6 9 -2 0 ,9 2 5

ROWLAND, Howard Ray, 1929A STUDY OF TOE CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN
IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION WITH
EMPHASIS ON MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY.
Michigan State U niversity, Ph.D., 1969
Education, adm inistration
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
© C o p y rig h t by
HOWARD RAY ROWLAND
1969

A STU D Y O F THE C A M P U S OMBUDSMAN
IN A M ERICA N H IG H ER ED UCA TIO N
WITH E M P H A S IS ON MICHIGAN S T A T E UNIVERSITY
By
H ow ard Ray R o w la n d

A T H ESIS
S ubm itted to
M ic h ig an State U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l fu lfillm e n t of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
fo r the d e g r e e of
DOCTOR O F P H IL O S O P H Y
D e p a r tm e n t o f A d m in is tr a tio n a n d H ig h e r E d u catio n
1969

ABSTRACT
A STUDY O F TH E CA M PU S OMBUDSMAN
IN A M ERICA N H IG H ER EDUCATION
W IT H E M P H A S IS ON MICHIGAN STA T E U N IV ERSITY
By
H o w ard R a y Row land

T h e p u r p o s e b of t h i s stu d y w e r e : to d efin e th e c a m p u s
o m b u d s m a n , to r e v ie w th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s leading to h i s a p p e a r a n c e
on th e a c a d e m i c s c e n e , to d e s c r i b e h i s a c tiv i tie s , and to a n a ly z e
the e ffe c ts o f h i s a c t i v i t i e s .

C a m p u s o m b u d sm e n a t s i x in s t i t u t i o n s

of h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n w e r e in te rv ie w e d :

U n iv e r s ity of C a l i f o r n i a a t

B e rk e le y , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y , U n iv e r s ity o f D e tr o it, M ic h ig a n
State U n i v e r s i t y , San D ieg o S tate C o lle g e and San J o s e S ta te C o l­
le g e .

S tu d e n ts w ho c o n s u lte d th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n at M ic h ig a n

State U n i v e r s i t y d u r in g th e 1968 fa ll t e r m w e r e s u r v e y e d .
T h r e e s im u lta n e o u s d e v e lo p m e n ts le d to th e a p p o in tm e n t of
ca m p u s o m b u d s m e n a t f o u r te e n o r m o r e c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s in
the U nited S t a t e s by th e end of 1968.

One w a s th e i n c r e a s i n g d o m i ­

n an ce o f l a r g e - s c a l e f o r m a l o r g a n iz a tio n s in m o d e r n s o c i e t y .

H o w a rd R ay R ow land
a c c e n tu a tin g th e a s y m m e t r y in s iz e an d p o w e r b e tw e e n the in d iv id u a l
and th e o r g a n iz a tio n .

A n o th e r w a s r a p id e n r o l l m e n t g ro w th a t

in s t itu ti o n s o f h i g h e r e d u c a tio n , e x p a n d in g m a n y o f th e m in to c o m ­
p lex, q u a s i - b u r e a u c r a t i c o r g a n iz a tio n s .

B y th e m i d - 1 9 6 0 's , s t u ­

d e n ts h a d b e g u n t o r e a c t a g a in s t in d iv id u a l n e g l e c t an d a b u s e w ith in
the i m p e r s o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n .

The t h i r d d e v e lo p m e n t w a s th e s p r e a d

of th e o m b u d s m a n c o n c e p t in civ il g o v e r n m e n t.
O f S ca n d in a v ia n o rig in , th e c iv il o m b u d s m a n i s a n in d e p e n ­
dent, h i g h - l e v e l o f f ic e r w ho r e c e i v e s c o m p la in ts , m a k e s i n q u i r i e s
and r e c o m m e n d s a p p r o p r i a t e a c tio n .

H is r e m e d i a l w e a p o n s a r e

p e r s u a s i o n , c r i t i c i s m and p u b lic ity .

He cannot r e v e r s e a d m in is tr a ­

tiv e a c tio n .
T h e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n , m o d e le d p r i m a r i l y on the D a n is h
c iv il o m b u d s m a n , i s d efin ed a s an in d e p e n d e n t f a c u lty m e m b e r who
r e c e i v e s c o m p la i n ts , m a in ly fro m s tu d e n ts , a t a c o lle g e o r u n i v e r ­
s ity .

H e m a k e s in q u i r i e s and r e c o m m e n d s a p p r o p r i a t e a c tio n .

r e m e d i a l w e a p o n s a r e p e r s u a s io n an d c r i t i c i s m .
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r a c a d e m ic ac tio n .

H is

H e can no t r e v e r s e

H is c h ie f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s to

h elp r e s o l v e in d iv id u a l stu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s .

H is s e c o n d a r y r e s p o n s i ­

b ility i s t o s e e k p r o c e d u r a l c h a n g e s to r e d u c e g r i e v a n c e s .

H is

o b je c tiv e i s to i m p r o v e r a t h e r than r e p l a c e th e e x i s t i n g s y s t e m .
Both th e c iv il o m b u d s m a n and c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n a r e
a u x i l i a r y to , n o t r e p l a c e m e n t s f o r, e x i s tin g f u n c t i o n a r i e s .

.*

H o w a rd R ay R ow land

T h e m e th o d of s e le c tio n a n d th e p e r s o n s e l e c t e d w e re
found to be c r u c i a l in th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n
p o s itio n .

H e m a y be s e l e c t e d by a n y p o w e r g ro u p o r c o m b in atio n o f

p o w e r g r o u p s a t h i s i n s t itu ti o n .

T h e m a n n e r of s e l e c t i o n u s u a lly i s

c o n s i s t e n t w ith the in s t i t u t i o n 1 s p o w e r e m p h a s is .
I n s titu tio n s w ith c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n r a n g e in s i z e fro m
l a r g e u n i v e r s i t i e s to s m a l l c o l le g e s .

A t M ic h ig a n S ta te U n iv e r s ity ,

a l l c l a s s r a n k s and s tu d e n t a g e g r o u p s w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s tu d e n ts
who c o n s u lte d th a t in stitu tio n * s o m b u d s m a n .

On a p r o p o rtio n a l

b a s i s , u p p e r c l a s s m e n , m a l e s tu d e n ts and m a r r i e d s tu d e n ts w e re
m o r e in c lin e d to c o n s u lt th e o m b u d s m a n w h ile u n d e r c l a s s m e n , f e m a le
s tu d e n ts and s in g le s tu d e n ts w e r e l e s s in c lin e d .

S tu d e n ts fro m c e r ­

ta in c o l le g e s - - p a r t i c u l a r l y A rtB and L e t t e r s and U n iv e r s it y C o lleg e - w e r e " o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d " in th e om budsm an* s o ffic e w h ile s tu d e n ts
f r o m o t h e r c o l l e g e s - - p a r t i c u l a r l y E d u c a tio n and N a t u r a l S c ie n c e - w ere "u n d e r re p re se n te d . "
F o u r d i f f e r e n c e s d is tin g u is h th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n f r o m
th e c h ie f s tu d e n t a f f a i r s o f f ic e r .

T h e o m b u d s m a n h a s no staff, c o n ­

s i d e r s s tu d e n t a c a d e m i c a s w e ll a s n o n - a c a d e m i c p r o b l e m s , is n o t
in v o lv e d in s tu d e n t d i s c i p l i n a r y m a t t e r s , and h a s m o r e in v e s tig a to r y
a u th o r ity .
T w o - t h i r d s o f th e 218 s u r v e y e d s tu d e n ts w ho co n su lted th e
M ic h ig a n S tate U n i v e r s i t y o m b u d s m a n in d ic a te d th a t h e h e lp e d r e l i e v e

H o w a rd R ay R ow land
stu d e n t f r u s t r a t i o n and h o s ti lity .

N e a r l y h a l f of th e r e s p o n d e n ts c o n ­

s i d e r e d th e p r o b l e m s th ey took to th e o m b u d s m a n " c o m p le t e ly s o lv e d "
w hile o n e - t h i r d r e p l i e d "no t so lv e d a t a l l . "

None th o u g h t th e f u n c tio n s

of the o m b u d s m a n sh o u ld be d is c o n tin u e d , alth o u g h o n e - t h i r d r e c o m ­
m e n d ed c h a n g e s .

N e a r ly t h r e e - f o u r t h s of th e s u r v e y e d s tu d e n ts

would h a v e c o n s u lte d th e o m b u d s m a n e v e n i f h is r e c o r d s w e r e o pen
f o r p u b lic i n s p e c ti o n .

T h i r t e e n of 207 r e s p o n d e n ts c l a im e d to h a v e

e x p e r i e n c e d " u n p le a s a n t t r e a t m e n t " by an yo ne in v o lv e d in t h e i r c o m ­
p la in t a f t e r c o n s u ltin g th e o m b u d s m a n .

N e a r ly a l l s u r v e y e d s tu d e n t s

would r e t u r n to th e o m b u d s m a n w ith o t h e r p r o b l e m s a n d r e c o m m e n d
h im to o t h e r s tu d e n ts .
T r a i t s s e l e c t e d by s u r v e y e d s tu d e n ts a s m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r
a c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n to h a v e w e r e , in d e s c e n d in g o r d e r :

kn o w led g e

of campuB o p e r a t i o n s and r e g u la tio n s , u n d e r s ta n d in g , e f f e c t i v e n e s s ,
a u th o rity a n d a c c e s s i b i l i t y .

A n o n - te a c h in g fa c u lty m e m b e r ( a d m in ­

i s t r a t o r ) w a s t h e i r f i r s t c h o ic e f o r a n o m b u d s m a n .

The p re fe rre d

m e th o d of fillin g th e p o s itio n w a s s e l e c t i o n by a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , f a c u lty
and s t u d e n t s .

A t e r m of o ffic e e x te n d in g beyond tw o y e a r s w a s h ig h ly

fav o red .
A c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n m o d e l p r o p o s e d b y t h e a u th o r in c lu d e d
*

th e s e f e a t u r e s :
L o n g - t im e , h i g h l y - r e s p e c t e d , w e l l - p a i d fa c u lty m e m b e r
r e lie v e d o f te a c h in g d u tie s ; s e le c te d by a c o m m itte e r e p r e s e n t i n g

H o w ard R a y R ow land
s tu d e n ts , fac u lty and a d m in is t r a tio n ; a p p o in te d f o r r e n e w a b le tw oy e a r t e r m by institution* s g o v e rn in g b o a r d ; p r i v a t e o ffice s e p a r a t e
fro m m a in a d m in is t r a tio n b u ild in g e a s ily a c c e s s i b l e to s tu d e n ts ;
r e c e p tiv e to in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s c o n c e r n in g th e in s titu tio n ,
both a c a d e m ic and n o n - a c a d e m ic ; u s e s r e a s o n e d p e r s u a s i o n to b r in g
about e x p e d itio u s r e d r e s s o f g en u in e g r i e v a n c e s ; d e t e c t s p a t t e r n s of
g r ie v a n c e s and w o rk s fo r c h a n g e s to end th e m ; h a s a c c e s s to n e a r l y
a l l c a m p u s f ile s ; k e e p s w r i tte n c o n fid e n tia l r e c o r d s ; m a k e s p e r i o d i c
r e p o r t s ; a p p e a ls to o r g a n iz a tio n a l s u p e r i o r s o r c h ie f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
o ffic e r w h en re b u ffe d ; h a s no p o w e r to ta k e d i s c i p l i n a r y a c tio n ,
r e v e r s e d e c is io n s o r c ir c u m v e n t r e g u la tio n s .
The a u th o r concluded t h a t e v e n w h en p e r f o r m i n g e ffe c tiv e ly ,
th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n cannot w a r d off m a j o r s tu d e n t c o n f r o n ta tio n s
o f a p o litic a l n a tu r e ch a lle n g in g th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e of th e
in s titu tio n .

L ik e th e c iv il o m b u d sm a n , th e p o s itio n r e q u i r e s an

o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e w h ich i s r e l a t i v e l y s ta b le , s u p p o r te d and
tr u s t e d b y m o s t of th e people w ith in it m o s t of the t i m e .

It i s in te n d e d

to m a k e a s y s te m of g o v e rn m e n t functio n a s d e s ig n e d r a t h e r than to
r e s t r u c t u r e th e s y s te m .

PREFACE

In th e b e s t o f w o r l d s , t h e r e w o u ld b e no n e e d f o r a n O m b u d s m a n ,
fo r a l l p u b lic s e r v a n t s a n d a l l f a c u lty m e m b e r s and e m p lo y e e s of
u n i v e r s i t i e s w ould b e d o in g t h e i r j o b s p e r f e c t l y .

U n til th a t w o rld

a r r i v e s , h o w e v e r , t r o u b l e - s h o o t e r s , w h e th e r c a lle d O m b u d s m e n
o r n o t, w ill b e n e e d e d .
J a m e s R u s t, O m b u d s m a n
M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s it y

A CK N O W LED G M EN TS

M a n y p e o p le h e lp e d th e a u t h o r co n d u c t th i s s tu d y .
few a r e a c k n o w le d g e d h e r e .

O nly a

N o n e th e le s s , s i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n i s

ex ten d ed to a l l th o s e who, s o m e w h e r e alon g th e w ay , o p en e q a d o o r,
a n s w e r e d a l e t t e r , o r o f fe re d a w o rd of e n c o u r a g e m e n t.
A m o n g th o s e e n title d to s p e c i a l r e c o g n itio n a r e :
D r . V an J o h n s o n , a kind an d d e d ic a te d a d v i s e r w ho a d ju s te d
h is b u sy s c h e d u le t o fit m in e ;
D r . E d w a r d B la c k m a n , D r . R i c h a r d F e a t h e r s to n e and
D r. D on ald O l m s t e d , e a c h of w h o m o ffe re d e x c e ll e n t s u g g e s tio n s
and p r o f e s s i o n a l g u id a n c e ;
D r . J a m e s R u st a n d h i s s e c r e t a r y , M r s . H e le n G ro h ,
w h o se t r u s t a n d c o o p e r a tio n e x c e e d e d the a u t h o r 1 s e x p e c ta tio n s ;
R e v . J . B e n to n W h ite , D r . G e o r g e L e itm a n n , D r . N e ls o n
N o rm a n , D r. I r v in g D eK o ff and T h o m a s D a v is , w ho p a tie n tly
a n s w e r e d u n e n d in g q u e s tio n s ;
D r . S ta n le y A n d e r s o n , w ho g e n e r o u s l y p r o v id e d a n u n p u b ­
lis h e d m a n u s c r i p t f o r r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l ;
My w ife , J u n e , a n d d a u g h t e r s , R u n a y and R h o n d a , who
r e a l i z e d how m u c h i t m e a n t to m e and m a d e the n e c e s s a r y s a c r i f i c e s

IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
L IS T O F T A B L E S ......................................................................................

ix

C h a p te r
I.

II.

INTRODUCTION O F THE P R O B L E M ........................

1

S ta te m e n t of th e P r o b l e m .......................................
O b j e c t i v e s ........................................................................
D e fin itio n o f T e r m s .....................................................
P r o c e d u r e ........................................................................
L i m i t a t i o n s ...................................................................
O v e r v i e w ........................................................................

10
10
11
14
18
19

R EV IEW O F THE L I T E R A T U R E ..................................

21

The O r g a n iz a tio n an d th e I n d iv id u a l
. . . .
T he U n i v e r s i t y and th e S t u d e n t .............................
C iv il O m b u d s m a n .
................................................
S w e d e n ...................................................................
F i n l a n d ...................................................................
........................
D e n m a rk
N o r w a y ...................................................................
New Z e a l a n d .........................................................
G r e a t B r i t a i n .....................................................
C an ad a a n d O t h e r N a t i o n s .............................
U nited S t a t e s .....................................................
S i m i l a r i t i e s an d D i f f e r e n c e s .......................
C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n ................................................
C o n c lu s io n ........................................................................

22
28
47
49
53
53
55
57
59
61
62
67
70
78

v

III.

T H E CA M PU S OMBUDSMAN: A GENERAL,
E V A L U A T I O N ................................................................................... 83
I n s titu t io n s w ith O m b u d s m e n ............................................ 86
F o r S tu d e n ts O n ly ........................................................... 86
94
F o r S tu d e n ts and O t h e r s .......................
F o r F a c u l t y O n l y ......................................................... 105
107
S u m m a r y ............................
I n s titu t io n s C o n s id e r in g O m b u d s m e n ....................... 108
D e s c r i p t i o n .................................................................. 109
S u m m a r y ....................................................................... 116
S e le c te d O m b u d s m e n : S i m i l a r i t i e s and
D issim ila ritie s
.................................................................. 116
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ......................................................... 117
A c t i v i t i e s ....................................................................... 118
A t t i t u d e s ....................................................................... 120
C o n c lu s io n
.............................................................. 121

IV.

T H E CAM PUS OMBUDSMAN: A STU D EN T
E V A L U A T I O N ................................................................................. 124
I n s titu t io n a l S e t t i n g ..............................................................126
O p e r a ti o n a l P r o c e d u r e s ................................................ 12 9
S tud en t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .................................................... 135
E x p e r i e n c e s ............................................................................ 140
A t t i t u d e s .........................................................
148
C a s e s and C o m m e n t s ......................................................... 155
S um m ary .
....................................................................... 161

V.

SUM M ARY , CONCLUSIONS AND
R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S .................................................................. 164
S u m m a r y ................................................................................. 164
T he F i r s t R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ............................ 164
T he S econd an d T h i r d R e s e a r c h
Q u e s t i o n s ....................................................................... 166
T he F o u r t h R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ............................ 169
T he F if th R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ................................. 171
T he Sixth R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ................................. 172
The S e v e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ....................... 173
T he E ig h th R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ............................ 174
The N in th R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ............................ 175
T he T e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ....................... . 1 7 6
vi

T h e E le v e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ...................
T h e T w elfth R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ...................
T h e T h ir te e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n . . . .
T h e F o u r te e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n . . . .
T h e F if te e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ...................
C o n c l u s i o n s ......................................................................
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s . . . ' ..........................................

180
181
181
182
182
186
180

S E L E C T E D B I B L I O G R A P H Y ........................................................

192

P u b lis h e d S o u r c e s ........................................................
B o o k s ...........................................................................
B u lle tin s a n d A n n o u n c e m e n t s ........................
...................
J o u r n a l an d M a g a z in e A r t i c l e s
N e w s p a p e r an d N e w s le tte r A r t i c l e s
. . .
P a m p h l e t s ..................................................................
P u b lic D o c u m e n t s ...............................................
R e p o r t s .......................................................................
U n p u b lish e d S o u r c e s ....................................................
D i s c u s s i o n N o te s
...............................................
D o c u m e n ts
.............................................................
I n t e r v i e w s ..................................................................
L e t t e r s .......................................................................
M a n u s c r i p t s .............................................................
M e m o r a n d a .............................................................
N ew s R e l e a s e s ........................................................
P a p e r s .......................................................................
R e p o r t s .......................................................................
S p e e c h e s ..................................................................

192
192
197
198
206
210
211
212
212
212
213
213
213
215
215
215
216
217
218

A P P E N D I C E S .........................................................................................

219

A ppendix A
L e t t e r to C a m p u s O m b u d s m e n ........................
A ppendix B
I n te r v ie w S chedule fo r C a m p u s
O m b u d s m e n .............................................................
A ppendix C
I n f o r m a tio n O btain ed f r o m C a m p u s
O m b u d s m a n I n t e r v i e w s ......................................
A ppendix D
F o r m U s e d by O m b u d s m a n a t
M ic h ig a n S tate U n i v e r s i t y ............................ ....
v ii

219
221
228
261

A ppendix E
L e t t e r s In c lu d e d w ith Q u e s t io n n a ir e
S ent to S tu d e n ts W ho C o n su lte d
O m b u d s m a n a t M ic h ig a n S tate
U n i v e r s i t y ...............................................
A ppendix F
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Sent to S tu d e n ts Who
C o n s u lte d O m b u d s m a n a t M ic h ig a n
S ta te U n i v e r s i t y .................................

LIST O F T A B L E S

T able
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Page
C o lleg e D is tr ib u tio n of S tudents W ho C o n su lted
C a m p u s O m b u d sm a n C o m p a r e d w ith A ll
S tu den ts E n ro lle d a t M ic h ig an State
U n iv e r s ity , F a l l T e r m , 1968

133

C la s s D is tr ib u tio n o f S tu den ts W ho C o nsulted
C a m p u s O m b u d sm a n R e g a r d in g A c a d e m ic
P r o b l e m s C o m p a re d w ith A ll S tu den ts
E n r o lle d a t M ichigan S tate U n iv e r s it y , F a ll
T e r m , 1968 ....................................................................................

136

C l a s s D is tr ib u tio n o f S tudents W ho C o nsu lted
C a m p u s O m b u d sm a n R e g a r d in g N o n -A c a d e m ic
P r o b l e m s C o m p a re d w ith A ll S tu d ents
E n r o lle d a t M ichigan State U n iv e r s it y , F a ll
T e r m , 1968 ................................................................................

137

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f 218 S tudents W ho C o n su lted
O m b u d sm a n a t M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s ity ,
F a ll T e r m , 1968
................................................................

139

S o u rc e s o f In fo rm a tio n about C a m p u s O m b u d s ­
m a n R e p o rte d by S tu d en ts W ho C o nsulted
O m b u d sm a n a t M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s ity ,
F a ll T e r m , 1968.........................................................................

141

P r e v io u s P r o b le m - S o lv in g A tte m p ts M ade by
S tu d en ts Who C o n s u lte d O m b u d sm a n at
M ic h ig an State U n iv e r s ity , F a l l T e r m , 1968

. . .

142

A c c e s s i b ilit y of C a m p u s O m b u d sm a n a s R e p o rte d
by S tu d en ts Who C o n su lted H im a t M ich ig an
S tate U n iv e r s ity , F a l l T e r m , 1968 ....................................

143

ix

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

C l.

C2.

C3.

C4.

E f f ic ie n c y of C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n a s R e p o r te d
b y S tu d en ts W ho C o n s u lte d H im a t M ic h ig a n
S tate U n iv e r s it y , F a l l T e r m , 1968 ................................

144

E f f e c t i v e n e s s of C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n a s
R e p o r te d b y S tu d e n ts W ho C o n s u lte d H im
a t M ic h ig a n S ta te U n iv e r s it y , F a l l
T e r m , 1968 .................................................................................

146

I m p o r t a n c e o f C o n f id e n tia lity to S tu d e n ts Who
C o n s u lte d O m b u d s m a n a t M ic h ig a n S tate
U n iv e r s it y , F a l l T e r m , 1968 ............................................

149

A ttit u d e s o f S tu d e n ts W ho C o n s u lte d O m b u d s m a n
a t M ic h ig a n S ta te U n i v e r s i t y A n a ly z e d
by N a tu r e o f P r o b l e m , F a l l T e r m , 1968

150

M o st Im p o rtan t T r a its a C am pus O m budsm an
Should H a v e , a s C h o s e n by S tu d e n ts Who
C o n s u lte d O m b u d s m a n a t M ic h ig a n S tate
U n iv e r s it y , F a l l T e r m ,
1968

152

A ttit u d e s R e g a r d in g S e le c tio n a n d T e n u r e of
C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n H e ld b y S tu d e n ts
Who C o n s u lte d O m b u d s m a n a t M ic h ig a n
S tate U n iv e r s it y , F a l l T e r m , 196JB

154

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of C a m p u s O m b u d s m e n a t Six
I n s titu tio n s of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n (O c to b e r,
1968)

228

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Six I n s titu t io n s o f H ig h e r
E d u c a tio n w ith C a m p u s O m b u d s m e n a s
R e p o rte d by T h o s e O m b u d s m e n ( O c to b e r ,
1 9 6 8 ) ................................................................................................

231

O r i g in o f O ffic e o f C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n a t Six
I n s titu tio n s of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n a s R e p o rte d
by T h o s e O m b u d s m e n ( O c to b e r , 1 9 6 8 ) ........................

234

R a tio n a le f o r O ffic e of C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n
a t Six I n s titu t io n s of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n a s
R e p o rte d by T h o s e O m b u d s m e n ( O c to b e r ,
1 9 6 8 ) ................................................................................................

239

x

C5.

C6.

C7.

C8.

C9<

D e s c r i p t i o n of O ffice of C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n
a t Six I n s titu t io n s of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n a s
R e p o r te d b y T h o s e O m b u d s m e n (O c to b e r,
1 9 6 8 ) ................................................................................................

241

O b je c tiv e s of O ffice of C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n
a t Six I n s titu t io n s o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n
a s R e p o r te d by T h o s e O m b u d s m e n
(O c to b e r, 1 9 6 8 ) ........................................................................

245

O p e r a ti o n a l P r o c e d u r e s o f O ffic e o f C a m p u s
O m b u d s m a n a t Six I n s t i t u t i o n s o f H ig h e r
E d u c a tio n a s R e p o r te d by T h o s e O m b u d s ­
m e n (O c to b e r, 1 9 6 8 ) ..............................................................

246

E f f e c t s o f O ffice of C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n a t
Six I n s titu t io n s o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n a s
R e p o r te d by T h o s e O m b u d s m e n (O c to b e r ,
1 9 6 8 ) ................................................................................................

252

A ttitu d e s an d O p in io n s of C a m p u s O m b u d s m e n
a t Six I n s titu t io n s o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n
( O c to b e r , 1 9 6 8 ) ........................................................................

254

xi

CHA PTER I
INTRODUCTION O F T H E P R O B L E M

D u rin g th e p a s t c e n tu r y , A m e r i c a n in s titu tio n s of h ig h e r
ed u c a tio n h av e b ee n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y ra p id g ro w th and i n c r e a s in g
co m p lex ity .

In 1869, about 52, 000 s tu d e n ts w e r e e n r o lle d fo r

d e g r e e s in the n a t i o n 's c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .

T h is fig u re

r e p r e s e n t e d only 1. 1 p e r cent of the p o p u la tio n b etw e en 18 and 24
y e a r s old. * B ut a m a j o r change w a s afo o t.

T he M o r r i l l A ct of

1862, p ro v id in g f e d e r a l s u p p o r t f o r l a n d - g r a n t c o lle g e s , h ad begun
to m a k e s t a t e in s titu tio n s a c c e s s i b l e to m i d d l e - c l a s s m id w e s te r n
youth f a r r e m o v e d fro m e lite e a s t e r n a c a d e m ie s .

T he e g a l i t a r i a n

s p i r i t of the f r o n t i e r , w ith i t s e m p h a s is on a d v a n c e d p r a c t i c a l
le a r n in g a s th e av en u e to o p p o rtu n ity , w a s t r a n s f o r m i n g h ig h e r
ed ucatio n.
By 1900, th e n u m b e r of s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d f o r d e g r e e s had
r i s e n five t i m e s to n e a r l y a q u a r t e r of a m illio n .

T en y e a r s l a t e r

* E d w a rd J . B lo u s te in , " T h e New S tudent and H is Role in
A m e r ic a n C o lle g e s , " L i b e r a l E d u c a tio n , LIV (O c to b e r, 1968), 351.

1

2
th e to ta l r e a c h e d 355, 000,

W hen W o rld W a r I en d ed , th e fig u re

a p p r o a c h e d h a lf a m illio n .

It doubled a g a in by 1929, m o r e than

doubled o n ce m o r e by the end of W o rld W a r II, and a g a in s in c e
then. * T he 1960 fig u re s u r p a s s e d 3, 600, 000, ac c o u n tin g fo r 1 4 .2
p e r ce n t of th e 18-24 y e a r o ld s .

In 1965, th e to ta l w a s 5, 920, 000.

2

T oday th e r e a r e an e s t i m a t e d 6 ,7 0 0 , 000 s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d
in s o m e 2 ,4 0 0 in s titu tio n s o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in the U nited S ta te s.
T h u s, th e m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r i n c r e a s e of a l l w a s in the I 9 6 0 ' s, w hen
c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s counted n e a r l y tw ic e a s m a n y s tu d e n ts a t
the end of the d e c a d e a s a t i t s beginn in g .

T h is ad d itio n of m o r e

th a n t h r e e m illio n s tu d e n ts d u p lic a te s in one d e c a d e the to ta l e n r o l l ­
m e n t g ro w th in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n d u rin g the t h r e e c e n t u r i e s s in c e
H a r v a r d w a s founded.

3

B uilding f r a n tic a lly to m e e t su c h u n p r e c e d e n te d d e m a n d s ,
u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e ex panded to " m u l t i v e r s i t i e s , " t e a c h e r s c o lle g e s
^ M a rtin M e y e r s o n , " T h e E th o s of the A m e r ic a n C o lleg e
Student: Beyond th e P r o t e s t s , " in T he C o n te m p o r a r y U n iv e rs ity :
U. S. A . , ed. by R o b e rt S. M o r is o n (B oston: B eaco n P r e s s , 1967),
p. 268.
2

Sidney G. T ick to n, "T h e M ag n itu d e of A m e r i c a n H ig h e r
E d u c a tio n in 1 9 8 0 ," in C a m p u s 1980: T he Shape of th e F u tu r e in
A m e r ic a n H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , ed. by A lv in C. E u r i c h (New York:
D e la c o r te P r e s s , 1968), p. 14.
Q

C la r k K e r r , " T h e F r a n t i c R a c e to R e m a in C o n t e m p o r a r y ,"
in C o lle g e s a t the C r o s s r o a d s , ed. by W illia m P . L i n e b e r r y (New
Y ork: H. W. W ilso n , 1966), p. 27.

3
to s t a t e c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , and p r iv a te c o lle g e s to s e m i- p u b lic
u n iv e rsitie s.

Oin e e a w eek , on th e a v e r a g e , a new pu blic in s titu tio n

of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , u s u a lly a tw o - y e a r c o lle g e , opens i t s d o o r s .

I

N e v e r in h i s t o r y h a v e s o m a n y young p eo p le con tinu ed t h e i r
e d u c atio n beyon d th e s e c o n d a r y sc h o o l a s in c o n te m p o r a r y A m e r ic a .
C alled upon to e d u c a te p r e v io u s ly u n im a g in e d n u m b e r s of s tu d e n ts ,
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n i s no lo n g e r lim ite d to a s o c ia l, e c o n o m ic , o r i n t e l ­
le c tu a l e l ite ,

y a m p u s e s a c c o m m o d a te s tu d e n ts fro m a l l s e g m e n ts of

s o c ie ty w ith a \ a s t ra n g e o f a ttitu d e s and c o m p e te n c ie s .

2

One o r

m o r e m e m b e r s o f m o s t A m e r ic a n f a m il ie s h av e had s o m e c o lleg e
o r u n i v e r s i t y ed u c atio n .

One of e v e r y tw e n ty -e ig h t p e r s o n s in the

n atio n i s taking co lleg e c o u r s e w o r k , inclu d in g e x te n sio n c o u r s e s .
By c o n t r a s t , in 1869 it w a s one in e v e r y 740.

3

In s o m e p a r t s of th e

nation tod ay, m o r e than h a lf th e high s c h o o l g r a d u a te s e n t e r co lleg e
w itho u t d e la y .
Two m a j o r f a c t o r s c o n trib u te to th e continuing s u r g e in
e n r o llm e n ts :

the "b a b y boom " follow ing W o rld W a r II and th e

^ In d ic a tio n s a r e th a t by 1970 th e n a tio n w ill h a v e 1, 000
t w o - y e a r co lle g es e n r o llin g m o r e th a n two m illio n s tu d e n ts .
2

M e y e r s o n , " T h e E th o s of th e A m e r ic a n C o lleg e S tudent, "

p. 268.
W. M ax W ise, T hey C om e f o r the B e s t of R e a s o n s (W ashington: A m e r ic a n C ou ncil on E d u c a tio n , 1958), pp. 5 -6 .

4
i n c r e a s i n g n e c e s s i t y of a c o lle g e e d u c a tio n to a t t a i n p o s it io n s of
p o w e r a n d p r e s t i g e in A m e r i c a n s o c ie ty .

D u rin g th e f o u r t e e n - y e a r

p e r io d , 1 9 4 6 -5 9 , a t o ta l of fifty -f iv e m illio n c h i l d r e n w e r e b o rn in
th is c o u n try , in c o n t r a s t to o n ly t h i r t y - s i x m il lio n d u r in g th e p r e ­
ceding f o u r t e e n - y e a r p e r i o d .

T h e 1970 c e n s u s m a y r e v e a l a s m a n y

a s eig h t m illio n m o r e c o l l e g e - a g e p e r s o n s in th e n a tio n th a n in
1960, c o m p r i s i n g p e r h a p s tw e lv e p e r c e n t of th e to ta l p o p u la tio n . *
In to d a y 1 s s o p h is tic a te d , te c h n o lo g ic a l s o c ie ty , th e
a m o u n t an d q u a lity of a p erso n * s e d u c a tio n h a v e a c r u c i a l im p a c t
on h is o p p o r tu n iti e s f o r a l l l e v e l s o f o c c u p a tio n a l a c h ie v e m e n t.
T h is , in tu r n , d e t e r m i n e s w h e th e r h e w ill be a b l e to m a i n t a i n o r
a d v a n c e h i s s o c i a l - c l a s s p o s itio n .
s itu a tio n :

A s V e n e r h a s s u m m a r i z e d th e

" C o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e b e c o m e th e g a te w a y

th ro u g h w h ic h c a r e e r - o r i e n t e d y o u th m u s t p a s s to r e a c h th e h ig h le v e l jo b s w h ic h a s s u r e th e m of m e m b e r s h i p in a t l e a s t th e u p p e r
2
m id d le c l a s s . "
T ic k to n h a s p r e d i c t e d tw e lv e m illio n A m e r i c a n c o lle g e a n d
u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n ts by 1980, an i n c r e a s e of 103 p e r c e n t o v e r 1965.
* Jo h n F r e d T h a d e n , " T h e C hanging C o lle g e S tu den t P o p u ­
la tio n , " in T h e C o lle g e S tu d e n t, by W ilb u r B. B r o o k o v e r e t a l .
(New Y o rk : T h e C e n t e r f o r A p p lie d R e s e a r c h i n E d u c a tio n , Inc. ,
1967), p. 20.
2

A r t h u r M. V e n e r , " C o lle g e E d u c a tio n and V o c a tio n a l
C a r e e r , " in B r o o k o v e r e t a l . , T he C o lle g e S tu d e n t, p. 103.

5
M ost of th is g ro w th w ill be in p u b lic , r a t h e r th a n p r iv a te , i n s t i t u ­
tio n s. 1
T h a d e n h a s w a r n e d t h a t "th e n u m b e r of p o te n tia l a p p lic a n ts
for c o lle g e a d m is s io n f o r the n e x t fifte e n to tw e n ty y e a r s w ill be
a s tr o n o m ic a l i n c o m p a r is o n w ith the p a s t . "

2

T h is i n c r e d i b l y ra p id

exp ansio n, N a s o n h a s c o m m e n te d , " i s one of th e b r u te f a c t s of

_

a c a d e m ic life a t th e p r e s e n t t i m e , and i t s im p a c t on h i g h e r e d u c a 3
tion i s in m a n y r e s p e c t s b r u t a l . "
B u lging e n r o llm e n ts , p a r t i c u l a r l y s in c e th e m i d -1940* s,
have m a d e th e s p r a w lin g u n i v e r s i t y w ith 10, 000 to 5 0 ,0 0 0 s tu d e n ts
m o r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the a c a d e m ic s c e n e th a n th e c o lle g ia l i n s t i ­
tution.

No r e v e r s a l of th is t r e n d is in d ic a te d in M a y h e w 's p r e d i c ­

tion th a t by th e end o f th e c e n tu r y the a v e r a g e A m e r ic a n c o lle g e w ill
have 2 0 ,0 0 0 s tu d e n ts .

4

W ith in s t itu ti o n a l g r o w th c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g c o m p le x ity .

In

th is r e s p e c t , c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s m i r r o r th e p r o b l e m s of the
* T ick to n , " T h e M ag nitu de o f A m e r i c a n H ig h e r E d u c a tio n
in 1980, " p. 14.
2

g

T h a d e n , " T h e C hanging C o lle g e S tu den t P o p u l a t i o n ," p. 35.

J o h n W. N a so n , " A m e r i c a n H ig h e r E d u c a tio n in 1 9 8 0 -Some B a s ic I s s u e s , " in E u r i c h , e d . , C a m p u s 1980, p. 397.
4
L e w is B. M ayhew , e d . , H ig h e r E d u c a tio n in th e R e v o lu ­
tio n a ry D e c a d e s (B e rk e le y , C a l i f . : M c C u tc h a n P u b lis h in g C o r p . ,
1967), p. 463.

6
l a r g e r s o c ie ty .

F o r s i z e d e m a n d s d if f e r e n t and m o r e i m p e r s o n a l

f o rm s o f o r g a n iz a tio n w h ich , a s M ayhew h a s p o in ted out, " o ften
evoke a n e g a tiv e r e s p o n s e in s tu d e n ts and fa c u lty a l i k e , " *

T he

m a s s i v e e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n i s one m a n if e s ta tio n of the d o m in a n c e
of l a r g e - s c a l e f o r m a l o r g a n iz a tio n s th ro u g h o u t th e n a tio n , a m o v e ­
m en t W i llia m s h a s id e n tifie d a s " th e m o s t obv io u s s in g le tr e n d in
the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s of th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry .

2

A g ro w in g c o n c e r n in A m e r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n i s the
plight o f the in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t on th e l a r g e and i m p e r s o n a l c a m p u s.
A lthough s tu d e n ts in g r o u p s a r e e x e r tin g c o n s id e r a b le in flu e n c e on
a d m in is t r a tiv e a c tio n th ro u g h e ffe c tiv e o r g a n iz a tio n , s tu d e n ts a s
in d iv id u a ls c o m p la in of n e g le c t, a b u s e and m a n ip u la tio n .

P erson al

a n x ie tie s and f r u s t r a t i o n s g e n e r a te d w ith in th e e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u ­
tion o fte n le ad t o w ith d r a w a l f r o m th e in s titu tio n o r d is r u p tiv e p r o ­
te s t a g a in s t it.
A c o m m o n c o m p la in t r a i s e d by c o lle g e and u n iv e r s i ty s t u ­
d ents c o n c e r n s a c l u s t e r of i s s u e s o ften r e f e r r e d to a s la c k of
4'

-

.

.

.

■

■

-

1Ibid.
2

Robin M. W illia m s , J r . , " A m e r ic a n S ociety in T ra n s itio n :
T re n d s and E m e r g in g D e v e lo p m e n ts in S ocial an d C u l tu r a l S y s te m s , "
in O u r C hanging R u r a l S o ciety : P e r s p e c t i v e s and T r e n d s , ed. by
J a m e s H. Copp (A m es, Iowa: Iowa S tate U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1964),
p. 24.

7
a c c e s s to th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

T h e s tu d e n t w ho h a s a c o m p la in t, a

>

p r o b le m o r a s u g g e s tio n , o r w ho i s c h a r g e d w ith s o m e o ffe n se , o fte n
d o e s n o t know w h e r e to go to m a k e h i m s e l f h e a r d .

T h e s c o p e and

v a r i e t y o f s tu d e n t p r o b l e m s th a t a r i s e c a n n o t be a n tic ip a te d by th e
in s titu tio n .

F u r t h e r m o r e , the d iffu s io n of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i ­

b ility r e q u i r e d in a q u a s i - b u r e a u c r a t i c s y s t e m te n d s to s e g m e n t
stu d e n t s e r v i c e s .

T h u s , th e s tu d e n t w ith a g r ie v a n c e i s c o n s t r a i n e d

by ig n o r a n c e a b o u t p r o c e d u r e s and a n i n h e r e n t e l u s i v e n e s s in th e
p r o c e d u r e s th e m s e l v e s .

H is f r u s t r a t i o n i s o ften a k in to th a t of the

c itiz e n tr y i n g to " f ig h t c ity h a ll.
T h e a n a lo g y b e tw e e n th e g r i e v a n c e o f a s tu d e n t a g a i n s t h i s
u n i v e r s i t y an d th e g r i e v a n c e o f a c i tiz e n a g a i n s t h is g o v e r n m e n t
p a r t i a l l y e x p la in s w hy d u r in g th e I 9 6 0 ' s h a r d - p r e s s e d e d u c a tio n a l
in s t itu ti o n s , s e e k in g w a y s to c o m p e n s a te f o r th e b u r e a u c r a t i c
im b a la n c e b e tw e e n s tu d e n t a n d o r g a n iz a tio n , b e c a m e i n t e r e s t e d in
the' o m b u d s m a n .
A lth o u g h new to h ig h e r .e d u c a t i o n , th e o m b u d s m a n i s w e l l e s ta b li s h e d in c iv il g o v e r n m e n t, h a v in g e m e r g e d a s a p a r l i a m e n t a r y
p o litic a l in s t itu ti o n 160 y e a r s a g o in S w eden.

R e c o g n iz in g th e n e e d

fo r a p r o t e c t o r of th e p e o p le , w h ic h is one m e a n in g o f th e t e r m , th e
1 S a m u e l G o ro v itz , e d . , F r e e d o m an d O r d e r in th e U n i v e r ­
s ity (C le v e la n d : T h e P r e s s o f W e s t e r n R e s e r v e U n iv e r s it y , 1967),
p. 20.

8
1809 Sw edish c o n s titu tio n p r o v id e d f o r a " J u s titie o m b u d s m a n " to
se e th a t c i tiz e n s w e r e not d e p r iv e d of t h e i r r i g h t s and l i b e r t i e s .
Since then , s i m i l a r p o s itio n s h a v e b ee n in s titu te d in th e o th e r t h r e e
S can dinav ian c o u n t r ie s an d r e c e n t l y in New Z e a la n d and G r e a t B r i t ­
ain.

O th e r l a r g e n a tio n s , in clu d in g C a n a d a and th e U n ited S ta te s ,

a r e c o n s id e r in g w ay s of fittin g th e o m b u d s m a n in to t h e i r g o v e r n ­
m e n ta l s t r u c t u r e s . *
On a s m a l l e r s c a le , the s t a t e of H aw aii and two C an ad ian
p r o v i n c e s - - A l b e r t a and New B r u n s w ic k - - h a v e p a s s e d o m b u d sm a n
le g is la tio n .

O m b u d sm a n b ill s h a v e b ee n in tr o d u c e d in n e a r l y a l l

A m e r ic a n s t a t e and C a n a d ia n p r o v in c ia l l e g i s l a t u r e s .

Such a p o s i ­

tio n is being tr i e d e x p e r i m e n ta lly in B uffalo and N a s s a u C ounty,
New Y ork , and San D iego, C a lif o rn ia .

A n u m b e r of o th e r A m e r ic a n
2
c itie s a r e c o n s id e r in g th e m e r i t s of the o m b u d s m a n co n c ep t.
The f i r s t c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n w a s ap p o in ted in 1966 a t

E a s t e r n M on tan a C o lle g e .

By th e end of 1968, a t l e a s t f o u rte e n

^D onald C. Row at, " T h e S p re a d o f the O m b u d s m a n I d e a , "
in O m b u d sm e n f o r A m e r ic a n G o v e r n m e n t ? , ed. by S tanley V.
A n d e rso n (E nglew ood C liffs, N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1968),
pp. 7-3 6 .
2

H ing Yong C heng, " T h e E m e r g e n c e and S p re a d of th e
O m b u d sm an I n s titu tio n , " T h e A n n a ls of th e A m e r ic a n A c a d e m y of
P o litic a l and S o cial S c i e n c e , CCCLXXVII (M ay, 1968), 2 0 -3 0 .
A lso, W illia m H. A ngus and M ilto n K ap la n , " T h e O m b u d s m a n and
L ocal G o v e rn m e n t, " in A n d e r s o n , e d . , O m b u d s m e n f o r A m e r i c a n
G o v e r n m e n t ? , pp. 1 0 1-3 5.

9
co lle g e s an d u n i v e r s i t i e s h a d fa c u lty m e m b e r s s e r v in g a s o m b u d s ­
m en, in c lu d in g su c h la r g e and in f lu e n tia l in s titu tio n s a s th e U n i v e r ­
sity of C a lif o r n ia a t B e r k e le y , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y an d M ic h ig an
State U n iv e r s ity .

S e v e r a l in s titu tio n s h ad f a c u lty - s tu d e n t o m b u d s ­

m an c o m m itt e e s o r s tu d e n t o m b u d sm e n .

O th e r s w e r e in v a r io u s

s ta g e s of a p p o in tin g fa c u lty o m b u d sm e n .

Some fifty c o lle g e s and

u n i v e r s i t i e s f r o m a l l a r e a s of the c o u n try w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d a t the
f i r s t n a tio n a l m e e tin g on th e o m b u d sm a n in h ig h e r ed u c atio n
O c to b e r 2 4 -2 5 , 1968, in D e tr o it, M ic h ig an .
T h u s, a new p o s it io n - - th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n - - i s e m e r g ­
ing in A m e r ic a n h ig h e r ed u c a tio n .

In d ic a tio n s a r e th a t d u rin g the

next few y e a r s a s u b s t a n tia l n u m b e r of c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w ill
e s ta b lis h th e office of o m b u d sm a n , ev en though th e r o le in v o lv e d i s
am b ig u o u s b e c a u s e th e p o sitio n h a s not b e e n fu lly d efin e d o r s y s t e ­
m a tic a lly s tu d ie d .

P e r s o n s p r e s e n tly s e r v i n g a s c a m p u s o m b u d s ­

m en do not h av e id e n tic a l r o le p e r c e p tio n s .

I n q u i r i e s th ey r e c e i v e

r e v e a l m u c h i n t e r e s t in th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n b u t lit tle u n d e r ­
sta n d in g of h i s a c tiv i tie s .

E ven the s c a n t am o u n t of l i t e r a t u r e on

the s u b je c t g iv e s ev id e n c e of d iv e rg e n t think in g.
a p r e s s i n g need fo r m o r e in fo rm a tio n .

In s h p r t , t h e r e is

T h is stu d y w a s con d ucted

to p ro v id e s u c h in f o rm a tio n , a s i s in d ic a te d in th e s ta te m e n t o f the
p ro b le m and r e l a t e d o b je c tiv e s .

10
S ta te m e n t of the P r o b le m
T he p r o b le m on w h ich th is s tu d y i s b a s e d i s fo u r-fo ld :
(1) to d e fin e th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n , (2) to r e v ie w th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s
heading to h is a p p e a r a n c e on th e a c a d e m ic s c e n e , (3) to d e s c r i b e h is
a c tiv i tie s , and (4) to a n a ly z e th e e f f e c ts of h is a c tiv i tie s .
O b je c tiv e s
B e c a u s e th e stu d y i s p r i m a r i l y e x p l o r a to r y in n a t u r e ,
r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s r a t h e r th a n h y p o th e s e s w e r e u s e d a s a guide in
co llec tin g and a n a ly z in g d a ta .

A s o b je c tiv e s to b e p u r s u e d , the f o l­

lowing q u e s tio n s w e r e f o rm u la te d :
1.

W hat a r e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the c a m p u s o m b u d s ­
m an?

2.

How i s th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n s e l e c t e d ?

3.

To w hom i s the c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n r e s p o n s i b l e ?

4.

W hat a r e th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s am ong
v a r io u s c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n ?

5.

W hat c o n d itio n s an d e v e n ts have b ro u g h t c a m p u s o m ­
b u d s m e n in to e x i s te n c e on A m e r ic a n c o lle g e and
u n iv e rsity ca m p u se s?

6.

How p r e v a l e n t i s the o m b u d sm a n in A m e r i c a n h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n ?

7.

W hat k in d s of g r ie v a n c e s do s tu d e n ts b r in g t o the
cam pus om budsm an?

8.

W hat a r e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s tu d e n ts w ho co nsult
th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n ?

11
9.

W hat a r e th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s of th e
c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n and th e c iv il o m b u d s m a n ?

10.

W hat a r e th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s of the
c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n and o th e r c o lle g e and u n i v e r s i t y
f u n c tio n a r i e s ?
, ,

11.

How d o e s th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n a s s e s s h is e f f e c t iv e ­
ness?

12.

How do s tu d e n ts w ho c o n s u lt the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n
a s s e s s h i s e f f e c t iv e n e s s ?

13.

Do s tu d e n ts who c o n s u lt th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n e x p e ­
r i e n c e r e t a l i a t i o n f r o m th o s e inv o lv ed in t h e i r g r i e v ­
ances?

14.

I s c o n fid e n tia lity im p o r ta n t to s tu d e n ts who c o n s u lt the
cam pus om budsm an?

15.

Can a m o d e l be d e v e lo p ed f o r c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n to
follow , w ith m o d ific a tio n s to m e e t th e s p e c if ic n e e d s
of t h e i r in s t itu ti o n s ?
D efin itio n of T e r m s

B e fo re m o v in g to p r o c e d u r e s follow ed to p u r s u e th e o b j e c ­
tiv e s lis te d ab o v e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y to d efin e s e v e r a l t e r m s to be
u se d th ro u g h o u t th e r e m a i n d e r of the s tu d y .

S ince one p a r t of the

p ro b le m i s to d e v is e a c o m p r e h e n s iv e d e fin itio n of th e t e r m " c a m p u s
o m b u d sm a n , " th e d e s c r i p t i o n g iv e n h e r e is a p r e l i m i n a r y d e fin itio n
u se d a s a g u id e in conducting th e stu d y .
a p p e a r s in C h a p te r V.

A m o r e c o m p le te d efin itio n

The follow ing d e f in itio n s h a v e b e e n adopted:

C iv il O m b u d s m a n . - - A n in d e p e n d e n t, h ig h - le v e l o f f ic e r in
c iv il g o v e r n m e n t who r e c e i v e s c o m p la in ts , who p u r s u e s i n q u i r i e s

12
into the m a t t e r s involved, an d who m a k e s r e c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r
s u ita b le a c tio n .

H e m a y a l s o in v e s tig a te on h i s own m o tio n .

m a k e s p e r io d ic p u b lic r e p o r t s .

He

H is r e m e d i a l w e a p o n s a r e p e r ­

s u a s io n , c r i t i c i s m and p u b lic ity .

He cannot a s a m a t t e r of law

r e v e r s e a d m in is t r a tiv e a c tio n . *
C a m p u s O m b u d s m a n . - - A n in d e p e n d e n t fa c u lty m e m b e r
who r e c e i v e s c o m p la in ts , p r i m a r i l y f ro m s tu d e n ts , a t a co lleg e o r
u n iv e r s ity , who p u r s u e s i n q u ir ie s in to the m a t t e r s involved, and
who m a k e s r e c o m m e n d a tio n s fo r s u ita b le a c tio n .
re p o rts.

He m a k e s p e r io d ic

H is r e m e d i a l w e a p o n s a r e p e r s u a s i o n , c r i t i c i s m and, a t

h is d is c r e tio n , p u b lic ity .

H e cannot a s a m a t t e r of p o lic y r e v e r s e

a d m in is tr a tiv e o r a c a d e m ic a c tio n .
Student O m b u d s m a n . - - A s tu d e n t a t a c o lle g e o r u n iv e r s i ty
who p e r f o r m s e s s e n ti a ll y th e s a m e fu n ctio n s a s th o se p e r f o r m e d by
a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n .
R o le . - - T he set o f p r e s c r i p t i o n s d efin in g w hat the b e h a v io r
•

of a p o sitio n m e m b e r should be.

2

*T he O m b u d s m a n , R e p o rt o f th e T h ir ty - s e c o n d A m e r ic a n
A sse m b ly , O c to b e r 2 6-29, 1967 (New Y ork: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity ,
u ndated), p. 6.
2
B r u c e J . Biddle an d E dw in J . T h o m a s , R ole T heo ry:
C oncepts and R e s e a r c h (New York: Jo h n W iley and Sons, I n c . ,
1966), p. 29.

13
R o le P e r c e p t i o n . - - The m a n n e r in w h ic h an in d iv id u a l v iew s
a p o s itio n he f i l l s .

T h is c o n c e p t i s a p tly d e s c r i b e d by K ah n and h is

a s so c ia te s:
E a c h p e r s o n . . - h a s a co n c ep tio n o f h i s office an d a s e t
of a ttitu d e s and b e lie f s about w h a t he sh o u ld and sh o u ld not do
w hile in th a t p o sitio n . He h a s s o m e a w a r e n e s s of w h a t b e h a v io r
w ill fu lfill h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , le a d to the a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f
th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l o b je c tiv e s , o r f u r t h e r h i s own i n t e r e s t s . He
m a y ev en h a v e had a p a r t in d e t e r m in in g th e f o r m a l r e s p o n s i ­
b ili tie s o f h i s office. *
Role C o n flic t. — E x p o s u r e o f an in d iv id u a l to in c o m p a tib le
2
b e h a v io r a l e x p e c ta tio n s in^a given p o s itio n .
A c t i v i t i e s . - - S p e c ific a c tio n s o r p u r s u i t s : o v e r t b e h a v io r s
th a t a r e a p p a r e n t and e v id e n t to th e s e n s e s .
" E s t a b l i s h m e n t . 11- - The a g g r e g a te of in d iv id u a ls who hold
the p r i m a r y p o s itio n s of p o w e r , a u th o r it y and d e c is io n - m a k in g in
an o r g a n iz a tio n .
" M u l t i v e r s i t y . 11- - T e r m c o in e d by C l a r k K e r r to d e s c r i b e
a co m p lex in s titu tio n of h i g h e r e d u c a tio n and r e s e a r c h w h ic h i s no t
R o b e r t L. K ahn, D onald M. Wolfe, R o b e r t P . Q uinn,
J . D. Snoek, and R o b e rt A . R o s e n th a l, O rg a n iz a tio n a l S t r e s s :
S tu d ie s in R o le C onflict a n d A m b ig u ity (New Y o rk : Jo h n W iley and
Sons, I n c . , 1964), p. 18.
2
N e il G r o s s , W a r d S . M a s o n , and A le x a n d e r W. M c E a c h e rn ,
E x p lo r a tio n s in R ole A n a ly s is (New Y ork : J o h n W iley and Sons, Inc. ,
1958), p. 246.

14
an a c a d e m ic c o m m u n ity but r a t h e r s e v e r a l c o m m u n itie s w ith v a r ie d ,
even c o n flic tin g , i n t e r e s t s . 1
T h e n ex t s te p i s to d e s c r i b e th e p r o c e d u r e u s e d to g a t h e r
in fo rm a tio n n e e d e d to p u r s u e th e o b je c tiv e s o f th e stu d y .
P ro ced u re
U sin g m e th o d s r e c o m m e n d e d by A n g e ll and F r e e d m a n , a
s y s te m o f c l a s s i f ic a ti o n and a n a l y s i s o f w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s w a s
em ployed to c o n v e rt w id e ly s c a t t e r e d in f o r m a tio n abo u t c iv il and
ca m p u s o m b u d s m e n in to o r g a n iz e d d a ta .

2

M a t e r i a l s stu d ie d in th is

m a n n e r in c lu d e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , c o p ie s of o f fic ia l d o c u m e n ts ,
w r itte n r e c o r d s and r e p o r t s , u n p u b lis h e d p a p e r s and s p e e c h e s ,
m in u te s of m e e ti n g s , o th e r m e m o r a n d a , b o o k s, b ib lio g r a p h ie s , and
a r t i c l e s in p e r i o d i c a l s and n e w s p a p e r s .
A lthough a n u m b e r of c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e
included in th e c o lle c tio n of d a ta , the fo c u s w a s on s ix in s titu tio n s
w hich h av e f u ll- tim e o r p a r t - t i m e c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n .

S e le c te d

for t h e i r l a r g e s i z e , fu n c tio n a l d i v e r s i t y and g e o g r a p h ic a l
* C la r k K e r r , The U s e s of the U n i v e r s i t y (New Y ork:
H a r p e r & Row, 1966), pp. 1 8 -1 9 .
2

R o b e r t C. A n g ell an d R o n ald F r e e d m a n , " T h e U s e of
D o cu m e n ts, R e c o r d s , C e n s u s M a t e r i a l s , and I n d i c e s , " in R e s e a r c h
M ethods in the B e h a v io r a l S c i e n c e s , ed . by L eo n F e s t i n g e r and
D aniel K a tz (New Y o rk: H olt, R i n e h a r t and W in sto n , 1953), pp. 30023.

15
d is trib u tio n , the in s titu tio n s w h o se o m b u d s m e n w e r e in te rv ie w e d
are;

(1) U n iv e r s ity of C a lif o r n ia a t B e r k e le y , (2) M ic h ig an S tate

U n iv e r s ity , two m a j o r p u b lic u n i v e r s i t i e s ; (3) C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity ,
(4) U n iv e r s ity of D e tr o it, tw o m a j o r p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s , th e
f o r m e r w ith o ut r e lig io u s a ffilia tio n and th e l a t t e r a R o m an C a th o lic
(Je su it) in s titu tio n ; and (5) San D iego S tate C o lle g e , (6) San J o s e
State C o lle g e , two p u b lic in s titu tio n s in the s a m e (C a lifo rn ia S tate
College) s y s t e m .
T a p e - r e c o r d e d in te r v i e w s w ith t h e s e six c a m p u s o m b u d s ­
m en , t r a n s c r i b e d in to m o r e th a n 100 ty p e w r itte n p a g e s , p ro v id e d
m uch of th e d a ta s u m m a r i z e d in C h a p te r III and A ppendix C.

As

Good h a s p oin ted out, th e f a c e - t o - f a c e in te r v ie w o f f e r s a d v a n ta g e s
o v e r the m a ile d q u e s tio n n a ir e , * A s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d s c h e d u le of
q u e s tio n s a s s u g g e s te d by M acco b y and M a c c o b y p ro v id e d r e s p o n s e s
that could be c o m p a r e d and c o n t r a s te d .

2

B e c a u s e th e p o p u la tio n of c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n i s so s m a l l
and no a c c u r a t e r o s t e r i s a v a ila b le , n o th in g could h a v e b ee n g ain ed
1C a r t e r V. Good, E s s e n t i a l s o f E d u c a tio n a l R e s e a r c h (New
York: A p p le to n - C e n tu r y - C r o f ts , 1966), p. 229.
2

E le a n o r E.. M acco b y an d N ath an M acco by , " T h e In te rv ie w ;
A T ool of S o cial S cie n c e , " in H andbook o f S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y , ed. by
G a r d n e r L in d ze y (R ead in g, M a s s . : A d d is o n - W e s le y P u b lis h in g
Com pany, I n c . , 1954), I, 4 4 9 -8 7 .

16
by a tte m p tin g to u s e ra n d o m s a m p lin g .

N o n -ra n d o m s e le c tio n w a s

c o n s id e re d m o r e a d v a n ta g e o u s b e c a u s e it allo w ed c o n c e n tr a tio n on
th o se in s titu tio n s w hich h av e ta k e n th e le a d in u tiliz in g c a m p u s o m ­
b u d sm e n .

A lthough no s t a t i s t i c a l in f e r e n c e s c a n be m a d e fro m su ch

in te rv ie w fin d in g s, c a r e f u l ly c o n s id e r e d g e n e r a liz a ti o n s a r e not
inv alid. *
T he m a in e m p h a s is in th e stud y, a s in d ic a te d by th e title ,
w as on M ich ig an S tate U n iv e r s ity , w h e r e s tu d e n ts who h a v e c o n ­
su lted th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n w e r e s u r v e y e d .

