69 - 20,886 LOWE, James Jay, 1937ATTITUDES AND PERSONALITY TRAITS OF ELEVENTH GRADE PUERTO RICAN AND MICHIGAN STUDENTS. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1969 Psychology, general University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan ATTITUDES AND PERSONALITY TRAITS OF ELEVENTH GRADE PUERTO RICAN AND MICHIGAN STUDENTS By James Jay Lowe A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education Department of Counseling, Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology 1969 ABSTRACT ATTITUDES AND PERSONALITY TRAITS OF ELEVENTH GRADE PUERTO RICAN AND MICHIGAN STUDENTS By James Jay Lowe It Is important to the success of international and interhuman relations in the Americas that there is an understanding of 1 ) the differences and similarities in attitudes and personality between the Spanish-American and the stateside American, and 2) the probable effect upon attitudes and personality of the two cultures being inter­ related. The unique mixture of the traditional Spanish and the modern stateside cultures in Puerto Rico was con­ sidered an appropriate setting for investigating the impact of culture upon attitudes and personality. Methodology and instrumentation have been two major difficulties in cross-cultural research of the past. Earlier research was conducted by sociologists and anthropologists using observational techniques appropriate to the study of primitive cultures. In 196*4-, Farquhar and Christensen developed instruments called the P-Scales to study the motivational factors influencing the academic achievement James Jay Lowe of Puerto Rican studentsj their basic assumption was that certain attitudes and personality factors characteristic of the Spanish culture would differentially affect moti­ vation. Until the present Investigation, the P-Scales had not been administered In the states, and a direct crosscultural comparison of the pertinent attitudes and personality facets was not possible. The work of Farquhar and Christensen therefore provided the stimulus as well as the instrumentation and methodology for the present study. The hypotheses of this study were focused on five general areas: 1 ) authority relations, 2 ) sex role, 3 ) implicit world view, 4) work orientation, and 5 ) per­ sonality. It was assumed that the attitudes and personality of Puerto Rican students would reflect the traditional Spanish culture and would stand in contrast to the atti­ tudes and personality of students in the states. The hypotheses were tested using the P-Scales (Scale of Individual preferences, Generalized Situational Choice Inventory, and Human Trait Inventory) with a stratified random sample of 400 Michigan eleventh graders and ^00 Puerto Rican eleventh graders. Stratification was based upon rural-urban residence, and the sample of each culture consisted of 200 males and 200 females. For the purpose of item analysis, the sample of each culture was further divided into validation and crossvalidation groups, each consisting of 100 males and 100 James Jay Lowe females. Four separate analyses were conducted» 1) Michigan males-Puerto Rican males, 2) Michigan females-Puerto Rican females, 3) Michigan males-Michigan females, and 4) Puerto Rican males-Puerto Rican females. To collect items for the subsequent factor analysis, all items (222 ) were validated and cross-validated using a one-tailed chi square test of significance with alpha set at the .20 level for inclusion or exclusion of items. Those items which cross-validated were retained for further analysis. For all scales, a total of 164 items discriminated between males of the two cultures, 160 items were significant for females, 47 items were obtained in the lntra-cultural comparison in Michigan, and 80 items discriminated between Puerto Rican males and females. Factor analyses yielded five factors for males in the two cultures, seven for females, six for Michigan males and females, and six for Puerto Rican males and females. Across the two cultures, the first factor for males described a person who does not like school and whose parents discourage him from continuingj parental pressure. it was labeled The second factor was concerned with self-improvement and accomplishment and was labeled extrinsic versus intrinsic achievement. Factor three reflected an other-oriented social posture and was named soclal orientation. Factor four was an expression of positive parental attitudes toward education and was labeled James Jay Lowe parental valuing. The fifth male factor was focused on anxiety over various kinds of Interpersonal contacts and was titled social Interaction. The first factor for females of the two cultures was maternal pressure and described a person who Identifies with and seeks advice from her mother. Factor two focused on negative attitudes toward education and was called educational destiny. The third factor, social orientation, described a person who makes concessions of personal Interest to placate friends. Factor four contained a theme of working hard to achieve something Important and was labeled work orientation. Factor five delineated a person who Is responsive to power figures and was titled authority relations. Factor six, paternal pressure. was concerned with yielding to the authority of the father. The seventh female factor reflected a desire for self-improvement and accomplishment and was labeled achievement performance. The first factor for males and females In Michigan was educational destiny, an expression of negative attitudes toward education. Factor two was concerned with the sources of success laying outside of the efforts of the individual and was labeled, Intrinsic versus extrinsic achievement. The third factor, work orientation, contained a theme of working hard to achieve success. Factor four comprised a theme of wanting to exercise control over social situations without alienating friends and was called soclal orientation. James Jay Lowe Factor five described a person who sees life from a mas­ culine, competitive viewpoint and was labeled role Identification. The sixth stateside factor reflected the attitude that school was a woman's world and was titled school orientation. For Puerto Rican males and females, the first factor contained negative attitudes toward education and was labeled educational destiny. Factor two reflected the desire for self-improvement and accomplishment and was labeled achievement orientation. Factor three was concerned with outstanding achievement in school and was called academic orientation. The label of social orientation was attached to the fourth factor which described a person who is submissive in his relationships with others. Factor five was focused on gaining power and esteem through school and was titled mobility through education. The sixth Puerto Rican factor contained a theme of work being pleasant, good, a value in itself and was labeled work orientation. The factor structure which emerged through factor analysis was very similar to the hypothesized factor structure. Only the area of sex role failed to materialize in any of the four comparisons. The directionality of the factors was generally consistent with predicted directions for cross-cultural analyses. However, factor direction was frequently the reverse of what was hypothesized for intra-cultural comparisons. James Jay Lowe Puerto Rican students were more responsive to authority than Michigan students, and Puerto Rican males were more authority oriented than the females. The females of both cultures were more positively oriented toward work than were the males. The females also valued academic achievement more than the males. Michigan males were more concerned with success in school than Puerto Rican males, but the reverse was true for females. Michigan females were more disposed to see themselves as the source of their success than were Michigan males or Puerto Rican females. The females of both cultures were more inner-directed than males, and Michigan students reported themselves as more self-directed than their Puerto Rican counterparts. It was apparent that considerable difference con­ tinues to exist in the attitudes and personality of state­ side and Puerto Rican students, but changes are occurring, especially among females. The data presented a picture of an emergent female in both cultures, a woman less bound to old authority patterns, more self-directed, and more concerned with her own achievement. The Puerto Rican female seemed to be internalizing the stateside value system while the male held more closely to the traditional Spanish culture of the island. TO My children, Marti, Cherl, Dan, Julie and Mike and especially to my love, Chris. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dr. William Farquhar was Instrumental In the conception, development, and realization of this study. I extend to him my deepest gratitude and regard, both as my chairman and as the splendid human being that he is. No amount of thanks can express my appreciation to Larry Lezotte who ever so patiently and diligently endured six months of computer analysis. Through a seemingly endless series of difficulties and disappoint­ ments, Larry calmly persevered, kindly put up with my blunders, and competently overcame them. I am particularly grateful to Patricia Wagenaar who typed and retyped the manuscript, handled the details of format, and assisted in the hours of proofreading. ill TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF T A B L E S .........................................vii Chapter I. THE PROBLEM. .............................. 1 Purpose..................................... 4 Theory ..................................... 5 Authority Relations. . ................. 5 Sex Role D i f f e r e n c e s ................... 6 Work Orientation ........................ 7 Implicit World View...................... 7 Personality Development. . . . ......... 8 Research Hypotheses. . ................... 9 O v e r v i e w ................................... 11 II. RELATED L I T E R A T U R E .............................12 The Nature of Cross-Cultural and National 12 Character Research ...................... Anthropological-Sociological Research in Puerto R i c o ................................. 15 Recent Cross-Cultural Research ........... 22 Summary........................................32 III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY.............................33 Sample . ................................... 33 Scale of Individual Preferences (IPS). . 37 Generalized Situational Choice Inventory ( G S C I ) ................................... 37 Human Trait Inventory (HTI)................38 Reliability of Scales........................ 38 Testable Hypotheses.......................... 39 A n a l y s i s ..................................... 42 Item Analysis...............................42 Factor Analysis.............................43 Data Collection Procedures ............... 44 Summary....................................... 45 iv Page Chapter IV. ANALYSIS OF R E S U L T S ........................ 46 Item Analysis ................. . . . . . 46 Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males . . 47 Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females 47 Michigan Males - Michigan Females . . . 48 Factor Analysis .......................... 49 Michigan Male - Puerto Rican Male F a c t o r s .............................. 50 Summary Interpretations of Michigan Male - Puerto Rican Male Factors. . . 74 Michigan Female - Puerto Rican Female F a c t o r s .............................. 74 Summary Interpretations of Michigan Female - Puerto Rican Female Factors. 97 Michigan Male - Michigan Female 97 F a c t o r s .............................. Summary Interpretations of Michigan Male - Michigan Female Factors. . . . 108 Puerto Rican Male - Puerto Rican Female F a c t o r s ................. 108 Summary Interpretations of Puerto Rican Male - Puerto Rican Female Factors. . 123 Factor Interpretation Related to Hypotheses............... 123 Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males . 125 Michigan Females - Puerto Rican F e m a l e s .......................... . 127 Michigan Males - Michigan Females . . 129 Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican F e m a l e s ............................... 131 S u m m a r y ..................................... 134 V. DISCUSSION..................................... 135 Item A n a l y s i s ............................... 135 Factor Analysis .......................... 136 Puerto Rican Males - Michigan Males . . 137 Puerto Rican Females - Michigan Females 142 Michigan Males - Michigan Females . . . 146 Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican F e m a l e s ................................. 149 Overview of Factor Analyses ........... 153 S u m m a r y ..................................... 155 VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS. . . 159 S u m m a r y ................. 159 C o n c l u s i o n s ................................. 165 Contrary Findings ........................ 166 Implications................................. 167 v Page B I B L I O G R A P H Y ............................................ 165 A P P E N D I X ................................................ 171 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 3.1 Actual Number of Students Tested In Each Subpopulation and Number of Students Drawn for Sample .................... 35 3.2 Summary of Sample Size for Each Sub­ classification ............................... 36 3.3 Sub-test Reliability for Males and Females in Michigan and Puerto R i c o .................. 39 3.*+ Modal Expectancy of Relationship of Puerto Rican and Michigan Cultures to Five Areas for Males and Females........................ 4l 4.1 Summary of Significant Items Yielded by Chi Square Analysis............................... 49 4.2 Factor I Items and Loadings Michigan Male and Puerto Rican M a l e ........................ 51 4.3 Factor II Items and Loadings Michigan Male and Puerto Rican M a l e ........................ 58 4.4 Factor III Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Puerto Rican Males ................63 4.5 Factor IV Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Puerto Rican Males .................. 67 4.6 Factor V Items and Loadings Michigan Males * and Puerto L^can M a l e s .....................'70 4.7 Labels and Descriptions for Five Michigan Male - Puerto Rican Male F a c t o r s ........... 73 4.8 Factor I Items and Loadings Michigan Female and Puerto Rican Female...................... 76 4.9 Factor II Items and Loadings Michigan Female and Puerto Rican Female....................... 82 vii Table 4.10 4.11 4.12 Page Factor III Items and Loadings Michigan Female and Puerto Rican Female ............ 87 Factor IV Items and Loadings Michigan Female and Puerto Rican Female.................. Factor V Items and Loadings Michigan Females and Puerto Rican Females .................. 90 92 4.13 Factor VI Items and Loadings Michigan Females and Puerto Rican Females ................. 95 4.14 Factor VII Items and Loadings Michigan Females 96 and Puerto Rican Females ................. 4.15 Labels and Descriptions for Seven Michigan Female - Puerto Rican Female Factors . . . 98 Factor I Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females ...................... 100 Factor II Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females ...................... 102 4.16 4.17 4.18 Factor III Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females ...................... 103 4.19 Factor IV Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females ...................... 104 4.20 Factor V Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females ...................... 105 4.21 Factor VI Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females ...................... 107 Labels and Descriptions for Six Michigan Male - Michigan Female Factors ........... 109 4.22 4.23 Factor I Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican F e m a l e s ............. Ill 4.24 Factor II Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican F e m a l e s ............. 114 4.25 Factor III Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican F e m a l e s ............. 117 4.26 Factor IV Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican F e m a l e s ............. 119 viii Table Page 4.27 Factor V Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican F e m a l e s ............120 4.28 Factor VI Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Male and Puerto Rican F e m a l e .............. 121 4.29 Factor and Descriptions for Six Puerto Rican Male - Puerto Rican Female Factors . 124 4.30 Factor Structure of Relationship of Puerto Rican and Michigan Cultures to Five Areas for Males and Females......................133 ix CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Puerto Rico, like all Latin American nations, has a substantial Hispanic heritage. Traditionally, cultural anthropologists and sociologists attribute to the Spanish a humanistic, "now-oriented” outlook on life. Lines of authority and sex role differences are clearly defined, and religion and interpersonal relationships are more important than economic gain. Yet, the island has been strongly influenced by the sovereignty of the United States and its "future-oriented," democratic and economi­ cally centered culture. The result is a people who, while still clinging to many of the Spanish ways, are slowly adopting stateside characteristics. This unique mixture of the traditional Spanish and the modern stateside cultures is fertile ground for investigating the impact of culture upon attitudes and personality. The Puerto Rican situation is in many ways a testing ground for the future of the Americas. As the nations of the two continents become more interdependent politically and economically, cultural interchange Inevitably increases. It is important to the success of international and interhuman relations in the Americas that there is an understanding of 1) the differences and similarities in attitudes and personality between the Spanish-American and the stateside American, and 2) the probable effect upon attitudes and personality of the two cultures being inter-related. Both of these factors can be probed through the study of the Puerto Rican. While cultural mixing occurs through political and economic channels, immigration. it also occurs more intimately through Many people of Spanish background now live in the United States. The Puerto Ricans in the stateside cities are people in cultural conflict. Puerto Rican ghettos and the rural slums of migrant workers are evidence of failure in cultural integration. Understanding the attitudes and personality characteristics of these people is essential to successfully educating them and incorpor­ ating them into life in the United States. In attempting to ferret out differences and similar ities of attitude and personality between cultures, two major difficulties are methodology and instrumentation. The traditional manner of gathering such data has been observation and interviewing, followed by a subjective analysis of what was observed. While such information provides direction and hypotheses, basis for knowledge. it is not an adequate In fact, personal biases and distorted perceptions often hinder understanding people of other cultures. What Is needed are more precise, objective measures of cultural differences as expressed In the attitudes and personalities of the people. In 1964, Farquhar and Christensen undertook a project to study motivational factors influencing the academic achievement of Puerto Rican high school students.^ A major assumption underlying their work was that certain attitudes, facets of personality development, and childrearing practices characteristic of the traditional Spanish culture, differentially affect motivation (the study is discussed in detail in Chapter II). The testing of this assumption was implemented through the development of the P-Scales, an instrument designed to measure non-intellective factors in motivation. In addition to the P-Scales, Farquhar and Christensen administered a Spanish translation of the M-Scales to Puerto Rican students. The M-Scales were developed through earlier research by Farquhar^ to investigate motivational factors in the states. The use of the M-Scales with both Puerto lw. W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, The Motiva­ tional Factors Influencing Academic Achievement of Eleventh Grade Puerto Rican High School Students. Final Report of Cooperative Research Project No. 2603A and B, 1968 (Office of Research and Publications, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1968 ). ^W. W. Farquhar, Motivation Factors Related to Academic Achievement. Final Report of Cooperative Research Project No. 846, 1963 (Office of Research and Publications, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1963)- Rican and stateside populations allowed Farquhar and Christensen to draw cross-cultural comparisons regarding motivation. Because the P-Scales were administered only in Puerto Rico, cross-cultural information does not exist for that set of scales. Moreover, direct intra-cultural comparisons have not been made with the P-Scales. That is, the responses of males and females within each culture can yield comparative data which is not now available. Consequently, administering the P-Scales to a representa­ tive sample of United States students and comparing the results with data available through Farquhar and Christen­ sen's work can provide Information about attitudinal and behavioral differences in the two culturesand can add to the methodology of cross-cultural research. Purpose The purpose of this study is 1) to test certain assumptions about the differences and similarities in attitudes and personality between students in the insular Puerto Rican culture and students in the continental United States culture, and 2) to test the same assumptions regarding differences and similarities in personality and attitudes between male and female students within each of the two cultures. Theory Farquhar and Christensen^identified six areas of study in which attitudes and behavioral characteristics appear to be influenced by the Hispanic tradition in Puerto Rico. These attitudes and characteristics stand in contrast to those common to the culture of the continen­ tal United States. Five of the areas have been selected for the present study. Authority Relations Historically, the Puerto Rican culture has exemplified the male authoritarian ideal, the father being the absolute authority in the family. While the familial orientation appears to be an outgrowth of European Catho­ licism, a more general authoritarian attitude seems to be the result of the early colonial period. The Puerto Rican tends to accept strong leadership passively; if he exer­ cises authority, he does so in a domineering fashion. Few moves are made in office, shop, field, or government without the approval of the man in charge. While limited changes in this attitude are apparent in some areas, it continues to be a predominant characteristic of the people.^ By contrast, there is less respect for authority, ^W. W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, op. c l t . ^Gordon K. Lewis, Puerto Rlco» Freedom and Power in the Caribbean (New York» MR Press, 1963 ), pp. 2&4-271 and 475-^80. 6 a more democratic approach In the stateside family and culture.-* Sex Role Differences Traditionally, Puerto Ricans have assumed that Innate psychological differences exist between males and females, the latter being morally weak and mentally Inferior. A double standard is socially enforced in which the female is expected to present herself to marriage as a virgin and the male is expected to have extensive pre­ marital sexual experience. As a result the culture main­ tains an elaborate system of masculine checks upon feminine behavior. Industrialization and the consequent employment of women in factories has been a stimulus to female emancipation, but the woman continues to be rele­ gated to a position of lower status in the insular culture.^ While some inequality exists in the states, males and females are treated as social equals in most important n respects . ' 5Edgar Z. Friedenberg, The Vanishing Adolescent (New York: Dell, 1962), pp. 25-£8. ^Gordon K. Lewis, op. c l t .. pp. 265-271. ?Robin M. Williams, Jr., American Society: A Sociological Interpretation (New York: A. A. Knopf, 19&L), pp. 60-67. Work Orientation The "Protestant Ethic" is not a part of the Puerto Rican value systemi work Is not a virtue. The orientation Is one of "being" rather than "becoming," conformity rather than Initiative and Independence, Yet, the practicality of economic gain appears to be making Inroads on the traditional Spanish culture, especially since the advent of Industrialization. There Is some evidence that the young are beginning to break away from O the conformity of the authoritarian family. While some change In attitude is occurring, work continues to be an end in itself, a value incorporated into the ego ideal of the stateside personality. Action, individualism, and material success are a major part of the fabric of the United States culture.^ Implicit World View Puerto Ricans are humanistically rather than scientifically oriented. Poetry, literature, and philo­ sophy are of more interest and concern than science and industryi however, the entry of women into the factories has likely altered the feminine attitude moderately. Luck and fate are viewed as responsible for success rather ^Theodore Brameld, The Remaking of a Culture: Life and Education in Puerto Rico (New Yorkt Harperand Bros., 1959). P. 304. ^Robin M. Williams, Jr., op. c l t .. pp. 421-^24, than individual effort. The use of horoscopes, fortune tellers, prayer, and other superstitious means of affecting the turn of events is quite common. An acti­ vist attitude is developing but, Kith the exception of institutions of higher education, the more deterministic view prevails.10 The scientific attitude and secular rationality are characteristic of the stateside culture.11 Personality Development Because of regional and subcultural differences, there is some question about the validity of defining a national personality. Nevertheless, certain personality characteristics may be expected to be common to the people of any particular culture. Because of the subordinate position of the female in Puerto Rican society, withdrawal is a defense likely to be used by women. The pervasive influence of superstition and determinism suggests that reality testing may be inadequate. This notion is further supported by the existence of cultural myths, such as the courtship myths which inadequately prepare both male and female for the realities of marriage and sex. Self- initiated and self-maintained long-term goals are not characteristic of Puerto Rican y o u t h . ^ 10Theodore Brameld, The affluent op. c i t .. pp. 117-130. 