " id e a " i s u s e d

synonymously w ith " u n i t - t h o u g h t " ),
3.

A " S e l f " , and

4.

A memory w hich s to r e s u n it- th o u g h ts and p a t t e r n s o f same.

106

The " S e l f 11, i n th e words o f th e fo u n d er o f t h i s th e o r y , " i n t r o ­
d u c e s a n o n -m e c h a n ic a l elem ent in t o what i s o th e r w is e e s s e n t i a l l y a
m e c h a n ic a l m odel.

W hether someone i n th e f u t u r e can remove t h i s non­

m e c h a n ic a l elem en t re m a in s to he seen."®®

P r o p e r t i e s o f th e S e lf w ould

in c l u d e c o n s c io u s n e s s o r aw aren ess, and c o - o r d in a t io n .
Por p u rp o s e s o f a n a l y s is , th e m ind may he th o u g h t o f as c o n s is t i n g
o f th re e p a r t s , v i z .,
Mind I

- t h i s i s t h e r e s id e n c e o f a c t i v e th o u g h ts .

They a r e

d e s ig n a te d SP, S®, o r S, e t c . , depending on t h e i r
s o u rc e .
Mind IX - t h i s i s th e memory, th e " p la c e " o f s to r a g e o f u n i t th o u g h ts and th e p a t t e r n s o f same.
(Mind I I I - t h i s r e f e r s to g e n e r a liz e d u n i t - t h o u g h t s .

Thus,

i t i s n o t to he c o n s id e re d as a " p la c e " o f r e s id e n c e
as a r e Minds I and I I .

G e n e ra liz e d u n i t - t h o u g h t s a re

d e r iv e d hy th e p r o c e s s o f a b s tr a c t i o n from p a r t i c u l a t e
u n i t - t h o u g h t s hy th e S e l f ) .
The p rim a ry p u rp o s e o f t h i s d i v i s i o n i s to d i r e c t a t t e n t i o n to th e
" p ls c e " o f r e s i d e n c e o f g iv e n u n i t - t h o u g h t s , and i s ,

a c c o rd in g ly , an a r ­

b itr a r y d iv is io n .
S t i l l a n o th e r way to d e s c r ib e th e s i t u a t i o n w ould he a s fo llo w s :
Mind I

- t h i s i s w here th e i n t e l l e c t c o n te m p la te s u n i t - t h o u g h t s .
Thus, a l l unit - th o u g h t s h e r e a re s a id to he a c t i v e .
The s o u rc e s o f th e s e a c t i v e u n i t- th o u g h t s a re

63 Lawson, op. c i t . , p . 18.

107
1.

from p e r c e p tio n s ( d e s ig n a te d SP, MP, TP), o r

2.

from memory ( d e s ig n a te d Sm, IP , Tm, S, M, T)

Mind I I - t h i s i s th e memory; th e s to r a g e “p la c e 11 o f u n it - t h o u g h t s.
These u n i t - t h o u g h t s may he
1.

p a rtic u la r, or

2.

g e n e r a l.

(Mind I I I i s n o t f o rm a lly p o s ite d )
Those u n i t - t h o u g h t s w hich a r i s e as a r e s u l t o f an im m ediate p e r ­
c e p t i o n a r e c a l l e d " im m e d ia te ly -p e rc e iv e d -th o u g h ts " (IP T ).

These a re

s t o r e d i n t h a t p a r t o f th e mind c a l l e d memory, and th e y may he s h u f f le d
w ith in t h e mind to p ro d u ce new u n i t - t h o u g h t s t h a t may o r may n o t have
any r e f e r e n c e to p a s t p e r c e p tio n s ; and th e s e l a t t e r , when th e o b je c t o f
a t t e n t i o n o f th e i n t e l l e c t a r e d e s ig n a te d a c c o rd in g ly a s " a c t i v e th o u g h ts " .
Thus, th e mind c o n s i s t s o f a t l e a s t two p a r t s , i n t e l l e c t and mem­
o ry .

And th e two s o u rc e s o f a c tiv e th o u g h ts a re s e n so ry s tim u la tio n ,

th a t i s ,

some n e u r o p h y s io lo g ic a l e x c i t a t i o n ,

and memory.

The i n c lu s i o n

o f th e memory a s a s o u rc e o f a c t i v e th o u g h ts means, o f c o u rs e , t h a t a l l
su ch th o u g h ts a r e n o t from p e r c e p ti o n s .

Memory th o u g h ts a r e ta g g e d w ith

a s u p e r s c r i p t "m" i f th e y d e s c r ib e a p a r t i c u l a r sequence o f p a r t i c u l a r
e v e n ts , and a r e w ith o u t s u p e r s c r i p t s i f th e y d e s c rib e a p a r t i c u l a r se­
q uence o f g e n e r a l e v e n ts .
A lso , th e m ind c o n s i s t s o f u n it - t h o u g h t s.
a c t i v e l y c o n s id e r e d by th e i n t e l l e c t ,

U n it- th o u g h ts , when

a re c a l l e d " a c t i v e th o u g h ts ."

T h ere a r e two so u rc e s o f a c t i v e th o u g h ts , v i z . ,

(a) p e r c e p tio n s , in

w hich c a s e t h e a c t i v e th o u g h ts a re c a l l e d " im m e d ia te ly -p e rc e iv e d -th o u g h ts "
(IP T ), and (b ) memory.

108

U n it- th o u g h ts may be " o rd e re d " i n two ways, v iz * ,
1*

by a b s t r a c t i o n ,
memory e i t h e r V

( th e o r d e r in g h e r e alw ays in v o lv e s th e
(a ) w ith r e f e r e n c e to p a r t i c u l a r u n i t -

th o u g h ts w ith in memory, o r (b) w ith r e f e r e n c e to some
g e n e r a l i z e d u n i t - t h o u g h t w ith in memory), and
2.

by te m p o ra l seq u en ce ( o r d e r in g in t h i s c a s e r e f e r s n o t
to th e l o g i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n o f id e a s b a t to th e tim e
seq u en ce i n w hich a c ti v e th o u g h ts a r e e s p e r i e n t a l l y
e x i s t e n t i n th e m ind).

T h is second ty p e o f o r d e r in g i s h y p o th e s iz e d as form ing a p a r t i ­
c u l a r g e n e r a l i z e d p a t t e r n i n th e mind, no m a tte r w hether th e so u rce o f
th e a c t i v e th o u g h ts a r e from ( a ) p e r c e p tio n s , o r (b) memory.

T h is p a t ­

t e r n , w ith o u t th e s u p e r s c r i p t s i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r s o u rc e , i s sym bolized a s

S-* M-* T

w here " S1' r e f e r s to th e i n i t i a l a c tiv e th o u g h t i n some sequence o f a c t i v e
th o u g h ts , "M?* r e f e r s to t h a t ( o r th o s e ) a c tiv e th o u g h t w hich fo llo w s " S"
i n tim e , and "T" r e f e r s to t h a t ( o r th o s e ) a c t i v e th o u g h t w hich fo llo w s
"MV i n tim e .
Thus, t h i s seco n d ty p e o f o r d e r in g i s o f f e r e d as an h y p o th e s is o f
t h e m anner i n id iic h i d e a s a r e a c t i v e l y c o n s id e re d by th e mind r e l a t i v e
to each o t h e r .

A c tiv e th o u g h ts alw ays h av e c o n s c io u s e x is te n c e , i n th e

s e n s e t h a t th e y a r e th e im m ediate o b j e c t o f a t t e n t i o n by th e s e l f .
B ecause t h e r e a r e two s o u rc e s o f a c t iv e th o u g h ts , th e y may be
d i s t i n g u i s h e d from eac h o t h e r i n term s o f th e s e s o u rc e s .

Those e l i c i t e d

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from memory may "be ta g g e d Sm o r S, e t c . ,

and th o s e c a u s e d by p e r c e p tio n s

may be ta g g e d SP, e t c .
Thus, th e SMT se q u e n ce i s h y p o th e s iz e d a s th e te m p o ra l seq u en ce by
means o f w hich u n i t - t h o u g h t s a r e a c t i v e l y c o n s id e r e d by th e mind.

B ecause

a c t i v e th o u g h ts a r e from two s o u rc e s , p e r c e p tio n s and memory, th e y can be
ta g g e d a s above.

M oreover, any g iv e n tem p o ral sequence may have m ix tu re s

a s to th e s o u rc e s o f th e a c t i v e th o u g h ts , v i z . ,

SP*

Tm,

Sm-* MP* Tm,

gP* M* T, e tc .

The c o n c e p t o f a b s t r a c t i o n i s re g a rd e d a s a m en tal p r o c e s s th e
p r o d u c t o f which i s a new k in d o f u n i t - t h o u g h t .

I t in v o lv e s th e s e p a ra ­

t i o n o r i s o l a t i o n o f a p a r t from a l a r g e r w hole, and th e u n it - t h o u g h t s
w hich r e s u l t th e re fro m a re s a id to be u n i v e r s a l o r g e n e r a l - as opposed
to th e p a r t i c u l a t e u n i t - t h o u g h t s from w hich th e y were d e r iv e d .
B ecause th e p r o c e s s o f a b s tr a c t i o n i s p erfo rm ed by th e S e lf on
u n i t - t h o u g h t s in th e m ind, i t p resu m ab ly i s a c o n s c io u s a c t i v i t y , and,
t h e r e f o r e , o c c u r s i n Mind I .

However, p a r t i c u l a r u n i t - t h o u g h t s , w hich

a r e th e o b j e c t s o f a b s t r a c t i o n , may o r i g i n a t e - as a l l u n i t- t h o u g h t s e i t h e r from p e r c e p tio n s o r memory.
T h e re fo re , th e g e n e r a l u n i t - t h o u g h t s found i n Mind I I a r e th e
r e s u l t o f an a b s t r a c t i v e p r o c e s s w hich h a s o c c u rre d i n Mind I and sub­
s e q u e n tly s t o r e d i n Mind I I .

Those p a r t i c u l a t e u n it- th o u g h ts found i n

Mind I I r e p r e s e n t sim p ly th e s to r e d e q u iv a le n ts o f some p r e v io u s p a r t i ­
c u l a t e a c t i v e th o u g h t.

But f o r a l l o f t h i s , th e p r o c e s s o f a b s tr a c t i o n

i s re c o g n iz e d as b a s i c a l l y th e p ro b lem o f in d u c tio n .

The p resu m p tio n

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h e r e o f f e r e d i s s t a t e d sim p ly a s a w orking h y p o th e s is .
Mind I I I s e rv e s a s a u s e f u l c o n c e p t i n th e d e l i n e a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e
o r d e r s among u n i t - t h o u g h t s .

The s i g n i f i c a n t p o in t i s t h a t i t c o n ta in s

th o s e g e n e r a l i z e d u n i t - t h o u g h t s w hich a r e

d e riv e d by a c t i v i t y o f th e

S e l f o n p a r t i c u l a r u n i t - t h o u g h t s , w h atev er may be t h e i r p o in t o f o r i g i n ,
memory o r p e r c e p t i o n .
T hus, fo rm a lly sp e a k in g , Mind I i s t h a t r e g io n where u n i t - t h o u g h t s
a r e c o n s id e r e d by th e S e l f and such th o u g h ts a re d e s ig n a te d a c t i v e
th o u g h ts .

As alw ay s, a c t i v e th o u g h ts may be from two s o u rc e s , memory

o r p e rc e p tio n .

A lso , th e p ro c e s s o f a b s tr a c t i o n , as a c o n s c io u s a c t i v i t y

by th e S e l f , o c c u rs h e r e i n Mind I .
Mind I I i s t h a t r e g io n w here a c t i v e th o u g h ts a re s to r e d , and th u s ,
when s to r e d , a r e c a l l e d , sim ply u n i t- th o u g h t s .
o f a t l e a s t two k in d s , p a r t i c u l a r o r g e n e r a l.

Such u n it- t h o u g h ts a re
They a r e p a r t i c u l a r i f

th e y r e p r e s e n t th e s to r e d e q u iv a le n t o f some n o n - g e n e r a liz e d u n it - t h o u g h t
(th a t i s ,

th e y a r e p a r t i c u l a r i f th e y a re n o t g e n e r a l ) , and th e y a re

g e n e r a l i f th e y a r e th e p r o d u c ts o f a b s tr a c t i o n .
Mind I I I , b e c a u se i t r e f e r s sim ply to d i f f e r e n t l o g i c a l o r d e r s o r
c l a s s e s o f u n i t - t h o u g h t s , and becau se th e u n i t- t h o u g h t s o f Mind I I I may
e x i s t i n e i t h e r Mind I o r I I a t any g iv e n tim e, c an n o t be c o n s tr u e d in
t h e same s e n s e a s Minds I and I I .

Mind I I I sim ply d e s ig n a te s d i f f e r e n t

o r d e r s o f u n i t - t h o u g h t s whose s p e c i f i c s o u rc e i s th e p r o c e s s o f a b s tr a c ­
tio n .

Thus, t h e r e a r e now seen to be a t l e a s t th r e e s o u rc e s o f a c t i v e

u n it-th o u g h ts :

p e r c e p tio n , memory, and a b s tr a c t i o n .

A b s tr a c t u n i t - t h o u g h t s a r e o r g a n iz e d i n two ways, v i z . ,
1.

a c c o rd in g to ty p e th e o ry , when g iv en r e l a t i v e to each

Ill

o t h e r , and
2.

i n t o d e d u c tiv e s y s te m s - o f - th o u g h t.

(A 11s y s te m -o f - th o u g h t" i s a c o h e r e n t, o r d e r l y arran g em en t o f id e a s o r
b e l i e f s r e g a r d in g some g iv e n s u b je c t.

A " s y s te m -o f - e x p la n a tio n " i s a

s y s te m -o f - th o u g h t e x p re s s e d i n term s o f sym bols, u s u a l l y w o rd s).
The c o n s id e r a t i o n o f d e d u c tiv e s y s te m s -o f-th o u g h t r e l a t i v e to BET
Theory means t h a t a b s t r a c t u n i t - t h o u g h t s a re o r g a n iz e d by th e S e l f in to
d i f f e r e n t sy stem s w ith r e s p e c t to d if f e r e n c e s i n s u b je c t m a tte r .
Thus, b e cau se th e o r i g i n a l so u rc e o f a l l u n i t- t h o u g h t s i s presum ed
to be th e p h y s ic a l w o rld v i a IF T f s, w h ile even re c o g n iz in g t h a t th e s e i n
t u r n may be th e so u rc e o f o t h e r u n i t - t h o u g h t s , nam ely, th o s e r e s u l t i n g
from a b s t r a c t i o n s , i t i s f u r t h e r presum ed th a t th e c o n te n ts o f th e s e
s y s te m s - o f -th o u g h t w i l l v a ry from p e rs o n to p e rs o n , depending on th e
p h y s ic a l and c u l t u r a l en v iro n m ent i n w hich th e p e rs o n i s born and de­
v e lo p s .

T h e re fo re , n o t o n ly would d i f f e r e n t en v iro n m en ts be th e imme­

d i a t e can.se o f d i f f e r e n c e s in s y s te m s -o f-th o u g h t from one p e rs o n to an­
o t h e r , b u t, a ls o , th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s may r e s u l t from d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r ­
c e p t u a l s p p a r a tu s o f p e o p le w ith in th e same en v iro n m e n t.
I t i s u n d e r s to o d t h a t any c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e s e s y s te m s -o fth o u g h t w ould be a r b i t r a r y .

B at, a s i n th e c a s e o f c l a s s i f y i n g a b s tr a c ­

t i o n s i n t o Mind I I I , su ch a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s u s e f a l i f f o r no o th e r
r e a s o n th a n b e in g a b le to a n a ly z e th o se s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n s o f SMT’ s which
a r e e l i c i t e d "by some g iv e n a c ti v e th o u g h t.
The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n sy stem t h a t we a r e em ploying i n t h i s r e s e a r c h
h a s been t h a t o f F a n l S c h r e c k e r 1s . 64

64 C f. , p . 2 , C h a p te r I .

I n th e BET Theory th e s i x c a t e g o r i e s

112

o f i d e a s t h a t S ch re ck e r sp eak s o f a re d e s ig n a te d as t axo no mi c - d e d u c tiv e
s y s te m s , o r , sim p ly , s y s te m s - o f -th o u g h t.

I f t h e SMT seq u en ce i s t r u e , th e n th e fo llo w in g phenomena o f th e
m ind s h o u ld he e x p la in e d i n term s o f i t and in th e manner h e r e i n d i c a t e d .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t s h o u ld e x p la in
1.

P re d ic tio n ,

2.

E rro r,

3.

E x p la n a tio n .

P re d ic tio n
Given SP as r e f e r r i n g to th e t o t a l p i c t u r e g iv e n th ro u g h p e rc e p ­
tio n s :
Case I .
I f th e p a r t i c u l a r sequence o f e v e n ts had "been e x p e rie n c e d b e f o re ,
th e n

SP^

(Sm->

Tm)

Where
Sm - a s i m i l a r SP i n memory
= th e memory o f th e su c c e e d in g m otion o f what
h ap p en ed i n t h i s c a s e
Tm = th e memory o f th e end r e s u l t
Case I I .
I f th e s e p a r t i c u l a r e v e n ts h a d n o t been e x p e rie n c e d b e fo re a lth o u g h
s i t u a t i o n s o f t h i s g e n e r a l ty p e h ad b een , th e n

113

SP->

( S-»

T)

where

g e n e ra liz e d s itu a tio n s
o f t h e ty p e SP

Case I I I .
I f t h e r e were no p a r t i c u l a r o r g e n e r a l p r e v io u s e x p e r ie n c e s , th e n
no p r e d i c t i o n i s p o s s i b l e .
In e i t h e r Case I o r I I , th e p a r t i a l sequence M■> T i s c a l l e d th e
p r e d i c t i o n p a r t o f th e t o t a l te m p o ra l seq u en ces SP-> (S10-*
SP->

Tm) and

(S+ M-* T ).
P r e d i c t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i s som ething l i k e an an a lo g y .

In r e g a r d s

to p a r t i c u l a r u n i t - t h o u g h t s from memory, th e an alo g y would appear a s
f o llo w s :
SP re se m b le s Sm, t h a t i s , i d e n t i c a l w ith i t ,

and S111 i s known to

be p a r t o f th e te m p o ra l sequence (S1*5-*- Mm-^ Tm).
d i c t e d to h av e th e tem p o ra l sequence SP-»

Thus, SP i s p r e ­
TP^ , o r , in o th e r

sym bolism ,
i s known to be fo llo w e d by
S131
v
t
re s e m b le s
*
SP
______________________________^

(UP-* Tm)

(MP* TP)

i s e x p e c te d to be fo llo w e d by

Thus, M111* T111 d i r e c t s th e e x p e c te d sequence o f a c tiv e th o u g h ts r e s u l t i n g
r”
'H
r
"I
from th e IPT, SP, nam ely,
MP-* TP1 , w here 1 MP-»TP' i s th e p r e d ic t e d

114

s u c c e e d in g seq u en ce i n tim e .
N ote t h a t

P

i£P-»- TP

i s a p r e d i c t e d f u tu r e s t a t e .

A lso, a l l th e

a c t i v e th o u g h ts a t tim e t ^ o r i g i n a t e from memory e x c e p t SP.
tim e t ^ f SP> MPW T®.

Thus, a t

B u t, IP * Tm i s th e p r e d ic te d tem p o ral sequence o f

SP w hich was e l i c i t e d from memory "by e x te r n a l e v e n ts s t i l l g o in g on.

If

t h e s e p r e d i c t e d e v e n ts a c t u a l l y o c c u r, th e n a tem p o ral sequence o f
SP-» MP-j> TP w i l l e x i s t i n th e m ind a t some f u tu r e tim e , say t g .

At tim e

t 2 , MP’ JP and Tp.T®, w here th e o p e r a to r ”_____ " r e f e r s to a com parison
o f th e s e two i d e a s "by th e S e lf .
t i o n t h a t t h e sequence

I f th e y a r e th e same, th e n o u r p r e d ic -

P
~1
MP-* TP

w i l l fo llo w SP i s c o n firm ed .