T h is in s titu tio n w as

chosen fo r s tu d e n t a s s e s s m e n t b e c a u s e i t s c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n h a s
been in office lo n g e r th a n a n y o th e r o m b u d sm a n a t a m a j o r u n i v e r ­
sity .

F u r t h e r m o r e , h e d e a l s with a w ide r a n g e of s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s

and r e c o r d s th e n a m e s of a l l who v i s i t h im .

A to ta l of 525 s tu d e n ts

co nsu lted th e o m b u d sm a n d u r in g the 1967-68 a c a d e m ic y e a r ,
followed by 305 d u rin g the 1968 fa ll t e r m .

A ny a tte m p t to ta k e a

ran do m s a m p le f r o m a l l 830 s tu d e n ts would h a v e b e e n c o m p lic a te d
by the fa c t th a t m a n y of th o s e s tu d e n ts had ch an ged r e s id e n c e o r
w e r e no lo n g e r e n r o lle d by D e c e m b e r 31, 1968.

Such an a p p r o a c h

p ro b a b ly would h a v e r e s u l t e d in a low r e s p o n s e and a b ia s e d s a m p le .
A lso, th e q u e s tio n n a i r e w h ich w as d ev elo ped r e q u i r e d th e s tu d e n t to
*D avid R. K ra th w o h l, How to P r e p a r e a R e s e a r c h P r o p o s a l
(S y ra c u se , N . Y . : By the A u th o r, S y ra c u s e U n iv e r s it y , 1966), p. 32.

17
r e c a l l h i s v is i t to the o m b u d s m a n in c o n s id e r a b le d e ta il.

It i s lik e ly

that q u e s tio n n a i r e s r e t u r n e d by s tu d e n ts w h o se v i s i t s had o c c u r r e d
s e v e r a l m o n th s e a r l i e r would h a v e co n tain ed n u m e r o u s e r r o r s of
re c o lle c tio n .
To l e s s e n th e s e a n tic ip a te d p r o b le m s of n o n - r e s p o n s e and
p oo r r e c a l l , th e s u r v e y w a s c o n c e n tr a te d on th e m o s t r e c e n t tim e
p e rio d long enough to c o v e r a w ide ran g e of s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s - - t h e
1968 f a ll t e r m .

A gain, ra n d o m s a m p lin g w a s d e e m e d in a p p r o p r ia te

b e c a u se of th e s m a l l p op ulatio n in vo lv ed.

C o n se q u e n tly , a d e c is io n

w as m a d e to s a m p le w ith c e r t a in ty and th u s e l im in a te s a m p lin g
e r r o r , r e c o g n iz in g , of c o u r s e , th a t e r r o r s a t tr i b u ta b l e to n o n ­
sa m p lin g f a c t o r s ( e . g . , n o n - r e s p o n s e ) w ould not b e e lim in a te d .
Q u e s tio n n a ir e s w e r e s e n t to a l l 305 fa ll t e r m s tu d e n ts f o r whom
a d d r e s s e s w e r e a v a ila b le , follow ed by a n o t h e r m a ilin g to n o n ­
r e s p o n d e n ts a f t e r two w e e k s .

E f f o r t s to o b ta in a high le v e l of

r e s p o n s e w e r e e n h a n ce d by the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n 1 s w illin g n e s s
to in c lu d e in b o th m a ilin g s a l e t t e r u rg in g c o o p e ra tio n and a s s u r i n g
anonym ity.

O f the 288 q u e s tio n n a i r e s s e n t, 218 w e r e r e t u r n e d f o r

a 75. 6 p e r cent r e s p o n s e . * F in d in g s a r e r e p o r t e d in C h a p te r IV.
The q u e s tio n n a ir e i s r e p r o d u c e d in A ppendix F .
^ Q u e s tio n n a ir e s could n o t be s e n t to s e v e n te e n of the o r i g ­
inal 305 s tu d e n ts b e c a u s e c u r r e n t a d d r e s s e s w e r e u n a v a ila b le .

18
Since the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n i s o b lig a te d to k e e p h i s f ile s
co nfiden tial, a t no ti m e did th e r e s e a r c h e r l e a r n th e n a m e s of s t u ­
dents in v olved in the s u r v e y e x c e p t f o r th o s e w ho v o lu n ta r ily i d e n t i ­
fied th e m s e l v e s f o r p o s s ib le fo llo w -u p in te r v i e w s .

A lso, th e o m ­

b u d sm an w a s u n ab le t o link n a m e s w ith q u e s tio n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s
b e c a u se r e t u r n s w ent to the r e s e a r c h e r and r e m a i n in h is p o s s e s s i o n .
This p r o c e d u r e w a s e x p la in e d in the q u e s tio n n a ir e s o th a t r e s p o n ­
dents would n o t be h e s i t a n t to a s s e s s th e o m b u d s m a n ca n d id ly and
co m p letely .

D a ta o b ta in e d w e r e p r o c e s s e d by c o m p u te r .

B e f o r e r e p o r tin g and a n a ly z in g th e in f o r m a tio n g a th e r e d in
su c ce e d in g c h a p t e r s , i t i s i m p o r ta n t to s p e c ify s o m e of th e l i m i t a ­
tions im p o s e d by the p r o c e d u r e ad o p ted .
L im ita tio n s
A s w ith a ll r e s e a r c h e n d e a v o r s , th is stu d y h a s d e fin ite
lim ita tio n s .

No a t te m p t w as m a d e to o b ta in d e ta ile d in f o rm a tio n on

all c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n o r to r e p o r t d e v e lo p m e n ts in the a r e a u n d e r
in v e stig a tio n w h ich o c c u r r e d a f t e r D e c e m b e r 31, 1968.

A lso , s t u ­

dent r e a c tio n to the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n w a s not a s s e s s e d a n y w h e re
ex cep t a t M ic h ig a n S ta te U n iv e r s ity .

F in a lly , no s y s t e m a t i c a tte m p t

was m a d e to d e t e r m i n e a t titu d e s h eld by fa c u lty and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
con cerning th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n a t any in s titu tio n .

19
B e c a u s e o f th e r e s t r i c t e d s a m p l e s u s e d f o r th e study,
i n t e r p r e t a ti o n o f th e find ing s m u s t be k e p t in p r o p e r p e r s p e c tiv e .
It is to be e x p e c te d th a t s i m i l a r s tu d ie s inv olving o t h e r in s titu tio n s
of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n m ig h t y ie ld c o n t r a d ic to r y r e s u l t s .

T herefore,

it is n ot c la im e d th a t th e d a ta o b ta in ed p r e s e n t a c o n c lu s iv e o r
c o m p re h e n s iv e a n a ly s is of u n i v e r s a l in s titu tio n a l p r a c t i c e and s t u ­
dent r e s p o n s e r e g a r d in g th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n .
N e v e r th e le s s , in f o rm a tio n p r e s e n t e d in th e follow ing ch a p ­
t e r s m a y be u s e f u l in th e a d a p ta tio n of th e o m b u d s m a n co n cep t to
o th e r c o lle g e and u n iv e r s i ty c a m p u s e s s in c e s tu d e n t p r o b le m s and
o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e s b e a r a d e g r e e o f s i m i l a r i t y f r o m i n s t i t u ­
tion to in s titu tio n .

T o s o m e e x te n t, t h e r e f o r e , th e fin d in g s of th is

study m a y h a v e b ro a d a p p lic a tio n , m o d ifie d to m e e t lo c a l c i r c u m ­
s ta n c e s and in d iv id u a l p r e f e r e n c e s .
O v erv iew
T he c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n h a s b e e n id e n tifie d a s a new p o s i ­
tion w hich A m e r ic a n c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e a d a p te d fro m
civil g o v e r n m e n t to h e lp th e in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t cope w ith the c o m p lex
in stitu tio n .

A n eed f o r f u r t h e r in f o r m a tio n i s e s ta b li s h e d a s the

b a s is f o r th is e x p l o r a to r y stu d y .

T o p r e p a r e a fo u nd ation fo r the

ensuing c h a p t e r s , th e p r o b le m to be e x a m in e d h a s b e e n id e n tified ,

20
t e r m s defined, o b je c tiv e s s ta te d , p r o c e d u r e d e s c r i b e d and l i m i t a ­
tio n s re c o g n iz e d .
T h e se c o n d c h a p te r i s a r e v ie w of p r o f e s s i o n a l and r e s e a r c h
l i t e r a t u r e r e g a r d i n g the d e v e lo p m e n t of the o m b u d s m a n co n cep t b oth
in c iv il g o v e r n m e n t and in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .

R e f e r e n c e s to s e le c te d

l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n in g r e la tio n s h i p s b etw e en th e o r g a n iz a tio n and the
in d iv id u al and b e tw e e n the u n i v e r s i t y and th e s tu d e n t a l s o a r e in r
eluded,

T h e c h a p te r c lo s e s w ith a s u m m a r y of the o m b u d sm a n c o n ­

cept in th e o r y and p r a c t ic e .
I n f o r m a tio n o b ta in e d fro m i n te r v i e w s and c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
w ith c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n i s p r e s e n t e d in th e th ir d c h a p te r and
Appendix C.

D a ta c o lle c te d in a s u r v e y of s tu d e n ts who h av e c o n ­

su lte d a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n a r e a n a ly z e d in th e fo u rth c h a p te r .
The stu d y i s co n clu d ed in th e fifth and final c h a p te r , w h e r e r e s e a r c h
q u e s tio n s a r e r e c o n s i d e r e d , find in g s s u m m a r i z e d and r e c o m m e n d a ­
tio n s m a d e.
B e fo r e tu r n in g to s p e c if ic i n q u i r i e s r e g a r d i n g th e c a m p u s
o m b u d sm an , an ad e q u a te u n d e r s ta n d in g of th e h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o ­
lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t of the o m b u d s m a n co n c ep t i s n e c e s s a r y .
T h e r e f o r e , p e r tin e n t l i t e r a t u r e i s r e v ie w e d in th e n e x t c h a p te r .

C H A P T E R II
REVIEW O F TH E L IT E R A T U R E

In th e p r e v io u s c h a p te r the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n w a s
identified a s an e m e r g in g p o sitio n in A m e r i c a n h i g h e r e d u c a tio n
som ew hat an a lo g o u s to th e o m b u d sm a n in c iv il g o v e r n m e n t.

B oth

d ev e lo p m e n ts w e r e s e e n a s a t te m p ts to a m e l i o r a t e p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s
in the i m p e r s o n a l o r g a n iz a tio n .

It w a s p o in te d out, h o w e v e r, th a t

th ere i s a s y e t n o g e n e r a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o r a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d in g th e
role of the c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n ev en though a n u m b e r o f in s t itu ti o n s
have e s ta b li s h e d the p o s itio n and o t h e r s a r e m o v in g in th a t d ir e c tio n .
The need f o r m o r e in f o rm a tio n w a s c ite d a s th e m a in p u r p o s e o f the
study.
In o r d e r to a s s i m i l a t e e x is tin g in f o r m a tio n , r e l a t e d l i t e r a ­
tu re i s re v ie w e d in t h i s c h a p te r .

S u rv e y ed i n th e f i r s t s e c tio n a r e

se le c te d r e f e r e n c e s to th e o r g a n iz a tio n and th e in d iv id u a l.

In th e

second s e c tio n r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n in g th e u n i v e r s i t y and th e
student i s c o n s id e r e d .

W r itte n m a t e r i a l s d e a lin g w ith th e o m b u d s ­

man in civ il g o v e rn m e n t and th e o m b u d s m a n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a r e

21

22
exam ined in th e th ir d and fo u rth s e c tio n s .

T he f in a l s e c tio n i s a

s u m m a r y of the o m b u d s m a n c o n c ep t in th e o r y and p r a c t i c e a s
re p o rte d in the l i t e r a t u r e .
T he O r g a n iz a tio n and th e In d iv id u al
M o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n d e p e n d s on b u r e a u c r a t i c a l l y - s t r u c t u r e d
o rg a n iz a tio n s a s the m o s t r a t i o n a l and e ffic ie n t f o r m of s o c ia l
grouping known.

By c o o rd in a tin g d i v e r s e in d iv id u a l a c t i v i t i e s ,

so ciety a t ta i n s p r e d e t e r m i n e d o b je c tiv e s .

It a l s o co n tin u a lly e v a lu ­

a te s o r g a n iz a tio n a l fu n ctio n s and m a k e s a d j u s tm e n ts .

A lthough

o rg a n iz a tio n s a r e a n c ie n t in o r ig in , m o d e r n i n d u s t r i a l n a tio n s h a v e
m o re and l a r g e r o r g a n iz a tio n s than a n y p r e v io u s s o c i a l s y s t e m s . *
D u rin g th e p a s t f o rty y e a r s b e h a v io r a l s c i e n t i s t s h a v e p r o ­
duced a c o n s id e r a b le a m o u n t of l i t e r a t u r e on o r g a n iz a tio n s .

A m ong

the re c o g n iz e d a u t h o r i t i e s in th e field i s E tz io n i, who h a s e p ito m iz e d
the a ll- p e r v a d in g in flu e n c e of o r g a n iz a tio n a l a c tiv i ty in th is s ta te m e n t:
We a r e born in o rg a n iza tio n s, educated by o rg a n iz a tio n s, and
moBt of ub spend m uch of our liv e s w orking for o rg a n iza tio n s.
We sp en d m u c h of o u r l e i s u r e tim e paying, p la y in g , and p r a y ­
ing in o r g a n iz a tio n s . M o st of u s w ill d ie in an o r g a n iz a tio n ,
and w hen the tim e c o m e s f o r b u r ia l, th e l a r g e s t o r g a n iz a tio n
of a l l - - t h e s t a t e - - m u s t g r a n t o ffic ia l p e r m i s s i o n . 2

N .J .:

\A m ita i E tz io n i, M o d e rn O r g a n iz a tio n s (E nglew ood C liffs,
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Inc. , 1964), p. 1.
2Ibid.

S om e c o n te m p o r a r y o b s e r v e r s , su c h a s C r o z i e r and D ow ns, *
re g a rd the b u r e a u c r a t i c o r g a n iz a tio n a s g e n e r a lly b e n e fic ia l to the
individual, but th ey a r e in th e m in o r ity .
e m p h a siz e d i t s d e t r i m e n t s .

M uch of th e l i t e r a t u r e h a s

M e rto n , f o r e x a m p le , h a s cited the s t r e s s

on d e p e r s o n a liz e d r e la t i o n s h i p s a s a fu n d a m e n ta l c a u s e of in d iv id u a l
f ru s tra tio n :
Since f u n c tio n a r ie s m in im iz e p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s and r e s o r t to
c a te g o r iz a tio n , th e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of in d iv id u a l c a s e s a r e often
ig n o re d . . . . S te re o ty p e d b e h a v io r i s n o t a d a p te d to the
e x ig e n c ie s o f in d iv id u a l p r o b l e m s . 2
A nother s o u r c e o f c o n flic t b etw e en th e o r g a n iz a tio n and th e in d iv id u a l
i s the te n d e n c y of b u r e a u c r a t s to adopt a d o m in e e r in g a ttitu d e
a s s o c ia te d w ith v e s te d a u th o rity .

T he u n d e r ly in g d ile m m a , a s

M erton h a s d e s c r i b e d it, i s th a t b u r e a u c r a c y " i s a s e c o n d a r y g ro u p
s tr u c t u r e d e s ig n e d to c a r r y on c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s w hich cannot be
s a tis f a c to r ily p e r f o r m e d on the b a s is of p r i m a r y g r o u p c r i t e r i a . "

3

A r g y r i s h a s d is c o v e r e d a la ck of c o n g ru e n c y b etw e en th e
needs o f " h e a lth y " in d iv id u a ls and the d e m a n d s of the f o r m a l o r g a n i ­
zation.

A lthough h is fo cus i s on e m p lo y e e s r a t h e r th a n c lie n ts , both

1M ic h e l C r o z i e r , T h e B u r e a u c r a t i c P h e n o m e n o n (C hicago:
U n iv e rsity of C h icag o P r e s s , 1964) and A nthony D ow ns, In sid e
B u r e a u c r a c y (B oston: L ittle , Brow n and C om pany, 1967).
2

R o b e r t K. M e rto n , S o cial T h e o r y and S o cial S tr u c tu r e
(New Y ork: F r e e P r e s s , 1957), p. 202.

24
a r e a f f e c te d by th e d y s f u n c tio n s he h a s id e n tif ie d . * C o le m a n a l s o h a s
pointed out th a t th e lin k a g e b e tw e e n th e l a r g e o r g a n iz a tio n an d th e
in div id u al in e v ita b ly c r e a t e s d if f ic u ltie s .

H e r e c e n t l y w r o te :

T he p r i n c i p a l p r o b l e m s th a t a r i s e w ith t h i s f o r m of r e l a t i o n a r e
due to th e a s y m m e t r y in s i z e b e tw e e n th e in d iv id u a l a n d th e
o r g a n iz a tio n , and th e a s y m m e t r y in p o w e r th a t s t e m s f r o m th e
s i z e d i s p a r i t y . O r d i n a r i l y th e o r g a n iz a tio n c a n m o b il iz e f a r
m o r e r e s o u r c e s t o f u r t h e r i t s i n t e r e s t s th an c a n th e in d iv id u a l
to f u r t h e r h i s . It h a s e n o r m o u s e c o n o m ie s o f s c a l e , s i n c e it
2
i s in v o lv e d in s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s w ith m a n y in d iv id u a ls .
L ik e C o le m a n , K ahn and h i s a s s o c i a t e s h a v e n o te d a s u b ­
s ta n tia l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s t r e s s an d o r g a n iz a tio n a l s i z e .

T h e ir

s tu d ie s le d to t h i s r e v e la tio n :
The c u r v e o f s t r e s s b e g in s to r i s e a s w e t u r n f r o m tin y o r g a n i ­
z a tio n s to th o s e o f 50 to 100 p e r s o n s , an d the r i s i n g c u r v e
c o n tin u e s u n til w e e n c o u n te r th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l g i a n t s . O nly
fo r o r g a n iz a tio n s of m o r e th a n 5000 p e r s o n s d o e s th e c u r v e of
s t r e s s l e v e l o f f - - p e r h a p s b e c a u s e a n o r g a n iz a tio n s o l a r g e
r e p r e s e n t s s o m e k in d of p s y c h o lo g ic a l in f in ity and f u r t h e r
i n c r e a s e s a r e u n fe lt. ^
D im o c k , too, h a s c o n c lu d e d th a t s i z e i s th e m o s t p r o l i f i c
s o u rc e of d iffic u lty a m o n g a l l th e v a r i a b l e s in flu e n c in g i n s t itu ti o n a l
m a n a g e m e n t.

H is a n a l y s i s of th e p r o b le m i s w id e ly a c c e p te d :

* C h r is A r g y r i s , P e r s o n a l i t y and O r g a n iz a tio n (New Y ork:
H a r p e r & Row, 1957).
2
J a m e s C o le m a n , u n p u b lis h e d p a p e r w r i t t e n f o r th e C o m ­
m is s io n on T e s t s , C o lle g e E n t r a n c e E x a m in a tio n B o a rd , 1968.
3

K ahn e t a l . , O r g a n iz a tio n a l S t r e s s :
flict and A m b ig u ity , p. 394.

S tu d ie s in R o le C o n ­

25
Size i n c r e a s e s the in flu e n c e of e v e r y f a c t o r in a d m in i s t r a t i o n
that c o n tr ib u te s to b u r e a u c r a t i c e x c e s s e s . . . . S ta n d a rd
p r a c t i c e s a r e in v ite d and th e n r e ta in e d a f t e r t h e i r u s e f u ln e s s
i s o v e r b e c a u s e few p eo p le a r e in a p o s itio n to s e e th e w hole
p ic tu r e . . . . But p r e c i s e r u l e s a r e d iffic u lt to av o id w h en s iz e
c o n tr ib u te s to im p e r s o n a l i t y and m e n h e s i t a t e to p la c e t r u s t in
people w hom th e y do n o t know w e l l . 1
Dimock i s in a g r e e m e n t w ith A r g y r i s th a t " p a th o lo g ic a l b e h a v io r "
in a b u r e a u c r a c y can be t r a c e d to the im b a la n c e b e tw e e n th e r o le of
the in d iv id u al and th a t o f the g r o u p in a d m in is t r a tio n .

P e o p le r e a c t

to th is im b a la n c e by b e c o m in g s e l f - c e n t e r e d , av o id in g r e s p o n s i b ilit y
and e x e rtin g t h e i r p o w e r in p e tty w a y s .

T he co m m o n f a c t o r in a l l

th re e ty p e s of b e h a v io r " i s th e lo s s of p e r s o n a l id e n tif ic a tio n and
s e lf-fu lfillm e n t.
" M a la d ie s " to w h ich b u r e a u c r a t s in g o v e r n m e n ta l o r g a n i ­
zations a r e s u s c e p ti b le h av e b ee n d ia g n o se d by R o bson as:
E x c e s s iv e s e n s e of s e l f - i m p o r t a n c e , in d if f e r e n c e to the
fe e lin g s o r c o n v e n ie n c e o f o th e r s , o b s e s s i v e a d h e r e n c e to
e s ta b lis h e d p r a c t i c e r e g a r d l e s s of r e s u lt in g h a r d s h ip , p e r s i s ­
te n t a d d ic tio n to f o r m a lity , and a s t i g m a t i c in a b ility to p e r c e iv e
the to ta lity of g o v e r n m e n t b e c a u s e of p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith one of
its p a rts , 3
^ M a r s h a ll E . D im o c k , A d m in is tr a tiv e V ita lity (New Y ork:
H a rp e r & Row, 1959), p. 92.
^ I b i d , , p. 104.
3

W illia m A. R ob so n, T he G o v e r n o r s and th e G o v e rn e d
(Baton Rouge: L o u is ia n a S tate U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1964), p. 17.

26
D u r in g a r e c e n t S en ate s u b c o m m it te e h e a r i n g , a w itn e s s
contended th a t " th e v e r y s t r u c t u r e of o u r m o d e r n s o c ie ty , i t s c o u n t­
l e s s a g e n c ie s a n d b u r e a u s , h a s b e c o m e a m a j o r i n g r e d i e n t in th e
p ro d u c tio n of u n h a p p in e s s and u n r e s t . "

H e co n tin u ed :

S o cia l s c i e n t i s t s h a v e know n f o r y e a r s th a t i n c r e a s i n g o r g a n i ­
z a tio n a l c o m p le x ity e n c o u r a g e s th e g r o w th of b u r e a u c r a c y . In
m o s t i n s t a n c e s , t h e r e i s a d i r e c t r e la t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a
b u r e a u c r a t i c s t r u c t u r e and f e e lin g s of is o l a t i o n and s o c i a l
im p o te n c e . M o r e o v e r , a s w e co n tin u e to a d v a n c e te c h n o lo g i­
c a lly w ith o u r a m a z in g c o m p u t e r s an d t h e i r c o ld ly o b je c tiv e
o p e r a t i o n s , m o s t in d iv id u a ls h a v e no c h o ic e e x c e p t to b e c o m e
p a s s iv e r e c i p i e n t s o f a d e c is io n m a k in g p r o c e s s w hich is b eyo nd
c o m p r e h e n s io n . . . . 1
T h e s e o b s e r v a tio n s p a r a l l e l th o s e o f B e n n is , who h a s a r g u e d
that b u r e a u c r a c y " i s h o p e l e s s l y out of jo in t w ith c o n t e m p o r a r y
re a litie s. . . . "

H is c r i t i c i s m s of b u r e a u c r a c y in c lu d e it s e m p h a s i s

on c o n fo rm ity , in a d e q u a te j u r i d i c a l p r o c e s s , r e s t r i c t e d c o m m u n i­
cation, and s lu g g i s h n e s s to a d j u s t to new c o n d itio n s .

T he e f f e c t i v e ­

n e s s o f b u r e a u c r a c y , h e h a s w r i t t e n , " s h o u ld be e v a lu a te d on h u m a n
a s w e ll a s e c o n o m ic c r i t e r i a . "

2

S ta te m e n t by D ick W i llia m s , R e s e a r c h A s s i s t a n t , C i tiz e n s
C o n feren c e on S tate L e g i s l a t u r e s , in U . S . , C o n g r e s s , S e n a te , C o m ­
m itte e on the J u d i c i a r y , R e g io n a l O m b u d s m a n P r o p o s a l , H e a r i n g s ,
b efo re th e S u b c o m m itte e on A d m i n i s t r a t i v e P r a c t i c e and P r o c e d u r e
of the C o m m itte e on th e J u d i c i a r y , 90th C o n g ., 2nd s e s s . , 1968,
p. 160.
2

W a r r e n G. B e n n is , C h ang in g O r g a n i z a t i o n s (New Y o rk :
M c G ra w -H ill Book C o m p an y , 1966), pp, 4, 6, 9.

27
In h i s a p p r a i s a l o f c o n t e m p o r a r y o r g a n iz a tio n s , G a r d n e r
has d e p lo re d th e " a lm o s t in e v ita b le m o v e m e n t of a n o r g a n iz a tio n
tow ard e l a b o r a t e n e s s , r i g i d i t y and m a s s i v e n e s s an d away f r o m
sim p lic ity , fle x ib ility a n d m a n a g e a b le s iz e . . . . "* He h a s e x p r e s s e d
p a r tic u la r c o n c e r n w ith the b u r e a u c r a t i c c o m m u n ic a tio n s y s t e m and
its e ffe c t on d e c is io n - m a k in g :
A s o r g a n iz a tio n s . . . b e c o m e l a r g e r and m o r e c o m p le x ,
the m e n a t th e top . . . depend l e s s and l e s s on f irs th a n d e x p e ­
r ie n c e , m o r e and m o r e on h e a v ily " p r o c e s s e d " d ata. B e fo r e
re a c h in g th e m , the r a w d a t a - - w h a t a c tu a lly g o e s on " o u t th e r e "
- - h a v e b e e n s a m p le d , s c r e e n e d , c o n d e n sed , co m p ile d , coded,
e x p r e s s e d in s t a t i s t i c a l fo rm , sp u n i n t o g e n e r a liz a ti o n s and
c r y s t a l l i z e d into r e c o m m e n d a tio n s .
What i s f ilte r e d out is e m o tio n , fe e lin g , s e n tim e n t and m o o d .

T h u s,

the p ic tu r e of r e a l i t y a t th e top le v e ls of o r g a n iz a tio n s i s s o m e t i m e s
s e r io u s ly d i s t o r t e d .

"W e s u f f e r th e c o n s e q u e n c e s w hen w e r u n h ea d

on in to s itu a tio n s th at c a n n o t be u n d e r s to o d e x c e p t in t e r m s of th o s e
e le m e n ts th a t h a v e been f ilte r e d out, " he h a s w a r n e d .

3

In c o n c lu d ­

ing h is a s s e s s m e n t , G a r d n e r w ro te :
It is r id ic u lo u s th a t th e in s titu tio n s m a n d e s ig n s fo r h is own
benefit sh o u ld w ork to h is d is a d v a n ta g e . We c a n n e v e r e l i m i ­
n a te the c o n flic t b e tw e e n m a n a n d h is in s titu tio n s . . . but w e
*John W. G a r d n e r , S e lf-R en e w a l: T he In dividu al and th e
Innovative S o c ie ty (New Y o rk : H a r p e r &. Row, 1964), p. 80.
2I b i d . , p. 78.
3Ibid. , p. 79.

28
can i n s i s t th at one o f the a i m s of an y o r g a n iz a tio n be th e
d e v e lo p m e n t of th e in d iv id u a ls who m a k e it up. *
T h e U n iv e r s it y and th e Student
A m ong the l a r g e - s c a l e o r g a n iz a tio n s w h ich a r e b e in g
studied to d e t e r m in e t h e i r e ffe c t on the in d iv id u a l a r e A m e r ic a n
c o lleg e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r in g t h e i r p a s t d e c a d e of
s p e c ta c u la r g ro w th an d in c r e a s i n g tu r m o il .

It i s c u r io u s , h o w e v e r,

that only in r e c e n t y e a r s h a s th e A m e r ic a n in s titu tio n of h ig h e r e d u ­
cation a s an o r g a n iz a tio n s u b je c te d i t s e l f to the s a m e kind o f in te n sive r e s e a r c h th a t h a s b een a p p lie d to o t h e r o r g a n iz a tio n s .

2

M cC onnell d e c la r e d in 1963 th a t " s o little r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n done
on how c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e o r g a n iz e d and a d m in is t e r e d
3
that . . . the field h a s not b e e n to uch ed. "
Since th en a t r i c k l e of
l i t e r a t u r e b a s e d on e m p i r i c a l s tu d i e s h a s begun to a p p e a r , alth ou g h
the r e s u lt in g id e n tific a tio n of s p e c if ic p r o b le m s h a s b een s o m e w h a t
1I b i d . , p. 65.
2

J o h n C. C o r s o n , G o v e rn a n c e of C o lle g e s and U n i v e r s i t i e s
(New Y ork: M c G r a w - H ill Book C om pany, In c. , 1960), p. 187.
o

T . R. M c C o n n ell, "N ee d ed R e s e a r c h in C o lle g e an d
U n iv e rsity O rg a n iz a tio n and A d m in is tr a tio n , " in T he Study o f A c a ­
d em ic A d m in is tr a tio n (B o u ld e r, Colo. : W e s te r n I n t e r s t a t e C o m ­
m is s io n f o r H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , 1963), p. 113.

29

o v ersh a d o w e d by s t i l l u n a n s w e r e d q u e s tio n s r e g a r d in g o r g a n iz a tio n a l
s t r u c t u r e and g o a ls . *
A ny a tte m p t to s tu d y the r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n the i n s t i t u ­
tion of h i g h e r e d u c a tio n and th e in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t i s c o m p lic a te d by
the fact th a t a u t h o r i t i e s d i s a g r e e on th e n a tu r e of th e o r g a n iz a tio n .
F o r e x a m p le , M ille tt

2

and, to s o m e e x te n t, C o r s o n

3

clin g to the

o rg an ic m o d e l of a u n ified a c a d e m ic c o m m u n ity w h ile , a t th e o th e r
e x tre m e , K e r r h a s d e s c r i b e d the m e c h a n i s t i c " m u l t i v e r s i t y " a s th e
p r a g m a tic r e a l i t y .

U nlike an o r g a n is m , w h o se p a r t s a r e i n e x t r i ­

cably bound t o g e th e r , K e r r ' s " in c o n s is t e n t in s titu tio n " h a s m a n y
p a r ts w h ic h c a n be a d d e d an d s u b t r a c t e d w ith lit tle e f f e c t on the
whole.

It i s , h e s a id , " h e ld to g e t h e r by a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r u l e s and
4
pow ered by m o n e y , "
*

^ M c C o n n ell h a s d e c l a r e d th a t a c o n c e p tu a l f r a m e w o r k
does not e x i s t f o r f o r m u la tin g a c o h e re n t s e t of h y p o th e s e s fo r
in v e s tig a tin g o r g a n iz a tio n an d a d m in is t r a tio n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .
Ib id .
2

J o h n D. M ille tt, T he A c a d e m ic C o m m u n ity (New Y ork:
M c G ra w -H ill Book C o m p an y , I n c . , 1962).
3

4

C o r s o n , G o v e r n a n c e of C o lle g e s and U n i v e r s i t i e s .
K e r r , T he U s e s of th e U n i v e r s i t y , p. 20.

30
B a r z u n and B o ulding h a v e lik e n e d th e u n i v e r s i t y to a c o r p o ra tio n ,

1

2
C l a r k to a f e d e r a tio n ,

and M o r a n to a h o ld in g c o m p a n y .

3

H e n d e rs o n , by c o n t r a s t , h a s d efin e d it a s a d is t in c t iv e p r o f e s s i o n a l
4
o r g a n iz a tio n .
M o r t i m e r K a d is h is a m o n g th o s e w ho c o n s i d e r the
u n iv e r s i ty to be a p o lit ic a l in s t itu ti o n m a d e up o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t
5
groups.
P a r s o n s h a s d r a w n an a n a lo g y b e tw e e n s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t
g ro u p s in th e a c a d e m i c i n s t itu ti o n and th e s e p a r a t i o n of p o w e r s in
g o v e r n m e n ta l a f f a i r s :
F a c u l t i e s h a v e a r o le s o m e w h e r e b e tw e e n th e fu n c tio n s of the
j u d ic ia l an d l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h e s of g o v e r n m e n t, p a r t i c i p a t i n g
in bo th . . , . S tu d e n ts an d a lu m n i p la y a r o l e in s o m e r e s p e c t s
p a r a l l e l to th o s e of c o n s titu e n c ie s in r e l a t i o n to p o l i t i c a l o f f ic e ­
h o l d e r s . B ut th e " ju d i c ia l" r o le o f th e fa c u lty s u b s t a n t i a l l y
m o d if ie s th e " p u r e d e m o c r a c y " o f th e c o n s titu e n c y ty p e of
r e la t i o n s h i p . 6
J a c q u e s B a rz u n , T he A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y (New Y o rk :
H a r p e r & Row, 1968), p. 3; K e n n e th E . B ou ld in g, T he O r g a n i z a ­
tio n a l R e v o lu tio n (New Y o rk : H a r p e r & B r o t h e r s , 1953), p. 51.
2

B u r to n R. C l a r k , " F a c u lty O r g a n iz a tio n and A u th o r ity , "
in T he Study of A c a d e m ic A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , p. 51.
3
W illia m E . M o r a n , " T h e S tudy o f U n i v e r s i t y O r g a n i z a ­
tio n s, " JournaJ^_o£J|ijgherJE du£ati£n, XXXIX ( M a r c h , 1968), 1 5 0 -5 1 .
4
A lgo D. H e n d e rs o n , " T h e D e s i r e d In flu e n c e , " J o u r n a l o f .
H ig h er E d u c a tio n , XXXVIII (J u n e , 1967), 304.
5 M o r t i m e r R. K a d is h , q u o te d in G o r o v itz , ed . , F r e e d o m
and O r d e r in th e U n iv e r s it y , p. 168.

g

T a lc o tt P a r s o n s , " T h e A c a d e m ic S y ste m : A S o c i o l o g i s t 's
V ie w ,11 T he P u b lic I n t e r e s t , XIII ( F a ll, 1968), 185.

31
Kourke and B ro o k s h av e id e n tifie d u n iv e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a s a
cabinet s y s t e m o f g o v e r n m e n t. *
S tro u p h a s d e c la r e d th a t c o lle g e s a r e b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c ia l
o rg a n iz a tio n s , b le n d in g a u th o r ity w ith s p e c ia liz a tio n .

2

H is p o sitio n

is su p p o rte d by th e fin ding s of A y e r s and R u s s e l, who, a f t e r s tu d y ­
ing the o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e of 608 A m e r ic a n in s titu tio n s of
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , concluded th a t the m o s t p r e v a le n t s y s t e m i s one
that follow s th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p a t t e r n o f h i e r a r c h y of a u th o r ity and
division o f r e s p o n s i b ilit y .

3

P re sth u s

4

a l s o h a s noted the d o m in a n c e

of b u r e a u c r a tic p a t t e r n s in m o s t l a r g e in s titu tio n s of h ig h e r e d u c a 5
tion and P i n n e r h a s e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n w ith th e te n d e n c y of u n i v e r ­
s itie s to im i ta t e b u s in e s s and g o v e r n m e n t p r a c t i c e s .

C e r ta in ly

F r a n c i s E . R o u rk e an d G len n E . B ro o k s , T he M a n a g e r ia l
Revolution in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n { B a ltim o re : J o h n s H o pkins P r e s s ,
1966), p. 111.
2

York:

H e r b e r t S tro u p , B u r e a u c r a c y in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n (New
F r e e P r e s s , 1966), p. 98.
3

U . S . , D e p a rtm e n t of H e a lth , E d u c a tio n and W e lf a r e ,
Office of E d u c a tio n , I n te r n a l S tr u c tu r e : O rg a n iz a tio n and A d m in ­
is tr a tio n of I n s titu tio n s of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , by A r c h ie R. A y e r s
and Joh n H. R u s s e l, B u lle tin No. 9 (W ashington, D .C . : G o v e r n ­
m ent P r in tin g O ffice, 1962).
4
R o b e rt P r e s t h u s , T he O r g a n iz a tio n a l S o ciety (New York:
Vintage B o o ks, 1962), p. 241.
5

F ra n k P in n e r , "T h e C r i s i s of th e S tate U n i v e r s i t i e s : .
A n aly sis and R e m e d ie s , " in N e v itt S an ford , e d . , The A m e r ic a n
College (New Y ork: Jo h n W iley and Sons, In c . , 1966), p. 959.

32

**

Blau1 s f o u r b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of b u r e a u c r a t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n - s p e c ia liz a tio n , a h i e r a r c h y o f a u th o r ity , a s y s t e m of r u l e s , and
i m p e r s o n a l i t y - - a l l a r e found in th e l a r g e u n iv e r s i ty . 1 R o u rk e and
B rooks h a v e jo in e d Stoke in r e g a r d i n g th is d e v e lo p m e n t a s an
in e v ita b le r e s u l t of i n c r e a s e d e n r o l l m e n t s and fu n c tio n s.

2

h as s ta te d th a t b u r e a u c r a c y h o ld s th e u n i v e r s i t y to g e th e r .

H u tc h in s
3

W illia m s h a s p o in te d out, h o w e v e r, th a t th e e x is te n c e of
a b u r e a u c r a c y w ith in a u n i v e r s i t y d o e s n ot n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n th a t th e
o rg a n iz a tio n i s to ta lly b u r e a u c r a t i c .

It a l s o h a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

a p r o f e s s io n a l o r g a n iz a tio n not a s s o c i a t e d w ith b u r e a u c r a c i e s , s u c h
a s w i d e l y - d i s p e r s e d d e c is io n - m a k in g and lim ite d h i e r a r c h i c a l
a u th o rity .

He h a s d e s c r i b e d the u n i v e r s i t y o r g a n iz a tio n in the

United S ta te s a s em b o d y in g a co n tin u o u s s tr u g g le b etw e en th e
c e n t r a l i z e d - b u r e a u c r a t i c s y s t e m and th e d if f u s e d - c o lle g ia l s y s t e m .
* P e t e r M. B lau, B u r e a u c r a c y in M o d e rn S o cie ty (New
York: R andom H o u se, 1967), p. 19. A ls o s e e B e a r d s le y R u m l,
M emo to a C o lleg e T r u s t e e (New Y ork: M c G r a w - H ill Book C o m ­
pany, Inc. . 1959), pp. 5 5 -5 6 .
2
R o u rk e and B ro o k s , T he M a n a g e r ia l R e v o lu tio n in H ig h e r
E d u ca tio n , p. 5; H a r o ld W. Stoke, T he A m e r i c a n C o lle g e P r e s i d e n t
(New York; H a r p e r & Row, 1959). p. 152.
3

R o b e r t M. H u tc h in s, " T h e I s s u e s , " in T h e U n iv e r s ity in
A m e r ic a (Santa B a r b a r a , C a l i f . : C e n t e r f o r the Study of D e m o ­
c r a tic I n s titu tio n s , 1967), p. 6.

33
Thus, th e u n iv e r s i ty m a y be c o n s id e r e d a s q u a s i - b u r e a u c r a t i c
r a t h e r th a n " p u r e ly " b u r e a u c r a t i c . *
N e v e r th e le s s , th e b u r e a u c r a t i c s p e c ia liz a tio n r e q u ir e d in a
larg e o r g a n iz a tio n c r e a t e s s p e c ia l p r o b le m s in a u n iv e r s ity .

A c c o rd

ing to F o lg e r , s ta f f s p e c i a l i s t s tend to u s u r p w h at fa c u lty m e m b e r s
and s tu d e n ts r e g a r d a s t h e i r p o lic y -m a k in g p r i v i l e g e s .

A s th e i n s t i ­

tution ex p a n d s, th e s e s p e c i a l i s t s b e c o m e m o r e e s s e n t i a l and e x e r t
m o re a u th o rity .

2

Folger* s fin d in g s a r e s u p p o r te d by Boland* s stu d y

of 130 c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , w hich c o n f ir m e d h is h y p o th e sis
that a s s i z e i n c r e a s e s o r g a n iz a tio n a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a ls o i n c r e a s e s .

3

T h is s a m p lin g of the l i t e r a t u r e s e e m s to in d ic a te a s h o r ta g e
of r e s e a r c h and a s u r p lu s of opinion r e g a r d in g th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l
4
s t r u c t u r e of A m e r ic a n c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .
T he a m b ig u ity
re s u ltin g fro m th e s e co n flic tin g c o n c e p ts is r e f le c te d in r e la te d
*Robin M. W illia m s , J r . , A m e r ic a n S o cie ty (New Y ork:
A lfred A. Knopf, 1967), pp. 3 16 -1 8 .
2
Jo h n K. F o lg e r , " U rb a n S p ra w l in th e A c a d e m ic C o m ­
m u n ity ," in M ayhew , e d . , H ig h e r E d u c a tio n in th e R e v o lu tio n a ry
D e c a d e s, p. 184.
3
W a lte r R eed B oland, " A m e r i c a n I n s titu tio n s of H ig h e r
E ducation: A Study of S ize and O rg a n iz a tio n " (u n p u b lish ed P h .D .
d is s e r ta tio n , U n iv e r s it y of M ic h ig an , 1966).
4

A s r e c e n tly a s 1966 S an fo rd e m p h a s iz e d th e need f o r
sc ie n tific s tu d y o f th e s t r u c t u r e and fu n ctio n in g of c o lle g e s a s i n s t i ­
tutions. The A m e r i c a n C o lle g e , pp. 2 4 -2 5 .

34
l i t e r a t u r e p e r ta in in g to th e a s s o c i a t i o n b e tw e e n the in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t
and the a c a d e m i c in s titu tio n .

T h a t p o r tio n o f th e l i t e r a t u r e w i l l now

be c o n s id e r e d .
S in ce th e end of W o rld W a r II, a ll e l e m e n t s o f the u n i v e r s i t y
- - t r u s t e e s , fa c u lty , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and s t u d e n t s —h a v e b e e n s e a r c h ­
ing f o r a d e fin itio n of t h e i r r i g h t s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w ith in th e
o r g a n iz a tio n .

F a c u l ty m e m b e r s h a v e a t te m p te d to bu ild new c o n ­

c e p ts of t h e i r p la c e in p o lic y - m a k in g d e c i s i o n s .

T r u s t e e s an d

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s h a v e found it i n c r e a s i n g l y d iffic u lt to b a la n c e c o m ­
p etin g o b je c tiv e s in m a n a g in g th e c o m p le x in s titu tio n .

S tu d e n ts h a v e

a rg u e d f o r a m o r e in f lu e n tia l r o l e in the e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e s s , d e m a n d ­
ing m o r e a tte n tio n on th e one h an d an d m o r e f r e e d o m on th e o t h e r . *
It i s th e s e s tu d e n t d e m a n d s and t h e i r m a n if e s ta tio n s th a t h a v e
a t tr a c te d th e g r e a t e s t a m o u n t of a tte n tio n in th e r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e of
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .
S c o r e s of b oo ks and a r t i c l e s on the " c o n d itio n " of th e
A m e r ic a n c o lle g e s tu d e n t h a v e a p p e a r e d s i n c e th e 1964 F r e e S peech
M ovem ent a t th e U n i v e r s i t y of C a lif o r n i a a t B e r k e l e y - - t h e f i r s t p r o ­
longed s tu d e n t r e b e l lio n on a m a j o r u n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s .

That d i s ­

ruption to u c h e d off a w ide v a r i e t y o f s tu d e n t p r o t e s t s on c o lle g e
1O tis A. S in g le ta r y and R o b e r t B. Y eg g e, " I n t r o d u c t i o n , "
D en v e r L aw J o u r n a l , X L V (S p e c ia l, 1968), 497.

35
c a m p u s e s a c r o s s the n a tio n , a p a t t e r n w h ic h c o n tin u e s to expand
and in te n s ify .

It a l s o led to the f o rc e d w ith d r a w a l o f C la r k K e r r a s

p r e s id e n t of th a t in s titu tio n s h o r t l y a f t e r h e had w a r n e d in a l e c t u r e
at H a r v a r d U n iv e r s it y o f " a n in c ip ie n t r e v o lt of u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u ­
d e n t s ." In h is r e m a r k s , l a t e r p r in te d and w id ely d is s e m in a te d ,
K e r r m a d e o t h e r p r o p h e tic o b s e rv a tio n s :
The s tu d e n ts find t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r a b lan k et of i m p e r s o n a l
r u l e s fo r a d m i s s i o n s , fo r s c h o l a r s h i p s , f o r e x a m in a tio n s , f o r
d e g r e e s . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to w a tc h how a fa c u lty in te n t on few
r u l e s f o r i t s e l f c a n fash io n s u c h a p le th o r a of th e m f o r th e s t u ­
d e n ts . T he s tu d e n ts a ls o w a n t to be t r e a t e d a s d is tin c t i n d i ­
v id u a ls .
If th e fa c u lty lo o k s on i t s e l f a s a guild, th e u n d e r g r a d u a t e
s tu d e n ts a r e co m in g to look upon th e m s e l v e s m o r e a s a " c l a s s " ;
s o m e m a y even fe e l lik e a " lu m p e n p r o l e t a r i a t . " Lack of
facu lty c o n c e r n fo r te a c h in g , e n d le s s r u l e s and r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
and im p e r s o n a l i t y a r e the in c itin g c a u s e s . 1
T he B e r k e le y c a m p u s d e m o n s tr a ti o n s u n d e r s c o r e d K e r r ' s
concern th a t th e l a r g e s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e m o s t v u ln e r a b le to
ch a rg e s of n e g le c t of s tu d e n ts .

" T h e m u l t i v e r s i t y i s a co n fusin g

place f o r th e s t u d e n t ," h e d e c la r e d .

"H e h a s p r o b le m s of e s t a b -

lishing h i s id e n tity and s e n s e of s e c u r i t y w ith in it.

..2

M a r io Savio, th e l e a d e r of th e B e r k e le y r e v o lt, found th e
" d e p e r s o n a liz e d , u n r e s p o n s iv e b u r e a u c r a c y " of th e u n i v e r s i t y s y m p ­
to m atic of w h a t m a y e m e r g e a s th e n a t i o n 's g r e a t e s t p r o b le m .
* K e r r , T he U s e s of th e U n i v e r s i t y , pp. 1 0 3 -4 .
2I b i d . , p. 42.

36
" H e re we find it i m p o s s i b l e u s u a lly to m e e t w ith anyone but
s e c r e ta r ie s ," he w ro te.

"B ey on d th a t, w e find f u n c tio n a r ie s who

cannot m a k e p o lic y b u t c a n only h id e beh in d r u l e s . "*

T h is th e m e

h as r e a p p e a r e d in s u b s e q u e n t w r i tin g s on th e c o n t e m p o r a r y u n i v e r ­
sity stu d e n t and r e c e iv e d re n e w e d e m p h a s is in a 1968 r e p o r t by th e
C o m m itte e on the S tudent in H ig h e r E d u catio n :
. . . A m e r ic a n s tu d e n ts . . . . a r e e n m e s h e d fro m k i n d e r g a r t e n
to th e g r a v e in th e c o m p le x , s p e c ia liz e d , b u r e a u c r a t i c , and
i m p e r s o n a l in s t itu ti o n s o f A m e r ic a n life . W h e th e r we lik e it
o r not, w e a l l — s tu d e n ts and t e a c h e r s a l i k e - - l i v e in th e m o s t
ad v a n c e d te c h n o lo g ic a l n a tio n in th e w o rld ; and in s u c h a s o c ie ty ,
a s in i t s e d u c a tio n a l in s t itu ti o n s , in d iv id u a ls ten d to feel lo s t
and to look f o r new w a y s to a s s e r t t h e i r in d iv id u a lity and ju s tify
th e ir liv e s. ^
The f a ilu r e of fa c u lty and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s to r e c o g n iz e t h e s e p s y c h o ­
lo g ic al n e e d s w a s r e g a r d e d by th e c o m m itte e a s a m a j o r s o u r c e of
student f r u s t r a t i o n :
T h e p r o c e d u r e s and s ty l e of th e u n iv e r s i t y o r c o lle g e a r e
c a lc u la te d to p r e v e n t s tu d e n ts fro m c r e a tin g p r o b le m s f o r the
in s titu tio n by e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r own in d iv id u a lity w ith in it. A s
a r e s u l t , fa c u lty and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s do a i l th e y can in t h e i r
d e a lin g s w ith s tu d e n ts to s t a n d a r d i z e p r o c e d u r e s and d e p e r s o n ­
a l iz e c o n ta c ts . . . .
M a r io Savio, "A n E n d to H is to r y , " B e rk e le y : T he New
Student R e v o lt, by H a l D r a p e r (New Y o rk: G ro v e P r e s s , I n c . ,
1965), p. 179.
2

T h e S tudent in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n (New H aven, C o n n . : T he
H azen F o u n d a tio n , 1968), p. 18. A lso s e e P a u l W o o d rin g , The
H ig her L e a r n in g in A m e r i c a : A R e a s s e s s m e n t (New Y ork: M c G ra w H ill Book C o m p an y , I n c . , 1968), pp. 10, 234.

37
T h o se a g e n ts of the in s titu tio n w ith w hom the s tu d e n ts a r e
in m o s t fre q u e n t c o n t a c t - - s e c r e t a r i e s , c l e r k s , t e l l e r s in th e
b u r s a r ' s o ffice, and c a m p u s p o l i c e - - a r e f r e q u e n tly p eo p le who,
p e r h a p s w ith v e r y good r e a s o n , do not p a r t i c u l a r l y lik e young
p eop le and a r e q u ite s u c c e s s f u l a t g e n e r a tin g a r e c i p r o c a l d i s ­
lik e of t h e m s e l v e s . 1
The r e p o r t w ent on to s u g g e s t th a t m u c h s tu d e n t u n r e s t m ig h t be
tra c e d to " a u t h o r i t a r i a n p o lic e , ru d e c l e r k s , h o s t i l e and u n f rie n d ly
s e c r e t a r i e s , and t e s t y t e l l e r s . "

2

Rudolph h a s a s s e r t e d th a t co lleg e s tu d e n ts c o n s titu te th e
m o st n e g le c te d , l e a s t u n d e r s to o d e le m e n t on the A m e r ic a n a c a d e m ic
scene.

He r e c e n t l y w ro te :

. . . s tu d e n ts knew how to u s e a co lleg e a s a n i n s t r u m e n t of
t h e i r m a tu r a tio n . T he u n i v e r s i t y h a s b e c o m e a l e s s w ie ld y
in s t r u m e n t f o r th a t p u r p o s e , often a m o s t d is a p p o in tin g i n s t r u ­
m e n t. S tu den ts h a v e s t r a n g e l y alw ay s h a d to i n s i s t th a t th e y
a r e h u m a n b e in g s . . . . T oday n e g le c t ta k e s on new f o r m s :
n e g le c t h a s b e c o m e a function of s iz e and of a s h ift in p r o f e s ­
s o r i a l c o m m itm e n t r a t h e r th an of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a b s e n t m in d e d n e s s o r b lin d n e s s . . . .
. . . t o d a y 's s tu d e n t would a c tu a lly p r e f e r a happy blend
of f re e d o m and guided c o n c e r n . . . . W h e th e r th e c o n te m p o ­
r a r y u n iv e r s i ty can c r e a t e th a t c o m b in atio n . . . i s p e r h a p s
i t s g r e a t e s t c h a lle n g e . ^
1Ibid. , pp. 39 -40 .
2I b i d . , p. 64.
3

F r e d e r i c k R udolph, " N e g le c t of S tu d e n ts a s a H i s t o r i c a l
T r a d itio n ," T he C o lleg e and th e S tu d en t, ed. by L a w r e n c e E.
Dennis and J o s e p h F . K au ffm an (W ashington, D . C . : A m e r i c a n
Council on E d u c a tio n , 1966), pp. 5 7 -5 8 .

38

A t e r m c o m m o n ly u s e d by d i s s a t i s f i e d s tu d e n ts to d e s c r i b e
the u n iv e r s i ty is " f a c t o r y , " d en o tin g a cold and im p e r s o n a l s e ttin g
in w hich s tu d e n ts , lik e a s s e m b l y lin e p r o d u c ts , lo se t h e i r in d iv id u a l­
ity. * A p a r a l l e l a l s o h a s b ee n d ra w n b etw e en th e u n i v e r s i t y and the
p riso n , w ith th e s in g le i m p o r ta n t e x c e p tio n th a t th e stu d e n t i s r e l a ­
tively f r e e to le a v e .

In both in s titu tio n s the m a j o r o c c u p a n ts a r e

governed by r e g u la tio n s th e y h ad no s h a r e in m a k in g an d g e n e r a lly
2
have no in v o lv e m e n t in e n fo rc in g .
B a rz u n h a s s u g g e s te d th a t the
student m a y f a i r l y be r e g a r d e d aB a v ic tim of the c o lle g e he a tte n d s:
A v ic tim , a c c o r d in g to one s im p le d e fin itio n , i s one who
h as s o m e th in g in f lic te d upon h im w ithout cho ice and th a t h e m u s t
e n d u re . It w ould b e too s im p le a r e j o i n d e r to s tu d e n t g r ie v a n c e s
to s a y th a t th e y do not h a v e to e n d u r e t h e i r w o es; th e y can s ta y
aw ay. T hey do u n d e rg o c o m p u ls io n w ith o u t ch o ice and it c o m e s
fro m s o c ie ty , w hich m a k e s a b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e in d is p e n s a b le
for b u s i n e s s and th e p r o f e s s io n s , th e se being at th e s a m e tim e
the re c o g n iz e d m e a n s of m a k in g o n e ' s w a y . C o lle g e s tu d e n ts
a r e cau g h t in th e m a n d a r in s y s t e m . T h e r e f o r e th e y do h a v e to
e n d u re bad te a c h in g , a p e t r if ie d c u r r ic u lu m , and o th e r m a r k s
of n e g le c t w h e r e th e s e ob tain. T o that e x te n t th e y a r e v ic tim s
e n title d to r e d r e s s .
A lthough he would c o n s id e r th e s e v ie w s a s e x t r e m e , Howe
h a s m a in ta in e d th a t th e " u s u a l a ttitu d e to w ard s tu d e n ts i n th e A m e r ic a n
D avid G o ttlie b , " C o lle g e C l im a te s and S tudent S u b c u ltu r e s ,"
in B ro o k o v e r e t a l . , T h e C o lleg e S tu d e n t, p. 82. A lso E d u c a tio n a t
B erk eley : R e p o r t of the S e le c t C o m m itte e on E d u c a tio n (B erk eley :
U n iv e rsity of C a lif o r n ia P r e s s , 1968), pp. 1 5 -1 6 .
o
T h e S tudent in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , p. 39.
3

B a rz u n , T he A m e r ic a n U n iv e r s ity , pp. 7 3 -7 4 .

39
u n iv e rs ity i s th a t th e y c o n s titu te a m i x t u r e of n e c e s s a r y c o n s u m e r
and i r k s o m e d ep e n d en t.

T h ey pay t h e i r m o n e y (o r r e c e i v e t h e i r

fellow ships) and m u s t th e n s u b m it to w h a te v e r d is c ip li n e s and
ro u tin e s th e u n iv e r s i t y p r o p o s e s . . . . "* He h a s a d v o c a te d a r e ­
c o n s id e ra tio n of th e r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n the u n i v e r s i t y and th e
student, " th e t e r m s of w h ich w e r e o r ig in a lly s e t u n d e r r a d ic a lly
d iffe re n t c o n d i tio n s ."

2

T h u s, th e r e c u r r i n g th e m e in th e l i t e r a t u r e i s that, fro m
the s tu d e n t1 s p o in t of view , th e u n i v e r s i t y is a h ig h ly f o r m a liz e d ,
im p e rs o n a l and r u le - m a n a g e d e n t e r p r i s e , an " o r g a n iz e d , b u r e a u ­
c ra tiz e d s y s t e m th a t iB c o n tr o lle d f r o m w ith o u t, th a t i s p r i m a r i l y
re sp o n siv e to e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s , . . . and th a t is m ig h tily c o m m itted to th e going s y s t e m . "

3

A s w ith o th e r b u r e a u c r a c i e s , in the

u n iv e rs ity th e s tu d e n t is r e g a r d e d a s a c u s t o m e r who d o e s n ot hold
as im p o r ta n t, i n t r i n s i c o r p e r m a n e n t a r e la tio n s h i p to the h i e r 4
a rc h y and i t s c o n tin u an c e a s d o e s the e m p lo y e e . s T he s tu d e n t is
^ Irv in g Howe, "B ey o n d B e r k e l e y ," in R evo lu tion a t
B e rk e le y , ed. by M ic h a e l V. M i l l e r and S u san G ilm o r e (New Y ork:
Dial P r e s s , 1965), p. xix ,
2I b id . , p. x v iii.
3

S tro u p , B u r e a u c r a c y in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , p. 152; P a u l
P o tte r , "S tu dent D is c o n te n t and C a m p u s R e fo r m , " in M ayhew , ed. ,
H igher E d u c a tio n in the R e v o lu tio n a r y D e c a d e s , p. 257.
4
S tro u p , B u r e a u c r a c y in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , pp. 8 5 -8 6 .

40
su sp ic io u s of a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and e n tre n c h e d facu lty m e m b e r s who,
when in doubt, w ill " u s e vague law s o r r e g u la tio n s t o e r r on the
side of th e e s ta b lis h e d o r g a n iz a tio n a g a in s t th e i n t e r e s t s of in d iv id ­
u als . . . p r e s s i n g f o r c h a n g e ." *

W hen the stu d e n t i s t r e a t e d u n ­

fa irly , he i s no t f a m i l i a r enough w ith how th e in s titu tio n w o rk s to
know w hat to do o r w h e r e to tu rn .

2

E v en w h en the in s titu tio n

a tte m p ts to p e r s o n a l i z e r e la tio n s w ith s tu d e n ts , the o u tc o m e i s
u su a lly a n o th e r b u r e a u o r f o r m a liz e d p r o c e d u r e .

3

S in ce the i n s t i ­

tution h a s b e c o m e too big, to o co m p lex , too m u c h in v o lv e d w ith the
task of run ning i t s e l f to give m u c h a tte n tio n to the s tu d e n t, h is own
education a p p e a r s to be th e le a s t im p o r ta n t o f a ll i t s fu n ctio n s.

For

him , e d u c a tio n b e c o m e s a " s y s t e m " to be " b e a te n " a t e v e r y o p p o r4
tunity.
The v e r y m e c h a n i s m s d e s ig n e d by th e in s titu tio n to e x p e d ite ,
* T e r r y F . L u n sfo rd , "Who A r e M e m b e r s o f th e U n iv e r s ity
C o m m u n ity ? " D e n v e r Law J o u r n a l , XLV (S p ecial, 1968), 553.
2

N ic h o la s von H offm an, T he M u ltiv e r s ity (New Y ork: Holt,
R in e h a rt and W in sto n , 1966), p. 180.
3
G. L e s t e r A n d e rs o n , " T h e O rg a n iz a tio n a l C h a r a c t e r of
A m e ric a n C o lle g e s and U n i v e r s i t i e s , " in T h e Study of A c a d e m ic
A d m in is tr a tio n , p. 18.
4
" I s P r o t e s t th e O nly S o lu tio n ? " in The A m e r ic a n Student
and H is C o lle g e , ed. by E s t h e r L lo y d - J o n e s and H e r m a n A. E s t r i n
(Boston: H oughton M ifflin C om pany, 1967), p. 339.