1-^Robin M. Williams, Jr., op. clt. . pp. 12Theodore Brameld, op. c l t . . pp. 117-130. 9 culture of the States encourages youth, males and females, to participate in long-range p l a n n i n g . E f f i c i e n c y and practicality permeate the stateside c u l t u r e . ^ Research Hypotheses Toward achieving the purposes stated above, hypotheses focused on five areas of expected cultural differences are proposed (the bases for the hypotheses are found in the preceding section of theory). Area Is Area II: Authority Relations Hypothesis: Puerto Rican males and females will accept an authoritarian orientation to life, and U. S. males and females will reject such an orientation. Hypothesis: There will be no difference between males and females within each culture. Sex Role Hypothesis: Puerto Rican males and females will view the female as Inferior to the male, and stateside males and females will view the sexes as equals. Hypothesis: There will be no difference between males and females within each culture in their attitudes toward sex role. ^ T h e o d o r e Brameld, o p . c i t .. pp. 117-130. l^Moses Abramovitz, "Growing Up in an Affluent Society," in The Nation's Children, ed. by Eli Ginzberg (New York: Columbia University Press, 19o0), pp. 158-179. 10 Area III: Area IV: Area V: Implicit World View Hypothesis: Michigan males and females will place greater value on academic achievement than will Puerto Rican males and females. Hypothesis: U. S. males and females will see themselves as the source of success in life whereas Puerto Rican males and females will view others as the source of success. Work Orientation Hypothesis: Stateside males and females will value hard work, initiative, and independence more than Puerto Rican males and females. Hypothesis: Stateside males will value initi­ ative and independence more than stateside females. Hypothesis: Puerto Rican males will value initiative and independence more than Puerto Rican females. Hypothesis: There will be no difference in the value of hard work to either sex within each culture. Personality Hypothesis: Puerto Rican females will exhibit more withdrawal and poorer reality testing than Puerto Rican males and stateside females. Hypothesis: There will be no difference between U. S. males and U. S. females in withdrawal and reality testing. Hypothesis: U. S. males will be more innerdirected than U. S. females and Puerto Rican males. Hypothesis: There will be no difference between sexes in Puerto Rico on innerdirectedness. 11 Hypothesis: Establishing long-term goals will be more characteristic of state­ side males than Puerto Rican males. Hypothesis: Establishing long-term goals will be more characteristic of U. S. females than Puerto Rican females. Hypothesis: There will be no difference between sexes within each culture in establishing long-term goals. Overview Within Chapter II a review of the literature most pertinent to the present study may be found. design of the Investigation, including sample, The general instru­ mentation, statistical hypotheses and data analysis pro­ cedures are presented in Chapter III. Chapter IV consists of an analysis of the data. In Chapter V the results of the analysis are discussed. The summary and conclusions are presented in Chapter VI. CHAPTER II RELATED LITERATURE The literature pertinent to the present study is divided into three topics* 1) an overview of the nature and development of cross-cultural and national character research, 2) an analysis of the methodology and results of anthropological-sociological research in Puerto Rico, and 3) a discussion of current, cross-cultural studies of Puerto Rico and the United States. The Nature of Cross-Cultural and National Character Research Until recently nearly all cross-cultural and national character research was conducted by anthropolo­ gists and, to a lesser extent, sociologists. Following World War II much effort was directed toward studies into national character? since I960, such studies are rare. Hoebel^ pointed to probable reasons for the decline in such work. The anthropologist tried to transfer tools ^E. A. Hoebel, Anthropological perspectives on national character, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Soclal~~*Sclence. 370 (March. 19d>7). p p . 1-7. 12 13 appropriate to the study of tribal characteristics in simple societies to the study of complex, mass societies. Such research was based upon observation and was flavored by the notions of the investigator. Validation of the results was dependent upon how well they fit the knowledge of other anthropologists regarding comparative data. The response of anthropologists to an avalanche of criticism of their research was to move toward analyzing institutions within a society in an effort to ascertain cultural characteristics. Findings were then projected to describe individuals within a culture. Hoebel found little advan­ tage to the new direction which he considered a highly questionable process. As is evident in the analyses of specific studies later in this chapter, the anthropologist and sociologist used primarily intuitive grounds for the selection and interpretation of data. The use of traditional field methods incorporated the bias of the researcher. Rarely were statistical procedures used beyond the level of cal­ culating percentages. Sampling procedures were crude if attempted at all. An example of the criticism launched against pre2 vious studies was an article by Maccoby. He contended that Mexican national character had been misrepresented, 2 M. Maccoby, On Mexican character, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 370 Tfla rch, 1367rrpp. o3-73 . -------------------------- 14 especially the concept of Machismo, an exaggerated role of masculinity. His argument was that Machismo relates only to the geographical area most often studied by social scientists and that it is a regional characteristic. The poor quality of past work does not reduce the need for knowledge about the effect of culture upon charac­ ter. Martindale-^ stated that while a sociology of national character is yet to be developed, it is unavoidable if sociologists are to address themselves to the critical problems of this age. He pointed out that nationalism is world wide and that minorities everywhere are confronting the properties they see in other nationals with the proh, perties they see in themselves. Similarly, Reisman con­ cluded that there is a need to be knowledgeable about national character because it affects national conduct and vice versa. Past research is inadequate, and the need to know is now more pressing. Toward that end, current research such as that of Farquhar and Christensen and the present study employ more sophisticated empirical methods, e.g., careful sampling and statistical analyses. ^D, Martindale, The sociology of national character, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 370 (March. 1967). p p . 30-15. h, D. Riesman, Some questions about the study of American character in the Twentieth Century, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 370 7March, 1967), pp. 36-47. 15 Anthropological-Sociological Research in Puerto Rico The following review of major research efforts in Puerto Rico illustrates the methodological shortcomings discussed above and provides a basis for drawing pre­ liminary hypotheses about the nature of the Puerto Rican character. Until recently the best known work was a series of investigations conducted under the auspices of the 1951 Family Life Project in Puerto Ricoi Stycos, Family and Fertility in Puerto R i c o t Landy, Tropical Childhoodt Hill, Stycos and Back, The Family and Population Control. Stycos1''’ study consisted of lengthy interviews with ?2 husbands of lower-income class and their wives. He was aware of the many shortcomings of his work and stated that the results could not be generalized to all of Puerto Rico. His sample was biased because only lower class families in which the parents were still together after three to twenty years of marriage were selected. Stycos also considered the variable of interviewer bias, such as the tendency to emphasize the responses of the better educated subjects and the lack of understanding between respondents and interviewers because of cultural differences. In an effort to minimize such bias, the -’J, M. Stycos, Family and Fertility in Puerto Rico (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955)* 16 interviewers were carefully trained. Questions were sequentially ordered from matter-of-fact ones to more open-ended ones. In attempting to quantify the data, Stycos intro­ duced additional chance for error. The quantitative analysis was achieved by counting responses which were clipped out of the interview form. The criterion for clipping responses was how well the researcher thought the response related to particular hypotheses. The probability of bias in selecting responses was great, thereby reducing the reliability of the data. The results of Stycos' work which pertain to the present study can be divided into three of the five areas described in Chapters I and Ills 1) authority relations, 2) sex role, and 3) personality. Authority Relations Stycos found the Puerto Rican family to be patriarchal, the father being the feared and respected lawmaker. The mother was executrix of the father's commands and more dominant in childrearing. ideal son was seen as obedient and respectful. The Physical beating was an approved means of maintaining respect. Sex Role Puerto Ricans viewed male thinking as superior to that of the female, the difference being organically based. Women were seen as sexually and morally weak while 17 the men were believed to be more evil and more sexual. In childrearing the male genitals were considered prettier than female genitals. Great attention was paid to the child*s penis until about age seven, and he was praised for having an erection. The female child was clothed at an earlier age and much more cloistered. After the first few years, the female child received more attention and affection in the home. Stycos emphasized the male's anxiety-over proving his superiority and the very limited avenues for expression of such superiority. Personality As a result of cloistered treatment, females were relatively ignorant about the world and were denied the opportunity to realistically test the sexual and interpersonal relationship. The female's knowledge about marital relations was limited and distorted, charac­ terized by fear and ignorance. While males were more sexually experienced, they were mother dependent and wanted wives like their mothers. Consensual marriage at an early age was common which Stycos saw as satisfying the female's romantic fantasies of freedom and security as well as her wish to rebel. Female aversion to sex was widespread as was marital dissatisfaction. Stycos' methodology was poorly conceived, rendering impossible any generalization beyond his limited sample. Yet his conclusions are generally similar to those of later investigators. 18 Landy*s^ study (the second In the Family Life Project Series) had two purposes: 1) exploratory- descriptive study of socialization In a rural Puerto Rican village (Valle Cana), and 2) systematic comparisons of child training and behavior between village families and families of an urban New England community. The sample of eighteen lower-class families was perhaps adequate for the purposes of the study, but being neither random nor representative, it was not a basis for generalizing results to the remainder of the Puerto Rican population. methods of data collection were used: Two doll play with children and interviews with mothers and fathers. techniques are fraught with potential for error. Both The rapport building skills of the interviewer and his bias in reporting what he has observed can greatly affect the data. Landy made an effort to validate interviews with mothers by comparing the responses of different Judges. While such procedure is better than nothing, it is not much better. Another difficulty in the study, one which Landy recognized, was comparing the behavior of rural subjects in one culture with urban subjects in another. The methodology used by Landy leaves the accuracy of his data dependent upon the skills of interviewers. ^D. Landy, Tropical Childhood (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959). 19 The results of Landy's research which have a bearing upon the present study can again be divided into the five areas described in Chapters I and III. Authority Relations The balance of authority in the Puerto Rican family was heavily weighted in the direction of the father. Unquestioning obedience was demanded of children by parents. When compared to New England families, Puerto Rican parents used little praise or reasoning in discipline. While Valle Cana fathers had more authority than stateside fathers, they were less respected by their children. Sex Role Landy reported that separation of the sexes occurred at every level of community life. The female was considered mentally inferior, innately weak and defenseless from male assaultj the male was believed to be born with needs for antisocial and sexual aggression. Premarital sex was rigidly denied the female, but encouraged to the male. The mother was required to stay at home while the father was free to roam about. Toilet training for girls was more harsh and restrictive than for boys. The male was expected to prove his manliness, but had few ways of doing so. In comparison to New England, the handling of modesty and sexual behavior was much more severe. 20 Work Orientation The protestant value of work for Its own sake was not believed, practiced or preachedi the person who could get along with as little work as possible was seen as fortunate. Implicit World View Landy found the Puerto Ricans to have a present-time orientation accompanied by minimal aspirations. Luck and the "fates" were seen as governing outcomes more than hard work. Advice of a spiritual medium was often respected as much as that of a medical doctor. Poor behavior of a child was blamed on inherited characteristics rather than on shortcomings in family relationships. Valle Cana parents offered little inde­ pendence training, e.g., performing tasks, but males were more irresponsible than females. Compared to New England, Puerto Rican parents used more threats of danger from the environment and the supernatural to control their children. Puerto Rican males were reported to be very mother dependent. Personality Puerto Ricans used denial as a major defense and communication was very poor, e.g., each mate displayed Ignorance of the other mate's reactions to pregnancy. Most parents reported they would lie to a child if asked about intercourse. Girls often remained ignorant of sexual operations until married. Because aggression was discouraged 21 and severely punished, withdrawal was a frequent defense in times of conflict. When compared to the United States, Valle Cana children had fewer guilt reactions and less superego. •0 In spite of the shortcomings of Landy*s research, many of his findings were supported by subsequent studies. The hypotheses of the present investigation were in part based upon his work. The third study in the Family Life Series was a cooperative effort on the part of Hill, Stycos, and Back.? The purposes of the project were: 1) to experiment with the possibility of changing the birth control practices of Puerto Rican families, and 2) to gain knowledge of the social-psychological dynamics underlying the high birth rate in Puerto Rico. stages: The research was divided into three 1) exploration, using the Interview method with a limited number of families, 2) quantitative verification, using the survey method to verify data in stage one, and 3) experimental validation. Stage two most closely resembles the present study. The questionnaire consisted of some scaled items plus some repetition of questions to determine how meaningful the questions were to respondents. The questionnaires were not duplicated in the appendices of the report (only ? R . Hill, J. M. Stycos, and K. W. Back, The Family and Population Control (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959). 22 a general notion was provided) making It difficult to assess the quality of the questions. Most of the study was focused on fertility con­ trol t the goal of social-psychological exploration was not realized except In a minimal way. What was learned supported the findings of the two earlier studies. Recent Cross-Cultural Research Current cross-cultural study In Latin America and the states has been characterized by the use of more sophisticated research techniques. Studies vary In the degree to which such methods are used, but the trend Is clearly toward greater objectivity and less reliance on personal observation. shift. Three projects demonstrate this The first, Bourne and Bourne, combined the tradi­ tional anthropological approach with more modern techniques. The other studies, McGinn, Harburg, and Glnsburg and Farquhar and Christensen, were conducted using psycholog­ ical research methods. Q The intent of Bourne and Bourne0 was to investigate the impact of recent changes in Puerto Rico upon ten communities and to Interpret changes in attitudes and values. The methodology reported by the authors was: ®D. D. Bourne and J. R. Bourne, Thirty Years of Change In Puerto Rico: A Case Study of Ten Selected Rural Areas (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1966). 1) to assess the quality and quantity of government programs in each locality, 2) to compare current descrip­ tions of the communities with descriptions which were made of the same areas in 1932, 3) to send questionnaires to 2^5 residents, 4) to conduct 67 depth Interviews, and 5) "free observation." Stratified random samples of respondents were drawn for the questionnaires and Interviews, stratifi­ cation being on the basis of neighborhood within the community. Most of the data on attitudes came from"the depth interviews. Too often the questions tipped off the desired answers, e.g., "Would you say that people nowadays are better informed of what is happening outside their barrio." Much of the observation was done by six social workers who had also been part of the 1932 team. Their reports read more like novels than scientific observation, e.g., "Progress catches the eye as one starts on the improved road and all along with the new small but modern 9 houses by the roadside." The overall effort of the study appeared to be that of a friendly group of social workers having a delightful time proving the effectiveness of the past work of social workers. 9 D. D. Bourne and J. R. Bourne, op. c l t .. p. 209. 24 Although the major thrust of the project was concerned with socio-economic conditions, the reported changes in Puerto Bicans * attitudes have more bearing on the present Investigation. Again the outcomes can be divided into those areas being studied in the present pro­ ject. All data was reported in percentages. Authority Relations The authors reported an attitude and posture of dependence upon the government, stemming from the paternalistic landlord system. Only six percent of the respondents saw the father as head and authority of the familyj 31.4 percent saw the mother as having more ability to handle children. Sex Role The largest percentage of those interviewed, 25.8 percent, saw husband-wife relations as worse than in the past. Reasons given were: wives working, divorce, too much freedom for wives, husband and wife having fun alone, wife too independent, wife feels she has the same rights as husband. Work Orientation Ninety-eight percent of the respondents were more anxious to improve themselves than reported in the 1932 study. They were less fatalistic and less accepting of their status as inevitable. 25 Implicit World View Most of the Puerto Ricans Inter­ viewed. preferred the conditions of today over the past. They assumed more responsibility for making change occur and demonstrated greater initiative than thirty years earlier. At the same time, JO percent were interested in spiritualism and attended meetings, an Increase over 1932. Substituting psychological instrumentation for the traditional method of prolonged observation, McGinn, Harburg, and Gins burg'1'® designed a study to measure crosscultural differences in the resolution of interpersonal conflict. Basing their assumptions on current theory about the Mexican personality and on Heider’s P-O-X model, the authors hypothesized that when confronted with conflict with a friend, the Mexican subjects would yield to the ideas of the friend while the Michigan subjects would with­ draw from the friend, maintaining their own ideas. The instrument was designed like Osgood's Semantic Differential. Hypothetical two-person situations were prepared in which there was conflict because of opposing reactions to some idea. situations in three waysj The subjects responded to the 1) assuming the other person was a best friend, 2) assuming he was^strongly disliked by 10N. F. McGinn, E. Harburg, and G. P. Ginsburg, Responses in interpersonal conflict by middle class males in Guadalajara and Michigan, American Anthropologist. 67 (December, 1965), pp. 1^83-1^9^. 26 the subject, and 3) assuming he was slightly disliked but was good in some activity in which the subject did well. The investigators used a content analysis for equatabllity of the two forms, asking one Spanish speaking stateside subject to translate from English to Spanish and one Mexican subject to translate from Spanish to English. Sampling was not random as the subjects either volunteered or were selected, thus introducing possible bias. A Mann-Whitney U test showed 16 of the 3*+ scales significant at p = .0005. All data was reported in per­ centages. The results indicated that Michigan subjects were more upset over the conflict with the friend and more willing to break the relationship than were Mexican sub­ jects. They stated that they would like the friend less and see him as wrong in judgement. Achievement values were more important to Michigan subjects who also reported being more disturbed by criticism of their ability. Following the formal part of their research, the investigators checked to see if the subjects actually behaved as they reported on the paper and pencil test. The observed behavior of Michigan subjects was less hostile and more yielding than reported on the Instrument. The study most closely allied to the present investigation is that of Farquhar and Christensen. Because the research was quite complex in design, only those parts which are related to the present work are discussed. 27 Studying academic motivation of Puerto Rican students, Farquhar and Christensen11 designed their research in three stagest 1) identification of under­ and over-achievers, 2) the study of non-intellectual factors associated with achievement, and 3) the determination of valid constructs related to motivational discrepencies. It is stage two of this project which is closely related to the present study and from which the present study was conceived. In an earlier project in Michigan, 1? Farquhar developed a series of attitude scales, the M-Scales, to objectively measure academic motivational factors. These scales served as the basis for the Puerto Rican study. To the M-Scales were added new items and two new scales designed to study dimensions of the Puerto Rican culture which might be uniquely related to motivation. These dimensions were authority relationships, attitude toward the opposite sex, attitude toward work, and personality development. P-Scales, The new items and scales were called the In addition, a parental interview questionnaire was developed to assess differences in attitude and child rearing practices between mothers of low-motivated students and mothers of high-motivated students. The M-Scales, the 13-W. W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, op. clt. 12W. W. Farquhar, op. clt. 28 P-Scales, and the Parental Interview Questionnaire were the data gathering Instruments used by Farquhar and Christensen. The population was limited to eleventh grade public school students In Puerto Rico. An Initial sample of approximately 7000 students were administered the Instruments discussed above. This sample was geographi­ cally stratified on the basis of i 960 Census data with representative numbers being tested in San Juan, other urban areas, and rural areas. on the bases of residence, Smaller samples stratified sex, and achievement were drawn randomly from the initial sample for further study. Three analyses were performed on the data: 1) item analysis to select items which cross-validated in discriminating between over- and under-achievers, 2) factor analysis of cross-validated items, and 3) reliability estimates. All items were submitted to validation and cross-validation using a chi-square test of significance with alpha set at the .20 level. For all scales a total of 63 significant items were retained for males and 90 for females. On the P-Scales only, there were 13 signifi­ cant items for males and 28 for females. Treating the 63 male items and the 90 female items as a test, a reliability estimate of .861 was computed for male items and .809 for female items. 