I f th e y

a r e d i f f e r e n t , t h a t i s , i f TP £ Tm, th e n o u r p r e d i c t e d sequence was i n
e rro r.
S t i l l a n o th e r way to view p r e d i c t i o n r e l a t i v e to th e SMT o r d e r in g
m echanism i s a s fo llo w s :
At tim e t-^ th e o n ly a c tiv e th o u g h ts b e fo re th e i n t e l l e c t a re
SP and
Sm*

mo*

Tm

S ince SP i s what p ro d u ced Sm, i t i s presum ed t h a t SP i s a
v a l i d s u b s t i t u t i o n in s ta n c e o f Sm.

T h is can be sym bolized

e x p o n e n tia lly , v i z . ,

S®*p O

o

T®^Pp . where S®+P = S® * SP,

JipP - # ' • # ,
= Tm* - TP, and th e
r e s u l t s o f th e p r e d i c t e d
com p ariso n s a r e e x p e c te d
to be p o s i t i v e .

115

N ote t h a t th e u n i t - t h o u g h t s MP and TP a re n o t e x i s t e n t i n th e mind
a t t x , t h e r e f o r e , th e s e p a r t i c u l a r co m p ariso n s can n o t he made a t t ^ .
N o n e th e le s s , S111 and SP a r e e x i s t e n t , and t h i s co m p ariso n , S ^ P , h a s
a lr e a d y b een made and a f f ir m e d p o s i t i v e l y ( r i g h t l y o r w ro n g ly ).
T h e re f o re , th e m e n ta l s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f

h a se d

on t h e a f f ir m e d s i m i l a r i t y o f Sm and SP, i s , i n e f f e c t , a p r e d i c t io n o f
a f u tu r e s t a t e .

I t i s e x p e c te d t h a t th e s e co m p ariso n s, when made a t

tim e t2 , w i l l a ls o t u r n o u t p o s i t i v e l y .

I f th e y do, th e n th e p r e d i c t i o n

i s c o n firm e d ; i f n o t , th e n n o t.
N ote t h a t IIP and TP a r e n o t o r d in a r y IP T 1s .
n o t I P T 's a t a l l - a t tim e tx M^MP and Tm*TP.

B a th e r, th e a c t iv e th o u g h ts a t tx a r e

The co m p arison o p e r a to r H

TP to f u t u r e tim e , nam ely, t2 .

In f a c t , th e y a r e

" i s what r e f e r s MP and

The S e lf must aw ait t2 b e f o re making th e

co m p ariso n , and MP and TP, i n Mm*MP and Tm*TP, sim p ly i n d i c a t e th e s o u rc e
o f th e e x p e c te d IPT *s.
T h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p r e d i c t i o n shows th e l o g i c a l form in v o lv e d
to he a s fo llo w s :

[sm 3

P

(NP

O

o

H

T“>TJ

• SP : 2 :

•

P : 3 :

I n lo g i c t h i s i s c a l l e d th e Modus Ponens law .
p a t t e r n s we so u g h t a f t e r i n t h i s t h e s i s .

3 W )

Q

I t i s one o f th e v a l i d i t y

116

The M echanism o f E rro r
( th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s u s e , a s exam ples, p a r t i c u l a r u n i t - t h o u g h t s from
memory)

In

iF E *

T ^ ,

l e t T ^ P he n e g a tiv e a t t2 -

T h is means t h a t

Tm ^ TP, and t h a t th e o r i g i n a l tem p o ra l sequence S11*-* IP * T® w hich gave
r i s e to th e p r e d i c t i o n was n o t th e c o r r e c t sequence f o r th e TP a c t u a l l y
e x p e r ie n c e d ; t h a t i s , t h e S130-* MP0* Tm sequence and th e SP-* MP-» TP sequence
w ere r e c o g n iz e d a s n o t b e in g i d e n t i c a l i n t h a t T01 ^ TP.

Thus, S131*- M03* T®

was n o t th e c o r r e c t seq u en ce o f a c t iv e th o u g h ts f o r t h i s p r e d i c t i o n .
T h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e r r o r shows th e l o g i c a l form in v o lv e d to he
a s f o llo w s :

gm . 3 .

p

3 Tm

;

SP : 3 :

O

P

(M ^P d T ^ P ) : : 3 : :

Q

M ^P o T1™? :

:

3

:

— ( Sm * D *

Q

P

3 Tm

:

SP)

— P

I n lo g ic t h i s i s c a l l e d th e Modus To l i e n s law .

I t i s a n o th e r one o f th e

v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s so u g h t a f t e r i n t h i s t h e s i s .
The same i d e a can he e x p re s s e d i n a more com pendious manner as
f o ll o w s :

117

0 TnHp . ^ .

gn*p . -> .
^

( s » tp . 3

j ^TP

Q

* ~ Q

^

•

v ---------------

*

^

Tm+p

.

j^ p

o

^

.: D

ipmfp)

— P

The SMT seq u en ce a s an e x p la n a tio n o f e x p la n a tio n
E x p la n a tio n i s d e f in e d as th e m ental s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f son© as y e t
n o n - a c t i v e S and M ( i n some SMT s e q u e n c e ), r e l a t i v e to some a c tiv e
th o u g h t, nam ely, TP, Tm, o r T.

Vfhen th e sought a f t e r S and M become

g e n u in e a c t i v e th o u g h ts in th e SMT sequence, th e n e x p la n a tio n i s s a id
to h av e been ac co m p lish e d .
Eor exam ple, some a c t i v e th o u g h t, TP, i s s a id to be e x p la in e d when
i t l i e s i n co n seq u en ce o f o th e r a c t iv e th o u g h ts , S and M, i n th e tem p o ra l
se q u e n c e S* M-» TP.

BET Theory and V a l i d i t y P a t t e r n s
I n t h i s s e c t io n I would l i k e to show how th e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s
o b ta in e d i n th e d a t a o f t h i s t h e s i s r e l a t e th em selv es to th e BET Theory,
and, i n so d o in g , p r o v id e e v id e n c e f o r th e th e o ry i t s e l f .
S in ce r e a s o n in g i s a f u n c tio n o f v a l i d form s o f in f e r e n c e ( v a l id ­
i t y p a t t e r n s ) , th e t a s k i s to show how th e s e forms o f in f e r e n c e ap p ear
i n term s o f th e SMT se q u e n ce .

The r e la tio n s h ip i s g iv e n as fo llo w s :

118

S

t: th e u n i t - t h o u g h t s i n t h e a n te c e d e n t o f some v a l i d
form o f i n f e r e n c e .

M -

th e form s o f v a l i d i n f e r e n c e .

These a r e a ls o u n i t -

th o u g h ts , h a t n e c e s s a r i l y a r e th e p r o d u c ts o f ab ­
s t r a c t i o n s and, th u s , a r e g e n e r a liz e d .
T r th e u n i t - t h o u g h t s i n th e consequence o f some v a l i d
form o f i n f e r e n c e .
The a c t o f i n f e r e n c e i s made hy th e S e l f .
m e c h a n ic a l-

It is ,

t h e r e f o r e , non-

I n term s o f th e form o f in f e r e n c e in v o lv e d , th e co nsequence

o f t h i s form c o n ta in s o r c a r r i e s th o s e u n i t- th o u g h ts w hich become our
e x p e c t a t i o n s due to th e v e ry e x is te n c e o f th e form i t s e l f .

HJhat t h i s

means i n p a r t i c u l a r i s t h a t th ro u g h th e f o rc e o f th e v e ry v e h ic le o f
co m m unication, nam ely, th e form o f i n f e r e n c e in v o lv e d , some T, which
is

th e i d e a to he com m unicated, becomes o u r e x p e c ta tio n .
A c c o rd in g ly , i n te rm s o f SMT, com m unication, and v a l i d i t y p a t ­

t e r n s , o u r f o r n u l a i s r e v i s e d to ap p e a r as

w here o u r M i s th e m ethod o r means o f g o in g from S to T.
i m p l i c i t i n th e s e n se o f n o t a p p e a rin g i n th e fo rm u la.

Thus, M i s
B ut, y e t , u n d e r

fo rm al a n a l y s i s , th e M m ust ap p ear as h e in g th e v e ry v e h ic le f o r p a s sa g e
hy th e mind from S to T, where S and T a re com plex.

119

An exam ple
P 3
w here t h e P ^

Q

•

P

: D :

Q

and Q*s r e p r e s e n t u n i t - t h o u g h t s .

Bat n o te th e form 1y means

o f -which Q i s d e ta c h e d (th ro u g h in f e r e n c e "by th e S e lf) i s a ls o a u n i t th o u g h t, nam ely, some M, v i z . ,
^

-

.

• • •

*

i

•

^

•

* • •

• •

Tf

M
Thus, M i s a g e n e r a l i z e d u n i t - t h o u g h t w hich h a s a meaning o f i t s own.^5
W hether M a c t u a l l y e x i s t s c o n s c io u s ly w ith in th e a c t iv e mind (Mind
I ) i s a moot q u e s tio n , j u s t as i s th e same q u e s tio n , as a p p lie d to any
Sm*.

<pm#

S p e c i f i c a l l y , th e S e l f does make judgm ents, co m p ariso n s, and

a b s t r a c t i o n s i n th in k in g a c t i v i t y w h ile b a s in g th e s e jud g m en ts, com pari­
so n s, and a b s t r a c t i o n s many tim es upon o n ly h a zy , vague, and i n d i s c r e t e
u n it-th o u g h ts .

M oreover, such u n i t - t h o u g h t s as th e l a t t e r many tim e s have

as t h e i r s o le e x p l i c a t e d r e f e r e n t s such th in g s s p u r io u s ly d e s c rib e d as
f e e l i n g s and h a b i t s .
However, even th o u g h t h i s may be t r u e , i t i s a ls o n o te d t h a t when
a p e rs o n i s a sk e d to p ro d u c e more e x p l i c i t l y th e r a t i o n a l e ( u n it- th o u g h t)
i m p l i c i t w ith in any g iv e n u t t e r a n c e u n i t h e a t t e n p t s to do so w ith r e f e r ­
en ce to some p a t t e r n , s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
v a l i d - w h eth er i t r e a l l y i s o r n o t.

some M t h a t he h a s ju d g e d as b e in g
T h e re fo re , to deny th e e x is te n c e in

BET T heory o f such t h in g s a s f e e l i n g s and h a b i t s would be a s f a l l a c i o u s
as a s s e r t i n g th e y were th e o b j e c t s p e r se o f com m unicable d is c o u r s e .

65 c . B. H fcrris, I d e a l i s t i c l o g i c . (Io n d o n ; M acm illan and Company, 1 933),
p . 26.
Susanne L anger, I n tr o d u c t i o n to Symbolic L ogic.
(Hew York: Ib v e r
P u b l i c a t i o n s , I n c ., 1 9 5 3 ), p p . 2 3 -2 9 .
B lack , o p . c i t . , p . 44.

120

Mare i n t e r e s t i n g i s th e cpa.est i o n r e g a r d in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
t h e ty p e o f p r e d i c t i o n in v o lv e d i n th e com m unication o f a u n it- th o u g h t
v i a a form o f v a l i d in f e r e n c e , and th e ty p e o f p r e d i c t i o n in v o lv e d when
co m p arin g two SMT s e q u e n c e s, one from memory, th e o th e r from p e r c e p tio n s .
The answ er to t h i s q u e s tio n i s g iv e n as fo llo w s :
C ase I .

P r e d i c t i o n hy com paring two SMT s e q u e n c e s.

known to he fo llo w e d hy
_________________________^

Sm

(M** Tm)

re s e m b le s
4
SP
i s ex p e c te d to he fo llo w e d hy
th a t i s ,

3

(M® O Tm)]

.

SP

: 3 :

( e x i s t e n t i n mind a t t ^ )

(^ P

o T^+P)

( p r e d ic t e d to e x i s t in mind a t t £ )

N o te t h a t t h e r e i s no v i o l a t i o n o f ty p e h e re as m ight he presum ed when
c o n s tr u i n g th e m eanings o f Sm and SP, M111 and MP, T™ and TP in term s o f
t h e i r sym bols.
SP, e t c . ,

The p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t i s t h a t th e r e f e r e n t s f o r Sm and

a r e a c t i v e th o u g h ts , and, m oreover, t h a t th e y a re i d e n t i c a l ,

a t l e a s t presum ed so , r i g h t l y o r w rongly, by th e S e l f .

The s u p e r s c r i p t s ,

a s alw ay s, m erely i n d i c a t e th e s o u rc e s o f th e u n it - t h o u g h t s .

121

I f Qp p r e v a i l s a t t g , th e n i t s a n te c e d e n t i s s tr e n g th e n e d as a
b e lie f.

If

Case I I .

i s f a l s e , i t s a n te c e d e n t i s weakened.

P r e d i c t i o n v i a form s o f v a l i d in f e r e n c e .

P r e d i c t i o n , h e r e , i s i d e n t i c a l to Case I above, a s i s shown by th e
g e n e r a l i z e d u n i t - t h o u g h t in v o lv e d , t h a t i s ,

as i s shown by i t s v a l i d form

o f in fe re n c e , v i z .,
£ s m o ( m o irnj]

0

.

SP

. 3 .

3 rpmtp)

. . . .

t h i s i s th e v e h i c l e o r form, th e p a r t i c u l a r M in v o lv e d
in t h i s p re d ic tio n .
Thus,

T
(com plex)

*

.

(com plex)

E x p la n a tio n i n term s o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s and BET Theory
G iven Case I o r I I above, e x p la n a tio n i s s a id to have ta k e n p la c e
w ith in a g iv e n mind ( t h a t i s , f o r some p e rso n ) when th e u n i t- th o u g h t T
l i e s i n n e c e s s a r y co n seq u en ce to some com plex S in th e SMT d e r iv a tiv e
T.

Summary s ta te m e n t
"Sy sh o w in g th e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s known a s MdcIus

122

P onens and Modus T o lle n s , th e d a ta o f f e r e v id e n c e f o r th e mechanisms o f
p r e d i c t i o n and e r r o r . 66
Ifcr show ing th e e x is te n c e o f th e s e two v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , a s w e ll
as t h e S y llo g ism p a t t e r n ,

th e d a t a o f f e r e v id e n c e f o r th e mechanism o f

e x p la n a tio n .

C f . , p p . 108-109, C h a p te r 71.

CHAPTER VI

THE UIRECTIOH OF FUTURE RESEARCH

In th e c o u rs e o f d o in g t h i s r e s e a r c h th e r e a ro s e s e v e r a l i n t e r e s t ­
i n g p ro b le m s w hich w ere n o t im m e d ia te ly c o n n e c te d w ith th e b a s ic ta s k ,
b u t, n o n e th e le s s , w ere g e n e r a te d by i t .
r i s e to su ch p ro b le m s I w ro te them down.

Whenever c e r t a i n r e s u l t s gave
My l i s t came to 35.

What I

want to do i s n o t to l i s t a l l o f th e s e , b u t r a t h e r to l i s t t h e i r th r e e
g e n e ra l a re a s.
1.

I n th e f i e l d o f com m unication ( o f i d e a s ) , th e fundam ental

t a s k i s to d e te rm in e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y w hich b a s ic law s o f lo g ic a re i n ­
v o lv e d in th e s u c c e s s f u l com m unication o f id e a s .
c o u r s e , i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to t h i s b a s ic work.

T his t h e s i s , o f
I f our r e s u lts had no t

shown t h a t a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d betw een th e form s o f in f e r e n c e
we t e s t e d f o r and th e RC, V, and GPA s c o r e s , f u tu r e r e s e a r c h alo n g th e s e
l i n e s w ould ap p ear to be f r u i t l e s s .
One p o i n t t h a t n e e d s to be m en tio n ed ( i n r e g a r d to th e v a lu e o f
l o g i c i n th in k in g and com m unication) i s th e many v a r ie d o p in io n s on t h i s
s u b je c t,

i b r exam ple, some o p in io n s would be e x p re s s e d as " o f c o u rse

lo g ic i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to th in k in g and com m unication, t h i s i s T^hat
we w ould e x p e c t to f i n d . ”

B ut, y e t , o t h e r s b e lie v e t h a t " lo g ic i s n o th in g

more th a n a game", o r "m ost form s o f l o g i c b e in g p r im a r i ly d e d u c tiv e i n
c h a r a c te r have l i t t l e

i n common w ith s c ie n c e ."

But, i n e i t h e r c a s e , I

s e e no e v id e n c e t h a t w ould s u b s t a n t i a t e e i t h e r ty p e o f o p in io n .

124

I f s u c c e s s f u l com m unication i s r e a l l y a f u n c tio n o f d e d u c tiv e
s y s te m s - o f - th o u g h t, as i s i n d i c a t e d in t h i s t h e s i s , t h i s means t h a t e v i­
dence m ust be fo rth c o m in g r e g a r d in g such system s r e l e v a n t to g iv e n d is ­
c i p l i n e s o f s tu d y .

The e x is te n c e o f th e form s o f lo g ic t e s t e d h e r e ,

w h ile p r o m is in g , do n o t p ro v e th e n a t u r e o f th e d i s p o s i t i o n o f a g iv en
id e a .

The id e a s p o s s e s s e d by an in d i v i d u a l r e g a r d in g a g iv e n s u b je c t

m a tte r may be e x i s t e n t i n th e mind i n an u n o rg a n iz e d ( n o n - lo g ic a l) fram eo f-re fe re n c e .

%• h y p o th e s is i s t h a t any g iv e n i d e a , i n term s o f u n d e r­

s ta n d in g , must e x i s t i n some d e d u c tiv e s y s t e m -o f-th o u g h t.

B ut, a g a in ,

w here i s t h e ev id e n c e f o r t h i s h y p o th e s is ?
M oreover, I w ould suppose t h a t many p e o p le th in k th e l a t t e r hy­
p o t h e s i s , to o , i s o b v io u s .
any e v id e n c e to p ro v e i t ?

B ut, i f i t i s so o b v io u s, why i s n o t th e r e
A.

W hitehead makes th e p o in t somewhere

t h a t a n a l y s i s o f th e o b v io u s i s th e most d i f f i c u l t th in g th e r e i s .
b e l i e v e him .

I

And, maybe t h i s d i f f i c u l t y i s why th e r e i s l i t t l e e v id e n c e

f o r t h e s e d e d u c tiv e sy s te m s -o f- th o u g h t.
T h e re fo re , th e d i r e c t i o n o f f u tu r e r e s e a r c h i n com m unication th e o ry
i s to p ro v id e f u r t h e r e v id e n c e f o r
( i ) th e e x is te n c e o f such h y p o th e s iz e d s y s te m s -o f-th o u g h t, and
(ii)

to show t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t h a t sy stem h e l d by some
sp e a k e r as r e l a t e d to some i n t e r p r e t e r 's sy stem and th e
amount o f com m unication o f id e a s acco m p lish ed th e re b y .

W hile i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e l i t e r a t u r e d e a lin g w ith th e s e f u tu r e p r o ­
blem s r e g a r d in g com m unication, I was p a r t i c u l a r l y im p re sse d by a publicsbt i o n o f P h i l i p J . B u n k el.

Dr. R u n k e l's p a p e r comes th e c l o s e s t to my own

125

h y p o th e s e s r e g a r d in g th e n a tu r e o f com m unication, and. i t i s f o r t h i s
a p p a r e n t s i m i l a r i t y i n o u r p h ilo s o p h ie s t h a t I in c lu d e "b rief s k e tc h e s
o f h i s w ork a t t h i s tim e .
R unkel fs p a p e r i s e n t i t l e d " C o g n itiv e S i m i l a r i t y In F a c i l i t a t i n g
C om m unication. "87

R unkel d e f in e s " c o g n iti v e f ie ld " as d e s ig n a tin g th e

p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f re s p o n s e , and " th e t o t a l com m unicative p r o c e s s a s an
i n t e r a c t i o n betw een c o g n i t i v e f i e l d s . "6®

Thus, f o r R unkel, "communica­

ti o n " r e f e r s to th e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f re s p o n s e .
I f we o v e rlo o k th e am b ig u ity o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n f o r th e moment
i t i s o f some i n t e r e s t to c o n s id e r a s e c t io n o f Dr. R u n k e l's p a p e r,
v i 2 . , 6®
I t fo llo w s from t h i s view t h a t com m unication c a n n o t f r u i t f u l l y be
c o n c e iv e d a s a seq u en ce i n which s e lf - c o n t a i n e d p a c k e ts o f in fo r m a tio n
a r e ex ch an g ed .