41
eq ualize and p r o t e c t h is i n t e r e s t s t u r n out to b e i r r i t a t i n g and
d ehu m an izing . *
The s t u d e n t 's r e s e n t m e n t a g a in s t in s titu tio n a l " p r o c e s s in g "
has been a p tly d e s c r ib e d by M e y e rso n :
A t B e rk e le y , one of the s tu d e n t d r a m a t i z a t i o n s of c o m ­
p la in ts w a s th e IBM c a r d on w h ic h w a s p r in te d , "D o not fold,
sp in d le o r m u tila te , " and w h ich w a s w o r n a s a b a d g e . S tu d e n ts,
r e s e n tin g lin e s and f o r m s , r e s e n t i n g im p e r s o n a l i t y and the
f r ic tio n s of a la r g e stu d e n t body, r e s e n t i n g r u l e s and r e s t r i c ­
tio n s , r e s e n t e d the feelin g th a t th e y w e r e a s m a n ip u la te d and
u n d istin g u ish a b le a s an IBM c a r d . O b je c tin g to w h a t they r e ­
g a rd e d a s th e m a c h in e c h a r a c t e r of u n i v e r s i t i e s , th e s tu d e n ts
. . . w is h e d to s m a s h the m a c h i n e . 2
K au ffm an h a s s u g g e s te d th a t s tu d e n ts who r e g a r d th e m ­
se lv e s a s f a c e l e s s , an onym ous h u m a n b e in g s " a r e not th e b e s t h o p e
for o u r s o c i e t y . "

3

W ilso n h as ad d ed :

"W e m u s t not only s y m p a ­

th ize w ith the s t u d e n t 's d e s i r e to m a k e a h u m a n o r p e r s o n a l c o n ­
n ection w ith h is co lleg e, w e m u s t a l s o v ig o r o u s ly a s s i s t him in
m aking su c h a c o n n e c ti o n ."

4

T he i n s t i t u t i o n 's f a ilu r e to m ak e th a t

*Kate M u e lle r , quoted by L lo y d - J o n e s , "W hat A re C o lle g e
Students M ade o f ? " ib id . , p. 42.
2

M e y e r s o n , " T h e E th o s of th e A m e r ic a n C o lle g e Student:
Beyond the P r o t e s t s , " pp. 2 78 -7 9 .
3
K au ffm an, " T h e Student in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , " in D e n n is
and K auffm an, e d s . , T h e C ollege and th e S tu d e n t, pp. 144-45.
4
L ogan W ilson, " I s the Student B e co m in g th e ' F o rg o tte n
M a n ' ? " in D e n n is and K au ffm an , e d s . , T he C ollege a n d the S tu ­
dent, p. 60. A ls o s e e von H offm an, T he M u l t i v e r s i t y , p. xix.

42
connection h a s b ee n cite d b y a fa c t-fin d in g c o m m is s io n a s one of the
p r im e r e a s o n s f o r the s t u d e n t d i s t u r b a n c e s in th e s p r i n g of 1968 a t
C olum bia U n iv e r s ity . * S a n fo rd K a d is h h a s o b s e r v e d " m o r e s e m i fo rm a liz e d w a y s of s t u d e n t s ' e x p r e s s in g ju d g m e n t and p r e f e r e n c e s
and g r i p e s " o n the B e r k e le y ca m p u s s in c e the 1964 d e m o n s tr a ti o n s .

2

Stroup has s u g g e s te d f o u r a v e n u e s to w a r d th e kind of in s titu tio n a l
r e s p o n s e d e s i r e d by s t u d e n t s - - d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , in f o r m a lity , p e r s o n a l d e c is io n - m a k in g a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n .

3

K o ile h a s p oin ted out

that c o n s id e r a b le r e s e a r c h ev id en ce f r o m b u s in e s s , m e d ic in e and
education s u p p o r t s "the r a t h e r s im p le notion th a t p eo p le tend to a c t
and to b e c o m e m o r e m a t u r e , to a s s u m e g r e a t e r r e s p o n s i b ilit y , and
g e n e ra lly to function b e t t e r when th e y a r e tr e a t e d w ith r e s p e c t , w ith
4
dignity, and a s m a tu re p e r s o n s of w o r th . . . . "
Som e o b s e r v e r s w h o have a r g u e d fo r ch an g in g s tu d e n tin stitu tio n a l r e la tio n s h i p s contend th a t the c o n te m p o r a r y s tu d e n t is
sig n ific an tly d iffe re n t f r o m h is p r e d e c e s s o r s .

In an in f o r m a l s u r v e y ,

*C r i s i s at C o lu m b ia (New Y o rk : V in tag e B ooks, 1968),
pp. 34-35.
2

S a n f o rd H, K a d is h , quoted in G o ro v itz , F r e e d o m and O r d e r
in the U n i v e r s i t y , p. 152.
3
4

S tro u p , B u r e a u c r a c y in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , pp. 1 76 -7 7 .

E a r l Koile, " T h e Student N obody K now s, " in L lo y d - J o n e s
and E s tr in , e d s . , The A m e r i c a n Student and H is C o lle g e , p. 25.

43
deans of s tu d e n t a f f a ir s c h a r a c t e r i z e d t o d a y 's s tu d e n ts a s b r i g h t e r
and m o r e s o p h is tic a te d , c o s m o p o lita n , in f o r m a l and e x p e r ie n c e d
than th o se of p r e v io u s g e n e r a t i o n s .

T h ey a l s o w e r e d e s c r i b e d a s

m o re i d e a l i s t i c , in tr o s p e c ti v e , c r i t i c a l and i n s i s t e n t on in v o lv e m e n t
in d e c is io n s a ffe c tin g t h e i r liv e s . *
In a tte m p tin g to e n h a n c e t h e i r s ta tu s w ithin th e u n iv e r s i ty ,
stud ents a r e tu rn in g m o r e to l e g a l i s t i c d e fin itio n s o f th e i r r i g h t s ,
p e rh a p s in d i r e c t p r o p o r tio n to t h e i r p e r c e p tio n th a t th e y h a v e been
ignored o r r e j e c t e d by th e in s titu tio n .

K auffm an h a s s u g g e s te d that

stu d e n ts " w ill d e m a n d a r e la tio n s h i p , even if it m u s t be le g a lly p r e s c rib e d ,"

2

A r e c e n t s tu d y by M c C le lla n s e e m e d to s u p p o r t h i s

h y p o th e sis th a t n o n - le g a l n o r m s , w hich h ave long g o v e rn e d s p e c if ic
re la tio n s h ip s b etw e en p u b lic u n i v e r s i t i e s and s tu d e n ts , h av e been
and a r e b eing r e p la c e d by le g a l n o r m s .

3

T he J o in t S ta te m e n t on

R e p o rte d by th e e d i t o r s of the J o u r n a l of th e A s s o c ia tio n of
Deans and A d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f S tu d ent A f f a i r s , B u lle tin No. 2 (A pril,
1967), p. 11. F o r s i m i l a r a s s e s s m e n t s of c o n t e m p o r a r y c o lle g e s t u ­
dents, s e e J o s e p h K atz an d N ev itt S anfo rd , " T h e New Student P o w e r
and N eeded E d u c a tio n a l R e f o r m s , " P h i D e lta K a p p a n , XLVII (A p ril,
1966), 398; a l s o , K enneth K e n is to n , "T h e F a c e s in th e L e c t u r e R o o m ,"
in M o riso n , e d . . The C o n t e m p o r a r y U n iv e rs ity : U. S. A . , pp. 315-49.
2

3

K au ffm an , " T h e Student in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n ," p. 145.

S tep h en D o u g la s M c C le lla n , "An A n a ly s is of How th e Role
of Law H as A ffected S p e c ific R e la tio n s h ip s B etw een P u b lic U n i v e r ­
s itie s and T h e i r S tudents: L e g a l G u id e lin e s f o r A d m in is tr a tiv e
D ec isio n -M a k in g " (u n p u b lish e d P h . D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , M ic h ig a n State
U n iv e rsity , 1967).

R ights and F r e e d o m s o f S tu d e n ts adopted in 1967 by th e U. S. N atio n al
Studeqt A s s o c ia ti o n and s u b s e q u e n tly e n d o r s e d by m a j o r fa c u lty and
a d m in s t r a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n s i s a m a n if e s ta tio n of th is tr e n d .

1

B e a n e y h a s m a in ta in e d th a t it w ould be a " d i s a s t r o u s m i s ta k e " f s tu d e n t c l a im s w e r e to b e c a s u a lly d i s m i s s e d s im p ly b e c a u s e
the laikr p r e s e n t l y p r o v id e s no c o m p u lsio n to a c t d if fe re n tly .

2

Y egge

h a s added th a t r e g a r d l e s s of d if f e r e n c e s of opinion o v e r w h e th e r the
law sh ould b e in v o lv ed in a c a d e m ic m a t t e r s , the f a c t o f u ltim a te
le g a l R e d re s s e x i s t s .

T h is fa c t in flu e n c e s s tu d e n t- in s ti tu tio n a l r e ­

la tio n s. 3
A f te r a n a ly z in g r e c e n t c o u r t d e c is io n s a ffe c tin g s tu d e n ts ,
C h a m b e rs h a s co n c lu d ed th a t th e c o n v e n tio n a l le g a l d o c tr in e th a t the
re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e s tu d e n t and h i s c o lle g e i s a l m o s t w holly
c o n t r a c t u a l - - a t r a n s a c t i o n in v o lv in g p u r c h a s e and s a l e of e d u c a tio n a l
s e r v i c e s b e tw e e n two p a r t i e s - - i s no lo n g e r v ia b le .

H e h a s d e te c te d

a d ec id ed s h ift in fa v o r of th e stu d e n t:
The m o r e m o d e r n view i s th a t the b eg in n in g of th e r e la tio n s h ip
is no lo n g e r s im p ly th e in c e p tio n of a c o n t r a c t, beeaw-se it h a s
*A d m in is tra to r * s H andbook: U n d e r s ta n d in g th e J o in t S ta te m e n t on R ig h ts and F r e e d o m s of S tu d en ts (C hicago; C o lleg e and
U n iv e rs ity B u s i n e s s , u n d a te d ) .
2

W illia m M. B e a n e y , "S tu d e n ts, H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , an d the
Law, * D e n v e r Law J o u r n a l , X LV (S pecial, 1968), 513.
3

R o b e r t B. Y egge, " E m e r g in g L e g a l R ig h ts f o r S tu d e n ts ,"
i b i d . , p. 78.

45
b e c o m e l e s s a v o lu n ta r y a g r e e m e n t th a n " a n a c t o f s u b m i s s i o n "
(in th e w o r d s of one judge) b e c a u s e th e p r o je c te d s e r v i c e is s o
in d is p e n s a b le to the stu d e n t th a t he i s l a r g e l y a t t h e m e r c y o f
th e o th e r p a r t y . T h is m e a n s th a t th e t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e s of th e
law of c o n t r a c t s p la y a d e c r e a s i n g r o l e , an d a r e in g r e a t p a r t
su p p la n te d b y new n o tio n s w h ic h ta k e in to a c c o u n t th e m u tu a l
o b lig a tio n s o f th e in d iv id u a l a n d of s o c i e t y - - a n d o f c itiz e n an d
sta te . . . . 1
T h is c o n c e p t i s not a r e t u r n to th e o u tm o d e d d o c t r i n e of
in loco p a r e n t i s - - u n d e r w h ic h th e c o lle g e a c t s in p la c e of th e p a r e n t
- -b u t m o r e c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s a f id u c ia r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y on th e p a r t
of the in s t itu ti o n .

A s d e s c r i b e d by W illia m s o n , thiB r e l a t i o n s h i p

co m p els th e in s t itu ti o n to a c t f o r th e b e n e fit of the s tu d e n t on m a t t e r s r e le v a n t to th e r e la t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e m .

2

W illia m s o n h a s

is s u e d a w a r n in g , h o w e v e r , th a t i n c r e a s e d e m p h a s i s on le g a l r i g h t s
cannot c i r c u m v e n t th e f a c t th a t a " d u a l c i tiz e n s h ip " a p p l i e s to th e
stud ent in h i g h e r e d u c atio n :
We s e e m to te a c h o u r s tu d e n ts th a t t h e r e i s b u t o ne kind of
c i tiz e n s h ip and th a t i s th e f o r m of c i tiz e n s h ip e x i s tin g in o u r
p o litic a l d e m o c r a c y . To b e s u r e , s tu d e n ts a r e c i tiz e n s and
a s s u c h , a r e e n title d to a l l th e r i g h t s of th e C o n s titu tio n , both
f e d e r a l an d s t a t e , a n d o t h e r r i g h t s a s d e fin e d by s t a t u t e s an d
by c o u r t d e c is io n s . T h ey do n o t lo s e t h e s e c i tiz e n s h ip r i g h t s
w hen th e y e n r o l l in a u n i v e r s i t y . B ut . . . w e fa c e s o m e v e r y
p u z z lin g m o d if ic a tio n s . . . .
M ..M . C h a m b e r s , T h e C o lle g e s and th e C o u r t s . 1 9 6 21966 (D a n v ille , 111.: I n t e r s t a t e P r i n t e r s & P u b l i s h e r s , I n c . , 1967),
in tro d u c tio n .
2

E . G. W illia m s o n , "D o S tu d e n ts H ave A c a d e m ic F r e e ­
d o m ? " in L lo y d - J o n e s an d E s t r i n , e d s . , T h e A m e r i c a n S tu den t and
His C o lle g e , p. 315.

46
. . . an a c a d e m ic in s titu tio n i s not a f o r m o f p o litic a l
dem ocracy. . . .
. . . th e s tu d e n t i s a d m itte d t o a s t a t e - c h a r t e r e d e d u c a ­
tio n a l c o r p o r a tio n , th e a c a d e m ic in s titu tio n . It i s n o t a
d e m o c r a c y , i t i s a c o r p o r a tio n , o f a p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r , w ith
th e d efin e d m i s s i o n of i n s t r u c t i n g youth. . . .
M e m b e r s h ip in th is kind of a c o r p o r a t e e n t e r p r i s e d o e s not
n e g a te th e s tu d e n t 1 s c iv ic and s t a t e r i g h t s . But w e fa c e s o m e
in te r e s t i n g q u e s tio n s th a t h a v e no t e n t i r e l y b e e n c l a r i f i e d a s to
w h at m o d ific a tio n one type of r ig h t im p o s e s upon a n o t h e r a s he
e x e r c i s e s both ty p e s of r ig h ts . . . . *
W illiam son* s d e fin itio n of th e a c a d e m ic in s titu tio n a s an
ed u c atio n al c o r p o r a t i o n - - d i s p u t e d by m a n y a s to o n a r r o w and
l e g a l i s t i c - - b r i n g s to full c i r c l e th is re v ie w of th e l i t e r a t u r e c o n ­
cerning th e r e la tio n s h ip of th e u n i v e r s i t y to th e stu d e n t.

T he only

r e a s o n a b le c o n c lu sio n th a t can be d r a w n i s th a t th e s t u d e n t 's r ig h ts
and th e institution* s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a r e u n s e ttle d and a r e in th e
p r o c e s s of ch an g e.

M uch of the a tte n d a n t co n fu sio n s e e m s to s te m

from d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r th e o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e and g o a ls of
the u n iv e r s ity .

A lthough p e r tin e n t l i t e r a t u r e h a s p r o l i f e r a t e d in

re c e n t y e a r s , m u c h of it i s s u b je c tiv e and p r e s c r i p t i v e .

O b je c tiv e

findings b a s e d on e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h a r e la c k in g .
T h is i s th e s c e n e upon w h ich the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n c o n ­
cept h a s m a d e i t s a p p e a r a n c e in A m e r i c a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .

The

origin o f th e co n c e p t, h o w e v e r, a l s o m u s t be t r a c e d th ro u g h a n o th e r
* I b id ., pp. 3 0 9 -1 0 .

47
s tr e a m of l i t e r a t u r e - - t h a t w h ich d e a ls w ith th e o m b u d s m a n in civ il
g o v ern m e n t.

T he re v ie w w ill now be tu r n e d in th a t d ir e c tio n .
C iv il O m b u d sm a n

A d e c a d e ago l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e rn in g the o m b u d sm a n in civ il
g ov ernm en t w a s p r a c t i c a l l y n o n - e x is t e n t in th e U nited S ta te s .
it i s e x te n siv e and i n c r e a s i n g r a p id ly .

Today

T he f i r s t E n g lis h - la n g u a g e

book in the field w as U t l e y 's O c c a s io n f o r O m b u d s m a n , p u b lish ed
in London. * Two b a s i c r e f e r e n c e s p u b lis h e d in th is c o u n try a r e
The O m b u d sm an : C i tiz e n 1 s D e f e n d e r , e d ite d b y R ow at,
O m budsm en and O th e r s :
G ellhorn.

3

2

and

C i tiz e n s ' P r o t e c t o r s in N ine C o u n tr ie s by

G e llh o rn a l s o h a s w r i tte n When A m e r i c a n s C om plain :

G o v ern m en tal G r ie v a n c e P r o c e d u r e s , w hich m a k e s a c a s e fo r
o m b u d s m e n - c r itic s of public a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in the U nited S ta te s .

4

A w ork by S a w e r e n title d O m b u d sm e n h a s b een p u b lis h e d in
*T. E , U tle y , O c c a s io n fo r O m b u d sm a n (London:
son, 1961).
2

C. J o h n ­

D o nald C. R ow at, e d . , T he O m b u d sm a n : C i t i z e n 's
D efender (London: G e o r g e A lle n & Unwin, L t d . , 1965).
3
W a lte r G e llh o rn , O m b u d sm e n and O th e r s : C i t i z e n s '
P r o te c to r s in Nine C o u n trie s (C a m b rid g e , M a s s . : H a r v a r d U n i­
v e rs ity P r e s s , 1966).
4
G e llh o rn , W hen A m e r ic a n s C o m p lain : G o v e r n m e n ta l
G rievance P r o c e d u r e s (C a m b rid g e , M a s s . : H a r v a r d U n iv e r s ity
P r e s s , 1966),

48
M elbo urn e. * T he m o s t r e c e n t v o lu m e i s O m b u d s m e n f o r A m e r ic a n
G o v e rn m e n t? e d ite d by A n d e rso n fo r the A m e r ic a n A s s e m b ly .

2

E a r l i e r he had w r i t t e n a m o n o g ra p h c a lle d C an ad ia n O m b u d sm a n
P ro p o sa ls.

3

O th e r r e la te d w o r k s in c lu d e The C itiz e n and th e A d 4
m in is tr a tio n : T he R e d r e s s of G r ie v a n c e s ed ite d by W hyatt,
The
G o v e rn o rs and the G o v ern ed by R o b son , and The C o n tro l of P o lic e
5
D isc re tio n : T he D a n is h E x p e r ie n c e by A a ro n .
S u p p lem e n tin g th e s e b ooks a r e two U .S . g o v e r n m e n t d o c u ­
m ents r e p o r tin g C o n g r e s s io n a l o m b u d s m a n h e a r i n g s , an u n p u b lish ed
g
study by S an d b erg , and n u m e r o u s a r t i c l e s in p r o f e s s i o n a l jo u r n a ls ,
popular m a g a z in e s and n e w s p a p e r s .

Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t a r e i s s u e s

1G e o ffre y S a w e r, O m b u d sm e n (M elb o u rn e: M e lb o u rn e U n i­
v e r s ity P r e s s , 1964).
2

S tan ley V. A n d e rs o n , ed. , O m b u d sm e n f o r A m e r ic a n
G o v e rn m e n t? (Englew ood C liffs, N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1968).
3
A n d e r s o n , C an ad ian O m b u d sm a n P r o p o s a l s ( B e r k e l e y , __
C a lif.: In s titu te of G o v e r n m e n ta l S tu d ies, 1966).
4
S ir J o h n W hyatt, e d . , The C itiz e n and th e A d m in is tra tio n :
The R e d r e s s of G r i e v a n c e s (London: J u s t i c e - - B r i t i s h S ection of the
In te rn a tio n a l C o m m is s io n of J u r i s t s , 1961).
5
T h o m a s J . A a ro n , T he C o n tro l of P o lic e D is c r e tio n : The
Danish E x p e r ie n c e (S p rin g field , 111.: C h a r l e s C. T h o m a s , P u b ­
lis h e r , 1966).
Q
C a r l H. S an d b erg , "O m b u d sm a n : The R e d r e s s o f C i tiz e n s '
G rie v a n c e s" (u n pu blished h o n o r s p a p e r , O hio U n iv e r s ity , 1968).

49
of jo u r n a ls d ev o ted w h o lly o r p a r t i a l l y to a r t i c l e s on th e o m b u d sm a n .
E v ery th in g li s t e d above w a s p ro d u c e d d u rin g th e I 9 6 0 ' s .
In re v ie w in g th e l i t e r a t u r e , th e d ev e lo p m e n t of the c iv il
o m b u d sm an co n c ep t w ill be t r a c e d , f i r s t in o th e r c o u n t r ie s and th en
in the U nited S ta te s .

S i m i l a r i t i e s and d if f e r e n c e s in o m b u d s m a n

a c tiv itie s w ill be noted.
Sweden
A c c o rd in g to S a n d b erg , the w o r l d 's o ld e s t a g e n c y d ev o ted
e x c lu siv e ly to helping c i tiz e n s who h a v e been a b u s e d o r n e g le c te d
by public o f fic ia ls is th e Sw edish o ffic e of o m b u d sm a n , o r J u s t i t i e o m b u d sm an (a b b r e v ia te d " J . O . ").* E s ta b lis h e d u n d e r Sweden* s c o n ­
stitu tion of 1809, the o ffic e h a s r o o t s r e a c h in g b ac k to an c ien t
S candinavia.

A n d e rso n h a s r e p o r t e d th a t the f i r s t o m b u d sm a n ,

known a s " u m b o d s m a d r , " w a s a m e d i a t o r b e tw e e n feuding f a m i l i e s
in the p r i m i t i v e I c e la n d ic le g a l s y s t e m .

2

a g e n t 's n a m e c o n s is ts o f th r e e s y ll a b le s :

T he m o d e r n fo rm o f th is
" o m , " m e a n in g ab o u t;

"bud, " m e a n in g m e s s a g e ; and " m a n , " m e a n in g m a n o r p e r s o n .
Thus, the l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n i s " a m a n w ith a m e s s a g e about
^I b id . , p. 17.
2

A n d e rs o n , "A n O m b u d sm a n f o r the U .S . ? " C e n te r D ia r y :
14, p u b lish ed by the C e n t e r fo r the Study of D e m o c r a t i c In s titu tio n s ,
Santa B a r b a r a , C alif. ( S e p te m b e r - O c to b e r , 1966), p . 19.

50
s o m e th in g .

111

A n o th e r m e a n in g of the t e r m p r e f e r r e d by R o s e n th a l

and o t h e r s i s , s im p ly , " o n e who r e p r e s e n t s so m e o n e . "

2

O th e r

a p p e lla tio n s, a s ev id e n c e d in book and a r t i c l e t i t l e s , in clu d e ag e n t,
r e p r e s e n ta ti v e , g r ie v a n c e m a n , p u b lic p r o t e c t o r and c i t i z e n 1 s
d efe n d e r.

T he l i t e r a t u r e i s g e n e r a lly c o n s is te n t in u s in g the A n g li­

cized fo rm of s p e llin g o m b u d s m a n .

In v e r b a l u s a g e , th e f i r s t

sy llab le i s u s u a lly a c c e n te d and th e l a s t two s y ll a b le s a r e p ro n o u n ced
to rh y m e w ith " w o o d s m a n ."
M uch h a s b ee n w r i tte n abo u t S w e d e n 's o m b u d sm a n s in c e
the m o d e rn c o n c e p t of th e o ffic e o r ig in a te d in th a t c o u n try .

A c c o u n ts

by A lfre d B e x e liu s , th e c u r r e n t t i t l e h o ld e r, and s tu d i e s by s u c h
a u th o r itie s a s G e llh o rn and R o s e n th a l h a v e b een w id e ly d is s e m in a te d .
F ro m th e s e s ta n d a r d r e f e r e n c e s , a few b a s i c fa c ts an d p r in c ip le s
will be no ted .
U nlike h is p r e d e c e s s o r , th e c h a n c e llo r of j u s t i c e (an office
e s ta b lis h e d by K ing C h a r l e s XII in 1713), th e Sw edish o m b u d sm a n
^ F a r n s w o r th F o w le , " T w o O m b u d sm e n R e p o r t on R o l e s - Civic C o n tro l D e s c r i b e d by Swede an d New Z e a l a n d e r , " New Y o rk
T im e s , F e b r u a r y 20, 1966, quoted in U. S . , C o n g r e s s , S enate,
C o m m ittee on th e J u d i c i a r y , O m b u d sm a n H e a r i n g s , b e f o r e th e Sub­
c o m m itte e on A d m in is tr a tiv e P r a c t i c e and P r o c e d u r e of the C o m ­
m itte e on th e J u d i c i a r y , 89th Cong. , 2nd s e s s . , 1966, p. 380.
2

A lb e r t H. R o s e n th a l, " T h e O m b u d s m a n -- S w e d is h
'G r ie v a n c e M a n , ' " P u b lic A d m in is tr a tio n R eview , XXIV (D e c e m ­
b e r, 1964), 227.

51
r e p r e s e n t s P a r l i a m e n t r a t h e r th an th e k ing in s u p e r v is in g g o v e r n ­
m ent o f fic ia ls .

T h is ch a n g e w a s m a d e in the 1809 c o n s titu tio n

b ec au se th e c h a n c e llo r h a d not b e e n r e g a r d e d a s in d e p e n d e n t enough
from the g o v e rn m e n t to p ro v id e s u ffic ie n t p r o te c tio n of c i tiz e n s '
r ig h ts.

B e x e liu s h a s m a in ta in e d th a t the p o sitio n w a s c r e a t e d

a g a in st the w is h e s of th e e x is tin g g o v e r n m e n t. *
T he o m b u d s m a n m u s t be a p e r s o n of known le g a l a b i lity
and o u tsta n d in g in te g r i ty c h o sen by P a r l i a m e n t to s e r v e a f o u r y ear te rm .

H is s a l a r y i s e q u a l to th a t of a S u p re m e C o u rt ju d g e .
2
The p r e s e n t o m b u d s m a n i s a f o r m e r ju d g e.
T he o m b u d s m a n co n d u c ts r e g u l a r in s p e c tio n s of g o v e r n ­

m ent in s titu tio n s , m a k e s in v e s tig a tio n s on h is own v o litio n , and
h e a r s c o m p la in ts fro m an y c itiz e n .

He d e c id e s w h a t c a s e s he w ill

p u rsu e and w h at a c tio n sho u ld be ta k e n .

Often th e a c tio n is a

r e m in d e r o r a r e p r i m a n d r a t h e r th a n le g a l p r o s e c u tio n .

3

T he o m ­

budsm an r e j e c t s c o m p la in ts w h ich , in h is ju d g m e n t, a r e u n w a r ­
ran ted .

A c c o rd in g to G e llh o rn , h e finds no fau lt in about 90 p e r
4
cent of th e c a s e s about w h ich a c o m p la in t h a s b ee n m a d e .
He h a s
1A lf re d B e x e liu s , " T h e O m b u d sm a n f o r C iv il A f f a ir s , " in
Rowat, ed. , T he O m b u d sm a n : C i t i z e n 1 s D e f e n d e r , p. 24.
2

G e llh o rn , O m b u d s m e n an d O t h e r s , pp. 2 0 2 -3 .

3 I b id .

, p. 206.

4Ibid. , p. 250.

52
a c c e s s to a l l g o v e r n m e n t d o c u m e n ts and can r e q u e s t a d d itio n a l
in fo rm a tio n fro m a l l o f fic ia ls .

A lthough he g iv e s no o r d e r s , he

m ay in itia te p u b lic p r o s e c u tio n , e v e n a g a in s t ju d g e s .

He can n o t

change but can p u b lic ly c r i t i c i z e a d m in i s t r a t i v e and j u d ic ia l d e c i ­
sio n s.

He s u b m its an an n u a l r e p o r t to P a r l i a m e n t .

B e x e liu s h a s

indicated th a t n e i t h e r P a r l i a m e n t n o r th e a d m in is t r a tio n e x e r t s
p o litic a l p r e s s u r e on h i m .

1

D u rin g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y h is e f f o r ts w e r e d ir e c te d
chiefly at c o u r ts , p o lic e and p r i s o n s .

G ra d u a lly , h o w e v e r, civ il

s e rv ic e a d m in i s t r a t i o n h a s b e c o m e h is m a in c o n c e r n .

The n u m b e r

of c o m p la in ts p e r y e a r - - a b o u t 100 fifty y e a r s a g o - - w a s 550 in 1956
and 1 ,5 5 0 in 1966.

2

H is e f f e c ts h av e not b e e n s p e c t a c u l a r ; y e t he

has had c o n s id e r a b le in flu en c e on th e w ay in w hich p u b lic o ffic ia ls
p e r f o r m t h e i r d u tie s .

B e x e liu s h a s m a d e t h i s c a p s u le e v a lu a tio n o f

the office:
The m e r e e x is te n c e of an O m b u d sm a n , in d e p e n d e n t of the
b u r e a u c r a c y , to w hich anybody m a y c a r r y h is c o m p la in ts , w ill
a c t to s h a r p e n th e a tte n tio n of th e a u t h o r i t i e s in d e a lin g w ith
1 B e x e liu s ,

" T h e O m b u d s m a n 1 s O ffice and O th e r M e a n s f o r
P ro te c tin g C i tiz e n s ' R ig h ts in Sweden, " I n te r n a tio n a l S o cial S cie n ce
J o u r n a l. XVIII (No. 2), 249.
2
I b id . , " T h e O rig in , N a tu r e , and F u n c tio n s of th e C iv il and
M ilita ry O m b u d sm a n in S w e d e n ," T h e A n n a ls of th e A m e r ic a n
A cadem y o f P o l i t i c a l and S o c ia l S c ie n c e . CCCLXXVII (M ay, 1968),
15.

53
c a s e s and to c o u n te r a c t te n d e n c ie s to w a r d a b u s e of p o w e r and
a r b i t r a r y d e c is io n s . 1
F in la n d
E x p a n sio n of th e o m b u d sm a n c o n c e p t b e g a n in 1919, w hen
F i n l a n d 's new c o n s titu tio n b o r r o w e d f r o m Sweden th e id e a o f a
p u b lic w a tc h m a n a g a in s t o f fic ia l m i s t a k e s .

S ince Finland* s s y s te m

of g o v e r n m e n t had long r e s e m b l e d S w e d e n 's , A n d e r s o n h a s in d ic a te d
th a t th e only s u r p r i s i n g a s p e c t of the a d o p tio n i s th a t it took so long.
A lthough the F in n is h o m b u d s m a n c lo s e ly p a r a l l e l s h is S w edish
c o u n t e r p a r t in p o w e r s and d u tie s , he h a s not s p r u n g q u ic k ly to th e
d e fe n s e o f b a s i c c iv il r i g h t s .

A c c o rd in g to G e llh o rn , h is p o te n tia l

in d e a lin g w ith p r o b le m s of L ittle M an and Big G o v e r n m e n t h a s not
b e e n fu lly e x p lo re d .

3

D e n m a rk
S tro n g ly in flu e n c e d by th e S w edish m o d e l, the o ffic e of o m ­
b u d sm a n w a s in c o r p o r a te d in to D e n m a r k 's c o n s titu tio n o f 1953.
S tephan H u rw itz , the f i r s t D a n is h o m b u d sm a n , b eg a n h is d u tie s two
1I b id .,

p. 16.

2

A n d e r s o n , " T h e S can d in a v ia n O m b u d sm a n , " A m e r ic a n
S can d in a v ia n R e v ie w , LII ( D e c e m b e r , 1964), 4 0 3 -4 .
3

G e llh o rn , O m b u d s m e n and O th e r s , p. 89.

2

54
y e a rs la te r.

It i s G e llh o r n 1 s opinion th a t th e f o r m e r p r o f e s s o r o f

c r i m i n a l law a t th e U n iv e r s ity of C o pen hag en p r o b a b ly h a s done m o r e
than an y o th e r p e r s o n to p o p u la r iz e th e o m b u d s m a n .

H is e x c e lle n t

r e la tio n s w ith th e pu blic p r e s s and h i s e x te n s iv e l e c t u r e t o u r s h av e
b e e n i n s t r u m e n t a l in s p r e a d in g th e S ca n d in a v ia n id e a to o th e r p a r t s
of th e w o rld .

1

D e s p ite t h e i r m a n y s i m i l a r i t i e s , th e D a n is h o m b u d sm a n h a s
l e s s le g a l a u th o r ity th an th e o m b u d sm e n of Sweden and F in la n d .

The

j u d i c i a r y i s e x c lu d ed fro m th e p u rv iew of h is o ffic e, lim itin g h is
ju r i s d i c t i o n s o le ly to a d m in is t r a tio n .
a s a p ro se c u to r.

2

F u r t h e r m o r e , h e can no t a c t

T h e s e lim ita tio n s h a v e b e e n r e ta in e d by o th e r

g o v e r n m e n ts w h ich h av e s u b s e q u e n tly ad o p ted the o m b u d s m a n c o n ­
cep t.

T h u s, i t i s the m o d ifie d D a n is h m o d e l r a t h e r than the S w edish

p ro to ty p e w hich h a s b ee n e x p o r te d f r o m S can d in av ia .
D u rin g th e five y e a r s ending in 1964, the D a n is h o m b u d s ­
m a n in v e s tig a te d only 856 c a s e s , c o n s titu tin g l e s s th a n 15 p e r ce n t
of th e m a t t e r s r e g i s t e r e d a t h is o ffice.

G e llh o rn h a s a t tr i b u te d the

i n c r e a s i n g p r o p o r tio n o f d i s m i s s a l s p a r t i a l l y to th e o m b u d s m a n 's
1I b i d . ,

2

pp. 5 - 6 .

I b id . , pp. 12-13. T he o m b u d sm a n m a y o r d e r th e p u b lic
p r o s e c u t o r to in v e s tig a te f u r t h e r o r to c o m m e n c e a c r i m i n a l p r o ­
ceed in g a g a in s t a n e r r i n g o ffic ia l, but he n e v e r h a s .

55
" s h a r p e n e d a w a r e n e s s of w hat h e can f e a s ib ly do. "*

P ro fesso r

H u rw itz h a s m a d e an e f f o rt to p e r s o n a l i z e h is o ffic e, p ro v id in g an
a n s w e r w ith a n e x p la n a tio n f o r e v e r y c o m p la in t r e c e iv e d , n o m a t t e r
how f a r - f e t c h e d .

L ackin g the a u th o r ity of a p r o s e c u t o r , h e h a s

r e l i e d l a r g e ly on p e r s u a s io n b ack ed by r e a s o n in g to a c c o m p lis h h is
g o a ls .

A c c o rd in g to A a ro n , h is r ig h t of p ub lic c r i t i c i s m , w h ich he

c a u tio u s ly e x e r c i s e s , h a s p ro v e d to be a f o r m id a b le w eapon.

2

C on­

se q u e n tly , the v e r y e x is te n c e of h is office d is c o u r a g e s b u r e a u c r a t i c
b e h a v io r th a t f r u s t r a t e s the p u b lic .

3

I n itia l o b je c tio n to th e office

by c iv il s e r v a n t s h a s d is s ip a te d .
A C openh ag en j u r i s t ,

1.

M. P e d e r s e n , h a s co n c lu d ed that

th e D a n ish o m b u d s m a n 's office h a s p r o v e d to be a n e x t r e m e l y u s e ­
ful in s titu tio n , s u p p le m e n tin g th e c o n tro l w ithout h a m p e r in g the
4
e ffic ie n c y o r in d e p e n d e n c e of the a d m in is tr a tio n .
N o rw a y
A s in o th e r S can d in av ia n c o u n tr ie s , N o r w a y 's a p p o in t­
m e n t of an o m b u d sm a n w a s not p r e c e d e d by r e v e l a tio n s of g r o s s
1 Ibid.

2

3

, pp. 2 2 -2 3 .

A a r o n , T he C o n tro l of P o lic e D i s c r e t i o n , p. 40.
J a m e s E g an , " O m b u d s m a n ," H oliday, N o v e m b e r, 1966,

p. 32.
4

I. M. P e d e r s e n , " D e n m a r k 's O m b u d s m a n ," in Row at,
e d . , T he O m b u d sm a n : C i t i z e n 's D e fe n d e r, p. 94.

56
in e ffic ie n c y o r m a lf e a s a n c e in p u b lic o ffic e.

A c c o rd in g to S to rin g ,

the g o v e r n m e n t 1 s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a g e n c ie s w e r e e ffe c tiv e ly c a r r y i n g
out t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s " b u t th e r e w e r e s o m e e v id e n c e s of the
n o r m a l d i s e a s e s of b u r e a u c r a t i z a t i o n su c h a s u nd ue d e la y s , a g r e a t
d e a l o f p a p e r w o rk , r e d ta p e , e tc .

T hus, th e office of o m b u d s ­

m a n w a s added in 1962 to b r id g e the d ev e lo p in g g u lf b e tw e e n a d m in ­
i s t r a t o r s and c i tiz e n s .

Os h a s po in ted out th a t th e c o m m is s io n

w hich r e c o m m e n d e d the p o s itio n e m p h a s iz e d th e im p o r ta n c e of f i l l ­
ing it w ith the r ig h t p e r s o n - - a w e ll- p a id , h ig h ly -q u a lifie d la w y e r
p o s s e s s i n g su c h in s ig h t and a u th o r ity th a t h is o p in io n s would be
heeded.

2

The f i r s t o m b u d sm a n w a s A n d r e a s S ch ei, a m e m b e r of

th e S u p re m e C o u r t a t the tim e of h is e le c tio n .
A n d e r s o n h a s noted th a t N o rw a y 1 s o m b u d sm a n d i f f e r s fro m
o th e r S can d in a v ia n o m b u d s m e n in th a t h is office h a s no j u r i s d i c t i o n
3
o v e r l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t o f fic ia ls .
A ls o , he d o e s n ot r o u tin e ly in s p e c t
a g e n c ie s and in s titu tio n s and he ca n n o t d ir e c t th a t a c iv il s e r v a n t be
* J a m e s A. S to rin g , "T h e N o rw e g ia n O m b u d sm a n f o r C iv il
A ff a irs : The F i r s t T h r e e Y e a r s , 1 9 6 3 - 6 6 ," W e s t e r n P o liti c a l
Q u a r t e r l y , XXI (J u n e , 1968), 305,
2

A u d v a r O s, " T h e O m b u d s m a n fo r C iv il A f f a ir s , " in Row at,
e d . , T h e O m b u d sm a n : Citizen* s D e f e n d e r , p. 95.
3

A n d e r s o n , "T h e O m b u d sm a n : P u b lic D e fe n d e r A g a in s t
M a la d m in is tr a tio n , " P u b lic A f f a i r s R e p o r t , VI (A p ril, 1965), 3.

57
p r o s e c u te d o r s u b je c te d t o a d i s c i p l i n a r y p ro c e e d in g .
d if f e r e n c e i s a p p a r e n t to G e llh o rn :

One o th e r

N o rw e g ia n n e w s p a p e r s have

p aid lit tle a tte n tio n to th e o ffice. * W is k a r i h a s r e p o r t e d th a t in
1965 S chei r e c e iv e d 952 c o m p la in ts , r e s u lt in g in 344 in v e s tig a tio n s
and 123 c o r r e c t i v e a c tio n s .

2

New Z e a la n d
T he f i r s t n a tio n a l l e g i s l a t u r e o u tsid e S can d in av ia to p a s s
a c iv il o m b u d sm a n a c t w a s th a t of New Z e a la n d .

N o rth e y and O r r

h av e s u g g e s te d th a t the d e c is io n w a s m a d e b e c a u s e th e g o v e r n m e n t
had b e c o m e con v in ced th a t e x is tin g m e a n s a v a ila b le to the c itiz e n
3
f o r g ain in g r e d r e s s f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n j u r i e s w e r e in a d e q u a te .
G e llh o rn , on th e o th e r h an d , h a s m a in ta in e d that th e o m b u d sm a n
w a s c r e a t e d " n o t to c le a n up a m e s s , b ut r a t h e r , s im p ly to p ro v id e
4
in s u r a n c e a g a in s t fu tu re m e s s e s . "
^ G ellh o rn , O m b u d sm e n and O t h e r s , pp. 176, 188-89.
2

W e r n e r W is k a r i, " N o r w a y 1 s E x p e r ie n c e : How an O m ­
b u d s m a n O p e r a t e s , " N ew _Y ork_T im es, N o v e m b e r 20, 1966, IV,
p. 3.
3
J . F . N o rth e y , "New Z e a l a n d 's P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o m m i s ­
s i o n e r , " in R ow at, e d , , T he O m b u d sm a n : Citizen* s D e f e n d e r ,
p. 127; G. S. O r r , R e p o r t on A d m in is tr a tiv e J u s t i c e in New Z e a ­
land (W ellington: R. E . Owen, 1964), p. 7.
4
G e llh o rn , O m b u d sm e n and O th e r s , p. 103.

58
New Z e a la n d 1 s o ffic e o f o m b u d sm a n , e s ta b li s h e d in 1962,
c l o s e ly r e s e m b l e s D enm ark* s w ith m i n o r d i f f e r e n c e s , su c h a s th e
om budsm an* s ap p o in tm e n t by th e g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l upon r e c o m ­
m e n d a tio n o f the le g i s l a t u r e and th e r e q u ir e m e n t o f a m o d e s t filin g
fee fro m c o m p la in a n ts .

A ls o , th e law s p e c if ie s no p a r t i c u l a r q u a l i ­

fic a tio n s fo r the o m b u d sm a n .

1

T he f i r s t ap p o in tee w a s S ir Guy

P o w le s , a d istin g u is h e d la w y e r an d a d m i n i s t r a t o r w ho w a s p r e v io u s ly h is country* s a m b a s s a d o r to In d ia.

2

W hile ac kn ow led ging

th e c o n s id e r a b le in flu en ce o f S can d in av ia n e x p e r ie n c e , Pow e s h a s
i n s i s t e d th a t New Z e a la n d fa sh io n e d a n o m b u d sm an to m e e t i t s own
needs.

F o r in s ta n c e , h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s fro m the le g i s l a t u r e w e r e

n ot s im p ly to s e e that th e law i s c a r r i e d out but to s e e th a t ig h t i s
d o n e.

He b e g in s ea ch a n n u a l r e p o r t w ith th is r e m i n d e r :
4
to ld m e to s e e th a t we do r i g h t . "

" Y o u 'v e

N o rth ey , "N ew Z ealand* s P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o m m is s i o n e r , "
p. 133; D avid P . O 'N e i l l , " T h e New Z e a la n d O m b u d s m a n , 1 A m e r i c a ,
CXII ( J a n u a r y 30, 1965), 166; G e llh o rn , O m b u d sm e n an d O h e r s ,
p. 104.
2

O 'N e i l l , " T h e New Z e a la n d O m b u d s m a n ," p. 168

3

S ir Guy P o w le s , " A s p e c ts o f th e S e a rc h f o r A d m in is tr a tiv e
J u s t i c e w ith P a r t i c u l a r R e f e r e n c e to the New Z e a la n d O m b u d s m a n ,"
C a n a d ia n P u b lic A d m in is tr a tio n . IX (Ju n e, 1966), 14 3 -4 4 .
D ia ry :

H allo ck H offm an, "A n O m b u d sm a n fo r th e U . S . ?
14, p. 25.

C e n te r

59
P o w le s r e c e n tly in d ic a te d how h e in te n d s to p u r s u e th a t
policy:
, . . th e O m b u d sm a n m u s t c a r v e and t r e a d h i s own path,
b ein g c a r e f u l to m a in ta in h is in d e p e n d e n c e of both th e e x e c u tiv e
and the j u d i c i a r y , so a s to be a b le to bu ild a t r a d i t i o n of s t r o n g
an d i m p a r t i a l c r i t i c i s m of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n on th e one hand and of
h e lp fu ln e s s to c itiz e n s on th e o t h e r . 1
G r e a t B r ita in
W hen S i r E d m un d C o m pton b eg a n s e r v in g a s p a r l i a m e n t a r y
c o m m i s s i o n e r in 1967, G r e a t B r ita in b e c a m e the f i r s t l a r g e n atio n to
a tte m p t the a d a p ta tio n of the o m b u d s m a n co n c ep t to i t s g o v e r n m e n ta l
stru c tu re .

U n lik e h is S can d in av ia n c o u n t e r p a r t s , and to a g r e a t e r

d e g r e e th a n in New Z e a la n d , th e B r i t i s h o m b u d s m a n i s a n ap p o in tee
of th e h ea d of s t a t e .
of P a r l i a m e n t .

Y et he i s e x p e c te d to be an in d e p e n d e n t o f f ic e r

C om pton, E n g l a n d 's f o r m e r c o m p t r o l l e r and a u d i t o r -

g e n e r a l , h a s r e s t r i c t e d in v e s tig a to r y p o w e r s and no a u th o r ity to c o n ­
d u ct p r o s e c u t i o n s .
P a rlia m e n t.

He r e c e i v e s c o m p la in ts only th ro u g h m e m b e r s of

H is fin al r e p o r t on e a c h c a s e is m a d e to th e M. P . who

r e f e r r e d it to h im and it is th a t o ffic ia l who d e c id e s how th e fin ding s
s h a ll be c o m m u n ic a te d to th e c o m p la in a n t and th e p r e s s .

2

^ P o w le s , " A s p e c ts of the S e a r c h fo r A d m in is tr a tiv e J u s ­
t ic e , " p. 157.
2

G e o ffre y M a r s h a ll, " T h e B r i t i s h P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o m m is ­
s i o n e r fo r A d m in is tr a tio n , " T h e A n n a ls o f th e A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y
of P o l i t i c a l a n d S o c ia l S cie n c e , CCCLXXVJI (M ay, 1968), 94.

60
L im ite d a s it i s , th e B r i t i s h v e r s i o n of o m b u d sm a n
m a c h in e r y r e p r e s e n t s a s ig n ific a n t d e p a r t u r e fro m le g a l t r a d i t i o n
in th a t c o u n try , a c c o r d in g to M a r s h a l l .

The P a r l i a m e n t a r y C o m ­

m i s s i o n e r A ct g o e s beyond th e c o n t r o l of m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in a
n a r r o w s e n s e by p r o v id in g f o r a r e v ie w o f a lle g e d ly u n ju s t o r u n ­
r e a s o n a b le d e c is io n s by o f f ic ia ls .

M o r e o v e r , it r e l a t e s to in ju s tic e

c a u s e d by m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n ts ,
a n a r e a not a d e q u a te ly c o v e re d by p r e v io u s le g is la tio n . * S till, a s
R ow at h a s e m p h a s iz e d , it i s a f a r c r y fro m th e New Z e a la n d l e g i s ­
la tio n w hich a llo w s th e o m b u d s m a n to r e v ie w a d e c is io n i f he th in k s
it i s s im p ly " w ro n g . "

F u r t h e r m o r e , the B r i t i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r 's

j u r i s d i c t i o n d o e s not in c lu d e fo u r o f th a t n a t i o n 's m o s t c o m p la in e d ab o u t a g e n c i e s - - t h e p o lic e , lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t, c o u r ts and n a tio n a liz e d i n d u s t r i e s .

2

In s e le c tin g h is s ta f f m e m b e r s , C om pton h a s in s i s t e d on
o b je c tiv ity in t h e i r e f f o r ts to im p r o v e c iv il a d m in is t r a tio n :
I d o n 't w an t c r u s a d e r s . T h is i s a n e x e r c i s e in f a i r n e s s .
I w an t o b je c tiv ity . I a m k ee n th is sh o u ld w o rk out f a i r to a l l
p a r t i e s . P e o p le a r e a p t to think th a t th e only thing th a t m a t ­
t e r s i s f a i r n e s s to the p e r s o n co m p la in in g .
1 s h a ll h a v e th e r e p u ta tio n o f 400, 000 p eo p le in m y h a n d s
- - i f t h a t ' s how m a n y c iv il s e r v a n t s t h e r e a r e . E v e n i f w e a r e
l I b i d . , p. 87.
2

R ow at, " R e c e n t D e v e lo p m e n ts in O m b u d s m a n s h ip , "
C a n ad ia n P u b lic A d m in is tr a tio n , X (M a rc h , 1967), 4 1 -4 2 .

61
u n e a rth in g f a u lts in th e s y s t e m , i t a lw a y s b o ils down in the end
to an a c tio n th a t so m e o n e h a s done. . . . an o p e r a tio n w hose
e x e r c i s e i s to d e t e c t and i f p o s s ib le r e m e d y flaw s in ju s t ic e
m u s t i t s e l f b e ju s t . *
In h is f i r s t n in e m o n th s o f office, the B r i t i s h o m b u d sm an
r e c e iv e d 1 ,0 6 9 c o m p la in ts ; only 2 p e r ce n t o f th o se d is p o s e d of w e r e
found to be v a lid .

2

C a n ad a and O th e r N a tio n s
A ll e x c e p t one of C a n a d a 's te n p r o v in c ia l l e g i s l a t u r e s hav e
been c o n s id e r in g o m b u d sm a n s c h e m e s s in c e 1965,

Two p r o v i n c e s - -

A lb e r ta and New B r u n s w ic k - - h a v e p a s s e d o m b u d s m a n le g is la tio n ,
both in 1967.

F o r t h e i r o m b u d sm e n , A lb e r ta c h o s e th e r e t i r i n g h ead

of th e R o yal C a n a d ia n M ounted P o lic e and New B ru n sw ic k s e le c te d a
f o r m e r u n i v e r s i t y p r e s id e n t.

O m b u d sm a n p r o p o s a ls a l s o h ave b een

d is c u s s e d in th e f e d e r a l P a r l i a m e n t and by city g o v e r n m e n ts .

3

In 1965, G uyana and M a u r itiu s in c lu d ed in t h e i r new c o n ­
s titu tio n s o m b u d sm a n m a c h in e r y m o d e le d on the New Z e a la n d
^ " P r o f ile : S ir E d m un d C o m pton , T he New O m b u d sm a n , "
Sunday T im e s (London), A p r il 2, 1967, p. 1 1 .
2

S a n d b e rg , "O m b u d sm an :
G r ie v a n c e s , " p. 45.
3

T he R e d r e s s of C i tiz e n s '

A n d e r s o n , C an ad ia n O m b u d sm a n P r o p o s a l s ; Cheng, " T h e
E m e r g e n c e an d S p re a d of th e O m b u d s m a n In s titu tio n , " p. 25; Row at,
"R e c e n t D e v e lo p m e n ts in O m b u d s m a n s h ip , " pp. 3 8 -4 0 ; R ow at, " T h e
S p re ad of th e O m b u d sm a n I d e a , " in A n d e r s o n , e d . , O m b u d sm e n f o r
A m e r ic a n G o v e r n m e n t ? , p. 23.

62
s y s t e m . * A c c o rd in g t o Row at, o th e r n a tio n s w hich h av e given a t t e n ­
tio n to the c o n c e p t in r e c e n t y e a r s in c lu d e A u s t r a l i a , I s r a e l , I r e ­
la n d , the N e th e rla n d s , S w itz e rla n d , A u s tr ia , W e s t G e r m a n y and
I n d ia .

2

U nited S ta te s
O m b u d sm a n l i t e r a t u r e p r o l i f e r a t e d in th e U nited S ta te s
d u r in g the I960* s e v e n though C o n g r e s s did n o t e n a c t o m b u d sm an
le g is la tio n .

Since 1963, b ills h av e b ee n in tr o d u c e d r e p e a te d ly in

C o n g r e s s and in n e a r l y a l l s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s but only one s t a t e - H a w a i i- - h a s c r e a te d th e p o sitio n .

N e a r l y two y e a r s a f t e r i t s 1967
3
a c tio n the l e g i s l a t u r e of H aw aii s t i l l h ad not fille d th e p o st.
C o n g r e s s m a n H e n ry S. R e u s s of W is c o n s in f i r s t p r o p o s e d
an o m b u d s m a n - lik e a d m in is t r a tiv e c o u n s e l to C o n g r e s s and, m o r e
r e c e n tly , S e n a to r E d w a rd V. Long of M is s o u r i h a s o ffe re d h is own
4
b ills fo r th e c r e a tio n of an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o m b u d sm a n .
L o n g 's
s c h e m e s to t e s t th e f e d e r a l o m b u d s m a n id e a in th e D i s t r i c t of
*Rowat, " T h e S p re ad of the O m b u d s m a n Id ea, " pp. 2 2 -2 3 .
2 I b id ,

3

, pp. 7, 2 2 -2 3 , 2 6 -3 0 .

A n d e rs o n , e d . , O m b u d sm e n fo r A m e r i c a n G o v e r n m e n t ? ,

p. 137.
4 Ibid.

63
C o lu m b ia <1966) and the s t a t e of M is s o u r i (1968) h ave not g ain ed
C o n g r e s s io n a l s u p p o r t.

R e u s s an n o u n ced in 1967 th a t he had a p ­

p o in ted a n o m b u d sm a n to h a n d le c o m p la in ts f r o m h is d i s t r i c t in an
a tte m p t to p ro v e th a t th e s y s t e m can w o rk n a tio n a lly . * T he p u b ­
lis h e d p r o c e e d in g s of two C o n g r e s s io n a l o m b u d sm a n h e a r i n g s a r e
v a lu a b le r e f e r e n c e w o rk s .

2

No A m e r i c a n m u n ic ip a lity h a s an o m b u d s m a n w hich f its the
D a n ish m o d e l, alth o u g h v a r i o u s p la n s h av e b e e n p ro p o s e d and a few
3
a tte m p te d .
T h r e e d e s c r i b e d by A ngus and K a p la n w ill be m e n tio n e d
h e re .^
W idely p u b lic iz e d in 1966 w a s th e a p p o in tm e n t of an ac tin g
" p u b lic p r o t e c t o r " fo r th e 1 .4 m illio n r e s i d e n t s of m e tr o p o lita n
*New Y o rk T i m e s , F e b r u a r y 5, 1967, p. 67.
2

Long* s r e g io n a l o m b u d s m a n p r o p o s a l would h a v e p ro v id e d ,
a s a p ilo t p r o j e c t , an a tto r n e y a p p o in ted by th e P r e s i d e n t to d e a l
w ith c o m p la in ts f r o m M is s o u r i r e s i d e n t s r e g a r d i n g f e d e r a l m a t t e r s .
U . S . , C o n g r e s s , S enate, R e g io n a l O m b u d s m a n P r o p o s a l , H e a r i n g s ,
pp. 1-4 .
3

Since 1966, a p o lit ic a l d e b a te h a s b e e n r a g in g o v e r the
f e a s ib ility of an o m b u d sm a n s y s t e m f o r the n a t i o n 's l a r g e s t m u n ic i­
p a lity , New Y o rk C ity. P r o p o s a l s and c o u n t e r - p r o p o s a l s h av e been
r e p o r t e d in th e New Y ork T i m e s , w hich h a s ta k e n an e d i t o r i a l p o s i ­
tion fa v o rin g th e con cept.
4
A ngus and K ap la n , " T h e O m b u d s m a n and L o c a l G o v e r n ­
m e n t, " pp. 1 0 1 -35 .

64
N a s s a u C ounty in th e s t a t e of New Y o rk .

1

A f o r m e r judge w a s

c h o s e n by the county e x e c u tiv e to f ill th e v a c a n t o ffic e of c o m m i s ­
s i o n e r o f a c c o u n ts by p e r f o r m i n g a s an o m b u d sm a n .

He w as

i n s t r u c t e d to r e c e i v e and in v e s tig a te c o m p la in ts f r o m th e p u b lic
c o n c e r n in g an y d e p a r t m e n t o r a g e n c y of the county, o r of th e tow ns,
c i tie s , in c o r p o r a te d v illa g e s o r s p e c i a l d i s t r i c t s w ith in it.

T he

p o sitio n w a s r e g a r d e d a s the f i r s t of i t s kind in th e U nited S ta te s .
T h e a p p o in te e w a s g iv en the p o w e r of su b p o e n a but no d i r e c t e n ­
f o r c e m e n t a u th o rity .
su re ."

E m p h a s is w a s p la c e d on h is " p o w e r of e x p o ­

D u rin g h is f i r s t e ig h te e n m o n th s in office h e c o n s id e r e d m o r e

th a n 500 c o m p la in ts .

He co n tin u ed to s e r v e a s de fa c to o m b u d sm a n

e v e n a f t e r N a s s a u C ounty v o t e r s o v e rw h e lm in g ly r e j e c t e d a 1967
p r o p o s a l th a t would h a v e e s ta b li s h e d th e p o st on a p e r m a n e n t b a s is .

2

In 1966, the C ity of Buffalo, New Y o rk, a g r e e d to c o o p e ra te
w ith th e Law School o f th e S tate U n iv e r s it y of New Y o rk a t B uffalo
in a lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t o m b u d sm a n p r o je c t.

I ts o b je c tiv e w a s to

e x p e r i m e n t w ith the a p p lic a tio n of th e o m b u d sm a n co n cep t to a la rg e
u r b a n s e ttin g in N o rth A m e r ic a .

A f t e r one p r o f e s s o r p r o c e s s e d a

few g r i e v a n c e s , th e p r o j e c t w a s ex pan ded to a s e m i n a r involving
^Roy R. S ilv e r , " N ic k e r s o n N a m e s a P u b lic P r o t e c t o r , "
New Y o rk T i m e s , J u n e 1 , 1966, p. 1.
2

A g is S a lp u k a s, " •O m b u d s m a n * on L . I . F in d s D e f e a t H as
G iven H im M o re P o w e r , " New Y o rk T i m e s , D e c e m b e r 3, 1967, p. 59.

65
s e n i o r la w s tu d e n ts .
E r i e C o u n ty .

The a r e a of c o m p la in ts w a s e n l a r g e d to in c lu d e

A g r a n t by th e O ffic e of E c o n o m ic O p p o rtu n ity p e r ­

m itte d a o n e - y e a r , f u l l - s c a l e o p e r a tio n in 1 9 6 7 -6 8 . *
In a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of th e city m a n a g e r* s o ffic e in 1967,
th e San D iego, C a lif o r n i a , c ity c o u n c il a g r e e d to th e c r e a t i o n of an
a s s i s t a n t with the t i t l e of " c i t i z e n s a s s i s t a n c e o f f i c e r .

11

The a s s i s ­

ta n t r e c e i v e s and i n v e s t i g a t e s c o m p la in ts an d m a k e s r e c o m m e n d a tio n s to both the m a n a g e r an d th e council.

2

T h e se a n d o t h e r o m b u d s m a n - lik e e x p e r i m e n t s in th e U n ite d
S ta te s h a v e r e c e iv e d s o m u c h p u b lic ity th a t o t h e r c i t i e s a r e ap p ly in g
th e t e r m to in a p p lic a b le p o s it io n s .