29 The factor analysis was supportive of some of Farquhar and Christensen's hypotheses and not of others. The hypothesis that authority relations would be a dis­ criminating element was supported by the emergence of a factor that was labeled educational resistance. Highly motivated males tended to accept the authority of the school while low motivated males had difficulty with lines of authority. Most of the items directed toward distinguishing sex roles did not survive cross-validation, and no perti­ nent factor emerged. An examination of significant items did indicate that males saw themselves as dominant and females as inferior. Relative to work orientation, there was general verification for both sexes that highly motivated students valued hard work, initiative and independence. However, there was not clear evidence that the construct was associated with the social-cultural structure. None of the hypotheses regarding implicit world view were supported. Contrary to predictions, students seemed to believe that hard work, not luck, was the avenue to achievement. There was also indication that students were more self-reliant than expected. In the area of personality development, withdrawal emerged as a female factor and not as a male factor. The reality testing of the Puerto Rican female was not as low 30 as was hypothesized. The hypothesized lnner-directedness dimension did not materialize. There was some indication that highly motivated females had a need for long-term involvement and a capacity for delaying rewards, an unexpected outcome. Results of the Parental Interview Questionnaire indicated that nearly all mothers felt that their children should not make decisions without consulting the parents. Family ties were more strict for females than for males. The separation of the girl from her home was seen as a difficult task, somewhat mitigated by the academic arena where she could assert her independence and individuality. Mothers reported aggressive behavior as the most common discipline problem, scolding being the usual consequence. A general impression was that ideals exist among the mothers concerning the necessity of education, but specific tasks and attitudes essential to attaining this goal were not clearly delineated. Although considerable information was gained from the study, the total outcome was less than anticipated. Farquhar and Christensen suggested several plausible reasons for the modest results. It was difficult to gain complete data on many students as they avoided some of the initial testing situations. Consequently, data is not available on those students who might be labeled "most fearful." Secondly, those students from the upper-middle 31 and upper classes attended private rather than public school and were thus excluded from the study. Finally it was conceivable that hypotheses regarding cultural differences were Incorrect because the culture had changed in the past few years. A function of the present study is to assess the likelihood that this latter factor affected the results of Farquhar and Christensen's work. One of the primary recommendations was that future research in Puerto Rico not be so concerned with demographic stratification. Significant differences in attitude between rural and urban students were not observed. Consequently, there is no attempt in the present research to distinguish between the responses of students from differing areas. Although Farquhar and Christensen found only modest evidence that the hypothesized cultural differences between stateside and Puerto Rican students affected motivation, no conclusions can be drawn about whether the differences actually exist today. that modern communications, There is the suspicion industrialization, mobility, an improved standard of living, and a developing educational system have erased cultural differences reported by earlier observers. It is this question to which the pre­ sent study is directed. 32 Summary Early cross-cultural and national character research was conducted mostly by anthropologists who used techniques suited to the study of primitive tribes rather than mass societies. Heavy reliance was placed upon personal observation, interviews, and questionnaires which were not tested for validity and reliability. Small, selected samples which were neither random nor repre­ sentative were the rule. At best, results were reported in percentages and, at worst, observations were written In ’’best seller" style. Yet the conclusions of the researchers of the '50 's were in line with the outcome of more recent, sophisticated studies. Research efforts in the past few years are character­ ized by better sampling techniques, more advanced statis­ tical analyses, and a more scientific style of reporting outcome. Farquhar and Christensen's work is exemplary of current, sophisticated research involving stratified random sampling, instrument analysis, and item- and factor-analysis of the data. The hypotheses which appear in Chapters I and III of the present study are based generally upon the earlier research and specifically upon Farquhar and Christensen's work. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The study was designed to test certain assumptions about the differences and similarities in attitudes and personality between students in the insular Puerto Rican culture and students in the continental United States culture as well as between males and females within each culture. Sample The population from which the sample was drawn consisted of Puerto Rican and Stateside eleventh grade public school students. While the whole island population was sampled by Farquhar and Christensen in Puerto Rico, the United States sample used in this study was taken only from southwestern Michigan. Drawing the stateside sample from this particular Michigan region was a matter of economic consideration. The study was conducted with no outside financial support. In both cultures, the population was stratified into two subpopulations, rural and urban. 33 One metropolitan area in excess of 300,000 residents was included in the urban sub-population of each culture. Pour smaller urban areas in Puerto Rico and one smaller urban region in Michigan made up the remainder of the urban sub­ population. The i 960 census classified approximately 26 percent of Michigan residents and 6? percent of Puerto Rican residents as rural. Further stratification was deemed unnecessary because Farquhar and Christensen's"*" research revealed no appreciable differences in the responses of students in different geographical sub­ populations of Puerto Rico. The research instrument was administered to about 7000 Puerto Rican students and 800 Michigan students. The Puerto Rican sample used in this study was drawn from Farquhar and Christensen's data. Because the Michigan group was much smaller, care was taken to make it as representative as possible. Of the 800 students, eight percent were Negro, approximating the nation-wide percentage of 11,5 percent. Approximately one-half of the Michigan urban students tested resided in the central part of the city, the other one-half being more suburban. All students in each school were tested in order that no uncontrolled selection factors would bias the sample. See Table 3.1 for the total number of students tested in each of the subpopulations. ■^W. W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, op. clt. 35 TABLE 3.1.— Actual Number of Students Tested In Each Subpopulation and Number of Students Drawn for Sample Subpopulation Total Tested Puerto Rican Urban Puerto Rican Rural Michigan Urban Michigan Rural Total Drawn for Sample 132 3276 **486 60** 18? 268 296 10** 8553 800 From the total number of students tested, two stratified, random samples of **00 each were drawn. The first sample of **00 was used as a validation sample, and the second sample of **00 was used for cross-validation. Each of the two samples consisted of 100 U. S. males, 100 U. S. females, 100 Puerto Rican males and 100 Puerto Rican females. From each school tested, equal numbers of males and females were drawn for each sample. See Tables 3.1 and 3.2 for a summary of the sample size for each subclassifi­ cation. The sample of 800 was used in all analyses through out the study. Instrumentation consisted of items from three of the scales developed by Farquhar and Christensen in their Puerto Rican study.^ The total test battery administered in Puerto Rico consisted of two major segments: 1) the M-Scales developed by Farquhar^ to study the motivational ^W. W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, op. clt. 3w. W . Farquhar, op. clt. 36 factors underlying academic achievement of United States students, and 2) the P-Scales developed by Farquhar and Christensen to examine non-Intellective factors In academic motivation of Puerto Rican students. TABLE 3.2.— Summary of Sample Size for Each Sub-classification Total N = 800 Validation CrossValidation Males Puerto Rico Michigan 100 100 100 100 Females Puerto Rico Michigan 100 100 100 100 ^00 koo Total The M-Scales consist of four different scalest Word Rating List (WRL), Generalized Situational Choice Inventory (GSCI), Human Trait Inventory (HTI), and Preferred Job Characteristics Scale (PJCS). The P-Scales consist of new items added to the GSCI and the HTI plus a new scale, the Scale of Individual Preferences (IPS), Only the new items and the IPS (P-Scales) were administered in Michigan. A cross-cultural analysis of responses to the M-Scales was conducted by Farquhar and Christensen. Consequently, responses to the P-Scales are the only concern in the present investigation. As discussed in Chapter I, the items were constructed around five dimensions« authority relationships, 37 attitude toward the opposite sex, attitude toward work, implicit world view and general personality development. The same form was administered to Michigan males and femalesi separate forms were administered to Puerto Rican males and females.** Scale of Individual Preferences (IPS) The IPS consisted of 120 items for Puerto Rican males and Michigan students and 115/items for Puerto Rican females. Each item was a statement such as, "You must cheat in order to win," or, "We must believe that which is taught to us." The student was instructed to mark each statement on a four-point scale (l=strongly agree, 2:=agree, 3=disagree, and 4=strongly disagree). Generalized Situational Choice Inventory (GSCI) The GSCI administered to Puerto Rican students contained 60 items for males and 45 items for females of which 15 items were new for both forms. items were administered in Michigan. Only the 15 new Each item consisted of a forced choice pair such as "I would prefer to: receive orders, or 2) give orders." 1) The student was instructed to choose the statement he would most prefer or like to do. 4 ^For complete copies of each scale, see W. W. Far­ quhar and E. W. Christensen, o p . c i t .. pp. 88-213, 38 Human Trait Inventory (HTI) The HTI contained 112 male items and 111 female items in the Spanish version. The form administered in Michigan consisted of 87 items for males and females. Again each item was a statement which the student marked on a four-point scale (l=never, 2=sometimes, 3=usually, ^=always). \ Reliability of Scales Using Hoyt's Analysis of Variance technique, reliability estimates were computed for each sub-test (Individual Preference Scale, Generalized Situational Choice Inventory, and Human Trait Inventory) for each sex within each culture. scale. All items were included for each The reliability coefficients for each sub-test are presented In Table 3.3 by sex and culture. The reli­ ability of the Individual Preference Scale (ranging from .80 to .9*+) and the Human Trait Inventory (ranging from .78 to .9*0 was satisfactory. The reliability of the Generalized Situational Choice Inventory was quite low (.08 to .53). possibly because it contained only fifteen items. As there is no formula for correcting for length when using Hoyt's method, it is not possible to assess the potential effect of having a greater number of items on the GSCI. The somewhat higher reliabilities for the Puerto Rican samples may have been the result of the 39 instruments' being specifically designed for Puerto Rican students. TABLE 3.3*— Sub-test Reliability* for Males and Females in Michigan and Puerto Rico (N s 200) Individual Preference Scale Human Trait Inventory Generalized Situational Choice Inventory Michigan males .81 .78 .12 Michigan females .80 .79 .08 Puerto Rican males .91 .9^ .53 Puerto Rican females .9^ .89 .^8 *Hoyt»s Analysis of Variance Method Testable Hypotheses The following null and directional hypotheses were established to test whether items in the experimental battery (P-Scales) discriminated between cultures and between sexes within each culture. H 0^t no disproportionality exists in the responses of Puerto Rican male students and Michigan male stu­ dents to items designed to measure attitudes and personality development. H& 1 i disproportionality exists in the responses of Puerto Rican male students and Michigan male 40 students to items designed to measure attitudes and personality development in the direction indicated in Table 3.4. H 02s no disproportionality exists in the responses of Puerto Rican female students and Michigan female students to items designed to measure attitudes and personality development. H& 2 : disproportionality exists in the responses of Puerto Rican female students and Michigan female students to items designed to measure attitudes and personality development in the direction indicated in Table 3.4. H Qy no disproportionality exists in the responses of Michigan male students and Michigan female stu­ dents to items designed to measure attitudes and personality development. Ha ; j disproportionality exists in the responses of Michigan male students and Michigan female stu­ dents to items designed to measure attitudes and personality development in the direction indicated in Table 3.^. H Qy no disproportionality exists in the responses of Puerto Rican male students and Puerto Rican female students to items designed to measure attitudes and personality development. TABLE 3.4.— Modal Expectancy of Relationship of Puerto Rican and Michigan Cultures to Five Areas for Males and Females Michigan Area Males I II III IV V Authority Relations Authoritarian orientation Females Puerto Rican , Males Females Negative Negative Positive Positive View as Academic Equal View as Academic Equal View as Inferior Species, View as Inferior Species High High Medium Medium High Medium Medium Low Implicit World View Value of academic achievement Source of success High Self High Self Medium Others Medium Others Personality Withdrawal Reality-testing Inner-directedness Long-term goals Low High Medium High Low High Low High Low Medium Low Low High Low Low Low Sex Role Attitude toward the opposite sex Work Orientation Value held of hard work Value of initiative and independence 42 H OI : a4 disproportionality exists in the responses of Puerto Rican male students and Puerto Rican female students to items designed to measure attitudes and personality development in the direction indicated in Table 3.4. Items which discriminated between cultures and/or sexes within each culture were subjected to factor analysis. Hypothesis: The responses of Puerto Rican and Michigan students will yield an interpretable > structure emphasizing the five areas which appear in Table 3.4. Analysis The data were subjected to two major types of statistical analysis: 1) estimates of the discriminatory value of items, and 2) factor analysis of items which remained after cross-validation. Item Analysis Each item in the experimental battery (P-Scales) was analyzed by the chi square model. Responses of stu­ dents by sex and culture to various response combinations were entered in two-by-four contingency tables. That is, responses of males were compared with responses of females in each culture, and responses of stateside males were compared with responses of Puerto Rican males as well as ^3 stateside females with Puerto Rican females. Sexes were compared only within cultures. With the exception of the Generalized Situational Choice Inventory (GSCI), four alternative choices were possible for each item. Farquhar and Christensen-^ found that Puerto Rican students had a tendency to collapse categories and that a comparison of alternative 1 and 2 with 3 and ^ was not always possible. Consequently, to gain maximum information from the data, a variable analysis was conducted in which all response combinations were com­ pared. Because only two responses were possible on the GSCI, two-by-two contingency tables were used for this instrument. A one-tailed test of significance was applied with alpha set at .20 for inclusion or exclusion of items. In addition to the statistical analysis, each contingency table was inspected for 1) the direction of the difference and 2) for spuriously inflated chi squares due to unusually low cell frequencies. Only those items which cross­ validated were retained for further study. Factor Analysis Items which remained after cross-validation were subjected to factor analysis. Four separate analyses were -*W. W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, op. c l t .. p. 28. conductedi 1) U. S. male - U. S. female, 2) Puerto Rican male - Puerto Rican female, 3) U. S. male - Puerto Rican male, and 4) U. S. female - Puerto Rican female. The purpose of the factor analysis was to define the structure of the cultural complex being studied. The principal axis solution for factoring a matrix was applied. Factors with a sum of squares in excess of one were rotated using the quartlmax method. Rotation was continued until 1) at least f-1 (f being the number of factors) items loaded on all factors, and 2) the resultant factors made psycho­ logical sense. The only assumption required for factoring a matrix is that the total intercorrelation variance can be divided into independent sets. Data Collection Procedures The experimental instruments were administered in Puerto Rico in the fall of 1965 under the auspices of the U. S. Office of Education, Project No. 2603A and B.^ The Michigan sample was tested in February of 1968. In each of the three participating Michigan schools, students were tested in groups approximating thirty and were proctored by teachers. Prior to the administration of the instruments, a meeting was held with the teachers to review procedure. The answer sheets of non-cooperative ^W. W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, op. clt. 45 students were separated at the end of the testing period and excluded from the sample. Summary The hypotheses of the study were an expression of certain assumptions about the differences and similarities in attitudes and personality development between students in the Puerto Rican culture and students in the United States culture as well as between males and females within each culture. The hypotheses were tested using three experimental instruments (Scale of Individual Preferences, Generalized Situational Choice Inventory, and Human Trait Inventory) with a stratified random sample of Michigan and Puerto Rican eleventh graders. H o y t ’s Analysis of Variance Method was used to calculate reliability estimates for each of the three scales by sex and culture. Reli­ abilities ranged from .80 to .94 on the Individual Pre­ ference Scale, .78 to .94 on the Human Trait Inventory, and .08 to .52 for the Generalized Situational Choice Inventory. Statistical analysis included using chi square to select discriminating test items and factor analysis to describe the structure of the cultural complex being studied. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS The outcome of the study consists of two categories of information: 1) individual test items which discrimi­ nate between cultures and/or between sexes within each culture, and 2) factors which define the structure of the cultural complex being studied. The results of both the item analysis and the factor analysis are presented for each of four comparisons: 1) Michigan males with Puerto Rican males, 2) Michigan females with Puerto Rican females, 3) Michigan males with Michigan females, and 4) Puerto Rican males with Puerto Rican females. Item Analysis A one-tailed chi square test with alpha set at .20 was applied to each of the 222 test items to determine its discriminatory value. Only those items with signifi­ cant chi square values for both the validation and crossvalidation samples were retained. The chi square values for each test item are reproduced in Appendix A. 4-6 ^7 Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males The null and alternate hypotheses tested weret H0l» no disproportionality exists In the responses of Puerto Rican male students and Michigan male students to Items designed to measure attitudes and personality. Ha ^i disproportionality exists In the responses of Puerto Rican male students and Michigan male students to Items designed to measure attitudes and personality In the direction predicted by theory or past studies (supra - Chapter I). The Scale of Individual Preferences yielded 89 significant items which discriminated between Michigan males and Puerto Rican males. The Generalized Situational Choice Inventory contained six significant items. Human Trait Inventory had 69 significant items. The For the three instruments combined, a total of 164 items were found to discriminate between males in the two cultures. Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females The null and alternate hypotheses tested were: : no disproportionality exists in the responses of Puerto Rican female students and Michigan female students to items designed to measure attitudes and personality. ^8 Ha : 2 disproportionality exists in the responses of Puerto Rican female students and Michigan female students to items designed to measure attitudes and personality in the direction indicated by theory and past studies (supra - Chapter I). The Scale of Individual Preferences contained significant items. 77 The Generalized Situational Choice Inventory had six items which were significant. Human Trait Inventory yielded 77 The significant items. For the three combined scales, a total of 160 items signifi­ cantly discriminated between females of the two cultures. Michigan Males - Michigan Females The null and alternate hypotheses tested were: H q ^: no disproportionality exists in the responses of Michigan male students and Michigan female stu­ dents to items designed to measure attitudes and personality. Ha y disproportionality exists in the responses of Michigan male students and Michigan female stu­ dents to items designed to measure attitudes and personality in the direction indicated by theory and past studies (supra - Chapter I). The Scale of Individual Preferences yielded 29 items that significantly discriminated between Michigan males and Michigan females. The Generalized Situational /f 9 Choice Inventory had just one significant item. The Human Trait Inventory yielded 36 significant items. The three scales combined had a total of 80 significant items which discriminated between males and females in Puerto Rico. A summary of significant items by instrument and by the samples being compared appears in Table 4,1 These items only were subsequently used for factor analysis. TABLE 4.1.— Summary of Significant Items Yielded by Chi Square Analysis Puerto Rican Michigan Males Puerto Rican Michigan Females Michigan Males Females Puerto Rican Males Females 120 89 77 29 43 15 6 6 2 1 _2Z 16 2£ 160 47 80 Original Number of Items IPS* GSCI* HTI* Total 222 164 ♦IPS * Scale of Individual Preferences GSCI = Generalized Situational Choice Inventory HTI * Human Trait Inventory Factor Analysis Each of the four sets of significant items (Table 4.1) was factor analyzed to define the structure of the cultural complex being studied. As specified in Chapter III, the principal axis solution for factoring a 50 matrix was applied. Using the quartimax method, rotation was continued until 1) at least f-1 (f being the number of factors) items loaded on all factors, and 2) the resultant factors made psychological sense. The hypothesis tested was: Hypothesis? The responses of Puerto Rican and Michigan students will yield an interpretable structure emphasizing the five areas which appear in Table 3.^ (supra Chapter III). Michigan Male - Puerto Rican Male Factors Five factors were identified from items which discriminated between Michigan males and Puerto Rican males. The experimental test source, items, scoring direction and factor loadings are summarized in Tables 4.2 through 4.6. The directionality of each factor, that is, whether it typifies one sample or the other, is discussed later in Chapter IV under, "Factor Interpretation Related to Hypo­ theses. " Factor I Fifty-six items loaded heaviest on the first Michigan male - Puerto Rican male factor. the items were drawn from the IPS. Nearly all of The factor described a person who does not like school and whose parents dis­ courage him from continuing in school. labeled parental pressure. The factor was Table 4.2.— Factor I Items and Loadings Michigan Male and Puerto Rican Male Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 108 80 IPS - My mother wants me to quit school but my father wants me to continue. .6394 101 74 IPS - My parents believe that edu­ cation is only for rich people. .5796 103 75 IPS • My father wants me to quit school but my mother wants me to continue. .5768 73 52 IPS The outstanding student is usually slow. .5751 105 77 IPS My parents think that it is more important for my brothers and sisters to receive an edu­ cation than me. .5732 91 66 IPS - I wish I had the courage to tell my parents I do not like school. .5652 46 31 IPS - My parents don't care if I finish my schooling. .5591 V *A plus indicates that Michigan males responded more favorably to the item than Puerto Rican malesi a minus indicates Michigan males responded less favorably to the item than did Puerto Rican males. Table 4.2. — Continued /—•> Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction 77 55 IPS 67 ^7 10 Test Item Number Item Loading - I don't argue because I know I won't win. .5564 IPS mm School is for girls? boys can't feel comfortable in it. •55^7 7 IPS - Nobody should do more than that which is asked of him. .5420 96 69 IPS No matter how hard I try, I won't have much chance of passing the grade if I'm not lucky. .5263 97 70 IPS It wouldn't matter if I turn in someone else's work if the teacher demands more than I can d o . •5141 52 35 IPS — My parents would prefer that I find a good job rather than continue studying. .5131 100 73 IPS — My parents worry about'-us not being as close as before if I continue my education. 79 57 IPS - Intelligent people do not get involved in arguments. .4927 Table 4.2.— Continued Mich, Male Scoring Direction Print-out Number Test 28 18 IPS mm 87 63 IPS ^3 28 IPS 86 62 IPS 29 19 IPS 35 24 85 Test Item Number Item Loading That which is true must also be beautiful. .4812 — I prefer to stay out of argu­ ments if there is a possibility of losing. .4746 - You must go abroad if you desire a good education. .4705 I have to quit school so my younger brothers and sisters can obtain the education that they need. .4646 — The most important thing in life is to know what comes next. .4439 IPS - We must believe that which is taught to us. .4427 61 IPS - It is more advantageous to keep your mouth shut in school. .4416 60 41 IPS - You must cheat in order to win. .4378 59 40 IPS - It is justifiable that a hungry and unemployed man rob, cheat .4322 rvn V>oor _ Table 4.2.