I t i s n o t a p r o c e s s i n which one p e rs o n m erely adds to

th e b e lo n g in g s o f a n o th e r by " g iv in g " him in fo rm a tio n .
I t i s r a t h e r a k in d o f g u e s s in g game.
him h i s c o g n i t i v e f i e l d a s a map o f th e w o rld .
w o rld , b u t to th e map.

Each p e rs o n c a r r i e s w ith
He re sp o n d s n o t to th e

When th e com m unication f i t s r e a d i l y , one*s con­

f id e n c e i n h i s map o f t h e w o rld i s in c r e a s e d .
S in c e th e e f f e c t s o f a com m unication depend on th e manner i n which
i t "m eshes" w ith an e x i s t i n g c o g n itiv e map, we m ight e n t e r t a i n th e n o tio n
t h a t th e s e e f f e c t s w i l l ta k e p la c e more r e a d i l y when th e c o g n itiv e maps
o f th e com m unicators a r e s im ila r i n s t r u c t u r e .

87 P h i l i p
tio n ,"
68 I b i d . ,
69 I b i d . ,

In f a c t , th e g e n e r a l

J . R u n k el, " C o g n itiv e S i m ila r ity In F a c i l i t a t i n g Communica­
S o cio m etry , Volume 19, Humber 3 , Septem ber, 1956.
p . 178.
p p . 178-179.

126

hypo t h e s i s o f t h i s p a p e r i s t h a t s i m i l a r i t y o f s t r u c t u r e “between two
c o g n i t i v e f i e l d s i n c r e a s e s th e e f f i c a c y o f com m unication betw een them .
I n i t s g e n e r a l form , t h i s h y p o th e s is i s no doubt as o ld as com m unication.
The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r to th e p ro b lem s o f com m unication l i e s n o t
i n th e g e n e r a l term s o f th e pro b lem chosen f o r s tu d y , b u t r a t h e r i n th e
w hich q u a n t i f i c a t i o n h a s been a p p lie d
to s i m i l a r i t y o f c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e .

In th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e p a r t i ­

c u l a r in d e x w hich f u r n is h e s o p e r a tio n s f o r a s s e s s in g s i m i l a r i t y o f cog­
n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e i s o n e w hich I have la b e le d " c o - l i n e a r i t y " and which
w i l l be e x p la in e d below .............. .............
When two com m unicating in d iv i d u a ls u t i l i z e th e same
u n d e r ly in g a t t r i b u t e i n form ing t h e i r judgm ents, we s h a ll
say t h a t t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n s a re c o - l i n e a r .

'When th e y

u t i l i z e a t t r i b u t e s w hich w ould g iv e a t l e a s t some con­
f l i c t i n g ju d g m en ts, we s h a l l say t h a t t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n s
a re n o n -c o -lin e a r.
R u n k e l's t e s t in s tru m e n t c o n s is t e d o f 5 s ta te m e n ts , p r e s e n te d in
g ro u p s o f t h r e e , o f which th e t e s t e e was i n s t r u c t e d to mark th e s t a t e ­
m ent w ith w hich he m ost a g re e d and th e s ta te m e n t w ith which h e l e a s t
a g re e d .
Runkel gave h i s t e s t to 5 d i f f e r e n t gro u p s o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g
i n t r o d u c t o r y p sy c h o lo g y a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f M ichigan.
t e s t to th e f i v e t e a c h e r s o f th e s e s tu d e n ts .

He gave th e same

Each t e a c h e r 's ra n k o r d e r

was th e n com pared w ith t h e ra n k o r d e r g iv e n by each o f h i s s tu d e n ts , and
t h e te a c h e r s tu d e n t p a i r was th e n c a te g o r iz e d as c o - l i n e a r o r n o n -co 1in e a r.

The h y p o th e s is was t h a t s tu d e n ts c o - l i n e a r w ith th e te a c h e r

12?

w ould g e t h ig h e r g r a d e s on q u iz z e s th a n s tu d e n ts n o n - c o - l in e a r w ith th e
te a c h e r.

T h is hypo t h e s i s was s u p p o rte d hy th e r e s u l t s .

E x cep t f o r one im p o rta n t am b ig u ity i n Dr. R u n k e l's d e f i n i t i o n o f
" c o g n i t i v e f i e l d " I se e n o th in g in c o m p a tib le betw een o u r two a p p ro ach es
to t h e n a t u r e o f com m unication.

The am b ig u ity i s as fo llo w s .

The te rm " c o g n itiv e " im p lie s " id e a " o r some m e n ta tio n o f th e mind.
Thus, " c o g n i t i v e f i e l d " im p lie s some i d e a t i o n a l c o m p le x ity .

However,

R unkel d e f i n e s " c o g n i t i v e f i e l d " as " p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f resp o n se" o r " th e
s e t o f a l l p o t e n t i a l re s p o n s e s which th e i n d iv id u a l m ight a t some moment
make to w a rd s tim u lu s A o r a s e t o f s tim u li c o n ta in in g s tim u lu s A."

Row,

i f Dr. R unkel r e s t r i c t s th e s e " re s p o n s e s " to l i n g u i s t i c u t t e r a n c e s , th e n
I s e e h i s work a s b e in g c o n s i s t e n t .

The n e c e s s a r y assu m p tio n h e re i s

t h a t la n g u a g e r e f l e c t s i d e a s .
However, i f h e p e r m its p h y s ic a l b e h a v io r o f any o t h e r s o r t to be
in c lu d e d w ith in th e c a te g o r y o f " r e s p o n s e s " , th e n he h a s com m itted a
fa lla c y .

T h is w ould assum e t h a t th e m ind-body problem had been s o lv e d ,

and, o f c o u r s e , i t w ould be incum bent o f Dr. Runkel to show d a ta on t h i s .
But I saw n o th in g i n h i s s tu d y , o th e r th a n t h i s am b ig u ity , t h a t would
l o g i c a l l y p e rm it me to im ply t h a t h e d id commit t h i s f a l l a c y .

I was

r e a l l y q u i t e d e lig h te d to f in d h i s p a p e r, f o r I have th e f e e l i n g t h a t
h i s " c o - l i n e a r i t y " c o n c e p t i s n o t u n r e l a t e d to v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s , and
t h a t h i s " m u ltid im e n s io n a l re sp o n s e sp aces" a r e r e l a t e d to s y s te m s -o fth o u g h t, and t h a t p e r s o n s who a r e " c o - li n e a r " (o r "on th e same lin e " as
h e s a y s ) com m unicate m ore r e a d i l y due to s i m i l a r i t y o f v a l i d i t y p a t t e r n s
w ith in th e s e s y s te m s - o f -th o u g h t.

128

£n th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n , th e g e n e r a l problem i s to i n v e s t i g a t e
fo rm a lly th e r e l a t i o n s h i p among d is c o u r s e s w hich a re l o g i c a l , i n d e t e r ­
m in a te , o r i l l o g i c a l and th e s u c c e s s f u l com m unication o f a g iv e n i d e a by
th e le c tu r e r .

T h is, o f c o u r s e , i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e above problem

i n co m m unication th e o r y .

I t d i f f e r s , how ever, i n i t s im p lic a tio n s f o r

c o n s is te n c y i n a g iv e n l e c t u r e .

How im p o rta n t i s c o n s is te n c y f o r th e

s u c c e s s f u l com m unication o f a g iv e n id e a ?

Are g ra d e s more a r e f l e c t i o n

o f t h e a b i l i t y o f s tu d e n ts to adopt th e p a t t e r n s o f th o u g h t - l o g i c a l ,
in d e te r m in a te , o r i l l o g i c a l - o f th e i n s t r u c t o r th a n m aste ry o f th e sub­
j e c t m a tte r?
A ll o f u s h a v e h a d p r o f e s s o r s "whose m ind seems to w ander", who
seems to be i n c o n s i s t e n t " , o r " a r e h a r d to u n d e r s ta n d " .
i s t h a t th e p ro b le m i s b a s i c a l l y a l o g i c a l o n e.

% h y p o th e s is

The ta s k i s to t e s t t h i s

h y p o th e s is .
T h e re fo re , th e d i r e c t i o n o f r e s e a r c h h e re i s to g a th e r d a ta on
( i ) s p e c i f i c l e c t u r e s , t h a t i s , g e t verbatum t r a n s c r i p t s
o f s p e c i f i c l e c t u r e s in te n d e d to convey s p e c i f i c id e a s ,
(ii)
(iii)

t e s t th e l e c t u r e r f o r s p e c i f i c l o g i c a l law s,
t e s t th e s tu d e n ts f o r s p e c i f i c l o g i c a l la w s, and

( iv ) com pare a l l th r e e o f th e s e f a c t o r s in term s o f
(a ) th e s u c c e s s f u l com m unication o f th e id e a s in v o lv e d ,
and
(b ) g ra d e s r e c e iv e d by th e s tu d e n ts .

S p e c i f i c a l ly ,

what r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s betw een th e g ra d e s o f a
s tu d e n t who p o s s e s s e s c e r t a i n l o g i c a l law s and
t h i s s t u d e n t ’ s l e c t u r e r who does n o t p o s s e s s them?

129

I n c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e r e s u l t s o f Study H v e , where a co m p ariso n
was made o f lo g i c s c o re s and RC, V, and GPA, a fo llo w -u p s tu d y s h o u ld he
made to p r o v id e e v id e n c e f o r an sw erin g th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s !
( a ) What i s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th o s e s tu d e n ts who p erfo rm ed w e ll
on th e l o g i c t e s t and t h e i r s u c c e s s i n t h e i r chosen f i e l d o f
stu d y ?

Tbr exam ple, to w ard th e end o f t h e i r S en io r y e a r , o f

th o s e s t u d e n t s who went i n t o

Zoology, what i s th e r e l a t i o n ­

s h ip betw een t h e i r h ig h lo g ic s c o re and t h e i r GPA f o r c o u r s e s
i n Zoology?

f o r a l l - c o l l e g e CPA?

(h) W ill f u r t h e r re fin e m e n t o f th e t e s t in s tru m e n t i n term s o f
ad d in g a d d i t i o n a l l o g i c a l law s he more d is c r im in a to r y f o r
EC, V, and SPA?
(c ) How w e ll would g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts o f v a r io u s d e p artm en ts p e r ­
form on g iv e n lo g i c t e s t s (w ith a p p r o p r ia te s u b je c t m a tte r) ?
How would b io lo g y g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts compare w ith p sychology
o r e d u c a tio n g r a d u a te s tu d e n ts ?
3.

In th e f i e l d o f m en tal h e a l t h , th e b a s ic problem in v o lv e s an

a n a l y s i s o f v a r io u s s y s te m s - o f - e x p la n a tio n ( o r b e l i e f ) h e ld by com m itted
m en tal p a t i e n t s .

T his a s p e c t o f th e r e s e a r c h , f o r ny p a r t , g e ts to th e

v e r y h e a r t o f t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l th e o r y in v o lv e d .

Any th e o ry o f mind,

in c l u d i n g th e BET Theory, i s m easured o n ly i n term s o f i t s t e s t i b l e
c o n se q u e n c e s.

And, w hereas com m unication th e o ry and e d u c a tio n a l p sy ­

c h o lo g y a r e , th e m se lv e s , im p lic a tio n s from th e BET Theory (an d , h en c e ,
t h e i r v e r i f i a b l e co n se q u en c es h e lp e s t a b l i s h th e BET T heory), th o s e
i m p l i c a t i o n s r e g a r d in g th e p a th o l o g ic a l form s o f mind p ro v id e th e a c id

130

t e s t s o f th e th e o r y p e r s e .

Even as g e n e tic a b n o r m a litie s a re i n p a r t

e x p la in e d "by chrom osom al a b e r r a t i o n s , so i t i s t h a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l ab n o r­
m a l i t i e s may be e x p la in e d by l o g i c a l a b e r r a t i o n s .

I b r my p a r t , th e

s t r o n g e s t t e s t t h a t c an be made o f a th e o r y i s i t s a b i l i t y to m a in ta in
c o n s is te n c y w ith in th e sco p e o f a p p a r e n tly c o n t r a d ic t o r y f a c t s .

When

a l l e l s e i s s a i d and done, th e s e c o n t r a d i c t io n s mast be e x p la in e d .
J h rth e rm o re , th o s e p s y c h o lo g ic a l th e o r ie s which e x p la in th e n a t u r e
o f mind i n te rm s o f se x o r v a r io u s n eu ro p h y sio l o g i c a l a s p e c ts o f th e
c e n t r a l n e rv o u s sy stem m a n if e s tly h av e n o t been f r u i t f u l i n c u r in g
m e n ta l i l l n e s s .
s is ,

E le c tr o s h o c k , i n s u l i n shock, h y d ro th e ra p y , p sy c h o a n a ly ­

e t c . , seem to work on some p a t i e n t s but n o t on o t h e r s .

Today, t h e r e

i s a p p a r e n tly no way o f p r e d i c t i n g w h eth er any one tre a tm e n t i s g o in g to
w ork f o r any g iv e n p a t i e n t ; and even i f one sh o u ld work, nobody knows
why.
I t i s b e c a u se o f t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , p e rh a p s , t h a t th e term
" i n s a n i t y ” i s l a r g e l y a m a tte r o f l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n .

M , i n view o f

t h i s , i t would seem s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t a d i f f e r e n t h y p o th e s is ought to
be o f f e r e d and i n v e s t i g a t e d r e g a r d in g th e n a t u r e o f mind.
T h e re fo re , th e d i r e c t i o n o f r e s e a r c h i n term s o f th e BET Theory
i s to i n v e s t i g a t e th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a p p lie d lo g ic as r e l a t e d to com­
m i t t e d m en tal p a t i e n t s .
I t i s u n d e rs to o d t h a t m en tal p a t i e n t s a re many tim es v e ry l o g i c a l
i n t h e i r t h in k in g .

B ut, y e t , p a t i e n t s a r e p r im a r ily , i f n o t s o le ly ,

co m m itted on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r c o n tr a d i c to r y b e h a v io r w ith th e a c c e p te d
sy s te m s - o f - b e h a v io r o f t h e i r s o c ie ty .

The p e r e n n ia l pro b lem i n m en tal

i l l n e s s h a s alw ays been to r e s o lv e th e s e two system s w ith in th e mind o f
th e p a tie n t.

131

S p e c if ic a lly * th e i n i t i a l d a ta nrust "be on
( i ) th e d i s c o u r s e s o f com m itted m en tal p a t i e n t s ( I sp eak , o f
c o u rs e , i n r e g a r d to th o s e p a t i e n t s who a re c a p a b le o f
co m m u n icatin g ),
( i i ) a n a ly s e s r e g a r d in g such d a t a as to b o th l o g i c a l s tr u c ­
t u r e and t r u t h - v a l u e o f p r im i t i v e p r o p o s it io n s , and
( iii)

a n a l y s is o f what happens when c e r t a i n o f t h e i r p r im i­
t i v e p r o p o s i ti o n s (th o u g h t to be t r u e ) a r e s u c c e s s ­
f u l l y com m unicated to them a s b e in g f a l s e .

One may w e ll a sk i f t h i s app ro ach c o u ld o n ly r e s u l t i n a v a r i a t i o n
o f th e " t a l k c u re " ( o r p s y c h o a n a ly s is ) .
d en ce - i s n o t known.
it

does h a v e an

The answer - i n ab sen ce o f e v i­

However, th e p rim ary v i r t u e o f t h i s

m ethod i s t h a t

o b j e c t i v e s ta n d a rd , nam ely, l o g i c a l form s, id iich , i n

v i o l a t i o n o f , p a tie n ts a r e com m itted.

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APPENDIX

135

Type A
QUESTIONNAIRE

INSTRUCTIONS:

T h is q u e s tio n n a ir e aim s to f in d o u t, i n a g e n e ra l way,

w hat you remember ab o u t some o f th e i d e a s which were p r e s e n te d to you
l a s t term i n NS 181.

In p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e c o n c e rn s i t s e l f

w ith t h e i d e a s ab o u t h e r e d i t y .
A lth o u g h we would l i k e to have you s ig n your name, you w i l l n o t
be g ra d e d on t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e .

The rem arks you make w i l l n o t in f lu e n c e

y o u r g ra d e i n any manner w h a ts o e v e r.
I n one o f th e l a b s tu d ie s l a s t term , one

o f th e id e a s we w anted to

com m inicate to you was t h a t one u n d e r ly in g th e mechanism o f dominance and
r e c e s s i v e n e s s o f some g e n e s .

]Ey way o f su p p ly in g e v id e n c e to su p p o rt

t h i s i d e a a p e d ig r e e c h a r t was p r e s e n te d i n th e m anual.

T his c h a r t

(F ig u re A) h a s been g iv e n below .

The t r a i t i n q u e s tio n i s e i t h e r
b le n d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

dom inant o r r e c e s s iv e , and n o t a

'What you a r e asked to do i s to e x p la in why i n ­

d i v i d u a l I I - 3 must be r e c e s s i v e .

1

2

3
F ig u re A

EXPIRATION:

4

5

136

Type B
QUESTIONNAIRE

The p ro b le m s s t a t e d below a re d e sig n e d to h e lp u s f in d o u t some
th i n g s a b o u t o u r m ethods o f te a c h in g you a few id e a s ab o u t N a tu r a l Sci­
ence th is p a s t y e a r.
We a l l know t h a t some o f you g e t A 's f o r th e c o u rs e w h ile some o f
you g e t lo w e r th a n A1 s .

We a p p a r e n tly com m unicate to a v ery h ig h d eg ree

w ith th o s e o f you who r e c e iv e A’ s, and c o rre s p o n d in g ly , communicate to a
l e s s e r d e g re e w ith th o s e o f you who r e c e iv e l e s s th a n A.
We w ant to f in d o u t i f th e r e i s som ething in o u r manner o f p r e ­
s e n t a t i o n w hich would p o s s i b ly ac c o u n t f o r t h i s v a r i a t i o n i n communica­
tio n .
A lthough we w ould l i k e to have you s ig n your name, you w i l l n o t
be g ra d e d on t h i s (Q u estio n n aire.

The rem arks you make w i l l n o t in f lu e n c e

y o u r g ra d e i n any manner w h a ts o e v e r.
B ecause o f o u r alm o st c o n s ta n t ex p o su re to th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f
N a tu r a l S c ie n c e , we a r e som etim es i n c l i n e d to make s ta te m e n ts which ap­
p e a r r e a s o n a b le to u s , b u t y e t ap p ear u n re a s o n a b le to you.

We f e e l t h a t

t h e d e g re e o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e betw een what we tsfce to be re a s o n a b le d is ­
c o u r s e and what you ta k e to be re a s o n a b le d is c o u r s e i s d i r e c t l y p ro p o r­
t i o n a l to th e amount o f com m unication Tdiich i s ta k in g p la c e .

DIRECTIONS?
1.

P le a s e do n o t mark on th e s e q u e s tio n n a ir e s .

2.

When y o u f i n i s h ,

3.

Try to answ er each q u e s tio n v o id o f p e r s o n a l o p in io n .

tu r n i n b o th Q u e stio n s h e e t and answ er s h e e t .

137

3 b r q u e s tio n s 1 th ro u g h 15, c o n s id e r each s e t o f s ta te m e n ts a s co m p lete
u n i t s o f d is c o u r s e . I f you th in k th e p o in t "being made i s p r e s e n te d i n
a r e a s o n a b le m anner, "blacken y o u r answ er s h e e t i n th e f i r s t s p a c e . I f
y o u th i n k th e p o i n t b e in g made i s p r e s e n te d i n an u n r e a s o n a b le m anner,
b la c k e n th e second s p a c e .
1.