R e ce n t a r t i c l e s in th e A m e r i c a n

C ity , f o r e x a m p le , i n a c c u r a t e l y id e n tifie d m u n i c i p a l c o m p la in t and
p u b lic r e la tio n s o f f i c e r s a s o m b u d s m e n ,

3

G e ll h o r n h a s p o in te d out

th a t e v e n New Y o rk City* s c o m m i s s i o n e r of in v e s t i g a t i o n i s not an
o m b u d s m a n , d e s p i t e so m e s i m i l a r i t i e s in p o w e r s and d u tie s .

"The

m a in d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e C o m m i s s i o n e r a n d an o m b u d s m a n - - a
d i f f e r e n c e so b a s i c a s to en d t h e i r p a r a l l e l i s m - - i s th a t th e
*Angus a n d K ap la n , " T h e O m b u d s m a n an d L o c a l G o v e r n ­
m e n t, " pp. 1 21 -3 1 . A ngus c o o r d in a te d th e B u ffa lo o m b u d s m a n
p ro je c t.
2 lb id .,

3

p.

120.

" S a v a n n a h 's 'O m b u d s m a n ,
A m e r i c a n C i ty , J u n e , 1968,
p. 70. A lso E. H . P o tth o ff, "A n 'O m b u d s m a n , ' U .S . S t y l e ,"
A m e r i c a n C ity , J u l y , 1968, pp. 152, 154-55.

66
C o m m i s s i o n e r i s the m a y o r ' s m a n and an o m b u d s m a n i s h is own
m a n , " he h a s w r itte n .

1

In 1967, th e A m e r ic a n A s s e m b ly ad ded im p e tu s to the
O m b u d sm a n m o v e m e n t b y u r g in g e n a c tm e n t of la w s " to c r e a t e the
s p e c ia l o ffic e r e q u i r e d to h a n d le c i t i z e n s ' c o m p l a i n t s - - t h e O m b u d s m a n ."

2

I ts 1968 p u b lic a tio n s u p p o r tin g th e in s titu tio n in c lu d e d an

o b s e r v a tio n by Gwyn th a t o m b u d s m a n a d v o c a te s c o m e f r o m m o s t
p a r t s of th e A m e r ic a n p o l i t i c a l s p e c t r u m , " r a n g in g f r o m M r . W il­
l i a m F. B u ck ley and th e A m e r i c a n B a r A s s o c ia tio n J o u r n a l to the
U n ited A u to m o b ile W o r k e r s and M r . R oy W ilk in s of th e N A A C P ."
He a ls o found no e v id e n c e of o r g a n iz e d o p p o sitio n .

3

So w id e s p r e a d

h a s the le g is la tiv e d is c u s s i o n b e c o m e th a t th e N a tio n a l C o n f e r e n c e
of C o m m i s s i o n e r s on U n ifo rm S tate L aw s i s c o n s id e r in g a m o d e l
4
law .
In r e c e n t y e a r s , a r t i c l e s on the o m b u d s m a n h a v e a p p e a r e d
in p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s in the f ie ld s of law , p o lit ic a l s c i e n c e , s o c ia l
* G e llh o rn , W hen A m e r i c a n s C o m p la in , p. 166. A n d e r s o n
a l s o h a s w a r n e d a g a in s t th e d a n g e r s of d ilu tin g th e w o rd th ro u g h
p o p u la riz a tio n and m is a p p r o p r i a t i o n . See O m b u d s m e n f o r A m e r ic a n
G o v e r n m e n t ? , p. 2.
2

T h e O m b u d s m a n , A m e r ic a n A s s e m b ly , p.

8

.

3
W illia m B. Gwyn, " T r a n s f e r r i n g th e O m b u d s m a n , " in
A n d e rs o n , e d . , O m b u d sm e n f o r A m e r i c a n G o v e r n m e n t ? , p. 67.
4
G e llh o rn , " T h e O m b u d s m a n 's R e le v a n c e t o A m e r i c a n
M u n ic ip al A f f a i r s , " A m e r ic a n B a r A s s o c ia ti o n J o u r n a l , LIV ( F e b ­
r u a r y , 1968), 134.

67
s c ie n c e and p u b lic a d m in is t r a tio n and in su c h p o p u la r g e n e r a l
c i r c u la ti o n m a g a z i n e s a s L if e , R e a d e r 1 s D i g e s t , T i m e , N ew sw ee k ,
H o lid a y , and T he New Y o r k e r .
S i m i l a r i t i e s and D if f e r e n c e s
T h ro u g h r e f e r e n c e s to s e le c te d l i t e r a t u r e , th e d e v e lo p m e n t
of the c o n c e p t of th e o m b u d s m a n in c iv il g o v e r n m e n t h a s b ee n t r a c e d
fro m i t s a n c ie n t I c e la n d ic o r ig in to i t s v a r io u s c o n t e m p o r a r y f o r m s .
T he l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l s th a t th e p o w e r and p e r f o r m a n c e o f c iv il o m ­
b u d s m e n v a r y f r o m c o u n try to c o u n try , but a l l h a v e c o m m o n c h a r ­
a c te ristic s.
F o r th e m o s t p a r t , o m b u d s m e n a r e e m in e n t j u r i s t s who
in v e s tig a te c i t i z e n s ' c o m p la in ts a g a in s t g o v e r n m e n t o f fic ia ls a t
little o r no c h a r g e .

A lthough t h e s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c r i t i c s a r e

u s u a lly a g e n ts of th e l e g i s l a t u r e , th e y a r e only g e n e r a l l y a n s w e r a b le
to it.

T h e y h a v e no r e s t r i c t i v e t i e s w ith the e x e c u ii 'o.

m a n m a y in q u ir e in to th e w o rk of h is l e g is la tiv e body.

No o m b u d s ­
T h e ir a c c e s s

to o f f ic ia ls and o f fic ia l p a p e r s is v i r t u a l l y u n lim ite d , p e r m it tin g them
to r e v ie w a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c tio n s th o ro u g h ly .

One r e s u l t i s th a t o m ­

b u d s m e n defend o f fic ia ls a s w e ll a s c i tiz e n s ; in d e e d , m o s t c o m p la in ts
a r e d i s m i s s e d a s unfo un ded .

T h e i r d u a l g o a l i s to h e lp in d iv id u a ls

r e d r e s s t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s in v o lv in g p u b lic a d m in is t r a tio n and to

68
s tr e n g th e n p u b lic a d m in is t r a tio n th r o u g h in v e s tig a tio n , su g g e s tio n ,
s u p p o r t, c r i t i c i s m and, in s o m e c a s e s , p r o s e c u tio n . *
G e llh o rn h a s noted th a t, w ith few e x c e p tio n s , o m b u d sm e n
a r e c h o se n o r re a p p o in te d b y e a c h new l e g i s l a t u r e .
r e g u l a r r e p o r t s to th e body w hich a p p o in ted th e m .

T hey m a k e
T h e i r s a l a r y is

g e n e r a lly s e t a t a h ig h le v e l and th e y a r e p e r m it te d to ch o o se t h e i r
own a s s i s t a n t s .

Some can q u e s tio n th e a c tio n s of c a b in e t m e m b e r s ;

s o m e can re v ie w a c t s of lo c a l g o v e rn m e n t o f fic ia ls ; s o m e can c r i t i ­
c iz e th e c o u r ts and th e p o lic e .
pow ers.

O t h e r s m a y no t h a v e su c h b ro a d

T h e r e i s a te n d e n c y f o r o m b u d s m e n to l im it th e m s e l v e s to

m a t t e r s not e l s e w h e r e re v ie w a b le .
w r i tte n and sig n e d .

C o m p la in ts u s u a lly m u s t be

H o w e v e r, in m o s t c o u n t r ie s the o m b u d sm a n

h a s a u th o r ity to a c t w itho ut f i r s t r e c e iv in g a c o m p la in t.

P erio d ic

in s p e c tio n s of g o v e rn m e n t in s t itu ti o n s a r e no t s t r e s s e d in a n y c o u n try
e x c e p t Sweden.
fo rm al h e a rin g s.

O m b u d sm e n con du ct in f o r m a l in q u i r i e s r a t h e r th an
T h ey often se e k n e g o tia te d s e t t l e m e n t s .

A ll a r e

d ilig e n t in e x p la in in g t h e i r ju d g m e n ts and r e l y h e a v ily on p u b lic
opinion f o r s u p p o r t.

H o w e v e r, t h e i r r e la tio n s h i p s w ith the p u b lic

* "T h e P e o p l e 1 s W a tch d o g , 11 T im e , D e c e m b e r 2, 1966,
p. 58. Cheng h a s m a in ta in e d th a t a s ig n if ic a n t d e v e lo p m e n t in th e
in s titu tio n of the o m b u d s m a n i s th e s h if t o f i t s m a in p u r p o s e aw ay
fro m a tte n tio n to th e c o m p la in ts of in d iv id u a l c i tiz e n s and to w a rd
the p ro m o tio n of b e t t e r p u b lic a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a ffe c tin g a l l c itiz e n s .
O th e r a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e not ac k n o w led g e d th i s tr e n d . See " T h e
E m e r g e n c e and S p re a d o f th e O m b u d sm a n I n s t i t u t i o n ," p. 23.

69
p r e s s v a r y c o n s id e r a b ly .

1

C o m p a r e d to th e c o u r t s , the o m b ud sm an * s

m e th o d of h an d lin g a p p e a ls a g a i n s t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s i s d i r e c t ,
i n f o r m a l , s p e e d y and in e x p e n s iv e .

2

A ll c iv il o m b u d s m e n h a v e h a d p r e v io u s e x p e r i e n c e in p u b lic
s e r v i c e and a l l s e e m to r e g a r d t h e i r o m b u d s m a n a s s i g n m e n t a s th e
c u lm in a tio n of a c a r e e r r a t h e r th an a s a c a r e e r - b u i l d i n g o p p o rtu n ity .
No o m b u d s m a n h a s e v e r b e e n r e m o v e d f r o m o ffic e b e f o r e h i s t e r m
e x p ire d .

W h e r e a s S w ed ish o m b u d s m e n w e r e o n ce p r i m a r i l y c o n ­

c e r n e d w ith th e c o u r t s and la w e n f o r c e m e n t, m o d e r n day o m b u d s m e n
a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w ith c iv il s e r v i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

A lth o u g h

t h e r e h a s b e e n i n i t i a l r e s i s t a n c e in s o m e c o u n t r i e s , c iv il s e r v a n t s
g e n e r a l l y do not r e s e n t the o m b u d s m a n .

T he o m b u d s m a n i s not a

s o c i a l a r c h i t e c t ; he can n o t a n d d o e s no t a t te m p t to m a k e sw e e p in g
c h a n g e s in g o v e r n m e n ta l s t r u c t u r e .
a r e t r i v i a l r a t h e r th a n e a r t h - s h a k i n g .

M o s t of th e o m b ud sm an * s c a s e s
H o w e v e r, A n d e r s o n h a s

r e m in d e d c r i t i c s th a t " e v e n p e tty g r i e v a n c e s a r e i m p o r t a n t to the
p e r s o n s h o ld in g th e m . "

3

O ne of th e s t r o n g e s t e a r l y a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t the o m b u d s ­
m a n w a s th a t the g o v e r n m e n ta l and le g a l s y s t e m s in Sw eden and
l G e llh o r n , O m b u d s m e n an d O t h e r s , pp. 4 2 2 -3 8 .
2
3

R ow at, " T h e S p re a d of th e O m b u d s m a n I d e a , " p. 9.
A n d e r s o n , " T h e S c a n d in a v ia n O m b u d s m a n , " p. 409.

70
F in la n d w e r e s o d is t in c t th a t th e plan w ould n ot fit co n d itio n s in
o th e r c o u n t r ie s .

T h at a r g u m e n t w a s ex p lo d ed w hen D e n m a rk and

N o rw ay s u c c e s s f u l l y t r a n s f e r r e d the in s titu tio n .

A nderson has

p o in ted out th a t New Z e a la n d and G re a t B r i t a i n h av e g r a f te d th e plan
onto t h e i r c o m m o n -la w , p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t.

T h u s,

g o v e r n m e n ts h av e both adopted an d a d a p ted th e co n cep t to fit t h e i r
p a rtic u la r needs.

Such d e m o n s tr a tio n s o f fle x ib ility h elp a c c o u n t

fo r th e s u r g e of i n t e r e s t in the o m b u d s m a n th ro u g h o u t the w o r l d .

1

In ad d itio n to th e g e n e r a l body of l i t e r a t u r e on th e o m b u d s ­
m a n in c iv il g o v e r n m e n t, a r e la tiv e l y s m a l l q u a n tity of w r i tte n
m a t e r i a l s h a s b e e n p ro d u c e d on a p p lic a tio n s of the o m b u d sm a n c o n ­
cept to o th e r s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n s .

The r e v ie w w ill now be tu r n e d

to l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n in g th e a d a p ta tio n o f the o m b u d sm a n p la n to
A m e r ic a n in s titu tio n s of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .
C am p u s O m b u d sm a n
No r e f e r e n c e s to the c a m p u s o r u n iv e r s i t y o m b u d sm a n
w e r e d is c o v e r e d in th e l i t e r a t u r e of A m e r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n
i

Row at, " T h e S p re ad o f th e O m b u d s m a n I d e a ," pp. 2 2 -2 3 .
Row at h a s w a r n e d , h o w e v e r, th a t the g r e a t e s t d a n g e r s to th e s u c ­
c e s s o f th e s c h e m e a r e th a t it m ig h t be d i s c r e d i t e d by b ein g adopted
in an u n n e c e s s a r i l y tr u n c a te d f o r m , o r in a m a n n e r th a t m a y s u b ­
je c t i t to too m u c h p a r t i s a n p r e s s u r e . See " O m b u d sm e n f o r N o rth
A m e r ic a , " P u b lic A d m in is tr a tio n R eview , X X IV (D e c e m b e r, 1964),
233.

71
p r i o r to 1966.

In J a n u a r y of t h a t y e a r , F r a n z S c h n e id e r, a r e t i r e d

facu lty m e m b e r a t th e U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia a t B e r k e le y , i s s u e d
a b oo k let w hich c a r r i e d th is s t a t e m e n t on th e f i r s t p ag e:
. . . to a s s u r e thoughtful c o n s id e r a tio n to e v e r y one in th is
M U L T IV E R S IT Y , t h e r e sh o u ld be c r e a t e d the O ffice of OM BUDS­
MAN o f the S can d in av ia n p e r s u a s io n . T he e x is te n c e of s u c h an
o ffice would b e c l e a r and co nv in cin g e v id e n c e th a t the b u s y m e n
on to p a r e d e e p ly c o n c e r n e d th a t o r d e r and j u s t i c e p r e v a i l in
t h e i r d o m ain . *
P r o f e s s o r S c h n e i d e r 's b r i e f o m b u d s m a n s u g g e s tio n w a s
co m b in ed w ith a r g u m e n ts fa v o rin g s tu d e n t e v a lu a tio n o f p r o f e s s o r s
a t la r g e u n i v e r s i t i e s and a d e a n of i n s t r u c t i o n f o r im p ro v in g fa c u lty
p e r f o r m a n c e a t s m a l l c o l le g e s - - in n o v a tio n s h e had b e e n a d v o c a tin g
f o r a n u m b e r of y e a r s .

The d e a n of i n s t r u c t i o n p o s itio n S c h n e id e r

d e s c r i b e d in e a r l i e r w r itin g s in c lu d e d a few f e a t u r e s now a s s o c i a t e d
w ith c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n .

T h is slig h t r e s e m b l a n c e , h o w e v e r,

a p p e a r s to be c o in c id e n ta l.
B e fo re 1966 ended, t h e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n id e a r e c e iv e d
a b oo st f r o m A n d e r s o n , who d e s c r i b e d s u c h a p o s itio n in a r e p o r t
is s u e d by th e B e r k e le y I n s titu te of G o v e r n m e n ta l S tu d ie s.

The

p o litic a l s c ie n c e p r o f e s s o r s u g g e s te d th a t a te n u re d fa c u lty m e m b e r
w ith a r e p u ta tio n f o r r e c e p t i v e n e s s to s tu d e n t c o m p la in ts w ould be
1 F r a n z S c h n e id e r, Y e s ! and No 1 N eeded: A D ean of
I n s tr u c tio n and a S tu d e n t- F a c u lty R e a c tio n S heet (B e r k e le y , C a l i f . :
By the A u th o r, J a n u a r y , 1966), p. 1.

72
m o s t e ffe c tiv e .

A s v ie w e d by A n d e rso n , th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n

could in v e s tig a te both p o o r teaching an d u n f a i r a d m in is t r a tio n ,
r e p o r tin g h i s fin d in g s to th e p e rs o n s c o n c e r n e d an d , a t h is d i s c r e ­
tio n , to t h e i r s u p e r i o r s .

T h e im p o r ta n c e of in d e p e n d e n c e f r o m all

c a m p u s p o w e r g r o u p s w a s e m p h a s iz e d .

1

Two p r o f e s s i o n a l jo u r n a ls p u b lis h e d c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n
a r t i c l e s in 1967.

In one, S c h lo s s b e r g p r o p o s e d a " l e g a l p h ilo s o p h e r "

a s s ig n e d to th e p resid e n t* s s ta ff to in v e s t i g a t e s t u d e n t s ' c o m p la in ts
a n d m ake r e c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r r e d r e s s .

2

In the o t h e r , M u n d in g e r

e s ta b lis h e d a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s for th e p o s itio n and m a d e a n u m b e r
3
of p r a c t ic a l s u g g e s tio n s f o r im p le m e n ta tio n .
He e n v isio n e d th e
o m b u d sm a n a s a p e r s o n o f a c a d e m ic a b ility and in te g r i ty , r e c e p tiv e
t o c o m p la in ts f r o m any p e r s o n in the u n i v e r s i t y and e m p o w e re d to
in v e s tig a te c a s e s of a lle g e d inequity o r m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

S tu d en ts,

facu lty and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a l l would be inv o lv ed in h i s s e le c tio n .

The

office he d e s c r i b e d follow s th e S can d in av ia n m o d e l w ith m o d if ic a tio n s .
1A n d e r s o n ,

" O m b u d sm a n P r o p o s a l s : S tim u lu s to In q u iry , "
P u b lic A f f a i r s R e p o r t , VII (D e c e m b e r, 1966), 3.
2

N a n c y K. S c h lo s s b e r g , "A n O m b u d s m a n f o r S tu d e n ts ,"
N A S P A - - J o u r n a l of the A s s o c ia tio n o f D e a n s and A d m i n i s t r a t o r s of
Student A f f a i r s , V (Ju ly , 1967), 3 2-3 3.
3
D o n ald C. M u n d in g e r, " T h e U n iv e r s it y O m b u d s m a n ,"
J o u r n a l of H i g h e r E d u c a tio n , XXXVIII ( D e c e m b e r , 1967), 4 9 3 -9 9 .

73
A ls o in 1967, G o ro v itz in tr o d u c e d a book e n title d F r e e d o m
and O r d e r in the U n iv e r s ity by r e c o m m e n d in g the a p p o in tm e n t of
c a m p u s o m b u d sm en :
. . . The u n i v e r s i t y could ap p o in t a n " o m b u d s m a n " c h a rg e d
w ith the s o le r e s p o n s i b ilit y o f c h a m p io n in g th e c a u s e o f s tu d e n t
c o m p la in ts and s u g g e s tio n s . He m ig h t be h ir e d by a c o m m itte e
of th e fa c u lty s e n a te , and sh ould h a v e no s u p e r i o r in the a d m in ­
i s t r a t i o n , n o r any v o ic e in th e f o rm a tio n of r u l e s and p o lic ie s .
But he sh o u ld be th o ro u g h ly in f o r m e d ab o u t th e u n iv e rsity * s
p o lic ie s , p r e c e d e n t s , v a g u e n e s s e s , c h a n n e ls o f c o m m u n ic a tio n ,
p r o c e d u r e s f o r ch an ge, and lo c i of a u th o r ity and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y - in s h o r t, he should know the w o rk in g s of th e u n i v e r s i t y a s few
o t h e r s do, an d a s s tu d e n ts a l m o s t n e v e r can , and he should
m a k e a v a ila b le that kn ow led g e fo r the ch a m p io n in g of stu d e n t
in te re s ts .
An a c a d e m ic o m b u d sm a n could be of g r e a t h elp to s tu d e n ts ,
e s p e c i a l l y to th e s tu d e n t who la c k s th e c o n fid e n ce and a g g r e s s i v e ­
n e s s to ta k e up the c u d g e ls on h is own. T he o m b u d sm a n would
not be a b u f f e r b e tw e e n stu d e n t an d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , n o r a lia is o n ,
b ut a n o n - ju d g m e n ta l p ilo t w ho w ould g u id e e a c h student* s
e f f o r ts th ro u g h the m o s t e ffe c tiv e c h a n n e ls . T h is s y s te m could
a l s o be a h e lp to th e a d m in is t r a tio n , cu ttin g down on i l l - d i r e c t e d
a s s a u l t s not to s p a r e th e d e a n s , but to fo c u s c o m p la in t and s u g ­
g e s tio n m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e l y . 1
B a rz u n a l s o e n d o r s e d th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n id e a in h is
book, T h e A m e r ic a n U n i v e r s i t y , p u b lish e d in 1968:
T h e c a m p u s . . . n e e d s a new o u tle t fo r g r ie v a n c e s , th e
O m b u d sm a n of the Sw edish w e l f a r e s t a t e . T r a n s p la n te d to th e
c a m p u s u n d e r any o t h e r n a m e , h e would p e r f o r m fu n c tio n s th a t
no la r g e in s titu tio n ca n affo rd a n y lo n g e r to o v e rlo o k . . . . A
student* s tim e i s p r e c i o u s and h is p a tie n c e th in . W o r s e , i f he
h a s s u f f e r e d in ju s tic e fro m a r u le o r a c l e r k , h e sh o u ld h av e
r e d r e s s . E x p e r ie n c e w ill d e t e r m i n e how th e b e n e v o le n t Om
^ G o ro v itz , ed. , F r e e d o m and O r d e r in th e U n i v e r s i t y ,
p. 20.

74
sh o u ld g o to w o rk , w ith w h a t s ta f f and u n d e r w h a t co n d itio n s.
The one d a n g e r is th a t h is office sh ou ld b e c o m e a se c o n d a d m in ­
i s t r a t i o n d u p lic a tin g a n d i n t e r f e r i n g w ith th e s e p a r a t e o ffic e s.
H is b e s t r o le w ould be e d u c a ti o n a l- - t e a c h in g by e x a m p le w hat
w e n e g l e c t th ro u g h o u t m o d e r n life : why a l a r g e in s titu tio n h a s
to a c t a s it d o e s , and how to get fro m an in s titu tio n w h at one i s
e n title d to. 1
T h e a u t h o r s o f a t h i r d book, a l s o p u b lish e d in 1968, w e r e
not e n t h u s ia s tic about b e n e f its to be g a in e d fro m a c a m p u s o m b u d s ­
m an.

E n title d T he C u ltu r e of th e U n iv e rs ity :

G o v e rn a n c e and E d u ­

c a tio n , th e v o lu m e e m b o d ie s the m a j o r i t y r e p o r t of th e 1967 Study
C o m m is s io n on U n i v e r s i t y G o v e rn a n c e a t the U n iv e r s ity of C a l i f o r ­
n ia a t B e rk e le y .

C o m m e n tin g on th e A c a d e m ic S e n a t e 's in te n tio n

to ap p o in t a n o m b u d sm a n to h an d le s tu d e n ts ' c o m p la in ts r e g a r d in g
a c a d e m ic m a t t e r s , the r e p o r t m a d e th is ev a lu atio n :
T h e r e i s no d o u b t th a t th e S en ate n e e d s an in f o rm a tio n
o ffice to guide s tu d e n ts w ith a c a d e m ic g r i e v a n c e s to th e c o m ­
m it te e having j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r th e p a r t i c u l a r s u b je c t m a t t e r .
It i s , h o w e v e r, h a r d l y n e c e s s a r y to c r e a t e an o m b u d s m a n to
s e r v e th is r e l a t i v e l y s im p l e s e c r e t a r i a l fu n ctio n . Beyond th is ,
th e C o m m is s io n i s s k e p tic a l ab o u t th e v a lu e of t h i s a p p ro a c h .
In i t s o r ig in a l S w edish c o n c ep tio n , th e o m b u d s m a n i s a w a tc h ­
dog ap p o in te d by and r e s p o n s i b le only to th e l e g is la tiv e body to
s u p e r v i s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e fu n c tio n s and r e c o m m e n d i m p r o v e ­
m e n ts . T he c u r r e n t c o n c e p t of th is in s titu tio n i s f o r a m u ch
w a te r e d - d o w n v e r s i o n in w hich both th e e s s e n t i a l in d e p e n d e n c e
of th e o ffic ia l fro m th e ag e n c y h e w a tc h e s and m o s t of h is p o w e r
and p r e s t i g e a r e l o s t o r c o m p r o m is e d . A s a r e s u l t , th e i n s t i ­
tu tio n b e c o m e s little m o r e than a f o r m a lity , h a r m l e s s a t b e s t
and a t w o r s t a d i v e r s i o n fro m th e u n d e r ly in g n e c e s s i t y fo r
r e f o r m of g o v e r n m e n ta l o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s . If th e
* B a rz u n , T he A m e r i c a n U n iv e r s it y , p. 267.

75
B e r k e le y S en ate c o m m itte e s y s t e m is p r o p e r l y o r g a n iz e d ,
c o o rd in a te d , and fun ctio ning , only an in f o r m a ti o n office is
r e q u i r e d ; i f it i s n o t, a n o ffic ia l w ith m u c h m o r e p o w e r o r
p r e s t i g e th an th a t p r e s e n t l y c o n f e r r e d on the S en ate o m b u d s ­
m a n w ill be r e q u i r e d to a c c o m p lis h an y th in g of s ig n ific a n c e . *
A t l e a s t e ig h t a r t i c l e s on th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n a p p e a r e d
in p r o f e s s io n a l j o u r n a l s and p o p u la r m a g a z i n e s d u r in g 1968.
and S p a rz o

3

F lac k

2

r e g a r d e d th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n a s an in n o v a tio n

o ffe rin g r e m e d i e s fo r s tu d e n t u n r e s t .

B la u s te in s p e c u la te d th a t

m o s t m e n c h o s e n f o r c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n p o s ts w ould be law
4
te a c h e rs .
S a n d le r, K ir k and H a llb e r g d i s c u s s e d p r o b le m s in vo lv ed
C a le b F o o te, H e n r y M a y e r , and A s s o c i a t e s , T he C u ltu re
of th e U n iv e r s ity ; G o v e rn a n c e and E d u c a tio n (San F r a n c i s c o : J o s s e y B a s s , I n c . , 1968), pp. 1 0 7 -8 .
T he c o m m i s s i o n 's m a j o r i t y r e p o r t
h a s b e e n c r i t i c i z e d a s r e f le c tin g " m a n y i l l u s i o n s . " See N ath an
G la z e r , " ' S tudent P o w e r ' in B e r k e le y , " T he P u b lic I n t e r e s t , XIII
(F a ll, 1968), 15-17. A n d e r s o n h a s s u g g e s te d th a t th e c o m m is s io n
w a s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w ith th e fact th a t c o m p la in ts a r i s i n g fro m
th e re g u la tio n of s tu d e n t p o litic a l a c tiv ity w e r e e x p lic itly exclu d ed
fro m the o m b u d s m a n 's ju r i s d i c t i o n . S tan le y V. A n d e rs o n , " O m ­
b u d sm a n P a p e r s : A m e r i c a n E x p e r ie n c e and P r o p o s a l s , " (book
m a n u s c r i p t . I n s titu te of G o v e r n m e n ta l S tu d ie s, U n iv e r s ity o f C a li­
fo rn ia , B e rk e le y , u n d a te d ), p . V l l .
2
M ic h a e l J . F la c k , "In n o v atio n and the U n iv e r s ity in
C r i s i s : T h r e e P r o p o s a l s , " E d u c a tio n a l R e c o r d , X LIX (S u m m e r,
1968), 348.
3

F r a n k J . S p a rz o , " F a c i n g th e I s s u e s of S tudent U n r e s t , "
School &. S o c ie ty , XCVI (O c to b e r 26, 1968), 359.
4
A lb e r t P . B la u s te in , " C r e a tin g th e U n iv e r s it y O m b u d s ­
m a n , " Jo u rn al_ o fJL eg a l_ E d u o atio n , XXI ( D e c e m b e r , 1968), 191.

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in m e th o d of s e le c tio n and o ffe re d s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s .

1

B u c c ie r i

su g g e s te d th a t in it ia l c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n o p e r a tio n s w e r e e s t a b l i s h ing a p r e c e d e n t f o r o th e r in s titu tio n s of h ig h e r ed u c a tio n .

2

E dd y

re v ie w e d and e v a lu a te d c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n d e v e lo p m e n ts and s u g 3
g e s te d th e f o r m a tio n of a n a tio n a l o m b u d sm a n a s s o c ia tio n .
T he
e d i t o r s of N a tio n , d e s p ite s o m e m is g iv in g s , g e n e r a lly s u p p o r te d the
4
c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n m o v e m e n t in an e d i t o r i a l .
The a c t i v i t i e s of
M ich ig an S tate U n i v e r s i t y 's o m b u d sm a n w e r e d e s c r i b e d by P o lla c k
in P a r a d e m a g a z in e .

5

A n u m b e r of n e w s p a p e r a r t i c l e s on th e s u b ­

j e c t a l s o w e r e p u b lish e d .
A c o lle c tio n of u n p u b lish e d s p e e c h e s and d is c u s s io n n o te s
h a s b een a s s e m b l e d fro m ta p e r e c o r d in g s of s e s s i o n s co n du cted
*Ake S a n d le r, H e n r y P . K ir k , and E dm ond C. H a llb e rg ,
"A n O m b u d sm a n f o r th e U n i v e r s i t y , " J o u r n a l of C o lleg e Student
P e r s o n n e l , IX (M a rc h , 1968), 114-15.
2

C la u d ia H. B u c c ie r i, " O m b u d sm a n : New T r o u b l e s h o o te r
on C a m p u s ," C o lleg e and U n iv e r s ity B u s i n e s s , XLIV (M a rc h , 1968),
5 2 -5 5 .
2

(

Jo h n P a u l E ddy, "C a m p u s O m b u d sm a n in A m e r ic a n
H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , " K appa D e lta P i R e c o r d , D e c e m b e r , 1968,
pp. 33-35.
4
"T h e C a m p u s O m b u d sm a n , " N a tio n , CCVII ( D e c e m b e r 9,
1968), 6 1 1 -12 .
5J a c k H. P o lla c k , " O - M - B - U - D - S - M - A - N ! The New
C ollege H e r o , " P a r a d e , M a r c h 17, 1968, pp. 16 -18 .

77
d u rin g th e f i r s t m e e tin g on the o m b u d s m a n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n
O c to b e r 2 4 -2 5 , 1968, in D e tr o it, M ic h ig a n .*
A n d e r s o n h a s a n a ly z e d p u b lish e d and u n p u b lis h e d m a t e r i a l s
on th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n fo r a c h a p te r in a f o rth c o m in g book.

H is

m a n u s c r i p t c o n c lu d e s w ith th is s u m m a r y :
T he o p e r a tio n o f a c a m p u s O m b u d sm a n office p r e s u p p o s e s
a r e a s o n a b ly e f f ic ie n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w ith i t s own c h a n n e ls of
c o m m u n ic a tio n to s tu d e n ts and fa c u lty . . . . An O m b u d s m a n i s
not a s u b s t itu te f o r th e ju d ic ia l p r o c e s s (w h e re t h i s i s a p p r o ­
p r i a t e ) , a lth o u g h h e can in v e s tig a te c o m p la in ts of u n f a ir p r o ­
c e d u r e . N o r is he a c o u r t of a p p e a ls to re v ie w th e s u b s ta n c e
o f th e d e c is io n s of d i s c i p l i n a r y t r i b u n a l s .
C a m p u s O m b u d sm e n a r e not m a j o r p a r t i c i p a n t s in the
p o litic a l p r o c e s s of U n iv e r s it y g o v e r n a n c e , although an O m ­
b u d s m a n m a y f a c ilita te th e c o n s id e r a tio n o f m a j o r i s s u e s by
w ee d in g ou t m in o r i r r i t a n t s . F in a lly , a c a m p u s O m b u d s m a n
i s not a s u p e r - a d m i n i s t r a t o r , s e c o n d - g u e s s i n g o f f i c e r s - o f - t h e lin e . In d e c id in g w h e th e r o r not to c r i t i c i z e , th e O m b u d s m a n
d o e s not a s k " I s t h i s how I w ould h av e done i t ? " I n s te a d , h e
a s k s "W a s th is d e c is io n r e a s o n a b l e ? "
A d m in is tr a tio n in A m e r ic a n u n i v e r s i t i e s n e e d s r e s p o n s i b le ,
e x t e r n a l, i m p a r t i a l c r i t i c s , lik e the O m b u d sm a n a t M ic h ig an
S tate . K eep in g th e lim ita tio n s e x p r e s s e d in th e p r e c e d in g
p a r a g r a p h s in m in d , t h e r e i s l i t t l e to lo s e , and m u c h to g ain
f o r th e in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t in r e c tify in g o r r e s o lv in g g r ie v a n c e s ,
f o r th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in d oing a good jo b and g e ttin g c r e d i t fo r
it, and f o r th e p u b lic in av o id in g u n s e e m ly c o n t r o v e r s y in th e
g r o v e s of a c a d e m e . The m e th o d of p e r s u a s i o n i s e m in e n tly
a p p r o p r i a t e in p l a c e s of le a r n in g . ^
An u n p u b lis h e d p a p e r by W h ite, th e f i r s t o m b u d s m a n a t San
J o s e S tate C o lle g e , e x a m in e s th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n both in th e o ry
M e e tin g w a s c o - s p o n s o r e d by H ig h e r E d u c a tio n E x e c u ­
tiv e A s s o c i a t e s and th e U n iv e r s it y of D e tr o it. R e c o r d in g s w e r e m a d e
and t r a n s c r i b e d by th e a u th o r.
2
A n d e r s o n , " O m b u d s m a n P a p e r s , " p. V7.

78
and p r a c t i c e and m a k e s a n e v a lu a tio n b a se d l a r g e l y on the a u t h o r 's
ex p e rien ce .

H is t h e s i s i s th a t c a m p u s m i n i s t e r s should be co n ­

s i d e r e d f o r c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n a p p o in tm e n ts . *
T h is r e v ie w of th e l i t e r a t u r e in d ic a t e s th a t a c o n s id e r a b le
am o u n t of in f o r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n h a s b een
w r i tte n and p u b lis h e d in a s h o r t p e r io d of tim e .

The a m o u n t is

in s ig n if ic a n t c o m p a r e d w ith l i t e r a t u r e on the c iv il o m b u d sm a n , but
th e l a t t e r c o n c ep t h a s b een in e x i s te n c e f a r lo n g e r .
T o c o m p le te t h i s p o r tio n of th e stud y, g e n e r a liz a ti o n s
d e r iv e d f ro m c iv il and c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n l i t e r a t u r e w ill now be
su m m a riz e d .
C o n c lu sio n
T e c h n ic a lly , th e o m b u d s m a n co n c ep t can n o t be d e s c r i b e d
a s a new s o c i a l in v e n tio n b e c a u s e it h a s been in e x i s te n c e fo r h u n ­
d r e d s of y e a r s an d w a s f o r m a liz e d a s a s y s t e m in 1809.

H o w ev er,

i t s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in r e c e n t t i m e s in to an in s titu tio n w h o s e p r i m a r y
fu nctio n i s to s u p e r v i s e b u r e a u c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n ta l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
and i t s u s e e x c lu s iv e ly f o r t h i s p u r p o s e in D e n m a rk , N o rw a y , New
*J. B en to n W hite, " T h e O m b u d sm a n in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n "
(u n pu blish ed t h e s i s , G ra d u a te D iv isio n , P a c i f ic L u th e r a n T h e o lo g i­
c a l S e m in a ry , 1968).

79
Z e a la n d , G r e a t B rita in an d e l s e w h e r e , h a s g iv e n th e co n cept a new
d im e n s io n and c h a r a c t e r . *
If f re e d o m i s to h a v e any m e a n in g , it i s i m p e r a tiv e th a t an
in d iv id u a l who fe e ls w ro n g e d by th e v e r y a g e n c ie s e s ta b li s h e d to h elp
h im sh o u ld be a b le to a p p e a l q u ick ly , e a s ily , a n d w ith ou t c o s t to a
p o lit ic a lly in d epen den t an d i m p a r t i a l office.

T h e office of o m b u d s ­

m a n i s in te n d e d to s e r v e th a t p u r p o s e w ithout d is p la c in g e x is tin g
r e m e d i a l a g e n c ie s , such a s the c o u r t s .

2

It a l s o a p p e a r s th a t once

h is office i s in o p e ra tio n and h is a c t i v i t i e s g e n e r a l l y known, an
o m b u d s m a n te n d s to p r e v e n t m a n y p o te n tia l g r i e v a n c e s fro m m a t e r i a li z in g .

3

T h e p sy c h o lo g ic a l v a lu e of the office r e s t s in th e in d i­

vidual* s know ledge th a t h e i s not h e l p l e s s b e f o r e th e la r g e i m p e r s o n a l
4
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h in e r y of g o v e r n m e n t.
A n d e r s o n h as a t tr i b u te d th e w o rld w id e u p s u r g e of i n t e r e s t
in th e o m b u d s m a n idea to th is c a p a c ity to m it ig a t e a g a in s t th e e v ils
of b u r e a u c r a c y :
*R ow at, e d . , T h e O m b u d sm a n :
2

C i t i z e n 's D e f e n d e r , p. 292.

J o h n M. C a p o zz o la, "A n A m e r ic a n O m b u d sm a n : P r o b l e m s
and P r o s p e c t s , " W e s te rn P o l i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , XXI (Ju ne, 1968), 290.
3
A n d e rso n , " T h e O m b u d sm a n : P u b lic D e f e n d e r A g a in s t
M a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ," p. 4.
4
R o se n th a l, " T h e O m b u d s m a n - - S w e d is h 'G r i e v a n c e Man, ' "
p. 230.

80
An e n o r m o u s b u r e a u c r a c y s e e m s to be a n in e s c a p a b le c o n ­
c o m ita n t o f m o d e r n in d u s t r ia liz e d m a s s s o c ie ty . In r e m e d y ­
in g the m a r g i n a l d e f e c ts o f p ublic a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , th e . . .
O m b u d sm a n h a s p ro v e d to be e ffe c tiv e , n o n - d is r u p tiv e , in e x ­
p e n s iv e , and c u m u la tiv e to p r e - e x i s t i n g s a f e g u a r d s . *
D a v is h a s a p p r a i s e d th e fu n d a m e n ta l id e a b eh in d the
o m b u d sm a n in s titu tio n a s " th o ro u g h ly so u n d ":
T h e id e a r e s t s h e a v ily upon the c a r d i n a l p r in c ip le o f check
w h ich h a s p lay ed s u c h a n im p o r ta n t r o le in the h i s t o r i c a l
d e v e lo p m e n t of p r o te c tio n s a g a in s t u n f a i r g o v e r n m e n ta l a c tio n .
T h e check i s a l l th e m o r e effectiv e b e c a u s e it i s m a d e by an
o f fic e r w ith a d if f e r e n t fo cu s fro m th a t o f the a d m i n i s t r a t o r
w h o se a c tio n i s c r i t i c i z e d , and by one w ho h a s a m u c h b r o a d e r
p e rsp e c tiv e . ^
A c c o rd in g to A n d e r s o n , the g e n iu s of the o m b u d s m a n c o n ­
cept i s th a t the h o ld e r of th e office h a s fu ll a u th o r ity to in v e s tig a te
and p a s s ju d g m e n t, b u t no p o w e r to e n f o r c e .

He h a s w r itte n :

"T he

e f f e c tiv e n e s s of the O m b u d sm a n lie s in th e r e s p e c t in w h ich he is
held, and in th e g e n e r a l a c c e p ta n c e of th e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s of h is
v ie w s ."

3

In s h o r t, the only sa n c tio n w hich the o m b u d sm a n can i m -

p o se i s c e n s u r e .

4

'A n d e r s o n , " T h e S can d in av ia n O m b u d s m a n ," p. 409.
2

K en n e th C. D a v is , " O m b u d s m e n in A m e r ic a ; O f f ic e r s to
C r iti c iz e A d m in is tr a tiv e A ctio n , " U n iv e r s it y of P e n n s y lv a n ia Law
R e v ie w , CIX (Jun e, 1961), 1075.
3
A n d e rs o n , " T h e S can d in av ia n O m b u d sm a n , " p. 408.
4
H e n ry S. R e u s s and A n d e rs o n , " T h e O m b u d sm a n : T rib u n e
of th e P e o p le , " T he A n n a ls o f th e A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y of P o l i t i c a l
and S o c ia l S cie n c e , CCCLX III ( J a n u a ry , 1966), p. 46.

81
F r o m t h e s e g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s and th e p r e c e d in g re v ie w of
l i t e r a t u r e p e r ta in in g both to th e c iv il an d c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n , a t
l e a s t f o u rte e n g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s can be m a d e .

T h ey a r e l i s te d below

a s a co n clu d in g s u m m a tio n of e x is tin g in f o rm a tio n on th e o m b u d s ­
m a n in th e o r y and p r a c t i c e : 1
1.

W h e r e v e r th e o m b u d s m a n h a s b e e n a s u c c e s s , he h a s
b e e n w o rk in g in a r e l a t i v e l y s ta b le s y s t e m of g o v e r n ­
m e n t w hich i s s u p p o r te d and t r u s t e d b y m o s t of the
p e o p le m o s t of th e tim e .

2.

A h ig h p r o p o r ti o n of the c o m p la in ts b ro u g h t to the
o m b u d s m a n a r e out o f h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n o r a r e d e e m e d
by h im to be unfounded.

3.

If h i s g r i e v a n c e i s g en u in e, a c o m p la in a n t often can be
h e lp e d by the o m b u d s m a n .

4.

T he o m b u d s m a n d o e s not d e a l w ith m a n y of th e th in g s
th a t i r r i t a t e and f r u s t r a t e s o m e c i tiz e n s , s u c h a s
p o lic y d e c is io n s .

5.

T he o m b u d s m a n i s not a g e n e r a l s u p e r v i s o r of pub lic
s e r v a n t s o r p u b lic s e r v i c e s .

6

.

W h e r e v e r an o m b u d s m a n h a s b e e n a c tiv e , c i t i z e n s '
c o n fid e n c e in p u b lic e m p lo y e e s h a s b een e n h a n ce d .

7.

T he o m b u d s m a n can im p r o v e p u b lic a d m i n i s t r a t i o n by
in f o r m in g o f f ic ia ls of u n s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r f o r m a n c e by
s u b o r d in a t e s w h ic h m ig h t o th e r w is e n e v e r b e c a lle d to
t h e i r a tte n tio n .

.

T h e o m b u d s m a n b r in g s about p r o c e d u r a l re v ie w w ith in
the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a g e n c y .

8

^ o r a e of th e s e p o in ts a r e p a r a p h r a s e d f r o m G e llh o rn , " T h e
O m b u d s m a n 's R e le v a n c e to A m e r i c a n M u n ic ip a l A f f a i r s , " pp. 13440.

82
9.

T he o m b u d sm a n a t t e m p t s to s t r i k e a b a la n c e b e tw e e n
s ta n d a r d iz e d p r o c e d u r e s sh o w in g no f a v o r i t i s m and
u n y ie ld in g b u r e a u c r a t i c r ig id ity .

10.

T h e o m b u d sm a n d o e s not fu n ctio n a s a t r i a l c o u rt.

11.

T he o m b u d sm a n d o e s not s u p e r c e d e o th e r o f fic ia ls ;
h e s e e s to it th a t o t h e r s do t h e i r jo b s c o m p le te ly and
ju s tly .

12.

T he o m b u d sm a n b r i n g s g r ie v a n c e m a c h i n e r y w ith in
r e a c h of p e r s o n s not lik e ly to s e e k o th e r m e a n s of
redress.

13.

T he o m b u d sm a n s y s t e m d o e s not e x c lu d e c itiz e n s fro m
o th e r m e a n s of r e d r e s s .

14.

M uch o f th e o m b u d s m a n 's p o w e r and e f f e c t iv e n e s s
s t e m fro m h is p e r s o n a l p r e s t i g e and p e r s u a s i v e n e s s .

C H A P T E R III
THE CAM PUS OMBUDSMAN:
A G E N E R A L EVALUATION

T he l i t e r a t u r e r e v ie w e d in th e p r e v io u s c h a p te r r e v e a le d
th a t the o m b u d sm a n in A m e r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n i s an inn ov ation
a s s o c ia te d w ith s tu d e n t- in s ti tu tio n a l p r o b le m s and th e lo n g - e s t a b li s h e d
c iv il o m b u d s m a n co n cep t.

T he s tu d y w ill now be d i r e c t e d to w a rd a

g e n e r a l e v a lu a tio n of th e ca m p u s o m b u d sm a n .

V a r io u s a p p r o a c h e s

to th e office ad op ted by fo u rte e n in s titu tio n s w ill be e x a m in e d in the
f i r s t s e c tio n .

D e v e lo p m e n ts a t in s titu tio n s in v a r io u s s ta g e s of

e s ta b lis h in g th e p o sitio n a r e c o n s id e r e d in th e se c o n d s e c tio n .

S elf-

e v a lu a tio n s by s e le c te d c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n a r e r e p o r t e d in th e th ir d
s e c tio n , co m b in ed w ith ta b le s in A ppendix C.

C o n c lu s io n s d ra w n

fro m th e s e findings m a k e up th e fin al p o r tio n of th is s e c tio n .
S e v e r a l f a c t o r s h av e im p e d e d a t te m p ts to o b tain g e n e r a l
in f o rm a tio n r e g a r d in g th e o m b u d sm a n in A m e r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .
One is th e auto n o m y of both p u b lic and p r iv a te in s t itu ti o n s , en a b lin g
th em to adopt in n o v a tio n s w ithout r e p o r tin g su c h a c tio n s to c e n tr a liz e d

83

84
a g e n c ie s . * A n o th e r i s th e l a r g e n u m b e r and wide d i s p e r s i o n of
c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .

A th ir d f a c t o r i s th e a b s e n c e of an y

f o r m a l a s s o c ia tio n of c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n .

S till a n o th e r i s th e t e n d ­

en cy o f s o m e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and fa c u lty m e m b e r s no t to a n s w e r
m a ile d i n q u ir ie s .

F in a lly , th e inn ov atio n i s s p r e a d in g s o r a p id ly in

d if f e r e n t f o r m s th a t the only c o n s ta n t in the o v e r a l l p a t t e r n is
ch ang e.

T h is m o n t h 's to ta l n u m b e r of c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n , fo r

e x a m p le , is a l m o s t c e r t a i n to be d if f e r e n t f r o m l a s t m o n t h 's and
next m o n t h ' s .
D e s p ite th e s e o b s ta c le s , a c o n c e r te d e f f o r t w a s m a d e to
s u r v e y and e v a lu a te th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n s itu a tio n a s of D e c e m ­
b e r 31, 1968.

A lthough th e fin d in g s r e p o r t e d in th is c h a p te r a r e not

a l l in c lu s iv e , th ey a r e a c c u r a t e to th e e x te n t th a t th e y a s s i m i l a t e
in f o r m a tio n o b ta in e d fro m a n u m b e r of r e l i a b l e s o u r c e s .

2

A m ong th e a g e n c ie s w h ich could p ro v id e no in f o rm a tio n
about c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n w e r e : B u re a u of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , U. S.
O ffice of E d u c a tio n ; A m e r i c a n A s s o c ia tio n of J u n i o r C o lle g e s ;
C le a r in g H o use fo r J u n i o r C o lle g e In fo rm a tio n ; and A m e r ic a n A s s o ­
cia tio n fo r H ig h e r E d u c a tio n . In fo r m a tio n o b tain ed fro m th e U nited
S ta te s N atio n a l Student A s s o c ia ti o n w as h e lp fu l but f r a g m e n ta r y .
2

No c la im i s m a d e th a t th is s u r v e y c o v e r s a l l A m e r ic a n
c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w ith c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n p r i o r to 1969.
R a th e r , th e o b je c tiv e i s to d e s c r i b e and e v a lu a te th e r o le a t a w ide
ra n g e o f in s titu tio n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e w h ic h a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n
im i ta t e d by o t h e r s . A s u r v e y of s ix ty s e l e c t e d w e s t e r n u n i v e r s i t i e s
in th e s u m m e r of 1968 in d ic a te d th a t s e v e n of the f i f t y - t h r e e i n s t i t u ­
tio n s w hich r e s p o n d e d had o m b u d s m e n . T h ey w e r e : C a lif o r n ia S tate
C o lle g e a t L o s A n g e le s , San F e r n a n d o V a lle y S tate C o lle g e (s in c e

85
B e fo re p r o c e e d in g w ith s u r v e y fin d in g s, it i s a p p r o p r ia te
t o point out a g a in th a t th is stu d y i s r e s t r i c t e d to a d e fin itio n of c a m ­
p u s o m b u d s m a n w h ich e x c lu d e s s tu d e n ts s e r v in g in th a t ca p ac ity .
C o n se q u e n tly , a n u m b e r of in s titu tio n s w ith s tu d e n t o m b u d sm e n a r e
not in c lu d e d in s u b s e q u e n t s e c tio n s .

N o n e th e le s s , i t should be

ac k n o w led g e d th a t th e f i r s t a tte m p t to a d a p t th e o m b u d sm a n co n c ep t
to an in s titu tio n of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in N o rth A m e r ic a a p p e a r s to
h a v e ta k e n p la c e in 1965 th ro u g h s tu d e n t in itia tiv e a t Sim on F r a s e r
U n iv e r s it y in V a n c o u v e r. * M o st s tu d e n t o m b u d s m e n have b ee n
ap p o in te d by s tu d e n t g o v e r n m e n ts .

H o w e v e r, a t s o m e in s titu tio n s ,

su c h a s th e U n iv e r s it y of C h ic a g o and th e U n iv e r s ity of T e x a s (C o l­
le g e of A r t s and S c ie n c e s ), the a p p o in tm e n ts h av e b e e n m a d e by to p 2
le v e l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .
O th e r in s titu tio n s w ith s tu d e n t o m b u d sm e n
in c lu d e th e U n iv e r s it y of K en tu ck y , F l o r i d a State U n iv e r s ity , U n i­
v e r s i t y of M in n e s o ta and Jo h n s o n S tate C o lle g e in V e r m o n t.

Student

d is c o n tin u e d ), Sonom a S ta te C o lle g e , U n iv e r s ity of C a lif o rn ia a t
I rv in e , S c r ip p s C o lle g e , U n iv e r s it y of D e n v e r and S tan fo rd U n i v e r ­
s ity . See U CLA D a ily B r u i n , F e b r u a r y 25, 1969, p . 3. A lthough
s o m e of t h e s e a r e o m itte d in th is stu d y , o t h e r w e s t e r n in s titu tio n s
not c o v e r e d in th e 1968 s u r v e y a r e in c lu d e d .
*A n d e r s o n , " O m b u d s m a n P r o p o s a l s :

S tim u lu s to In q u iry , "

p. 3.
2

J a m e s W. B r a n n , " T h e C a m p u s O m b u d sm a n : C o lleg e
S tu d e n ts ' D e fe n d e r, " C h r o n ic le of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , III (N o v em ­
b e r 11, 1968), 4. A lso s e e New Y o rk T i m e s , O c to b e r 9, 1968,
p. 47.

86
o m b u d sm en a l s o h av e b e e n appointed b y s tu d e n t g o v e r n m e n ts a t
so m e in s titu tio n s w ith c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n .

U s u a lly , c o o rd in a tio n

of e f f o r ts is a tte m p te d .
In s titu tio n s with O m b u d s m e n
A m e r ic a n c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w ith c a m p u s o m b u d s ­
m e n v a r y in s i z e fro m " m u l t i v e r s i t i e s , " su c h a s th e U n iv e r s it y of
C a lifo rn ia a t B e r k e le y and M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity , to s m a l l c o m ­
m u n ity c o lle g e s , such a s M acom b C o u n ty C o m m u n ity C o lle g e in
M ichigan .

F o r th e p u r p o s e of this a n a l y s i s , h o w e v e r, f o u r te e n

in s titu tio n s know n to h av e h a d f u ll- tim e o r p a r t - t i m e o m b u d s m e n
p r i o r to 1969 w ill be c a te g o r iz e d not by s iz e but by sco p e of office.
The t h r e e m a in d iv is io n s in to which t h e y a r e o r g a n iz e d a lp h a b e tic a lly
are:

f o r s tu d e n ts only, f o r stu den ts a n d o t h e r s , and fo r f a c u lty only.

A lthough the t h i r d d e s ig n a tio n does n o t fit th e p r e l i m i n a r y d e fin itio n
of c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n p r e s e n te d in C h a p t e r I, th e sin g le in s titu tio n
to w hich it a p p l i e s is in c lu d e d for th e p u r p o s e of c o m p a r is o n .
F o r Students O nly
At s e v e n c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n
r e c e i v e s c o m p la in ts fro m stu d e n ts o n ly .
s o u rc e s a re d ire c te d e lsew h ere.

G r i e v a n c e s fro m o t h e r

S a lie n t f e a t u r e s of the o m b u d s m a n

p o sitio n on e a c h o f th e s e c a m p u s e s w ill be d e s c r i b e d .

87
U n iv e r s it y o f
^
C a lif o r n ia a t B e r k e le y
B e fo re G e o rg e L e itm a n n w a s ap p o in ted o m b u d sm a n by th e
A c a d e m ic Senate in 1968, B e r k e le y a l r e a d y had a " s t u d e n t a d v o c a te "
a p p o in te d by th e A s s o c ia te d S tu d en ts and a co m p la in t o f fic e r a p p o in ted
by th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

The l a t t e r p o s itio n w a s filled b y the a s s o c i a t e

d ean o f s tu d e n ts , w ho w as d e s ig n a te d to a c t " a s an ' O m b u d sm a n , '
h e a r i n g s tu d e n t c o m p la in ts and tr y in g to r e c t i f y th e m .

2
11

L e i t m a n n 's h a l f - t i m e p o sitio n , in d e p e n d e n t o f both th e
A s s o c ia te d S tu d en ts and th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i s a o n e - m e m b e r c o m ­
m i t t e e of th e A c a d e m ic S en ate.

T he only c o m p la in ts h e c o n s id e r s

a r e th o s e r e g a r d in g d e c is io n s w h ich a ffe c t a s t u d e n t 's a c a d e m ic
sta tu s.

He w ill not h e a r c o m p la in ts a r i s i n g fro m th e re g u la tio n of

s tu d e n t p o litic a l a c tiv ity .

In c o m p la in ts a r i s i n g fro m d is c i p l i n a r y

p r o c e e d in g s , h e w ill not r e v ie w th e s u b s t a n c e of the c a s e , but m a y
g
r e v ie w th e p r o c e d u r e s .
* M ore d e ta ile d in f o r m a tio n about c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n a t
B e r k e le y and five o th e r in s t itu ti o n s a p p e a r s in the t h i r d Bection of
th is c h a p t e r and in A ppendix C. T he o t h e r s a r e C o lu m b ia U n i v e r ­
s ity , U n iv e r s it y o f D e tr o it, M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s it y , San D ieg o
S tate C o lle g e and San J o s e S ta te C o lleg e.
2

3

A n d e rs o n , " O m b u d sm a n P a p e r s , " pp. V 3 -4 .

G e o rg e L e itm a n n , p r i v a t e in te r v ie w held d u r in g m e e tin g
on th e o m b u d sm a n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , D e tr o it, M ic h . , O c to b e r 24,
1968.

88
E a s t e r n M o n tan a C o lle g e
G e o r g e G lo eg e , p r o f e s s o r of c h e m i s t r y , b e c a m e th e f i r s t
c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n in th e U nited S ta te s w ith h i s a p p o in tm e n t to th a t
p o s t a t E a s t e r n M o ntan a C o lleg e on O c to b e r 7, 1966.

T he s e le c tio n

w a s m a d e by P r e s i d e n t S tan le y Heywood, w ho p r o m i s e d th e fa c u lty
th a t " th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w ill in no w ay d ic ta t e th e m a n n e r in w hich
h e c a r r i e s out h is r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . " * Heyw ood a l s o e s ta b li s h e d
th e s e " m i n im u m g ro u n d r u l e s " :
1.

S tu d e n ts w ho h a v e e x h a u s te d a l l c h a n n e ls fo r r e d r e s s of
g r i e v a n c e s m a y a p p e a l to the O m b u d sm a n . . . .

2.

. . . th e O m b u d s m a n m a y d e c id e to in v e s tig a te o r not i n ­
v e s tig a t e th e c a s e .

3.

T h e O m b u d sm a n h a s th e in d e p e n d e n t r ig h t to in v e s tig a te
w h en t h e r e isn* t a c o m p la in t.

4.

I n fo r m a tio n p ro v id e d to th e O m b u d s m a n . . . m a y be c o n ­
s i d e r e d p r iv ile g e d . . . .

5.

T h e fin al r e p o r t to th e P r e s i d e n t of a n y in v e s tig a tio n w ill
b e m a d e a v a ila b le c o n s is te n t w ith r e a s o n a b l e s a f e g u a r d s
fo r p e rso n a l in fo rm a tio n . 2

T o t h e s e g u id e lin e s , H eywood added:
I a m s u r e th a t s tu d e n ts w ill u n d e r s ta n d th a t th is is not a
v e h ic le f o r p r o t e s t of a d e c is io n th a t i s n ot f a v o r a b le to th e m
Heyw ood f i r s t an n o u n ced h i s in te n tio n to a p p o in t a c a m p u s
o m b u d s m a n in h is in a u g u r a l a d d r e s s on M ay 15, 1966, pp. 10-11.
2
"A n n o u n c e m e n t I - O m b u d s m a n ," Info f ro m th e O ffice of
th e P r e s i d e n t , E a s t e r n M o n tan a C o lle g e , O c to b e r 7, 1966, p. 2.

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n o r i s it in te n d e d to b y p a s s an y p r o c e d u r e now in o p e r a tio n . . . .
It i s m y in te n tio n to a c c e p t th e r e c o m m e n d a tio n s of th e O m b u d s ­
m a n and to m a k e a l l p o s s ib le c h a n g e s in th e lig h t of h is r e c o m ­
m e n d a tio n s .
. . . i t i s m y hope th a t th e O m b u d sm a n w ill n e v e r n ee d to
b e u s e d , b e c a u s e th a t could d e n o te th a t s tu d e n ts a r e a l r e a d y
r e c e iv in g r e a s o n a b le c o n s id e r a tio n in a l l f a c e ts of o u r c a m p u s
life . 1
G lo eg e , w h o se te a c h in g load w a s not re d u c e d to allo w tim e
f o r h i s o m b u d sm a n a c t i v i t i e s , r e p o r t e d two y e a r s a f t e r h is a p p o in t­
m e n t th a t h e had h a d " v e r y lit tle b u s in e s s . " H is f i r s t c a s e inv olved
th e d e a n of s tu d e n ts and h is se c o n d c o m p la in t c a m e f r o m a g r a d u a te
s tu d e n t a t odds w ith h is c o m m itte e .

M o st of h is c o n ta c ts h a v e b e e n

in f o r m a l r e f e r r a l s m a d e by te le p h o n e .