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction - Item Loading Women d o n ’t have to study as much as men to obtain high grades. .4264 When things get serious, it is better to become incon­ spicuous. .4213 65 45 IPS 93 67 IPS 99 72 IPS • Obtaining a high grade doesn't excite me if others obtain one too. .4032 16 11 IPS - Material things are more important to me than people. .4029 69 49 IPS - Times aren't as good as in the past. .4027 22 15 IPS The student that praises the teacher has more successes than those students who are truly outstanding. .3915 116 86 IPS - My first impression is almost always correct. .3843 80 58 IPS - The diploma is the ultimate achievement of going to the wore 1 .3815 . Table 4.2.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction 94 68 IPS - 31 21 IPS - 8 6 IPS — 78 56 IPS - 83 60 IPS — 81 59 IPS - 14 10 IPS — 117 87 IPS - 88 64 IPS — Item Loading I think my group is very dis­ organized but I c^n't say much about it. .3770 Those who prefer work rather than play are boring. .3700 The student that tries to get high grades makes the work more difficult for the rest. .3696 I hate to argue with people. .3651 In a country such as ours everybody has equal opportu­ nities. .3616 My parents do not worry when I have problems in school. .3579 The objective is what counts 1 the ways of reaching it are of little value. ; .3557 I will probably work less rigorously than my father. .3530 With the new industrialization one can earn a living in a factory with little education. .3518 Table 4.2.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction 120 89 IPS - I have always been interested in the same thing. .3^78 40 27 IPS - By nature, man is more intelligent than woman. .3388 110 81 IPS + I fear the future may not be as pleasant as the present. .3387 33 22 IPS •• He who is not careful about his things deserves to be robbed. •3362 55 38 IPS - I resent having to answer all of these questions. .3186 90 65 IPS My parents side with the teacher when I have problems in school. .31^5 8 93 GSCI 1 1) Be a famous popular singer, or 2) Be a famous expert in classi­ cal music. .3130 13 9 IPS • We must be cautious when speaking frankly, for we might offend somebody that could help us in the future. .3144 Item Loading i Table 4.2.— Continued Test Item Number Prlnt-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction 63 43 IPS — 54 37 IPS - 68 135 HTI 4 91 4 Item Loading Sometimes it is necessary for a man to punish his wife in order to establish his author­ ity in the home. .2975 A real man does not let a woman tell him what to do. .2944 + I like to persuade others to think as I do. .2847 GSCI 1 1) Be a leader of my group of friends, or 2) Get my project selected for the science fair and win a prize .2749 2 IPS - Adolescents have too much freedom in their dates. .2565 64 44 IPS - My mother's concept of life is good enough for me. .2369 21 14 IPS The task that you try to accomplish may be so important that the minor errors would be .2006 Table 4.3.— Factor II Items and Loadings Michigan Male and Puerto Rican Male Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading I like to argue with people about ideas. .6513 - I try to achieve the best I can. .637^ HTI - I constantly try to improve myself. .6220 134 HTI + I prefer to be like I am and not like any other person. .5979 48 120 HTI - I look for advice from older people. .5814 61 129 HTI I think my mother has a lot of good advice to give me about how a real woman should go about getting along well with her husband. .5385 63 131 HTI - When I say I will do something I do it. .5183 7^ 140 HTI - I think my father has a lot of good advice to give me about how to raise my children .5157 80 145 HTI - I volunteer if the teacher makes us read. .5065 62 130 HTI - 81 146 HTI 65 132 6? Table 4.3.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 41 115 HTI - I prefer studying to doing nothing. •5017 45 118 HTI + I can solve any problems if I have enough time. .4990 52 123 HTI — People think that I don't fight for my rights, but in the end I get what I want. .4960 40 114 HTI — I think my mother has a lot of good advice to offer about how to get ahead in life. .4917 84 148 HTI - I put off my decisions until I have all the information. .4888 32 107 HTI - Ky parents like me to read a lot. •^755 60 128 HTI — I like for people to express their beliefs and then prove them wrong. .4661 23 102 HTI - My parents make sure I do my school work. .4646 87 151 HTI - My father has a lot of good advice to give me about how to .^517 iro f a V io ad 1 vs f a Table **.3»— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading I deserve what I have. .**481 I am the kind of person who doesn't let others take advantage of him. .4430 Winning is the most Important thing. .4373 To me it is more important to tell the truth than to avoid hurting others' feelings. .^351 Even when I get tired of a job, I always finish it. .1(220 I think my father has a lot of good advice to give me about how to raise my children. .1(139 I like to read. .391(5 + In a country like ours, everybody has the same choice. .3837 - I would resent having to leave school to help my family. .3603 89 153 HTI - 34 109 HTI — 88 152 HTI - 119 HTI — 39 113 HTI - 71 137 HTI — 77 l42 HTI - 95 158 HTI 72 138 HTI Table 4.3.— Continued Test Item Number Prlnt-out Number Test 37 112 HTI 53 12** 35 Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading I feel well enough to keep up with the good students. .3466 HTI If I Just put my mind to it, I could be much more successful in school than I am now. .3397 HO HTI I answer questions rapidly and almost always am correct. .3110 24 103 HTI I wish my parents would worry more about what I do in school. .3042 11 8 IPS + I feel that I can contribute something to the people of my community. .3016 70 136 HTI + I try harder to win if I have a bet. .2861 33 108 HTI I have get me friends who can always some Job. .2850 85 lk9 HTI I like does. to do what the group .2627 36 111 HTI + + I have the energy to do what my teacher expects me to do. .2588 Table 4.3.— Continued Test Item Number 17 Print-out Number 12 Item IPS Mich. Male Scoring Direction - Item Loading A new student in high school should win the esteem of the staff in his school as soon as possible. .2409 Table 4.4.— Factor III Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Puerto Rican Males Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 98 l6l HTI + My friends make me do things with them that I really don't want to do. .5357 78 143 HTI — I am the kind of person people think they can take advantage of. .5222 58 127 HTI - I am too tired to study. .5109 90 154 HTI - People who succeed in life are those from rich families. .4878 96 159 HTI — I go places that really don't interest me much just to be with the people. .4739 91 155 HTI + School work is boring because it does not deal with impor­ tant problems. .4639 83 14? HTI — I prefer to bet on the achieve­ ments of other people and not on my own. .4596 28 104 HTI - I pretend to not like school so my friends won't make fun of me. .4564 Table 4.4.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 86 150 HTI When one visits in another city, it is alright to visit friends before the family. .4340 57 126 HTI You can get what you want by playing dumb. .4240 50 122 HTI I go along with my friends in criticizing the teacher, but I am really not in agreement with them. .4113 79 144 HTI During a test, I would ask any friend the answer to an impor­ tant question. .4032 93 156 HTI I dream of winning a great deal of money. .3887 101 163 HTI It is better to give in than be rejected by your friends. .3821 100 163 HTI I act as if I like school more than I really do. .3806 19 99 HTI I would like people to fear me to such a point that no one would dare deny my requests. .3617 Table 4.4.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading I tend to not question ideas that people whom I respect suggest. .3556 I am the kind of person who can't wait for things. .3555 73 139 HTI - 5^ 125 HTI - 102 164 HTI - It is difficult to belong to the group and get good grades. .3550 97 160 HTI + I wish my parents were rich. .3517 16 96 HTI - When I get tired of a job, I leave it as soon as I can. .3216 21 100 HTI + I envy people who have advantagious social connections. .3112 94 157 HTI + When vacations are about over, I can hardly wait for classes to begin again. .2789 43 117 HTI - It is difficult for me to concentrate while I study. .2772 66 133 HTI - I would rather talk about people than ideas. .2678 Table 4.4.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test 42 116 HTI 22 101 HTI 49 121 HTI 17 97 HTI Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading My energy level seems to be much lower than others. .2671 Sometimes I am compared with young people in my neighbor­ hood who have gone to the university. .2637 + I live for the present, the future will take care of itself. .2320 — I don't know what to believe about something until I speak with someone about it. .2262 mm Table 4.5. — Factor IV Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Puerto Rican Males Test Item Number Print-out Number 119 88 IPS 98 71 107 Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading - My parents want me to go as far in school as my abilities will permit. .5^25 IPS * In my family, it is understood that all children must be educated. .5271 79 IPS - Intelligent people do not get Involved in arguments. .5264 115 85 IPS + My parents would be disappointed if I did not attend school. .4669 38 26 IPS — As of today, it is difficult to become somebody without an education. .4651 104 76 IPS + My future depends on my success in school. .4498 113 83 IPS + My parents will be disappointed with me if I don't finish at least hlgi school. .4229 68 48 IPS mm Anybody can achieve outstanding grades if they set their minds to it. .4137 Table 4.5*— Continued Print-out Number Test 74 53 IPS 51 34 37 Test Item Number Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading + It is always wise to do more than that which the teacher expects of the student. .4093 IPS - There is no such thing as "luck"j to win (or achieve) you must work very hard. .4000 25 IPS - Anything worth starting is worth finishing. .3928 112 82 IPS — In order to achieve something important one must go through hard times. .3883 66 46 IPS — It is more important to have a good education than a good Job. .3813 61 42 IPS - I like to think of the answers to questions such as these. .3709 106 78 IPS + The lazy person hides behind his "bad luck" to Justify not helping riimself. .3507 47 32 IPS Working is more Important than winning games. .3377 Table 4.5.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction - Item Loading A good way to personal power is through school. .3155 To enter the university and later interrupt your studies without obtaining a degree is a waste of money and time. .2533 I hope to be as good a father (or mother) to my children as my father is to me. .2383 I go to school because I want to learn. .2355 5 3 IPS 71 50 IPS 44 29 IPS + 7 5 IPS - 53 36 IPS + It is better to work than to receive welfare from the government even though it may mean less Income. .214-8 30 IPS + To be great a country must develop its intellectual potential. .2011 30 20 IPS - The idleness of some surprises me. .1740 3^ 23 IPS - I prefer' to be known as a good parent rather than as an Intellectual. .1366 Table **.6.— Factor V Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Puerto Rican Males Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 75 5^ IPS + Sometimes it is dangerous to win an argument. •5 0 0 5 58 39 IPS + If I wanted to make enough money to buy a brand new car, I could do it. .**8**3 26 17 IPS + I go to school so I can meet other young people. .1*630 29 105 HTI + The most Important thing in life is to know what comes next. .4163 6 ** IPS - I must help my parents as soon as possible. .**0 33 Frequently people don't under­ stand my explanations. .3973 **8 33 IPS 72 51 IPS + In our school the students must take care of themselves because the teachers don't. .3786 11 9^ GSCI 2 1) Be poor but honest, or 2) Be rich but necessarily shrewd. •36**5 Table 4.6.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test 114 84 IPS 31 106 HTI 1 1 IPS 20 13 IPS 1 90 GSCI 12 95 GSCI 25 16 IPS 18 98 HTI Mich. Male Scoring Direction + Item Loading I fear I may never achieve all the things I want to do. .3500 My mother objects to my study­ ing when there is work to be done around the house. .3221 People interest me more than ideas. .3059 To obtain the highest grades you have to be on good terms with the teacher. .2721 2 1) Be my 2) Be by .2564 2 1) Believe in that which makes me happy although it is not true, or 2) Know the truth even though it makes me unhappy. .2302 It is difficult to take an interest in school when my family needs my help. .1493 I like to write letters. .1473 + - poor but more loved by family, or richer but less loved my family. 72 Factor II Thirty-seven items, mostly from the HTI, loaded heaviest on the second factor. The items described a person who is trying to improve himself and his achieve­ ment, partially by seeking advice from his elders. Factor II was named extrinsic versus intrinsic achievement. Factor III Twenty-nine items loaded heaviest on the third factor, all of which were from the HTI. The factor description was of a person who is other-oriented, who subjugates his own interests to the wishes of friends in order to maintain relationships. Factor III was labeled social orientation. Factor IV Twenty-four items loaded heaviest on Factor IV, all drawn from the IPS. The theme of the factor was an expression of parental attitudes toward education, going as far in school as possible. e.g., Factor IV was named parental valuing. Factor V Sixteen items loaded heaviest on the fifth Michigan male - Puerto Rican male factor. The items were about equally distributed among the IPS, HTI, and GSCI. The theme of the items was an expression of anxiety and concern over various kinds of interpersonal contacts, e.g., arguing. Factor V was labeled social interaction. TABLE 4.7,— Labels and Descriptions for Five Michigan Male - Puerto Rican Male Factors Factor Label Factor Description Factor I Parental pressure Describes a person who does not like school and whose parents discourage him from con­ tinuing his education. Most typical of Puerto Rican males. Factor II Extrinsic vs, intrinsic achievement Describes a person who is trying to improve himself and his achievement, partially by seeking advice from older people, A Puerto Rican male response. Factor III Social orientation Describes a person who subjugates his own interests to the wishes of friends _______ other-oriented. Typifies Puerto Rican males. Factor IV Parental valuing Contains an expression of parental attitudes toward education, all of a positive nature. The counterpart of Factor I, A Michigan male response. Factor V Social interaction An expression of anxiety over various kinds of interpersonal contacts, e.g., arguing. Characteristic of Michigan males. 74 Summary Interpretations of Michigan Male - Puerto Rican Male Factors The five factors which were identified in the cross-cultural comparison of Michigan males with Puerto Rican males are listed and given summary Interpretations in Table 4.7. Michigan Female - Puerto Rican Female Factors Seven factors emerged from the items which dis­ criminated between Michigan females and Puerto Rican females. The experimental test source, items, scoring direction and factor loadings are summarized in Tables through 4.1^. k .8 The directionality of each factor, that is, whether it typifies one sample or the other, later in Chapter IV under, is discussed "Factor Interpretation Related to Hypotheses." Factor I Forty-five items loaded heaviest on the first Michigan female - Puerto Rican female factor. were HTI items. Nearly all The factor described a person who identi­ fies with her mother and who seeks advice from her. Three items with loadings above .5000 suggested a passive aggressive trait linked with the mother identification. Factor I was labeled maternal pressure. Factor II Thirty-nine items loaded heaviest on Factor I I 1 all but one were IPS items. The content of the factor 75 consisted of parental discouragement of education. The student sees little chance of success and responds passively. Responsibility for success or failure is perceived as beyond the student’s control. The factor was called educational destiny. Factor III Twenty HTI items loaded heaviest on the third factor. The items described a person who makes con­ cessions of personal interest to placate friends. This factor was very similar in content to Factor III for Michigan males and Puerto Rican males and was given the same label of soclal orientation. Factor IV Thirteen items, drawn primarily from the IPS, loaded heaviest on Factor IV. The theme of the factor was that of working hard to achieve something important. The label given Factor IV was work orientation. Factor V Twenty-four items loaded heaviest on the fifth factorj most of them were drawn from the IPS. The items delineated a person who is very responsive to authority. Idealism is evident, and there is an indication of with­ drawal as a behavioral response to authority. Factor V was labeled authority relations. Factor VI Seven items loaded heaviest on Factor VI, four from the HTI, two from the IPS, and one from the GSCI. The Table **.8. — Factor I Items and Loadings Michigan Female and Puerto Rican Female Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction* Item Loading Winning is the most important thing. ]/ .6532 I think my mother has a lot of good advice to give me about how a real woman should go about getting along well with her husband. .616? 88 11*8 HTI 61 122 HTI 52 113 HTI — People think that I don't fight for my rights, but in the end I get what I want. .6162 ko 103 HTI — I think my mother has a lot of good advice to offer about how to get ahead in life. .5980 1*8 110 HTI - I look for advice from older people. .57^7 33 97 HTI - I have friends who can always get me a job. .5577 62 123 HTI - I like to argue with people about ideas. .5^1^ - *A plus indicates that Michigan females responded more favorably to the item than Puerto Rican females; a minus indicates that Michigan females responded less favorably than Puerto Rican females. Table 4.8.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 30 94 HTI My parents consult my teachers about my school work. .53^7 46 108 HTI I dream about having a benefactor. .5197 6 5 IPS I must help my parents as soon as possible. .5184 69 130 HTI I think my mother has a lot of good advice to give me about how to raise my children. .4948 73 134 HTI I tend to not question ideas that people whom I respect suggest. .4858 41 104 HTI I prefer studying to doing nothing. .4973 24 90 HTI I wish my parents would worry more about what I do in school. .4701 56 117 HTI My friends can't understand why I am so interested in school. .4597 23 89 HTI My parents make sure I do my .4526 Table 4.8.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 35 99 HTI I answer questions rapidly and always am correct. .4419 32 96 HTI My parents like me to read a lot. .^367 ^5 107 HTI I can solve any problems if I have enough time. .*313 22 88 HTI Sometimes I am compared with young people in my neighbor­ hood who have gone to the university. .4293 80 140 HTI I volunteer if the teacher makes us read. .4274 101 159 HTI It is better to give in than be rejected by your friends. .4238 64 125 HTI It bothers me for people to be so critical. .4182 100 158 HTI I act as if I like school more than I really do. .4108 89 149 HTI I deserve what I have. .4086 Table 4.8.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading I like for people to express beliefs and then prove them wrong. .4026 You have to follow the group whether you like it or not. .3955 60 121 HTI - 25 91 HTI - 47 109 HTI — To me it is more important to tell the truth than to avoid hurting others' feelings. •39^3 70 131 HTI - I try harder to win if I have a bet. •37*1 67 128 HTI - I prefer to be like I am and not like any other person. .3676 50 112 HTI I go along with my friends in criticizing the teacher, but I am really not in agreement with them. .3633 34 98 HTI — I am the kind of person who doesn't let others take advan­ tage of him. .3616 1 1 IPS + People interest me more than ideas. . 31*01* Table 4.8.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 102 160 HTI - It is difficult to belong to the group and get good grades. .3050 26 17 IPS + I go to school so I can meet other young people. .2929 17 85 HTI - I don't know what to believe about something until I speak with someone about .t. .2877 95 15^ HTI - In a country like ours, every­ body has the same choice. .2841 94 153 HTI — When vacations are about over, I can hardly Wait for classes to begin again. .2772 It is better to work than to receive welfare from the government even though it may mean less income. .2726 I prefer to bet on the achieve­ ments of ^ther people and not my own. .2677 My mother objects to my study­ ing when there is work to be done around the house. .2457 / IPS + 53 30 83 143 HTI — 31 95 HTI - Table 4.8.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 8 82 GSCI 1 1) Be a famous popular singer, or 2) Be a famous expert in class­ ical music. .2277 18 86 HTI - I like to write letters. .2153 38 101 HTI - It bothers me to sit quietly and do nothing. .2066 2? 92 HTI I prefer to keep a product I have bought even if it is defective before exchanging it in the store. .1493 Table 4,9*— Factor II Items and Loadings Michigan Female and Puerto Rican Female Test Item Number Print-out Number Test 96 61 IPS 108 68 103 6*1- Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading - No matter how hard I try, I won't hava much chance of passing the grade if I'm not lucky. .6504 IPS - My mother wants me to quit school but my father wants me to continue. .6*1-55 IPS - My father wants me to quit school but my mother wants me to continue. .5 9 ^ \ 91 56 IPS + I wish I had the courage to tell my parents I do not like school. .591^ 86 51 IPS - I have to quit school so my younger brothers and sisters can obtain the education that they need. .56^9 Ill 71 IPS - Most of what one must do to obtain high grades is not very important. .5538 52 29 IPS - My parents would prefer that I find a good job rather than continue studying. .5224 Table 4.9.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 77 43 IPS I don't argue because I know I won't win. .5202 94 59 IPS I think my group is very disorganized but I don't say much about it. .5189 73 39 IPS The outstanding student is usually slow. .5041 95 60 IPS I am really unhappy with the leader of our group, but I do not let him know. .5013 89 54 IPS My parents do not worry when I have problems in school. .4905 84 50 IPS It doesn't worry me to quit school in order to help my family. .4814 8 7 IPS The student that tries to get high grades makes the work more difficult for the rest. .4751 99 62 IPS Obtaining a high grade doesn't excite me if others obtain one too. .4613 + Table 4.9.— Continued Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 59 33 IPS It is justifiable that a hungry and unemployed man rob, cheat or beg. .4604 79 ^5 IPS Intelligent people do not get involved in arguments. .4595 88 53 IPS With the new industrialization one can earn a living in a factory with little education. .4455 93 V/i 00 Test Item Number IPS When things get serious, it is better to become inconspicuous. .4317 76 42 IPS The best way to dominate a "bully" is to yield to him. .4256 32 22 IPS Copying an exam is justifiable if graduation or failure depends on it. .4227 ( 80 46 IPS The diploma is the ultimate achievement of going to the university. .4191 100 63 IPS My parents worry about us not being as close as before if I continue my education. .4135 Table **.9.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 55 31 IPS I resent having to answer all of these questions. .1*116 116 75 IPS My first impression is almost always correct. .1*023 29 20 IPS The most important thing in life is to know what comes next. .1*020 81 b? IPS One way to avoid getting hurt is by not getting involved with people. .1*006 3 2 IPS I go to school because my parents force me to. .3983 10 8 IPS Nobody should do more than that which is asked of him. .3982 110 70 IPS I fear the future may not be as pleasant as the present. .3769 90 55 IPS My parents side with the teacher when I have problems in school. .3737 19 li* IPS A beautiful girl achieves success sooner. •3683 + Table 4.9.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading Those who prefer work rather than play are boring. .3597 31 21 IPS 117 76 IPS I will probably work less rigorously than my father. .3512 14 11 IPS The objective is what counts; the ways of reaching it are of little value. .3466 72 38 IPS In our school the students must take care of themselves because the teachers don't. .3382 24 16 IPS The less attention you get from the teacher, the better for you. .2901 114 74 IPS + I fear I may never achieve all the things I want to do. .2747 5 80 GSCI 1 1) Win a very large amount of m o n e y , or 2) Be a very successful nrofessional .2062 \ + Table 4.10.— Factor III Items and Loadings Michigan Female and Puerto Rican Female * Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 96 155 HTI + I go places that really don't interest me much just to be with the people. .5140 98 157 HTI + My friends make me do things with them that I really don't want to do. .5045 86 146 HTI + When one visits in another city it is alright to visit friends before the family. .4810 58 119 HTI + I am too tired to study. .4597 68 129 I like to persuade others to think as I do. .4572 90 150 HTI + People who succeed in life are those from rich families. .4468 66 127 HTI + I would rather talk about people than ideas. .4210 57 118 HTI You can get what you want by playing dumb. .4187 91 151 HTI School work is boring because it does not deal with impor­ tant problems. .4016 HTI Table 4.10.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 43 105 HTI + It is difficult for me to concentrate while I study. .3967 97 156 HTI + I wish my parents were rich. .3959 55 116 HTI + I go to parties that don't interest me Just to be with the group. .3879 79 139 HTI. During a test, I would ask any friend the answer to an important question. .3867 29 93 HTI + I play to win. .3802 78 138 HTI + I am the kind of person people think they can take advantage of. .3539 93 152 HTI - I dream of winning a g r e a t , amount of money. .3512 85 1^5 HTI - I like to do what the group does. .3289 5^ 115 HTI + I am the kind of person who c a n ’t wait for things. .2777 Table 4-.10.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction 44 106 HTI + 19 87 HTI — Item Loading I prefer the seats in the back of the room to those in the front. .2723 I would like people to fear me to such a point that no one could dare deny my requests. .1832 Table 4.11.