S in c e a " f a u l t " i s any s u r f a c e o f th e e a r t h alo n g # i i c h movement h a s
ta k e n p l a c e , i t fo llo w s t h a t i f we d id n o t have su ch a f r a c t u r e d s u r ­
f a c e a f a u l t would n o t be p r e s e n t .
I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

2.

I f we a c t u a l l y knew t h a t th e e a r t h was s p h e r i c a l , and i f we a ls o knew
t h a t t h i s im p lie d t h a t i t was f l a t , we c o u ld deduce t h a t th e e a r t h was
f la t.
I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

3.

S upposing i t were a f a c t t h a t no one who b e lie v e s i n e v o lu tio n was an
a t h e i s t and t h a t some p e o p le who d id b e lie v e i n
i t w ere c l e v e r p e o p le ,
i t w ould fo llo w t h a t t h e r e a r e some c le v e r p e o p le i n t h i s w o rld who
a re n o t a th e is ts .
I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

4.

Hie g ra s s h o p p e r i s n o t i n th e phylum c h o r d a ta becau se i f an anim al
d oes n o t have c r e a t i n e p h o s p h a te i n i t s m u scles
and th e g ra ss h o p p e r
d o e s n * t, th e n t h a t an im al i s n o t a c h o r d a te .
I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

5.

S in ce e n v iro n m e n ta l r e s i s t a n c e alw ays d e c re a s e s th e s lo p e o f a grow th
c u rv e , i t fo llo w s t h a t th e r e i s no e n v iro n m e n ta l r e s i s t a n c e when we
h a v e an i n c r e a s e i n th e s lo p e .
I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

6.

P e n i c i l l i n i s e x p e n s iv e b ec a u se i t i s h a r d to p ro d u c e , and a l l th in g s
w hich a r e h a rd to p ro d u c e a r e e x p e n s iv e .
I s th e above re a s o n a b le o r n o t?

7.

Any argum ent w orthy o f l o g i c a l r e c o g n itio n must be such as would o c c u r
i n o r d in a r y d is c o u r s e . I t w ill be found t h a t no argum ent i n o r d in a r y
d is c o u r s e i s found i n n ew sp ap ers. Hence, no argum ent found i n news­
p a p e r s i s w orthy o f l o g i c a l r e c o g n i tio n .
I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

138

8.

I f men b e l i e v e i n e v o lu tio n , th e n th e y w i l l n o t show r e v e re n c e f o r
th o s e m a tte r s w hich a r e beyond t h e i r u n d e r s ta n d in g . However, i n
c l a s s e s i n N a tu r a l S cien ce some i n s t r u c t o r s o f te n show re v e re n c e f o r
su ch m a tte rs * T h e re fo re , i t i s c l e a r t h a t some i n s t r u c t o r s do n o t
b e l i e v e i n e v o lu tio n .
I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

9.

I f p h ilo s o p h e r s a r e i n q u i s i t i v e p e o p le , th e n S o c ra te s i s i n q u i s i t i v e .
I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

10.

Some f o o l s sp eak th e t r u t h ; whoever speaks th e t r u t h d e s e rv e s to be
i m i t a t e d ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e some wIlo d e s e rv e to be im ita te d who
a re n e v e r t h e l e s s f o o l s .
I s th e above re a s o n a b le o r n o t?

11.

I f s tu d e n ts had good t a s t e , th e n th e y would n o t r e a d th e S ta te News
i n l e c t u r e . But s in c e some s tu d e n ts do r e a d th e S ta te News i n l e c ­
t u r e , i t fo llo w s t h a t th e y , i n p a r t i c u l a r , la c k good t a s t e .
I s th e above re a s o n a b le o r n o t?

12.

A nim als h a v in g a d o r s a l and v e n t r a l s id e a r e b i l a t e r a l l y sy m m e tric a l.
Some c r a y f i s h h a v e d o r s a l and v e n t r a l s id e s , and s in c e a l l c r a y f i s h
hav e an a r e o l a , i t fo llo w s t h a t some th in g s which a re b i l a t e r a l l y
sy m m e tric a l a ls o have an a r e o la .
I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

13.

P e o p le who h a v e n 't been h e r e v e ry lo n g c a n 't be e x p e c te d to know
t h e i r way around, t h e r e f o r e , Preshmen c a n 't be e x p e c te d to know
t h e i r way aro u n d .
I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

14.

S in ce am p h ib ia a re c o ld -b lo o d e d , no am phibia can be mammals i f c o ld ­
b lo o d e d an im als a r e n o t mammals.
I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

15 .

I f t h e r e 's a w i l l t h e r e 's a way and i f t h e r e 's no way, th e n t h e r e 's
no w i l l .
I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

3 b r q u e s tio n s 16 th ro u g h 25, a few s ta te m e n ts a r e g iv en w hich a re fo llo w e d

139

"by a q u e s tio n . I f you t h i n k th e answ er to th e q u e s tio n i s Hy e s , rt th e n
b la c k e n s p a c e one on y o u r answ er s h e e t. I f '•no11, th e n b la c k e n sp ace two.
16.

I f l i f e i s p o s s i b l e on Mars, th e p la n e t h a s warmth s u f f i c i e n t f o r
p r o to p la s m ic m e ta b o lism ; b u t th e p la n e t does n o t have s u f f i c i e n t
w arm th.
Q u e s tio n :

17.

Even i f th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n i s tr u e , th e r e can s t i l l be a God;
and th e f a c t s do seem to su p p o rt th e t r u t h o f th e th e o ry .
Q u e stio n :

18.

’t i s f o l l y to be w ise; and ig n o ra n c e is. b l i s s .

Ebes t h i s im ply t h a t i t i s f o l l y to be w ise?

I f e v e ry man h a s h i s l i m i t a t i o n s , th e n i n t e l l i g e n t p e o p le a r e o c c a ­
s i o n a l l y c o n fu se d .
Sam adm its t h a t h e h a s h i s l i m i t a t i o n s .
Q u e stio n :

21.

Are th e m yriapods p ro to z o a ?

I f ig n o ra n c e i s b l i s s ,
Q u e stio n :

20.

A ccording to th e s e rem ark s, c an t h e r e s t i l l be a God?

I f th e m yriap o d s a r e p ro to z o a , th e n th ey w i l l be u n i c e l l u l a r and
m ic ro s c o p ic . They a re n o t u n i c e l l u l a r .
Q u e stio n :

19.

A cco rd in g to th e s e rem ark s, i s l i f e p o s s i b l e on Mars?

Ebes i t fo llo w t h a t Sam i s o c c a s io n a lly co nfused?

I f e v e ry s p e c ie s te n d s to in c r e a s e i n d e f i n i t e l y , th e e a r th w ould be
c o v e re d by a m ass o f anim al l i f e ; b u t th e e a r th i s n o t so c o v e re d .
Q u e stio n :

A cco rd in g to t h i s , does i t fo llo w t h a t e v e ry s p e c ie s
does n o t i n c r e a s e i n d e f i n i t e l y ?

22.

I f s c ie n c e f u r n i s h e s u s e f u l f a c t s o r i f i t s stu d y e x e r c is e s th e r e a ­
so n in g po w ers, i t i s w orthy o f b e in g c u l t i v a t e d ; and s in c e i t i s t r u e
t h a t i t b o th f u r n is h e s u s e f u l f a c t s a s w e ll as e x e r c is e th e re a s o n in g
p o w ers, does i t n o t l o g i c a l l y fo llo w t h a t i t i s w orthy o f b ein g c u l ­
tiv a te d ?

23.

I f th e p r e s e n c e o f segm ents im p lie s th e e x is te n c e o f what i s known
a s "me tame r e s , 11 and i f th e a s c a r i s does n o t h av e th e s e m etam eres,
ca n wev a l i d l y a s s e r t t h a t th e a s c a r i s does n o t have seg m e n ta tio n ?

24.

I f men a r e im m oral o r i r r e l i g i o u s , th e n th ey w ill be happy h e r e b u t
p u n is h e d h e r e a f t e r . Men a r e im m oral.
Q u e stio n :

25 .

lb th e above s ta te m e n ts l o g i c a l l y im ply t h a t th e s e men
w i l l be p u n ish e d h e r e a f t e r ?

I f b la c k i s dom inant to w h ite , th e n a b la c k c a t c r o s s e d w ith a w h ite

140

c a t s h o u ld y i e l d o f f s p r i n g w ith b la c k c o a t s .
n o t h ap p en .
Q u e s tio n :

But su p p o sin g t h i s d id

In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case» c o u ld we say t h a t b la c k i s n o t
dom inant to w h ite?

5b r q u e s tio n s 36 th ro u g h 30, you a r e ask ed to i d e n t i f y u n s t a t e d assump­
t i o n s i n an arg u m en t. I f th e number c o rre s p o n d in g to th e assu m p tio n you
c h o o se f o r an argum ent i s l i s t e d a f t e r th e argum ent, th e n b la c k e n t h a t
num ber on y o u r answ er s h e e t . I f th e l e t t e r i s n o t l i s t e d , th e n b la c k e n
th e number " se v e n 11 s p a c e on y o u r answ er s h e e t (w hich w i l l i n d i c a t e "none
o f t h e s e ." )
ASSUMPTIONS 50R QUESTIONS 36 th ro u g h 3Q

36.

1.

" P r i m i t i v e a n im a ls a r e s e x u a l."

3.

"S ex u al a n im a ls a r e p r i m i t i v e . "

3.

"S ex u al a n im a ls h av e ap p en d ag es."

4.

" P r i m i t i v e a n im a ls have ap p en d ag es."

5.

"A nim als w ith appendages a re s e x u a l."

6.

"A nim als w ith appendages a r e p r im i t i v e ."

"A nim als w ith appendages a r e s e x u a l f o r i t i s w e ll known t h a t th e y
a re p r im itiv e ."
R e q u ire s a ssu m p tio n

37.

7

(none

o f th e s e )

3 , 3,

4,

6,

7

(none

o f th e s e )

1, 3,

4,

5,

7

(none

o f th e s e )

" I f a s e x u a l anim al i s p r i m i t i v e th e n he c e r t a i n l y h a s ap p en d ag es."
R e q u ire s assu m p tio n

30.

4,

" I know a l l p r i m i t i v e an im als a r e se x u a l because th e y in v a r ia b ly
h av e a p p e n d a g e s ."
R e q u ire s a ssu m p tio n

39.

3,

" S in c e a n im a ls w ith appendages a r e always se x u a l i t fo llo w s t h a t th ey
a re p rim itiv e ."
R e q u ire s a ssu m p tio n

38.

1, 3,

1, 4 ,

5,

6,

7

(none

o f th e s e )

"O f c o u rs e p r i m i t i v e an im a ls h av e appendages - b e in g s e x u a l th e y c a n 't
h e lp i t . 1"
R e q u ire s assu m p tio n

1, 2,

4,

5,

7

(none

o f th e s e )

141

Type B
(Study T h ree-I)
QUESTIONNAIRE
The p ro b lem s s t a t e d below a r e d e sig n e d to h e lp u s f i n d o u t some
t h i n g s a b o u t o u r m ethods o f te a c h in g you a few id e a s about N a tu ra l S c i­
ence.
We a l l know t h a t some o f you w i l l g e t A* s f o r th e c o u rs e w h ile some
o f you w i l l g e t lo w er th a n A*s.

We a p p a r e n tly com m unicate to a v e ry h ig h

d e g re e w ith th o s e o f you who r e c e iv e A* s , and c o rre s p o n d in g ly , communi­
c a t e to a l e s s e r d e g re e w ith th o s e o f you who r e c e iv e l e s s th a n A.
We want to f i n d o u t i f th e r e i s som ething in o u r manner o f p r e ­
s e n t a t i o n w hich w ould p o s s i b ly ac c o u n t f o r t h i s v a r i a t i o n i n comnunicac­
tio n .
A lthough we w ould l i k e to have you s ig n y o u r name, you w ill n o t be
g ra d e d on t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e .

The rem arks you make w i l l n o t in f lu e n c e

y o u r g ra d e i n any m anner w h a ts o e v e r.
B ecause o f o u r alm o st c o n s ta n t ex p o su re to th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f
N a tu r a l S c ie n c e , we a r e som etim es i n c l i n e d to make s ta te m e n ts w hich ap p ear
r e a s o n a b le to u s , b u t y e t ap p ear u n re a s o n a b le to you.

We f e e l t h a t th e

d e g re e o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e betw een what we ta k e to be r e a s o n a b le d is c o u r s e
i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to th e amount o f com m unication * h ich i s ta k in g
p la c e .
DIRECTIONS
1.
2.
3.

Tear o f f t h e answ er s h e e t from th e back o f t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e .
When you f i n i s h , t u r n i n b o th q u e s tio n s h e e t and answer s h e e t.
Try to answ er each q u e s tio n v o id o f p e r s o n a l o p in io n .

142

I n each, o f th e p ro b le m s a few s ta te m e n ts a r e g iv e n w hich a re f o l ­
low ed by a q u e s tio n . I f yon th in k th e answ er to th e q u e s tio n i s " y e s " ,
th e n b la c k e n sp ace one on y o u r answ er s h e e t.
I f '’no11, th e n b la c k e n sp ace
tw o.
1.

S in ce a " f a u l t " i s any f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e o f th e e a r t h alo n g which
movement h a s ta k e n p la c e , i t fo llo w s t h a t i f we d id n o t have such a
f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e a f a u l t would n o t be p r e s e n t.
Q u e s tio n :

2.

I f we a c t u a l l y knew t h a t th e e a r t h was s p h e r i c a l , and i f we a ls o knew
t h a t t h i s im p lie d t h a t i t was n o t e l l i p t i c a l , we c o u ld deduce t h a t
t h e e a r t h was n o t e l l i p t i c a l .
Q u e stio n :

3.

I s th e g ra s s h o p p e r a c h o rd a te ?

I f b la c k i s dom inant to w h ite , th e n a c r o s s in g betw een two b la c k c a t s
sh o u ld n o t g iv e any w h ite o f f s p r i n g . But su p p o sin g we d id g e t some
w h ite o f f s p r i n g .
Q u e stio n :

6.

Does i t fo llo w t h a t an im als w ith "arm s and le g s " a re
se x u a l?

I f g r a s s h o p p e rs d o n 't h ave c r e a t i n e p h o sp h a te i n t h e i r m uscles - and
th e y d o n 't , th e n th e y a re n o t c h o r d a te s .
Q u e stio n :

5.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

P r i m i t i v e a n im a ls a r e s e x u a l, and an im als w ith "arm s and le g s " a re
p rim itiv e .
Q u e s tio n :

4.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , c o u ld we say t h a t b la c k was
dom inant to w hite?

I f e v o lu tio n d o e s n 't e x p la in th e o r i g i n o f man, th e n man i s e t e r n a l .
I t i s a s ta te m e n t o f f a c t t h a t e v o lu tio n does n o t e x p la in th e o r i g i n
o f man.
Q u e stio n :

Does i t fo llo w from th e s e rem arks t h a t man i s e te r n a l ?

7.

A m phibia a re c o ld -b lo o d e d a n im a ls.
I f c o ld -b lo o d e d an im als a re n o t
mammals, can we deduce t h a t am p h ib ia a r e n o t mammals?

8.

I f l i f e i s p o s s i b l e on Mars, th e n t h i s p la n e t h a s warmth s u f f i c i e n t
f o r p r o to p la s m ic m etab o lism . The p la n e t does n o t have s u f f i c i e n t
w arm th.
Q u e stio n :

9.

A ccording to th e s e rem ark s, i s l i f e p o s s ib le on Mars?

Even i f th e th e o r y o f e v o lu tio n i s t r u e , th e r e can s t i l l be a God;

143

and th e f a c t s do seem to s u p p o rt th e t r u t h o f th e th e o ry .
Q u e stio n :
10.

A cco rd in g to th e s e rem ark s, can th e r e s t i l l he a God?

A ll atom s a r e sy stem s o f e n e rg y .
by c h e m ic a l a n a l y s is a r e atom s.
Q u e s tio n :

The u l tim a te p a r t i c l e s o b ta in a b le

Are th e s e p a r t i c l e s system s o f energy?

11.

I f th e l a c k o f um etam eres" on an anim al im p lie s th e la c k o f segm ents;
and g iv e n an an im al w ith segm ents, c an we v a l i d l y a s s e r t t h a t i t
p o s s e s s e s "m etam eres” ?

12.

B ecause s e x u a l a n im a ls a re p r i m i t i v e , and s in c e an im als w ith appen­
d ag es a r e alw ays s e x u a l, does i t f o llo w t h a t an im als w ith appendages
a r e p r im i t i v e ?

13.

I f a man i s n o t r ig h t- h a n d e d , th e n he d o e s n 't have th e g en es f o r
r ig h t- h a n d e d n e s s .
S in ce John i s n o t r ig h t- h a n d e d , does i t fo llo w
t h a t h e i s n ' t l i k e l y to h av e t h e genes f o r rig h t-h a n d e d n e s s ?

14.

A nim als t h a t s u c k le t h e i r young a re n o t f is h , b u t w hales do su c k le
t h e i r young.
Q u e stio n :

15.

I f a man h a s ty p e AB b lo o d , h e can have no ty p e 0 o f f s p r i n g .
f i r s t c h i l d was ty p e 0 .
Q ie s tio n :

16.

Are w h ales f is h ?

I s i t l i k e l y t h a t John h a s ty p e ABblood?

The d o c to r s a i d t h a t i f John d i d n 't
be p e r m itte d to g iv e b lo o d to B i l l .
Q u e stio n :

J o h n 's

have ty p e A

b lo o d , th en he w ould

As i t tu r n e d o u t, John d i d n 't have ty p e A b lo o d b u t th e
d o c to r s t i l l r e f u s e d to l e t him g iv e b lo o d to B i l l .
Was
th e d o c to r b e in g c o n s is te n t?

17.

I f b lo o d ty p e s a re p ro d u ced by th e p re s e n c e o f c e r t a i n a n tig e n s , and
i f th e s e a n tig e n s a r e p ro d u ced by g en es, can we say from t h i s t h a t
b lo o d ty p e s a r e p ro d u c e d by genes?

18.

I f a man d o e s n 't h av e genes f o r a lb in is m , th en h e w i l l have pigm ent
in h is eyes.
Q u e s tio n :

19.

I f J o h n 's eyes la c k pig m en t, does i t fo llo w from t h i s
t h a t he may have a lb in o genes?

I f you h ad a brown bean p l a n t , c o u ld you say t h a t i t d o e s n 't have
r e c e s s i v e g en es when you a ls o knew t h a t i f a bean p l a n t i s brown,
th e n i t c o u l d n 't h av e r e c e s s iv e genes?

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20 .

I f you c o u ld g iv e b lo o d to Doug, th e n you c o u ld n ’t g iv e i t to Wilma.
Q u e s tio n :

21 .

I f sperm d id n o t o r i g i n a t e i n th e t e s t e s o f a f r o g , th e n th ey would
n o t p a s s d i r e c t l y i n t o th e sperm d u c ts .
Q u e s tio n :

22 .

I f we knew t h a t anyone w ith J o h n ’ s ty p e o f b lo o d c o u ld
g iv e b lo o d to Doug, c o u ld John g iv e b lo o d to Wilma?

S in ce we know t h a t th e y do p a s s d i r e c t l y in to th e sperm
d u c ts , does i t fo llo w t h a t th e y o r i g i n a t e i n th e t e s t e s ?

I f a man h a s c u rv e d f i n g e r s , th e n he h a s a t l e a s t one dom inant gene
fo r th is t r a it .
Q u e s tio n :

A cco rd in g to t h i s , i f John had c u rv e d f in g e r s w ould i t
be l i k e l y t h a t b o th h i s g en es were r e c e s s i v e f o r t h i s
tra it?

23.

Knowing t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y i s made up o f m a tte r , and t h a t m a tte r con­
s i s t s o f atom s, c a n we deduce t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y i s made up o f atoms?

24.

I f g en e s do n o t p h y s ic a lly e x i s t , th en th e y sim ply a re a figm ent o f
som eone’s im a g in a tio n . But g en es a r e n o t sim ply a figm ent o f some­
o n e 's im a g in a tio n .
Q u e s tio n :

A ccording to th e s e rem ark s, do g en es p h y s ic a lly e x i s t ?