A fo rm he d e v e lo p e d f o r

c o m p la in ts e n title d " P r e l i m i n a r y R e p o r t to the O m b u d sm a n " r e q u i r e s
a d e ta ile d d e s c r i p t i o n of th e g r ie v a n c e and a c h ro n o lo g ic a l a c c o u n t
of p r e v io u s a p p e a ls .

F ew s tu d e n ts h a v e e le c te d to u s e it.

2

M ic h ig an S ta te U n iv e r s ity
J a m e s R u s t, th e 'o m b u d s m a n a t M ic h ig an S tate U n iv e r s ity ,
h a s s e r v e d lo n g e r a s c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n a t a m a j o r u n i v e r s i t y th a n
an y o th e r in d iv id u a l.

H is a p p o in tm e n t by th e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s id e n t

in 1967 w a s f o r a t w o - y e a r t e r m , a f t e r w h ich e i t h e r m a y t e r m i n a t e
*I b id . , p. 3.
2
G e o r g e G lo eg e , p r iv a te in te r v ie w h eld d u r in g m e e tin g on
th e o m b u d s m a n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , D e tr o it, M ich. , O c to b e r 25,
1968.

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the a r r a n g e m e n t .
tio n .

S tu d en ts and fa c u lty w e r e in v o lv ed in h is n o m in a ­

The o ffice w a s r e c o m m e n d e d by a F a c u lty C o m m itte e on

Student A f f a i r s in a r e p o r t a p p ro v e d e a r l y in 1967 by th e A c a d e m ic
C o un cil, A c a d e m ic S enate and B o a rd of T r u s t e e s .

1

T he r e c o m ­

m e n d a tio n in c lu d e d th e s e p ro v is io n s :
T he P r e s i d e n t s h a ll ap po int f r o m th e s e n i o r fa c u lty a high
p r e s t i g e o ffic ia l w ith th e title of O m b u d sm a n . T he s e n s i t i v e
and c o n fid e n tia l n a tu r e of the O m b u d s m a n 's w o rk d i c t a t e s th a t
h e conduct h is o p e r a tio n s w ith d ig n ity and in te g r i ty . He s h a ll
r e s p e c t th e p r iv a c y of a l l p e r s o n s who s o l i c i t h is a s s i s t a n c e and
p r o t e c t th e m a g a in s t r e tr ib u ti o n . H is fu n ctio n s s h a ll in c lu d e
th e follow ing c h a r g e s :
He s h a ll e s ta b li s h s im p le , o r d e r l y p r o c e d u r e s f o r r e c e iv in g
r e q u e s t s , c o m p la in ts and g r ie v a n c e s of s tu d e n ts .
He s h a ll a s s i s t s tu d e n ts in a c c o m p lis h in g th e e x p e d itio u s s e t ­
tle m e n t of t h e i r p r o b le m s . He m a y a d v is e a stu d e n t th a t th e
s t u d e n t 's r e q u e s t, c o m p la in t o r g r ie v a n c e la c k s m e r i t , o r th a t
th e s tu d e n t should s e e k h is r e m e d y b e f o r e a n o th e r duly c o n s t i ­
tu te d body o r o f fic e r of th e U n iv e r s ity ; o r th e O m b u d sm a n (if he
d e e m s it a p p r o p r ia te ) m a y a s s i s t th e s tu d e n t in o b tain in g a n
in f o r m a l s e ttle m e n t of th e s t u d e n t 's p r o b le m .
In th e p e r f o r m a n c e of h i s d u tie s th e O m b u d sm a n s h a l l h a v e
b ro a d i n v e s tig a to r y p o w e r s and d i r e c t and r e a d y a c c e s s to a l l
U n iv e r s ity o ffic ia ls f r o m the P r e s i d e n t down.
W hen th e O m b u d sm a n d e e m s it n e c e s s a r y h e s h a ll r e p o r t d i r e c t l y
to the P r e s i d e n t v a lid c o m p la in ts f o r w hich no r e m e d y h a s been
One in c id e n t w hich p r e c i p ita t e d th e c o m m i t t e e 's s tu d y of
a c a d e m ic f re e d o m on th e c a m p u s w a s th e s o - c a l l e d "S ch iff C a s e . M
A f o r m e r s tu d e n t, P a u l Schiff, c h a r g e d th a t in 1965 th e u n iv e r s i t y
r e f u s e d to r e a d m i t h im b e c a u s e of h i s p o lit ic a l a c tiv ity . A f e d e r a l
c o u r t r u le d th a t S chiff h ad b e e n d e n ie d due p r o c e s s . J a m e s R u s t,
p r i v a t e in te r v ie w h eld a t M ic h ig an S ta te U n iv e r s ity , D e c e m b e r 12,
1968.

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found. He s h a ll a l s o r e p o r t any r e c o m m e n d a tio n s h e w is h e s to
m a k e r e g a r d i n g s u c h c o m p la in ts .
He s h a ll m a k e p e r io d ic r e p o r t s to th e P r e s i d e n t r e g a r d in g th e
o p e r a tio n of th e O m b u d s m a n 1 s o ffic e. *
A lth ou gh h is s e r v i c e s a r e e x c lu s iv e ly f o r s tu d e n ts , R u s t
h a s in d ic a te d th a t o c c a s io n a lly s tu d e n t c o m p la in ts a r e conveyed to
h im by t h e i r p a r e n t s .
P r i o r to h is a p p o in tm e n t, R u s t h ad b e e n a lo n g - tim e E n g lis h
p r o f e s s o r and a s s i s t a n t d e a n of the C o lleg e of A r t s and L e t t e r s .

A

s e p a r a t e office f a c ility w a s e s ta b li s h e d f o r h is o m b u d sm a n a c t i v i t i e s
and h e w a s r e lie v e d o f te a c h in g a s s i g n m e n t s , e x c e p t th a t he e l e c te d
to co ntinu e te a c h in g one c o u r s e a y e a r .
S tan le y A n d e r s o n , an a u t h o r it y on th e o m b u d s m a n i n s t i t u ­
tion, h a s p r a i s e d the M ic h ig a n S tate a r r a n g e m e n t f o r i t s in d e p e n ­
dence.

He h a s c a lle d a tte n tio n to c a r e f u l c o n s e n s u s in th e n o m in a ­

tio n p r o c e s s , p r e s t i g e of the office h o ld e r , sw e e p in g in v e s tig a to r y
p o w er a s c r i b e d to the p o sitio n and s o le r e l i a n c e on r e a s o n e d p e r ­
s u a s io n .

He added: "In d e p e n d e n c e i s r e in f o r c e d by s u c c e s s f u l

o p e r a tio n .

T he a d d itio n a l fu nction of in f o r m a tio n , c o u n s e llin g and

r e f e r r a l s e e m s to fit in w e ll w ith th e O m b u d s m a n j o b . "

2

1 A c a d e m ic F r e e d o m fo r S tu d en ts a t M ic h ig a n S tate U n i v e r ­
s i t y , A R e p o rt o f th e F a c u lty C o m m itte e on S tudent A f f a i r s to the
A c a d e m ic C o un cil, F e b r u a r y 7, 1967, pp. 3 1-3 2.
2

A n d e r s o n , " O m b u d sm a n P a p e r s , " pp. V 6 -7 .

92
New Y ork U n iv e r s it y
(C o lleg e of E d u ca tio n )
By fa c u lty e le c tio n , H e r b e r t London b e c a m e o m b u d sm a n fo r
th e C o lleg e of E d u c a tio n a t New Y o rk U n iv e r s it y d u r in g th e 1968-69
a c a d e m ic y e a r .

L ondon w a s a u th o r iz e d to e x a m in e any c o m p la in t

b ro u g h t to h im by a s tu d e n t o r g ro u p of s tu d e n ts of h is c o lle g e .

He

a l s o w a s e m p o w e re d " to c a ll f o r a re v ie w of an y d e c is io n of any
o ffic ia l o r c o m m itt e e , o r of th e fa c u lty , th a t i s r e l a t e d to th e c o m ­
p la in t, and to a p p e a l to h ig h e r a u th o r ity w h en the p o s s ib ility e x i s ts ,
but he s h a l l not be a u th o r iz e d to a l t e r s a id d e c is io n by h is own
a c tio n a l o n e .

1,1

San D iego S tate C o lleg e
T h e a p p o in tm e n t o f N e lso n N o rm a n a s San D iego S tate
C o lle g e 1 s f i r s t o m b u d sm a n w a s m a d e in 1968 by th e p r e s id e n t of the
in s titu tio n in r e s p o n s e to a r e c o m m e n d a tio n by th e s tu d e n t body
p r e s i d e n t a n d o th e r stu d e n t l e a d e r s .

E x c e p t fo r an an n u a l off-

c a m p u s te a c h in g s ti n t w h ich h e w an ted to c o n tin u e, th e a s s ig n m e n t
is a f u ll- tim e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r N o rm a n , who i s a p r o f e s s o r of
* " P r o f e s s o r H e r b e r t I. L ondon E le c te d New O m b u d s m a n ,"
N e w s l e t t e r , G ra d u a te S tu d en ts O r g a n iz a tio n , School of E d u c a tio n ,
New Y o rk U n iv e r s it y , J a n u a r y , 1969, p. 1. In 1967, th e New Y ork
U n iv e r s ity S enate h a d p ro p o s e d th e e le c tio n of o m b u d sm e n in e a c h
of the institu tio n * s fifte e n s c h o o ls . See " O m b u d sm a n I s U rg e d by
N .Y .U . A d v is o r y B o a rd , " New Y ork T i m e s , N o v e m b e r 19, 1967,
p. 116.

93
h is t o r y .

O b je c tiv e s of the office a r e m o d e le d on th o s e e s ta b li s h e d

at M ic h ig a n S tate.

In h is f i r s t few w e e k s of o p e r a tio n , N o r m a n

r e c e iv e d m o r e c o m p la in ts ab o u t g r a d e s than an y o t h e r p r o b le m .

He

in v e s tig a te s n e a r l y a l l g r ie v a n c e s b ro u g h t to h im and s e e k s quick
so lu tio n s.

H is s t y l e of o p e ra tio n i s to spend m u c h of h is t i m e m a k in g

f a c e - t o - f a c e c o n ta c ts outside h i s o ffic e , which i s lo c a te d in th e s t u ­
dent u n io n .

He s u b m i ts r e p o r t s b o th to the c o lle g e p r e s i d e n t and the

stu d e n t body p r e s i d e n t . *
U n iv e r s ity of South C a ro lin a
T h e f i r s t o m b u d sm an a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f South C a r o lin a
w as ap p o in te d by th e i n s t i t u t i o n 's p r e s i d e n t in 1968 a f t e r c o n s u l t a ­
tion w ith s tu d e n t l e a d e r s .

C h o sen to f ill the p o s itio n w a s H u b e r t

Noland, a n e n g in e e r in g p r o f e s s o r .

T h e idea h a d b e e n p r o p o s e d

e a r l i e r by a s u c c e s s f u l ca n d id ate f o r s tu d e n t body p r e s i d e n t .
Noland* s p o w e r s an d d u tie s a r e n e a r l y id e n tic a l to th o s e p r e s c r i b e d
for the M ic h ig a n S ta te o m b u d sm an .

T h e stu d e n t g o v e r n m e n t h a s

nam ed a " s tu d e n t o m b u d sm a n c o m m itt e e " to w o rk w ith th e c a m p u s
o m b u d sm a n . ^
^ N elso n N o rm a n , p r iv a te in te r v ie w h e ld d u r in g m e e ti n g on th e
o m b u d sm a n in h i g h e r ed u catio n , D e t r o i t , M i c h . , O c to b e r 2 4 , 1968.
2

C a r l Stepp, "N oland A p p o in te d F i r s t O m b u d s m a n ," G a m e ­
co ck , c a m p u s n e w s p a p e r a t U n iv e r s it y of South C a r o lin a . O c to b e r 29,
1968, p. 1.

94
W e s t V a lle y C o lleg e
In 1968, th e B o a rd of T r u s t e e s o f W est V a lle y C o lle g e , a
t w o - y e a r j u n i o r c o lle g e in C a m p b e ll, C a lif o rn ia , e s ta b li s h e d a n
o ffic e of o m b u d s m a n "to d e fin e the r i g h t s of s tu d e n ts and a c t a s th e
l i a i s o n b e tw e e n s tu d e n ts and th e a d m in i s t r a t i o n a n d / o r facu lty . "
T h e b o a rd a c te d on a r e c o m m e n d a tio n by the c o l l e g e 's c h ie f a d m in ­
istra to r. *
F o r S tu d en ts an d O th e r s
T h e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n c o n s i d e r s c o m p la in ts f ro m o th e r
p e r s o n s in a d d itio n to s tu d e n ts a t s ix in s titu tio n s of h ig h e r ed u c a tio n .
H o w e v e r, th e s c o p e of h is a c t i v i t i e s v a r i e s f r o m c a m p u s to c a m p u s .
T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s a r e noted in th e follow ing d e s c r i p t i o n s .
U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o rn ia a t Irv in e
T h e o m b u d sm a n r o l e i s one co m p o n en t of a f o u r - p a r t p o s i ­
tio n a t I r v in e w h ich b e a r s th e title of " A s s i s t a n t S tudent A f f a i r s
V ic e - C h a n c e llo r f o r C o - C u r r i c u l a r L e a r n in g . " A c c o rd in g to J a c k
L ittle , th e f i r s t p e r s o n to f ill th e p o s itio n , th e o t h e r c o m p o n e n ts
a r e c o u n s e l o r - a t - l a r g e , r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t in s tu d e n t lif e ,
^Jtem in C JC A N ew s ( C a lifo r n ia J u n i o r C o lle g e A s s o c ia tio n ),
J a n u a r y , 1969.

95
and c o - c u r r i c u l a r le a r n in g . * He w a s a p p o in ted to th e p o s t in 1967
by th e v ic e c h a n c e llo r f o r s tu d e n t a f f a i r s .

H is a c a d e m ic p r e p a r a t i o n

and p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e a r e in c lin ic a l p sy c h o lo g y .
L itt le h a s e s t i m a t e d th a t he s p e n d s 40 p e r c e n t of h is tim e
p e r f o r m i n g a s a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n .
in th a t c a p a c ity a s :

H e h a s d e s c r i b e d h is a c tiv i tie s

" M a in ta in in g con tinu ou s in f o r m a l r e la tio n s h i p s

w ith c a m p u s p e r s o n n e l, p a r t i c u l a r l y s tu d e n ts , so th a t t h e i r a r e a s of
d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n . . . can g ain re c o g n itio n , and so th a t th e y can be
h e lp e d to a n e ffe c tiv e c o u r s e of r e m e d i a l p e r s o n a l co u n s e lin g a n d / o r
s o c i a l a c tio n . " To h i s job d e s c r i p t i o n h e h a s added t h i s note:

"The

fu n ctio n s o f th is office a r e to be p e r f o r m e d w ith full c o n fid e n tia lity
of c o m m u n ic a tio n an d on a c o n s u lta tiv e o r <s t a f f ' r a t h e r th an ' lin e '
b a s i s , i . e . w ith a b s o lu te ly no d i r e c t a u th o r ity . "

2

In a m e m o r a n d u m to c o lle a g u e s in th e I r v in e stu d e n t a f f a i r s
o ffice. L ittle h a s f u r t h e r e la b o r a te d on h is o m b u d s m a n ro le :
A s O m b u d s m a n , I b e c o m e a s o r t of student* s a d v o c a te , in th e
s e n s e th a t s tu d e n ts can co m e to m e f o r h e lp w ith i s s u e s th a t
c o n c e r n th e m , f o r e x a m p le , w hen th e y f e e l th a t t h e i r r i g h t s a s
h u m a n b e in g s and a s c i tiz e n s of th e c o m m u n ity h a v e b ee n v i o ­
la te d . In m y r o l e a s o m b u d sm a n , th e u n i v e r s i t y w ill t o l e r a t e
m y s e ttin g up in v e s tig a to r y m a c h i n e r y and ta k in g o th e r s t e p s
* L e t t e r f ro m J a c k F . L ittle , o m b u d s m a n a t U n iv e r s it y of
C a lif o rn ia , I r v in e , F e b r u a r y 24, 1969.
2
L ittle , " J o b D e s c r ip tio n C a r d , " U n iv e r s ity of C a lif o rn ia
P e r s o n n e l O ffice, F e b r u a r y 15, 1968.

96
f o r o b tain in g r e d r e s s o f in d ic a te d g r i e v a n c e s , w ith o u t m y
n ee d in g to e x p o s e th e g r ie v in g p a r t y who th u s h a s th e b e n e fit
of " p r iv ile g e c o m m u n ic a tio n , 11
. . . so f a r t h r e e k in d s of p r o b le m s h a v e b e e n c a lle d to m y
a tte n tio n . 1) C iv il r i g h t s v io la tio n s . . . . 2) C r im i n a l i s s u e s
o r c iv il a c tio n s . . . . 3) W hat m ig h t be c a lle d " p s y c h o lo g ic a l
v io la tio n s " . . . . alth o u g h th e " l e t t e r of the la w " i s being
r e s p e c t e d , th e s p i r i t i s of n o n - c o o p e r a tio n . . . .
" S o lu tio n s " f o r th e s e t h r e e ty p e s o f p r o b le m s p r o b a b ly w ill
d if f e r . . . . 1
L ittle h a s in d ic a te d th a t he c o n s id e r s th e f i r s t two k in d s of
p r o b le m s out o f h is p u rv ie w s in c e o t h e r a v e n u e s e x i s t f o r d e a lin g w ith
th e m .

He h a s p r o c e e d e d c a u tio u s ly w ith p r o b le m s in th e t h i r d c a t e ­

g o ry , w hich h e r e c o g n i z e s to be a " v e r y s e n s itiv e " a r e a .

In h is

o m b u d sm a n r o le h e h a s d is c o v e r e d th a t Irv in e s tu d e n ts " w e r e o nly
v a g u e ly a w a r e of s o m e of th e o p p o r tu n itie s a ffo rd e d th e m " fo r s o l v ­
ing p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s .

C o n se q u e n tly , h e h a s co n d u cted a c a m p a ig n

to k e e p s tu d e n ts b e t t e r in f o r m e d r e g a r d in g a v a ila b le c a m p u s s e r v ic e s .

2
1

A lthough th e I r v in e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n o f f e r s a s s i s t a n c e to
a ll p e r s o n n e l in th e in s titu tio n , i t a p p e a r s th a t m o s t of h i s e f f o r ts a r e
d ir e c te d to w a rd s tu d e n ts .
^ M e m o ra n d u m to S tudent A f f a i r s Staff, U n iv e r s it y o f C a l i ­
fo rn ia a t I r v in e , A u g u st 3, 1967, p. 2.
2Ibid.

97
C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y
T he a p p o in tm e n t of I r v in g D eK off a s " a k ind of o m b u d s m a n
f o r s tu d e n ts " a t C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y in 1968 m a d e h im th e f i r s t
f u l l - t i m e a d m i n i s t r a t o r a s s ig n e d e x c lu s iv e ly to u n iv e r s i ty - w id e s t u ­
d e n t a f f a i r s a t th a t in s titu tio n .

1

R e c o m m e n d e d a y e a r e a r l i e r by a

C o m m itte e on S tudent L ife, th e p o s itio n w a s fille d d u rin g th e m o s t
s e r i o u s stu d e n t p r o t e s t e v e r e x p e r i e n c e d a t C o lu m b ia .

D eK off w a s

s e l e c t e d by P r e s i d e n t G r a y s o n K ir k , who r e s ig n e d s h o r tly t h e r e a f t e r
u n d e r p r e s s u r e f ro m d i s s i d e n t s tu d e n ts and facu lty .
T he o r ig in a l t i t l e - - d i r e c t o r of s tu d e n t i n t e r e s t s - - w a s s u b ­
s e q u e n tly chan ged to d i r e c t o r f o r s tu d e n t i n t e r e s t s to p la c e m o r e
e m p h a s is on th e position* s o m b u d s m a n - lik e f e a t u r e s .

D eK off h a s

s ta te d th a t fa c u lty and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a s w e ll a s s tu d e n ts m a y s e e k
h is a s s i s t a n c e .
W hen th e new p o s itio n w a s firB t an n o u n c e d , a s p o k e s m a n fo r
the r a d i c a l S trik e C o o rd in a tin g C o m m itte e r e j e c t e d it a s " th e e q u i v a ­
lent of e s ta b li s h in g a co m p an y union. " He added:

"S tu d e n ts m u s t b e

r e p r e s e n t e d , n ot on a c o n s u lta tiv e b a s i s , but a s p o lic y m a k e r s .

2

1 Sylvan

F o x, " C o lu m b ia N a m e s an O ffic ia l to Be O m b u d s ­
m a n f o r th e S tu d e n ts ," New Y o rk T i m e s , M ay 29, 1968, p . 24.
2

Ib id . D eK off e l a b o r a te d on th e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d ­
ing h is a p p o in tm e n t in a p r i v a t e in te r v ie w h eld d u rin g m e e tin g on th e
o m b u d s m a n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , D e tr o it, M i c h . , O c to b e r 24, 1968.

98
U n iv e r s it y o f D e tr o it
T h o m a s D a v is , p a r t - t i m e o m b u d s m a n a t th e U n iv e r s it y of
D e tr o it, r e c e i v e s c o m p la in ts f r o m fa c u lty , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , n o n a c a d e m ic e m p lo y e e s and o f f- c a m p u s p e r s o n s a s w e ll a s s tu d e n ts .
H o w ev er, m o s t of h i s e f f o r ts a r e d i r e c t e d to w a r d th e r e d r e s s of
s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s .

D a v is i s th e o n ly c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n to be

ap p o in ted by a n i n s t i t u t i o n 1 s stu d e n t g o v e r n m e n t w ith ou t fa c u lty o r
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e in v o lv e m e n t.

T he 1968 a c tio n w a s s u b s e q u e n tly

a c k n o w led g e d by th e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s id e n t.
T h e ex te n t of D a v is ' a u th o r ity and h is te n u r e in t h i s new
r o le a r e not c l e a r l y e s ta b li s h e d .

D a v is h a s in d ic a te d th a t h e can be

re m o v e d a s o m b u d sm a n a t a n y tim e by th e s tu d e n t g o v e r n m e n t p r e s i ­
d en t, but not by th e u n iv e r s i ty p r e s i d e n t .

H is o th e r t i t l e s a r e d ea n

of f r e s h m e n s tu d ie s and d i r e c t o r of th e c o u n s e lin g c e n t e r .

H is

a c c e s s to o ffic ia l r e c o r d s i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith h is d e a n s h ip r a t h e r th a n
h i s r o le a s o m b u d sm a n .

H is a c a d e m ic d is c ip lin e i s m a t h e m a t i c s . *

M a c o m b C ounty C o m m u n ity C o lleg e
In 1968, A d m in is tr a tiv e D ean W a lte r B r a d l e y w a s ap p o in ted
o m b u d s m a n a t M a co m b County C o m m u n ity C o lleg e in W a r r e n ,
* T h o m a s D a v is , p r i v a t e in te r v ie w h eld a t U n iv e r s it y of
D e tr o it, D e c e m b e r 11, 1968.

99
M ic h ig an , by th e i n s t i t u t i o n 's a c tin g p r e s id e n t.

B r a d le y h e a r s and

in v e s tig a te s c o m p la in ts " f r o m p e r s o n s w ith in and o u tsid e the i n s t i ­
tu tio n . " A c tin g a s a m e d i a t o r , he m a k e s r e c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r
s o lu tio n s of p r o b le m s b ro u g h t to h im .
In a c c e p tin g the a p p o in tm e n t, B r a d le y s ta te d th a t "g ro w ing
o r g a n iz a tio n s s u c h a s o u r s can b e c o m e q u ite i m p e r s o n a l . " He
added:

"H op efully, th e good o ffic e s of O m b u d sm a n w ill be a b le to

s a t i s f y s o m e of th e c o n c e r n s of th e s ta ff, the s tu d e n ts and th e c o m ­
m u n ity .

In p ro p o s in g the office, B r a d le y r e c o m m e n d e d th a t the

c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n be "in d e p e n d e n t, i m p a r t i a l , and p r o f e s s io n a l
w ith a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e of a c c o u n ta b ility . " He s u g g e s te d th a t th e
p o s itio n " b e 't r i e d fo r one o r tw o y e a r s , r e s u l t s e v a lu a te d , and a
d e t e r m in a t io n m a d e r e g a r d in g e i t h e r a change o r co n tin u a n c e of th e
o ffic e r.
T h e r e i s no e v id e n c e of fa c u lty o r s tu d e n t in v o lv e m e n t in
B r a d l e y ' s a p p o in tm e n t.

The q u e s tio n of a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e a n ' s

a b ility to be in d e p e n d e n t and i m p a r t i a l r e g a r d in g g r ie v a n c e s in v o lv ­
ing h i s in s titu tio n a p p a r e n tly w a s not r a i s e d by th e a p p o in tin g o f f ic e r .
*News r e l e a s e , O ffice of P u b lic In fo rm a tio n , M a co m b
C ounty C o m m u n ity C o lleg e , W a r r e n , M ic h ., A p r i l 11, 1968.
2

W a lte r E . B r a d le y , "A n O m b u d sm a n f o r M a co m b , "
M a co m b C ounty C o m m u n ity C o lle g e , W a r r e n , M ich . , F e b r u a r y 20,
1968.

100
San J o s e S tate C ollege
J . B enton W hite, a c a m p u s m i n i s t e r , w a s app o in ted o m b u d s ­
m a n a t San J o s e State C o lle g e by i t s p r e s i d e n t in 1967 d u rin g a w eek
of b la c k s tu d e n t d e m o n s tr a ti o n s a g a in s t the in s titu tio n .

The p o sitio n

w a s c r e a t e d a s a d i r e c t r e s p o n s e to o b je c tio n s r a i s e d by black s t u ­
d e n ts r e g a r d i n g d i s c r i m i n a t o r y r a c i a l p r a c t i c e s on th e c a m p u s and
in th e s u r r o u n d in g c o m m u n ity .

P r i m a r y a r e a s of c o n c e r n w e r e s t u ­

d en t h o u sin g , f r a t e r n i t i e s and s o r o r i t i e s , and c u r r i c u l a r and co c u rric u la r p ro g ram s.

T h u s, th e o m b u d s m a n 's r o le d efin itio n w as

o r ig in a l ly lim ite d to th e p r o b le m s of stu d e n t m i n o r i t y g r o u p s . * It
l a t e r w a s expanded to in c lu d e a l l s tu d e n ts a s w e ll a s facu lty , a d m in ­
i s t r a t o r s , n o n - a c a d e m ic e m p lo y e e s and o f f- c a m p u s p e r s o n s .
W h i t e 's a c tiv i tie s d u rin g the 1967-68 a c a d e m ic y e a r in c lu d e d
r e c e iv in g and r e s p o n d in g to c o m p la in ts b ro u g h t to h im by in d iv id u a ls
and o r g a n iz a tio n s , conducting in v e s tig a tio n s , and s e r v i n g a s a l i a i s o n
b etw een the co lleg e and th e c o m m u n ity .
to th e p r e s id e n t.

He w a s r e s p o n s i b le d i r e c t l y

H is jo b d e s c r ip tio n lis te d " in q u iry , n e g o tia tio n and

p e r s u a s io n " a s h is p r i m a r y s o u r c e of p o w e r.

To t h i s w a s added:

"In th e ev e n t of i m p a s s e , the O m b u d s m a n w ill c a ll upon th e P r e s i d e n t
^ " P o s itio n R e s u m e of O m b u d sm a n a t San J o s e State C o lle g e , "
O ffice of the E x e c u tiv e V ice P r e s i d e n t , San J o s e S tate C ollege, San
J o s e , C a l i f ., M ay 3, 1968.

101
fo r e x e c u tiv e a c tio n .

D e s p ite h is e x e c u tiv e a p p o in tm e n t, W hite

a tte m p te d to u s e th e D a n is h office of o m b u d s m a n a s h i s m o d e l.

2

W h ite 1 s s u c c e s s in e s ta b li s h in g r a p p o r t w ith b la c k s tu d e n ts
w as s o m e w h a t c o u n te r a c te d by h is in a b ilit y to g a in th e co nfiden ce of
d is s id e n t M e x ic a n - A m e r ic a n s tu d e n ts , w ho sta g e d a p r o t e s t d e m o n ­
s t r a t i o n d u rin g th e c o l l e g e 's 1968 c o m m e n c e m e n t c e r e m o n i e s .

For

the 1968 -69 a c a d e m ic y e a r , R alph P o b la n o , a M e x ic a n - A m e r ic a n ,
w as ap p o in ted c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n w h ile W hite con tin u ed to s e r v e on
3
a o n e - f o u r th tim e b a s i s a s a s s o c i a t e o m b u d sm a n .
W hite h a s c ited tw e lv e in s titu tio n a l p o lic y c h a n g e s p a r t i a l l y
a t tr i b u ta b l e to h i s in v e s tig a tio n s and r e c o m m e n d a tio n s d u r in g th e
1967-68 a c a d e m ic y e a r .

A m ong th e m a r e :

n o n -d isc rim in a to ry

p o lic ie s fo r s tu d e n t p u b lic a tio n s , o r g a n iz a tio n s , jo b p la c e m e n t and
h o u sin g ; an im p r o v e d s tu d e n t w ith d r a w a l p r o c e d u r e ; c r e a tio n of a
new A c a d e m ic C o u n c il c o m m itte e on m i n o r i t y c u r r i c u l u m ; e s t a b ­
lis h m e n t of p r i o r i t i e s in th e u s e of w o r k - s t u d y fu n d s; i n c r e a s e d
p o w e r to an a c a d e m ic c o m m itte e to o v e r r u l e a p r o f e s s o r * s d e c is io n
1 Ibid.

2

W h ite, " T h e O m b u d sm a n in P r a c t i c e , " u n p u b lis h e d s p e e c h
d e liv e r e d d u rin g m e e tin g on th e o m b u d s m a n in h i g h e r e d u c a tio n ,
D e tr o it, M ic h ., O c to b e r 24, 1968, p. 2.
3
W hite, p r iv a te in te r v ie w h e ld d u rin g m e e ti n g on th e o m ­
b u d s m a n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , D e tr o it, M ich. , O c to b e r 24, 1968.

102
on a student* s g r a d e ; i n c r e a s e d e f f o r t s to r e c r u i t fa c u lty f r o m e th n ic
m i n o r i t i e s ; a n d e s ta b li s h m e n t of a M e x ic a n - A m e r ic a n A f f a i r s C o m ­
m itte e . *
S tate U n iv e r s it y of New
Y o rk a t Stony B ro ok
A t only one in s titu tio n of h i g h e r e d u c a tio n h a s th e office o f
c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n been d is c o n tin u e d a f te r m o r e than a y e a r of
tria l.

The a b a n d o n m e n t o c c u r r e d a t th e State U n iv e r s it y of New

Y o rk a t Stony B ro o k in 1968 a f t e r s e v e n te e n m o n th s of o p e ra tio n .
Stony B ro ok i s one of fo u r u n i v e r s i t y c e n te r s in the s ix t y - c a m p u s
n etw o rk of th e S tate U n iv e r s it y of New Y ork.

T h e in s titu tio n i s in

the m id s t of a f if t y - m i l l i o n - d o l l a r e x p a n sio n p r o g r a m .
In M a r c h of 1967, P r e s i d e n t Jo h n T o ll r e s p o n d e d to a
fa c u lty s u g g e s tio n by ap p o in tin g th r e e c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n to r e p r e ­
s e n t h im " in in v e s tig a tin g a n y s u g g e s tio n s o r c o m p la in ts . . . by
2
m e m b e r s of th e facu lty , s ta f f , o r s tu d e n t body. . . . "
C h o sen f o r
th e p o s itio n s w e r e p r o f e s s o r s fro m t h r e e d is c ip lin e s :

H om er

* " I n s titu tio n a l P o lic y C h a n g e s a t San J o s e S tate C o lleg e
C o m in g Out o f R e c o m m e n d a tio n s o r I n v e s t i g a t i o n s , " u n d a te d ,
r e c e iv e d f r o m W hite in N o v e m b e r, 1968.
2

J o h n S. T o ll, " A n n o u n c e m e n t of S e le c tio n of O m b u d sm e n
and O th e r K ey A p p o in tm e n ts , " m e m o ra n d u m to m e m b e r s of the
u n iv e r s i ty c o m m u n ity of th e S tate U n iv e r s ity o f New Y o rk at Stony
B ro o k , M a r c h 29, 1967.

103
G o ld b e rg , E n g lish ; T h e o d o r e G o ld fa rb , c h e m is t r y ; and R o b e r t
W e in b e rg , p h y s ic s .

No r e d u c tio n w a s m a d e in t h e i r o t h e r fa c u lty

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . * In an no un cing th e a p p o in tm e n ts , T o ll o u tlin ed
t h e i r r o l e s in g e n e r a l t e r m s :
It i s often m u c h e a s i e r to r e c o g n iz e p r o b le m s th a n to so lv e
th e m . T he O m b u d sm e n w ill n o t be r e q u i r e d to u n d e r ta k e any
p r o b le m u n le s s th e y b e lie v e it i s an im p o r ta n t m a t t e r in w hich
t h e i r e f f o r ts m a y b r in g f ru itfu l r e s u l t s . T he m a n d a te o f e a c h
O m b u d s m a n i s b r o a d , and any m e m b e r of the U n i v e r s i t y C o m ­
m u n ity can a p p r o a c h an y o f th e m w ith s u g g e s tio n s . . . . I
h e r e b y r e q u e s t a l l m e m b e r s of th e U n iv e r s ity to c o o p e r a te w ith
th e t h r e e O m b u d sm e n an d to su p p ly th e m w ith an y in f o r m a tio n
o r a s s i s t a n c e th a t th e y m a y n e e d in t h e i r ta s k , and to e n d e a v o r
to c a r r y out t h e i r s u g g e s tio n s w h e n e v e r p o s s ib le . ^
In r e s p o n s e to c o m p la in ts and s u g g e s tio n s , the o m b u d s m e n
m a d e a n u m b e r of p o lic y r e c o m m e n d a tio n s a ffe c tin g th e u n i v e r s i t y in
*

such a r e a s a s governan ce, tra ffic , parking, m a i l s e r v ic e , Btudent
a d v is in g and r e la t i o n s w ith b u ild in g c o n t r a c t o r s .

F o r th e 1967-68

a c a d e m ic y e a r , th e n u m b e r of o m b u d s m e n w a s re d u c e d to tw o, and
th e p r e s i d e n t u rg e d th a t n o r m a l c h a n n e ls be "g iv e n a f a i r ch a n ce to
r e s p o n d " b e f o r e c o m p la in a n ts r e s o r t e d to e x t r a o r d i n a r y o n e s .

3

^G o ldfarb h a s e s t i m a t e d th a t he s p e n t tw enty to tw e n ty -f iv e
h o u r s a w ee k p e r f o r m i n g a s a n o m b u d s m a n . " U n iv e r s ity O m b u d s ­
m a n K ept B u sy a t Stony B r o o k ," New Y ork T im e s , D e c e m b e r 10,
1967, p. 146.
2
T o ll, "A n n o u n c e m e n t of S e le c tio n of O m b u d s m e n . "
3
T o ll, "1 9 6 6 -6 7 R e p o r t o f th e O m b u d s m e n ," m e m o r a n d u m
to m e m b e r s of th e u n i v e r s i t y c o m m u n ity o f th e State U n i v e r s i t y of
New Y ork a t Stony B ro o k , N o v e m b e r 10, 1967.

104
L a te in 1967, th e e d i to r of th e c a m p u s n e w s p a p e r c r e d i te d
the p r e s i d e n t w ith ap po intin g o m b u d sm e n w hom s tu d e n ts c o n s id e r e d
in d e p en d en t o f th e a d m in is t r a tio n .

"B u t I h a v e n 't s e e n an y r e a l

s u c c e s s , " h e ad d e d , "a n d I s u s p e c t th is m a y t u r n in to j u s t a n o th e r
p a c ifie r.

1,1

A c c o rd in g to A n d e rs o n , th e Stony B ro o k o m b u d sm e n
" a c te d p a r t l y a s o f f ic e r s of in f o r m a tio n and r e f e r r a l , p a r t l y a s
O m b u d sm e n in v e s tig a tin g g r ie v a n c e s , and p a r t l y a s id e a m e n fo r
a m e lio r a tin g th e in c o n v e n ie n c e s of w o rk in g on a c a m p u s u n d e r c o n ­
s tr u c tio n . . . . the O m b u d sm e n sh o u ld be g iv e n m o r e in d e p e n d e n c e
than th e y d e r i v e fro m t h e i r p r e s e n t s e r v i c e a t th e p l e a s u r e of the
P re sid en t. "

2

T he t e r m s of th e r e m a in in g two o m b u d s m e n e x p ir e d a t th e
beginning of th e 1968-69 a c a d e m ic y e a r .
pointed n o r r e p la c e d .

They w ere n e ith e r r e a p ­

In O c to b e r of 1968, th e u n iv e r s i t y s u s p e n d e d

c l a s s e s f o r t h r e e d a y s to e n a b le s tu d e n ts , fa c u lty and a d m i n i s t r a ­
t o r s to p a r t i c i p a t e in an " in te n s iv e s e lf - s tu d y " and to d i s c u s s the
i n s t i t u t i o n 's f u tu r e .

T he " ta lk - in " w a s p lan ned p a r t l y in r e s p o n s e

to gro w ing s tu d e n t d is c o n te n t w ith e x is tin g p o lic ie s .

No

^ 'U n i v e r s i t y O m b u d sm a n K ept B u sy a t Stony B ro ok , " New
York T i m e s , D e c e m b e r 10, 1967, p. 146.
2

A n d e r s o n , " O m b u d s m a n P a p e r s , " pp. V 5 -6 .

105
r e c o m m e n d a tio n f o r re v iv in g th e o m b u d s m a n s y s t e m e m e r g e d f r o m
th is d i s c u s s i o n .

1

In a n s w e r to an in q u ir y ab o u t h i s u n i v e r s i t y ' s o m b u d sm a n
e x p e r im e n t, T o ll w ro te :
T he t h r e e O m b u d sm e n who w e r e a p p o in ted o r ig in a lly h a v e
c o m p le te d t h e i r t e r m of o ffice and no r e p l a c e m e n t s a r e b ein g
ap p o in ted pending a r e - e v a l u a t i o n of t h e i r r o le . Since m o r e
f u n d a m e n ta l i s s u e s of th e u n i v e r s i t y g o v e r n a n c e a r e p r e s e n t l y
a t i s s u e on th is c a m p u s , it i s p r e m a t u r e f o r d e c is io n s on the
fu tu re of th e in s titu tio n of O m b u d s m a n h e r e .
W e in b erg h a s s ta te d th a t th e o ffic e w a s d is c o n tin u e d b e c a u s e o f a
d iffe re n c e of opinion a s to w h e th e r th e o m b u d s m a n sh o u ld be
^
3
r e s p o n s ib le to the p r e s id e n t o r to th e fa c u lty and s tu d e n ts .
F o r F a c u lty O nly
K ent S tate U n iv e r s it y is th e only in s titu tio n of h ig h e r
ed ucatio n in c lu d e d in th is s tu d y w hich h a s e s ta b li s h e d an o m b u d s m a n ­
like p o s itio n r e s t r i c t e d to fa c u lty g r i e v a n c e s .

C a lle d " D e a n f o r

F acu lty C o u n s e l (O m b u d s m a n ) ," the r o l e w a s a s s u m e d in th e f a ll of
* B r y c e N e lso n , "S tu d en t P o w e r : D e m a n d s f o r C hange at
Stony B r o o k 's 1 T a l k - I n , ' " S cie n c e , CL>XII (N o v e m b e r 1, 1968), 54548.
2

L e t t e r f r o m T o ll, p r e s i d e n t o f th e S tate U n iv e r s ity of New
York a t Stony B ro o k , M a rc h 10, 1969.
3

B a r b a r a P a m e s s , " O m b u d sm e n P e r f o r m No M i r a c l e s , "
M ichigan S ta te N e w s , c a m p u s n e w s p a p e r a t M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r ­
sity, J a n u a r y 6 , 1969, p. 17.

106
1968 by H a r o ld K itn e r , a p o litic a l s c ie n c e p r o f e s s o r .

K it n e r ' s

a p p o in tm e n t by th e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s i d e n t follow ed a r e c o m m e n d a tio n
by th e F a c u lty S enate th a t s u c h a n office be in s titu te d .

T he r e c o m ­

m e n d a tio n w a s b a s e d on a s tu d y of th e o m b u d sm a n c o n c e p t and i t s
p o te n tia l a p p lic a tio n to th e u n i v e r s i t y w h ich th e p r e s i d e n t had
c o m m is s io n e d K itn e r to conduct i n 1967.
In e x p la in in g th e p o s itio n to fa c u lty m e m b e r s , th e p r e s i ­
d en t e x p r e s s e d th e h op e th a t th e o ffic e w ould be both c o r r e c t i v e and
p r e v e n tiv e , and th a t " it m ig h t be s o s u c c e s s f u l a s to w o rk i t s e l f out
of e x is te n c e . . . . "

The o ffice w a s d e s c r i b e d a s " a c e n t e r fo r c o n ­

tin u o u s s e n s itiv i ty to w a r d s th e w hole r a n g e of p r o c e d u r e w hich
a f f e c ts th e p r o f e s s i o n a l r o le of th e in d iv id u a l fa c u lty m e m b e r , and
a ls o . . .

a p la c e w h e r e he m a y t u r n i f th e fa c u lty m e m b e r b e lie v e s

th at h e is b ein g t r e a t e d u n ju s t ly .

1,1

The o m b u d sm a n a l s o s e r v e s a s

an e x p e d ite r o f id e a s th a t m ig h t no t be h e a r d b e c a u s e of the la c k of
a p p r o p r ia te c h a n n e ls .
T h r e e s a f e g u a r d s a r e m a in ta in e d to r e d u c e th e o m b u d s ­
m a n ' s w o rk load: h e c o n s i d e r s no g r ie v a n c e u n til a l l a v e n u e s of
due p r o c e s s h a v e b e e n e x h a u s te d , he m a y r e j e c t a g r ie v a n c e h e
* "D ean f o r F a c u lty C o u n s e l ( O m b u d s m a n ) ," s p e c i a l b u lle ­
tin is s u e d by O ffice o f th e P r e s i d e n t , K ent S tate U n iv e r s ity , J a n ­
u a ry 8 , 1969, p. 5.

107
fe e ls i s u n ju s tifie d , and he a t te m p ts s e ttle m e n t of d if f e r e n c e s
th ro u g h c o m m u n ic a tio n and c o n c ilia tio n b e f o r e m a k in g r e c o m m e n ­
d a tio n s to th e p r e s i d e n t .

1

S u m m a ry
T h is p o rtio n of th e g e n e r a l e v a lu a tio n of th e o m b u d sm a n in
A m e r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n h a s r e v e a le d th a t a t a l l in s titu tio n s but
one th e office w as e s ta b li s h e d e x c lu s iv e ly o r p r i m a r i l y to a s s i s t
s tu d e n ts w ith p r o b le m s a r i s i n g f r o m t h e i r in s titu tio n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
Student p r e s s u r e i s ev id en t in th e e s ta b li s h m e n t of so m e of the p o s i ­
tio n s.

A lthough th e a c t i v i t i e s of the v a r i o u s c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n a r e

d i v e r s e , t h e i r r o l e s a r e b r o a d ly p a tte r n e d on S c an d in av ia n civil
o m b u d sm an m o d e ls , p a r t i c u l a r l y D e n m a r k 's .

E le v e n o f th e f o u r ­

te e n p o s itio n s d e s c r i b e d w e r e fille d by a d m in i s t r a t i v e a p p o in tm e n ts ,
c o m p a r a b le to e x e c u tiv e a p p o in tm e n ts in c iv il g o v e r n m e n t, r a t h e r
than by fa c u lty s e n a te o r s tu d e n t g o v e r n m e n t a p p o in tm e n ts , c o m ­
p a r a b le to le g is la tiv e a p p o in tm e n ts .

H o w e v e r, in m o s t c a s e s t h e r e

is ev id en ce o f fa c u lty and s tu d e n t in v o lv e m e n t in th e n o m in a tio n o r
se le c tio n p r o c e s s .

Few c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n h a v e had p r o f e s s io n a l

tr a in in g o r e x p e r ie n c e in s tu d e n t p e r s o n n e l w o rk .

Only one of th e

in s titu tio n s d isc o n tin u e d th e o ffic e a f t e r e x p e r im e n tin g w ith it.

108
The c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n c o n c e p t h a s b e e n a d a p te d to the
g o v e r n m e n ta l s t r u c t u r e s of a w ide r a n g e of in s t i t u t i o n s - - p u b l i c and
p r iv a te , la r g e an d s m a l l , u r b a n and n o n - u r b a n , old an d new , l i b e r a l
and c o n s e r v a tiv e .

Ind eed , by th e end of 1968, c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n

could be found a t both e n d s of the h ig h e r e d u c a tio n s p e c t r u m - - t h e
co m m u n ity c o lle g e and th e " m u l tiv e r s it y . "
T h u s, fle x ib ility a p p e a r s to be one of the m o s t r e m a r k a b l e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n co n c e p t.

In a few i n ­

s ta n c e s , h o w e v e r, th e r o le a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n a l t e r e d so m uch
to s a tis f y in s titu ti o n a l o r in d iv id u a l p r e f e r e n c e s th a t few of the f e a ­
t u r e s tr a d it io n a l ly a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e o m b u d sm a n r e m a i n in ta c t
beyond the n a m e .
I n s titu tio n s C o n s id e r in g O m b u d sm e n
At l e a s t s ix te e n A m e r ic a n c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e
co n s id e rin g th e p o s s i b ilit y of add in g a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n p r i o r to
1969.

At s o m e in s titu tio n s , im p le m e n ta tio n s e e m e d im m in e n t; a t

o th e r s , the id e a h a d not a d v a n ce d beyond th e a w a r e n e s s and i n t e r e s t
s ta g e s . * W id e s p r e a d p u b lic ity r e g a r d i n g c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n
^ R o g e rs h a s d iv id e d the d iffu sio n of in n o v a tio n p r o c e s s in to
five s ta g e s : a w a r e n e s s , i n t e r e s t , e v a lu a tio n , t r i a l a n d adoption ( o r
re je c tio n ). See E v e r e t t M . R o g e r s , "T h e C o m m u n ic a tio n of In n o ­
v atio n s in a C o m p le x In stitu tio n , " E d u c a tio n a l R e c o r d , X LIX (W in­
t e r , 1968), 72.

109
a p p o in tm e n ts a t s u c h in s titu tio n s a s B e r k e le y and M ic h ig a n S tate h a s
been in flu e n tia l.

A s M e y e r s o n h a s o b s e rv e d :

B o a rd s o f t r u s t e e s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and f a c u l tie s a t m a n y
in s titu tio n s n o te and o fte n e m u la te the d e v e lo p m e n ts a t th e
p a c e - s e t t i n g c o lle g e s an d u n i v e r s i t i e s . A lthough t h e r e m a y be
no f o r m a l s y s t e m to A m e r ic a n h i g h e r ed u c a tio n , t h e r e i s a te n d ­
en c y to w a rd th e m e a n . . . , r e s u lt in g in m o r e in s titu ti o n a l
sim ila ritie s. . . . 1
E v a n s a l s o h a s e m p h a s iz e d th e i m p o r ta n c e of the n a t u r e of i n f o r m a tion s o u r c e s in th e d iffu sio n of in n o v a tio n s in h ig h e r ed u c a tio n .

2

D e v e lo p m e n ts a t in s t itu ti o n s c o n s id e r in g o m b u d sm e n w ill
now be s u rv e y e d .
D e s c r i p tio n
U n iv e r s ity of C a lif o rn ia
a t L os A n g e le s
*

In J u n e o f 1968, th e c h a n c e llo r of the U n iv e r s it y of C a l i ­
fo rn ia a t L os A n g e le s e s ta b li s h e d a U n iv e r s it y P o l i c i e s C o m m is s io n
m ad e up of s tu d e n ts , fa c u lty and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

He s ta te d th a t i t s

f i r s t o r d e r of b u s i n e s s sh o u ld be to c o n s id e r th e q u a lific a tio n s and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n , a p o s itio n w hich he a p 3
p ro v ed in p r in c ip le .
^ M e y e rs o n , "T h e E th o s of th e A m e r ic a n C o lle g e Student, "
pp. 2 7 0-7 1.
2

R ic h a r d I. E v a n s , R e s i s t a n c e to In n o v atio n in H ig h e r E d u ­
cation (San F r a n c i s c o : J o s s e y - B a s s , I n c . , 1968), p. 31.
3

T he c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n id e a a l r e a d y h ad b e e n e n d o r s e d by
two u n iv e r s i ty - w id e c o m m itt e e s . See A n d e r s o n , " O m b u d s m a n

110
C ity C o lleg e of th e S tate
U n iv e r s ity of New Y o rk
A body of s tu d e n ts , fa c u lty and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s known a s the
C o m m itte e of S e v e n te e n p ro p o s e d th e a p p o in tm e n t of a n o m b u d sm a n
am ong o th e r in s t itu ti o n a l r e f o r m s in a r e p o r t i s s u e d i n O c to b e r of 1968
a t C ity C o lleg e of th e S tate U n iv e r s it y of New Y o rk .

C u lm in a tin g two

y e a r s of stu d y , th e r e c o m m e n d a tio n s in clud ed an o m b u d s m a n " to
in s u r e e q u ita b le t r e a t m e n t f o r s tu d e n ts o r facu lty m e m b e r s in s p e c ific
c a s e s and to h e lp a d m i n i s t r a t o r s im p r o v e t h e i r p r o c e d u r e s .

" 1

F r e s n o S tate C o lleg e
T he o m b u d s m a n c o m m itte e a t F r e s n o S tate C o lleg e c i r c u ­
la te d to c o lle g e and u n i v e r s i t y p la c e m e n t o ffic es la te in 1968 a n
an n o u n c em e n t s e e k in g a p p lic a tio n s fo r that in stitutio n* s new ly c r e a te d o m b u d s m a n p o sitio n .

T he m a j o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of th e office

h o ld e r w a s d e s c r i b e d a s follow s: " T o p ro v id e s tu d e n ts , facu lty , and
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s an a v e n u e w h e r e b y th e y m a y b e t t e r u t i l i z e e x is tin g
p r o c e d u r e s and e x p r e s s t h e i r c o n c e r n s abo u t a n y a s p e c t of th e college
c o m m u n ity ." A p p lic a n ts w e r e a s s u r e d th a t th e o m b u d s m a n w ould be
" r e s p o n s ib le e q u a lly to s tu d e n ts , fa c u lty , and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . "
P a p e r s , " p. V I 1. T he U n iv e r s ity P o l i c i e s C o m m is s io n su b se q u e n tly
p ro p o se d th e a p p o in tm e n t of a n o m b u d s m a n by th e c h a n c e llo r on its
r e c o m m e n d a tio n s . S ee UCLA D a ily B r u in , F e b r u a r y 25, 1969, p. 2.
^ J o h n K i f n e r , " R e f o r m s P la n n e d a t C ity C o l le g e ," New
Y ork T im e s , O c to b e r 9, 1968, p. 47.

Ill
F a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e F r e s n o c a m p u s an d " a c o n c e r n f o r j u s t i c e "
w e re l i s t e d am o n g n e c e s s a r y q u a lif ic a tio n s . *
G eo rg e W a sh in g to n U n iv e r s it y
In D e c e m b e r of 1968, the v ic e p r e s i d e n t f o r s tu d e n t a f f a i r s
at G e o r g e W a sh in g to n U n iv e r s it y p r e s e n t e d a p r o p o s a l to th e p r e s i ­
dent f o r adding a n o m b u d s m a n a t th a t in s titu tio n .

It w a s r e c o m ­

m ended th a t th e p o s itio n be fille d on a f u l l - t i m e b a s i s by a fa c u lty
m e m b e r who w a s p o p u la r w ith s tu d e n ts .

He w a s to be s e le c te d by

c o m m itte e but w ould r e p o r t to the p r e s i d e n t .

H is d u tie s w e r e to be

id e n tic a l to t h o s e of th e M ic h ig a n S tate o m b u d sm a n .

2

U n iv e r s ity of H aw aii
E s ta b lis h m e n t of a n office o f o m b u d s m a n i s in c lu d e d in a
p r o p o s a l fo r a u n iv e r s i t y an d stu d e n t code a t th e U n iv e r s it y of
H aw aii, a c c o r d in g to A c tin g P r e s i d e n t R o b e rt H ia tt.

B oth the F a c u lty
3

Senate and the A s s o c ia te d S tu d en ts a r e c o n s id e r in g th e plan .
A n n o u n ce m en t o f P o s itio n : O m b u d s m a n , F r e s n o S ta te
C o lleg e, F r e s n o , C a lif. , D e c e m b e r 26, 1968.
1

2

O m b u d sm a n r e p o r t fro m D av id G. Speck to W illia m P .
Smith, G e o rg e W a sh in g to n U n iv e r s ity , D e c e m b e r 19, 1968. A c c o r d ­
ing to a l e t t e r f r o m Speck d a te d J a n u a r y 24, 1969, S m ith s u b m itte d
the r e p o r t to th e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s i d e n t .
3
L e t t e r fro m A c tin g P r e s i d e n t R o b e r t W. H ia tt, U n iv e r s ity
of H aw aii, F e b r u a r y 25, 1969,

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U n iv e r s ity of M i s s o u r i a t C o lu m b ia
In A p r i l o f 1968, a n ad h o c c o m m itte e m a d e a n u m b e r of
r e c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r i n c r e a s e d g r a d u a te fa c u lty p a r tic ip a t io n in
a c a d e m ic g o v e r n m e n t a t th e U n iv e r s ity of M i s s o u r i a t C o lu m b ia .
One c a lle d f o r an office o f o m b u d s m a n to d e a l w ith p r o b le m s w h ich
g r a d u a te fa c u lty and s tu d e n ts a r e u n a b le to so lv e th ro u g h r e g u l a r
c h a n n e ls.

T h e p r o p o s a l added th a t:

" T h e O m b u d s m a n s h a ll be a

m e m b e r of th e G ra d u a te F a c u lty a t l a r g e , e le c te d by th e S enate
fro m a s l a t e p r e s e n t e d by th e E x e c u tiv e C o m m i t t e e .

1,1

T he c o m ­

m i t t e e 1 s r e p o r t w a s a c c e p te d by th e G ra d u a te F a c u lty and i m p l e ­
m e n ta tio n h a s begun.

A c o m m itte e d e s ig n a te d to e s t a b l i s h the office

w ill s u b m it a l i s t of n o m in e e s to th e e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e of the
2
G ra d u a te S en ate, w hich w ill m a k e th e fin al s e le c tio n .
U n iv e r s ity of N ev ada
T he U n iv e r s it y of N evada C h a p te r o f th e A m e r i c a n A s s o ­
ciatio n of U n i v e r s i t y P r o f e s s o r s h a s d is c u s s e d th e p o s s ib ility of
^ " G ra d u a te F a c u lty P a r t i c i p a t i o n in A c a d e m ic G o v e r n m e n t ,"
R e p o rt of th e Ad Hoc C o m m itte e on G r a d u a te F a c u lty O rg a n iz a tio n
and P a r t i c i p a t i o n in G o v e rn m e n t a n d of th e C o m m itte e on P la n n in g
and P o lic y of th e G ra d u a te C o un cil, U n iv e r s it y o f M is s o u r i a t
C olum bia, A p r i l 18, 1968, p. 19.
2

L e t t e r fro m J o h n M. F r a n z , c h a ir m a n , G ra d u a te F a c u lty
Senate C o m m itte e on P r o b l e m s an d P r o c e d u r e , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s ­
s o u ri a t C o lu m b ia , J a n u a r y 24, 1969.

.

113
e s ta b lis h in g an office of o m b u d sm a n a t th a t in s titu tio n .

A w o rk s h o p

on th e s u b je c t w a s s c h e d u le d e a r l y in 1969. *
San F r a n c i s c o S tate C o lleg e
A n o m b u d sm a n s e le c tio n c o m m itte e h a s s u b m itte d a l i s t of
n o m in e e s to the a c tin g p r e s i d e n t of San F r a n c i s c o State C o lle g e .
ac tio n w a s ta k e n p r i o r to 1969.

No

2

S ou th ern I llin o is U n iv e r s ity
at C a rb o n d a le
A p lan fo r an e x p e r i m e n ta l "S tu den t In fo r m a tio n and C o m ­
p la in t O ffice (O m b u d sm an )" h a s been s u b m itte d to th e a d m in is t r a tio n
of S ou th ern I llin o is U n iv e r s ity a t C a rb o n d a le .

T he p r o p o s a l c a lls

fo r an o ffice to r e s o l v e s tu d e n t c o m p la in ts " a r i s i n g out of th e fu n c ­
tioning of the u n iv e r s i ty b u r e a u c r a c y . " H o w e v e r, it e x p r e s s l y r u l e s
out n o n - s p e c if ic g r ie v a n c e s , d is p u te s abo u t g r a d e s , d i s c i p l i n a r y
m a t t e r s , and a p p e a ls to r e v e r s e d e c is io n s .

It r e c o m m e n d s the

a p p o in tm e n t of a f o u r - m a n o m b u d s m a n p a n e l of te n u r e d te a c h in g
1T he A A U P c h a p te r s u b s e q u e n tly r e c o m m e n d e d to the u n i ­
v e r s ity p r e s i d e n t th a t a c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n be ap p o in ted . P r o f e s ­
s o r E m e r i t u s C h a rlto n L a ir d w a s n a m e d to th e p o s t by the B o a rd of
R egents in M a r c h of 1969. See " O m b u d sm a n B e g in s New J o b , "
U n iv e rs ity of N ev ada S a g e b r u s h , M a r c h 11, 1969, p. 3.
2

L e t t e r f r o m N ancy M c D e rm id , m e m b e r of o m b u d sm a n
s e le c tio n c o m m itte e a t San F r a n c i s c o S tate C o lle g e , F e b r u a r y 18,
1969.

114
facu lty m e m b e r s , a s s i s t e d by a f u ll- tim e s tu d e n t p e r s o n n e l
w orker. *
Stanford U n iv e r s ity
In th e s p r in g of 1968, the S tan fo rd U n i v e r s i t y C h a p te r of
the A m e r ic a n A s s o c ia tio n o f U n iv e r s it y P r o f e s s o r s s e t u p a f o u r m an o m b u d sm a n b o a r d "to a c t on i t s own and to i n s p i r e th e a d m in ­
i s t r a t i o n to r e p la c e th e A A U P O m b u d sm a n w ith a r e g u l a r U n iv e r s ity
O m b u d sm a n . "

2

A p p a r e n tly th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s n o t in s p i r e d .