--Factor IV Items and Loadings Michigan Female and Puerto Rican Female Test Item Number Print-out Number Test 112 72 IPS 11 9 IPS 45 26 IPS 58 32 75 Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading In order to achieve something Important one must go through hard times. .4965 I feel that I can contribute something to the people of my community. .4465 + To be great a country must develop its intellectual potential. .4354 IPS + If I wanted to make enough money to buy a brand new car, I could do it. .4076 41 IPS + Sometimes it is dangerous to win an argument. .3371 48 28 IPS + Frequently people don't under­ stand my explanations. .3241 106 66 IPS + The lazy person hides behind his "bad luck" to justify not helping himself. .3216 27 18 IPS + Having success in school often means being lonely. .3044 + Table 4.11.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 107 67 IPS My parents are willing to sacrifice as much as possible to pay for my education. .3024 49 111 HTI To really win you must compete with another person. .2235 16 84 IPS Material things sere more important to me thsui people. .1933 109 69 IPS Praying will not solve every­ thing} one must work hard. .1733 23 15 IPS The people suround me get too excited about any little .1530 + ■hVi1 n or- Table 4.12.— Factor V Items and Loadings Michigan Females and Puerto Rican Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 35 24 IPS We must believe that which is taught us. .5286 68 35 IPS Anybody can achieve outstand­ ing grades if they set their minds to it. .4573 13 10 IPS We must be cautious when speaking frankly, for we might offend somebody that could help us in the future. .4474 74 40 IPS It is always wise to do more than that which the teacher expects of the student. .4231 87 52 IPS I prefer to stay out of arguments if there is a possi­ bility of losing. .4193 83 49 IPS In a country such as ours everybody has equal opportu­ nities. .4017 28 19 IPS That which is true must also be beautiful. .4013 ^7 27 IPS Working is more important than winning games. .3994 Table *K12.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test 17 13 82 Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading IPS A new student in high school should win the esteem of the staff in his school as soon as possible. .3987 ^8 IPS I have known for some time the occupation I would like to follow. .3810 66 34 IPS It is more important to have a good education than a good Job. , 3?4Q 7 6 IPS I go to school because I want to learn. .3732 104 65 IPS My future depends on my success in school. .371^ 5 4 IPS A good way to personal power is through school. .3693 4l 25 IPS A girl should be chaperoned by her chaperone on dates. .3688 120 77 IPS I have always been interested in the same thing. *3534 78 44 IPS I hate to argue with people. .3*f60 Table 4.12.--Continued Test Item Number Prlnt-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading - To enter the university and later interrupt your studies without obtaining a degree is a waste of money and time. .3389 71 37 IPS 4 79 GSCI 1 1) Be a leader of my group of friends, or 2) Get my project selected for the science fair and win a prize. .3099 11 83 GSCI 2 1) Be poor but honest, or 2) Be rich but necessarily shrewd. .2963 34 23 IPS — I prefer to be known as a good parent rather than as an intellectual. .2689 4 3 IPS - Adolescents have too much freedom in their dates. .2215 3 78 GSCI 2 1) Give the answer to another person on a test, or 2) Copy someone else's answer .2068 53 114 HTI + If I Just put my mind to it, I could be much more successful in school than I am now. .1680 Table 4.13.— Factor VI Items and Loadings Michigan Females and Puerto Rican Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Females Scoring Direction Item Loading 71 132 HTI - I think my father has a lot of good advice to give me about how to raise my children. .4860 87 147 HTI — My father has a lot of good advice to give me about how to get ahead in life. .4625 7^ 135 HTI I think my father has a lot of good advice to give me about what a real woman has to do to get along well with her husband. .3926 16 12 IPS - Material things are more important to me than people. .3531 70 36 IPS - My father's concept of living is good enough for me. .3^0? 72 133 HTI - I would resent having to leave school to help my family. .3264 7 81 GSCI 1 1) Be a famous sports figure, or 2) Be a famous scientist. .2950 Table 4.14. — Factor VII Items and Loadings Michigan Females and Puerto Rican Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Female Scoring Direction Item Loading 81 l4l HTI - I try to achieve the best I can. .59^2 36 100 HTI - I have the energy to do what my teacher expects of me. .4902 75 136 HTI + I like the idea of being a member of my sex. .4822 82 142 HTI - I can study better when I am alone. A 763 59 120 HTI - I would like to see the world. .^315 65 126 HTI - I constantly try to improve myself. .4310 63 124 HTI + When I say I will do something I do it. .^139 77 137 HTI - I like to read. •3583 84 144 HTI - I put off my decisions until I have all the information. .3007 39 102 HTI + Even when I get tired of a job, I always finish it. .2552 92 57 IPS + Obtaining an average grade does not excite me if others also receive one. .2482 97 theme of the items was clearly one of yielding to the authority of the father by accepting his advice and his concept of living. The factor,was labeled paternal pressure. Factor VII Eleven items loaded heaviest on the seventh factor, all but one being HTI items. The factor described a person who tries to achieve and to improve herself, but who does not like the restrictions of the feminine role. Factor VII was given the label of achievement performance. Summary Interpretations of Michigan Female Puerto Rican Female Factors The seven factors which emerged in the crosscultural comparison of Michigan females with Puerto Rican females are listed and given summary descriptions in Table 4 .1 5 . Michigan Male - Michigan Female Factors Six factors were identified by factor analyzing the items which discriminated between Michigan males and Michigan females. The experimental test source, items, scoring direction and factor loadings are summarized in Tables 4.16 through 4.21. The directionality of each factor is discussed later in Chapter IV under, Interpretation Related to Hypotheses." "Factor TAuLE 4,1 5 .— Labels and Descriptions for Seven Michigan Female - Puerto Rican Female Factors Factor Label Factor Description Factor I Maternal pressure Describes a person who identifies with her mother and seeks advice from her. Most characteristic of Puerto Rican females. Factor II Educational destiny Contains a theme of parental discouragement of the student's continuing her education. Student sees little chance of success. A Puerto Rican female perception. Factor III Social orientation Describes a person who makes concessions of personal interest to placate friends. More typical of Puerto Rican females. Factor IV Work orientation Comprises a theme of working hard to achieve something important. Characteristic of Michigan females. Factor V Authority relations Describes a person who is idealistic, respon­ sive to authority, and somewhat withdrawn, A Puerto 'Rican female response. Factor VI Paternal pressure Contains a theme of yielding to the father's authority and accepting his advice. Charac­ teristic of Puerto Rican females. Factor VII Achievement performance Describes a person who is trying to achieve and to improve herself. More typical of Puerto Rican females. 99 Factor I Eight items, mostly from the IPS, loaded heaviest on the first Michigan male - Michigan female factor. The items described a student whose parents dis­ courage his completing his education} school is more important for brothers and sisters or for rich people. The content of the factor was similar to Factor II for Michigan females and Puerto Rican females. Factor I was assigned the label of educational destiny. Factor II Nine items loaded heaviest on the second factor; the majority were drawn from the IPS. The theme of the factor was that sources of success lay outside of the efforts of the individual; success is the result of being beautiful, on good terms with the teacher, or rich. Factor II was labeled intrinsic verses extrinsic achievement. Factor III Eight Items loaded heaviest on the third factor; most were IPS items. The theme of the items was that working is more important than winning games. Success Is achieved through helping oneself, not by luck. Factor III was named work orientation. Factor IV Five items, three from the HTI and two from the IPS, loaded heaviest on Factor IV. The theme of the factor was an expression of the desire to have friends be fearful but not alienated. orientation. Factor IV was labeled social Table 4.16.— Factor I Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction* c/ Item Loading 101 25 IPS + My parents believe that education is only for rich people. .5912 ‘ 105 26 IPS + My parents think that it is more important for my brothers and sisters to receive an education than me. .5112 112 30 IPS - In order to achieve something important one must go through hard times. .4626 76 45 HTI + I am the kind of person who wants to be liked by everyone. .4400 24 5 IPS + The less attention you get from the teacher, the better for you. .4376 98 24 IPS - In my family, it is understood that all children must be educated. .4239 *A plus indicates that Michigan males responded more favorably to the item than Michigan femalesj a minus indicates the males responded less favorably than did the females. Table 4.16.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 14 32 GSCI 2 1) Receive orders, or 2) Give orders. .3936 86 21 IPS + I have to quit school so my younger brothers and sisters can obtain the education that they need. .2968 Table JJ-.17.— Factor II Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females Mich. Male Scoring Direction Test Item Number Print-out Number 19 3 IPS + A beautiful girl achieves success sooner. .6507 20 k IPS + To obtain the highest grades you have to be on good terms with the teacher. .6398 11 31 GSCI 2 1) Be poor but honest, or 2) Be rich but necessarily shrewd. .5489 97 48 HTI + I wish my parents were rich. .4105 60 13 IPS + You must cheat in order to win. .3654 97 23 IPS + It wouldn't matter if I turn in someone else's work if the teacher demands more than I can do. .3165 78 20 IPS - I hate to argue with people. .3003 16 2 IPS + Material things are more important to me than people. .2699 92 47 HTI + People can persuade me I am wrong by using reasonable arguments. .1208 Test Item Loading 102 Table 4.18.— Factor III Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 47 10 IPS Working is more important them winning games. *5267 54 12 IPS A real man does not let a woman tell him what to do. .5239 18 33 HTI I like to write letters. .4641 8 IPS I prefer to be known as a good parent rather than as an intellectual. .3920 106 27 IPS The lazy person hides behind his "bad luck" to justify not helping himself. .3686 30 7 IPS The idleness of some surprises me. .3339 71 18 IPS To enter the university and later interrupt your studies without obtaining a degree is a waste of money and time. .2792 61 42 HTI I thiSik my mother has a lot of good advice to give me about how a real woman should go about getting along well with her husband. .2747 3 4 Test Item Number Print-out Number 28 35 HTI 31 37 19 Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading + I pretend to not like school so my friends won't make fun of me. .6491 HTI — My mother objects to my study­ ing when there is work to be done around the house. .6475 3^ HTI + I would like people to fear me to such a point that no one could dare deny my requests. .4731 74 19 IPS It is always wise to do more than that which the teacher expects of the student. .2925 2? 6 IPS Having success in school often means being lonely. .2741 + +701 Table 4.19. — Factor IV Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females Table 4.20. — Factor V Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 29 36 HTI + I play to win. .5670 62 14 IPS + The majority of my friends won't go as far as me in a profession. .5019 88 46 HTI + Winning is the most important thing. .4536 33 38 HTI + I have friends who can always get me some job. .4445 49 11 IPS + To really win you must compete with another person. .4436 60 41 HTI + I like for people to express their beliefs and then prove them wrong. .4326 *5 39 HTI + I can solve any problems if I have enough time. .4105 40 9 IPS + By nature, man is more intelligent than woman. .3798 63 15 IPS + Sometimes it is necessary for a man to punish his wife in order to establish his author­ ity in the home. .3391 s Table 4.20.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 70 44 HTI + I try harder to win if I have a bet. .316? 1 1 IPS — People interest me more than Ideas. .2848 106 / Table 4.21. — Factor VI Items and Loadings Michigan Males and Michigan Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Mich. Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 6? 17 IPS + School is for girls> boys can't feel comfortable in it. .5^65 63 43 HTI - When I say I will do some­ thing, I will do it. .5180 65 16 IPS + Women don't have to study as much as men to obtain high grades. .4923 59 40 HTI - I would like to see the world. .4026 95 22 IPS + I am really unhappy with the leader of our group, but I do not let him know. .3893 111 29 IPS + Most of what one must do to obtain high grades is not very important. .2923 108 Factor V Eleven Items loaded heaviest on Factor Vi they were about equally distributed between the HTI and the IPS. The Items described a person who sees life from a masculine, competitive viewpoint and who fantasizes that he is always the winner. The factor was labeled role Identification. Factor VI Six items, four from the IPS and two from the HTI, loaded heaviest on the sixth Michigan male - Michigan female factor. Factor VI was somewhat similar to Factor II for Michigan males and females, achievement. extrinsic verses intrinsic Factor VI was focused more on school and describes a person who sees school as a woman’s world in which males have less chance of success. The factor was labeled school orientation. Summary Interpretations of Michigan Male - Michigan Female Factors The six factors which emerged in the intra-cultural comparison of Michigan males with Michigan females are listed and described in Table 4.16. Puerto Rican Male - Puerto Rican Female Factors Six factors emerged from the factor analysis of items which discriminated between Puerto Hican males and Puerto Rican females. The experimental test source, items, scoring direction and factor loadings are summarized in TABLE 4.22.— Labels and Descriptions for Six Michigan Male - Michigan Female Factors Factor Label Factor Description Factor I Educational destiny Describes a person whose parents discourage his completing his education. More typical of the males. Factor II Extrinsic vs. intrinsic achievement Contains a perceptual theme that the sources of success lay outside the efforts of the individual. Characteristic of the males. Factor III Work orientation Describes a person who believes that work­ ing is more important than winning games. The modal female response. Factor IV Social orientation Comprises a theme of wanting to exercise control over social situations without alienating friends. A male response set. Factor V Role identification Describes a person who sees life from a masculine* competitive viewpoint and who fantasizes that he is always the winner. Characteristic of males. Factor VI School orientation Describes a person who sees school as a woman's world in which males have little chance of success. A male perception. 110 Tables 4,23 through 4.28. The directionality of each factor is discussed later in Chapter IV under, "Factor Interpretation Related to Hypotheses." Factor I Twenty-one items loaded heaviest on the first factor for Puerto Rican males and females. items were drawn from the IPS. All of the The content of the factor consisted of a general devaluation of education, the devaluation being supported by the parents. Considerable rationalization is used to explain why school is unimpor­ tant. Like Factor II for Michigan and Puerto Rican females, the factor was labeled educational destiny. Factor II Twenty-one HTI items loaded heaviest on the second factor. The items described a person who is trying to achieve and Improve, partially by seeking the advice of parents. The items are similar to Factor VII for Michigan and Puerto Rican females. The factor was named achievement orientation. Factor III Eleven IPS items loaded heaviest on the third factor. The theme of the factor was outstanding achievement in school, doing more than is expected by the teacher. The factor was labeled academic orientation. Table 4.23. --Factor I Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Male Scoring Direction 101 36 IPS + My parents believe that education is only for rich people. .6553 111 39 IPS + Most of what one must do to obtain high grades is not very important. .6402 43 14 IPS + You must go abroad if you desire a good education. .6292 46 16 IPS + My parents don't care if I finish my schooling. .6386 97 34 IPS + It wouldn't matter if I turn in someone else's work if the teacher demands more than I can do. .5938 76 29 IPS - The best way to dominate a "bully" is to yield to him. .5819 Item Loading *A plus indicates that Puerto Hican males responded more favorably to the item than Puerto Rican femalest a minus Indicates the males responded less favorably than did the females. Table 4.23.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 22 IPS + The majority of my friends w o n ’t go as far as me in a profession. .5809 52 17 IPS + My parents would prefer that I find a good job rather than continue studying. .5701 70 25 IPS + My father's concept of living is good enough for me. .5181 20 8 IPS + To obtain the highest grades you have to be on good terms with the teacher. .5117 92 33 IPS + Obtaining an average grade does not excite me if others also receive one. .4991 27 11 IPS + Having success in school often means being lonely. M 6 7 12 5 IPS + The outstanding student does not function any better outside the school than the average student. .4885 60 21 IPS + You must cheat in order to win. .4866 112 62 Table 4.23.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Male Scoring Direction 99 35 IPS + Obtaining a high grade doesn't excite me if others obtain one too. .4858 56 19 IPS + I constantly change my mind about what I would like to do. .4530 81 31 One way to avoid getting hurt is by not getting involved with people. .4273 117 42 IPS + I will probably work less rigorously than my father. .3527 19 7 IPS + A beautiful girl achieves success sooner. .3486 75 28 Sometimes it is dangerous to win an argument. .2956 23 9 The people around me get too excited about any little thing. .2081 IPS IPS IPS + Item Loading Table 4.24. — Factor II Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican Females Male Scoring Direction Test Item Number Print-out Number 81 69 HTI - I try to achieve the best I can. .7207 65 63 HTI - I constantly try to improve mys elf. .7004 61 61 HTI I think my mother has a lot of good advice to give me about how a real woman should go about getting along well with her husband. .6268 88 74 HTI - Winning is the most important thing. .6215 89 75 HTI - I deserve what I have. .6070 64 62 HTI - It bothers me for people to be so critical. .5885 87 73 HTI • My father has a lot of good advice to give me about how to get ahead in life. .5788 71 66 HTI + I think my father has a lot of good advice to give me about how to raise my children. .5699 Test Item Loading Table 4.24.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 84 72 HTI + I put off my decisions until I have all the information. .5687 41 56 HTI - I prefer studying to doing nothing. .5325 53 58 HTI + If I Just put my mind to it, I could be much more success­ ful in school than I am now. .4944 70 65 HTI + I try harder to win if I have a bet. .^713 74 68 HTI + I think my father has a lot of good advice to give me about what a real woman has to do to get along well with her husband. .^553 73 67 HTI — I tend to not question ideas that people whom I respect suggest. .4538 24 47 HTI - I wish my parents would worry more about what I do in school. .3782 95 78 HTI - In a country like ours, every­ body has the same choice. .3689 Table 4.24.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Male Scoring Direction Item Loading I have the energy to do what my teacher expects of me. .3687 36 54 HTI - 30 50 HTI - My parents consult my teachers about my school work. .3243 50 57 HTI + I go along with my friends in criticizing the teacher, but I am really not in agreement with them. .3069 33 52 HTI - I have friends who can always get me some job. .2876 29 49 HTI + I play to win. .2484 Table 4.25. — Factor III Items and Loadings Puerto Hican Males and Puerto Elcan Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Male Scoring Direction 74 27 IPS - 57 20 IPS - 68 24 IPS — 66 23 IPS 82 32 IPS 102 37 IPS 41 13 IPS • - Item Loading It is always wise to do more than that which the teacher expects of the student. .5997 I believe I can achieve what I have set out to do. .5651 Anybody can achieve out­ standing grades if they set their minds to it. .5197 It is more important to have a good education than a good job. .4785 I have known for some time the occupation I would like to follow. .4659 I have worked better in school because some teachers have helped me in the past. .3799 A girl should be chaperoned by her chaperone on dates. .3^77 Table 4.25.— Continued Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Hale Scoring Direction 71 26 IPS — 78 30 IPS - 53 18 IPS 120 ^3 IPS + Item Loading To enter the university and later interrupt your studies without obtaining a degree is a waste of money and time. .3383 I hate to argue with people. .2654 It is better to work than to receive welfare from the government even though it may mean less income. .2509 I have always been interested in the same thing. .2419 Table 4.26. — Factor IV Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican Females Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 96 79 HTI + I go places that really don't interest me much just to be with the people. .6659 83 71 HTI + I prefer to bet on the achievements of other people and not on my own. .4834 16 ^5 HTI + When I get tired of a Job, I leave it as soon as I can. .4379 90 76 HTI + People who succeed in life are those from rich families. .4359 55 59 HTI + I go to parties that d o n ’t interest me just to be with the group. .4142 60 60 HTI + I like for people to express their beliefs and then prove them wrong. .3918 68 64 HTI + I like to persuade others to think as I do. .3756 99 80 HTI + My mother complains that I don't study enough. .3538 Table 4-.27 .--Factor V Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican Females Male Scoring Direction Print-out Number Test 5 1 IPS 7 2 IPS 17 6 IPS 27 4-8 HTI 39 55 HTI - Even when I get tired of a Job, I always finish it. 93 77 HTI + I dream of winning a great deal of money. .2980 25 10 IPS + It is difficult to take an interest in school when my family needs my help. .2824- 18 4-6 HTI - I like to write letters. .2148 Test Item Number - Loading A good way to personal power is through school. .6081 I go to school because I want to learn. .4871 A new student in high school should win the esteem of the staff in his school as soon as possible. .4-099 I prefer to keep a product I have bought even if it is defective before exchanging it in the store where I bought it. .3316 120 + Item .3111 Table 4.28. — Factor VI Items and Loadings Puerto Rican Male and Puerto Rican Female Test Item Number Print-out Number Test Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 39 12 IPS Work in itself can be a pleasant activity. .^799 106 38 IPS The lazy person hides behind his "bad luck" to Justify not helping himself. .4517 10 3 IPS + Nobody should do more than that which is asked of him. .4379 113 41 IPS + My parents will be disappointed with me if I don't finish at least high school. .4152 45 15 IPS “ To be great a country must develop its intellectual potential. .4125 11 4 IPS • I feel that I can contribute something to the people of my community. .3823 112 40 IPS + In order to achieve something important one must go through hard times. •3066 6 44 GSCI 1 1) Live in a luxurious house and work every day, or 2) Live humbly and enjoy many free days. .2838 Table 4.28.— Continued Test Item Number Prlnt-out Number Test Male Scoring Direction Item Loading 31 51 HTI + My mother objects to my studying when there is work to be done around the house. .2592 35 53 HTI - I answer questions rapidly and almost always am correct. .2271 122 / 123 Factor IV Eight HTI Items loaded heaviest on Factor IV. The Items described a person who Is submissive In his relationships with others and who lacks confidence in his own ability to achieve in life. The label of social orientation was assigned to Factor IV. Factor V Eight items, half IPS and half HTI, loaded heaviest on the fifth factor. The theme expressed through the items was one of gaining power and esteem through school. The factor was labeled mobility through education. Factor VI Ten items, drawn mostly from the IPS, loaded heaviest on the sixth factor. The factor theme was similar to the protestant ethicj work is pleasant, good, a value in itself. Factor VI was labeled work orientation. Summary Interpretations of Puerto Rican Male - Puerto Rican Female Factors The six factors which were identified in the com­ parison of Puerto Rican males with Puerto Rican females are listed and given summary interpretations in Table 4.29. Factor Interpretation Related to Hypotheses The comparison of factor labels and descriptions with an hypothesized factor structure is a subjective process. The labeling and interpreting of each factor is TABLE 4.29.— Factors and Descriptions for Six Puerto Rican Male - Puerto Rican Female Factors Factor Label Factor Description Factor I Educational destiny Contains a theme of devaluation of education, the devaluation being supported by the parents. Typifies Puerto Rican males. Factor II Achievement orientation Describes a person who is trying to achieve and improve, partially by seeking parental advice. A female response. Factor III Academic orientation Comprises a theme of outstanding achievement in school, of doing more than is expected. The modal response of Puerto Rican females. Factor IV Social orientation Describes a person who is submissive in his relationships with others and who lacks con­ fidence in his own ability. A male charac­ teristic. Factor V Mobility through education Contains a theme of gaining power and prestige through education. Characteristic of females. Factor VI Work orientation Contains a protestant ethic theme; work is good, a value in itself. A female perception. 