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Type B
(Study T h r e e -II)
QUESTIONNAIRE
The p ro b lem s s t a t e d below a r e d e s ig n e d to h e lp u s f in d o u t some
th i n g s ab o u t o u r m ethods o f te a c h in g you a few id e a s ab o u t N a tu r a l S ci­
en c e.
We a l l know t h a t some o f you w i l l g e t A*s f o r th e c o u rs e w h ile
some o f you w i l l g e t lo w er th a n A1s .

We a p p a re n tly com m unicate to a v e ry

h ig h d e g re e w ith th o s e o f you who r e c e iv e A 's, and c o rre s p o n d in g ly , com­
m u n ic a te to a l e s s e r d e g re e w ith th o s e o f you who r e c e iv e l e s s th a n A.
We want to f in d o u t i f th e r e i s som ething i n o u r manner o f p re s e n ­
t a t i o n w hich w ould p o s s i b l y acco u n t f o r t h i s v a r i a t i o n i n com m unication.
A lthough we w ould l i k e to h av e you s ig n y o u r name, you w ill n o t be
g ra d e d on t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e .

The rem ark s you make w i l l n o t in f lu e n c e

y o u r g ra d e i n any manner w h a ts o e v e r.
B ecause o f o u r alm o st c o n s ta n t ex p o su re to th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f
N a tu r a l S c ie n c e , we a r e som etim es i n c l i n e d to make s ta te m e n ts which ap p ear
re a s o n a b le to u s , b u t y e t ap p ear u n re a s o n a b le to you.

We f e e l t h a t th e

d e g re e o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e betw een what we ta k e to be re a s o n a b le d is c o u r s e
i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to th e amount o f com m unication which i s ta k in g
p la c e .
DIRECTIONS:
1.
2.
3.

T ear o f f th e answ er s h e e t from th e back o f t h i s q u e s tio n n a ir e .
When you f i n i s h , tu r n i n b o th q u e s tio n s h e e t and answer s h e e t.
Try to answ er each q u e s tio n v o id o f p e r s o n a l o p in io n .

In e a c h o f th e p ro b le m s a few s ta te m e n ts a r e g iv e n which a re fo llo w e d

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by a q u e s tio n .
I f you t h in k th e answ er to th e q u e s tio n i s " y e s'1»then
"blacken s p a c e one on y o u r answ er s h e e t. I f "n o ", th e n b la c k e n sp a c e two.
1.

S in ce a " f a u l t 1* i s any f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e o f th e e a r th along which
movement h a s ta k e n p la c e , i t fo llo w s t h a t i f we d id n o t have such a
f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e a f a u l t would n o t be p r e s e n t.
Q u e s tio n :

2.

I f we a c t u a l l y knew t h a t th e e a r t h was s p h e r i c a l , and i f we a ls o knew
t h a t t h i s im p lie d t h a t i t was n o t e l l i p t i c a l , we co u ld deduce t h a t
th e e a r t h was n o t e l l i p t i c a l .
Q u e stio n :

3.

I s th e g ra ss h o p p e r a c h o rd a te ?

I f b la c k i s dom inant to w h ite , th e n a c r o s s in g betw een two b la c k c a t s
s h o u ld n o t g iv e any w h ite o f f s p r i n g . But su p posing we d id g e t some
w h ite o f f s p r i n g .
Q u e stio n :

6.

Does i t fo llo w t h a t anim als w ith "arm s and le g s " a re
se x u a l?

I f g ra s s h o p p e rs d o n f t h av e c r e a t i n e p h o sp h a te i n t h e i r m uscles - and
th e y d o n 't , th e n th e y a r e n o t c h o r d a te s .
Q u e stio n :

5.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

P r i m i t i v e an im a ls a r e s e x u a l, and an im als w ith "arm s and le g s " a re
p rim itiv e .
Q u e stio n :

4.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , c o u ld we say t h a t b la c k was
dom inant to w h ite?

I f e v o lu tio n d o e s n 't e x p la in th e o r i g i n o f man, th e n man i s e t e r n a l .
I t i s a s ta te m e n t o f f a c t t h a t e v o lu tio n does n o t e x p la in th e o r i g i n
o f man.
Q u e stio n :

Does i t fo llo w from th e s e rem arks t h a t man i s e te r n a l?

7.

A m phibia a r e sm o o th -sk in n ed and c o ld -b lo o d e d a n im a ls. I f smooth­
s k in n e d , c o ld -b lo o d e d an im als a r e n o t mammals, can we deduce t h a t
a m p h ib ia a r e n o t mammals?

8.

I f l i f e i s p o s s i b l e on Mars and th e Moon, th e n th e s e p la n e ts have
warmth s u f f i c i e n t f o r p ro to p la s m ic m etabolism . The p la n e ts do n o t
have s u f f i c i e n t warm th.
Q u e stio n :

9.

A ccording to th e s e re m a rk s, i s l i f e p o s s ib l e on Mars
and t h e Moon?

Even i f th e th e o ry o f e v o lu tio n i s tr u e , th e r e can s t i l l be a god;

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and th e f a c t s do seem to s u p p o rt th e t r u t h o f th e th e o r y .
Q u e s tio n :
10.

A ll atom s a r e sy stem s o f e n e rg y .
by c h e m ic a l a n a l y s is a r e atom s.
Q u e s tio n :

11.

.A ccording to th e s e rem ark s, can th e r e s t i l l be a God?
The u l t i m a t e p a r t i c l e s o b ta in a b le

Are th e s e p a r t i c l e s sy stem s o f energy?

I f th e l a c k o f "m etam eres" on an anim al im p lie s th e la c k o f segm ents;
and g iv e n an an im al w ith segm ents, can we v a l i d l y a s s e r t t h a t i t
p o s s e s s e s "m etam eres"?

12.

B ecause s e x u a l and c o ld -b lo o d e d an im als a re p r i m i t i v e , and s in c e
a n im a ls w ith appendages a r e a lso s e x u a l and c o ld -b lo o d e d , does i t
f o llo w t h a t an im a ls w ith appendages a r e p r im itiv e ?

13.

I f a man i s b a ld and n o t r ig h t- h a n d e d , th e n h e w o u ld n 't have th e genes
f o r r ig h t- h a n d e d n e s s .
S ince John i s b a ld and n o t r ig h t- h a n d e d , does
i t f o llo w t h a t he i s n ' t l i k e l y to have th e genes f o r r ig h t- h a n d e d ­
n e s s?

1 4 . A nim als t h a t s u c k le t h e i r young a re n o t f i s h , b u t w hales do s u c k le
t h e i r young.
Q u e stio n :
15.

Are w h ales f is h ?

I f a man h a s ty p e A3 b lo o d and i s Bh p o s i t i v e , th e n he c o u ld n * t have
any ty p e 0 o f f s p r i n g . J o h n 's f i r s t c h i l d was ty p e 0 .
Q u e s tio n :

I s i t l i k e l y t h a t John i s b o th AB and p o s itiv e ?

16. The d o c to r s a id t h a t i f John d i d n 't have ty p e A b lo o d , th e n h e would
be p e r m itte d to g iv e b lo o d to B i l l and Mary.
Q u e stio n :

As i t tu rn e d o u t, John d i d n 't have ty p e A b lo o d but th e
d o c to r s t i l l r e f u s e d to l e t him g iv e b lo o d to B i l l and
Mary. Was th e d o c to r b e in g c o n s is te n t?

17.

I f b lo o d ty p e s and a n tib o d ie s a re produced by th e p re s e n c e o f c e r t a i n
a n tig e n s , and i f th e s e a n tig e n s a re p ro d u ced by g e n e s, can we sgy
from t h i s t h a t b lo o d ty p e s and a n tib o d ie s a r e p ro d u ced by genes?

18.

I f a man d o e s n 't h av e genes f o r a lb in is m , th e n h e w ill have pigm ent
in h is eyes.
Q u e stio n :

19.

I f J o h n 's eyes la c k p ig m en t, does i t fo llo w from t h i s
t h a t he may have a lb in o genes?

I f you h a d a brown bean p l a n t w hich a ls o h ad b ro ad le a v e s , c o u ld you

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sa y t h a t i t d o e s n * t h a v e r e c e s s i v e g en es when you a ls o knev t h a t i f
a bean p l a n t i s brown and h a d b ro a d l e a v e s , th e n i t c o u ld n * t have
r e c e s s i v e genes?
20.

I f you c o u l d g i v e b lo o d to Doug, th e n you c o u l d n H g iv e i t to Wilma.
Q u e s tio n :

21 .

I f sperm d i d n o t o r i g i n a t e i n th e t e s t e s o f a f r o g , th e n th e y would
n o t p a s s d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e sperm d u c ts and k id n e y s .
Q u e s tio n :

22.

I f we knew t h a t anyone w ith John*s ty p e o f b lo o d c o u ld
g iv e b lo o d to Doug, c o u ld John g iv e b lo o d to Wilma?

S ince we know t h a t th e y do. p a s s d i r e c t l y i n t o th e sperm
d u c ts and k id n e y s , does i t fo llo w t h a t th e y o r i g i n a t e
in th e te s te s ?

I f a man h a s c u r v e d f i n g e r s and i s b a ld , th e n h e h a s a t l e a s t one
dom inant gene f o r each o f t h e s e t r a i t s .
Q u e s tio n :

A ccording to t h i s , i f John had c u rv e d f i n g e r s and was
b a l d , would i t be l i k e l y t h a t both h i s genes were r e ­
c e s s i v e f o r each one o f t h e s e t r a i t s ?

23.

Knowing t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y and m agnetism a re made up o f m a t t e r , and
t h a t m a t t e r c o n s i s t s o f atoms, can we deduce t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y and
m agnetism a r e made u p o f atoms?

24.

I f g en es do n o t p h y s i c a l l y e x i s t , th e n th e y a re p u r e l y m en tal and
i m a g i n a t i v e . But i t i s f a l s e tha,t th ey a r e b o th m ental and im agina­
tiv e .
Q u e s tio n : A ccording to t h e s e rem arks, do genes p h y s i c a l l y e x i s t ?

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Type B
(S tu d y I b u r - I )
QUESTIONNAIRE)

The p ro b le m s s t a t e d i n t h i s Q u e s tio n n a ir e a r e d e s ig n e d to h e l p u s
f i n d o u r some t h i n g s ahout o u r methods o f te a c h in g you a few i d e a s about
N a t u r a l S c ie n c e .
We a l l know t h a t some o f you g e t A 's i n th e c o u r s e w h ile some o f
yo u g e t lo w e r th a n A 's .

We a p p a r e n tl y communicate to a v e r y h ig h d egree

w i t h t h o s e o f you who r e c e i v e A 's , and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , communicate to a
l e s s e r d e g re e w ith t h o s e o f you who r e c e i v e l e s s t h a n A.
We want t o f i n d o u t i f t h e r e i s something i n our maimer o f p r e ­
s e n t a t i o n which would p o s s i b l y a c c o u n t f o r t h i s v a r i a t i o n i n communica­
tio n .
A ltho ug h we would l i k e to have you s ig n y ou r name, you w i l l n o t
he g r a d e d on t h i s Q u e s t io n n a ir e .

The rem arks you make w i l l n o t i n f l u e n c e

y o u r g ra d e i n any manner w h a ts o e v e r .
Because o f o u r a lm o st c o n s t a n t ex p osu re to th e s u b je c t m a t t e r p f
N a t u r a l S c ie n c e , we a r e sometimes i n c l i n e d to make s ta t e m e n t s which ap­
p e a r r e a s o n a b l e to u s , but y e t a p p e a r u n r e a s o n a b le to you.

We f e e l t h a t

t h e d eg ree o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e between what we ta k e to be r e a s o n a b le d i s ­
c o u r s e and what you ta k e to be r e a s o n a b l e d is c o u r s e i s d i r e c t l y p ro p o r ­
t i o n a l to t h e amount o f com m unication which i s t a k i n g p l a c e .
FROOEI0RE
1.

T h is i s n o t a t e s t to se e how much you remember.

A ll th e

n e c e s s a r y in f o r m a t i o n i s a lr e a d y p r e s e n t e d i n t h e q u e s ti o n s .
2.

A lso, we a r e n o t c o n cern ed w ith th e t r u t h f u l n e s s o f th e

150

i n f o r m a t i o n g iv e n i n th e q u e s t i o n s , a l l we want to know i s w hether you
th in k th e d isc o u rse i s re a so n a b le o r n o t.
3.

Each q u e s ti o n c o n s i s t s o f a s e t o f s t a t e m e n t s .

s e t as c o m p le te u n i t s o f d i s c o u r s e .

C o n sid er each

I f y ou t h i n k t h e p o i n t b ein g made

i s p r e s e n t e d i n a r e a s o n a b l e manner, b la c k e n y o u r answer s h e e t i n th e
f i r s t space.

I f you t h i n k t h e p o i n t b ein g made i s p r e s e n t e d i n an -un­

r e a s o n a b l e m anner, b la c k e n t h e second sp a c e .
4.
1.

P u t y o u r name and s tu d e n t number on y o u r answer s h e e t .

I f B i l l h a d c u r v e d f i n g e r s , th e n h e would have a t l e a s t one dominant
gene f o r t h i s t r a i t .
According to t h i s , s in c e B i l l a c t u a l l y h a s
c u r v e d f i n g e r s , a l l h i s genes a r e r e c e s s i v e f o r t h i s t r a i t .
Q u e s tio n :

2.

I f we have no c o n t r o l l e d e x p erim en t, then th e r e s u l t s can n e v e r be
c o n c l u s i v e . But, i f t h e r e s u l t s were c o n c lu s iv e , we c o u ld th e n
deduce t h e p r e s e n c e o f a c o n t r o l l e d ex p erim en t.
Q u e s tio n :

3.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

In f r o g s i f t h e e g g s f a i l to p a s s th ro u g h t h e o v i d u c t s , th e n th e y w i l l
d e g e n e r a t e w it h i n t h e body c a v i t y . According to t h i s , i f th e eggs
do n o t d e g e n e r a te w i t h i n t h e body c a v i t y , we c a n say th ey f a i l e d to
p a s s th ro u g h th e o v i d u c t s .
Q u e s tio n :

6.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

Some s t u d e n t s d o n’ t u n d e r s ta n d m e io s is . Because i f th e y don’ t stu d y
i t - and th e y d o n ’ t , t h e y don’t u n d e r s t a n d i t .
Q u e stio n :

5.

I s t h e daove r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f g re e n p e a p l a n t s c a n ’t g i v e r i s e to d o m in an t-ty p e o f f s p r i n g , th en
t h e y w i l l y i e l d few er p e a s p e r pod. But i f g re e n p e a s a r e r e c e s s i v e ,
th e y can n o t g iv e r i s e to any d o m in a n t-ty p e o f f s p r i n g .
I f a ll th is
i s t r u e , i t f o llo w s t h a t i f g re e n p e a p l a n t s a r e r e c e s s i v e , they
w i l l y i e l d few er p e a s p e r pod.
Q u e s tio n :

4.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r not?

I f argum ents a r e fo u n d i n o r d i n a r y d i s c o u r s e , th e n th ey a r e n o t found
i n th e S t a t e News. But, i f argum ents a r e worthy o f l o g i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n ,

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th e n th e y a r e found i n o r d i n a r y d i s c o u r s e . Hence, i f arguments a re
w o rthy o f l o g i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n , th e y a r e found i n t h e S t a t e Hews.
Q u e s tio n :
7.

I f e v o l u t i o n d o e s n 't e x p l a i n th e o r i g i n o f man, then man i s e t e r n a l .
S in ce i t i s a s ta te m e n t o f f a c t t h a t e v o l u t i o n does n o t e x p l a i n th e
o r i g i n o f man, i t f o ll o w s from t h e s e rem arks t h a t man i s e t e r n a l .
Q u e s tio n :

8.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

Even i f th e th e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n i s t r u e , t h e r e can s t i l l be a God;
and th e f a c t s do seem to s u p p o rt t h e t r u t h o f t h e th e o r y .
T h e re fo re ,
a c c o r d in g to t h e s e rem arks, t h e r e can s t i l l be a God.
Q u e stio n :

1 4.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f s c ie n c e p ro m o tes ty ra n n y , t h e n Americans d o n 't know th e meaning
o f th e 4 th o f J u ly .
I f s c ie n c e i s a t h e i s t i c , th e n i t prom otes ty ­
ra n n y . A ccording to t h e s e .rem arks, we are a b le to say t h a t i f s c i ­
ence i s a t h e i s t i c , Americans do n o t know th e meaning o f th e 4 t h o f
J u ly .
Q u e s tio n :

13 .

'

I f p h en o l r e d i s a w atery s o l u t i o n , t h e n i t can be u s e d to d e t e c t t h e
p r e s e n c e o f c e r t a i n g a s e s . And i f i t c a n ' t be u s e d as such, i t would
f o llo w t h a t i t w a s n 't a w atery s o l u t i o n .
Q u estio n :

v 12 .

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I f b a c t e r i a a r e p r e s e n t , th e n John d o e s n 't have curv ed f i n g e r s .
S in ce b a c t e r i a were found, i t i s r e a s o n a b le to say t h a t John h a s
c u rv e d f i n g e r s .
Q u e s tio n :

11 .

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f h e r e d i t a r y t r a i t s a r e d e te rm in e d by genes, th e n th e 48 number o f
chromosomes f o r humans i s d e te rm in e d by genes. But, i f t h e r e a r e 48
chromosomes i n humans, t h m h e r e d i t a r y t r a i t s - a r e d e te rm in e d by g en es.
A ccording to t h e s e rem arks, th e e x i s t e n c e o f 48 chromosomes i n humans
i m p l i e s t h a t t h i s number i s d e te rm in e d by genes.
Q u e stio n :

10.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f J o h n h a s ty p e AB b lo o d , he can have no ty p e 0 c h i l d r e n . But s i n c e
he h a s ty p e 0 c h i l d r e n , i t ' s r e a s o n a b le to say John h a s ty p e AB blo o d .
Q u e s tio n :

9.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f th e ab sence o f o v a r i e s im p l i e s t h e absence o f a p e r f e c t f lo w e r,
t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p e r f e c t flo w e r e n a b le s u s to say o v a r i e s a r e ab­
s e n t.

152

Q u estion :
15.

I f oxygen were n o t p r e s e n t on th e e a r t h , th e n l i v i n g p l a n t c e l l s
would soon d i e .
But, i f p l a n t c e l l s d ie , cows w i l l s to p g i v i n g
m ilk .
T h e r e f o r e , i f oxygen were n o t p r e s e n t on th e e a r t h , cows
w i l l s t o p g i v i n g m ilk .
Q u e s tio n :

16.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f George were n o t r i g h t - h a n d e d , th e n h e wouldn’ t have th e genes fo r
rig h t-h an d ed n ess.
S in ce George i s n ' t r ig h t - h a n d e d , i t fo llo w s t h a t
h e i s n ' t l i k e l y to have t h e genes f o r r ig h t - h a n d e d n e s s .
Q u e s tio n :

22 .

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f some an im als a r e p r i m i t i v e , th e n some anim als a r e n o t s e x u a l.
But, i f some an im als have "arms and l e g s " , then some anim als are
p r i m i t i v e . I t f o ll o w s , th e n , t h a t i f some anim als have "arms and
l e g s " , th e n some an im als a r e s e x u a l.
Q u e s tio n :

2 1.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I f i t ' s t r u e t h a t l i v i n g c e l l s r e q u i r e oxygen, th e n we would ex p ect
t h a t t h e r e would be no d e c r e a s e o f oxygen where dead c e l l s were l o ­
cated .
But su p p o sin g t h e r e was a d e c r e a s e o f oxygen w ith th e dead
c e lls.
A ccording to t h e s e rem arks, we c o u ld deduce t h a t i t ' s f a l s e
t h a t l i v i n g c e l l s r e q u i r e oxygen.
Q u e stio n :

20.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

C la r e n c e was t e l l i n g th e t r u t h . B ut, i f he i s t e l l i n g th e t r u t h ,
t h e n h e sim ply c a n ' t be t r u s t e d .
I t f o llo w s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t C la r ­
ence c a n be t r u s t e d .
Q u e s tio n :

19.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f someone h a s a n t i - A a n t i b o d i e s , th en he cannot g iv e b lo o d to p e o p le
h a v in g r e d h a i r . However, i f someone h a s type B blood, he a ls o h a s
a n ti-A a n tib o d ie s.
A ccording to t h e s e rem ark s, i f someone h a s t y p e
B b lo o d , he can g iv e bloo d to a n o th e r p e r s o n h a v in g r e d h a i r .
Q u e s tio n :

18.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r not?