S e v e ra l m o n th s l a t e r one o f th e p re sid e n t* s a id e s s ta te d th a t " n o th ­
ing d e fin ite h a s b e e n done, an d I know of noth in g beyond th e d i s c u s 3
sion s ta g e . "
O th e r I n s titu tio n s
P r i o r to 1969, c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n p r o p o s a l s a l s o w e r e
u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n a t the U n i v e r s i t y of M a s s a c h u s e t t s , N o rth
T ex a s S tate U n iv e r s ity , O ak lan d U n iv e r s it y ( a ffilia te d w ith M ich ig an
*"A P r o p o s a l fo r a Student In fo r m a tio n and C o m p la in t O ffice
(O m budsm an) fo r S o u th ern I llin o is U n iv e r s it y , " u n s ig n e d , u n d ated .
P ro v id e d by G e o rg e M c C lu re , D e p a r tm e n t of P h ilo s o p h y , S o u th ern
Illin o is U n iv e r s ity a t C a rb o n d a le .
2
A n d e r s o n , " O m b u d s m a n P a p e r s , " p. V l l .
3
L e t t e r f r o m F r e d e r i c O. G lo v e r, e x e c u tiv e a s s i s t a n t to
the p r e s id e n t, S tan fo rd U n iv e r s ity , F e b r u a r y 19, 1969.

115

State U n iv e r s ity ), P r in c e to n U n iv e r s ity , W ayne S tate U n iv e r s ity
and W e s te r n M ic h ig an U n iv e r s ity ,
m u ch of th e i m p e t u s .

Student g ro u p s w e r e p ro v id in g

1

It i s c u r io u s th a t th e o m b u d s m a n co ncept h a s not g ain ed
a c c e p ta n c e a t V a lp a r a is o U n iv e r s ity , w h e r e th e m a n who h a s
developed a w id e ly -a d o p te d r a tio n a le f o r th e p o s itio n -- D o n a ld
M u n d i n g e r - - s e r v e s a s v ic e p r e s i d e n t f o r a c a d e m ic a f f a i r s .

He

h a s in d ic a te d th a t V a lp a r a is o could u s e a n o m b u d s m a n but he h a s
been u n ab le to p e r s u a d e h is c o lle a g u e s of th e u tility o f su ch an
office. ^
A t R u t g e r s U n iv e r s ity , E a r l e C liffo rd , d e a n of stu d e n t
a f f a ir s , h a s e f f e c tiv e ly b lock ed e f f o r ts to e s ta b l i s h an office of
o m b u d sm a n d e s p ite i t s a d v o c a c y by A lb e r t B la u s te in , a law p r o ­
fessor.

In a 1968 s p e e c h , C liffo rd c a lle d th e c o n c ep t a " g im m ic k "

^ In fo rm a tio n o b tain ed th ro u g h c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w ith p e r ­
so n s at in s titu tio n s lis te d . O th e r in s t itu ti o n s c o n s id e r e d but
r e je c te d o m b u d s m a n p r o p o s a l s p r i o r to 1969. W e s te r n in s titu tio n s
w hich took s u c h a c tio n gave one o r m o r e of th e s e r e a s o n s : la c k o f
d e m o n s tr a te d need ; n e g a tiv e s tu d e n t and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e a c tio n ;
ex istin g good r a p p o r t am o n g s tu d e n ts , fa c u lty and a d m in is t r a tio n ;
and d ean s a l r e a d y p e r f o r m i n g th e fu n c tio n s . See U C L A D a ily
B ru in , F e b r u a r y 25, 1969, p. 3.
2

L e t t e r f r o m D onald C. M u n d in g e r, v ic e p r e s i d e n t f o r
a c a d e m ic a f f a i r s , V a l p a r a i s o U n iv e r s it y , F e b r u a r y 20, 1969.

116
w hich no in s titu tio n n e e d s if p r o p e r l y o r g a n iz e d .
re sp o n d e d to Clifford* s o b je c tio n s by l e t t e r .

B la u s te in h a s

1

S u m m a ry
At l e a s t s ix te e n c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e m o v in g
to w a rd th e a p p o in tm e n t of c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n p r i o r to 1969.

A l­

though t h e i r o b je c tiv e s w e r e s i m i l a r , m e th o d s of im p le m e n ta tio n
v a r ie d c o n s id e r a b ly .

In v o lv e m e n t of s tu d e n ts a s w e ll a s fa c u lty and

a d m in is t r a tio n in o m b u d s m a n p lan n in g w a s a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l .

The

in flu ence of c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n d e v e lo p m e n ts a t o t h e r in s titu tio n s
w a s eviden t.
S e le c te d O m b u d sm e n : S i m i l a r i t i e s
an d D i s s i m i l a r i t i e s
T o o b ta in m o r e d e ta ile d in f o r m a tio n on th e c a m p u s o m b u d s ­
m an , p e r s o n s s e r v in g in th a t c a p a c ity a t s ix in s titu tio n s of h ig h e r
ed ucation w e r e c h o s e n f o r p e r s o n a l in te r v i e w s in th e fa ll of 1968.
S ele c tio n s w e r e m a d e on th e b a s is of in s titu ti o n a l s i z e and d i v e r s i t y .
The in te rv ie w s c h e d u le i s r e p r o d u c e d in A ppendix B.
T he o m b u d s m e n in te rv ie w e d and t h e i r in s t itu ti o n s a r e :
G eo rge L e itm a n n , U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia a t B e r k e le y : Irv in g
C l i f f o r d ' s s p e e c h , "S econd T h o u g h ts on th e O m b u d s m a n
in H ig h er E d u c a t i o n , " w a s p r e s e n t e d in D e tr o it, M i c h . , on O c to ­
b e r 25, 1968. B laustein* s l e t t e r to C liffo rd i s d a te d N o v e m b e r 19,
1968.

117
DeKoff, C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y ; T h o m a s D a v is , U n i v e r s i t y of D e tr o it;
J a m e s R u s t, M ic h ig a n S ta te U n iv e r s it y ; N e ls o n N o r m a n , San D iego
State C o lle g e ; an d J . B e n to n W h ite, San J o s e S ta te C o lleg e .
T o f a c i l i t a t e c o m p a r i s o n s m u c h of th e s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n d a ta
e lic ite d f r o m t h e s e i n t e r v i e w s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n t a b l e s in A p p e n ­
dix C.

O t h e r p e r t i n e n t f a c t s w e r e p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r in th is c h a p te r .

A d d itio n a l p e r s p e c t i v e h a s b een g a in e d th ro u g h c o r r e s p o n d e n c e with
th e six o m b u d s m e n a n d a c c e s s to t h e i r r e p o r t s , w r i t i n g s and
speeches.

In a s s i m i l a t i n g and a n a ly z in g th is in f o r m a tio n , a few

g e n e r a liz e d o b s e r v a t i o n s h a v e b e e n m a d e r e g a r d i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s and
d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s in th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a c t i v i t i e s a n d a ttitu d e s of the
in te r v ie w e d o m b u d s m e n .

T h o se fin d in g s w ill now b e p r e s e n t e d .
C h a ra c te ristic s

S im ila ritie s
A ll s i x o m b u d s m e n h a v e s p e n t a c o n s i d e r a b l e len g th of
tim e a t t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s , ra n g in g f r o m s e v e n to tw e n ty -o n e y e a r s .
A ll but one h a v e h ad c o l le g e te a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e .
a c a r e e r ; one i s n e a r i n g r e t i r e m e n t .

N one i s b eg inn ing

N one h a s h a d le g a l t r a i n i n g o r

p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n in s tu d e n t p e r s o n n e l w o r k .

H o w e v e r, a l l

but one h a v e h a d e x p e r i e n c e in c o u n s e lin g s t u d e n t s .

F o u r o f th e six

have d o c t o r a l d e g r e e s , a n d th e s a m e h o ld s t r u e f o r te n u r e ^

118
D issim ila ritie s
T he s ix o m b u d s m e n r e p r e s e n t six d i v e r s e c a r e e r f ie ld s .
T h e i r a c a d e m ic ra n k r a n g e s f r o m a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r to fu ll p r o ­
fessor.
n ot.

T h r e e h av e been d e a n s o r a s s i s t a n t d e a n s and t h r e e have

One is a n o rd a in e d m i n i s t e r .
A c tiv itie s

S im il a r itie s
A ll s ix o m b u d s m e n w e r e ap p o in te d no e a r l i e r th a n S e p te m ­
b e r of 1967 an d none w e r e a s k e d to s e r v e t e r m s ex ten d in g beyond
tw o y e a r s .

A ll r e c e iv e c o m p la in ts f ro m s tu d e n ts and a l l b u t one

r e c e iv e m o s t of t h e i r c o m p la in ts fro m u n d e r g r a d u a t e s tu d e n ts , *
A ll but one c o n s i d e r n o n - a c a d e m i c a s w e ll a s a c a d e m ic c o m p la in ts .
A ll a r e f is c a lly a c c o u n ta b le to , and s u b m it p e r io d ic r e p o r t s w ith
re c o m m e n d a tio n s to, the o f f ic e r o r body w hich ap p o in ted th e m .

A ll

u s e f a c e - t o - f a c e c o n ta c t m o r e th a n an y o th e r f o r m of c o m m u n ic a tio n
in conducting t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s .

A ll h a v e a c c e s s to o fficial f ile s on

th e cam p u s, e x c e p t f o r c l a s s i f i e d g o v e rn m e n t r e s e a r c h an d h e a lth
and p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e c o r d s .

F o u r of th e s ix c o n s i d e r t h e i r own

r e c o r d s to be c o n fid e n tia l.

A ll r e p o r t e d c h a n g e s in in s titu tio n a l

^ L e itm a n n r e p o r t e d an e v e n d iv is io n b e tw e e n g r a d u a t e s t u ­
d e n ts and u n d e r g r a d u a t e s .

119
p o lic ie s and p r o c e d u r e s a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r in v e s tig a tio n s and
r e c o m m e n d a tio n s .

A ll b u t one h a v e t h e i r o f fic e s in b u ild in g s

s e p a r a t e fro m th e m a in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b u ild in g .

F o u r o f th e six

a r e c o n s id e r e d f u ll- tim e o m b u d s m e n an d h a v e a s e c r e t a r y .

For

a ll s ix , th e r a t e of c o m p la in ts r e c e iv e d h a s i n c r e a s e d d u r in g t h e i r
tim e in o ffic e.
v idu al c a s e s .

A ll but one h a v e r e s e r v a t i o n s ab o u t p u b lic iz in g i n d i­
A ll h ave ex c h an g e d id e a s an d in f o r m a tio n w ith o th e r

c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n .
D issim ila ritie s
F o u r of th e s ix o m b u d s m e n w e r e a p p o in te d by th e p r e s i d e n t
of t h e i r in s titu tio n , one by th e s tu d e n t g o v e r n m e n t and one by the
fa c u lty g o v e r n m e n t.

T h e r e i s s o m e e v id e n c e o f s tu d e n t a n d / o r

fac u lty s u p p o r t in th r e e o f th e f o u r p r e s i d e n t i a l a p p o in tm e n ts .
T h r e e o m b u d s m e n e x p e r ie n c e d a n i n c r e a s e in s a l a r y a n d / o r ra n k o r
s ta tu s w hen th e y w e r e a p p o in ted ; t h r e e did n o t.
a r e te a c h in g p a r t - t i m e and t h r e e a r e not.

T h ree om budsm en

The a v e ra g e n u m b er of

c o m p la in ts h a n d le d p e r w ee k v a r i e s f r o m f e w e r th a n six a t B e r k e le y
to tw e n ty - s e v e n a t M ic h ig an S tate .

T h e r e i s n o a g r e e m e n t on how

the o m b u d s m a n should p r o c e e d if a s o lu tio n c a n n o t be found fo r a
valid c o m p la in t.

T h r e e h a v e found s tu d e n t p e r s o n n e l w o r k e r s on

th e ir c a m p u s e s to be c o o p e ra tiv e ; tw o h a v e n ot; one i s u n c e r t a in .

120
T h e r e i s m u c h v a r i a t i o n in th e e x te n t to w hich t h e i r r e p o r t s a r e
c irc u la te d .
A ttitu d e s
S im il a r itie s
A ll s ix o m b u d sm e n s e e th e m s e l v e s a s a u x i lia r y to , not
r e p la c e m e n ts fo r, e x is tin g c a m p u s f u n c tio n a r ie s .

A ll bu t one b e ­

lie v e th a t t h e i r a c tiv i tie s h a v e h e lp e d a l le v i a te s tu d e n t f r u s t r a t i o n
and h o s tility .

A ll view th e c h ie f a d m i n i s t r a t o r of the in s titu tio n a s

the student* s h ig h e s t a p p e a l to a u th o r ity .

A ll c o n s id e r good r e l a ­

tio n s h ip s w ith s tu d e n ts a s a p r i m e q u a lific a tio n f o r th e p o sitio n .
A ll but oqe r e c o m m e n d a t w o - y e a r m a x im u m t e r m of o ffic e fo r th e
c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n .

F o u r b e lie v e t h e i r office w ill be in e x is te n c e

ten y e a r s h e n c e ; tw o a r e u n c e r ta in .
D issim ila ritie s
T h r e e of th e in te rv ie w e d o m b u d sm e n c o n s id e r t h e i r b u d g e ts
and f a c i l i t i e s a d e q u a te ; t h r e e do n o t.
co n flict; t h r e e h a v e not.

T h r e e h a v e e x p e r ie n c e d r o le

T h r e e think of t h e m s e l v e s a s a p a r t o f th e

" E s ta b lis h m e n t" ; t h r e e do not.

T h re e fav o r a p ro fe ssio n a l o rg a n i­

zatio n of c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n ; t h r e e do n o t.

T h e r e i s a l s o no a g r e e ­

m e n t on how the o ffic e of o m b u d s m a n d if f e r s f r o m o th e r o ffic es on

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the c a m p u s .

R u s t s t r e s s e s th e o m b u d s m a n 's g r e a t e r sc o p e and

pow er of in v e s tig a tio n ; L e itm a n n e m p h a s i z e s h is in d e p e n d e n c e ;
W hite p o in ts to h is p e r s o n a liz e d c o n c e r n ; D a v is b e lie v e s th e o m ­
b u d sm a n sho uld no t b e d i f f e r e n t - - t h a t i s , a l l fa c u lty and a d m i n i s ­
t r a t o r s sh o u ld s t r i v e to p e r f o r m a s o m b u d sm e n .
C o n c lu sio n
A ll six ca m p u s o m b u d sm e n g e n e r a l l y a g r e e th a t they h av e
a tw o -fo ld r e s p o n s ib ility ;

( 1 ) to h e lp in d iv id u a ls so lv e t h e i r i n s t i ­

tu tio n al p r o b le m s , and (2 ) to s e e k in s titu tio n a l c h a n g e s th a t w ill
re d u c e in d iv id u a l p r o b le m s .
tive and p r e v e n tiv e a c tiv i tie s .

T h e s e m a y be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s p a l l i a ­
O p e r a tio n a l s t y l e s d if f e r a c c o r d in g

to w hich p o rtio n o f th is r e s p o n s i b ilit y t a k e s p r i o r i t y in th e m in d of
the o m b u d sm a n .

T h r e e of th o s e i n t e r v i e w e d - - L e itm a n n , N o rm a n

and R u s t - - s e e m to le a n to w a rd th e p a llia tiv e a p p r o a c h .

T h ey a r e

in clin ed to r e a c t to c o m p la in ts a s th e y a r i s e and to m a k e r e c o m ­
m e n d a tio n s fo r r e p a i r i n g r a t h e r th an r e s t r u c t u r i n g in s titu tio n a l p r o ­
c e d u re s . * T he o th e r t h r e e - - D a v i s , D eK off and W h i t e - - r e g a r d
*R ust h a s m a in ta in e d th a t s o - c a l l e d m in o r g r i e v a n c e s can
b re a k th e m o r a l e o f in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts and s p r e a d th is b re a k d o w n
thro ug ho ut a s tu d e n t body. He b e l ie v e s th a t m o r e a tte n tio n can be
devoted to th e " l a r g e r th in g s " i f so m e b o d y c a n be found to c o r r e c t
the " li ttle t h i n g s " - - a n d th a t i s th e r o l e of th e o m b u d sm a n . D i s c u s ­
sion n o te s , m e e tin g on o m b u d sm a n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , D e tr o it,
Mich. , O c to b e r 25, 1968. T he follow ing d a y a t th e s a m e m e e tin g

122
th e m s e l v e s a s " c h a n g e a g e n ts " and t h e i r a c tio n s a s c a ta ly tic in
b rin g in g ab o u t s t r u c t u r a l a l t e r a t i o n s .

1

T hey a r e m o r e lik e ly to

seek out g r i e v a n c e s r a t h e r th a n w a it f o r in d iv id u a l p r o b le m s to
com e to th e m .

It sh ould be no ted th a t th e s e a r e d is tin c tio n s in

d e g r e e , not in kind.

N o n e th e le s s , th e l a t t e r " a c t i v i s t " e m p h a s is

is f a r t h e r r e m o v e d fro m th e c iv il o m b u d s m a n m o d e l th a n the
fo rm er.
D e s p ite th e s e d if f e r e n c e s in r o le p e r c e p tio n , it is a l s o
a p p a re n t th a t a l l s ix o m b u d sm e n a r e g e n e r a lly c a u tio u s in t h e i r
p r o c e d u r e s , w o rk in g a s q u ie tly a s p o s s ib le to a r r i v e a t f a ir an d
r e a s o n a b le a d ju s tm e n ts to d iffic u lt h u m a n r e la t i o n s p r o b le m s .
U n su re of t h e i r a u th o r ity and w ith l i t t l e p r e c e d e n t to g uide th e m ,
they a r e t e s t i n g v a r io u s p e r s u a s i v e a p p r o a c h e s and e v a lu a tin g
L e itm a n n sa id : " I 1 m going to confine m y s e l f to w hat I think I c a n
do, n a m e ly h e lp the in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t w ith h i s in d iv id u a l p r o b le m . "
N o rm a n r e c e n t l y m a d e th is a s s e r t i o n : " A t l e a s t two O m b u d s m e n
we know r e f u s e to ta k e an y d i r e c t p a r t in c o n fro n ta tio n p r o c e e d in g s .
We s h a r e t h e i r b e lie f th a t o u r r o le i s p r i m a r i l y to h e lp s tu d e n ts
solve t h e i r in d iv id u a l p r o b le m s b e f o r e th e y expand to g ro u p s i z e
or e s c a l a t e to e x t r a - p r o c e d u r a l a c tio n . " N elso n F . N o rm a n , T h e
O m bu d sm an : A New B ird on C a m p u s , San D iego S ta te C o lleg e ,
undated, p. 1 1 .
*DeKoff h a s s u g g e s te d th a t a c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n m a y
p r e c ip ita te c o n fro n ta tio n . He added: "I in te n d to a c t a s a c a ta l y s t,
not a s so m e b o d y who p o u r s o il on tr o u b le d w a t e r s . I ' m a tte m p tin g
to c r e a t e s itu a tio n s th a t a r e lying d o r m a n t and n ee d s o m e u p h e a v ­
al. . . . " D is c u s s io n n o te s , m e e tin g on o m b u d s m a n in h ig h e r
education, D e tr o it, M ic h ., O c to b e r 25, 1968.

123
r e s u l t s . * T h ey r e c o g n iz e th a t th e s u c c e s s of t h e i r a c tiv i tie s r e s t s
h e a v ily on t h e i r own p r e s t i g e , p e r s o n a l i t y and p e r s u a s i v e p o w e r.
Although th e y c a n r e s o r t to t h e i r u ltim a te w e a p o n - - a p p e a l to th e
p r e s i d e n t - - t h e y w is e ly p r e f e r to hold i t in r e s e r v e u n til e v e ry th in g
e ls e h a s fa ile d .

T h ey r e a l i z e th a t too m u c h " ru n n in g to the p r e s i ­

dent" w ill w e a k e n r a t h e r th a n s tr e n g t h e n t h e i r s e m i- in d e p e n d e n t
p o s itio n s .

A n o th e r f a c to r w h ich cannot be ig n o re d i s th a t a t l e a s t

four of the s ix a r e s t i l l b u ild in g t h e i r c a r e e r s and t h e r e f o r e h o pe to
avoid c o s tly m i s t a k e s in a r o le w hich a f f o r d s th e m a g r e a t d e a l of
v is ib ility .
A ll s ix would u n d o u b te d ly a g r e e th a t A n d e r s o n 's w a r n in g
about the. c iv il o m b u d s m a n a p p lie s e q u a lly to th e m :

"A m o n g the

o m b u d s m a n 's w o r s t e n e m i e s a r e s o m e o f h is b e s t f r ie n d s : th o s e
who e x p e c t to o m u c h of h im . "

2

D eK off h a s a d v is e d new c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n not to b e c o m e
sty liz e d too so o n. "We a l l d o n ' t r e a l l y know w hat i t m e a n s y e t, "
he d e c la r e d . D is c u s s io n n o te s , m e e tin g on o m b u d s m a n in h i g h e r
ed ucatio n, D e tr o it, M i c h ., O c to b e r 25, 1968.
2
p. 155.

A n d e rs o n , O m b u d sm e n fo r A m e ric a n G o v e rn m e n t? ,

r
C H A P T E R IV
THE CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN:
A STUDENT EVALUATION

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a c t i v i t i e s and a t titu d e s of the c a m p u s
o m b u d sm a n w e r e d e s c r i b e d in th e fin al p o rtio n o f th e p r e v io u s
c h a p te r .

In fo r m a tio n w a s o b ta in e d fro m p e r s o n s who have a s s u m e d

th a t ro le a t s ix in s titu tio n s of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .

A n o th e r d im e n s io n

w ill now be add ed to th e stu d y th ro u g h an a n a l y s i s o f a s u r v e y of
stu d e n ts w ho h av e c o n s u lte d a c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n .
M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s it y and i t s o m b u d sm a n , J a m e s R u st,
w e re s e le c te d fo r t h i s p h a s e of th e in v e s tig a tio n f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s .
F i r s t , w ith a n e n r o llm e n t a p p ro a c h in g 40, 000, M ich ig an S tate i s one
of the l a r g e s t u n i v e r s i t i e s in th e n a t i o n - - a " m u l tiv e r s it y " o f fifteen
s e p a r a te s c h o o ls and c o lle g e s w ith d i v e r s e , e v e n conflicting,
i n t e r e s t s . * P r o b l e m s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e im b a la n c e b etw een the
o rg a n iz a tio n and the in d iv id u a l a r e p r e v a le n t on t h i s sp ra w lin g
^D uncan N o r t o n - T a y l o r , "M e g a v e rsity * s S tru gg le w ith
I t s e l f , " F o r tu n e , M ay, 1967, pp. 161-65.

124

125
ca m p u s, w h ic h h a s b e e n th e sc e n e of a n t i - “E s ta b lis h m e n t"
d e m o n s tr a tio n s by d is s id e n t s tu d e n ts .

Secondly, M ic h ig a n S tate

w as one o f th e f i r s t in s t i t u t i o n s of h i g h e r e d u c a tio n to e s t a b l i s h an
office of o m b u d sm a n .

T h e p o sitio n w a s s u p p o rte d b y a l l p r i m a r y

pow er g r o u p s on the c a m p u s , in clu ding top a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t r u s t e e s ,
and s tu d e n t and facu lty l e a d e r s .

A n o th e r r e a s o n f o r the s e le c tio n is

that M ic h ig an S t a t e 's o m b u d s m a n h a s b e e n in o ffic e lo n g e r th a n any
o th e r o m b u d sm a n a t a m a j o r u n iv e r s i ty .

He h a n d le s a w id e v a r ie ty

of stu d e n t c o m p la in ts and k e e p s c u m u la tiv e r e c o r d s .

F in a lly , as

was in d ic a te d in th e p r e v io u s c h a p te r , o th e r c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s
a r e m o d e lin g o r m a y m o d e l t h e i r c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n o p e r a tio n on
the M ic h ig an S tate plan.

1

A to ta l of 525 p e r s o n s c o n s u lte d the M ic h ig a n S ta te o m b u d s ­
m an d u r in g th e 1967-68 a c a d e m ic y e a r , h is f i r s t y e a r in o ffic e,
followed by 305 d u rin g th e 1968 fall t e r m .

F o r r e a s o n s g iv e n in the

firs t c h a p te r , the l a t t e r g r o u p w as c h o s e n fo r a m a ile d q u e s tio n n a i r e
su rv e y co nducted d u rin g th e 1969 w in te r t e r m .

T h e n u m b e r of q u e s ­

tio n n a ir e s s e n t w as r e d u c e d to 288 b e c a u s e six o f th e 305/fh d iv id u a ls
w ere not c u r r e n t l y e n r o lle d s tu d e n ts w h en they c o n s u lte d t h e o m b u d s ­
man and a d d r e s s e s could no t be o b ta in e d fo r e le v e n o th e r s .
1 A m ong

Two

th e m a r e San Diego S ta te C o lleg e and G e o r g e W a s h ­
ington U n iv e r s ity . R u st h a s a n s w e re d r e q u e s ts f o r in f o r m a tio n about
his office fro m s c o r e s of in s titu tio n s .

126
w ee k s a f te r th e f i r s t m a ilin g , a se c o n d copy of the q u e s tio n n a i r e
w as s e n t to th o s e who h a d not r e s p o n d e d .

O f the 288 s tu d e n ts

involved, 218 r e t u r n e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s fo r a 75.

6

p e r ce n t r e s p o n s e .

L e t t e r s in c lu d e d in both m a ilin g s and the q u e s tio n n a i r e a r e r e p r o ­
duced in A ppendix E and A ppendix F .
B e f o r e s u r v e y fin d in g s a r e p r e s e n t e d , s o m e a tte n tio n is
given to th e in s t itu ti o n a l s e ttin g an d o p e r a tio n a l p r o c e d u r e s of the
M ichigan S ta te o m b u d sm a n .

In th e th ir d s e c tio n , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of s tu d e n ts w h o c o n su lted the o m b u d s m a n d u r in g th e 1968 f a ll t e r m
a r e d e s c r ib e d .

E x p e r ie n c e s of th o s e s tu d e n ts in c o n s u ltin g th e

o m b u d sm an a r e r e v ie w e d in th e fo u rth s e c tio n .

A ttitu d e s r e l a t e d to

th ose e x p e r i e n c e s a r e a n a ly z e d in the fifth s e c tio n .
and c o m m e n ts a r e cited in th e s ix th s e c tio n .

A few c a s e s

The fin a l s e c tio n i s a

s u m m a r y of s u r v e y fin d in g s.
I n s titu tio n a l S etting
F o u n d ed in 1855 a s th e nation* s p io n e e r l a n d - g r a n t c o lle g e ,
M ichigan S ta te U n iv e r s ity h a s b e e n a p a r t of the n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t
to m a k e h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a v a ila b le to a ll a b l e s tu d e n ts . * D u rin g
1M uch of the in f o r m a tio n in th is s e c tio n c a m e f r o m two
p u b licatio n s: M ic h ig a n State: P r o f i l e of a U n i v e r s i t y , b r o c h u r e
p r e p a r e d by U n iv e r s it y E ditor* s O ffice, M ic h ig an S tate U n iv e r s it y ,
undated; and M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s ity : C a ta lo g of C o u r s e s an d
A cad em ic P r o g r a m s , M ic h ig an S tate U n iv e r s it y P u b lic a tio n , LXIII
(D e ce m b er, 1968).

127
m o s t of i t s h i s t o r y , the institution* s e d u c a tio n a l and r e s e a r c h p r o ­
g r a m s w e r e c o n c e n tr a te d on a g r i c u l t u r e .

A lthough th is e m p h a s is

h a s now s p r e a d to o th e r f ie ld s , the u n iv e r s i ty s t i l l h a s no law
sc h o o l o r t e r m i n a l - d e g r e e m e d ic a l sch o o l.

1

In r e c e n t y e a r s ,

thro ug h w id e s p r e a d in te r n a tio n a l p r o g r a m s , M ic h ig an S tate h a s
h elped found u n i v e r s i t i e s and h a s p ro m o te d e d u c a tio n a l and a g r i ­
c u ltu ra l i m p r o v e m e n ts in a n u m b e r of f o re ig n c o u n tr ie s .
T h e m a in c a m p u s a t E a s t L a n sin g h a s b e e n so g r e a t l y e n ­
la rg e d to a c c o m m o d a te in c r e a s i n g e n r o l l m e n t s th a t b us s e r v i c e ,
once a c o n v e n ie n c e , i s now a n e c e s s ity .

O ld - s ty le c l a s s r o o m b u ild ­

ings r e m i n i s c e n t of the " a g sc h o o l" e r a a r e s t i l l sta n d in g , alth o u g h
la r g e m o d e r n l a b o r a t o r i e s and c l a s s r o o m - o f f ic e c o m p le x e s a r e p r e ­
d om inant.

Som e 2 0 ,0 0 0 s t u d e n t s - - m o r e th a n h a lf the to ta l e n r o l l ­

m e n t - - r e s i d e in u n iv e r s ity - o w n e d living u n its .

T hey c o m p r i s e one

of the l a r g e s t c a m p u s r e s i d e n t p o p u latio n s in th e w o rld .

M o st of the

r e s id e n c e h a l l s f o r u n m a r r i e d s tu d e n ts a r e huge h i g h - r i s e s t r u c t u r e s .
A p a r tm e n ts fo r m a r r i e d s tu d e n ts a r e c l u s t e r e d in t h r e e " v i l l a g e s . "
S tu d e n ts a r e e n r o lle d fro m e v e r y county in M ic h ig an , e v e r y
s ta te in th e n a tio n and m o r e than s e v e n ty - fiv e fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s .
As th e r e s u l t of a co n tin u o u s r e c r u i t i n g ca m p a ig n , one of th e l a r g e s t
1T he C o lleg e of H u m an M ed icine p r e s e n t l y p r o v id e s a p r o ­
g r a m of s tu d y w h ich p r e p a r e s s tu d e n ts fo r e n t r a n c e a t the ju n io r
lev el to m e d ic a l s c h o o ls o ffe rin g the D o c to r of M e d icin e d e g r e e .

128
g ro u p s of N a tio n a l M e r it S c h o la rs in the n a tio n i s found a t M ic h ig a n
State.

A r e c e n t s tu d y r e v e a le d th a t the i n s t i t u t i o n 's f r e s h m e n in

1967 w e r e m o r e in te llig e n t and m o r e a m b itio u s e d u c a tio n a lly th an
the f r e s h m e n in 1958. *
In a d d itio n to s o m e 1, 600 te a c h in g facu lty m e m b e r s , the
u n iv e r s i ty h a s m o r e th a n 400 r e s e a r c h p r o f e s s o r s , n e a r l y 300
e x te n sio n w o r k e r s and a b o u t 375 a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

It i s am o n g the

top tw en ty in s titu tio n s in th e U n ited S ta te s in the n u m b e r of d o c to r a l
d e g r e e s a w a rd e d a n n u a lly .

M ic h ig an S tate i s a m e m b e r o f the B ig

Ten s c h o la s t ic and a th le tic c o n fe re n c e .
In n o v atio n s in r e c e n t y e a r s in c lu d e n u m e r o u s in s titu tio n a l
r e s e a r c h , e v a lu a tio n and d e v e lo p m e n t p r o g r a m s , liv in g - l e a r n in g
c e n te r s , an H o n o rs C o lleg e, t h r e e r e s i d e n t i a l l i b e r a l a r t s c o lle g e s ,
a s e p a r a t e s m a l l u n iv e r s i ty (O akland), and c u r r ic u lu m r e v is i o n s .
A lthough th e t r u s t e e s and a d m in is t r a tio n h av e tr a d it io n a l ly
e x e r c is e d m u c h of th e d e c is io n - m a k in g p o w e r in th e in s titu tio n ,
m o re a u th o r ity i s being a s s u m e d by fa c u lty and s tu d e n ts th ro u g h th e
A ca d em ic C o u n c il and A s s o c ia te d S tu d e n ts.

A n u m b e r of c h a n n e ls

a r e open to s tu d e n ts fo r so lv in g p r o b le m s r e l a t e d to the in s titu tio n .
R e b e c c a N ie te r t, " F r e s h m e n Found B r i g h t e r T h an P r e d e ­
c e s s o r s , " M ichi^an_State_2iew s, J a n u a r y 16, 1969, p. 14. T h is
c o m p a ra tiv e stu d y w a s co n du cted b y I r v in J . L eh m an n and W a lk e r H.
H ill th ro u g h th e O ffice o f E v a lu a tio n S e r v ic e s .

129
E ac h c o lle g e m a in ta in s an a c a d e m ic s tu d e n t a f f a i r s o ffic e.
u n its and r e s id e n c e h a l l s h a v e a d v i s e r s .

A c a d e m ic

The u n i v e r s i t y m a in ta in s

o ffic es fo r a d m i s s i o n s , s c h o l a r s h i p s , f in a n c ia l a id s , co u n se lin g ,
p la c e m e n t and r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s .

T h ro u g h th e A s s o c ia te d S tu d en ts,

le g al c o u n s e l i s m a d e a v a ila b le to s tu d e n ts .

In a d d itio n , t h e r e a r e

stu d e n t s e r v i c e o r g a n iz a tio n s , a H e a lth C e n te r and a V e te r a n s
G uidance C e n te r ,

T h e A c a d e m ic F r e e d o m R e p o r t w hich e s ta b lis h e d

the office of o m b u d s m a n a ls o c r e a t e d a s tu d e n t- f a c u lty j u d i c i a r y to
c o n s id e r c a s e s and a p p e a ls in vo lv ing d i s c i p l i n a r y a c tio n a g a in s t
stu d e n ts . * T h e c a m p u s n e w s p a p e r p r o v id e s a s e r v i c e c a lle d
" S p a r ta c u s s " w hich a n s w e r s s tu d e n t q u e s tio n s and in v e s tig a te s s t u ­
dent c o m p la in ts .
O p e r a tio n a l P r o c e d u r e s
A lthough th e A c a d e m ic F r e e d o m R e p o rt g iv e s th e M ich ig an
State o m b u d sm a n " b r o a d in v e s tig a to r y p o w e rs and d i r e c t and r e a d y
a c c e s s to a l l U n iv e r s ity o f f i c i a l s ,

11

i t d o e s not e x p lic itly d efin e h is

r e s p o n s i b ilit ie s o r p r e s c r i b e h is p r o c e d u r e s .

A c c o rd in g to Jo h n

R einoehl, c h a ir m a n o f the F a c u lty C o m m itte e on Student A f f a ir s ,
the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w e r e p u r p o s e ly le ft v ague b e c a u s e th e a u th o r s
felt " th a t the in d iv id u a l h i m s e l f w ould h a v e to m a k e th e jo b; to
1 A c a d e m ic

s it y , pp. 16-19.

F r e e d o m f o r S tu d en ts a t M ic h ig a n S tate U n i v e r ­

130
d e s c r i b e it w ould c i r c u m s c r i b e it. "

The o m b u d sm a n , he added,

w as n ot d e s ig n e d to be a g lo r if ie d c o u n s e lo r but m o r e of a " s u p e r a c a d e m ic -a s s is ta n t dean.

1,1

D u rin g Rust* s f i r s t y e a r a s o m b u d sm a n , h e fre q u e n tly
r e f e r r e d to h i m s e l f not in th o s e t e r m s b ut r a t h e r a s " a kind of
tr a f f ic cop, te llin g s tu d e n ts w hich p eop le to s e e and w h a t p r o c e d u r e s
to follow . "

2

H e l a t e r e x p r e s s e d r e g r e t o v e r hav in g u s e d th a t " u n -

fo rtu n a te m e ta p h o r "

3

and s u m m a r i z e d h is p r o c e d u r e s in h an d lin g

each c o m p la in t a s one o r m o r e of th e follow ing a c tiv i tie s :

(1) ad v is­

ing, (2) e x p la in in g , (3) r e f e r r i n g , (4) re v ie w in g , and (5) taking
d ir e c t a c tio n .

In a l l c a s e s , he t r i e s to be a c a r e f u l and i n t e r e s t e d

lis te n e r , f
F ro m th e b eg in ning , R u s t h a s a tte m p te d to m o d e l h is office
on that o f th e c iv il o m b u d sm a n in D e n m a rk , m a k in g n e c e s s a r y
1B e v e r ly T w itc h e ll, " A c a d e m ic F r e e d o m R e p o r t Swings
Into E ffe c t, " M ic h ig a n S tate NewB, S e p te m b e r , 1967, p. 10.
2

" F i r s t U n iv e r s it y O m b u d sm a n , " P hi D e lta K a p p a n , XL.IX
(N ov em ber, 1967), 142.
3

R u st, p r iv a te in te rv ie w h e ld a t M ich ig an S tate U n iv e r s ity ,
D e c e m b e r 12, 1968.
4

U n titled , u n d a te d m im e o g r a p h e d s ta te m e n t p r e p a r e d by
Rust, M ic h ig an S tate U n iv e r s ity ( r e v is e d in J a n u a r y , 1969), pp. 7 -8 .
In a p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a tio n , RuBt add ed th e p r o c e d u r e of " ta k in g d i r e c t
a c tio n . 11

131
a d ju s tm e n ts to fit th e u n i v e r s i t y s itu a tio n .

He h a s k ep t h is p r o c e ­

d u r e s s im p le and d i r e c t , a s k in g th e s tu d e n t to p r o v id e only a few
ite m s of b a s i c in f o r m a tio n in w r itin g about h i m s e l f and h is c o m p la in t
p r i o r to a p r iv a te c o n s u lta tio n .
Appendix D.

A copy of th e f o r m u se d a p p e a r s in

D u rin g o r i m m e d ia te l y a f t e r the in te rv ie w , R u s t

r e c o r d s h i s i m p r e s s i o n s and l a t e r in d ic a t e s in w r itin g how th e p r o b ­
lem w a s h a n d le d .
p ro b le m .

A s e p a r a t e file i s m a in ta in e d f o r each s tu d e n t-

C a s e s a r e c l a s s i f ie d by type o f c o m p la in t fo r fu tu re

r e f e r e n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r r e p o r t s to the u n i v e r s i t y p r e s id e n t.
The two b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s a r e " a c a d e m ic " and " n o n - a c a d e m ic " with
s e v e r a l s u b - d iv is io n s u n d e r e a c h .

R e c o r d s and r e p o r t s a r e k ep t

confidential... .If th e r e s o lu t io n of a p r o b le m is p ro lo n g e d , th e
o m b u d sm a n a t te m p ts to k e e p th e s tu d e n t p o ste d on d e v e lo p m e n ts.
In r e f e r r a l c a s e s , h e a s k s th e s tu d e n t to r e p o r t r e s u l t s .

Not a l l of

the o m b u d s m a n 's b u s in e s s c o m e s fro m p e r s o n a l v i s i t s .

He a l s o

h an d le s c o m p la in ts co n v ey ed by te le p h o n e and l e t t e r .

He d o e s not

conduct in v e s tig a tio n s on h is own in itia tiv e .
In a tte m p tin g to r e d r e s s s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s , R ust r e l i e s
h ea v ily on r e a s o n and p e r s u a s i o n a p p lie d th ro u g h te lep h o n e c o n v e r ­
sa tio n s and p e r s o n a l c a l l s .
le tte rs.

O c c a s io n a lly , h e s e n d s m e m o s and

W hen h e can no t g e t c o o p e ra tio n fro m one in d iv id u al, h e

m ay tu r n to th a t person* s o r g a n iz a tio n a l s u p e r i o r .

U ltim a te ly , h e

132
m a y ta k e a c a s e to th e p r e s i d e n t , alth o u g h he h a s r a r e l y c h o sen t h i s
" la s t r e s o r t " m e a s u r e .
In h i s f i r s t r e p o r t to the p r e s i d e n t , R u s t o b s e r v e d th at
s ta tin g h is v ie w s on a m a t t e r to the p e r s o n c o n c e rn e d " i s th e c h ie f
s o u r c e of the O m b u d s m a n 's p o w e r . " On th e u n iv e r s i ty s c e n e , R u s t
h a s i n t e r p r e t e d th is p o w e r to m e a n " th a t th e b e s t w ay f o r an O m b u d s ­
m a n to o p e r a t e i s q u ie tly , p e r s u a s i v e l y , behind th e s c e n e s .

1,1

He

r e g a r d s h is p r o c e d u r e s to be c o m p a r a b le to th o s e of both a m e d i a t o r
and an a d v o c a te :

"I s e e k e x p la n a tio n s of th e s t u d e n t 's p r e d ic a m e n t

and a tte m p t to p e r s u a d e p eo p le to h elp s o lv e o r c l a r if y i t , " he h a s
w ritte n . ^
M o r e in f o rm a tio n r e g a r d i n g p r o c e d u r e s of the M ic h ig an
State o m b u d sm a n a p p e a r s in C h a p te r III an d A ppendix C.
" T h e R e p o rt of the U n iv e r s it y O m b u d sm a n to th e P r e s i d e n t
for the School Y e a r, 1967-68, " u n d ated , u n sig n e d , M ic h ig an S tate
U n iv e rs ity , p. 2.
2

I b i d ., p. 3. R e co g n iz in g th e u n u s u a l p r o c e d u r e s r e q u ir e d
in s e rv in g e f f e c tiv e ly a s a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n . P r e s i d e n t Jo h n
Hannah m a d e th is s ta te m e n t w hen he ap p o in te d R u s t to th e po sitio n :
"T he O m b u d sm a n w ill be c h a r g e d w ith r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s u n c o m m o n in
A m e ric a n u n i v e r s i t i e s , o r in d e e d in u n i v e r s i t i e s a n y w h e re . " See
"MSU A p po in ts D ean A s F i r s t O m b u d s m a n ," A m e r ic a n School and
U n iv e r s ity , O c to b e r, 1967, p. 58, H an n ah a ls o h a s ack n o w led g ed
that the o m b u d sm a n a s s ig n m e n t " w ill c a l l fo r th e e x e r c i s e of g r e a t
p atien ce, u n d e r s ta n d in g , and p e r s u a s i o n . " The P r e s i d e n t ' s R e p o rt
of P r o g r e s s , 1 9 6 6 -6 7 , M ic h ig an State U n iv e r s it y P u b lic a tio n , LXII
(N ovem ber, 1967), 6 .

TABLE I

COLLEGE DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS WHO CONSULTED CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN COMPARED WITH ALL STUDENTS
ENROLLED AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY. FALL TERM. I968a

0)
School or college

(2)
Number of
students
who
consulted
ombudsman

(3)
Percentage
of total
students
who
consulted
ombudsman

(4)
Number of
students
enrolled

(5)
Percentage
of total
university
enrollment

(6)
Difference
between
percentages
(column 3
minus 5)

(7)
Number of
students
"expected"
to consult
ombudsman
based on
college
size*1

(8)
Difference
between
actual and
"expected"
number of
students to
consult
ombudsman
(column 2
minus 7)

.1

19

0

+ 9.0

33

427

.1

3

0

9.8

- 2.8

29

• 8

1,940

4.9

4

.8

15

4

6.7

6,264

15.7

- 9.0

47

-27

10

3.3

2,380

6.0

- 2.7

18

- 8

Home Economics

6

2.0

1,478

3.7

- 1.7

11

- 5

James Madison

0

0

422

1.1

* 1.1

3

- 3

Human Medicine

1

.3

92

.2

.1

0

4

-

Agriculture

19

6.4

2,603

6.5

Arts and Letters

60

20.1

4,422

11.1

3

1.0

423

1.1

-

Business

21

7.0

3,900

Communication Arts

17

5.7

Education

20

Engineering

Lyman Briggs

4

2

1

r

TABLE 1—Continued

(I)
School or college

(2)
Number of
students
who
consulted
ombudsman

(3)
Percentage
of total
students
who
consulted
ombudsman

(4)
Number of
students
enrolled

(5)
Percentage
of total
university
enrollment

(6)
Difference
between
percentages
(column 3
minus 5)

(7)
Number of
students
"expected"
to consult
ombudsman
based on
college
size**

(8)
Difference
between
actual and
"expected"
number of
students to
consult
ombudsman
(column 2
minus 7)

.8

7

+ 2

3.0

881

2.2

Natural Science

21

7 .0

4,822

12.1

- 5.1

36

-15

Social Science

50

16.7

5,441

13.6

+ 3.1

41

+ 9

0

0

866

2.2

- 2.2

7

- 7

62

20.7

4,015

10.1

+10.6

30

+32

39,949

100.3C

Veterinary Medicine
University College
(includes no preference
and unclassified)
Total
a

299

9 9 .9C

+

—

299

—

In credit programs on East Lansing campus.

^"Expected" number was computed by multiplying percentage in column 5 tim es 299, the total number of students who
consulted the ombudsman. Obtained figure was rounded to nearest whole number.

c

Does not total 100 because of rounding.

134

9

Justin Morrill

135
t

Student C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
D u rin g th e 1968 f a ll t e r m , a t th e b egin n ing of R u s t ' s se co n d
y e a r a s M ic h ig an S t a t e 's o m b u d s m a n , 305 p e r s o n s c o n s u lte d h im
about a d i v e r s i t y o f p r o b le m s .

O f th is n u m b e r , 299 w e r e c u r r e n t l y

e n r o lle d s tu d e n ts , fo u r w e r e f o r m e r s tu d e n ts , and tw o w e r e r e l a t i v e s
of s tu d e n ts .

The co lleg e d is t r ib u t io n of the 299 s tu d e n ts by n u m b e r

and p e r c e n ta g e i s p r e s e n te d in T a b le 1.

T he p e r c e n t a g e s a r e th e n

c o m p a r e d w ith c o lle g e p e r c e n t a g e s fo r th e t o t a l u n i v e r s i t y e n r o l l ­
m e n t.

The fin al c o lu m n s show th a t s tu d e n ts f r o m A r t s and L e t t e r s

and U n iv e r s it y C o lleg e w e r e c o n s id e r a b ly " o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d " in the
o m b u d s m a n 1 s office w hile s tu d e n ts f r o m E d u c a tio n an d N a tu r a l
«

S cience w e r e c o n s id e r a b ly " u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d . " A pplying the
P e a r s o n " G o o d n e s s - o f - F it" T e s t f o r c o m p a r in g s a m p le and p o p u la ­
tion d is t r ib u t io n s to th e s e f ig u r e s y ie ld s a Chi S q u are o f 99. 3, s i g ­
n ifica n t a t th e . 0 1 le v e l.

T h u s, th e h y p o th e s is that th e c o lleg e

d is tr ib u tio n of s tu d e n ts who c o n s u lte d th e o m b u d sm a n w a s the s a m e
a s th e c o lle g e d is tr ib u tio n of a l l u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n ts i s r e j e c t e d .

1

D if f e r e n c e s a l s o a r e a p p a r e n t w hen s tu d e n ts w ho c o n s u lte d
the c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n a r e s e p a r a t e d by c l a s s ra n k .

A m ong th e 144

1T h e P e a r s o n " G o o d n e s s - o f - F i t " T e s t i s d e s c r i b e d in
W illia m L, H a y s, S ta ti s tic s f o r P s y c h o lo g i s ts (New Y o rk : H o lt,
R in e h a rt and W in sto n , 1963), pp. 5 8 0 -8 4 .

TABLE 2

CLASS DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS WHO CONSULTED CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN REGARDING ACADEMIC PROBLEMS
COMPARED WITH ALL STUDENTS ENROLLED AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY. FALL TERM. 1968a

(1)
Class rank

(2)
Number of
students
who
consulted
ombudsman

(3)
Percentage
of total
students
who
consulted
ombudsman

(4) ‘
Number of
students
enrolled

(5)
Percentage
of total
university
enrollment

(6)
Difference
between
percentages
(column 3
minus 5)

(7)
Number of
students
"expected"
to consult
ombudsman
based on
class size

(8)
Difference
between
actual and
"expected"
number of
students to
consult
ombudsman
(column 2
minus 7)

Freshman

13

9.0

9,670

24.2

-15.2

35

-22

Sophomore

31

21.5

7,618

19.1

+ 2.4

27

+ 4

Junior

42

29.2

7,758

19.4

+ 9.8

28

+14

Senior

49

34.0

6,954

17.4

+16.6

25

+24

Graduate

7

4.9

7,668

19.2

-14.3

28

-21

Special

2

1.4

281

.7

1

+ 1

144

100.0

39,949

100.0

Total

+

.7
—

144
•

£

In credit programs on East Lansing campus.

Since the ombudsman handles problems separately, in this tabulation a student was counted once for each
problem he presented. Thus, one student with two problems is treated the same as two students with one problem
each.
°"Expected" number was computed by multiplying percentage in column 5 times 144, the total number of stu­
dents who consulted the ombudsman regarding academic problems. Obtained figure was rounded to nearest whole
number.

TABLE 3

CLASS DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS WHO CONSULTED CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN REGARDING NON-ACADEMIC
PROBLEMS COMPARED WITH ALL STUDENTS ENROLLED AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY, FALL TERM, 1958

(1)
Class rank

(2)
Number of
students
who
consulted ^
ombudsman

(3)
Percentage
of total
students
who
consulted
ombudsman

(4)
Number of
students
enrolled

(5)
Percentage
of total
university
enrollment

(6)
Difference
between
percentages
(column 3
minus 5)

(7)
Number of
students
"expected"
to consult
ombudsman
based on
class size

(8)
Difference
between
actual and
"expected"
number of
students to
consult
ombudsman
(column 2
minus 7)

F reshman

18

10.0

9,670

24.2

-14.2

44

-26

Sophomore

34

18.9

7,618

19.1

-

.2

34

0

Junior

31

17.2

7,758

19.4

- 2.2

35

- 4

Senior

49

27.2

6,954

17.4

+ 9.8

31

+18

Graduate

45

25.0

7,668

19.2

+ 5.8

35

+10

3

1.7

281

.7

+ 1.0

1

+ 2

180

100.0

39,949

100.0

180

---

Special
Total

—

In credit programs on East Lansing campus.
^Since the ombudsman handles problems separately, in this tabulation a student was counted once for each
problem he presented. Thus, one student with two problems is treated the same as two students with one problem
each.
°"Expected" number was computed by multiplying percentage in column 5 times 180, the total number of stu­
dents who consulted the ombudsman regarding non-academic problems. Obtained figure was rounded to nearest whole
number.

138
a c a d e m ic p r o b l e m s b ro u g h t to th e o m b u d s m a n , j u n i o r s and s e n i o r s
w e r e " o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d " an d f r e s h m e n and g r a d u a te s t u d e n ts " u n d e r
r e p r e s e n t e d " in p r o p o r tio n to c l a s s s i z e .
p r e s e n t e d in T a b le

2

T hese c o m p a riso n s a r e

.

A r e v e r s a l i s n o ted f o r g r a d u a t e s tu d e n ts w h e n c l a s s r a n k
d is t r ib u t io n i s a p p lie d to n o n - a c a d e m i c p r o b le m s .

I n s te a d of b e in g

" u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d , " th e y w e r e " o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d . "

A g ain , f r e s h ­

m e n w e r e " u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d " and s e n i o r s w e r e " o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d . "
See T a b le 3.
T he g e n e r a l o b s e r v a tio n w h ic h can be m a d e f r o m th e d a ta
in th e s e t h r e e t a b l e s i s th a t d u r in g th e 1968 fa ll t e r m s tu d e n ts in
A r t s and- L e t t e r s and U n iv e r s it y C o lle g e w e r e r e l a t i v e l y m o r e in c lin e d
to c o n s u lt the o m b u d s m a n w h ile s t u d e n t s in E d u c a tio n and N a t u r a l
S cien ce w e r e r e l a t i v e l y l e s s in c lin e d . * F r e s h m e n w e r e r e l a t i v e l y
l e s s in c lin e d to c o n s u lt th e o m b u d s m a n w h ile s e n i o r s w e r e r e l a t i v e l y
m o r e in c lin e d .

G r a d u a te s tu d e n t s w e r e m o r e in c lin e d to c o n s u lt th e

o m b u d sm a n a b o u t n o n - a c a d e m i c p r o b l e m s than a c a d e m i c p r o b l e m s .
G e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , of t h e 218 s tu d e n ts w ho r e s p o n d e d
to the o m b u d s m a n s u r v e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e a r e s u m m a r i z e d in T a b le 4.
It w ill be n o te d th a t a l l c l a s s r a n k s , a l l s tu d e n t a g e g r o u p s an d a l l
^Of th e 218 r e s p o n d e n ts , 4 9 .5 p e r cent w e r e e n r o lle d in
th r e e c o l l e g e s - - A r t s and L e t t e r s , S o c ia l S cie n ce and U n i v e r s i t y
C o lleg e.

TABLE 4
CHARACTERISTICS OF 218 STUDENTS WHO CONSULTED OMBUDSMAN
AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY, FALL TERM, 1968a

F re sh m an
Sophomore
Ju n io r

N

%

25

11.5

38
49

Housing

Sex

C lass rank

17.4

Male
F em ale

N

%

151

69.3

67

30.7

M arital statu s
Senior

61

28.0
N

Graduate
O thers
(special)

38

On campus
resid en ce hall
m a r r ie d housing

%

17-18

20

9.2

19

35

16.1

20

39

17.9

21

36

16.5

22

22

10.1

23-24

21

9 .6

25-26

10

4 .6

%

27-28

13

6.0

167

76.6

29 and
over

13

6 .0

49

22.5

9

4.1

2

.9

Not in ­
dicated

85
28
23
82

%

39.0
1 2.8

1 0 .6

37.6

%

17.4

Residency
Single

7

N

N

Off campus
supervised
unsupervised

22.5

Age

156

71.6
N.

3.2
M a rrie d
Divorced

60
2

27.5
.9

Michigan
O ther sta te s
F oreign countries

a Based on 218 re tu rn s from 288 questionnaires sent. A to tal of 305 p erso n s consulted the
ombudsman between Septem ber 1 and D ecem ber 31, 1968.

140
typ es of stu d e n t h o u sin g w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d .

(All g r a d e point a v e r a g e s

also w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d . ) H o w e v e r, th e p e r c e n ta g e of m a l e r e s p o n ­
dents (69. 3) w a s h ig h e r th a n the a 11- u n i v e r s i t y p e r c e n ta g e (58. 7) and
the f e m a le p e r c e n ta g e (30. 7) w a s lo w e r (41. 3 ) . 1 A lso , a h ig h e r
p e r c e n ta g e of m a r r i e d s tu d e n ts (27. 5) w a s r e p r e s e n t e d th a n in the
to ta l u n i v e r s i t y p op ulatio n (1 7 .5 ).
E x p e rie n c e s
The m o s t f re q u e n tly cited s o u r c e of in f o r m a tio n about th e
o m b u d sm an f o r s tu d e n ts w ho c o n s u lte d h im d u r in g the 1968 fa ll t e r m
w as the M ic h ig an S tate N e w s , th e c a m p u s n e w s p a p e r .

T he se c o n d

m o st f r e q u e n tly c ite d s o u r c e of in f o rm a tio n w a s a n o th e r s tu d e n t ( o r
stu d e n ts).

Few s tu d e n ts l e a r n e d ab o u t th e o m b u d s m a n th ro u g h

in s t r u c t o r s o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .
in T ab le 5.

O nly

6

S o u rc e s of in f o r m a tio n a r e r e p o r t e d

p e r c e n t of s u r v e y r e s p o n d e n ts felt th a t th e

s e r v i c e s of th e o m b u d s m a n a r e w id ely known am o n g s tu d e n ts .
N egative a n s w e r s c a m e f r o m 4 4 .5 p e r ce n t an d th e r e m a in in g 4 9 .5
p e r c e n t w e r e u n c e r t a in .
*Of th e 305 p e r s o n s who c o n s u lte d R u s t d u r in g th e 1968 f a ll
te r m , 6 8 . 9 p e r c e n t w e r e m e n and 31. 1 p e r c e n t w e r e w o m en . N ote
how c lo s e ly th is r a t i o c o r r e s p o n d s w ith th e s e x d is tr ib u tio n of s u r v e y
re sp o n d e n ts. O n ly 2 8 .9 p e r cent o f th e s u r v e y r e s p o n d e n ts w e r e
u n d e r c la s s m e n , w h e r e a s 43. 3 p e r ce n t of a l l s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d w e r e
u n d e r c la s s m e n .

141
TA B L E 5
SOURCES O F INFORM ATION ABOUT CAM PUS OMBUDSMAN
R E P O R T E D BY STUDENTS WHO CONSULTED OMBUDSMAN
A T MICHIGAN STA TE UNIVERSITY, F A L L T E R M , 1968

S o u rc e of
in f o rm a tio n

State N ew s
(c a m p u s n e w s p a p e r)

N u m b e r of s tu d e n ts who
cite d s o u r c e :
U nder­
G r a d u a te s
g rad u ates

T o ta l

O th e r s
(Special)

N

%a

109

29

3

141

6 4 .7

Student(s)

86

14

2

102

46.

A c a d e m ic F r e e d o m
R e p o rt

32

3

1

36

16. 5

R e sid e n c e h a l l
adviser(s)*

23

0

1

24

1 1 .0

A c a d e m ic a d v i s e r ( s )

13

3

1

17

7.

I n s tr u c to r ( s )

5

2

0

7

3. 2

A d m in is tr a to r ( s )

5

2

0

7

3 .2

P r o f e s s io n a l
c o u n s e lo r(s )

3

0

1

4

1 .8

19

5

1

25

1 1.5

O th e r s o u r c e s
T o ta l
ct

8

8

363b

P e r c e n t a g e citin g th is s o u r c e am o n g a l l r e s p o n d e n ts (218).

b T o ta l e x c e e d s n u m b e r of r e s p o n d e n ts (218) b e c a u s e s o m e
cited m o r e th a n one s o u r c e of in f o rm a tio n .

142
N e a r ly h a l f th e s u r v e y e d s tu d e n ts had ta k en t h e i r p r o b le m s
to two o r m o r e p e r s o n s in a u th o r ity b e f o r e tu r n in g to the o m b u d sm a n .
F e w e r th a n one in fo u r had gone d i r e c t l y to th e o m b u d sm a n .

U nder­

c l a s s m e n w e r e l e s s in c lin e d to go d i r e c t l y to th e o m b u d s m a n th an
u p p e r c l a s s m e n and g r a d u a te s tu d e n ts .
p r e s e n te d in T a b le

6

C la s s ra n k c o m p a r is o n s a r e

.
TA BLE

6

PREVIOUS PR O B L E M -SO L V IN G A T T E M P T S MADE BY STUDENTS
WHO CONSULTED OMBUDSMAN A T MICHIGAN STA TE
UNIVERSITY, F A L L T E R M , 1968
To how m a n y p eo ple in a u th o r ity did you ta k e
y o u r p ro b le m b e f o r e c o n s u ltin g the o m b u d s m a n ?
C la s s ran k

None
N

One

%

M o re than
th re e

T h ree

Two

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

F resh m an

5

2 0 .0

4

1 6 .0

11

44. 0

4

16.

0

1

4 .0

Sophom ore

7

1 8 .4

9

2 3 .7

9

2 3 .7

8

21

.

1

5

13.2

J u n io r

12

2 4 .5

13

2 6 .5

19

38.

8

2

4. 1

3

6

Senior

17

28. 3

16

2 6 .7

14

23. 3

10

1 6 .7

3

5 .0

G ra d u a te

10

2 6 .3

13

34.2

8

21

1

4

1 0.5

3

7 .9

O th e r
(sp e c ia l)

1

1 6 .7

3

5 0 .0

1

1 6 .7

0

0

1

1 6.7

58

26. 9

62

28. 7

28

13. 0

16

7 .4

T o ta ia

52

24.

1

.

a.
Tw o of th e 218 re s p o n d e n ts did n o t a n s w e r th is q u e stio n .
F in a l p e r c e n ta g e s to ta l 100. 1 b e c a u s e of ro u n d in g .