125 somewhat intuitive, and the decision to reject or not reject the hypothesis is not an objective one. To mini­ mize bias, the factors were labeled and interpreted without reference to the hypothesized structure. Two judges, one of whom has extensive experience in factor interpretation, independently labeled each set of factors. The two judges were in nearly complete agreement regarding the nature and interpretation of each factor. As far as was possible, the factor descriptions were written from the language used in the instrument. The following is a subjective comparison of those factors which were identified through factor analysis with the factor structure hypothesized in Chapter III (see Table 3.^ on page M ) . Appendix B contains a list of those factors related to each of the five general areas of investi­ gation outlined on Table 3.^. Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males Four of the five factors which were identified in comparing males of the two cultures were similar in con­ tent to some part of the hypothesized structure. However, not all of the expected differences emerged as distinct factors. Factor I Parental pressure is in agreement with two of the hypothesized areas of difference, authority relations and value of academic achievement. The factor items 126 indicate, as predicted, that Puerto Rican males accept the authority of their parents who discourage completing school by devaluing education themselves. Factor II Extrinsic versus intrinsic achievement is similar to the hypothesized value of Initiative and inde­ pendence . The direction of the factor items is complex and not completely in keeping with the expected outcome. Puerto Rican males reportedly value initiative more than stateside males; as this is the directional opposite of the hypothesis, it must be considered a negative finding. Puerto Rican males show more reliance on parental advice, substantiating the hypothesis that stateside males value Independence more than their Puerto Rican counterparts. Factor III Social orientation is comparable to the hypothesized personality factor of inner-directedness. Puerto Rican males demonstrate a greater willingness to subjugate their own interests to the desires of friends. As expected, they are more other-directed than stateside males. Factor IV Parental valuing, like Factor I, is similar in content to the hypothesized areas of authority relations and value of academic achievement. The direction of this factor was difficult to determine because there were 127 contradictory responses to similar items. If it is assumed that the Puerto Rican concept of education is •'attending school" and the stateside concept of education is "completing school," the factor makes sense. It can then be stated that Michigan males value academic achieve­ ment more than Puerto Rican males. If such an assumption is not made, the directionality of the factor is not interpretable. Factor V Soclal interaction was a factor which had no counterpart in the hypothesized cultural differences and is a supplementary finding. Michigan males express more anxiety over different kinds of interpersonal contacts, e.g., arguing, than did Puerto Rican males. Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females Each of the seven factors which emerged in the Michigan female - Puerto Rican female analysis were comparable to elements of the hypothesized structure. Factor I Maternal pressure is related to the hypothesized authoritarian orientation. Puerto Rican females identify with and seek advice from mother more than stateside females. 128 Factor II Educational destiny encompasses three of the hypothesized cultural differences! achievement, value of academic source of success, and long-term goals. Puerto Rican females reported less anticipation of continuing their education in the future. They see less chance of academic success than do stateside females, partially because of parental discouragement. Michigan females do not see luck as a deciding factor in grades as do the insular females. Factor III Social orientation is nearly identical in content to the hypothesized factor, lnner-dlrectedness. However, the direction was the reverse of what was anti­ cipated. Michigan females more readily make concessions of personal interest to placate friends than do insular females. Factor IV Work orientation is comparable to the hypothesized value held of hard w o r k . As expected, Michigan females value hard work more than Puerto Rican females do. Factor V Authority relations is identical in content and direction to the expected authoritarian orientation factor. Puerto Rican females are more responsive and sub­ missive to authority than are stateside females. 129 Factor VI Paternal pressure, like Factor I and V, is similar to the predicted authoritarian orientation. This factor represents the Insular female’s submission to paternal authority and the stateside female's relative freedom from the father. Factor VII Achievement performance Is related to the hypothesized factor, value of academic achievement. However, the direction Is the reverse of what was pre­ dicted; Puerto Rican females reportedly value achievement more than Michigan females. Factor VII Is therefore a negative finding. Michigan Males - Michigan Females Five of the six Michigan male - Mlchigam female factors were similar in content to a portion of the hypothesized factor structure. However, the directionality was not consistent with what was predicted. Factor I Educational destiny Is related to the hypo­ thesized factor, value of academic achievement. Michigan males perceive their parents as depreciating education more than the females do. As no difference was predicted between the sexes, Factor I cannot be considered a positive finding. 130 Factor II Extrinsic versus Intrinsic achievement Is similar In content to the predicted factor, source of success. Michigan males see external factors as Influencing success more than Michigan females do. Again no difference was predicted, and the finding Is a negative one. Factor III Work orientation Is similar In content to the expected factor, value of hard work. Although no difference between the sexes was predicted, females claim to value work more than males do. Factor IV Social orientation Is somewhat related to that part of the hypothesized structure labeled, dlrectedness. Inner- Contrary to the predicted direction, Michigan females report being more inner-dlrected In their social relationships than do Michigan males. Factor V Role ldentIf1catIon is a factor which is not clearly related to any part of the expected factor structure. Michigan males perceive themselves as fulfilling a social role of intense competitiveness in which they are almost always quite successful. Factor VI School orientation is a specific factor related to the more general hypothesized factor, source of success. Michigan males see school as a woman's world 131 In which males have little chance of success. No difference was predicted, and the finding Is negative. Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females In comparing the responses of Puerto Rican males with Puerto Rican females, six factors emerged, each of which related to some portion of the hypothesized factor structure. The directionality of the responses was not consistent with what was predicted. Factor I Educational destiny Is similar In content to two of the hypothesized areas, authority relations and value of academic achievement. Contrary to prediction, the males are more responsive to parental pressure, more likely to devalue education as their parents do, than are females. The expectation was that there would be no difference between the two sexes. Factor II Achievement orientation Is most like the hypothesized area, value of lnitlatlve. However, the directionality is the reverse of what was anticipated. Puerto Rican females claim to value achievement and selfimprovement more than males do. Factor III Academic orientation Is nearly identical to the projected factor, value of academic achievement. Again 132 the direction was not consistent with the predicted outcome. The females are more academically oriented, hold more positive attitudes toward school achievement than do the males. No difference between the sexes was predicted. Factor IV Social orientation combines the content of two of the hypothesized areas, withdrawal and lnnerdlrectedness. Contrary to the hypothesized directions, males report themselves as being more withdrawn and less inner-directed than females. Possibly, the males are so dependent upon others for direction and support that withdrawal is a defense against the consequent anxiety. Factor V Mobility through education is most similar to the predicted area, long-term goals. It was expected that both sexes in Puerto Rico would be unlikely to focus on long-term goals. However, the females see education as a means of achieving power and prestige more than the males do. Factor VI Work orientation is nearly identical to the hypothesized area, value held of hard w o r k . No difference was predicted between the sexes, but females indicate they value hard work more than males do. TABLE ^.30.— Factor Structure of Relationship of Puerto Rican and Michigan Cultures to Five Areas for Males and Females Area I Authority Relations Authoritarian orientation II Sex Role Attitude toward opposite sex III Work Orientation Value held of hard work Value of initiative and independence IV V Implicit World View Value of academic achieve­ ment Source of success Personality Withdrawal Reality testing Inner-directedness Long-term goals Michigan Males Females Puerto Rican Males Females Negative Negative Positive Positive Medium High Low Medium Medium High Low Medium Others Medium Low Low Low Medium Medium Low Medium Others Medium Medium High Self High High High A dash indicates the hypothesized factor did not emerge. Underlining indicates the directionality was consistent with the hypothesis. Note* See Table 3 .^ on page 4l for hypothesized factor structure. 134 Table 4.30 Is an overview of the factor structure which emerged through factor analysis of significant items. A dash in the table indicates that the pertinent factor did not emerge as hypothesized and drawing compar­ isons was not possible. Underlined words are those in which the directionality of the factor conforms to the hypothesis} words which are not underlined indicate that the expected factor emerged, but the directionality was not as hypothesized. See Table 3.3 (supra Chapter III) for the complete factor structure which was hypothesized. Summary In analyzing the results, a chi square item analysis yielded 164 significant items when comparing Michigan males with Puerto Rican males, 160 significant items for Michigan females - Puerto Rican females, 47 items for males and females in Michigan, and 80 items for Puerto Rican males and females. Each of the four sets of significant items were subjected to factor analysis. Five factors were identified for males in the two cultures, seven for females in the two cultures, six for Michigan males and females, and six for Puerto Rican males and females. The actual factor structure approximated the factor structure hypothesized in Chapter III. However, the directionality of the items in each factor was not always consistent with what was predicted, particularly in the lntra-cultural analysis. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION Cross-culturally the data was supportive of the hypotheses set forth at the outset of the study. Definite differences exist in the reported attitudes and personal­ ities of the students in the two cultures. However, differences between males and females within each culture did not materialize quite as expected. The intra-cultural factor structure was generally as hypothesized, but the directionality of the factors was not consistent with the original predictions. Item Analysis The overall capacity of an instrument to discrimi­ nate between samples can be roughly estimated by the percentage of items which cross-validate on a chi square analysis. The expectation that the instruments used in this study would be sensitive to cross-cultural differences in attitude and personality was fulfilled. Using a .20 alpha level, 160 of the total 222 (?2 percent) items dis­ criminated in both cross-cultural analyses, Puerto Rican 135 136 males Kith Michigan males and Puerto Rican females Kith Michigan females. The conventional .20 alpha level Kas selected to generate a maximum number of items for the subsequent factor analysis. However, the use of a more stringent alpha level would have reduced the number of signi­ ficant items very little. Using a .05 alpha level, 11 fewer items in the comparison of Puerto Rican males with Michigan males and 17 fewer items in the Puerto Rican female— Michigan female comparison would have cross-validated. The number of items cross-validating on intracultural comparisons was considerably less than on crosscultural comparisons. However, there was a noticeable difference between the two cultures in this respect. About twice as many items were significant in Puerto Rico (80) as in Michigan (^7). This result lends additional support to earlier anthropological findings (supra Chapter II) that Puerto Rican males and females are less homogeneous in attitude and personality than are stateside males and females. Factor Analysis All of the factors were psychologically interpretable although some were more readily understood than others. Because of the small number of factors and large number of significant items, some factors contained thirty to fifty items. Factor labels and descriptions are based primarily upon the five to ten items with the heaviest loadings; 13? consequently, many Items on the longer factors did. not contribute significantly to factor Interpretation or to the overall factor structure. Puerto Rican Males - Michigan Males Four of the five factors Identified In comparing males of the two cultures were similar In content to some part of the hypothesized factor structure. However, not all of the expected differences emerged as distinct factors. Authority Relations.— As anticipated, the Puerto Rican male reported himself as more responsive to authority than did his stateside counterpart. The authoritarian orientation of the Insular male was especially evident In his perception of his parents and the subsequent effect of that perception upon his own attitudes. He saw his parents as discouraging education and academic achievement and as communicating that school was more Important for his brothers and sisters than for him. He concurrently believed that education was of little value to him, that a good education required going abroad, and that working was more Important. More than the stateside male, the Puerto Rican male displayed a vested Interest In the authoritarian posture of his culture. The masculine role requires that he dominate his wife and children even though he may be impotent in the society at large. Only a generalized attitude of submission to authority permits the male to 138 continue his dominance. Consequently, rather than Independently shedding parental attitudes, he submits in order to preserve for himself the dominant role in his own future family. Moreover, the discouraging behavior of his parents provide a means of avoiding responsibility for personal success in school. Although the submission to parental authority is in some ways self-defeating, it apparently held more psychological advantages to the Puerto Rican male than did independence. Attitude Toward Opposite S e x .— The hypothesized factor related to attitude toward the opposite sex did not materialize. The most probable reason is that initially there were an insufficient number of relevant test items to generate a factor. Those items which were pertinent showed a difference between males of the two cultures, the Puerto Rican male perceiving the female as inferior and the stateside male seeing her as more equal. The only con­ clusions which can be drawn is that either the Instruments did not successfully tap this particular complex of atti­ tudes or that no relevant cross-cultural difference existed for males. Work Orientation.— Only part of the area of work orientation emerged in the factor analysis! the value held of hard work hypothesis was not substantiated. Conceivably, the protestant ethic has been sufficiently internalized by Puerto Rican males to obliterate cross-cultural differences. 139 An alternative explanation is that stateside males are not as accepting of the value of hard work as was supposed. There is little doubt but what some change has occurred in stateside values, work becoming more of a means and less of an end in itself. Both possibilities may be true and, working in conjunction, serve to explain the lack of cross- cultural differences for males. The second hypothesis in the work orientation area, value of initiative and independence, did emerge as a factor which was labeled extrinsic versus intrinsic achieve­ ment . However, the Interpretation of the factor is complex. Puerto Rican males valued initiative more than stateside males, but were more reliant upon parental advice. The latter finding is supportive of the notion that the Spanishcolonial influence upon the Puerto Rican has left him dependent whereas his stateside counterpart is more likely to rely upon himself. Because of past anthropological reports to the contrary, it is difficult to explain the Puerto Rican's valuing initiative. Perhaps the industrial­ ization of the island has opened opportunities which create hope and encourage individual effort; by contrast, the extent of stateside technology may have discouraged initiat ive. Implicit World Vie w.— Two factors, parental pressure and parental valuing, upheld the hypothesis that stateside males would value academic achievement more than 1-4-0 Insular males. The Puerto Rican male was not Inclined to see school as a means to better economic posltlonj edu­ cation was viewed as a waste of time, and It was rationalized that good students do not do any better than poor students In the work world. Stateside males expressed more con­ fidence In their schools than Puerto Rican malesj the latter believed that a good education can be gained only by going abroad. This negative attitude may also have been reflective of the fact that the economically privileged attend private schools in Puerto Rico. The hypothesized "source of success" did not materi­ alize as a cross-cultural factor for males. The failure of this factor to emerge is related to the finding on the value of initiative. If stateside males did not see them­ selves as the ultimate source of their success, it is reasonable that they would not particularly value initiative. Somehow, Puerto Rican males placed some value on initiative even though they tended to view the sources of success as resting outside of themselves. Personality.— The only dimension of personality which materialized in the cross-cultural analysis for males was that of "inner-directedness." Withdrawal, reality testing, and long-term goals did not emerge as factors differentiating between males of the two cultures. Puerto Rican males displayed considerable deference to others, subjugating their own interests and desires to the wishes of friends. They indicated they would go to 141 uninteresting places, make pretenses, and would allow others to take advantage of them to avoid alienating friends. Friendship is apparently very high in the Puerto Rican value structure, superceding independence and personal interests. In comparison, the stateside male was more self-directed. The mobility, both geographical and social, of the stateside culture may account for the Michigan male's reticence to submit to friendships which are unlikely to be of lifelong duration. Within the respective settings, males of both cultures may be ultimately responding to per­ sonal interestj friendships may have more pragmatic value to Puerto Rican males while inner-directedness is a more practical posture for stateside males. An unexpected finding occurred in the cross-cultural comparison of males, namely, a social interaction factor. Within this factor stateside males expressed anxiety about several areas, e.g., the future and success. However, the general theme was one of anxiety in interpersonal relation­ ships; that is, they perceived winning an argument as dangerous and felt they were often not understood by others. This finding may have relevance to the inner-directedness dimension discussed above. Although the Puerto Rican tended to be dependent and submissive in his relationships with others, he appeared to also be relatively secure. The stateside male, acting independently and being selfdirected, apparently viewed his relationships as less I k 2 rewarding and less able to stand stress than did Puerto Rican males. Puerto Rican Females - Michigan Females All seven of the factors which emerged In the cross-cultural analysis for females related to the hypo­ thesized factor structure. With two exceptions, direction­ ality of the factors was consistent with what was expected. The comparison of females In the two cultures was more supportive of the hypothesized structure than any of the other three comparisons. Authority Relations.— Three distinct factors, maternal pressure, paternal pressure, and authority relations, support the hypothesis that Puerto Rican females are more submissive and responsive to authority than are Michigan females. Insular females responded favorably to items related to seeking and following the advice of both the mother and the father. However, In the factor, maternal pressure, there was an indication that the sub­ mission was of a passive-aggressive nature. Along with reporting themselves as submissive to the mother, they also Indicated that winning is the most important thing and that they get what they want in the end, even though they don't "fight" for their rights. Stateside females, while being more independent, appeared to be less aggres­ sive than their Puerto Rican counterparts. Because the 1^3 same aggressiveness was not Included In the paternal pressure factor, It Is conceivable that the Puerto Rican females were subtlely expressing a rejection of the feminine role of the culture. The factor labeled authority relations was a better Indication of the nature of the Insular female's sub­ missiveness to authority. They reported believing several cultural myths, e.g., equal opportunity exists for all, and truth is always beautiful. More than stateside females, they felt they must believe what they are taught, must be cautious when speaking frankly, and preferred to stay out of arguments. They always try to do more than their teachers expect of them. Submission to authority appeared to be an attitude which permeated the thinking of Puerto Rican females. Attitude Toward Opposite Sex.— Sex role did not materialize as a factor, possibly because of the limited number of relevant items in the instruments. The subtle rejection of the feminine role discussed above gives some indication that Puerto Rican females saw the male role as superior in their culture. Work Orientation.— Michigan females believed that achievement demands effort and going through hard times. The notion embodied in the protestant ethic, that hard work and sacrifice are intrinsically good, was a sub­ tle thread that ran through the items in the factor. More 1^4 than Puerto Rican females, the stateside females believed that the lazy person hides behind bad luck. Apparently, the stateside attitude that great effort and sacrifice are important human attributes has not been fully accepted by Puerto Rican females. Implicit World V i e w .— The comparative world views of Michigan and Puerto Rican females was a peculiar mixture of attitudes. The achievement performance factor was evidence that Puerto Rican females placed greater value on academic achievement than did stateside females. Such an attitude should have been expected because the academic arena is the insular female’s primary means of upward mobility. By contrast, the stateside female's mobility is more closely linked with that of her husband. However, the factor labeled educational destiny suggested that stateside females were more hopeful of continuing their education, partially because they did not receive the parental dis­ couragement experienced by their insular counterparts. The stateside female saw the opportunity for education as open to her and dependent upon her own effortj the Puerto Rican female believed she had a less chance for academic success and that luck was an important determinant of her fate. Personality.— Withdrawal and reality testing did not emerge as distinct factors; however, there was in other factors a hint of the existence of ti.ese areas. The 1A-5 lack of hope of academic achievement and the viewing of such as beyond personal control is akin to withdrawal. The acceptance of cultural myths, such as, truth is always beautiful and equal opportunity exists for all, is a mild indication of poor reality testing. An unexpected outcome occurred within the innerdirectedness dimension of personality. It was anticipated that Puerto Rican females would be basically other-directed, subjugating their own Interests to the desires of their friends. However, unlike the males of the culture, they reported themselves as more inner-directed than did the stateside females. By comparing factor directionality of this personality dimension across the four samples used in the study, Puerto Rican females appeared to be the most inner-directed. Exactly why this should be true is unclear. Perhaps the industrialization of the island has given the female a greater opportunity for independence and social mobility, making long-term friendships not only less impor­ tant but possibly even a hindrance to social climbing. They apparently no longer wish to be limited by the kinship and friendship patterns of the past. The extent of their inner-directedness hints at reaction formation; they appear to be over-reacting to the traditional dependent, submissive role of Puerto Rican woman. 1^6 Michigan Males - Michigan Females Five of the six factors which emerged In the intra-cultural comparison of Michigan students were relevant to the hypothesized factor structure. However, within the factors, directional reversal occurred In each of the five areas, suggesting that either the hypotheses were not adequately constructed on the basis of past research or significant changes are occurring In the attitudes of stateside students. Authority Relations.