I f C la r e n c e d o e s n 't have genes f o r " 6 - t o e s " , th e n h e w i l l have p i g ­
ment i n h i s e y e s .
I f C l a r e n c e 's eyes l a c k pigm ent, i t fo llo w s from
t h i s t h a t h e d o e s n 't have genes f o r " 6 - t o e s " .
Q u e s tio n :

17.

Is th e above rea so n a b le or not?

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f l i f e i s p o s s i b l e on Mars, th e n i t h as warmth s u f f i c i e n t
fo r p ro to ­
p la s m ic m etab o lism ; b u t th e p l a n e t does n o t have s u f f i c i e n t warmth.
T h e r e f o r e , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e to say t h a t l i f e i s p o s s i b l e on Mars.

153

Q uestion:
23.

I f s t u d e n t s d o n 't r e a d th e S t a t e News, th e n th e y a r e s m a r te r th an
some o f t h e i r t e a c h e r s . Moreover, i f s tu d e n t s have good t a s t e ,
th e y d o n ' t r e a d t h e S t a t e News. I t fo llo w s from th e s e rem arks t h a t
i f s t u d e n t s h av e good t a s t e , th e y a r e s m a r te r th a n some o f t h e i r
te a ch ers.
Q u e s tio n :

24.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f anyone c a n g i v e b lo o d to Doug, th e n no one c a n g iv e b lo o d to
Wilma. But, i f Doug h a s ty p e B blood, th en anyone can g iv e b lo o d
to him. I t i s p o s s i b l e to say, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t i f Drug h a s t y p e B
b lo o d , th en someone can g iv e b lo o d to Wilma.
Q u e s tio n :

30.

r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

Genes p h y s i c a l l y e x i s t ; b ecau se i f th e y do n o t p h y s i c a l l y e x i s t ,
th e n th e y sim ply a r e a fig m ent o f som eone's im a g in a tio n . But genes
a r e n o t sim ply a fig m ent o f som eone's im a g in a tio n .
Q u e s tio n :

29.

I s t h e above

b e n e f ic ia l f o r th e
i t i s av o id ed by
s in c e Zoology i s
mind.

I f v i n e g a r were an a c id , th e n i t sh o u ld t u r n b lu e l i t m u s p a p e r r e d .
Knowing t h a t v i n e g a r a c t u a l l y i s an a c id , we can deduce from t h i s
t h a t i t w i l l t u r n b l u e litm u s p a p e r r e d .
Q u e s tio n :

28.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

S in ce Zoology i s a v o id ed by s t u d e n t s , i t must be
mind. Moreover, b ecau se i t i s n ’t easy to l e a r n ,
s t u d e n t s . 5*rom t h e s e rem arks we can deduce t h a t
n o t e a sy to l e a r n , i t must be b e n e f i c i a l f o r th e
Q u e s tio n :

27.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f sperm d o n 't h av e f i n s , then th e y would n o t p a s s d i r e c t l y i n t o
t h e sperm d u c ts .
S in ce we know t h a t th e y do p a s s d i r e c t l y i n t o th e
sperm d u c t s . A ccording to t h i s , th ey must have f i n s .
Q u e s tio n :

26.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

B a c t e r i a have no v i s i b l e n u c le u s .
I f t h i s i s t r u e , th en th e y would
d i f f e r from o t h e r l i v i n g c e l l s .
I t f o llo w s , th e n , t h a t b a c t e r i a
a r e n o t d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r l i v i n g c e l l s .
Q u e s tio n :

25.

I s th e above rea so n a b le or not?

I s t h e above

r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f sperm p a s s th r o u g h t h e u r e t h r a , th en o b s t r u c t i o n s would p r e v e n t
fe rtiliz a tio n .
I f t h i s i s t r u e , i t fo llo w s t h a t o b s t r u c t i o n s p r e ­
v e n t f e r t i l i z a t i o n , i f we a c t u a l l y knew t h a t sperm p a s s th ro u g h th e
u re th ra .

154

Q uestion:
31.

I f a n im a ls a r e p r i m i t i v e , they re p ro d u c e s e x u a l l y . And, i f an im als
a r e a g g r e s s i v e , th e n th e y a r e p r i m i t i v e .
I t f o llo w s , th e n , t h a t i f
an im a ls a r e a g g r e s s i v e , th e y re p ro d u c e s e x u a l ly .
Q u e s tio n :

32.

th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f o rg a n ism s can p h o t o s y n t h e s i ze, th e y f e e d th em selv es. But, i f
o rg a n ism s a r e w ith o u t c e l l membranes, th e y can photo s y n th e s i z e .
Hence, i f a l l t h i s i s t r u e , i t fo llo w s t h a t i f org an ism s a r e w ith­
o u t c e l l membranes, th e y c a n ' t fe e d th em selv es.
Q u e s tio n :

38.

Is

T h e o rie s a r e n o t
d i r e c t l y t e s t a b l e . But, i f t h i s i s t r u e , th e n t h e
t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n i s p h ilo s o p h y . I t fo llo w s t h a t t h e th e o r y o f
e v o l u t i o n i s p h ilo s o p h y .
Q u e stio n :

37.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f a " f a u l t " i s a g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e , th e n t h e r e a r e f r a c t u r e d s u r ­
f a c e s o f th e e a r t h a lo n g which movement h a s ta k e n p l a c e . I f we d id
n o t h a v e such a f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e , we c o u ld deduce from t h i s t h a t a
11f a u l t " i s a g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e .
Q u e stio n :

36.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f h i g h e r p l a n t s r e p ro d u c e , th e y d o n 't do i t a s e x u a l l y . But, i f
th e y d o n ' t r e p ro d u c e a s e x u a l l y , th e n p i s t i l s must always be p r e s e n t .
A cco rd in g to t h e s e rem ark s, we c a n say t h a t i f h ig h e r p l a n t s r e p r o ­
duce, th e n p i s t i l s a r e always p r e s e n t .
Q u e s tio n :

35.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f John d i d n ' t h av e ty p e A blood, th e n th e d o c to r s a i d t h a t he would
be p e r m i t t e d to g i v e b lo o d to B i l l .
As i t t u rn e d o u t, John d i d n ' t
have t y p e A b lo o d but th e d o c to r s t i l l r e f u s e d to l e t him g iv e b lo o d
to B i l l .
A cco rd in g t o t h e s e rem arks, th e d o c to r i s c o n s i s t e n t .
Q u e s tio n :

34.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

I n g e n e t i c s i f b l a c k i s dominant to w h ite , then a c r o s s i n g between
two homozygous b l a c k c a t s w i l l n o t g iv e any w h ite o f f s p r i n g .
But
s u p p o s in g we d id g e t some w h ite o f f s p r i n g .
I t i s c o n s i s t e n t to s ^ r ,
th e n , t h a t b l a c k i s dominant to w h ite .
Q u e s tio n :

33.

I s th e above rea so n a b le o r not?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r not?

I f a n im a ls l a c k
segm ents, th ey l a c k s e p a r a t e d body p a r t s . But i f
a n im a ls p o s s e s s s e p a r a t e d body p a r t s , i t f o llo w s , th e n , t h a t th e y
p o s s e s s segm ents.

155

Q uestion:
39.

I f c e l l s have a n u c l e u s , th e n th e y a ls o have a membrane.
We can
d ed u ce, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e y h a v e a membrane, p r o v id e d we know
th e y h av e a n u c l e u s .
Q u e s tio n :

40.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

I f l i v i n g c e l l s a r e a b le to p rod uce c a rb o n d io x id e , th e n oxygen i s
p r e s e n t i n t h e en v iron m ent.
I f t h i s i s t r u e , and i f oxygen were
a c t u a l l y n o t p r e s e n t , i t would f o llo w t h a t l i v i n g c e l l s a re n o t
a b le to p ro d u ce c a rb o n d io x id e .
Q u e s tio n :

45 .

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r not?

I f e l e c t r i c i t y d o e s n 't c o n s i s t o f m a t t e r , th e n some c o n c e p ts o f
sc ie n c e are s p i r i t u a l .
But s i n c e s c i e n t i s t s t r y to be t r u t h f u l ,
e l e c t r i c i t y d o e s n 't c o n s i s t o f m a t t e r . These rem arks e n a b le u s to
sa y t h a t s in c e s c i e n t i s t s t r y to be t r u t h f u l , . some c o n c e p ts o f s c i ­
ence a r e s p i r i t u a l .
Q u e s tio n :

44.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I t f o llo w s t h a t g r a s s h o p p e rs a r e c h o r d a te s ; becau se i f g ra s s h o p p e rs
d o n 't hav e c r e a t i n e p h o s p h a te i n t h e i r m uscles - and th e y d o n 't th e n th e y a r e n o t c h o r d a t e s .
Q u e s tio n :

43.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f o rg a n ism s a r e b a c t e r i a , th e y w i l l n o t re p ro d u c e s e x u a l l y .
If
th e o rg a n ism s do r e p ro d u c e s e x u a l l y , i t would f o llo w t h a t th e y a re
b a c te ria .
Q u e s tio n :

42.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f atoms h a v e a n u c l e u s , th e y a r e system s o f energy.
I f th e u l t i ­
mate p a r t i c l e s o b t a i n a b l e by c h e m ic a l a n a l y s i s a r e atoms, th e n
atoms h ave a n u c l e u s . I t fo llo w s from th e s e rem ark s, t h e r e f o r e ,
t h a t i f th e u l t i m a t e p a r t i c l e s o b t a i n a b l e by c h em ical a n a l y s i s a r e
atom s, th e n atoms a r e system s o f energy.
Q u e s tio n :

41.

I s th e above rea so n a b le or not?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f brown bean p l a n t s c o n t a i n dominant genes, i t would be p o s s i b l e
to deduce t h a t th e y d o n 't c a r r y any r e c e s s i v e genes; p r o v id e d we
g ls o knew i f brown bean p l a n t s c o n t a i n dominant g en es, th e n th e y
d o n 't have r e c e s s i v e genes.
Q u e s tio n :

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

156

'Type B
( S tu d y

3 b u r- I I )
QUESTIONNAIRE

The p ro blem s s t a t e d i n t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e a r e d e s ig n e d to h e l p u s
f i n d o u t some t h i n g s about o u r methods o f t e a c h i n g you a few i d e a s about
N a t u r a l S c ie n c e .
We a l l know t h a t some o f you g e t A* s i n th e c o u r s e w h ile some o f
yo u g e t lo w er t h a n A 's .

We a p p a r e n tly communicate to a v e ry h ig h d eg ree

w ith t h o s e o f you who r e c e i v e A 's, and c o r r e s p o n d in g ly , communicate to a
l e s s e r d e g r e e w ith th o s e o f you who r e c e i v e l e s s th a n A.
We want to f i n d o u t i f t h e r e i s something i n o u r manner o f p r e ­
s e n t a t i o n which would p o s s i b l y accou nt f o r t h i s v a r i a t i o n i n connrunicar*
tio n .
Although we would l i k e to have you s ig n your name, you w i l l n o t
be g ra d e d on t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e .

The rem arks you make w i l l n o t i n f l u e n c e

y o u r g ra d e i n any manner w h a ts o e v e r.
Because o f o u r alm ost c o n s t a n t ex po sure to t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f
N a t u r a l S c ie n c e , we a r e sometimes i n c l i n e d to make s ta te m e n ts which ap­
p e a r r e a s o n a b l e to u s , b u t y e t a p p e a r u n r e a s o n a b le to you.

We f e e l t h a t

t h e d e g r e e o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e between what we ta k e to be r e a s o n a b le d i s ­
c o u r s e and what you t a k e to be r e a s o n a b l e d is c o u r s e i s d i r e c t l y p ro p o r­
t i o n a l to t h e amount o f com m unication which i s t a k in g p l a c e .
PROCEDURE
1.

T h is i s n o t a t e s t to see how much you remember.

A ll th e

n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n i s a lr e a d y p r e s e n t e d i n t h e q u e s ti o n s .
2.

A lso, we a r e n o t c o n cern ed w ith th e t r u t h f u l n e s s o f t h e

157

i n f o r m a t i o n g iv e n i n t h e q u e s ti o n s ; a l l we want to know i s w hether you
t h i n k t h e d i s c o u r s e i s r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t.
3.

Each q u e s t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a s e t o f s ta t e m e n t s .

s e t as c o m p le te u n i t s o f d i s c o u r s e .

C onsider each

I f you t h i n k t h e p o i n t b ein g made

i s p r e s e n t e d i n a r e a s o n a b l e manner, b la c k e n yo u r answer s h e e t i n th e
f i r s t space.

I f you t h i n k t h e p o i n t b e in g made i s p r e s e n t e d i n an un­

r e a s o n a b l e manner, b la c k e n th e second sp ace.
4.
1.

P u t y o ur name and s tu d e n t number on your answer s h e e t .

I f a man h a s c u r v e d f i n g e r s , th e n he h a s a t l e a s t one dominant gene
fo r th is t r a i t .
A ccording to t h i s , i f John had cu rv ed f i n g e r s , i t
i s l i k e l y t h a t b o th h i s gen es a r e r e c e s s i v e f o r t h i s t r a i t .
Q u estio n :

2.

The l a c k o f segm ents on an animal i m p l i e s th e l a c k o f s e p a r a t e d body
p a rts.
S ince a c r a y f i s h i s an anim al h a v in g s e p a r a t e body p a r t s , we
can deduce t h a t i t p o s s e s s e s segments.
Q u e s tio n :

3.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f any o rg an ism i s w ith o u t a backbone, th e n i t must be an i n v e r t e ­
b ra te .
The o rg an ism Leous c a l i f o m i c u s i s n o t an i n v e r t e b r a t e .
We
ca n sa y , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t Lepus c a l i f o m i c u s h a s a backbone.
Q u e s tio n :

6.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

New p e o p l e on campus c a n ’ t be e x p e c te d to know t h e i r way around, and
s i n c e Preshmen a re new i t fo llo w s t h a t th e y c a n ' t be expected to know
t h e i r way around.
Q u e s tio n :

5.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

S a lm o n e lla i s w ith o u t a c e l l membrane but h a s t h e a b i l i t y to d i g e s t
raw m eat. But, a n y th in g w ith o u t a c e l l membrane i s bad f o r th e blood.
I t i s r e a s o n a b l e to say from t h i s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t S alm o n ella h a s
t h e a b i l i t y to d i g e s t raw m eat, b u t i t ’ s s t i l l bad f o r th e blood.
Q u e s tio n :

4.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f a n y th in g i s n ' t i n t e r e s t i n g , i t ' s n o t found i n th e n ew spapers.
Some
wars a r e c e r t a i n l y u n i n t e r e s t i n g , b u t y e t th e y command o u r a t t e n t i o n .
T h e r e f o r e , we can say some wars a re n o t found i n th e n ew spapers, th e y
n e v e r t h e l e s s command o u r a t t e n t i o n .

158

Q uestion:
7.

I f men a r e n o t m o ra l, th ey w i l l he happy h e r e h u t p u n is h e d h e r e ­
a f t e r . A cco rdin g to t h i s , s i n c e C la re n c e i s n o t m o ra l, i t fo llo w s
t h a t h e i s happy now h u t w i l l h e p u n is h e d h e r e a f t e r .
Q u e s tio n :

8.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I n g eo lo g y , i f t h e r e was no f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e o f t h e e a r t h alo ng
which movement h a d ta k e n p l a c e , th e n a " f a u l t ” would n o t be p r e s e n t .
However, i n t h e town o f Copper C ity , Michigan, a " f a u l t " i s p r e s e n t .
T h is means t h a t we c o u ld f i n d a f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e o f th e e a r t h t h e r e .
Q u e s tio n :

15.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I t f o llo w s t h a t p e n i c i l l i n i s ex p en siv e; becau se a l l t h i n g s which
a r e h a r d to p ro d u c e a r e e x p e n s iv e , and we know i t ' s h a r d to p ro d u c e .
Q u e s tio n :

14.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

Supposing i t were a f a c t t h a t anyone who b e l i e v e s i n e v o l u t i o n was
n o t an a t h e i s t , and t h a t s in c e C laren ce does b e l i e v e i n i t a s w ell
as b e in g a c l e v e r p e r s o n , i t would fo llo w t h a t even though C la re n c e
i s a c l e v e r p e r s o n , he i s s t i l l an a t h e i s t .
Q u e s tio n :

13.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

M yriapods a r e n o t p r o to z o a because we Imow t h a t p r o to z o a a r e u n i ­
c e l l u l a r , and m y riapo d s a r e n o t u n i c e l l u l a r .
Q u e stio n :

12.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

Tflhile knowing t h a t b a c t e r i a were n o t t h e cau se o f t h e f e v e r , we
c o u ld deduce t h a t t h e s t r e p t o c o c c i found were n o t c a u s in g th e
f e v e r - p r o v id e d we a ls o knew t h a t s t r e p t o c o c c i a r e b a c t e r i a .
Q u e s tio n :

11.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

C r a y f i s h e s a r e a r t h r o p o d s which h av e t h e i r eyes on s t a l k s .
But t h e
arth ro p o d s are jo in t- f o o te d .
I t f o llo w s , th e n , t h a t c r a y f i s h e s a r e
j o i n t - f o o t e d as w e ll as h a v in g t h e i r eyes on s t a l k s .
Q u e s tio n :

10.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

The o rg a n ism Hpmarus am erican us r e p ro d u c e s s e x u a l l y .
I f o rg an ism s
a r e b a c t e r i a , th e y do n o t r e p ro d u c e s e x u a l ly . Hence, t h e o rg an ism
Bomarus am erican u s i s an example o f b a c t e r i a .
Q u e s tio n :

9.

I s th e above rea so n a b le o r not?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

Genes a r e n o t e x p l a i n a b l e i n term s o f p h y s ic a l m a t t e r , b u t a r e s t i l l

159

■believed to be t h e p h y s i c a l c a u s e o f t r a i t s .
Bat, y e t , a i ^ t h i n g
n o t p h y s i c a l l y e x p l a i n a b l e i s o f a p s y c h o lo g i c a l n a t u r e .
There­
f o r e , g e n e s a r e b e l i e v e d to be t h e p h y s i c a l c a u s e o f t r a i t s and
a r e o f a. p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e .
Q u e s tio n :
16.

Everyone n o t h a v in g genes f o r a lb in is m w i l l have pigm ent i n h i s
eyes.
I f Clarencete eyes l a c k pigm ent, i t fo llo w s t h a t h e h a s a l ­
bino g e n e s.
Q u e s tio n :

17.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f anyone does n o t p o s s e s s ty p e
p le a sa n t p e rso n a lity .
C la r e n c e
a l th o u g h he does have th e g en es
t h a t C la r e n c e h a s t h e genes f o r
p le a sa n t p e rso n a lity .
Q u e s tio n :

18.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

B a n t i g e n s , he d o e s n ’t have a
d o e s n ’t have ty p e B a n t i g e n s ,
f o r brown eyes. I t f o llo w s , th en ,
brown ey es as w ell as h a v in g a

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

A cids w i l l n o t t u r n r e d l i t m u s p ap er b lu e . I t fo llo w s t h a t v in e g a r
w i l l n o t t u r n r e d l i t m u s p a p e r b lu e , because i t i s an a c id .
Q u e s tio n :

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e or n o t?
*

19.

I f men b e l i e v e i n e v o l u t i o n , th e n t h e y w i l l n o t show r e v e r e n c e f o r
t h o s e m a t t e r s which a r e beyond t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . However, C la r ­
ence o f t e n shows r e v e r e n c e f o r such m a t t e r s . T h e re fo re , from t h e s e
re m a rk s i t fo llo w s t h a t C la re n c e does n o t b e l i e v e i n e v o l u ti o n .
Q u e s tio n :

20.