.1

143
A co m m o n s tu d e n t c o m p la in t on m o s t l a r g e u n iv e r s i ty
c a m p u s e s p e r t a i n s to th e in a c c e s s i b i l i t y of i n s t r u c t o r s and a d v i s e r s
in t h e i r o ffic e s .

S tu d en ts who c o n s u lte d th e M ichigan S tate o m b u d s ­

m an w e r e a s k e d how long th ey w a ite d to s e e h im a f t e r a r r i v i n g a t
h is o ffice.

M o st of th e r e s p o n d e n ts in d ic a te d th a t th e y saw h im

im m e d ia te ly o r w a ite d l e s s th a n te n m in u te s , w ith o r w ith o u t an
a p p o in tm e n t.

T he fin ding s a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b le 7.
TABLE 7

ACCESSIBILITY O F CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN AS R E P O R T E D BY
STUDENTS WHO CONSULTED HIM A T MICHIGAN STA TE
UNIVERSITY, F A L L T E R M , 1968
If you had m a d e
a n a p p o in tm e n t,

If you h a d not m a d e
a n a p p o in tm e n t,

upon a r r i v i n g a t h is office how long did you
w a it to s e e th e o m b u d s m a n ?
N

N

%

No d e la y a t a l l

39

4 0 .2

8

U n d e r 10 m in u te s

40

41. 2

.12

1 1 .3

10 to 30 m in u t e s

17

17. 5

0

0

30 to 60 m in u te s

1

1. 0

106

100. 0

97

99. 9

%
.9

73

68

21

19.

T o ta la

R e m a in in g 15 of 218 r e s p o n d e n ts c o n s u lte d o m b u d sm a n by
l e t t e r o r te le p h o n e , not in p e r s o n . Second p e r c e n ta g e d o e s not to ta l
1 0 0 b e c a u s e o f ro un ding .

144
W hen campUB o m b u d sm e n w e r e a s k e d how long it took to
p r o c e s s a p ro b le m , a n s w e r s v a r ie d w id ely .

S u rv e y ed s tu d e n ts at

M ichigan S tate w e r e a s k e d to r e c a l l how long it took the o m b u d sm a n
to p r o c e s s t h e i r p r o b le m s .

(See T a b le
TABLE

8

,) A lthough m o s t r e s p o n s e s

8

E F F IC IE N C Y O F CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN AS R E P O R T E D BY
STU D EN TS WHO CONSULTED HIM A T MICHIGAN STA TE
U NIVERSITY, F A L L T E R M , 1968
How long did it take th e o m b u d sm a n
to h a n d le y o u r p r o b le m ?
C la s s ra n k

10

m in u te b
o r le ss

N

%

39. 1

8

34.

9

24. 3

J u n io r

11

Senior

•

N

F resh m an

9

Sophom ore

M o r e than
1 hour

m in u te s
to 1 h o u r

10

N

%

8

6

26.

16

4 3 .2

12

3 2 .4

2 3 .4

21

44. 7

15

31. 9

23

41. 1

17

3 0 .4

16

28.

6

G ra d u ate

6

1 9 .4

8

25.

8

17

54.

8

O th er
(sp ecial)

2

2 8 .6

3

42. 9

2

28.

6

60

2 9 .9

73

36. 3

68

33.

8

T o ta la

q u estio n .

%

1

S ev en teen o f th e 218 re s p o n d e n ts did not a n s w e r th is
S om e p e r c e n ta g e s do n o t to ta l 100 b e c a u s e of ro u n d in g .

145
w e r e in th e " te n m in u te s to one h o u r " r a n g e , n e a r l y 30 p e r ce n t
r e p lie d th a t it took te n m in u te s o r l e s s .

O nly 26. 1 p e r c e n t of the

f r e s h m e n a n s w e r e d " m o r e th a n one h o u r " c o m p a r e d w ith 54.
c e n t of th e g r a d u a te s tu d e n ts .

8

per

Rust* s e x p la n a tio n fo r th is d if f e r e n c e

i s th a t th e new s tu d e n t i s m o r e lik e ly to b r in g a p ro b le m to the o m ­
b u d sm a n w hich can b e h an dled q u ic k ly b e c a u s e the s tu d e n t i s not
fully a w a r e of e x is tin g c h a n n e ls and p r o c e d u r e s a v a ila b le to him .

1

T o a s s e s s th e om budsm an* s e f f e c tiv e n e s s a s p e r c e iv e d by
stu d e n ts w ho had c o n s u lte d h im , one s u r v e y q u e s tio n a s k e d , "T o
w hat e x te n t is th e p r o b le m you took to the o m b u d s m a n now s o lv e d ? "
(See T a b le 9 .) N e a r ly h a l f th e r e s p o n d e n ts in d ic a te d that t h e i r
p r o b le m s - w e r e " c o m p le te ly s o lv e d " ; o n e - th ir d view ed t h e i r p r o b le m s a s "n o t so lv e d a t a ll. "

2

E x c e p t f o r two s tu d e n ts who r e p o r te d

a w o rs e n in g of t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s , th e o t h e r s saw t h e i r p r o b le m s a s
p a r tia lly so lv e d .

T he ju n i o r c l a s s w a s the only c l a s s in w h ich m o r e

stu d e n ts r e p o r t e d t h e i r p r o b le m s "not so lv e d a t a l l " than " c o m ­
p le tely so lv e d . "
1 R u s t,

p r iv a te in te r v ie w h e ld a t M ic h ig an State U n iv e r s ity ,
D e c e m b e r 12, 1968,
2

R u st e s t i m a t e d in O c to b e r of 1968 th a t t w o - t h i r d s to t h r e e fo u rth s o f the c o m p la in ts h e r e c e iv e d d u r in g th e 1967-68 s c h o o l y e a r
w e r e s e ttle d to th e student* s s a tis f a c tio n . See E d w a rd B r ill , " O m ­
budsman* s P o w e r H e lp s S t u d e n t s , " M ic h ig an S tate N e w s, O c to b e r 30,
1968, p. 1 .

146
TABLE 9
E F F E C T IV E N E S S O F CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN AS R E P O R T E D BY
STUDENTS WHO CONSULTED HIM A T MICHIGAN STA TE
U NIVERSITY, F A L L T E R M , 1968
T o w hat e x te n t i s th e p r o b le m you took to the
o m b u d s m a n now s o lv e d ?
C l a s s ran k

F resh m an
S ophom ore
J u n io r
S enior
G ra d u a te
O th e r (sp e c ia l)
T o ta la

C o m p le te ly
so lv e d
N

%

12
20

5 2 .2
54. 1
3 6 .7
48. 3
55. 6
57. 1
48. 6

18
29
20

4
103

P a rtia lly
so lv e d
N
3
3
12

9
7
3
37

Not so lv e d
at all

%

N

%

1 3 .0
8. 1
2 4 .4
14. 9
1 9 .5
42. 9
17. 4

8
12

P r o b le m i s
w o rse
N

9

34. 8
3 2 .4
38. 8
3 6 .7
2 5 .0

0

0

70

3 3 .0

19
22

%

0
2
0
0
0
0
2

0

5 .4
0
0
0
0

.9

How m u c h did the o m b u d sm a n h e lp you w ith y o u r
p ro b le m ?
C la s s ra n k

F resh m an
Sophom ore
J u n io r
Senior
G ra d u a te
O th e r (s p e c ia l)
T o ta l *3

M o r e than
I e x p e c te d

A s m u ch a s
I ex p e cte d

L e s s than
I e x p e c te d

N

%

N

N

%

9
16
15

3 7 .5
4 3 .2
30. 6
3 6 .0
4 7 .2
57. 1
38. 8

6

25.
29.
42.
34.
25,

4
0

31.

0
8

22

17
4
83

9
10

13
18
10

3
63

%
3 7 .5
27. 0
2 6 .5
2 9 .5
27. 8
42. 9
29. 4

11
21
21

9
0
68

0
7
8

Six of the 218 r e s p o n d e n ts did n o t a n s w e r th is q u e s tio n .
Some p e r c e n ta g e s do not to ta l 100 b e c a u s e of ro un ding .
F o u r of th e 218 re s p o n d e n ts did not a n s w e r th is q u e s tio n .
Some p e r c e n ta g e s do n o t to ta l 100 b e c a u s e of ro u n d in g .

147

A r e l a t e d q u e s tio n - - " H o w m u ch d id the o m b u d s m a n h e lp
you w ith y o u r p r o b l e m ? " - - w a s a n s w e r e d on the b a s i s of e x p e c t a ­
tio n s .

(See T a b le 9 .)

T he h ig h e s t p e r c e n ta g e of s tu d e n ts a n s w e r e d

" m o r e than I e x p e c te d " although n e a r l y o n e - th ir d r e p lie d " l e s s th an
I e x p e c te d ."

A s w ith th e p r e v io u s q u e s tio n , fa v o r a b le r e s p o n s e s

e x c e e d e d u n fa v o ra b le r e s p o n s e s i n a l l c l a s s e s e x c e p t the ju n io r
cla ss. *
The A c a d e m ic F r e e d o m R e p o rt d i r e c t s th e o m b u d sm a n to
p r o te c t th o se w ho s o li c it h is a s s i s t a n c e " a g a in s t r e tr ib u ti o n . "

2

The

im p U catio n i s th a t p e r s o n s a g a in s t w hom com plaintB a r e m a d e m a y
a tte m p t to p u n ish the s tu d e n t for h i s a c tio n .

To d e t e r m in e w h e th e r

th is c o n c e r n i s w a r r a n t e d , s u r v e y e d s tu d e n ts w e r e a s k e d i f th e y e x p e ­
rie n c e d u n p le a s a n t t r e a t m e n t by an y o n e inv olved in t h e i r c o m p la in t
a f t e r c o n s u ltin g the o m b u d sm a n .

Of 207 s tu d e n ts w ho a n s w e r e d th e

q u e s tio n , t h i r t e e n c la im e d so m e kind of u n fa v o ra b le r e a c tio n although
m o st of th e e x p la n a tio n s w e r e v a g u e .

A few ty p ic a l r e s p o n s e s a r e

cited:
The p r o f w a s r e a l m a d and a s k e d who i t w as th a t c a lle d D r. R ust.
No a n s w e r w a s fo rth c o m in g a n d he d ro p p e d th e m a t t e r .
*A h i g h e r p e r c e n ta g e o f w om en (46. 3) th an m e n (35. 4) felt
that th e o m b u d s m a n 1 s a s s i s t a n c e e x c e e d e d t h e i r e x p e c ta tio n s .
2

A c a d e m ic F r e e d o m R e p o r t f o r S tu d en ts a t M ic h ig an S tate
U n iv e r s ity , p . 31.

148
My a d v i s o r did n ot s e e m to b e th e s a m e . O nce f rie n d ly and
h e lp fu l, sh e w ould only do w h at sh e h ad to.
P r o f e s s o r m a d e n a s ty r e m a r k s in c l a s s s e v e r a l tim e s , once
a im e d o b v io u sly a t m e .
I h a v e no r e a l e v id e n c e th a t th e O m budsm an* s in v o lv e m e n t h a d
e ffe c t on m y t r e a t m e n t , b u t p eo p le c o n c e r n e d b e c a m e v e r y
d e f e n s iv e and l e s s open w h en I next h a d c o n ta c t w ith th e m ab o u t
two m o n th s l a t e r .
A ttitu d e s
In p r o p o s in g the office of o m b u d sm a n , th e A c a d e m ic F r e e ­
dom R e p o rt s t r e s s e d the " s e n s iti v e and c o n fid e n tia l n a tu re of th e
O m budsm an* s w o rk . " The r e c o m m e n d a tio n p ro v id e d th a t h e " s h a l l
r e s p e c t th e p r iv a c y of a ll p e r s o n s who s o l i c i t h i s a s s i s t a n c e .

1,1

To

d e t e r m in e w h e th e r s u r v e y e d s tu d e n ts r e g a r d e d c o n fid e n tia lity a s
e s s e n t i a l , th e y w e r e a s k e d th is q u e s tio n ;

"W ould you h a v e c o n s u lte d

the o m b u d s m a n i f h i s r e c o r d s w e r e open f o r in s p e c tio n by a n y o n e ? "
(See T a b le 1 0 .) N e a r ly t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f th e r e s p o n d e n ts a n s w e r e d
"Y es. " T w e n ty - s e v e n s tu d e n ts g a v e a n e g a tiv e r e s p o n s e and t h i r t y
w ere u n c e rta in .

A lthough c o m p a r a tiv e ly few s tu d e n ts w e r e c o n ­

c e rn e d abo u t c o n fid e n tia lity , it could be a r g u e d th a t ev en a s m a l l
p e r c e n ta g e i s enough to ju s tify co ntinu in g th e po licy.

149
T A B L E 10
IM PO R T A N C E O F C O N FID E N T IA LIT Y TO STUDENTS WHO
CONSULTED OMBUDSMAN A T MICHIGAN STA TE UNIVERSITY,
F A L L T E R M , 1968

C l a s s ra n k

Would you h a v e c o n s u lte d th e o m b u d s m a n if h is
r e c o r d s w e r e open f o r in s p e c tio n by a n y o n e ?
U n c e r ta in

Y es

No

F resh m an

22

1

2

S ophom ore

21

6

10

J u n io r

37

5

7

7 5 .5

S en io r

45

8

7

75. 0

G ra d u a te

29

6

3

76, 3

5

1

1

7 1 .4

159

27

30

O th e r ( s p e c ia l)
T o ta la

% Y es
88.0

56.

73.

8

6

Tw o of the 218 r e s p o n d e n ts did not a n s w e r th is q u e s tio n .
A ttitu d e s c o n c e rn in g the o m b u d sm a n a r e p r e s e n t e d in
T able 11 a c c o r d in g to th e n a t u r e of th e student* s p r o b le m .
p o la riz e d r e s p o n s e s a r e in c lu d e d .

O nly

In s o m e p ro b le m a r e a s th e o m ­

b u d sm an a p p e a r s to h ave b e e n m o r e s u c c e s s f u l th an in o t h e r s .
H ow ever, s u rv e y e d s tu d e n ts g e n e r a l l y fe lt th a t th e o m b u d s m a n had
done e v e ry th in g he could to h elp th e m .

W ith few e x c e p tio n s , th ey

TABLE 11

ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS WHO CONSULTED OMBUDSMAN AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
ANALYZED BY NATURE OF PROBLEM, FALL TERM, 1968®
•

Nature of problem

Number of
students
with
problem

Student's reaction to way
ombudsman handled problem
Generally
satisfied

Generally
dissatisfied

Did ombudsman do
everything within
his authority to
help student with
problem?

N

%

N

%

Yes

Would student:
Return to
ombudsman
with other
problems?

No

Yes

No

Recommend
ombudsman
to other
students?
Yes

No

Registration and
admission

25

15

60

8

32

14

6

16

1

21

1

Academic
requirements

24

17

71

5

21

15

4

18

0

21

1

Traffic
regulations

11

7

64

4

36

6

3

7

3

8

2

Financial need

18

14

78

3

17

14

1

16

0

16

0

Quality of
instruction

11

4

36

4

36

3

4

6

1

8

1

Housing

23

16

70

7

30

16

1

20

1

20

0

U se.of facilities
and services

12

7

58

3

25

6

1

9

0

11

0

Tuition and fees

23

15

65

5

22

13

3

14

3

18

1

TABLE 11— Continued
.....

Nature of problem

Number of
students
with
problem

Student's reaction to way
ombudsman handled problem
Generally
dissatisfied

Generally
satisfied

Did ombudsman do
everything within
his authority to
help student with
problem ?

Would student:
Return to
ombudsman
with other
problems ?

Recommend
ombudsman
to other
students ?

N

%

N

%

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

15

12

80

3

20

10

0

11

1

14

0

Academic advice

21

17

81

3

14

14

3

15

1

20

0

Health center

2

0

0

2

100

0

0

1

0

1

1

Employment

11

7

64

1

9

9

2

10

1

10

0

Library

4

2

50

2

50

1

1

3

0

4

0

Grades

28

21

75

5

18

21

2

19

2

23

1

Other problems

53

36

68

12

23

34

5

44

2

49

0

281b

190

67

•

176

36

209

16

244

8

Total

N e u tr a l and uncertain responses do not appear in table. Percentages rounded to nearest whole number.
^Greater than number of students surveyed because som e students had multiple problems.

151

Academic status

152
w ould r e t u r n to th e o m b u d s m a n w ith o t h e r p r o b l e m s and w ould
r e c o m m e n d h im to o th e r s tu d e n ts .
F r o m a l i s t o f f o u r t e e n t r a i t s , s t u d e n ts w ho had c o n s u lte d
th e o m b u d s m a n s e l e c t e d "k n o w le d g e o f c a m p u s o p e r a t io n s and
T A B L E 12
M OST IM P O R T A N T T R A IT S A C A M PU S OMBUDSMAN SHOULD
H A V E , AS CHOSEN BY STU D E N TS WHO CO N SULTED
OMBUDSMAN A T MICHIGAN S T A T E U N IV ERSITY ,
F A L L T E R M , 1968®
M o st f re q u e n t
t h ir d c h o ic e s

M o s t fre q u e n t
s e c o n d c h o ic e s

M ost freq u en t
f i r s t c h o ic e s

T im e s
chosen

T ra it

44

K n o w led g e of
cam pus
o p e ra tio n s
and r e g u l a ­
tio n s

31

K no w led ge of
cam pus
o p e r a t io n s
and re g u la ­
tio n s

40

E f f e c tiv e n e s s

36

U n d e r s ta n d in g

29

E ffe c tiv e n e ss

28

U n d e r s ta n d in g

32

A u th o r ity

24

A c c e ssib ility

25

A u th o rity

22

E f f e c tiv e n e s s

15

U n d e r s ta n d in g

21

E m p a th y

18

A c c e ssib ility

15

H o n e sty

15

T im e s
chosen

T ra it

K now ledge of
cam pus
o p e r a tio n s
and r e g u l a ­
tio n s

T ra it

T o ta l

167

114

T im e s
chosen

114

In e a c h c o lu m n , o n ly th o s e t r a i t s c h o s e n by 15 o r m o r e o f
the 218 r e s p o n d e n ts a r e l i s t e d .

153
r e g u la tio n s " a s th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t t r a i t he sh o u ld h ave.
m o s t f re q u e n t o f f i r s t , s e c o n d and t h i r d c h o ic e s.

T he n e x t two m o s t

fre q u e n t c h o ic e s w e r e u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d e f f e c tiv e n e s s .
ra te d t r a i t s w e r e a u th o r ity and a c c e s s ib il ity .

1

It w a s the

O th e r h ig h ly

A ll t r a i t s c h o s e n by

fifteen o r m o r e r e s p o n d e n ts a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b le

12.

A ttitu d e s r e g a r d in g s e le c tio n and te n u r e of the c a m p u s
o m b u d sm an by s tu d e n ts who h av e c o n s u lte d him a r e s u m m a r iz e d in
T able 13.

A n o n - te a c h in g fa c u lty m e m b e r ( a d m in i s tr a to r ) w a s the

f ir s t ch o ice, r e c e iv in g tw ic e a s m u c h su p p o rt a s a te a c h in g facu lty
m em ber.

S e le c tio n by a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , faculty an d s tu d e n ts w as the

fa v o rite m e th o d f o r filling th e p o s itio n .
w as the le a s t p o p u la r.

2

U naided fa c u lty s e le c tio n

In te rv ie w e d c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n g e n e r a lly

Of the 218 r e s p o n d e n ts , 52. 7 p e r ce n t in c lu d e d know ledge
am ong t h e i r f i r s t th r e e c h o ic e s . O t h e r p e r c e n ta g e s w e r e : u n d e r ­
stan d in g , 3 7 .6 ; e f f e c tiv e n e s s , 3 6 .2 ; a u th o rity , 21. 1; and a c c e s s i ­
bility, 1 8 .3 .
2

The p r e f e r r e d s e le c tio n m e th o d m a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s an
e n d o r s e m e n t of th e s y s te m w hich w a s followed a t M ic h ig an S tate.
The p r o v o s t s o lic ite d n o m in a tio n s f r o m d ea n s, fa c u lty m e m b e r s and
stu d e n t l e a d e r s . He and a stu d e n t g o v e rn m e n t s e le c tio n c o m m itte e
p la ced the s ix t y - f iv e n a m e s s u b m itte d in th r e e c a te g o r ie s : " r e c o m ­
m en d ed , " " a c c e p t a b l e ," a n d "not a c c e p t a b l e . " A f i r s t r e c o m m e n d a ­
tion and a l t e r n a t e s w e r e s u b m itte d to th e u n iv e r s i ty p r e s id e n t, who
then m a d e h is r e c o m m e n d a tio n to th e B o ard of T r u s t e e s . T h is is
the p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d in an u n title d , undated m im e o g r a p h e d s t a t e ­
m en t p r e p a r e d by R u st, M ic h ig a n S ta te U n iv e r s ity ( r e v is e d in J a n u ­
a ry , 1969), p. 3.

TABLE 13
ATTITUDES REGARDING SELECTION AND TENURE OF CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN HELD BY
STUDENTS WHO CONSULTED OMBUDSMAN AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY,
FALL TERM, 1968

The campus ombudsman
should be a:

H is te rm of office should be:

He should be selected by:

i

Teaching faculty
m em b er

N

%

42

20.0

faculty m e m b er
(adm inistr ato r)
P ro fe ssio n a l student
p erson n el w o rk er

84

40

40.0

19.0

Student

0

0

Lawyer

11

5.2

1

.5

None of these

32

15.2

Total

210

Campus m in is te r

N

N

%

8

3.7

L ess than 2 y e a rs

19

8 .9

2

1

.5

Students and
faculty

44

2 0 .6

Students and
ad m in istratio n

13

6.1

Faculty and
adm inistration

21

9.8

104

48.6

4

1.9

A dm inistration
Students

Non-teaching

■

Faculty

A dm inistration,
faculty and
students
Some other group
Total

214

%

9

4 .8

22

1 1 .6

M ore than 2 y e a r s 158

83.6

y e a rs

Total

189

155
a g r e e d th a t a t w o - y e a r t e r m of office w a s s u ffic ie n t.
a f iv e - to - o n e m a r g in , f a v o r e d a lo n g e r t e n u r e .

S tu den ts, by

1

R e s p o n s e s to t h r e e o t h e r q u e s tio n s w ill b e r e p o r t e d b e f o r e
tu rn in g to s p e c if ic c a s e s and c o m m e n ts .

W hen a s k e d w h e r e the

o m b u d s m a n 1 s office should be lo c a te d , 4 1 . 4 p e r c e n t of 203 r e s p o n ­
d e n ts c h o s e th e S tudent S e r v ic e s B uilding.

The A d m in is tr a tio n

Building w a s the n ex t m o s t p o p u la r c h o ic e .
cent) w a s th e Student U nion.

L e a s t p o p u la r (7. 9 p e r

T w o - th i r d s of th e r e s p o n d e n ts thou gh t

the o m b u d s m a n h e lp e d a l le v i a te s tu d e n t f r u s t r a t i o n and h o s tility .
the r e m a i n d e r , 14 p e r cen t did n o t think s o and 19.
u n c e r ta in .

6

Of

p e r cen t w e r e

None of the s u r v e y e d s tu d e n ts tho ug ht the fu n ctio n s of

the o m b u d s m a n sh ou ld be d is c o n tin u e d .

O f 208 r e s p o n s e s , 144

favo red no change and 64 r e c o m m e n d e d c h a n g e s .
C a s e s and C o m m e n ts
T h e f r u s t r a t i o n s e x p e r ie n c e d by in d iv id u a l s tu d e n ts in c o p ­
ing w ith the la r g e u n i v e r s i t y a r e not a d e q u a te ly e x p r e s s e d by coun ting
M o st s tu d e n ts who r e c o m m e n d e d a t e r m of office lo n g e r
than two y e a r s c o n s id e r e d e f f e c tiv e n e s s g a in e d th ro u g h e x p e r i e n c e a s
e s s e n ti a l. A few ty p ic a l c o m m e n ts c o n v e y th is a ttitu d e : " E x p e r ie n c e
te a c h e s h im the r o p e s and how to h an d le odd s i t u a t i o n s . 11 " T h e m o r e
e x p e rie n c e th is p e r s o n h a s , th e g r e a t e r b e n e fit to th e p e r s o n c o n ­
su ltin g h im . " "I f e e l th a t th e m o r e p r o b l e m s ta k e n c a r e of, the m o r e
efficie n t the O m b u d s m a n ." " It ta k e s t i m e to u n d e r s ta n d th e lo o p ­
h o le s. " " T h e lo n g e r h e s e r v e s , th e b e t t e r he know s the w o rk in g s of
the U n iv e r s ity . " "I b e lie v e th e lo n g e r h e 1 s in th e job, th e m o r e
a w a re h e w ould be o f how to cut th ro u g h r e d ta p e . " " E x p e r ie n c e i s
d efin itely a r e q u i r e m e n t fo r e ffic ie n t o p e r a tio n o f th is o ffice. "

156
and c la s s if y in g t h e i r p r o b le m s .

T a b le s sh ow ing n u m b e r s and

p e r c e n ta g e s of c o m p la in ts and t h e i r d is p o s itio n p r e s e n t only th e
s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s of s tu d e n t i r r i t a t i o n s and a n x ie tie s r e v e a le d to th e
c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n .

In th is s e c tio n , a few s p e c if ic c a s e s a r e

d e s c r ib e d in the s tu d e n ts ' own w o r d s .

Student a t titu d e s to w a rd th e

o m b u d s m a n - -b o th p o s itiv e an d n e g a t i v e - - a l s o a r e d ra w n fro m t h e i r
q u e s tio n n a ir e r e s p o n s e s .

T he s e le c te d c a s e s and c o m m e n ts p ro v id e

f u r t h e r e v id e n c e of th e d i v e r s i t y of s tu d e n t g r ie v a n c e s and opinion
a t a " m u l tiv e r s it y . " A ll quo ted s t a t e m e n t s w e r e m a d e by s tu d e n ts
who c o n su lte d the M ic h ig a n S tate o m b u d sm a n d u r in g the 1968 fa ll
t e r m and who su b s e q u e n tly r e s p o n d e d to th e s u r v e y q u e s tio n n a ir e .
N a m e s a r e not r e v e a le d .
F i r s t , s o m e s tu d e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e i r p ro b le m s :
My p r o b le m w a s r e a l l y s illy . I had r e c e iv e d an F f o r a c o u r s e
I d i d n 't ta k e . A f t e r s e e in g 5 people who w o u ld n 't b e lie v e m e ,
I w ent to the o m b u d sm a n who so lv e d th e p ro b le m in 5 m in u te s .
The r e a s o n I le f t MSU w a s th a t 1 h a te d r e d ta p e and b e l lig e r e n t
a d m in is t r a tiv e p e r s o n n e l. T h is m a k e s an i m p e r s o n a l u n i v e r ­
s ity even m o r e s o . P e r h a p s th e o m b u d s m a n can do m o r e to
r e lie v e th is feelin g .
I w a s h a r d l y h e r e a m o n th o r s o w hen I d is c o v e r e d 1 could
not affo rd the r id ic u lo u s food p r i c e s in Owen H all. I a p p ro a c h e d
th e m a n a g e r of th e h a l l and e x p la in e d m y fin a n c ia l d i s t r e s s : not
only w a s he a d a m a n t ab o u t h old in g m e to th e c o n tr a c t, but h e
e x p r e s s e d a t o t a l lack of c o n c e r n fo r m y p r e d ic a m e n t. . . .
I w a s q u ite d i s t r e s s e d , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e I w ould p ro b a b ly
h ave to w ith d ra w fro m sc h o o l i f not allo w ed to b r e a k the
c o n tr a c t. It w a s th en th a t I d e c id e d to ta k e m y c a s e to
D r. R u s t. . . .

157
. . . O nce th e a p p lic a tio n w a s s e n t on to th e c o n t r a c t
c o m m itte e , 1 r e c e iv e d w o rd in l e s s th an a w e e k th a t I had
b ee n r e l e a s e d .
A lthough th e e n t i r e p r o c e s s o c c u p ie d a sp a n o f s o m e
t w o - t h r e e w e e k s , I b la m e th e d e l a y n ot on D r. R u s t, who
w a s m a g n ific e n t th ro u g h o u t, bu t on the s lo w - g r in d in g w h e e ls
of b u r e a u c r a c y . If I h ad had no r e c o u r s e beyond th e a d m in ­
i s t r a t i o n s tu m b lin g b lo c k , 1 w ould not be in sc h o o l now.
F u r t h e r m o r e , 1 a m g r a tif ie d to know th a t in an e n o r m o u s
u n iv e r s i t y lik e th is t h e r e i s a l e a s t one p e r s o n who c a r e s .
My p r o b le m w a s th a t an a d d itio n a l fee w a s a tta c h e d to m y
s u m m e r tu itio n A F T E R I had c o m p le te d th e c o u r s e . I w a s
in f o rm e d th a t th e S chedule Book w a s in e r r o r a s to the n u m b e r
of c r e d i t s th e c o u r s e c a r r i e d . The O m b u d s m a n in f o r m e d m e
th a t t h e r e w a s n o th in g h e could do b ut th a t I sho u ld ap p ly f o r
fee re d u c tio n b e c a u s e th e i n c r e a s e d c r e d i t s now m a d e m e
e lig ib le fo r th a t b e n e fit, I did so and a f t e r s o m e d e la y t h e r e
w as r e t u r n e d to m e N O T the a m o u n t of fee re d u c tio n f o r w hich
I w a s .e lig ib le , bu t th e e n t i r e a m o u n t w hich I had p aid f o r the
added two c r e d i t s . T h o s e e x t r a c r e d i t s w e r e d ro p p e d f ro m m y
reco rd . . . .
, . . tr y in g to g e t th e u n i v e r s i t y to ch ang e m y le g a l r e s i ­
d e n c e in o r d e r to r e c e iv e g r a d e s and r e g i s t r a t i o n m a t e r i a l .
. . . I r a n a l l o v e r c a m p u s tr y in g to find out who is r e s p o n ­
s ib le .
I h ad a q u e s tio n o f w hen a fin al e x a m sh ou ld be g iv e n s in c e
th e tim e s c h e d u le l i s t e d 2 d if f e r e n t c l a s s t i m e s a s h aving the
fin al a t the s a m e tim e and both i n s t r u c t o r s s a id t h a t ' s w h en
th e y w e r e going to h o ld th e e x a m . S ince one cannot be in two
p la c e s a t th e s a m e tim e I c a lle d D r. R u s t to s e e if a c o r r e c t i o n
to the tim e s c h e d u le h ad b een p u b lis h e d . H e did not know but
told m e who to c a ll in th e R e g i s t r a r ' s o ffice. I c a lle d the
R e g i s t r a r ' s office and th e y s a id a m is ta k e h a d b een m a d e and
in f o rm e d m e of the c o r r e c t i o n .
. . . I p u r c h a s e d an H . P . R. fee r e c e ip t c a r d fro m th e
c a s h i e r ' s window in th e A d m in is tr a tio n b uilding and lo s t i t the
s a m e a f te rn o o n . Since I h ad m a d e two c o p ie s w hen buying it
and le ft one t h e r e I w en t back th e n ex t day to s e e i f I could g et
a d u p lic a te , an d w a s to ld a t th e c a s h i e r ' s w indow th a t th e y did

158
n ot k ee p the e x t r a copy but s e n t it to a n o th e r office . . . but
th a t I w ould p r o b a b ly j u s t h a v e to buy a new one. A f te r going
to the in d ic a te d office, b ack to the c a s h i e r ' s w indow , b ack to
the o ffice, o v e r to the I . M . bu ilding , and b a c k to the office in
the A d m in is tr a tio n building, I s t i l l h ad not found w h e r e the
se c o n d copy of m y fee r e c e i p t c a r d w a s . Standing o u tsid e the
A d m in is tr a tio n b u ild in g r a t h e r f r u s t r a t e d and a n g ry , I n o tic ed
I w a s j u s t a c r o s s th e s t r e e t f r o m M o r r i l l h a l l and d e c id e d to
s e e D r. R u st. He c a lle d up so m e o n e on th e phone (he a s k e d fo r
the p e r s o n by nam e) and im m e d ia te ly found th e e x t r a copy and
to ld m e to go b ac k to a c e r t a i n g i r l in th e A d m in is tr a tio n b u ild ­
in g . W hen I got o v e r th e r e , a d u p lic a te fee r e c e i p t c a r d w a s
w a itin g , and the g i r l in f o rm e d m e th a t a s f a r a s sh e knew , it
w a s th e f i r s t one e v e r i s s u e d a t M. S. U. In a ll, I w a s r a t h e r
i m p r e s s e d by the e x p e d ie n c y w ith w h ich the o m b u d s m a n w a s
a b le to u n ta n g le th e s n a r l s a s tu d e n t ca n b e c o m e e n m e s h e d in
w hen d e a lin g w ith th e b u r e a u c r a c y of th e U n iv e r s ity .
O th e r s tu d e n ts e x p r e s s e d t h e i r e n t h u s ia s m f o r the p e r s o n a l
touch and e f f e c tiv e n e s s of th e o m b u d sm a n in m o r e glow ing t e r m s .
H e re a r e - a few e x a m p le s :
F r o m m y c o n ta c t w ith th e O m b u d sm a n I b e lie v e it i s one of
th e m o s t im p o r ta n t and u se fu l o ffic e s in the U n iv e r s ity , and I
h av e b e e n in m a n y of th e m in th e 10 y e a r s I h a v e sp e n t h e r e at
MSU.
. . . the OMBUDSMAN i s one of th e b e s t th in g s f o r any
co lle g e c a m p u s . M any t i m e s , the s tu d e n t j u s t d o e s n 't g e t a f a i r
b r e a k , and w ith th e o ffice of th e O m b u d sm a n , the s tu d e n t g e ts a
se c o n d c h a n c e . . . .
. . . T h is i s . . . th e f in e s t p o s s ib le a s s i s t a n c e a v a ila b le
in any typ e of la r g e o r g a n iz a tio n .
D r . R u st i s th e f i r s t a d m i n i s t r a t o r in t h i s u n iv e r s i ty who
t r e a t e d m e lik e a p e r s o n w ith fe e lin g s in s t e a d of j u s t a stu d e n t
n u m b e r . He lis te n e d to m y g r i p e s p a t i e n t l y - - a t no tim e w a s I
rushed. . . .
In an e r a of p r o t e s t and d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n it w a s r e f r e s h i n g
to t r y a c o n s tr u c tiv e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c h a n n el and find-it d o e s

159
w o rk . "O m b u d d in g " . . . could be a r e a l p o s itiv e p r o c e s s fo r
re lie v in g s tu d e n t h o s t i l i t i e s .
. . . B u r e a u c r a c y and c o m p u te r s ca n n o t li s t e n to e x p la n a ­
tio n s . A c e n t r a l office s u c h a s D r. Rust* s i s e ffe c tiv e a s giving
a fe e lin g of so m e o n e p e r s o n a lly i n t e r e s t e d in the s tu d e n t, a
" l a s t h o p e , " and a ls o I think it can o ffe r s ig n ific a n t s u g g e s tio n s
about s o m e of th e p r o b le m s e n c o u n te re d . . . . M ayb e so m e of
th e r id ic u lo u s p r o b le m s can b e e lim in a te d .
I s e e th e O m b u d sm a n . . . a s w o rk in g f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g
and u n ity am o n g . . . s tu d e n ts , facu lty , and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .
. . . It w a s nice to know th a t out of 40, 000 s tu d e n ts th e r e
is t i m e fo r o n e.
A p p o in tm e n t of a n o m b u d sm a n w a s th e b e s t th in g that* s
h ap p e n ed to MSU in y e a r s .
L ong liv e th e o m b u d sm a n .
N ot a ll c o m m e n ts w e r e p o sitiv e , h o w e v e r.

A few stu d e n ts

w e r e l e s s fa v o r a b ly i m p r e s s e d w ith th e o m b u d s m a n 's s e r v i c e s , and
su g g e s te d c h a n g e s.

H e r e a r e s o m e of t h e i r r e a c tio n s :

T h e office a s I s e e it now i s ju s t a fig u re h e a d . D r. R u st
e i t h e r cannot o r w ill not do an yth in g to h e lp s tu d e n ts .
I think th e o m b u d sm a n should t r e a t th e stu d e n t w ith u n d e r ­
sta n d in g and c o n c e r n . I w a s co n fro n ted w ith a cold in te rv ie w
and did not f e e l c o m fo r ta b le . . . .
G e t so m e o n e who i s a b it m o r e r e c e p tiv e to chan ge,
T he w ay th e office s e e m s to w o rk now i s not to r e a l l y cut
th ro u g h the b u r e a u c r a c y but to point th e s tu d e n t b ac k in to it.
It s e e m s to be m o r e an i n s t r u m e n t to p ac ify th e s tu d e n ts than
to r e a l l y h e lp th e m . W hat w e don* t n ee d is a n o th e r r e d tape
ta n g led b u r e a u c r a t i c o ffice.
I h ad h op ed th a t th e O m b u d sm a n would b e s o m e o n e who
could ta k e a c tio n and not j u s t s a y h e w ould do s o m e th in g and not

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do any th in g . B ut I got the ty p ic a l r u n a ro u n d fro m h im .
i t w a s a p r o b le m th a t r e q u i r e d im m e d ia te a c tio n .

And

H e m o n o p o liz e d th e c o n v e r s a tio n an d o ffe re d no r e a l i n f o r ­
m a tio n ab o u t how 1 could a l le v i a te th e p r o b le m s fa c in g m e . I
w a s v e r y d is a p p o in te d in h i s d e fe n s iv e p o s tu r e r e l a t i v e to U n i­
v e r s i t y p o lic ie s .
W hen I ta lk e d to th e O m b u d sm a n I f e lt th a t h e w a s rude an d
s a r c a s t i c . My p r o b le m h a s s in c e b e e n c o m p le te ly so lv e d but
th ro q g h no h e lp of M r . R u st.
S e v e r a l s tu d e n ts w e r e b o th e re d by th e o m b u d s m a n 's lack
of a u th o r ity to s e t a s id e r u l e s and r e g u la tio n s o r o v e r r u l e p r e v io u s
d e c is io n s in o r d e r t o so lv e t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p r o b le m s .

A few of

t h e i r c o m m e n ts r e v e a l p e r c e p tio n s of the r o l e qu ite d if f e r e n t fro m
that h eld by th e o m b u d s m a n h im s e lf :
-The o m b u d s m a n 's office i s a g r e a t id e a but m u s t . . . be
given a u th o r ity p e r v a d in g the e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e of th e u n iv e r s i ty .
T h is u n i v e r s i t y h a s to o m a n y " c u t an d d r ie d " r u l e s and
r e g u la tio n s . A s t u d e n t 's p ro b le m sh o u ld g et in d iv id u a l a t t e n ­
tio n and r e s u l t s , w ith e x c e p tio n s m a d e w hen n e c e s s a r y . A s it
i s now, w h en t h e r e i s a u n iv e r s i ty ru lin g and a s t u d e n t 's s i t u a ­
tio n w a r r a n t s h im an e x c e p tio n to the r u le , th e s tu d e n t is l o s t
and th e O m b u d sm a n cann ot help .
G ive th e O m b u d sm a n s o m e " o v e r r i d e " p o w er.
W ith b r o a d e r d i s c r e t i o n a r y p o w e r s , R u st m ig h t e ffe c tiv e ly
m e d ia te b e tw e e n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and s tu d e n t a c t i v i s t s - - m u c h a s
D ean s o f S tu d en ts often s e e k to do.
I found th e o m b u d sm a n h elp fu l in e x p lain in g w hy I co uldn ' t
g e t w hat I w a n te d , but no t how I could p o s s ib ly g e t it. I feel
p a r t of h is jo b sho uld be to h e lp th e s tu d e n ts ; not j u s t to e x p la in
th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n 's p o sitio n .
A few c o m m e n ts w e r e m a d e r e g a r d i n g th e n ee d f o r m o r e
p u b lic ity ab o u t th e office of o m b u d sm a n .

T h e s e a r e ty p ic a l:

161
. . . If m o r e s tu d e n ts knew w h a t th e o m b u d sm a n i s and how
he can h e lp a s tu d e n t, I* m s u r e m a n y w ould s e e k h is ad v ic e .
T he m a in p r o b le m i s not m a n y s tu d e n ts know about t h i s m a n .
P e r h a p s M r . R u st could g et s o m e a d d itio n a l p u b lic ity th is
y e a r . . . . m a n y s tu d e n ts a r e u n a w a re th a t h i s s e r v i c e s a r e
a v a ila b le .
I h o p e th a t m o r e p e o p le l e a r n o f th is s e r v i c e - - i t n e e d s
m o r e p u b lic ity . . . .
R u s t h a s in d ic a te d th a t e a c h t i m e a f e a tu r e s t o r y about h is
office a p p e a r s in th e c a m p u s n e w s p a p e r , h e n o tic e s an i n c r e a s e in
c o m p la in a n ts d u rin g th e next few d a y s . *
S u m m a ry
S tu d en ts who c o n s u lte d th e o m b u d s m a n a t M ic h ig an State
U n iv e rs ity d u r in g th e 1968 f a ll t e r m w e r e g e n e r a lly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
of a l l s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d .

A ll c l a s s r a n k s , s tu d e n t ag e g r o u p s , g r a d e

point a v e r a g e s and s tu d e n t h o u s in g ty p e s w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d .

H ow ­

e v e r, c e r t a i n c o lle g e s w e r e " o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d " and " u n d e r r e p r e ­
se n te d " in th e p r o p o rtio n s of s tu d e n ts s e r v e d by th e o m b u d sm a n .
A lso on a p r o p o r t i o n a l b a s i s , u n d e r c l a s s m e n w e r e g e n e r a lly " u n d e r
r e p r e s e n t e d " and u p p e r c l a s s m e n " o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d . "

M a le s t u ­

d en ts and m a r r i e d s tu d e n ts w e r e " o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d " w h ile fe m a le
stu d e n ts and s in g le s tu d e n ts w e r e " u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d . "
*R ust, p r iv a te in te r v ie w held a t M ic h ig an State U n iv e r s ity ,
D e c e m b e r 1 2 , 1968.

162
The s u rv e y e d s tu d e n ts m o s t f re q u e n tly c ite d the ca m p u s
n e w s p a p e r a s t h e i r s o u r c e of in f o rm a tio n about th e o m b u d sm an .
N e a r ly h a lf of th e m had ta k e n t h e i r p r o b le m s to tw o o r m o r e p e r s o n s
in a u th o r ity b e f o r e c o n su ltin g the o m b u d sm a n .

M o st of th e m w e r e

able to s e e th e o m b u d sm a n im m e d ia te ly o r w ithin a few m in u te s
a f t e r a r r i v i n g a t h is o ffic e, w ith o r w ith o u t an a p p o in tm e n t.
o m b u d sm a n h a n d le d m o s t p r o b le m s in one h o u r o r l e s s .

The

G ra d u a te

s tu d e n t p r o b le m s g e n e r a lly r e q u ir e d lo n g e r han d lin g th a n f r e s h m a n
p r o b le m s .

N e a r l y h a lf th e s tu d e n ts in d ic a te d th a t t h e i r p r o b le m s

w e r e " c o m p le te ly s o lv e d " ; o n e - th ir d view ed t h e i r p r o b le m s a s "n o t
so lv ed a t a ll. " The h ig h e s t p e r c e n ta g e o f s tu d e n ts r e p o r t e d th a t th e
o m b u d sm a n h e lp e d th e m w ith t h e i r p r o b le m s m o r e than th ey e x p e c te d ,
although n e a r l y o n e - th ir d r e p lie d " l e s s th a n e x p e c te d ."

Only t h i r t e e n

of 207 r e s p o n d e n ts c la im e d to h a v e e x p e rie n c e d " u n p le a s a n t t r e a t ­
m e n t" by an y o n e involved in t h e i r c o m p la in t a f t e r c o n su ltin g the
o m b u d sm an .
N e a r l y t h r e e - f o u r t h s of th e s u r v e y e d s tu d e n ts would h a v e
co n su lted th e o m b u d sm a n w ith t h e i r p r o b le m s ev e n if h is r e c o r d s
w e r e open f o r pu blic in s p e c tio n .

W ide d if f e r e n c e s a p p e a r e d on the

s a t i s f a c t i o n - d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n continuum r e g a r d in g the w ay the o m b u d s ­
m an h an d led v a r io u s k in d s of p r o b le m s .

H o w ev er, the s tu d e n ts

g e n e r a lly w e r e s a tis f ie d th a t th e o m b u d sm a n had done e v e ry th in g h e

163
could to h e lp th e m .

O nly a few would n ot r e t u r n t o th e o m b u d sm a n

w ith o th e r p r o b le m s o r r e c o m m e n d h im to o th e r s tu d e n ts .

T ra its

s e le c te d b y th e s tu d e n ts a s m o s t i m p o r ta n t fo r a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n
to h av e w e r e , in d e s c e n d in g o r d e r , know ledge of c a m p u s o p e r a tio n s
and re g u la tio n s , u n d e r s ta n d in g , e f f e c tiv e n e s s , a u th o r ity and a c c e s ­
s ib ility .

A n o n - te a c h in g fa c u lty m e m b e r ( a d m i n i s t r a t o r ) w a s t h e i r

f i r s t ch o ice fo r a n o m b u d sm a n .

T he p r e f e r r e d m e th o d of filling th e

p o sitio n w a s s e le c tio n by a d m in is t r a tio n , fa c u lty and s tu d e n ts .

T he

s u r v e y r e s p o n d e n ts o v e rw h e lm in g ly fa v o re d a t e r m of office e x te n d ­
ing beyond two y e a r s .

T he Student S e r v ic e s B u ilding w a s th e m o s t

p o p u la r choice fo r th e lo c a tio n of th e om budsm an* s o ffice.

T w o-

th ir d s of-the r e s p o n d e n ts thought th e o m b u d sm a n h e lp e d a l le v i a te
stu d e n t f r u s t r a t i o n and h o s tility .

None th o u g h t th e fu n ctio n s of th e

o m b u d sm an should be d is c o n tin u e d , alth o u g h n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d r e c o m ­
m ended ch an g es.
T h ese and p r e v io u s findings w ill be re v ie w e d in th e fin al
c h a p te r a s r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s a r e r e c o n s i d e r e d , c o n c lu s io n s d ra w n ,
and r e c o m m e n d a tio n s m a d e .

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOM MENDATIONS

In C h a p te r I fifte e n r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s w e r e p r e s e n t e d a s
g u id e s to the c o lle c tio n and a n a ly s is of in f o rm a tio n on the o m b u d s ­
m a n in A m e r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n ,

A n s w e r s to th o s e q u e s tio n s

o b ta in ed f ro m th e stu d y a r e s u m m a r iz e d in th is f in a l c h a p te r .

In

ad d itio n , c o n c lu s io n s a r e d ra w n and r e c o m m e n d a tio n s m a d e .
S u m m a ry
T he F i r s t R e s e a r c h Q u e stio n
W hat a r e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n ?
D ra w in g a p r o f ile of the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n i s d ifficu lt
b e c a u s e of in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s .

A ny g e n e r a liz e d o b s e rv a tio n

m u s t be q u a lifie d b e c a u s e of e x c e p tio n s .

Y et t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s h a r e d by a l l o r m o s t of th e six c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n
in te rv ie w e d f o r .t h i s stu d y .

The following s u m m a r y s t a t e m e n t s

d e s c r ib in g th e " c o m p o s ite " c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n a r e b a s e d on th o se

164

FT

165
fin ding s.

T aken to g e th e r , th e y p ro v id e a m o r e c o m p re h e n s iv e

d e s c r ip tio n of th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n th a n th e p r e l i m i n a r y d efin itio n
w hich a p p e a r s in C h a p te r I.
T h e p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b ilit y of th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n is to
r e c e iv e and h elp r e s o l v e in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t g r ie v a n c e s a t an i n s t i t u ­
tion o f h i g h e r e d u c a tio n .

A s e c o n d a r y r e s p o n s i b ilit y i s to r e c o m m e n d

w ays of im p r o v in g a d m in is t r a tiv e and a c a d e m ic p r o c e d u r e s in o r d e r
to r e d u c e th e n u m b e r and d e g r e e of s tu d e n t p r o b le m s .

He d e t e r m i n e s

w hich c o m p la in ts m e r i t h i s c o n s id e r a tio n .
T he c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n h a s s p e n t a c o n s id e r a b le le n g th of
tim e a t h is in s titu tio n , w h e r e h e h a s b ee n a te a c h in g fac u lty m e m b e r
and h a s a d v is e d s tu d e n ts .

He i s id e n tifie d w ith a n a c a d e m ic d i s c i ­

p lin e , in w h ich h e h o ld s an ad v a n ce d a c a d e m ic d e g r e e .

He p ro b a b ly

h a s not h ad p r o f e s s io n a l p r e p a r a t i o n o r e x p e r i e n c e in th e law o r in
stu d e n t p e r s o n n e l w o rk .

He r e g a r d s h is o m b u d sm a n r o le a s a

t e m p o r a r y a s s ig n m e n t, n ot a c a r e e r fie ld .

He r e p o r t s to th e o f fic e r

o r g ro u p w hich ap p o in ted h im .
In conducting h i s a c t i v i t i e s , th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n u s e s
f a c e - t o - f a c e c o n ta c t m o r e than a n y o th e r f o rm of c o m m u n ic a tio n .
He h a s a c c e s s to o ffic ia l f ile s on th e c a m p u s , e x c e p t f o r c la s s if ie d
reco rd s.

He c o n s id e r s h i s own r e c o r d s a s co n fid e n tia l.

He m a y

p u b lic iz e h i s a c tiv i tie s in v a r io u s w ay s, b ut not in d iv id u a l c a s e s

166
w ith ou t p e r m i s s i o n fro m th e s tu d e n ts inv o lv ed.

He b r i n g s about

ch a n g es in in s titu ti o n a l p o lic ie s and p r o c e d u r e s a s a r e s u l t of h i s
in v e s tig a tio n s and r e c o m m e n d a tio n s .
g ation on h i s own in itia tiv e .

H e r a r e l y co n d u c ts an i n v e s t i ­

He cannot on h is own in itia tiv e r e v e r s e

a d e c is io n o r d i s r e g a r d a n e x is tin g r e g u la tio n .
d is c ip lin a r y p o w e r.
p e r s u a s i v e a b ility .

He d o e s not h ave

H is p o w e r r e s t s in h is p e r s o n a l p r e s ti g e an d
He s t a t e s h is v ie w s on a c a s e to th e p e r s o n s

c o n c e rn e d an d p o s s i b ly to t h e i r o r g a n iz a tio n a l s u p e r i o r s .

His

h ig h e st a p p e a l to a u th o r it y i s to th e p r e s id e n t of th e in s titu tio n .

He

is a u x i lia r y to, not a r e p la c e m e n t fo r, e x is tin g c a m p u s fu n c tio n a rie s .
The Second an d T h ird R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n s
How i s the c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n s e l e c t e d ?
To w hom is the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n r e s p o n s i b l e ?
T h e s e q u e s tio n s a r e c o n s id e r e d jo in tly b e c a u s e they a r e so
c lo s e ly r e l a t e d .
T he c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n m a y be s e l e c t e d by stu d e n ts,
facu lty o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n - - o r any co m b in a tio n o f th o s e p r i m a r y
p o w er g r o u p s - - a t h i s in s titu tio n .

If h e i s s e le c te d e x c lu siv e ly by

one p o w e r g ro u p , h e m a y be p e r c e iv e d a s h a v in g lo y a ltie s and v e s te d
i n t e r e s t s in th a t g r o u p .

R e g a r d l e s s of w hich g ro u p o r g ro u p s a r e

involved in h i s s e le c tio n , it is s ig n ific a n t th a t th e o m b u d sm an i s a

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facu lty m e m b e r who r e t u r n s to the fa c u lty r a n k s a f t e r h i s t e r m o f
office en d s.
H o w e v e r th e id e a o r ig in a t e s on a p a r t i c u l a r c a m p u s , tw o
f a c t o r s a p p e a r to be c r u c i a l in th e e s ta b li s h m e n t of th e p o s itio n .
T hey a r e :

(1) th e m e th o d of s e le c tio n , and (2) th e p e r s o n s e le c te d .

The m e th o d o f s e le c tio n i s im p o r ta n t b e c a u s e th e c a m p u s o m b u d s ­
m a n n o r m a ll y i s r e s p o n s i b le to th e a p p o in tin g in d iv id u a l o r body.
The p e r s o n s e le c te d i s a ls o a n i m p o r ta n t c o n s id e r a ti o n b e c a u s e th e
efficacy of th e p o s itio n d e v e lo p s fro m th e p r e s t i g e and s ty le of the
in d iv id u al who f ills it.
r

At M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s ity , w h e r e th e c a m p u s o m b u d s ­
m an h a s b e e n r e l a t i v e l y e ffe c tiv e , h i s s e le c tio n w a s b r o a d ly b a s e d ,
involving s tu d e n t, fa c u lty and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e a d e r s .

T he p e r s o n

chosen w a s a s e n io r p r o f e s s o r e x p e rie n c e d in te a c h in g , a c a d e m ic
ad v isin g and a d m in is t r a tio n .

By c o n t r a s t, a t M a co m b C ounty C o m ­

m u n ity C o lleg e the p r e s id e n t, a c tin g a lo n e , s e le c te d th e o m b u d sm a n ,
who w as h i m s e l f a t o p - l e v e l a d m i n i s t r a t o r .
T he a r r a n g e m e n t a t th e U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia a t B e rk e le y ,
w h e re the o m b u d sm a n i s a o n e - m e m b e r c o m m itte e of th e A c a d e m ic
Senate, p r o v id e s fo r in d e p e n d e n c e and a u to n o m y fro m th e a d m i n i s ­
tr a tio n .

H o w e v e r, t h e r e w as no s tu d e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in th e s e l e c m

tion p r o c e s s .

W hite p ro v e d to be a n a b le o m b u d s m a n a t San J o s e

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State C o lleg e b e c a u s e of h is p e r s o n a l q u a l itie s but w a s h a m p e r e d by
a p r e s i d e n t i a l a p p o in tm e n t la c k in g f o r m a l s tu d e n t o r fa c u lty a p p ro v a l.
By a c c e p tin g a s tu d e n t g o v e rn m e n t a p p o in tm e n t a s o m b u d sm a n a t the
U n iv e r s ity of D e tr o it, D av is b e c a m e the s tu d e n ts ' a d v o c a te but a ls o
the s tu d e n ts ' s e r v a n t.
T he m a n n e r in w hich an in s titu tio n of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n
appoints a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n u s u a lly i s c o n s is te n t w ith i t s p o w e r
e m p h a s is .

A t B e rk e le y , w ith a tr a d it io n of s tr o n g fa c u lty c o n tr o l

in a c a d e m ic m a t t e r s , the o m b u d s m a n w a s c h o sen by and r e p o r t s to
the A c a d e m ic S en ate.

Since h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d to a c a ­

d em ic p r o b l e m s , n e i th e r s tu d e n ts n o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s had a vo ice
in h is s e le c tio n .

A t M ich ig an S tate, w h e r e a tr a d it io n of a d m i n i s ­

tr a tiv e c o n tr o l i s sh iftin g , s tu d e n ts and fa c u lty w e r e in volved in the
s e le c tio n alth ou g h th e c h ie f a d m i n i s t r a t o r m a d e th e final d e c is io n .
At E a s t e r n M o n tan a C o lle g e , w h e r e n e i t h e r s tu d e n t n o r fa c u lty
pow er h a s s e r i o u s l y c h a lle n g e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u th o r ity , th e p r e s i ­
dent a r b i t r a r i l y m a d e the a p p o in tm e n t.
In c iv il g o v e rn m e n t, the o m b u d s m a n i s n o r m a ll y ap p o in ted
by the le g is la tiv e b ra n c h to w atc h o v e r th e e x e c u tiv e o r a d m i n i s t r a ­
tive b r a n c h .

H e d o e s not in v e s tig a te le g is la tiv e a c tiv ity .

A d ire c t

p a r a lle l ca n n o t be d raw n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n b e c a u s e n e i t h e r the

169

facu lty n o r s tu d e n t g o v e rn in g b o d ie s a r e e q u iv a le n t to a n a tio n a l
o r s ta te l e g i s l a t u r e an d th e a d m in is t r a tio n i s not fu lly c o m p a r a b le
to th e e x e c u tiv e b r a n c h in r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t.

T hese

d is tin c tio n s c o m p lic a te th e p r o b le m of s e le c tin g a c a m p u s o m ­
b u d sm a n w h o i s a p a r t of, y e t a p a r t f ro m , p o w e r g r o u p s in v o lv e d
in h is in v e s tig a tio n s .

P ro v id in g h is s a l a r y f ro m an o u tsid e s o u r c e ,

su ch a s a p r iv a te fou nd atio n, m ig h t en a b le h im to a p p e a r m o r e
in d e p en d en t, but would not so lv e th e b a s ic d ile m m a o f s e le c tio n and
a c c o u n ta b ility .
T he F o u r th R e s e a r c h Q u e stio n
W hat a r e th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s
am o n g v a r i o u s c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n ?
A ll six in te rv ie w e d c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n a g r e e d th a t t h e i r
b a s ic r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a r e to h elp in d iv id u a ls so lv e in s titu tio n a l
p r o b le m s an d to se e k in s titu tio n a l c h a n g e s th a t w ill r e d u c e i n d i ­
vidual p r o b le m s .

O p e r a tio n a l s t y l e s d if fe r a c c o r d in g to w hich

r e s p o n s i b ilit y is u p p e r m o s t in th e m in d of th e o m b u d sm a n .

T he

ca m p u s o m b u d s m a n w ho s e e s h i m s e l f a s a " c a t a l y s t , " " c h a n g e
ag en t" o r " a c t i v i s t " d e v i a te s fro m th e civ il g o v e r n m e n t c o n c e p t of
o m b u d sm a n , w hich i s e s s e n ti a ll y in te n d ed to m a k e a s y s t e m of

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r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t fu n ctio n a s it w a s d e s ig n e d to function
r a t h e r than to r e s t r u c t u r e o r r e p l a c e th a t s y s t e m . *
S im il a r itie s in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a c t i v i t i e s and a ttitu d e s of
the s ix in te rv ie w e d c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n w e r e d e s c r i b e d in C h a p te r III
and in the a n s w e r to th e f i r s t r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n .

D issim ila ritie s

m a y b e s u m m a r iz e d a s follow s:
C a m p u s o m b u d s m e n r e p r e s e n t a d i v e r s i t y of c a r e e r fie ld s
and a c a d e m ic r a n k s .

Some e x p e r ie n c e d a s a l a r y i n c r e a s e a n d / o r

h ig h e r s ta tu s a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r a p p o in tm e n t; o th e r s did not.
a r e teach in g p a r t - t i m e ; o t h e r s a r e not.
p la in ts ; o th e r s r e c e i v e only a few.

Som e

Som e p r o c e s s m a n y c o m ­

Som e c o n s i d e r g r ie v a n c e s fro m

any p e r s o n a s s o c i a t e d w ith h i s in s titu tio n ; o t h e r s c o n s id e r only s t u ­
d ent c o m p la in ts.