— As expected, no factor materialized demonstrating a difference between stateside males and females In their orientation to authority. Stateside students were less responsive to authority than their Puerto Rican counterparts. Attitude Toward Opposite S e x .— No intra-cultural difference was anticipated in attitude toward the opposite sex, and no relevant factor emerged. Work Orientation.— Contrary to the expectation that there would be no difference, Michigan females reported valuing hard work more than did Michigan males. The females reacted negatively to laziness and idleness and saw working as more important than winning games. A partial explanation of this finding may lay in the rela­ tively recent opening of the full occupational spectrum to women. With female service station attendents and female lawyers becoming more common, the stateside woman may be placing more value on vocational achievement than ]>7 the male for whom such opportunities have always been available. There Is greater acceptance of the notion that the woman needs to express and fulfill herself outside of the home, and she appears to be responding by placing greater value on hard work than males do. Implicit World View.— Related to the work orientation of stateside students was the value placed upon academic achievement. No difference was anticipated in this area, but again, females reported being more con­ cerned with success in school than males. Males perceived their parents as depreciating education. Both sexes were hypothesized to view themselves rather than outside influences as the ultimate source of success, but the data did not support the assumption. The males were more inclined to see school as a woman's world in which males have less chance of success; this particular viewpoint may be partially explanatory of the greater value of academic achievement to women. Outside of school, males still saw success as having less to do with self than with external factors. Cheating was more acceptable to males, and beauty, money, and influence were viewed as having more impact than personal effort. In some ways, this attitude may be a masculine rationalization for a fear of failing in an extremely competitive society. Blaming external factors for failure or anticipated failure is a common means of escaping responsibility for 1^8 personal effort. By contrast, the stateside female, who actually has some societal factors working In her disfavor, appeared to accept greater responsibility for her own efforts, failures, and successes. Personality.— No difference between the state­ side sexes was predicted for any personality dimension other than inner-directedness. Only five items loaded on the factor labeled social orlentatIon, and some extra­ polation was necessary to interpret the factor as being related to Inner-directedness. It was anticipated that Michigan males would be somewhat more guided by internal assessments than would the females. To the extent that the social orientation factor can be applied to this personality characteristic, females appeared to.be more self-directed than males. However, the relationship between the factor and the concept of inner-directedness was too tenuous to make definite statements about the nature of the difference between the sexes. A factor labeled role identification was not related to any part of the hypothesized cultural complex. Males responded more favorably than females to the items which identified the typical masculine role in the stateside cul­ ture. Males saw their role in society as competitive and demanding of success. The factor was somewhat of a fantasy in that the males consistently saw themselves as successful and victorious. If the notion discussed above is valid, 3>9 that Michigan males are less inclined to see themselves as the real source of success, the avoidance of personal responsibility may well be related to the role fantasy that they must always be successful within an extremely com­ petitive system. Placing less value on hard work and acade­ mic success could then be viewed as withdrawal from the Imagined demands of the masculine role. Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females Each of the six factors identified in the intracultural comparison of Puerto Rican students was related to some section of the hypothesized factor structure. However, as with the stateside comparison of males and females, the direction of the factors was not consistent with predictions. Authority Relations.— No difference was hypoth­ esized between the two Puerto Rican sexes in their respon­ siveness to authority. However, the educational destiny factor offered some evidence that males were more affected by parental pressure than females. The parallel themes within the factor were parental devaluation of education and personal devaluation of education. The males reported that their parents thought education is for the rich and that their parents did not care if they finished school* in turn, the males themselves believed that what must be done to get high grades was unimportant and that a good education could only be acquired by going abroad. More 150 than parental pressure Is undoubtedly involved in the rationalization that school is unimportant, but the pressure would appear to be one element. Attitude Toward Opposite S e x .— The data provided little indication that males were perceived as superior to females. As mentioned earlier, the lack of such evidence may be a shortcoming of the instruments and cannot be con­ strued as an indication that the two sexes view one another as equals. Work Orientation.— The Puerto Rican female did not appear to share the male's relative distaste for and avoidance of work. The traditional Spanish attitude toward work was that it was at best a necessary evil. The females, in the stateside tradition, viewed work as a pleasant activity in itself and believed that lazy people hide behind "bad luck." Employment for women is a relatively recent phenomena in Puerto Rico and an opportunity which offers them an alternative to poverty. It seems reasonable then that they would value work because it offers them some control over their own destiny. Puerto Rican women also demonstrated a desire for achievement and considerable initiative in attaining it. They reported constant efforts at self-improvement and achievement and felt more deserving of what they had than males did. Again this appears to be a more recent develop­ ment in the island as previous research, at best, only 151 hints at the possibility of such an attitude on the part of women. Implicit World View.— Another part of the pattern of change for the Puerto Rican female was her valuing of academic achievement. Although Parquhar and Christensen^- provided some evidence that such an attitude existed, was not hypothesized in this study. it Set in perspective with the other factors, the academic orientation is one more indication of the developing assertiveness of the Puerto Rican female. No factor materialized which could be directly related to the source of success hypothesis, but the demon­ stration of more initiative than the males implied that the female considered her own efforts as having impact upon her destiny. Personality.— Within the area of personality, females were expected to be less reality oriented than malesj however, the data indicated no difference. Possibly the influence of mass media has overcome the prophylactic effect of the romantic Spanish myths regarding courtship, marriage, and the like. -Mtf. W. Farquhar and E. W. Christensen, The Moti­ vational Factors Influencing Academic Achievement of Eleventh Grade Puerto Rican High School Students. Final Report of Cooperative Research Project No. 2&03A and B, 1968, (Office of Research and Publications, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1968). 152 The data provided some evidence that males were more inclined to withdraw than females. The Puerto Rican male was more disposed to bet on the achievements of others than on his own and when tired of a job, leaves it as soon as he can. In a cultural setting where dominant masculine behavior is expected of males but where little opportunity for the expression for such behavior exists, withdrawal might be expected. The unexpected outcome was that females, who have traditionally been cast into such a submissive role that female suicide rates were high, were less inclined to withdraw than the males. At the outset of this study, males were believed to be more inner-directed than femalesi again the data did not support this hypothesis. Males were more likely to go along with the desires of the group than to assert their own wishes. However, some discrepancy was apparent in the males reporting of their behavior. When verbally engaged with others, the males were more expressive of their own beliefs and more disposed to try to persuade others; yet, when acting on these beliefs, the females were more inclined to follow the dictates of their own will. This discrepancy between verbalization and action suggests that superficial allegiance is given to the traditional aggressive male— submissive female pattern but that the influence of the cultural pattern has eroded when it comes to actual behavior. 153 No difference was hypothesized between the sexes In establishing long-term goals, but the hypothesis was not confirmed. The mobility through education factor indicated that females saw education as a means of achieving more personal power, more esteem, more control over their own destiny. Consequently, it appeared that the Puerto Rican female was more future oriented than the male. Again the female has rejected a part of her culture, the "noworientation," in the service of her own personal interests. The hypotheses of the study were based upon the past observations of several researchers; it is possible that their observations were inaccurate. However, the consistency of directional reversals in the intra-cultural comparison in Puerto Rico, provides a picture of an emer­ gent female. It seems likely that important changes are currently developing in the structure of Puerto Rican society. The female appears to be, not only rejecting her old submissive role, but asserting a dominant role. She identifies with the stateside value system while the male is more tied to the traditional island culture. Both appear to be responding to that set of values which offers them the greater power. Overview of Factor Analyses The hypothesized factor structure (Table 3.3* supra Chapter III) was in general upheld through factor 154 analysis. Only the area of attitude toward opposite sex failed completely to materialize In either cross-cultural or intra-cultural analysis. relations, The areas of authority implicit world view, work orientation, and personality each emerged as a part of the total factor structure. The directionality of the factors was not always consistent with what was predicted, e.g., Michigan females reported themselves as more inner-directed than Michigan males when the reverse was hypothesized. Directional reversals were most evident in the intra-cultural analyses. The possible reasons are numerous, but the following appear most plausible: 1) The hypotheses may have been based upon inaccurate information gained from the observational reports of anthropologists and sociologists. The biases inherent in observational data were discussed in Chapters I and IIj it is too easy for the investi­ gator to see what he wants to see or to focus on superficialities rather than the stronger under­ currents in attitude and personality. 2) Recent changes may have occurred in both cultures, modifying the position of males and females rela­ tive to the hypothesized attitudes and personality factors. Allusions to such changes appear in the research literature of both cultures. Industrial­ ization in Puerto Rico has been directed primarily 155 toward female employment and has offered the woman opportunity for Independence and personal success. Stateside writers have discussed the fatherless suburbs and their possible Impact upon childrenj It has been hypothesized that young people will view the mother, or female, as the power figure In the family. Because most of the directional reversals Indicated that the females In each culture were more Independent, more success oriented, and stronger In personality than expected, recent intra-cultural change is especially plaus­ ible as an explanation. 3) It Is conceivable that a social-deslrabillty factor was operant in the responses of females In the two cultures. The accuracy of the instruments used in the study is ultimately dependent upon the honesty and clarity of assessment of the subjects. If females have a propensity to report themselves in a more favorable way than do males, this could explain the directional reversals. Summary Chi square item analysis produced 164 significant items in the cross-cultural comparison of males, 160 items in the comparison of females in the two cultures, 80 items in the intra-cultural comparison of Puerto Rican students, 156 and ^7 Items in the comparison of stateside males and females. The percentage of significant items in each analysis suggested that cross-cultural differences in attitude and personality were greater than intra-cultural differences and that there was greater disparity in the attitudes of Puerto Rican males and females than of state­ side males and females. The factor structure which emerged through factor analysis was very similar to the hypothesized structure. Only the area of sex role failed to materialize in any of the four comparisons. The directionality of the factors was generally consistent with predicted directions for the cross-cultural analyses. However, factor direction was frequently the reverse of what was hypothesized for the intra-cultural comparisons. Three possible reasons for the directional reversal were suggested: 1) poor bases for construction of the hypotheses, 2) recent changes in the attitudes of students in the two cultures, and 3) a social desirability factor in the responses of females. Puerto Rican students were more responsive to authority, especially parental pressure, than were stateside students. No attitudlnal difference was found between sexes in Michigan, but there was some evidence that Puerto Rican males were more authority oriented than the females. Michigan and Puerto Rican females valued hard work more than the males of the two cultures, and stateside 157 females held more positive attitudes toward work than did their insular counterparts. Puerto Rican females demon­ strated more initiative than males of the culture, and the Puerto Rican males gave some evidence of valuing initiative more than stateside males. Michigan males valued academic achievement more than Puerto Rican males, but less than Michigan females. Puerto Rican females placed more value on school performance than either stateside females or Puerto Rican males. Michigan females viewed themselves as the ultimate source of success whereas stateside males and Puerto Rican females were more disposed toward seeing outside factors as determining their destiny. In the area of personality, inner-directedness was the only dimension which materialized in all four analyses. Stateside females reported themselves as more innerdirected than did either Puerto Rican females or stateside males. The island females and Michigan males were both more Inclined to be self-directed than were Puerto Rican males. The other personality characteristics did not emerge as factors except in the comparison of the two sexes in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rican males were less disposed to be future oriented and gave some evidence of being more withdrawn than the females. Although considerable difference continued to exist in the attitudes and personality of stateside students 158 and Puerto Rican students, changes appear to be occurring, especially among females. The data presents a picture of an emergent female in both cultures, a woman less bound to old authority*patterns, more self-directed, and more con­ cerned with her own achievement in both the academic and work worlds. The Puerto Rican female seems to be inter­ nalizing the stateside value system while the male is holding more closely to the traditional Spanish culture of the island. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS The study was designed to test certain assumptions about the differences and similarities in attitude and personality between students in Puerto Rico and students in the continental United States, as well as between males and females within each culture. The investigation was generally successful in delineating cross-cultural differ­ ences and in revealing some expected and unexpected differences between sexes within each culture. Summary It is important to the success of international and inter-human relations in the Americas that there is an understanding of 1) the differences and similarities in attitudes and personality between the Spanish-American and the stateside American, and 2) the probable effect upon attitudes and personality of the two cultures being inter-related. The unique mixture of the traditional Spanish and the modern stateside cultures in Puerto Rico was considered an. appropriate setting for investigating the impact of culture upon attitudes and personality. 159 ! 160 Methodology and Instrumentation have been two major difficulties In cross-cultural research of the past. Earlier research was conducted by sociologists and anthro­ pologists using observational techniques appropriate to the study of primitive cultures. In 1964, Farquhar and Christen­ sen developed instruments called the P-Scales to study the motivational factors influencing the academic achievement of Puerto Rican students; their basic assumption was that certain attitudes and personality factors characteristic of the Spanish culture would differentially affect motivation. Until the present investigation, the P-Scales had not been administered in the states, and a direct cross-cultural comparison of the pertinent attitudes and personality facets was not possible. The work of Farquhar and Christensen, therefore, provided the stimulus as well as the instru­ mentation and methodology for the present study. The hypotheses were focused on five general areas: 1) authority relations, 2) sex role, 3) implicit world view, 4) work orientation, and 5) personality. It was assumed that the attitudes and personality of Puerto Rican students would reflect the traditional Spanish culture and would stand in contrast to the attitudes and personality of students in the states. The hypotheses were tested using the P-Scales (Scale of Individual Preferences, Generalized Situational Choice Inventory, and Human Trait Inventory) with a stratified random sample of 400 Michigan eleventh graders and 400 161 Puerto Rican eleventh graders. Stratification was based upon rural-urban residence, and the sample of each culture consisted of 200 males and 200 females. For the purpose of item analysis, the sample of each culture was further divided into validation and crossvalidation groups, each consisting of 100 males and 100 females. Four separate analyses were conducted: 1) Michigan males-Puerto Rican males, 2) Michigan females-Puerto Rican females, 3) Michigan males-Michlgan females, and 4) Puerto Rican males-Puerto Rican females. To collect items for the subsequent factor analysis, all items (222) were validated and cross-validated using a one-tailed chi square test of significance with alpha set at the .20 level for inclusion or exclusion of items. Those items which cross-validated were retained for further analysis. For all scales, a total of 164 items discriminated^between males of the two cultures, 160 items were significant for females, 47 items were obtained in the intra-cultural comparison in Michigan, and 80 items discriminated between Puerto Rican males and females. Factor analyses yielded five factors for males in the two cultures, seven for females, six for Michigan males and females, and six for Puerto Rican males and females. The first factor for males described a person who does not like school and whose parents discourage him from con­ tinuing; it was labeled parental pressure. The second 162 factor was concerned with self-improvement and accomplish­ ment and was labeled extrinsic verses Intrinsic achievement. Factor three reflected an other-oriented social posture and was named social orientation. Factor four was an expression of positive parental attitudes toward education and was labeled parental valuing. The fifth male factor was focused on anxiety over various kinds of interpersonal contacts and was titled social Interaction. The first factor for females of the two cultures was maternal pressure and described a person who identifies with and seeks advice from her mother. Factor two focused on negative attitudes\ toward education and was called educational destiny. The third factor, social orientation, described a person who makes concessions of personal interest to placate friends. Factor four contained a theme of work­ ing hard to achieve something Important and was labeled work orientation. Factor five delineated a person who is very responsive to authority and was titled authority relations. Factor six, paternal pressure, was concerned with yielding to the authority of the father. The seventh female factor reflected a desire for self-improvement i* and accomplishment and was labeled achievement performance. The first factor for males and females in Michigan was educational destiny, an expression of negative attitudes toward education. Factor two was concerned with the sources of success laying outside of the efforts of the individual 163 and was labeled, Intrinsic verses extrinsic achievement. The third factor, work orientation, contained a theme of working hard to achieve success. Factor four comprised a theme of wanting to exercise control over social situations without alienating friends and was called soclal orienta­ tion. Factor five described a person who sees life from a masculine, competitive viewpoint and was labeled role ldentIflcatIon. The sixth stateside factor reflected the attitude that school was a woman's world and was titled school orientation. For Puerto Rican males and females, the first factor contained negative attitudes toward education and was labeled educational destiny. Factor two reflected the desire for self-improvement and accomplishment and was labeled achievement orientation. Factor three was concerned with outstanding achievement In school and was called academic orientation. The label of soclal orientation was attached to the fourth factor which described a person who Is submissive In his relationships witli others. Factor five was focused on gaining power and esteem through school and was titled mobility through education. The sixth Puerto Rican factor contained a theme of work being pleasant, good, a value In itself land was labeled work orientation. The factor structure which emerged through factor analysis was very similar to the hypothesized factor structure. Only the area of sex role failed to materialize 16^ in any of the four comparisons. The directionality of the factors was generally consistent with predicted directions for cross-cultural analyses. However, factor direction was frequently the reverse of what was hypothesized for intracultural comparisons. Puerto Rican students were more responsive to authority than Michigan students, and Puerto Rican males were more authority oriented than the females. The females of both cultures were more positively oriented toward work than were the males. The females also valued academic achievement more than the males. Michigan males were more concerned with success in school than Puerto Rican males, but the reverse was true for females. Michigan females were more disposed to see themselves as the source of their success than were Michigan males or Puerto Rican females. The females of both cultures were more inner-directed than males, and Michigan students reported themselves as more self-directed than their Puerto Rican counterparts. It was apparent that considerable difference con­ tinues to exist in the attitudes and personality of state­ side and Puerto Rican students, but changes are occurring, especially among females. The data presented a picture of an emergent female in both cultures, a woman less bound to old authority patterns, more self-directed, and more con­ cerned with her own achievement. The Puerto Rican female seemed to be internalizing the stateside value system while the male held more closely to the traditional Spanish culture of the island. Conclusions The major findings of the study were as followsj 1. Differences in attitude and personality were greater between students in Puerto Rico and students in the states than between sexes within either culture. Differences between males and females in Puerto Rico were greater than between sexes in the states. \ 2. Puerto Rican students were more responsive to authority, especially parental pressure, than their state­ side counterparts. No difference in attitude was found between sexes in the states, but Puerto Rican males appeared to be more authority oriented than the females. 3. The area of sex role failed to emerge as a factor. Either the instrument did not tap the attitude or no appreciable difference exists, either intra-culturally or cross-culturally. Michigan males placed more importance on school performance than did Puerto Rican males. 5. Michigan females viewed themselves as the ultimate source of success whereas Puerto Rican females were more disposed toward seeing -outside factors as determining their destiny. 6. Stateside females valued hard work more than Puerto Rican females did. 166 7. Michigan males indicated they were more self- directed than Puerto Rican males. 8. The data presented a picture of an emergent female in both cultures, a woman less bound to old authority patterns, more self-directed, and more concerned with her own achievement in both academic and work worlds. 9. The value system of the Puerto Rican female appeared to be more like that of stateside students while the male seemed to be holding more closely to the tradi­ tional Spanish culture of the island. Contrary Findings The following were outcomes which were either contrary to the hypotheses or which emerged where no differences between samples was anticipated: 1. The females of the two cultures placed more value on academic achievement than did the males, and Puerto Rican females considered school performance more important than stateside females did. 2. Michigan females viewed themselves as the ultimate , source of success whereas Michigan males were more dis­ posed toward seeing outside factors as determining their destiny. 