S in ce Ban i s a f o o l who speaks t h e t r u t h ; and because whoever speaks
th e t r u t h d e s e rv e s to be i m i t a t e d ; i t fo llo w s t h a t Ban d e s e rv e s to
be i m i t a t e d even th o u g h he i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , a f o o l.
Q u e s tio n :

21.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n ot?

The d o c to r s a i d t h a t i f anyone d i d n ’ t have ty p e A b lood, th e n he
c o u ld g iv e b lo o d to B i l l .
As i t t u rn e d o u t , John d i d n ’ t have ty p e
A b lo o d b a t t h e d o c to r s t i l l r e f u s e d to l e t him g iv e bloo d to B i l l .
The d o c t o r was b e in g i n c o n s i s t e n t .
Q u e s tio n :

22.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t.1'

When c a rb o n d i o x i d e gas comes i n t o c o n t a c t w ith a p h en o l r e d s o lu ­
t i o n , t h e s o l u t i o n t u r n s from r e d to y ello w . S ince one o f th e s o lu ­
t i o n s i n an e x p e rim e n t i n N a t u r a l S cience 181 d id n o t t u r n y e llo w ,
i t would f o ll o w t h a t th e g a s i n th e experim ent was carb o n d io x id e .

160

Q uestion:
23.

I f am p h ib ia a r e c o l d - b lo o d e d an im als -with m o ist s k i n s , and i f c o ld ­
b lo o d e d an im als a r e n o t mammals, i t f o llo w s t h a t am p hib ia have m o ist
s k in s but s t i l l
a r e n o t mammals.
Q u e s tio n :

24.

above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

Is

th e

above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

Is

th e

above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

Is

th e

above r e a s o n a b l e or not?

I f a n y th in g i s n ' t a chromosome, th e n i t w o u ld n 't c a r r y g en es.
The
c h ro m a tin m a t e r i a l i s n ' t a chromosome, b u t i t does g iv e r i s e to
them. A ccording to t h i s , th e chro m atin m a t e r i a l g iv e s r i s e to
chromosomes b u t s t i l l d o e s n ’t c a r r y genes.
Q u e s tio n :

30.

th e

I n c a t s , i f th e gam etes d o n 't t r a v e l down th e o v i d u c t s , th e n th e y go
i n t o t h e abdom inal c a v i t y . One o f th e i n s t r u c t o r s i n N a tu r a l Sci­
ence 181 h a s a fem ale c a t c a l l e d " P r is s y " i n which th e gametes d id
n o t go i n t o t h e abdom inal c a .v ity .
I t f o llo w s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e
gam etes o f " P r i s s y " d i d n ' t t r a v e l down th e o v id u c ts .
Q u e s tio n :

29.

Is

S in ce S o c r a t e s was a p h i l o s o p h e r , and becau se p h i l o s o p h e r s a r e by
n a t u r e i n q u i s i t i v e p e o p le , i t f o llo w s t h a t S o c ra te s was i n q u i s i t i v e .
Q u e s tio n :

28.

above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

C h e c k e r-p i ey in g i s a n o - c r e d i t c o u r s e , and i s q u i t e b o rin g to p l a y .
But n o - c r e d i t c o u r s e s a r e good f o r th e a p p e t i t e . T h e re fo re , c h e c k e r p l a y i n g i s b o r in g to p l a y b u t i s good f o r th e a p p e t i t e .
Q u e s tio n :

27.

th e

The t u l i p i s d e s c r i b e d a s a p e r f e c t flo w e r. I t would be r e a s o n a b l e
t o s a y , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e t u l i p p o s s e s s e s o v a r i e s , i f we a ls o knew
t h a t t h e ab sence o f o v a r i e s i m p lie s th e absence o f a p e r f e c t f lo w e r.
Q u e s tio n :

26.

Is

Any anim al n o t h a v in g c r e a t i n e p h o s p h a te i n i t s m uscles i s n o t a
c h o rd a te .
Since g r a s s h o p p e r s d o n 't have c r e a t i n e p h o sp h ate i n t h e i r
m u sc le s , i t n e c e s s a r i l y fo llo w s t h a t they a re n o t c h o r d a t e s .
Q u e s tio n :

25 .

I s th e shove rea so n a b le or not?

Is

th e

above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I t ' s a f a c t t h a t e v ery th e o r y c o n t a i n s c o n c e p ts which
a r e n o t em­
p i r i c a l l y t e s t a b l e . Hence, i f what i s o f f e r e d as th e " c e l l th e o ry "
were t r u l y a t h e o r y , we c o u ld r e a s o n a b ly deduce t h a t i t w i l l c o n t a i n
c o n c e p ts n o t e m p i r i c a l l y t e s t a b l e .

161

Q uestion:
31.

B ecause happy an im als a r e p r i m i t i v e , and s in c e apes a r e happy as
w e ll as h a v in g l a r g e b r a i n s ; i t i s p o s s i b l e to deduce from t h i s
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t apes a r e p r i m i t i v e anim als w ith l a r g e b r a i n s .
Q u e s tio n ;

32.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f anyone d o e s n 't b e l i e v e i n e v o l u t i o n , th en h e must be an a t h e i s t .
C la re n c e goes to c h u rc h b u t d o e s n 't b e l i e v e i n e v o l u ti o n .
I t fo llo w s
t h a t even though C la re n c e goes to church he i s s t i l l an a t h e i s t .
Q u e s tio n :

38 .

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I f a man i s n o t r ig h t- h a n d e d , th e n h e d o e s n 't have th e genes f o r
rig h t-h a n d e d n e ss.
S ince John i s n o t r ig h t - h a n d e d , i t fo llo w s t h a t
he i s n ' t l i k e l y to h av e t h e genes f o r r ig h t - h a n d e d n e s s .
Q u e s tio n :

37.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r no t?

I f b i o l o g i c a l c e l l s a r e to pro d u ce carbo n d io x id e , th e n th e y must be
aliv e .
I f t h i s i s t r u e , and knowing t h a t th e o u t e r s u r f a c e o f t h e
s k in c o n s i s t s o f dead c e l l s , i t would fo llo w t h a t th ey would n o t
p ro d u c e carb o n d io x id e .
Q u e s tio n :

36.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

Animals t h a t s u c k le t h e i r young a r e n o t f i s h ; b u t whales do s u c k le
t h e i r young and s t i l l l i v e i n w a te r. T h e re fo re , even though whales
l i v e i n w a te r, t h e y a r e s t i l l f i s h .
Q u e s tio n ;

35.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r no t?

Those s t u d e n t s t h a t d o n 't s tu d y m e io sis w i l l be l a t e i n g e t t i n g o u t
o f t h e exam. S in ce we knew t h a t George d i d n ' t stu d y , i t fo llo w s
t h a t h e . w i l l be l a t e .
Q u e s tio n :

34 .

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f anyone h a s ty p e A3 blood, he c a n have no ty p e 0 o f f s p r i n g .
S ince
J o h n 's f i r s t c h i l d was ty p e 0, we c a n deduce t h a t John h as ty p e A3
b lo o d .
Q u e s tio n ;

33.

I s th e above rea so n a b le or not?

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I f we have no c o n t r o l l e d esqoeriment, th e n th e r e s u l t s can n ev er be
co n c lu siv e .
S ince t h i s i s t r u e , and s in c e we know t h a t Ik a n c is c o
R e d i ' s e x p erim en ts on sp o n tan eo u s g e n e r a ti o n were c o n c l u s iv e , we
c o u ld deduce from t h e s e rem arks felone t h a t he had a c o n t r o l l e d
e x p e rim e n t.

162

Q uestion:
39.

I f e v e ry man h a s h i s l i m i t a t i o n s , th e n i n t e l l i g e n t p e o p le a r e o c c a ­
s i o n a l l y c o n fu s e d .
Sam adm its t h a t h e has h i s l i m i t a t i o n s . Hence,
i t f o llo w s t h a t Sam i s o c c a s i o n a l l y co n fu sed .
Q u e s tio n :

40.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I f t h e r e i s a w i l l t h e r e i s a way, and s in c e t h e r e i s no way f o r
C la r e n c e i t f o llo w s from t h i s t h a t h e h a s no w i l l .
Q u e stio n :

45.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r not?

I f anyone c o u l d g iv e b lo o d to Doug, th e n h e c o u l d n 't g iv e i t to
Wilma.
S ince John can g iv e b lo o d to b o th Doug and members o f h i s
c h u rc h , i t f o llo w s t h a t John can g iv e b lo o d to members o f h i s ch u rch
b u t n o t to Wilma.
Q p e s tio n :

44.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n ot?

.Anyone n o t r ig h t - h a n d e d , d o e s n 't have genes f o r r ig h t - h a n d e d n e s s .
S ince George i s n ' t r ig h t - h a n d e d , i t fo llo w s t h a t h e i s n ' t l i k e l y to
h a v e t h e genes f o r r ig h t - h a n d e d n e s s .
Q u e s tio n :

43.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

S ince C la re n c e i s i g n o r a n t , we can say he i s happy when we know t h a t
a n y t h i n g happy i s n ' t i g n o r a n t .
Q p e stio n :

42.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f b lo o d ty p e s a r e pro d u ced by b o th a n t ig e n s and genes, and i f any­
t h i n g p ro d u c e d by genes i s i n h e r i t e d from th e p a r e n t s , i t f o llo w s
t h a t b lo o d ty p e s a r e p ro d u ced by a n tig e n s a s w e ll as being i n h e r i t e d
from t h e p a r e n t s .
Q p e s tio n :

41.

I s th e above rea so n a b le or not?

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I f a man i s n ' t b a ld , h e d o e s n 't have th e genes fo r b a ld n e s s . I f
t h i s i s t r u e , and s i n c e John i s n ' t b a ld , i t fo llo w s t h a t he d o e s n 't
have t h e gen es f o r b a ld n e s s .
Q p e s tio n :

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

163

Type B
(S tu d y I b u r - I I I )
QUESTIONNAIRE

The pro h i eras s t a t e d i n t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e axe d e s ig n e d to h e l p u s
f i n d o u t some t h i n g s about o u r methods o f te a c h in g you a few i d e a s about
N a t u r a l S c ie n c e .
We a l l know t h a t some o f you g e t A 's i n th e c o u r s e w h ile some o f
you g e t lo w e r th a n A*s.

We a p p a r e n tl y communicate to a v e r y h ig h d eg ree

w i t h th o s e o f you who r e c e i v e A 's , and c o r r e s p o n d in g ly , communicate to a
l e s s e r d e g re e w ith t h o s e o f you who r e c e i v e l e s s th a n A.
We want to f i n d o u t i f t h e r e i s som ething i n our manner o f p r e ­
s e n t a t i o n w hich would p o s s i b l y account f o r t h i s v a r i a t i o n i n communica­
tio n .
A lthough we would l i k e to have you s ig n your name, you w i l l n o t
be g ra d e d on t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e .

The rem arks you make w i l l n o t i n f l u e n c e

y o u r g r a d e i n any manner w h a ts o e v e r.
Because o f o u r alm o st c o n s t a n t ex po sure to th e s u b je c t m a t t e r o f
N a t u r a l S c ie n c e , we a r e sometimes i n c l i n e d to make s ta te m e n ts which ap­
p e a r r e a s o n a b l e to u s , but y e t a p p e a r u n r e a s o n a b le to you.

We f e e l t h a t

t h e d e g re e o f c o rre s p o n d e n c e between what we ta k e to be r e a s o n a b le d i s ­
c o u r s e and what you t a k e to be r e a s o n a b le d i s c o u r s e i s d i r e c t l y p ro p o r­
t i o n a l to th e amount o f com m unication which i s t a k i n g p l a c e .
FROCEIURE
1.

T h is i s n o t a t e s t to see how much you remember.

A ll th e

n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n i s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t e d i n th e q u e s ti o n s .
2.

A lso, we a r e n o t c o n c e rn e d w ith th e t r u t h f u l n e s s o f th e

164

i n f o r m a t i o n g iv e n i n t h e q u e s ti o n s ; a l l we want to know i s w hether you
t h i n k t h e d i s c o u r s e i s r e a s o n a b le o r n o t .
3.
set

Each q u e s t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a s e t o f s ta te m e n ts .

as co m p lete u n i t s o f d i s c o u r s e .

i s p re se n te d in
f i r s t space.

C on sider each

I f you t h i n k t h e p o i n t b ein g made

a r e a s o n a b l e manner, b la c k e n your answer s h e e t i n th e

I f y ou t h i n k t h e p o i n t b e in g made i s p r e s e n t e d i n an un­

r e a s o n a b l e manner, b la c k e n th e second s p a c e .
4.
1.

P u t your name and s tu d e n t number on your answer s h e e t.

I f B i l l h a d c u rv e d f i n g e r s and A lic e was i n D e t r o i t on Monday,then
George h a s one dominant gene f o r b a ld n e s s . According to t h i s , i f
B i l l h a s c u rv e d f i n g e r s and A l i c e was i n D e t r o i t on Monday, i t f o l ­
low s t h a t George d o e s n ’ t have any genes f o r b a ld n e s s .
Q u e s tio n :

2.

I f i t ’ s n o t t r u e t h a t sperm h a v e f i n s and t h e w orker fo u le d up th e
e x p e rim e n t, th e n MSU w i l l n o t win t h e Big Ten B a s k e tb a ll champion­
s h ip . But, i f MSU wins th e Big Ten cham pionship, i t would f o llo w
t h a t sperm have f i n s and th e r e s e a r c h worker d id f o u l up t h e e x p e r i­
m ent.
Q u e s tio n :

3.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

Some s t u d e n t s d o n 't u n d e r s t a n d m e io s is , and some d o n 't even u n d e r s t a n d
g e n e t i c s . And t h e re a s o n t h e y don’t i s because i f they d o n 't stu d y and t h e y d o n 't - th e y w i l l n o t u n d e r s ta n d them.
Q u e s tio n :

5.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I f e l e c t r i c i t y d o e s n 't c o n s i s t o f m a t t e r , t h e n some c o n c e p ts o f s c i ­
ence a r e s p i r i t u a l and t h i s th o u g h t makes C la re n c e happy.
Since
s c i e n t i s t s t r y to be t r u t h f u l , e l e c t r i c i t y d o e s n 't c o n s i s t o f m a t t e r .
These rem ark s e n a b le u s to say', th e n , t h a t s in c e s c i e n t i s t s t r y to
be t r u t h f u l , some c o n c e p ts o f s c ie n c e a r e s p i r i t u a l and t h i s th o u g h t
makes C la r e n c e unhappy.
Q u e s tio n :

4.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r no t?

I f C la r e n c e d o e s n ’ t have genes f o r a lb in is m , th e n he w i l l have p i g ­
ment i n h i s eyes a s w e ll as b e in g governed by moral p r i n c i p l e s .
Since
i t i s n ’ t t r u e t h a t C la re n c e h a s pigm ent and i s governed by moral
p r i n c i p l e s , i t would f o llo w t h a t he d o e s n ’ t have a lb in o g en es.

165

Q uestion:
6.

I f s c i e n c e i s a t h e i s t i c , th e n i t prom otes ty ra n n y and i n j u s t i c e .
B ut, i f i t prom otes t h e s e t h i n g s , th e n Americans do n o t know t h e
m eaning o f th e 4 t h o f J u ly . A ccording to t h e s e rem arks, we are
a b l e to say t h a t i f s c ie n c e i s a t h e i s t i c , Americans do n o t know
t h e m eaning o f t h e 4 t h o f J u ly .
Q u e s tio n :

7.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r not?

I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , C la re n c e happened to be t e l l i n g th e t r u t h . But i f
h e i s t e l l i n g th e t r u t h , th e n h e can n o t be t r u s t e d and should be
t a r r e d and f e a t h e r e d . I t fo llo w s , th e n , t h a t C la re n c e c a n ’t be
t r u s t e d and sh o u ld be t a r r e d and f e a t h e r e d .
Q u e s tio n :

1 1.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f some a n im als a r e w ild and r e p r o d u c t i o n i s normal, th e n some an im als
a r e n o t s e x u a l. Also, i f some anim als have "arms and l e g s " , th e n
some a n im a ls a r e w ild and r e p r o d u c t io n i s norm al. I t fo llo w s from
t h i s , t h a t i f some a n im als have "arm s and l e g s " , some anim als a re
s ex u al.
Q u e stio n :

10.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

I f i t ' s t r u e t h a t l i v i n g c e l l s r e q u i r e oxygen but r e l e a s e carb o n
d i o x i d e , then we would expect t h a t t h e r e would be no d e c r e a s e o f
oxygen where dead c e l l s were l o c a t e d . But, supposing t h e r e was a
d e c r e a s e o f oxygen w ith t h e dead c e l l s . A ccording to t h i s , we c o u ld
deduce t h a t i t ' s f a l s e t h a t l i v i n g c e l l s r e q u i r e oxygen and r e l e a s e
c a rb o n d io x id e .
Q u e s tio n :

9.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r no t?

I f e v o l u t i o n d o e s n 't e x p l a i n t h e o r i g i n o f man, b u t th e th e o r y o f
S p e c i a l C r e a ti o n does, th e n man i s e t e r n a l .
Since i t i s a s t a t e ­
ment o f f a c t t h a t e v o l u t i o n does n o t e x p la in m an's o r i g i n b u t t h a t
i t i s e x p l a i n e d by th e t h e o r y o f S p e c ia l C r e a tio n , i t fo llo w s froim
t h e s e rem arks t h a t man i s e t e r n a l .
Q u e s tio n :

8.

I s th e above reason ab le or not?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f l i f e were p o s s i b l e on Mars and C laren ce was i n Chicago t h e n i g h t
o f th e c rim e , th e n J u p i t e r h a s warmth s u f f i c i e n t f o r p r o to p la s m ic
m e ta b o lism .
S ince J u p i t e r d o e s n 't have s u f f i c i e n t warmth, i t i s
c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h e s e rem arks to say t h a t l i f e i s p o s s i b l e on Mars
and t h a t C la re n c e was i n Chicago th e n i g h t o f th e crim e.
Q u e s tio n :

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

166

12.

I f anyone c o u ld g iv e b lo o d to Doug, th e n no one c o u ld g iv e b lo o d to
Wilma and th e d o c to r would l e a v e town. But, i f C laren ce was th e
r i n g l e a d e r o f th e mob, t h e n anyone c o u l d g iv e Doug blo od . I t i s
r e a s o n a b l e to say, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t s in c e C la re n c e was th e r i n g ­
l e a d e r o f t h e mob, no one c o u ld g iv e blo o d to Wilma and t h e d o c to r
w ould l e a v e town.
Q u e s tio n :

13.

I f c e l l s hav e a n u c le u s as w e ll as a n u c l e o l u s , then th e d o c to r
w i l l s t a y i n town. . T h e re f o re , we can say from t h i s t h a t th e d o c to r
w i l l l e a v e town; p r o v id e d we know t h a t c e l l s a c t u a l l y have a n u c le u s
and n u c l e o l u s .
Q p e s tio n :

14.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f argum ents a r e found i n o r d i n a r y d is c o u r s e , then th e y a r e n o t
fou nd i n th e S t a t e News and t h e s tu d e n t s r e a d o t h e r n ew spapers.
But, i f argum ents a r e worthy o f l o g i c a l
r e c o g n i t i o n , th e n th e y are
found i n o r d i n a r y d i s c o u r s e . According
to t h i s ,
i f arguments a r e
w orthy o f l o g i c a l r e c o g n i t i o n , th e y a r e
found i n
th e S t a t e News and
t h e s t u d e n t s r e a d o t h e r new spapers.
Q u e s tio n :

18.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I t ' s r e a s o n a b l e to say t h a t g en es p h y s i c a l l y e x i s t . Because i f th ey
d o n 't , t h e n th e y a r e sim ply th e figm ent o f som eone's im a g in a tio n a s
w e l l a s b e in g a h o a x p la y e d upon th e s c i e n t i f i c w o rld . But we know
t h a t th e y a r e n o t im ag in in g s and h o a x e s. Thus, i t f o llo w s t h a t
g enes p h y s i c a l l y e x i s t .
Q u e s tio n :

17.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

Because Zoology i s a v o id ed by s tu d e n t s , i t must be b e n e f i c i a l f o r
t h e mind but i s n o t a r e q u i r e d s u b je c t f o r m edical s c h o o l. More­
o v e r , b ecause i t i s n ' t easy to l e a r n , i t i s av oid ed by s t u d e n t s .
I t ’ s r e a s o n a b l e to say, th e n , t h a t becau se Zoology i s n ' t easy to
l e a r n , i t must be b e n e f i c i a l f o r th e mind as w ell a s b ein g
re­
q u i r e d s u b j e c t f o r m edical sc h o o l
Q u estio n :

16.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f i t i s n ’t t r u e t h a t an im als have segments and a r e a b le to th i n k ,
t h e n th e y must n o t h ave s e p a r a t e d body p a r t s . Thus, i f th e y p o s s e s s
s e p a r a t e d body p a r t s , i f f o llo w s , th e n , t h a t th e y p o s s e s s segments
and a r e a b le to t h i n k .
Q u e s tio n :

15.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e or n o t?

I t i s t r u e t h a t brown bean p l a n t s c o n t a i n dominant genes, and some

167

t r a i t s a r e d e te rm in e d py chromosomes. Bat i f "both t h e s e t h i n g s
a r e t r u e , t h e n p u r p l e - e y e d f l i e s have no dominant g e n e s. There­
f o r e , i t fo llo w s from t h e s e rem arks t h a t p u r p le - e y e d f l i e s have
dom inant g e n e s.
Q u e s tio n :
19.

I n g e n e t i c s i f b l a c k was dominant to w h ite , and brown eyes was
dominant to b lu e ey es, th en a c r o s s i n g between two homozygous
b l a c k c a t s s h o u ld n o t g iv e any w h ite o f f s p r i n g . But, supposing
we d i d g e t some w h ite o f f s p r i n g . I t i s c o n s i s t e n t to say, i n t h i s
c a s e , t h a t b la c k i s dom inant to w h ite, and t h a t brown eyes i s
dominant to b lu e e y e s .
Q u e s tio n :

20.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f h i g h e r p l a n t s re p ro d u c e , th e y d o n 't do i t a s e x u a ll y and g e n e t i ­
c i s t s u s e th e fungus N eu ro sp o ra i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h . But, i f h i g h e r
p l a n t s d o n ’t r e p ro d u c e a s e s u a l l y end g e n e t i c i s t s u s e N eurospora f o r
r e s e a r c h , th e n p i s t i l s must always be p r e s e n t . According to t h e s e
re m a rk s, we a r e a b l e to say t h a t i f h i g h e r p l a n t s re p ro d u c e , th e n
p i s t i l s a r e n o t alw ays p r e s e n t .
Q u e s tio n :

24.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r no t?

I f a ” f a u l t 11 i s a g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e and p r e s e n t i n Michigan, th e n
t h e r e e x i s t f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e s o f th e e a r t h alo n g which movement h a s
ta k e n p l a c e . I f we d id n o t h av e such a f r a c t u r e d s u r f a c e , we c o u ld
deduce t h a t i t i s n ’t t r u e t h a t a " f a u l t ” i s a g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e and
p r e s e n t i n M ichigan.
Q u e s tio n :

23 .

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f George d id n o t have " 6 - t o e s u , b u t h a d brown ey es, th e n he wouldn’ t
have t h e genes f o r r ig h t - h a n d e d n e s s .
Since George d o e s n ’ t have "6t o e s " , b u t does h av e brown eyes, i t fo llo w s t h a t he does have th e
g en es f o r r ig h t - h a n d e d n e s s .
Q u e s tio n :

22.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I f atoms have a n u c le u s , th e n t h e y a r e system s o f energy and no
home s h o u ld be w ith o u t them. I f th e u l t i m a t e p a r t i c l e s o b a in a b le
by c h e m ic a l a n a l y s i s a re atoms, th e n atoms have a n u c le u s .
I t wouHf o ll o w from t h e s e rem ark s, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t i f th e u l t i m a t e p a r t i c l e s
o b t a i n a b l e by c h em ical a n a l y s i s a r e atoms, th e n atoms must be sys­
tems o f en ergy and no home sh o u ld be w ith o u t them.
Q u e s tio n :

21.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

B a c t e r i a h ave no v i s i b l e n u c le u s , and they are t h e cau se o f d i s e a s e .

168

B at, i f t h e s e t h i n g s a re t r u e , th e n th e y d i f f e r from o t h e r l i v i n g
c e lls.
I t f o llo w s , th e n , t h a t 'b a c t e r i a a r e d i f f e r e n t from o t h e r
liv in g c e lls .
Q u e s tio n :
25.

I f we h av e no c o n t r o l l e d ex p erim en t, th e n th e r e s u l t s can n ev er be
c o n c l u s i v e and t r u t h i s a m a t t e r o f p r o b a b i l i t y . But i t ' s n o t t r u e
t h a t r e s u l t s c a n n e v e r be c o n c lu s iv e and t r u t h o n ly p r o b a b le . There­
f o r e , we must n o t h a v e h ad a c o n t r o l l e d ex p erim en t.
Q ie stio n :

26.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f someone h a s a n t i - A a n t i b o d i e s , th e n h e can no t g iv e blood to p e o p le
h a v in g r e d h a i r . However, i f someone h a s type B blood and r a i s e s
r a b b i t s f o r a l i v i n g , th e n he a ls o h as a n t i- A a n t i b o d i e s . According
to t h e s e rem ark s, i f someone h a s ty pe B blood and r a i s e s r a b b i t s f o r
a l i v i n g , he can g iv e b loo d to p e o p le w ith r e d h a i r .
Q u e s tio n :

30 .

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f t h e o rg an ism s a r e b a c t e r i a and th e w eath er i s c o l d , th e n g r a d u a te
s t u d e n t s a r e g i f t e d p e o p le . However, i f i t ' s n o t t r u e t h a t g r a d u a te
s t u d e n t s a r e g i f t e d , we c o u ld r e a s o n a b ly say, th e n , t h a t i t was
f a l s e t h a t th e o rganism s were b a c t e r i a and th e w eath er c o ld .
Q u e s tio n :

29.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f th e th e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n i s t r u e and man i s a d escen d an t o f th e
a p e s , t h e n many s c i e n t i s t s a r e p o l i t i c a l l y minded. S in ce t h e f a c t s
seem to s u p p o rt t h e t r u t h o f t h e t h e o r y as w e ll as showing th e d escendency o f man from th e ap es, i t would fo llo w from t h e s e rem arks,
t h a t many s c i e n t i s t s a r e p o l i t i c a l l y minded.
Q u e s tio n :

28.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le or n o t?

I f o rg an ism s can p h o t o s y n t h e s i z e , th e n A lb e rt was p r o p a g a n d iz in g .
B ut, i f o rg a n ism s a r e w ith o u t c e l l membranes and a r e c a p a b le o f
r e s p i r a t i o n , th e n th e y can p h o to s y n t h e s i z e . Hence, i f a l l t h i s i s
t r u e , i t fo llo w s t h a t i f org an ism s a r e w ith o u t c e l l membranes and
a r e c a p a b l e o f r e s p i r a t i o n , th e n A lb e rt was n o t p ro p a g a n d iz in g .
Q u e s tio n :

27.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I f b a c t e r i a a r e p r e s e n t and C la re n c e h a s bad b r e a th , then h e i s n o t
f r e e o f th e d is e a s e .
Since b a c t e r i a were found to be p r e s e n t , and
b ecau se i t ' s w e ll known t h a t C la re n c e h as bad b r e a t h , i t i s re a so n ­
a b le to say t h a t C la re n c e i s f r e e o f th e d i s e a s e .
Q u e s tio n :

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

169

31.

I f h e r e d i t y t r a i t s a r e d eterm in e d by g enes, th e n t h e 48 number o f
chromosomes f o r humans i s d e te rm in e d by genes and th e th e o r y o f
e v o l u t i o n w i l l t u r n o u t to be t r u e . But, i f t h e r e a r e 48 chrorrosomes i n humans, th e n h e r e d i t a r y t r a i t s a r e d e te rm in e d by g en es.
A ccord ing to t h e s e rem ark s, t h e e x is te n c e o f 48 chromosomes i n
humans i m p l i e s t h a t t h i s number i s d e te rm in e d bygen es and th e
t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n w i l l t u r n o u t to
be t r u e .
Q u e s tio n :

3 2.

I s th e above r e a s o n a b le or n o t?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r not?

I f l i v i n g c e l l s a r e a b le to produce carb on d io x id e and h e a t , th e n
oxygen i s p r e s e n t i n t h e en viro nm en t. I f t h i s i s t r u e , and i f
oxygen were a c t u a l l y n o t p r e s e n t , we c o u ld say from t h i s t h a t i t
i s n o t t r u e t h a t l i v i n g c e l l s a r e a b le to produce carb on d io x id e
and h e a t .
Q u e s tio n :

36.

o r n o t?

I f g re e n p e a p l a n t s c a n ' t g iv e r i s e to dominant ty pe o f f s p r i n g ,
t h e n th e y w i l l y i e l d few er p e a s p e r pod but th e fa rm e rs w i l l n o t
a s k t h e i r congressm an f o r a government su b sid y . However, i f g reen
p e a s a r e r e c e s s i v e , th e y can n o t g iv e r i s e to any dominant type o f f ­
sp rin g .
Thus, i f a l l t h i s i s t r u e , i t fo llo w s t h a t i f g reen p e a s
a r e r e c e s s i v e , th e n t h e y w i l l y i e l d fewer p e a s p e r pod, and th e
f a rm e rs w i l l a s k t h e i r congressm an f o r a government sub sid y .
Q u e stio n :

35.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e

I t ' s a f a c t t h a t no th e o iy i n i t s e l f
i s e m p i r i c a l l y t e s t a b l e , and
t h a t much o f s c ie n c e i s b u i l t upon f a i t h . But, i f t h e s e t h i n g s
a r e t r u e , t h e n t h e th e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n i s p h ilo s o p h y . TTrom t h e s e
rem ark s, i t fo llo w s t h a t t h e th e o r y o f e v o l u ti o n i s p h ilo s o p h y .
Q u e s tio n :

34.

o r n ot?

I f John h a s ty p e AB blo o d as w e ll as brown h a i r , th e n he can have
no ty p e 0 c h i l d r e n . But s in c e h e does h av e ty p e 0 c h i l d r e n , i t ' s
r e a s o n a b l e to say John h a s ty p e AB b lo o d and brown h a i r .
Q u e s tio n :

33.

i s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

I f John d i d n ' t h a v e ty p e A blood, th en the d o c to r s a i d t h a t he would
be p e r m i t t e d to g i v e b lo o d to B i l l and t h a t Mary c o u ld l e a v e th e
h o s p i t a l on Wednesday. As i t tu rn e d o u t, John d i d n ' t have ty p e A
b lood, but t h e d o c t o r s t i l l r e f u s e d to l e t him g iv e bloo d to B i l l
and Mary d i d n ' t l e a v e th e h o s p i t a l on Wednesday. Thus, th e d o c to r
i s c o n siste n t.
Q u e s tio n :

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n ot?

170

37.

I f oxygen were n o t p r e s e n t on t h e e a r t h , t h e n p l a n t c e l l s -would soon
d i e and cows would s to p g iv in g m ilk . B i t , i f p l a n t c e l l s d i e and
cows s t o p g i v i n g m ilk , th e n c h i l d r e n w i l l develop r i c k e t s .
I t fo l­
lows, t h e r e f o r e , i f oxygen were n o t p r e s e n t on th e e a r t h , c h i l d r e n
w i l l n o t dev elo p t h e r i c k e t s .
Q u e s tio n :

38.

I f no o v a r i e s and stamens a re p r e s e n t , th e n we w ouldnr t have a p e r ­
f e c t f lo w e r . T h e re fo re , a c c o r d in g to t h i s , i f we a c t u a l l y had a
p e r f e c t f lo w e r, we c o u ld assume th e p r e s e n c e o f both o v a r i e s and
stam en s.
Q u e stio n :

39.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n ot?

G rassh o p p ers a r e n o t c h o r d a t e s .
Because i f g ra s s h o p p e rs d o n 't have
c r e a t i n e p h o s p h a te i n t h e i r m u scles as w e ll as n o t h av in g h a i r on
t h e i r l e g s - and th ey d o n 't ha.ve e i t h e r o f th e s e , th en th ey a r e
ch o rd a te s.
Q u e s tio n :

43.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n o t?

In f r o g s i f th e eggs f a i l to p a s s th ro u g h t h e o v i d u c ts , th e n th e y
w i l l s t a y w i t h i n t h e body c a v i t y and C laren ce w i l l admit he i s i g ­
n o ra n t.
But, a c c o r d in g to t h i s , i f t h e s e th i n g s d i d n ' t happen, i t
must be t h a t t h e eggs f a i l e d to p a s s th ro u g h th e o v i d u c t s .
Q u e stio n :

42.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r n ot?

I f p i g s a r e p r i m i t i v e , th e n apes rep ro d u ce s e x u a l ly and c a t s a r e
v ery f e r t i l e . However, i f an im als a r e w ild -e y e d , th en p i g s are
p rim itiv e .
I t would fo llo w , th e n , t h a t i f anim als are w ild -e y e d ,
ap es re p ro d u c e s e x u a lly b u t c a t s a r e n o t v e ry f e r t i l e .
Q u e s tio n :

41 .

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r not?

I f v i n e g a r were an a c id , then i t s h o u ld t u r n b lu e li t m u s p a p e r r e d
and p r e v e n t t h e grow th o f b a c t e r i a .
I f v in e g a r r e a l l y i s an a c id ,
i t f o ll o w s t h a t v i n e g a r w i l l t u r n b lu e l i tm u s p a p e r r e d as w e ll as
p r e v e n t th e growth o f b a c t e r i a .
Q u e s tio n :

4 0.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I s th e above r e a s o n a b l e or not?

I f s t u d e n t s d o n 't r e a d th e S t a t e News, th en th e y a r e sm a rte r th a n
some o f t h e i r t e a c h e r s . Also, i f s tu d e n t s have good t a s t e and have
come to c o l l e g e to be e d u cated , th e n they d o n 't r e a d th e S t a t e News.
I t f o llo w s from t h e s e rem arks t h a t i f s tu d e n t s have good t a s t e and
have come to c o l l e g e to be ed u cated , th en they are sm a rte r th a n some
o f t h e i r te a c h e rs.

171

Q u e s tio n :
44.

I f p h e n o l r e d i s a w atery s o l u t i o n , th e n i t can be u s e d to d e t e c t
t h e p r e s e n c e o f g a s e s and b a c t e r i a . However, i f i t i s n ' t t r u e t h a t
i t h a s such u s e s , i t would f o llo w t h a t i t i s n ' t a w atery s o l u t i o n .
Q u e s tio n :

45.

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b l e o r n o t?

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r not?

I f s p e r a t r a v e l th ro u g h th e u r e t h r a and p a s s o u t th ro u g h th e p e n i s ,
th e n any o b s t r u c t i o n s would p r e v e n t f e r t i l i z a t i o n .
I f th is is
t r u e , i t f o llo w s t h a t any o b s t r u c t i o n s would p r e v e n t f e r t i l i z a t i o n ;
p r o v id e d we knew t h a t sperm do p a s s th ro u g h t h e u r e t h r a and p a s s
o u t th ro u g h t h e p e n i s .
Q u e s tio n :

I s t h e above r e a s o n a b le o r not?

172

Type C
QUESTIONNAIRE

INSTRUCTIONS:

T his q u e s t i o n n a i r e aims to f i n d o u t, i n a g e n e r a l way, what you
remember ab o u t some o f t h e i d e a s which were p r e s e n t e d to you l a s t term
i n NS 121.

In p a r t i c u l a r ,

t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n cern s i t s e l f w ith t h e

i d e a s ab o u t h e r e d i t y .
A lthough we would

l i k e to have you s ig n your name, you w i l l n o t

be g r a d e d on t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
your

The rem arks you make w i l l n o t i n f l u e n c e

g ra d e i n any manner w h a ts o e v e r.
I n one o f th e l a b

s t u d i e s l a s t term, one o f t h e i d e a s we w anted to

communicate to you was t h a t genes f o r s k in p ig m e n ta tio n occur i n p a i r s
i n th e i n d i v i d u a l .

Ty way o f su p p ly in g ev id en ce to su p p o rt t h i s i d e a

a p e d i g r e e c h a r t c o n c e r n in g s k in p ig m e n ta tio n was p r e s e n te d .

This c h a r t

in fo rm e d you o f many f a c t s c o n c e r n in g th e g e n e tic make-up o f th e i n d i v i ­
du als i n i t .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , we wanted to communicate to you, v i a th e s e f a c t s ,
t h e i d e a t h a t a giv en i n d i v i d u a l i n the p e d ig r e e must have two genes f o r
s k i n p i g m e n ta tio n .

These f a c t s a r e s t a t e d below, along w ith th e p e d ig r e e

c h a r t in v o lv ed .
What you a r e ask ed to do i s to rev iew t h e g iv e n f a c t s and to ex­
p l a i n how i t i s t h a t a g iv e n i n d i v i d u a l must have two genes f o r s k in
P ig m en tatio n .

173

THE FACTS
1.

I n F ig u re A, i n d i v i d u a l s X—1 and I I I —1 a r e a l b i n o s ; th e o t h e r s a r e
n o rm a l.

1

2

F ig u re A
2.

I f o n ly one gene was needed, th e n a t l e a s t one o f t h e p a r e n t s o f
I I I - l mast show a lb in is m .

3.

At t h i s p o i n t i n o u r s t u d i e s we knew t h a t e i t h e r one gene was needed
to e x p r e s s th e t r a i t f o r s k in p ig m e n ta tio n o r t h a t two genes were
n eed ed.

4.

The p a r e n t s o f I I I - l do n o t show a lb in is m .

With r e g a r d to th e above f a c t s , e x p l a i n how i t i s t h a t a g iv e n
i n d i v i d u a l must have two g en es f o r sk in p ig m e n ta tio n .
EXPLANATION:

174

DEFINITIONS OF SYMBOLS
The l e t t e r s P, Q, R, e t c . , r e f e r to p r o p o s i t i o n s . I n E n g lis h grammar
t h e s e a r e d e s c r i b e d a s d e c l a r a t i v e s ta t e m e n t s which may he t r u e o r f a l s e .
The symbol " D " s ta n d s f o r th e T h g lis h words " im p lie s " o r " t h e n " . Where
one d e c l a r a t i v e s ta te m e n t i m p l i e s a n o th e r , t h i s would be e x p r e s s e d i n
l o g i c a l symbolism as HF o Q".
The symbol " * " s ta n d s f o r t h e E n g lis h word "an d". Thus, when two de­
c l a r a t i v e s ta t e m e n t s a r e a s s e r t e d c o n j o i n t l y , t h i s i s e x p r e s s e d i n l o g i c a l
symbolism as "P * Q".
The symbol HvH s ta n d s f o r t h e E n g lis h word " o r " . When two d e c l a r a t i v e
s ta t e m e n t s a r e a s s e r t e d as a l t e r n a t i v e s , t h i s i s e x p r e s s e d as "P v Q" .
The symbol n
" i s t h e l o g i c a l e x p r e s s io n f o r th e E n g lis h word " n o t " .
When a p r o p o s i t i o n i s a s s e r t e d a s b e in g f a l s e , i t i s e x p r e s s e d as
" V a l i d i t y p a t t e r n " r e f e r s to th e form a l o g i c a l argument may t a k e . I b r
exam ple, t h e Modus Ponens form i s e x h i b i t e d by th e f o llo w in g argument:
I f C la re n c e i s a member o f t h e com m ittee,
t h e n t h e c a r d s a r e s ta c k e d a g a in s t u s .
C la re n c e i s a member o f th e com m ittee.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e c a r d s a r e s ta c k e d a g a i n s t u s .
t h i s i s e x p r e s s e d i n l o g i c a l symbolism as
P D Q
P

Q
and i t s form i s

O. . .