3; The females of the two cultures held more positive attitudes toward hard work than did the males. 4. Puerto Rican females demonstrated more initiative than did males of the culture. 16 ? 5. Stateside females indicated they were more inner- dlrected than did Puerto Rican females, and the males of the two cultures reported themselves as less self-directed than did the females. Implications Treating both the conclusions and the contrary findings as outcome, the following implications for future research are suggestedi 1. Some revamping of the anthropological descriptions of cross-cultural differences between Puerto Rico and continental United States as well as differences between the sexes within the two cultures appears necessary. The value system of Puerto Rican students, especially that of the female, is not as much at variance with stateside values as was reported in past literature. Moreover, females in both cultures appear to be assuming a more dominant, more independent role than in the past. These changes should be reflected in the design of future research. 2. Similar cross-cultural research in other Latin American societies would help differentiate between the impact of industrialization and the impact of United States sovereignty upon attitude and personality change in Puerto Rico, The present study does not permit drawing assumptions regarding the relative affect upon change of the two factors mentioned above or of some unknown factor. 168 3. The P-Scales could be Improved for future research by adding items regarding the role of the sexes. Because of the small number of such items in the present study, no conclusions could be drawn regarding the relative valuing of the male and female roles in the two cultures. 4. Periodic replication of the present study would offer a longitudinal view of role and identity change in Puerto Rico. Such investigations would provide an assess­ ment of the durability and intensity of the female attitude shift and of the development of any similar shift among males. 5. Research similar to the present study, incorporating samples of Puerto Rican immigrants in the states, would offer a nevr and valuable dimension to understanding the impact of culture upon attitudes and personality. t BIBLIOGRAPHY Abramovitz, M. "Growing Up in an Affluent Society" in The Nation's Children. ed. by Eli Ginzberg. New York: Columbia University Press, i 960 . Bourne, D. D. and Bourne, J. R. Thirty Years of Change in Puerto Rico: A Case Study of Ten Selected Rural A reas. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1966. Brameld, T. The Remaking of a Culture> Life and Education in Puerto R i c o . New York: Harper and Bros., 1959. Farquhar, W. W. Motivation Factors Related to Academic Achievement. Final Report of Cooperative Research Project No. 8^6, Office of Research and Publications, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1963. ______ , and Christensen, E. W. The Motivational Factors Influencing Academic Achievement of Eleventh Grade Puerto Rican High School Students. Final Report of Cooperative Research Project No. 2603A and B, Office of Research and Publications, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1968 . Friedenberg, E. Z. Dell, 1962. The Vanishing Adolescent. New York: Hill, R . , Stycos, J. M , , and Back, K. W. The Family and Population Control. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959. Hoebel, E. A. Anthropological perspectives on national character. Annals of the American Academy of Poli­ tical and Social Science. 1967. 370. 1-7. Landy, D. Tropical Childhood. Chapel Hill: of North Carolina Press, 1959. University Lewis, G. K. Puerto Rico: Freedom and Power in the Caribbean. New York: MR Press, 1963 . Maccoby, M. On Mexican character. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1967, 370, 30-35," 63-F 3". " 169 170 Martindale, D. The sociology of national character. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1967. 370. 30-35. McGinn, N. P., Harburg, E . , and Glnsburg, G. P. Responses in interpersonal conflict by middle class males in Guadalajara and Michigan. American Anthropologist. 1965, 67 , Riesman, D. Some questions about the study of American character in the Twentieth Century. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1967, 370, 36-47. Stycos, J. M. Family and Fertility in Puerto R i c o . New York: Columbia University Press, 1955Williams, R. M. American Society: A Sociological Inter­ pretation. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1961. APPENDIX A CHI SQUABE VALUES 171 172 TABLE A.I.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samples: Michigan Males and Puerto Rican Males Individual Preference Scale Item Validation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 2k 35.178 2.499 12.729 21.822 56.969 97.405 16.402 8.205 4.186 5^.078 8.446 4.024 53.569 46.061 0.972 10.35^ 42.087 1.364 4.473 5.882 18.906 6.33^ 1.975 2.586 4.693 31.905 3.935 31.659 33.040 12.294 7.791 12.941 16.369 11.517 51.500 3.376 11.217 9.628 4.027 14.965 4.801 0.891 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 3k 35 36 37 38 39 4o 4i k2 CrossValidation P 96.801 2.408 3.889 .01 65.^88 .01 .01 .20 .01 .05 13.557 ^.797 29.436 12.465 37.^00 115.722 17.678 96.253 5.^36 11.3^ 2.621 7.9^9 19.5^9 27.369 64.117 35.592 21.958 22.073 45.278 .01 .05 .20 .01 .05 .01 .20 .01 .10 4.768 15.131 31.897 3^.679 27.162 18.265 23.172 92.986 1.727 89.772 7.699 11.505 7.79^ .20 .01 16.302 .05 .10 7.79k 48.494 34.481 2.808 22.647 .01 .01 .01 .10 .01 .10 .01 .01 173 TABLE A.I.— C ont inu ed Item Validation 43 9.260 11.586 7.706 44 45 46 4? 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 86 87 8.500 34.856 5.662 0.402 1.402 8.976 20.317 9.176 17.935 22.836 1.074 3.438 38.264 6.392 7.323 21.576 0.219 18.337 8.681 12.980 47.851 12.233 11.008 5.609 4.441 35.134 24.946 7.591 26.511 69.215 27.844 26.897 12.400 36.447 11.207 5.020 11.707 30.790 0.746 16.148 13.719 39.155 CrossValidation 68.623 85.580 42.349 48.590 12.706 8.307 9.910 39.071 9.613 35.394 74.697 43.286 53.151 23.914 129.042 29.043 7.256 22.664 16.995 22.616 33.796 26.417 42.578 6.338 11.394 17.371 42.250 61.206 68.521 10.110 20.052 60.868 59.533 1.835 8.587 49.906 70.926 44.973 25.282 2.393 27.560 5.663 77.951 119.599 16.035 P .05 .01 .10 .05 .01 .20 .05 .01 .05 .01 .01 .01 .10 .10 .01 .01 .05 .01 .10 .01 .05 .20 .01 .05 .10 .01 .01 .05 .01 .01 .05 .20 .01 .01 .01 .01 174 TABLE A.I. — Continued Item 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 42.015 10.350 49.346 29.717 3.506 91.590 8.571 3.051 12.270 12.971 17.003 7.296 6.192 8.646 3.823 9.282 4.825 5.381 22.401 18.456 10.387 75.179 8.043 16.939 42.747 102.438 70.094 44.703 45.855 119.302 10.009 9.047 1.121 12.213 15.483 17.576 9.031 14.193 19.824 4.483 6.857 2.302 113 114 115 6.079 9.387 1 9 vl 82 5.090 116 12.566 117 118 119 25.956 3.372 6.452 30.807 120 CrossValidation Validation 10.106 i 8.460 113.671 13.937 5.244 25.739 P .05 .01 .01 .10 .20 .05 .20 .20 .01 .05 .05 .01 .01 , 01 .05 .05 .01 .20 .20 .05 .01 .20 .01 .01 .10 .01 175 TABLE A.2.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samples* Michigan Males and Puerto Rican Males Generalized Situational Choice Inventory Item Validation 1 .2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 9.8 57 1.380 3.968 12.101 3.961 0.327 18.716 12.166 2.524 0.463 49.829 8.312 1.048 1.463 2.501 CrossValidation 6.003 3.457 3.148 36.415 2.412 P .05 .01 0.000 21.294 21.935 8.815 2.452 44.101 ' 7.306 2.405 4.546 6.941 .01 .01 .01 .05 176 TABLE A.3.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samples! Michigan Males and Puerto Rican Males Human Trait Inventory [tern 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 3k 35 36 37 38 39 40 kl kz 43 kk k5 k6 k? 48 49 50 51 52 53 5k 55 56 57 Validation 62,235 21.788 7.038 99-414 3.735 7.812 11.182 6.863 14.724 0.944 5.921 2.856 30.372 33.062 3.597 104.888 45.470 14.711 4.785 22.472 15.267 36.396 3.15^ 55.664 19.751 25.320 4.968 22.835 2.426 45.072 1.876 16.561 68.378 20.532 37.228 4.341 21.235 11.646 17.882 3.242 3-564 93.692 CrossValidation 15.003 11.299 8.205 22.211 5.073 46.786 9.278 16.494 41.598 21.618 2.376 5 245 6.237 18.440 44.403 19.892 33.430 36.151 39.876 30.951 17.736 16.320 13.401 16.989 55.734 35.302 8.060 13.757 17.033 9.308 P .01 .05 .10 .01 .10 .05 .10 .01 .20 .01 .01 .01 .01 .20 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .20 .01 .05 10.966 14.048 32.336 16.964 10.124 10.885 25.893 10.872 4.674 5.5^0 29.058 5.722 .01 .01 .01 .05 .01 .05 .20 .20 177 TABLE A . 3.— Continued Item Validation 58 59 60 61 55.083 78.815 54.527 15.488 62 63 64 65 14.226 4.151 13.361 66 20.229 67 32.199 15.144 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 CrossValidation 29.416 4.393 28.807 50.945 33.278 5.713 45.869 13.665 25.400 30.349 15.672 16.126 P .01 .01 .01 .01 .20 .01 .01 .01 .01 No Item 12 .5?8 5-397 23.485 7.763 15.727 7.085 6.793 15.158 10.081 64.020 .20 .01 .10 .10 .01 No Item 48.839 4.796 46.312 77.196 7.551 48.806 13.185 20.265 23.521 28.908 14.340 4.003 16.627 38.888 33.926 26.876 11.726 32 .024 10.061 13.583 12.151 7.816 18.699 8.287 ' “ 40.303 51.260 56.749 .01 .20 .01 .01 .10 .01 .05 .01 .05 .01 .01 .01 12.701 .05 54.476 14.458 .01 11.026 25.052 .05 5.207 31.867 48.237 2.874 9.614 42.752 11.236 111.550 6.486 43.044 18.510 5.386 7.216 12.150 44.664 4.202 27.450 35.091 9.019 10.858 19.139 98.355 •05 .05 .01 .01 .20 .10 .05 .01 .05 178 TABLE A. 4.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samplest Michigan Females and Puerto Rican Females Individual Preference Scale Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 Validation 55.633 4.486 14.531 23.435 6?.6o4 117.582 35.289 12.545 1.092 CrossValidation 47.741 11.146 9.802 14.103 43.738 105.663 24.169 9.178 6.826 62.549 9.913 2.065 49.623 36.622 5.879 35.674 58.649 3.228 9.070 3.858 48.522 14.318 4.859 54.053 28.407 2.865 31.366 53.481 3.333 7.047 5.589 2.778 5.476 12.726 3.730 6.214 0.419 10.879 4.975 2.522 7.006 4 5 .636 36.475 8.794 5.691 62.755 41.657 32.011 38.711 2.872 1.107 5.289 5.1^7 12.382 14.594 1.225 20.155 5.913 10.751 71.102 75.066 No Item - Puerto Rican Females 5-198 0.710 2.298 1.927 1.370 1.803 No Item - Puerto Rican Females 27.510 45.251 2.742 0.988 P .01 .05 .01 .01 .01 .01 .05 .01 .05 .01 .01 .01 .01 .10 .20 .20 .01 .20 .01 .01 .20 .01 .20 .20 .01 .01 179 TABLE A.4.— Continued Item 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 86 Validation CrossValidation 2.882 - Puerto Rican Females 19.773 3.443 14.072 19.955 2.064 - Puerto Rican Females 2.274 10.709 29.799 - Puerto Rican Females 24.407 3.308 6.440 19.133 14.888 4.930 12.683 9.785 - Puerto Rican Females 2.486 5.116 No Item - Puerto Rican Females 32.811 19.871 No Item - Puerto Rican Females 27.3^9 16.565 5.890 2.083 9.702 4.859 51.861 46.857 20.294 11.278 6.478 14.791 21.404 6.971 4.839 8.389 15.460 4 .685 41.980 23.331 12.189 9.471 34.441 32.489 22.919 11.526 9.616 19.610 7.7 62 34.195 39.724 27.671 32.543 16.869 5.165 3.835 15.061 2 .628 1.188 No Item 10.663 10.956 27.677 29.935 7.206 No Item 4.092 5.858 40.16? No Item 17.236 4.770 3.814 24.475 5.7H 3.261 2.276 1.843 No Item P .05 .01 .01 .20 .01 .01 .01 .20 .01 .01 .20 .01 .05 .10 .10 .20 .20 .01 .05 .01 .01 .05 .10 .01 .01 .01 180 TABLE A. Item 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 116 117 118 119 120 — Continued Validation 53.491 11.711 6.589 25.788 7.821 17.578 13.129 14.229 16.775 9.069 5.694 0.459 8.804 19.342 3.047 8.368 23.495 18.078 2.836 43.243 6.788 18.168 9.890 7.743 8.494 5.507 16.625 7.341 4.052 37.490 6.080 2.595 4.107 33.179 CrossValidation 24.976 8.716 5.703 22.967 6.891 17.964 5.965 18.365 7.724 24.516 3.153 3.458 16.198 16.46 5 P .01 .05 .20 .01 .10 .01 .20 .Ol .10 .05 .05 .01 8.068 1.448 17.498 10.537 5.563 16.124 7.689 14.753 14.838 10.135 7.504 11.136 17.338 9.645 5.710 32.025 8.544 2.184 6.804 19.773 .01 .05 .01 .10 .01 .05 .10 .10 .20 .01 .10 .01 .20 .01 181 TABLE A . 5.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samplesi Michigan Females and Puerto Rican Females Generalized Situational Choice Inventory Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Validation 3.131 4.667 7.911 20.731 12.374 1.003 39.445 22.281 1.839 3.639 15.054 O .479 1.291 0.997 7.638 CrossValidation P 8.333 1.986 7.364 19.9^0 6 .366 5.913 18.750 21.569 13.315 1.3^2 20.429 3.269 2.000 2.169 2.822 .05 .01 .05 .01 .01 .01 182 TABLE A . 6 . — C hi S q u a r e V a l u e s f o r V a l i d a t i o n a n d C r o s s V a l i d a t i o n S a m p le s : M ic h ig a n F e m a le s and P u e r t o R ic a n F em a les Human Trait Inventory Item Validation 16 28.598 13.054 5.202 6 .605 4.260 71.864 20.483 45.927 71.993 32.965 4.254 17.075 10.389 34.202 53.^80 31.84? 29.684 28.552 29.239 48.015 19.556 30.107 9.763 37.359 62.823 60.229 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 16.210 17.255 29.596 26.945 10.010 21.327 46.051 18.520 21.972 3.568 30.846 11.317 7.116 13.979 35.389 12.850 CrossValidation 15.401 13.433 5.682 6.803 2.772 88.081 9.086 38.114 69.067 21.212 7.712 19.709 P .01 .01 .20 .10 .01 .05 .01 .01 .01 .01 2.861 14.051 33.103 23.529 45.759 51.306 42.141 30.425 3.183 21.809 8.322 26.430 42.485 65.641 4.277 17.791 26.898 20.100 28.519 41.327 46.371 12.355 19.282 11.368 52.219 21.525 8.036 7.466 11.893 5.036 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .05 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .05 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .05 .10 .10 .01 .20 183 TABLE A. 6.— Continued Item 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 Validation 26.702 7.106 30.157 54.111 37.617 6.393 46.156 24.025 32.342 22.106 20.437 39.633 8.913 20.751 6.895 50.494 22.201 28.810 5.075 19.769 36.001 5.261 35.*+79 21.177 12.311 8.635 8.609 19.953 19.607 27.697 82.072 12.343 18.397 42.377 4.463 18.139 11.276 48.798 25.227 23.775 13.631 4.990 36.353 20.982 5.843 CrossValidation 25.129 8.323 37.584 49.239 32.425 8.595 36.045 35.210 30.225 17.646 15.230 7.942 10.853 10.718 9.746 30.079 4.781 15.292 2.419 9.061 51.000 13.55*+ 28.022 39.262 20.504 14.501 15.716 14.985 18.239 31.723 107.794 28.767 30.866 16.049 10.160 10.793 7.754 33.060 22.653 10.922 9.443 3.358 17.028 29.926 19.872 P .01 .10 .01 .01 .01 .10 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .05 .05 .05 .10 .01 .20 .01 .05 .01 .20 .01 .01 .01 .05 .05 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .10 .01 .01 .01 .05 .01 .01 .20 TABLE A.?.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samplesi Michigan Males and Michigan Females Individual Preference Scale Item Validation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4l 42 6.078 3.907 0.003 0.935 2.907 0.705 2.832 2.820 7.181 2.896 0.280 0.622 1.037 3.015 5-314 9.352 4.354 2.378 12.898 4.670 2.574 10.046 7.687 9.901 3.560 1.700 6.204 2.969 3.966 5.476 1.545 3.959 10.989 4.742 2.068 2.314 4.709 3.376 5.721 24.517 1,082 2.640 CrossValidation 6.590 0.158 3.174 9.030 4.723 1.993 0.498 2.651 2.053 3.400 0.194 2.750 2.149 4.298 0.525 9.077 3.5^9 9.020 8.748 6.421 3.077 1.549 2.220 6.189 1.903 7.414 6.651 0.793 1.670 9.165 2.457 4.018 2.113 8.280 4.573 2.418 1.739 3.741 3.427 35.756 5.279 4.078 P .20 .05 .05 .20 .20 .20 .20 .20 .01 185 TABLE A . 7.— Continued Item Validation 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 0.621 3.884 5.129 9-5*+2 12.039 3.114 14.690 2.075 2.35*+ 1.870 4.110 5.400 4.485 61 10.251 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 13.186 7.034 86 3.106 2.917 3.604 5.381 9.567 2.606 13.833 2.149 13.035 2.007 2.675 1.240 5.589 3.174 2.474 6.089 3.763 2.694 1.105 8.097 5.702 0.515 8.999 0.487 1.685 19.75*+ 9.487 5.970 CrossValidation 5.643 0.373 3.301 1.503 8.513 P .05 8.106 5.862 1.654 2.909 10.462 4.158 10.802 8.615 2.104 3.9*+*+ 0.074 3.252 7.050 3.562 7.099 7.112 2.373 5.326 7.137 12.856 0.643 .20 .20 .10 .10 .10 .20 .01 3.006 *+.373 6.276 1.715 1.031 6.430 2.038 1.986 3.315 5.939 2.802 5.964 1.367 4.809 5.043 3.008 0.973 4.746 .20 .20 .20 .20 186 TABLE A . 7.— Continued Item Validation CrossValidation 87 7-504 88 0.553 1.622 2.502 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 1.307 4.504 3.043 3.835 10.470 4.370 8.113 1.537 9.879 7.828 4.343 4.186 7.073 2.393 7.405 3.439 7.264 10.814 5.265 4.622 5.315 1.329 6.799 3.548 3.921 1.947 6 .546 5.309 8.303 7.522 4.797 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 2.261 7.522 4.990 4.330 Ilk 5.061 115 116 117 118 119 4.360 3.331 7.605 3.037 4.263 120 1.272 P .20 .10 .20 1.860 6.597 9.902 1.712 9.534 1.655 .10 .10 8.686 .10 19.897 0.214 9.013 .05 13.100 .20 3.544 10.295 6.856 5.661 0.814 2.759 0.156 3.771 4.764 3.036 2.402 .10 .20 187 TABLE A . 8.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samples: Michigan Males and Michigan Females Generalized Situational Choice Inventory Item Validation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 6.829 0.427 2.893 2.476 0.796 3.675 0.021 2.185 0.595 0.082 26.225 0.070 2.604 9.259 1.164 CrossValidation p 3.030 0.027 5.241 2.102 1.854 1.050 0.512 2.977 5.007 4.143 8.515 1.299 0.046 5.073 4.119 .05 188 TABLE A . 9.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samples« Michigan Males and Michigan Females Human Trait Inventory [tern Validation 16 3.183 4.253 20.719 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 2? 28 29 30 31 32 33 3k 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 18.276 2.050 3.858 1.944 3.715 1.963 0.625 ky 50 51 52 53 5k 55 56 57 2.907 6.327 1.886 11.600 8.902 .05 2.399 2.283 1.552 11.329 2.506 5.186 0.322 43 48 7.101 .20 .01 0.106 k6 k7 .01 .01 1.741 1.649 9.196 32.969 2.400 10.311 1.194 k2 45 4.568 1.412 21.403 11.879 1.646 P 1.054 3.024 3.700 5.238 21.875 2.037 4.969 5.909 2.474 5.570 3.641 2.825 3.555 3.513 kk CrossValidation 2.418 9.367 2.140 0.141 6.602 2.054 5.958 2.526 8.166 2.208 9.739 4.725 5.798 0.881 .20 2.464 6.449 2.315 2.826 0.388 3.913 3.299 6.799 8.520 6.914 2.223 2.014 2.355 1.468 3.494 2.664 3.830 4.294 1.715 6.252 .10 189 TABLE A . 9.— Continued Item 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 Validation 1 .11*0 7.262 18.735 12.293 3.215 9.016 0.98 5 4.644 3.911* 3.51*2 11.277 3.666 6.998 8.505 2.680 0.956 3.922 1*. 107 8.060 17.039 2.0312.031 2.513 1*. 073 10.604 3.518 3.759 2.794 4.443 1.333 14.996 5.540 3.360 3.986 5.313 9.880 3.410 9.141 0.576 5.553 O .658 10.366 7.772 6.789 5.261 CrossValidation 4.008 14.659 9.570 10.334 2.617 6.034 7.096 4.095 3.263 1.986 3.556 7.061 9.821 3.521 5.659 3.353 4.294 5.459 10.144 P .10 .05 .05 .20 .10 .05 2.920 0.304 2.693 3.619 2.909 4.278 2.970 4.689 9.459 5.890 2.638 14.284 1.765 0.591 2.582 5.456 0.825 5.279 4.267 3.441 7.403 3.445 1.581 4.563 3.046 1.269 .01 .20 .20 190 TABLE A . 10.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samples: Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican Females Individual Preference Scale Item Validation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 2.337 3.6*4-7 0.530 4.271 6.750 2.572 9.018 0.893 3.243 6.244 5.474 11.929 1.958 4.258 9.273 4.375 5.389 1.386 9.110 6.307 4.562 2.144 7.254 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 3k 35 36 37 38 39 40 kl k2 CrossValidation 41.679 13.073 4.701 23.045 19.155 114.508 7.540 25.175 46.889 27.604 38.298 88.631 35.127 53.137 P .10 .10 .20 .20 .01 1.861 9.748 12.521 9.653 24.741 40.505 13.315 12.288 42.054 5.424 5.092 26.885 65.457 13.813 6.376 10.682 2.702 9.590 1.362 11.305 2.149 1.42? 0.037 3.865 7.000 1.885 2.170 0.523 .05 .05 .10 .10 .20 .05 88.166 3.957 64.498 8.480 32.499 No Item 20.456 11.918 41.156 2.857 3.997 6.912 .10 No Item 18.756 3.917 24.253 30.412 .01 191 TABLE A. 10.— Continued Item 43 44 45 46 47 ^8 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Validation 7.234 CrossValidation P 74.438 .10 10.162 38.696 16.871 5.440 1.323 .10 .10 No Item 7.111 6.774 0.650 3.379 5.862 No Item 0.416 15.148 6.740 7.471 17.072 43.786 .01 .10 No Item 4.284 7.037 26.329 28.916 103.292 5.368 1.576 26.503 36.049 28.401 8.166 1.006 4.093 7.936 3.446 11.084 .05 .05 .05 No Item 30.348 3.494 No Item 10.189 53.857 .05 32 .955 .10 No Item 6.824 3.781 6.943 5.513 1.523 2.109 7.487 52.804 11.545 3.396 4.800 1.360 0.935 7.957 10.624 0.117 1.091 4.167 3.112 ( 41.810 43.385 119.874 15.496 3.400 77.397 33.801 26.175 41.905 83.956 27.286 10.928 18.911 11.545 77.759 7.956 60.844 49.497 .10 .10 .01 .01 .20 .05 .05 192 TABLE A . 10.— Continued Item Validation 87 2.657 0.114 5.403 1.578 88 89 90 91 92 93 924, 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 2.702 7.656 1.059 2.940 2.713 4.043 9.920 0.749 16.964 1.691 5.82 5 7.295 0.481 3.171 2.711 6.235 2.254 0.556 3.653 2.838 8.764 I I .671 4.871 0.749 4,427 4.219 6.430 1.587 1.977 8.921 CrossValidation 7.230 87.183 2.530 17.059 24.548 26.717 66.048 11.570 11.889 2.995 95.282 0.343 8.345 12.909 91.873 58.132 33.270 67.221 113.865 11.580 5.946 81.503 8.293 8.098 19.892 No Calculation No Calculation No Calculation No Calculation No Calculation No Calculation No Calculation No Calculation No Calculation P .10 .05 .05 .20 .10 .20 .05 .01 .20 ,10 .05 193 TABLE A . 11.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samples: Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican Females Generalized Situational Choice Inventory Item Validation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1.713 5.482 3.464 8.997 3.934 5.233 6.731 2.729 4.000 2,466 5.128 6.494 1.272 12.232 7.880 * CrossValidation P 7.254 1.007 3.798 2.027 2.027 5.918 1.279 2.475 11.082 2.977 1.354 3.187 1.005 3.730 0.854 .20 194 TABLE A . 12.— Chi Square Values for Validation and CrossValidation Samplesi Puerto Rican Males and Puerto Rican Females Human Trait Inventory Item Validation 16 20.870 17 14.022 32.693 110.337 4 .660 68.452 11.047 23.883 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 71.068 34.730 12.570 27.266 60.706 18.863 65.356 47.324 102.114 31.967 53.888 9.5^1 18.101 39.613 8.408 81.207 25.254 101.654 CrossValidation 8.752 0.323 11.79^ .01 1.925 4.292 0.378 3.782 6.257 .10 1.662 2.838 15.906 .01 0.662 11.361 5.895 5.608 1.831 7.654 3.847 8.496 11.161 35.575 45.786 94.300 6.889 0.761 4.976 6.026 48.422 7.585 53.771 23.314 3.287 3.428 1.924 5.37^ 3.025 3.393 5.284 26.786 2.178 8.729 27.998 71.237 9.661 3.753 4.562 18.508 .05 3.612 2.801 4.021 45.093 2.750 8.39^ 3.857 2.264 3.398 0.784 8 239 P .01 .20 .20 .10 .05 .05 .01 .05 .20 .20 .05 195 TABLE A .12.— Cont inued Item 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 CrossValidation Validation 69.051 90.969 12.871 114.840 11.816 5.152 55.286 32.911 59.099 88.465 13.530 4.187 3.530 9.185 14.010 4.263 0.384 4.668 10.979 3.848 2.405 4.887 P .05 .01 .20 .05 .20 No Item 8.702 18.257 17.916 25.356 52.845 7.586 5.807 2.271 13.543 36.258 .05 .20 .01 .10 No Item 98.121 12.829 84.052 44.803 23.482 66.315 7.306 13.100 11.538 12.222 68.589 54.671 23.635 6.713 67.556 13.878 8.330 55.602 30.827 73.983 107.582 7.367 5.018 74.528 14.410 7.630 89.201 1.830 4.130 3.967 2.829 2.157 6.778 14.015 8.578 4.812 2.318 1.927 7.595 8.113 5.365 8.229 1.478 4.418 4.679 3.031 8.472 6.309 2.628 3.094 7.334 1.860 1.570 1.241 .10 .10 .05 .10 .05 .20 .05 .20 .05 .10 .10 APPENDIX B FACTORS RELATED TO FOUR GENERAL AREAS OF INVESTIGATION 196 197 TABLE B.l.— Factors Related to the General Area of Authority Relations Authority Relations Authoritarian Orientation Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males Factor I : Parental pressure Factor IV: Parental valuing Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females Factor I : Maternal pressure Factor V : Authority relations Factor VI: Paternal pressure Michigan Males - Michigan Females No relevant factor emerged Puerto Rican Factor I Males - Puerto Rican Females : Educational destiny 198 TABLE B.2,— Factors Related to the General Area of Work Orientation Work Orientation Value Held of Hard Work Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males No relevant factor emerged Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females Factor IV : Work orientation Michigan Males - Michigan Females Factor III: Work orientation Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females Factor VI : Work orientation Value of Initiative and Independence Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males Factor II : Extrinsic versus intrinsic achievement Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females No relevant factor emerged Michigan Males - Michigan Females No relevant factor emerged Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females Factor II : Achievement orientation TABLE B.3.— Factors Related to the General Area of Implicit World View Implicit World View Value of Academic Achievement Michigan Male - Puerto Rican Male Factor I : Parental pressure Factor IV i Parental valuing Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females Factor II : Educational destiny Factor V I I : Achievement performance Michigan Males - Michigan Females Factor I i Educational destiny Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females Factor I : Educational destiny Factor III: Academic orientation Source of Success Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males No relevant factor emerged Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females Factor II : Educational destiny Michigan Males - Michigan Females Factor II : Extrinsic versus intrinsic achievement Factor VI : School orientation Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females No relevant factor emerged TABLE B.*f.— Factors Related to the General Area of Person­ ality Personality Withdrawal Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males No relevant factor emerged Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females No relevant factor emerged Michigan Males - Michigan Females No relevant factor emerged Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females Factor IV r Social orientation Reality Testing Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males No relevant factor emerged Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females No relevant factor emerged Michigan Males - Michigan Females Factor V : Role identification Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females No relevant factor emerged Inner - Directedness Michigan Males - Puerto Rican Males Factor III: Social orientation Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females Factor III: Social orientation Michigan Males - Michigan Females Factor III: Social orientation Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females Factor IV : Social orientation 201 TABLE B . ^ . — C o n t in u e d Personality Long-Term Goals Michigan Males - Puerto Bican Males No relevant factor emerged Michigan Females - Puerto Rican Females Factor IIj Educational destiny Michigan Males - Michigan Females No relevant factor emerged Puerto Rican Males - Puerto Rican Females Factor V : Mobility through education