S om e p u b lic iz e t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s and c i r c u l a t e t h e i r

r e p o r t s m o r e e x te n s iv e ly th a n o th e r s .
conflict; o t h e r s h a v e not.
o th e r s do not.

Som e h a v e e x p e r ie n c e d r o le

S om e id e n tify w ith th e " E s t a b l i s h m e n t '';

Som e k e e p c u m u la tiv e w r i tte n r e c o r d s ; o t h e r s k e e p

few r e c o r d s .
*Two a u t h o r i t i e s on th e c iv il o m b u d s m a n , G e llh o rn and
A n derso n, a g r e e on th is p oint. G e llh o rn h a s w ritte n : " . . . an
om bud sm an i s not a c o u n te r v a ilin g p o w e r in s o c ie ty . H is c r i t i ­
c is m s alone cannot r e m a k e o r undo m a lfu n c tio n in g g o v e r n m e n ta l
m a c h i n e r y ." See O m b u d s m e n and O t h e r s , p. 192. A n d e r s o n h a s
sta ted : " . . . the O m b u d s m a n i s only good f o r m a r g i n a l d e f ic ie n ­
c i e s - - c o r r e c t i n g e r r o r , im p r o v in g p r o c e d u r e s , p r o m p tn e s s , and
p o lite n e ss. If t h e r e i s a b a s i c in e q u ity in th e s o c ie ty , o r s o m e th in g
b a s ic a lly c o r r u p t, th e O m b u d sm a n c a n ' t do a thing. " See "A n
O m budsm an f o r the U .S . ? " C e n te r D ia ry : 14 , p. 23.

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T h e F ifth R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
W hat co n d itio n s and e v e n ts h a v e b ro u g h t c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n
in to e x is te n c e on A m e r ic a n c o lle g e and u n iv e r s i t y c a m p u s e s ?
T h is q u e s tio n w a s a n s w e r e d in the re v ie w of r e la te d l i t e r a ­
t u r e in C h a p te r II and th e d e s c r i p t i o n of c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n o p e r a ­
tio n s and p r o p o s a ls in C h a p te r III.

To s u m m a r i z e , e f f o r ts to a d a p t

the c iv il o m b u d s m a n id e a to A m e r i c a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in th e l a t t e r
h a lf of the I 9 6 0 ' s r e f le c te d a g e n e r a l c o n c e r n fo r in d iv id u a l r ig h ts
in th e la r g e o r g a n iz a tio n and a s p e c if ic c o n c e r n f o r s tu d e n t r ig h ts in
the a c a d e m ic o r g a n iz a tio n .

A t m o s t in s titu tio n s , th e p o s itio n w a s

added d u r in g o r a f t e r r a p id e n r o llm e n t g ro w th and s e r i o u s s tu d e n t
p ro te sts:

S tudent and fa c u lty in itia tiv e o r in v o lv e m e n t w e r e e v id en t

in n e a r l y a l l i n s t a n c e s , ev e n w h e r e a p p o in tm e n ts w e r e m a d e by a d ­
m in istra to rs.

On a n u m b e r of c a m p u s e s , th e o m b u d sm a n p r o p o s a l

f i r s t a p p e a r e d along w ith o th e r in s t itu ti o n a l r e f o r m s re c o m m e n d e d
by a s p e c ia l c o m m itte e o r c o m m is s io n of facu lty , o r fa c u lty and
s tu d e n ts , o r fa c u lty , s tu d e n ts and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

T h is w a s the

c a s e a t M ic h ig an S tate U n iv e r s ity , New Y o rk U n iv e r s ity , C ity C o l­
le g e of th e State U n iv e r s ity of New Y o rk and th e U n iv e r s it y of M i s ­
s o u r i at C o lu m b ia .

The p la n w a s s u c c e s s f u l ly p r o m o te d by s tu d e n t

l e a d e r s a t San D ieg o S tate C o lleg e an d the U n iv e r s it y of D e tr o it.
D ir e c t p r e s i d e n t i a l a c tio n e s ta b li s h e d th e p o sitio n a t su c h p la c e s a s

172
E a s t e r n M ontana C o lle g e , S tate U n iv e r s it y of New Y o rk a t Stony
B rook and San J o s e S tate C o lleg e .
C a m p u s o m b u d s m a n d e v e lo p m e n ts in 1968 w e r e g r e a t ly
in flu en c ed b y and p a t te r n e d a f t e r th o s e p o s itio n s w hich had b ee n
e s ta b lis h e d a y e a r e a r l i e r .

P r o p o s a l s f r e q u e n tly r e f e r r e d to the

D an ish c iv il o m b u d sm a n m o d e l e m p h a s iz in g " r e a s o n e d p e r s u a s i o n . "
W idely p u b lic iz e d and im i ta t e d w e r e the p o s itio n s a t M ic h ig an S tate,
San J o s e State and Stony B ro o k .
At so m e in s titu tio n s , s tu d e n t p r o t e s t b e c a m e so tu r b u le n t
th a t " m ild " a p p r o a c h e s f o r a lle v ia tin g s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s - - s u c h a s
a c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n - - w e r e in a d e q u a te to s a t i s f y p r e s s i n g d e m a n d s .
T hu s, a - c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n p r o p o s a l a t s t r i k e - p la g u e d San F r a n c i s c o
State C o lleg e in 1968 fa ile d to m a t e r i a l i z e .

A lso , th e c a m p u s o m ­

b u d sm a n co n c ep t a s d efin e d in t h i s stu d y w a s b y p a s s e d a t in s titu tio n s
w h e re s tu d e n ts w e r e c h o s e n to fill the p o sitio n .
T he Sixth R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
How p r e v a le n t i s th e o m b u d sm a n
in A m e r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n ?
A s in d ic a te d in C h a p te r III, e f f o r ts to d e t e r m in e th e n u m b e r
of c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n in th e U n ited S ta te s a s of D e c e m b e r 31, 1968,
w e re im p e d e d by th e a b s e n c e of a c e n t r a l r e g i s t r y , th e m u ltip lic ity
of in s titu tio n s , u n a n s w e re d i n q u i r i e s and the innovation* s r a p id

173
spread.

F o u r te e n c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e known to have had

f u ll- tim e o r p a r t - t i m e o m b u d sm e n p r i o r to 1 9 6 9 --a n d p o s s ib ly five
o th e r w e s t e r n c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .
c o n s id e r in g th e in n o v a tio n .

A t l e a s t s ix te e n m o r e w e r e

T he r e m a r k a b l e fle x ib ility of th e c a m p u s

o m b u d s m a n co n cep t i s e v id e n c e d in the w id e r a n g e of in s titu tio n s
w hich h a v e ado pted it.

T h ey in c lu d e c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s th a t

a r e la r g e and s m a ll, p u b lic and p r iv a te , old and new, e a s t e r n and
w e s t e r n , g r a d u a te and tw o - y e a r , u r b a n and n o n - u rb a n , c o n s e r v a tiv e
and l i b e r a l , and c o m p a r a tiv e ly w e ll-k n o w n and unknown.
T he Seventh R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
W hat k in d s of g r i e v a n c e s do s tu d e n ts
b rin g to th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n ?
S tudent g r i e v a n c e s can be c la s s if ie d b r o a d ly a s " a c a d e m ic "
and " n o n - a c a d e m i c , " w ith s e v e r a l s u b - c a t e g o r i e s u n d e r each .
A c a d e m ic p r o b le m s in c lu d e r e g i s t r a t i o n and a d m is s io n , a c a d e m ic
r e q u i r e m e n t s , q u a lity of i n s t r u c tio n , tu itio n and fe e s , a c a d e m ic
s ta tu s , a c a d e m ic a d v ic e and g rad eB .

N o n - a c a d e m ic p r o b le m s

in clu de t r a f f i c r e g u la tio n s , fin a n c ia l need, h o u sin g , u s e of f a c i liti e s
and s e r v i c e s , h e a lth c e n t e r , e m p lo y m e n t and l i b r a r y .
C a m p u s o m b u d s m e n h a v e e n c o u n te r e d tw o m a j o r d iffic u ltie s
in c la s s if y in g s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s .

One c o n c e r n s th e n u m b e r of

s p e c ia l p r o b le m s th a t do not r e a d i ly fit in to an y p r e s c r i b e d c a te g o r y .

174
E x a m p le s a r e in a b ility to g e t a m a ilin g a d d r e s s ch an g ed , a b u s iv e
lan gu age by a u n i v e r s i t y e m p lo y e e , r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in s e l e c t ­
ing m e m b e r s f o r a c a m p u s o r g a n iz a tio n , and r e f u s a l by a u n iv e r s i ty
b o o k s to re to m a k e a refu n d .

T he o th e r c o n c e r n s th e n u m b e r of c o m ­

p la in ts th a t fit in to two o r m o r e c a t e g o r i e s .

F o r e x a m p le , i f a s t u ­

dent c l a im s h e h a s b e e n u n ju s tly f ir e d f ro m a c a m p u s jo b h e n e e d s
to pay fo r h is ro o m and b o a r d , should the p r o b le m be c la s s i f ie d a s
fin a n c ia l n e e d , h o u sin g o r e m p l o y m e n t - - o r a l l t h r e e ?

1

A ll s ix in te rv ie w e d o m b u d sm e n w e r e s u r p r i s e d by the
d iv e r s i ty and c o m p le x ity of s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s b ro u g h t to th e m .
Some p r o b le m s w e r e beyond the c o m p e te n c e of the o m b u d sm a n ,
r e q u ir in g p r o f e s s i o n a l le g a l, p s y c h i a t r i c o r m e d ic a l a tte n tio n .
The E ig h th R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
What a r e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s tu d e n ts
who c o n s u lt th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n ?
A ll c l a s s r a n k s , s tu d e n t ag e g r o u p s , and g r a d e p oin t and
stu d e n t h o u s in g c a t e g o r i e s a t M ic h ig an S tate U n iv e r s ity w e r e r e p r e ­
s e n te d by s tu d e n ts w ho c o n su lted th a t in stitu tion * s o m b u d sm a n d u rin g
the 1968 fa ll t e r m .

H o w e v e r, on a p r o p o r ti o n a l b a s i s , u p p e r c l a s s m e n ,

* R u st d e s c r i b e d th e c o m p la in t c l a s s i f ic a ti o n p r o b le m in h is
f i r s t r e p o r t to th e p r e s i d e n t a t M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s ity , "T h e
R e p o rt of th e U n iv e r s it y O m b u d sm a n to th e P r e s i d e n t f o r th e School
Y e a r, 1 96 7 -1968, " pp. 7 -8 .

175
m a le s tu d e n ts and m a r r i e d s tu d e n ts w e r e m o r e in c lin e d to c o n s u lt
the o m b u d s m a n w h ile u n d e r c l a s s m e n , fe m a le s tu d e n ts and sin g le
s tu d e n ts w e r e l e s s in c lin e d .

A lso on a p r o p o r ti o n a l b a s is , s tu d e n ts

fro m c e r t a i n c o l l e g e s - - p a r t i c u l a r l y A r t s and L e t t e r s and U n iv e r s it y
C o l l e g e - - w e r e " o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d " in th e o m b u d s m a n 's o ffic e w hile
s tu d e n ts fro m o th e r c o l l e g e s - - p a r t i c u l a r l y E d u c a tio n and N a tu r a l
S cie n ce--w e re "u n d er re p re se n te d . "
The N inth R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
What a r e th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s of
the c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n and th e c iv il o m b u d s m a n ?
Both the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n and th e c i v il o m b u d sm a n a r e
p r o f e s s io n a l p e r s o n s , e x p e r ie n c e d in s c h o l a r s h i p and p u b lic s e r v i c e .
Both a r e ap p o in te d r a t h e r th a n e le c te d to office.

Both a tte m p t to

r e d r e s s p e r s o n a l g r ie v a n c e s and to im p r o v e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

Both

re ly h e a v ily on p r e s t i g e and p e r s u a s i o n to a t t a i n t h e i r en d s.

Both

m ake r e c o m m e n d a tio n s bu t n e i th e r c a n r e v e r s e d e c is io n s .
has d isc ip lin ary n o r en fo rcem en t po w ers.
sible to c o m p la in a n ts .

Both a r e r e a d ily a c c e s ­

Both r e p o r t to the body w h ich ap p o in ted th e m ,

yet m a in ta in in d e p e n d e n c e fro m th a t body.
they w ill p u r s u e .

N e ith e r

Both d ec id e w h ich c a s e s

Both w o rk in a r e l a t i v e l y s ta b l e s y s te m of g o v e r n ­

m ent s u p p o r te d and t r u s t e d by m o s t o f the p e o p le m o s t of th e tim e .

176
Both can b r in g about p r o c e d u r a l re v ie w w ith in an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
ag ency .

N e ith e r fu n c tio n s in a f o r m a l, ju d ic ia l m a n n e r .
By c o n t r a s t, th e s c o p e of th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n 1 s s e r ­

v ic e s i s f a r m o r e r e s t r i c t e d th a n th a t of the c iv il o m b u d sm a n .

The

c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n u s u a lly s e r v e s only s tu d e n t c o m p la in a n ts a t one
in s titu tio n of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n w h ile th e c iv il o m b u d sm a n s e r v e s a l l
c itiz e n s o f a nation o r s ta te .

T he c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n i s l e s s lik e ly

to con du ct in v e s tig a tio n s on h is own in itia tiv e th a n is the c i v il o m ­
b u d sm a n .

The c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n n o r m a ll y w o r k s alone o r with

m in im a l a s s i s t a n c e ; th e c iv il o m b u d s m a n h a s a s ta ff.

The cam pus

o m b u d sm a n p ro b a b ly d o e s not h a v e f o r m a l le g a l tr a in in g ; th e c iv il
o m b u d sm a n u s u a lly i s a j u r i s t o r a la w y e r .

T he c a m p u s o m b u d s ­

m a n is m o r e lik e ly to s e r v e a s h o r t e r t e r m of o ffic e than th e civ il
o m b u d sm a n .

M o st c o m p la in ts a r e co nveyed to th e c a m p u s o m b u d s ­

m an in p e r s o n and to th e c iv il o m b u d sm a n by m a i l .

The p o s itio n o f

civil o m b u d sm a n i s m o r e p r e s ti g io u s th a n the p o s itio n of c a m p u s
o m b u d sm a n .
T h e T enth R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
What a r e th e s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s o f th e c a m p u s
o m b u d sm a n and o t h e r co lleg e an d u n iv e r s i ty f u n c tio n a r i e s ?
A s s ig n e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and o p e r a t io n a l p r o c e d u r e s d i s ­
tin g u ish th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n fro m o t h e r f u n c tio n a r ie s in h ig h e r

177
e d u c a tio n .

The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f ic e r he m o s t c l o s e ly r e s e m b l e s

is th e d e a n o r v ic e p r e s i d e n t fo r s tu d e n t a f f a i r s .

Both a r e a p p o in ted

o f f ic e r s who a t te m p t to h e lp s tu d e n ts so lv e t h e i r p r o b le m s .
th e r e a r e so m e b a s i c d if f e r e n c e s .

Y et

F o r one, th e c h ie f s tu d e n t a f f a i r s

o f fic e r c o o r d in a te s a s t a f f of a s s i s t a n t d e a n s , c o u n s e lo r s , h o u sin g
d i r e c t o r s and o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s tu d e n t p e r s o n n e l w o r k e r s .
o m b u d sm a n , by c o n t r a s t , h a s no s t a f f to s u p e r v i s e .

T he

Except for a

s e c r e t a r y , he u s u a lly w o r k s alo n e.
A no th er d if f e r e n c e is th a t w h ile th e c h ie f s tu d e n t a f f a i r s
o f fic e r i s c o n c e rn e d w ith s tu d e n t g ro w th and d e v e lo p m e n t, the m a in
t h r u s t o f h is r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s in th e n o n - a c a d e m i c o r c o - c u r r i c u l a r
area.

Student p r o b l e m s in v o lv in g s p e c if ic c o u r s e s and p r o f e s s o r s

as w e ll a s o th e r a c a d e m i c c o n c e r n s a r e g e n e r a l l y not c o n s id e r e d to
be w ith in the p u rv ie w of th e s tu d e n t a f f a i r s o ffic e .

By c o n s id e r in g

both a c a d e m ic an d n o n - a c a d e m ic p r o b le m s , th e o m b u d s m a n c o v e r s
a b r o a d e r range o f s tu d e n t c o n c e r n s th an th e c h ie f stu d e n t a f f a i r s
o ffic e r.
Still a n o t h e r d if f e r e n c e i s th a t th e c h ie f stu d e n t a f f a i r s
o ffic e r i s in v o l v e d - - d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y - - i n s tu d e n t d i s c i p l i n a r y
m a tte rs.

On m o s t c a m p u s e s , e n f o r c e m e n t of r u l e s and r e g u la tio n s

is h is u ltim a te r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

T h e o m b u d sm a n , on th e o th e r h an d ,

h a s no d is c ip li n a r y o r e n f o r c e m e n t p o w e rs .

178
F in a lly , the c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n h a s m o r e in v e s tig a to r y
a u th o rity th an the c h ie f stu d e n t a f f a i r s o f f ic e r in c e r t a i n s e n s i t i v e
a r e a s , s u c h a s a s tu d e n t c o m p la in t a g a in s t a te a c h in g fa c u lty m e m ­
ber,

A lso , the o m b u d s m a n m a y in v e s tig a te c o m p la in ts d i r e c t e d

a g a in s t the stu d e n t a f f a i r s office.

The c h ie f s tu d e n t a f f a i r s o f f ic e r

d o es n ot h a v e r e c i p r o c a l in v e s tig a to r y a u th o r ity r e g a r d i n g the o m ­
budsman* s o ffice.
M o r e than a n y o th e r fu n c tio n a ry , th e p r o f e s s io n a l s tu d e n t
p e r s o n n e l w o r k e r is lik e ly to r e g a r d the c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n a s an
e n c r o a c h m e n t, a n u is a n c e o r e v e n a th r e a t.

Clifford* s o b je c tio n to

an o m b u d sm a n and h i s c o n ten tio n th a t the om budsm an* s r o le sh o u ld
be a s s u m e d by the c h ie f stu d e n t a f f a i r s o ffic e r* i g n o r e s two i m p o r ­
tant c o n s id e r a tio n s .

One i s th e -c o n flic t th a t e x i s t s b e tw e e n fa c u lty

and stu d e n t p e r s o n n e l s ta f f a t m o s t c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s .

C h ie f

student a f f a i r s o f f ic e r s often a r e h eld in r e l a t i v e l y low e s t e e m by
te ach in g facu lty .
d em ic c o lle a g u e .

2

T h e o m b u d s m a n , on the o th e r h an d , i s a n a c a ­
T he o th e r c o n s id e r a tio n i s th e fact th a t s tu d e n t

d is c ip lin e i s u s u a lly one of the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of th e c h ie f s tu d e n t
* C liffo rd , "S eco nd T h o u g h ts on th e O m b u d sm a n in H ig h e r
E d u c a tio n ," pp. 4 -5 .
2 See K au ffm an , "T h e S tud ent in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n ," p. 153,
and T. R o g e r Nudd, " T h e D ean I s a M a r g in a l M a n ," J o u r n a l of E d u ­
cation al S o cio lo g y , XXXV ( D e c e m b e r , 1961), 145-51.

179
a f f a i r s o f f ic e r .

C o n seq u en tly , h e i s often r e g a r d e d w ith s u s p ic io n

o r r e s e n t m e n t by s tu d e n ts . * The o m b u d s m a n i s f r e e of th a t s tig m a .
A n o th e r p o s itio n w h ich r e s e m b l e s th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n
in so m e r e s p e c t s i s th a t of c o lle g e c h a p la in o r c a m p u s m i n i s t e r .
S tro u p h a s po in ted out th a t th e c o lle g e c h a p la in te n d s to b e a " m i d ­
dle m a n " r e a d i ly a c c e s s i b l e to th o s e w ith c o m p la in ts .

If h e is h ig hly

s k ille d , he m a y s u c c e e d both in m a in ta in in g the co n fid en ce of th o s e
who c o m p la in and th o s e to w hom th e c o m p la in ts a r e a d d r e s s e d .

2

F o r th e s e an d o th e r r e a s o n s , W hite h a s p r o p o s e d th a t c a m p u s m i n i s t e r s be c o n s id e r e d f o r c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n p o s ts .

g

T he m a in d i s ­

tin c tio n h e r e i s th a t th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n u s u a lly c o m e s fro m and
r e t u r n s tp th e fa c u lty r a n k s w h e r e a s the c a m p u s m i n i s t e r i s not c o n ­
s id e r e d a c o lle a g u e .

A lso , the m i n i s t e r ' s id e n tif ic a tio n w ith a

p a r t i c u l a r r e lig io u s faith o r d e n o m in a tio n m ig h t l im it h is e f f e c tiv e ­
n e s s on a c a m p u s w h e r e r e lig io u s a f f ilia tio n s a r e d i v e r s e .
1 K au ffm an ,

" T h e S tudent in H ig h e r E d u c a t i o n , " p. 156, and
Nudd, " T h e D ean Is a M a r g in a l M an, " p. 146. A ls o s e e P e t e r H.
A r m a c o s t, " F a c u lty - S tu d e n t P e r s o n n e l R e la tio n s h ip s : A H ouse
D iv id e d ," N A S P A - - J o u r n a l of th e A s s o c ia tio n of D ea n s and A d m in ­
i s t r a t o r s o f Student A f f a i r s , II ( J a n u a ry , 1965), 8 .
2

3
110.

S tro u p , B u r e a u c r a c y in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , pp. 182-83.
W h ite, " T h e O m b u d sm a n in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , " pp. 96-

180
The E le v e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
How d o e s th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n
a s s e s s h is e f f e c t iv e n e s s ?
A ll b u t one o f th e s ix in te rv ie w e d c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n
b e lie v e t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s h a v e h e lp e d a l le v i a te s tu d e n t f r u s t r a t i o n and
h o s tility .

A ll c o n s id e r good r e la tio n s h i p s w ith s tu d e n ts a s a p r im e

q u a lific a tio n f o r the p o s itio n .

A ll but one fe e l th a t the o m b u d sm an

m a y g ro w l e s s e ffe c tiv e a f t e r tw o y e a r s in o ffice.

F o u r of the six

b eliev e t h e i r o ffic e w ill be in e x is te n c e te n y e a r s h e n c e ; tw o a r e
u n c e r ta in .

Both R u s t a t M ic h ig an State and N o rm a n a t San Diego

State h a v e e s t i m a t e d th a t fro m tw o - th ir d s to t h r e e - f o u r t h s of the
c o m p la in ts b ro u g h t to th em d u r in g t h e i r f i r s t y e a r in office w e re
se ttle d to th e s tu d e n t s 1 s a tis f a c tio n . * W hite a ls o h a s m a d e a f a v o r2
able a s s e s s m e n t of h i s e f f e c tiv e n e s s a t San J o s e S tate.
H o w ev er,
none of th e s ix h a s a tte m p te d to m e a s u r e h i s e f f e c tiv e n e s s by s y s t e ­
m a tic a lly s a m p lin g s tu d e n ts w ho h ave c o n s u lte d h im .

* B r ill , "O m budsm an* s P o w e r H e lp s S tu d e n ts ," M ic h ig an
State N e w s , O c to b e r 30, 1968, p. 1 . N o rm a n , T he O m bu dsm an:
A New B ird on C a m p u s , p. 6 .
2
73.

W hite, " T h e O m b u d sm a n in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n ," pp. 72-

181
T he T w elfth R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
How do s tu d e n ts w ho c o n s u lt the c a m p u s
o m b u d sm a n a s s e s s h is e f f e c t iv e n e s s ?
S u rv e y ed s tu d e n ts who c o n s u lte d th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n
d u rin g th e 1968 f a ll t e r m a t M ic h ig a n State U n iv e r s it y g e n e r a lly
r e g a r d e d th e o m b u d sm a n a s e ffe c tiv e in h e lp in g th e m o v e r c o m e
in s titu tio n a l o b s ta c le s .

T w o - th ir d s of them fe lt th at he w as i n s t r u ­

m e n ta l in r e lie v in g s tu d e n t f r u s t r a t i o n and h o s tility .

N e a r ly h a l f of

th e m a l r e a d y h ad ta k e n t h e i r p r o b le m s to .tw o o r m o r e p e r s o n s in
a u th o rity b e f o r e c o n su ltin g the o m b u d sm a n .

M o st s tu d e n ts who

c o n su lte d th e o m b u d s m a n w e r e s a t i s f i e d th a t he had d one e v e ry th in g
w ith in h ie a u th o r ity to h e lp th e m .

T h e r e f o r e , they w ould r e t u r n to

h im w ith o th e r p r o b le m s and r e c o m m e n d h im to o th e r s tu d e n ts .
T h e ir a s s e s s m e n t i s s u m m a r i z e d a t the end o f C h a p te r IV.
The T h ir te e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e stio n
Do s tu d e n ts who c o n s u lt th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n e x p e rie n c e
r e ta lia tio n f r o m th o se inv o lv ed in t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s ?
O nly th i r t e e n of 207 s tu d e n ts who c o n s u lte d th e o m b u d sm a n
d u rin g th e 1968 fa ll t e r m a t M ic h ig a n State U n iv e r s it y l a t e r e x p e r i ­
enced " u n p le a s a n t t r e a t m e n t " by an y o n e in v o lv e d in t h e i r c o m p la in t.
No c a s e s of s e v e r e r e tr ib u ti o n w e r e r e p o r t e d .
m ation a p p e a r s in C h a p te r IV.

M o r e d e ta ile d i n f o r ­

182
The F o u r te e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
Is c o n fid e n tia lity i m p o r ta n t to s tu d e n ts
who c o n s u lt th e c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n ?
N e a r l y t h r e e - f o u r t h s of 216 s tu d e n ts who c o n s u lte d the
o m b u d sm a n d u rin g th e 1968 fa ll t e r m a t M ic h ig an S tate U n iv e r s ity
would not h a v e b ee n d e t e r r e d if h is r e c o r d s w e r e o pen f o r in s p e c tio n
by anyone.

O f the r e m a in in g o n e - f o u rth , t w e n t y - s e v e n s tu d e n ts

would h a v e b een d e t e r r e d a n d th i r t y w e r e u n c e r t a in .

T h e in d ic a tio n

is th at m o s t s tu d e n ts a r e u n c o n c e r n e d about c o n fid e n tia lity .

How­

e v e r, th o s e s tu d e n ts who a r e c o n c e r n e d w ill n o t b r in g t h e i r p r o b ­
le m s to th e o m b u d sm a n w ith o u t the a s s u r a n c e of p r iv a c y .

M o re

d e ta ile d in f o r m a tio n a p p e a r s in C h a p te r IV.
The F ifte e n th R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n
Can a m o d e l be d e v e lo p ed f o r c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n
to follow, w ith m o d if ic a tio n s to m e e t the s p e c if ic
n eed s of t h e i r in s titu tio n ?
T h e six in te r v ie w e d c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n do not a g r e e th a t
a m o d e l can be d e v e lo p e d th a t i s a p p lic a b le to a l l in s t itu ti o n s of
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .

N o rm a n , fo r e x a m p le , h a s s ta te d th a t b e c a u s e

th e r e i s no m o d e l o m b u d sm a n , " e a c h p r a c t i t i o n e r m u s t fit th e p a r ­
ti c u l a r n e e d s of s tu d e n ts a t h is u n iv e r s i ty .

R u s t, on th e o th e r

^ N o rm a n , The O m b u d sm a n : A New B ird on C a m p u s , p. 1.

hand, b e lie v e s that h is o p e r a t io n a l p r o c e d u r e s a r e a p p lic a b le to
any u n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s.

H e h a s c i r c u la te d n u m e r o u s c o p ie s of a

b r o c h u r e d e s c r ib in g th o s e p r o c e d u r e s and h a s s e e n th e m followed
e ls e w h e r e .

S c h lo s s b e r g h a s e m p h a s iz e d th e n e e d fo r a c a m p u s

o m b u d sm a n m o d e l b e f o r e the c o n c e p t b e c o m e s too " b a s ta r d iz e d . "*
W hen the f i r s t c a m p u s o m b u d s m e n lo ok ed fo r a m o d e l,
they tu r n e d to the D a n ish c iv il o m b u d sm a n , m a k in g n e c e s s a r y
a d ju s tm e n ts to fit t h e i r co lleg e o r u n iv e r s i ty .

G e n e ra lly , ca m p u s

o m b u d sm e n w ho have follow ed th a t m o d e l h a v e been m o r e effectiv e
th an th o se w ho have a c c e p te d th e o ffice w itho u t c a r e f u lly c o n s id e r in g
it s o r ig in and r o le in c i v i l g o v e rn m e n t.
T h e m o d e l s u g g e s te d h e r e i s th at o f th e D a n ish c iv il o m ­
b u d sm a n a d ju s te d to the o r g a n iz a tio n a l " c l i m a t e " of th e m o d e rn
A m e r ic a n in s titu tio n o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .

It c lo s e ly r e s e m b l e s the

office of o m b u d sm a n a t M ich ig an S tate U n iv e r s ity b e c a u s e no o th e r
la r g e u n iv e r s i t y h a s y e t eq u a led th a t in s titu tio n in e ffe c tiv e ly t r a n s ­
f e r r i n g th e c iv il g o v e rn m e n t c o n c e p t to the a c a d e m ic s c e n e .

The

f e a t u r e s l i s t e d a r e c o n s id e r e d e s s e n t i a l to th e p r o p e r functioning o f
a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n o p e ra tio n :
* S c h lo s s b e rg , " T h e O m b u d sm a n in C u r r e n t S ta tu s and
T h e o ry , " u n p u b lish e d s p e e c h d e l iv e r e d a t m e e tin g on o m b u d sm a n
in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in D e tr o it, M i c h ., O c to b e r 24, 1968, p. 5.

184
1.

T he in s titu tio n w ith a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n should h a v e
a n o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e w h ich is r e l a t i v e l y s ta b le ,
s u p p o r te d and t r u s t e d by m o s t of the p e o p le w ith in it
m o s t of the t i m e .

.

T he office of o m b u d sm a n sh o u ld be e q u iv a le n t in s a l a r y
and p r e s t i g e to th a t of h ig h - le v e l a c a d e m ic and a d m i n ­
i s t r a t i v e p o s itio n s .

3.

T he c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n sh o u ld be a lo n g - tim e fa c u lty
m e m b e r a t th e in stitu tio n , e x p e r ie n c e d in te a c h in g and
a d v is in g , and h ig h ly r e s p e c t e d by s tu d e n ts , c o lle a g u e s
and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . R e g a r d l e s s of h i s a c a d e m ic d i s ­
c ip lin e , he sh o u ld h a v e s o m e r u d im e n t a r y know ledge of
th e law and sh o u ld b e c o m e th o ro u g h ly a c q u a in te d w ith
th e c iv il o m b u d sm a n c o n c e p t.

4.

H e sh o uld be c a r e f u l ly s e l e c t e d by a c o m m itte e r e p r e ­
s e n tin g s tu d e n ts , facu lty an d a d m in is tr a tio n . T he
a c t u a l a p p o in tm e n t should b e m a d e o r c o n firm e d by the
g o v e rn in g b o a r d of the in s titu tio n upon th e r e c o m m e n d a ­
tio n of it s c h ie f a d m in i s t r a t i v e o ffic e r.

5.

H e sh o uld be ap p o in ted f o r a tw o - y e a r t e r m of o ffice,
re n e w a b le by m u tu a l a g r e e m e n t of the o m b u d sm a n and
th e s e le c tio n c o m m itte e .

.

H e sho uld m a k e p e r io d ic r e p o r t s of a g e n e r a l n a t u r e
th a t a r e w id ely p u b lic iz ed to a l l m e m b e r s of th e i n s t i ­
tu tio n . He a l s o m a y m a k e c o n fid e n tia l r e p o r t s w ith
r e c o m m e n d a tio n s to the c h ie f a d m in is t r a tiv e o f f ic e r ,
w ho should d e t e r m i n e the e x te n t of t h e i r c ir c u la tio n .

2

6

7.

W h ile s e r v in g a s o m b u d sm a n , he sho uld not be r e q u i r e d
to te a c h c o u r s e s o r p e r f o r m o th e r f a c u lty d u tie s .

.

H e sho uld h a v e a p r iv a te o ffic e s e p a r a t e fro m th e m a in
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n bu ilding and e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e to s t u ­
d e n t s . He sh o u ld h av e a s e c r e t a r y b ut n o t a s ta ff .

9.

H e sh o u ld be r e c e p tiv e to in d iv id u a l s tu d e n t g r ie v a n c e s
c o n c e rn in g th e in s titu tio n , b o th of an a c a d e m ic and
n o n - a c a d e m ic n a t u r e . He sh o u ld d e c id e w hich c o m ­
p la in ts a r e w ith in h is j u r i s d i c t i o n and c o m p e te n c e and
w h ic h of th o s e m e r i t h is in v e s tig a tio n .

8

185
10.

He sh o u ld u s e r e a s o n e d p e r s u a s i o n to b r in g abo u t
r e d r e s s of g en u in e s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s a s e x p e d itio u s ly
and e q u ita b ly a s p o s s ib le .

11.

W h e re a p a t te r n o f stu d e n t g r ie v a n c e s d e v e lo p s , he
should w o rk f o r a change in r e g u la tio n s , p r o c e d u r e s
o r p e r s o n n e l to p r e v e n t su c h p r o b le m s fro m r e c u r r i n g .

12.

He sh o u ld not co n d u c t in v e s tig a tio n s on h i s own i n i t i a ­
tiv e b u t r a t h e r in r e s p o n s e to s tu d e n t c o m p la in ts .

13.

He sh o u ld have a c c e s s to a l l c a m p u s o ffic e s and f ile s ,
e x c e p t m e d ic a l, p s y c h o lo g ic a l and g o v e r n m e n tc l a s s i f ie d r e c o r d s .

14.

He sh o u ld k ee p w r i t t e n r e c o r d s on e a c h c a s e he c o n ­
s i d e r s and th o s e r e c o r d s sh ou ld be c o n fid e n tia l.

15.

When reb u ffe d in th e c o u r s e o f a n in v e s tig a tio n , he
sh o uld h av e th e a u th o r ity to a p p e a l to th e c h ie f a d m i n ­
i s t r a t i v e o f f ic e r f o r in te rv e n tio n .

16.

He sh o u ld not h a v e a u th o rity to ta k e d i s c i p l i n a r y a c tio n ,
r e v e r s e d e c is io n s o r c ir c u m v e n t r e g u la tio n s . H is
p o w e r should l i e in h is p r e s t i g e , p e r s u a s i v e n e s s and
p e r s i s t e n c e in s ta tin g h is v ie w s to p e r s o n s in v o lv e d in
a g r ie v a n c e and, i f n e c e s s a r y , to t h e i r o r g a n iz a tio n a l
su p e rio rs.

17.

The c a m p u s o m b u d s m a n sh o uld s u p p le m e n t, not s u p e r ­
ced e, o th e r m e a n s of r e d r e s s f o r s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s .

18.

D e c is io n s on w h e th e r to co n tin u e th e office sho uld be
b a s e d on s y s t e m a t i c s a m p lin g of s tu d e n ts who h a v e
c o n s u lte d the o m b u d s m a n .

Few n o n - te a c h in g r o l e s in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a r e a s d e m a n d in g - - y e t allow a s m u c h la titu d e f o r in d iv id u a l s ty le and p e r s o n a l i t y - a s that of o m b u d sm a n .

He s e e m s to p e r f o r m b e s t w h e r e h e h a s a

s p e c ific m a n d a te , v ag u e g u id e lin e s and b r o a d s u p p o r t.

A lthough th e

186

c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n ca n in flu e n c e im p r o v e m e n ts in in s titu tio n a l
p o lic ie s and p r o c e d u r e s , m u c h o f h is d a y - to - d a y a c tiv ity i s in d iv id ­
u a l c a s e w o rk w h o se r e s u l t s a r e l o n g - t e r m and c u m u la tiv e , and
t h e r e f o r e d iffic u lt t o a s s e s s .
C o n c lu s io n s
A lthough th e o m b u d s m a n co n c ep t i s w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d in
*

c iv il g o v e r n m e n t, i t i s s t i l l a n in n o v a tio n and an e x p e r i m e n t in
A m e r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .

R e g a r d e d a s a fad a n d a t h r e a t by s o m e

fa c u lty and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , th e c o n c e p t i s r e c e iv in g m u c h o f i t s
in it ia l s u p p o r t f ro m s tu d e n ts .

S anfo rd h a s d e p lo r e d th e te n d e n c y of

the c o lle c tiv e fa c u lty to r e s i s t in n o v a tio n , * w h ich R o u rk e and B r o o k s
m a in ta in d o e s not r e f l e c t s o m u c h a la c k of v is io n o r a d e f e n s e of
v e s te d i n t e r e s t s a s a b e lie f t h a t h ig h e r e d u c a tio n " c o u ld e a s i l y be
d am a g e d by a d m i n i s t r a t i v e in n o v a tio n s w hich m ig h t be p e r f e c t ly a c c e p ta b le in o t h e r ty p e s of o r g a n iz a tio n s . "

2

L utz h a s e n c o u ra g e d th e

u n iv e r s i ty to r e c o g n i z e th a t th e only w ay to avoid d is r u p tiv e chanjge
i s to p ro v id e c h a n n e ls f o r s tu d e n t g r i e v a n c e s so th a t the n a t u r e and
s o u r c e s of th e g r i e v a n c e s c a n be d i s c o v e r e d and th e " s y s t e m " m a d e
1 S a n fo rd ,

2

e d . , The A m e r i c a n C o lle g e , pp. 19-21.

R o u rk e and B r o o k s , T he M a n a g e r ia l R e v o lu tio n in H ig h e r
E du catio n , p. 1 .

187
m o r e r e s p o n s i v e an d a c c e s s i b l e .

1

L ooking a h e a d to 1980, S anford

h a s p r e d ic te d th a t c o lle g e s o r u n i v e r s i t i e s w h o se a u t h o r i t i e s c a n
lis te n to s tu d e n ts and a d a p t in r e a s o n a b le w a y s to r e a s o n a b le d e m a n d s
w ill avoid s e r i o u s tr o u b le .

" T h e n e x t 12 y e a r s w ill be a p e r io d of

m u c h e x p e r im e n ta tio n and in n o v a tio n on c o lle g e c a m p u s e s , " h e
added. 2
A s w ith an y inn o v atio n , th e p o sitio n of c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n
is m o r e lik e ly to be a c c e p te d if i t i s p e r c e iv e d a s a s u p p le m e n t
t

r a t h e r than a t h r e a t to e x is tin g p r a c t i c e .

A s M ile s h a s pointed out,

in n o v a tio n s w hich c a n be added to a p r o g r a m w ithout s e r i o u s l y d i s /
3
tu rb in g o t h e r p a r t s of it a r e lik e ly to be ad o p ted .
K e r r a ls o h a s
noted th a t in the u n i v e r s i t y change " c o m e s m o r e thro u g h spaw ning
the new th a n r e f o r m i n g th e o l d . "

4

E v a n s h a s in d ic a te d th a t the

d e g r e e of a c c e p ta n c e of an in n o v a tio n by p r o f e s s o r s m a y p a r t l y
depend on w h e th e r th e y view the in n o v a tio n a s b eing in s titu te d o r
im p o s e d by th e u n iv e r s i ty a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o r w h e th e r th e y fe e l th a t
1R o b e rt L u tz , " C o m m e n t , " D e n v e r Law J o u r n a l, XLV
(Special, 1968), 5 7 6 -7 7 .
2

S an ford , " T h e C o l l e g e S tudent of 1 9 8 0 ," in C a m p u s 1980,

p. 197.
3

M . B. M ile s , ed. , In n o vatio n in E d u c a tio n (New Y ork:
T e a c h e r s C o lle g e , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity , 1964), p. 638.
4
K e r r , T he U s e s of th e U n i v e r s i t y , p. 102.

it o r ig in a te d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i r own p lanning. * T he s a m e o b s e r v a ­
tio n p ro b a b ly h o ld s t r u e fo r s tu d e n ts .

A n o th e r f a c t o r i s th a t s o m e

in s titu tio n s , m o r e than o t h e r s , p r o v id e a m o r e r e c e p tiv e s o c ia l
c lim a te f o r th e in tr o d u c tio n and a c c e p ta n c e of in n o v a tio n s.

2

R o g e r s h a s li s t e d five c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich, w hen view ed
fro m th e sta n d p o in t of in d iv id u a l o r g ro u p p e r c e p tio n s , p a s t r e s e a r c h
h a s found to a ffe c t th e r a t e of a d o p tio n of a n in n o v a tio n .

They are:

(1) r e la tiv e a d v a n ta g e , (2) c o m p a tib ility , (3) c o m p le x ity , (4) d i v i s i ­
b ility , and (5) c o m m u n ic a b ility .

T he in d iv id u a l d e t e r m i n e s r e la tiv e

ad van tage l a r g e l y on the b a s i s of w h e th e r h e th in k s th e p r o p o s e d i n ­
novation w ill im p r o v e the e x is tin g s itu a tio n .

C o m p a tib ility c o n c e r n s

th e d e g r e e to w hich p o te n tia l a d o p t e r s f e e l it i s c o n s is te n t w ith t h e i r
v a lu e s and e x p e r i e n c e s .

The m o s t f re q u e n t d iv is ib ility th a t p o te n tia l

a d o p te r s e m p lo y i s th a t o f lim ite d ad o p tio n , "w h ich by not r e q u ir in g
w h o le h e a rte d a c c e p ta n c e of an in n o v a tio n le a v e s th e w ay open to
3
r e t u r n to an o ld e r id e a a t any tim e . " If c a r e f u l ly in tr o d u c e d and
im p le m e n te d , th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n c o n c e p t h a s f e a t u r e s w hich
fav o r a r a p id r a t e of adoption.
*E v a n s , R e s is t a n c e to Inn o v atio n in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n ,
p. 153.

189
The te s tin g p e r io d f o r th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n c o n c e p t h a s
not ended; it h a s j u s t begun.

I t s p la c e o r p e r m a n e n c e in th e o r g a n i ­

z a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e of th e u n i v e r s i t y i s not fu lly e s ta b lis h e d .

D u rin g

th e n ex t few y e a r s , m a n y m o r e c o lle g e s an d u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e lik e ly
to " t r y o u t" th e p o sitio n .

A s w ith m o s t id e a s b o r ro w e d f r o m g o v ­

e r n m e n t by h i g h e r e d u c a tio n , the c o n c e p t m a y u n d e r g o a d d itio n a l
ch a n g es to m a k e it m o r e w o rk a b le and a c c e p ta b le w ith in th e a c a ­
d e m ic in s titu tio n .

T he s p r e a d of th e o m b u d s m a n id e a in h ig h e r

e d u c a tio n w ill be c lo s e ly tie d to i t s r a t e o f ado p tio n in c iv il g o v e r n ­
m e n t.
To the e x te n t th a t th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n i s p e r c e iv e d a s
a t e m p o r a r y e x p e d i e n t - - a " g i m m i c k " - - i n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , h i s c o n ­
tin u a tio n i s in doubt.

To th e e x te n t th a t h e i s r e g a r d e d a s a p e r m a ­

nent a d d itio n p e r f o r m i n g n e c e s s a r y fu n c tio n s , h i s s ta b ili ty i s a s ­
sured.

T h u s, e a c h in s titu tio n would be w e ll a d v is e d to stu d y th e

o m b u d sm a n c o n c e p t and i t s im p l ic a tio n s c a r e f u l ly b e f o r e d e c id in g
w h e th e r to ad o p t it.
It i s a m i s t a k e f o r an in s titu tio n to e x p e c t to o m u c h of its
ca m p u s o m b u d s m a n .

E v en w hen p e r f o r m i n g e ffe c tiv e ly , he i s not

cap ab le of w a rd in g off m a j o r s tu d e n t c o n f r o n ta tio n s of a p o litic a l
n a tu re c h a lle n g in g the o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e of th e in s titu tio n .

A

cam p u s o m b u d s m a n , f o r e x a m p le , w ould not h a v e p r e v e n te d s tu d e n t

190
u p r i s i n g s on th e s c a le o f th o s e a t B e r k e le y , C o lu m b ia an d San
F r a n c i s c o S tate .

He r e l i e v e s s tu d e n t p r e s s u r e s and f r u s t r a t i o n s ,

h e i m p r o v e s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , but he d o e s not put down m a s s stu d e n t
r e b e llio n s .
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s
M o st r e s e a r c h e n d e a v o r s end w ith a p le a fo r f u r t h e r i n v e s t i ­
g atio n .

T h is s tu d y i s no e x c e p tio n .

A lthough a g r e a t d e a l of i n f o r ­

m a tio n h a s b e e n p r e s e n te d on th e s e p a g e s , the e m p h a s is on M ic h ig an
S tate U n iv e r s ity le a v e s u n a n s w e re d m a n y q u e s tio n s ab o u t stu d e n t and
facu lty r e a c tio n to th e c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n a t o t h e r in s titu tio n s .
C o m p a ra tiv e s tu d i e s would p ro v id e a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s iv e view .
A lso , p e r s o n a l in te r v i e w s w ith c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n o t h e r th an th e
s ix s e le c te d f o r th is in v e s tig a tio n w ould e n l a r g e th e " c o m p o s ite "
p ic tu r e of th i s new fu n c tio n a ry in A m e r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .

In

ad ditio n, a s y s t e m a t i c stu d y n e e d s to be m a d e of stu d e n t o m b u d s ­
m e n and o th e r a l t e r n a t e m e th o d s f o r r e d r e s s i n g s tu d e n t g r ie v a n c e s .
F in a lly , an in te r n a tio n a l s u r v e y m ig h t r e v e a l th a t c o lle g e s and
u n i v e r s i t i e s in n a tio n s o th e r th a n th e U nited S ta te s a ls o a r e e x p e r i ­
m e n tin g w ith th e o m b u d sm a n co n c e p t.

B e c a u s e o f.n a tio n a l i n t e r e s t

in th e c iv il o m b u d s m a n in A u s t r a l i a , C a n ad a , G r e a t B r ita in and
W e s te rn E u ro p e , u n i v e r s i t i e s in th o s e p a r t s of th e w o rld a r e p e r h a p s
the in s titu tio n s m o s t lik e ly to be in v o lv e d in s u c h e x p e r im e n ta tio n .

191
T h e s e s u g g e s tio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a r e tie d to the
u n d erly in g r e a s o n f o r conducting th is s t u d y - - t h e p r e s s i n g n e e d f o r
m o r e in f o rm a tio n .

H opefully , th e s te p ta k e n h e r e w ill le a d to m o r e

s te p s to w a rd a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e s ig n ific a n c e of th e o m b u d s ­
m a n in A m e r ic a n h ig h e r ed u c atio n .

S E L E C T E D BIBLIOGRAPHY

1

S E L E C T E D BIBLIO GRA PH Y

P u b lis h e d S o u rc e s
B ooks
A a ro n , T h o m a s J . T he C o n tro l o f P o lic e D is c r e tio n : The D an ish
E x p e r i e n c e . S p rin g fie ld , 111.: C h a r l e s C. Thoijaas,
P u b l i s h e r , 1966.
A n d e rs o n , S tan ley V. C a n a d ia n O m b u d sm a n P r o p o s a l s . B e rk e le y ,
C a l i f . : I n s titu te of G o v e r n m e n ta l S tu d ies, 1966.
Englew ood

, ed. O m b u d sm e n f o r A m e r i c a n G o v e r n m e n t?
C liffs, N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1968.
A r g y r i s , C h r i s . P e r s o n a l i t y and O r g a n iz a tio n .
& Row, 1957.

New Y ork: H a r p e r
H arper &

B a rz u n , J a c q u e s . T he A m e r i c a n U n iv e r s ity .
Row, 1968.

New Y o rk

B e n n is, W a r r e n G. C hanging O r g a n i z a t i o n s .
H ill Book C o m p an y , 1966.

New Y ork: M c G ra w -

B iddle, B ru c e J . , and T h o m a s , E dw in J . R o le T h e o ry : C o n c e p ts
and R e s e a r c h . New Y o rk : Jo h n W iley and Sons , I n c . ,
1966.
B lau, P e t e r M. B u r e a u c r a c y in M o d e rn S o c ie ty .
H o u se, 1967.

New Y ork: R and o m

B oulding, K en n e th E . T he O r g a n iz a tio n a l R e v o lu tio n .
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P a r l i a m e n t a r y A f f a i r s (London), XXI (W in te r, 1907-68),
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G la z e r , N ath an . 11* S tudent P o w e r ' in B e r k e l e y . "
I n t e r e s t , XIII ( F a ll, 1968), 3 -2 1 .
"G rie v a n c e M an v. B u r e a u c r a c y . "

The P u b lic

T im e , LXXX (A ugust 24, 1962),

20.

G r o s s m a n , H o w ard J . "Do School D i s t r i c t s Need an O m b u d s m a n ."
A m e r ic a n School B o a rd J o u r n a l , CLV ( D e c e m b e r , 1967),
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H a m ilto n , R an d y H. " C a n You F ig h t C ity H a ll and W in ? "
M a n a g e m e n t, X LIX ( O c to b e r, 1967), 2 6 8 -7 5 .
" O m b u d s m a n o r W h a t? "
(M a rc h , 1968), 132-37+.

P u b lic

N atio n al C iv ic R e v ie w , LVII

"O m b u d sm a n : W hat H e Can and C annot Do. " A m e r ic a n
C i ty , LXXXIII (May, 1968), 40, 44.
"H andling th e People* s G r i e v a n c e s . " C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y , LXXXII
(O c to b e r 27, 1965), 1310-11.
H e n d e rs o n , A lgo D. " T h e D e s i r e d In flu e n ce , " J o u r n a l of H ig h e r
E d u c a tio n , XXXVIII (June, 1967), 30 4 -1 1 .
Hogan, C h a r l e s . " P r o p o s e r s of R e fo r m . " S a tu rd a y R e v ie w , L
( J a n u a r y 7, 1967), 3 7 -3 8 ,
H u rw itz , S tephan. "D enm ark* s O m b u d sm a n : T he P a r l i a m e n t a r y
C o m m i s s i o n e r f o r C iv il and M il ita r y G o v e rn m e n t A d m in ­
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99.

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J a g e r s k i o l d , Stig. " T h e Sw edish O m b u d s m a n ." U n iv e r s it y of
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P h i D e lta K ap p a n , XLVIII (M a rc h , 1967), 3 1 1 -1 5 .
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M a g a z in e , XIV, 2 - 3 , 24.

W eekend

"MSU A p p o in ts D ean A s F i r s t O m b u d sm a n . " A m e r ic a n School and
U n i v e r s i t y , X L (O c to b e r, 1967), 58.
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203
M u e lle r , K a te . “ T h r e e D ile m m a s of th e Student P e r s o n n e l P r o f e s ­
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VII (Ju n e , 1964), 179-209.

C an ad ia n B a r J o u r n a l ,

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*

N elso n , B r y c e . "S tud ent P o w e r: D e m a n d s f o r C hange a t Stony
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5 4 5-4 8.
N o r t o n - T a y l o r , D uncan. " M e g a v e r s i t y 1 s S tru g g le w ith I ts e lf. "
F o r t u n e , LXXV (May, 1967), 161-65.
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" O m b u d sm a n , A n y o n e ? "
129.

N atio n a l R e v ie w , XIII (A ugust 28, 1962),

"O m b u d sm a n a t B e rk e le y , " P hi D e lta K a p p a n , L ( J a n u a ry , 1969),
307.
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" O m b u d s m a n - -O n The M o v e ."
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P u b lic M a n a g e m e n t, X LIX (O c to b e r,

" O m b u d s m a n - - T h e P e o p l e 's C h a m p io n ." A m e r ic a n B a r A s s o c i a ­
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T he P u b lic I n t e r e s t , XIII ( F a ll, 1968), 173-97.

11

P e e l, R oy V . , ed . " T h e O m b u d sm a n o r Citizen* s D e fe n d e r: A
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P a r t i c u l a r R e f e r e n c e to th e New Z e a la n d O m b u d sm a n , "
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C h r i s t i a n C e n tu r y ,

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1"

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A m e r ic a n C ity , LXXXII (Ju n e , 1968),

S c h lo s s b e r g , N ancy K. "An O m b u d sm a n f o r S tu d en ts. " N A SPA- J o u r n a l of th e A s s o c ia tio n of D e a n s and A d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f
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2 4 -2 5 .

T i m e , XCI (May 3, 1968),

N e w s p a p e r an d N e w s le tte r A r t i c l e s
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1966, p. 44.

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" A u d ito r G e n e r a l N a m e d a s B r i t i s h O m b u d s m a n . 11 New Y ork
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New Y o rk T i m e s , J u n e 7, 1967, p . 40,
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t

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M o n it o r , A p r i l 1, 1962, p. 20.

C h r i s t i a n S cie n ce

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M ic h ig a n S tate N e w s , J a n u a r y 16, 1969, p. 14.
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"O m b u d sm a n I s U rg e d by N. Y .U . A d v is o r y B o a rd , " New Y ork
T i m e s , N o v e m b e r 19, 1967, p. 116.
"O m b u d sm a n P la n U rg e d in N e w a rk . " New Y ork T i m e s , A p r il 28,
1968, p. 44.
"O m b u d sm a n U rg e d T o P r o t e c t P o o r . " New Y o rk T i m e s , O c to b e r 27,
1967, p. 56.

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P a r n e s s , B a r b a r a . "O m budflm en P e r f o r m No M i r a c l e s . " M ich ig an
S tate N e w s , J a n u a r y 6 , 1969, p. 17.
" P r o f e s s o r H e r b e r t I. L ondon E le c te d New O m b u d s m a n ." N e w s ­
l e t t e r , G ra d u a te S tu d e n ts O r g a n iz a tio n , School o f E d u c a tio n ,
New Y o rk U n iv e r s ity , J a n u a r y , 1969, p. 1.
" P ro file :

S ir E d m u n d C o m p to n , T h e New O m b u d sm a n . "
T im e s (London), A p r i l 2, 1967, p. 11.

Sunday

" P u b lic P r o t e c t o r . " E d ito r ia l, New Y o rk T i m e s , O c to b e r 14, 1965,
p. 46.
"A R e a l O m b u d sm a n . " E d i t o r i a l , New Y o rk T i m e s , J u n e 22, 1967,
p. 38.
"R ep. R e u s s B e g in s O m b u d sm a n T e s t . "
a r y 5, 1967, p. 67.
" R ig h ts C a m p a ig n Begun in San J o s e . "
1967, p. 33.

New Y o rk T i m e s , F e b r u ­
New Y o rk T i m e s , O c to b e r 3,

R o s e n th a l, B e n ja m in S. " O m b u d s m a n a s C itiz e n - G o v e r n m e n t L ink. "
L e t t e r to e d ito r , New Y o rk T i m e s , F e b r u a r y 2, 1967, p. 34.
S alpu kas, A g is. " 'O m b u d s m a n ' on L. I. F in d s D efea t H a s G iven
H im M o r e P o w e r . " New Y o rk T i m e s , D e c e m b e r 3, 1967,
p. 59.
S ikes, J a m e s R. " L . I. O m b u d sm a n Is a B u s y A d v is e r . " New Y ork
T i m e s , N o v e m b e r 20, 1966, p. 53.
S ilv e r, Roy R. " N ic k e r s o n N a m e s a P u b lic P r o t e c t o r . "
T i m e s , J u n e 1, 1966, p. 1.

New Y o rk

"S om ebody to L i s t e n . " E d i t o r i a l , New Y o rk T i m e s , M ay 13, 1967,
p. 32.
Stepp, C a r l . "N oland A ppointed F i r s t O m b u d sm a n . " G a m e c o c k ,
c a m p u s n e w s p a p e r a t U n iv e r s it y of South C a ro lin a ,
O c to b e r 29, 1968, p. 1.
"Stony B ro o k A pp o in ts 3 F a c u lty O m b u d s m e n ." New Y o rk T i m e s ,
A p r i l 16, 1967, p. 82.

210
T w itc h e ll, B e v e r ly . " A c a d e m ic F r e e d o m R e p o rt Swings Into
E f f e c t . " M ic h ig an S tate N e w s, p. 10.
"U . of C h icag o O m b u d s m a n ." New Y o rk T im e s , O c to b e r 9, 1968,
p. 47.
" U n iv e r s i ty O m b u d s m a n K ept B u sy a t Stony B ro o k . " New Y o rk
T i m e s , D e c e m b e r 10, 1967, p. 146.
"U P C O pen M e etin g W ill D is c u s s O m b u d s m a n ." U CLA D a ily
B r u i n , F e b r u a r y 25, 1969, pp. 2 - 3 .
W a g g o n er, W a lte r H. "N e w a rk M a y o r B a r s P o lic e R eview B o a rd . "
New Y o rk T i m e s , M a rc h 1, 1968, p. 1.
W is k a r i, W e r n e r . " N o r w a y 's E x p e r ie n c e : How a n O m b u d sm a n
O p e r a t e s . " New Y o rk T i m e s , N o v e m b e r 20, 1966, IV,
p. 3.
P a m p h le ts
A d m i n i s t r a t o r 's Handbook: U n d e r s ta n d in g th e J o in t S ta te m e n t on
R ig h ts and F r e e d o m s of S tu d e n ts . C hicago: C o lle g e and
U n iv e r s ity B u s i n e s s , u n d ated .
F a c u lty and Staff H an d b o o k . E a s t e r n M on tan a C o lle g e , S e p te m b e r
1967. " O m b u d s m a n , " pp. 62 -6 3 .
K ra th w o h l, D avid R. How to P r e p a r e a R e s e a r c h P r o p o s a l . S y r a ­
c u s e , N . Y . : By th e A u th o r, S y r a c u s e U n iv e r s ity , 1966.
M ichigan State: P r o f i l e of a U n i v e r s i t y . E a s t L an sin g : U n iv e r s ity
E d i t o r ' s O ffice, M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s ity , u n d a te d .
N o rm a n , N elso n F . T he O m b u d sm a n : A New B ir d on C a m p u s .
San D ieg o State C o lle g e , u n d a te d .
S c h n e id e r, F r a n z . Y e s l and N ol N eeded: A D ea n of I n s tr u c tio n
and a S tu d e n t- F a c u lty R e a c tio n S h e e t. B e r k e le y , C a l i f . :
By th e A u th o r, J a n u a r y , 1966.

1,

211
The Student a n d H is P u b lic I m a g e - - T h e D ean S p eak s O u t. A P u b li­
c a tio n of N A SPA —J o u r n a l of th e A s s o c ia tio n of D e a n s and
A d m i n i s t r a t o r s of Student A f f a i r s . B u lle tin No. 2, A p ril,
1967.
The U n iv e r s ity in A m e r i c a . An O c c a s io n a l P a p e r on th e R o le of
E d u c a tio n in th e F r e e S o ciety . Santa B a r b a r a , C a l i f . :
C e n te r fo r th e Study of D e m o c r a t i c I n s titu tio n s , 1967.
P u b lic D o c u m e n ts
United N a tio n s , G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly . R e m e d ie s AgainBt th e A buse
of A d m in is tr a tiv e A u th o r ity - - S e le c te d S tu d ie s . (S T /T A O /
H R /1 9 ) 1964.
U .S .

C o n g r e s s . S en ate. C o m m itte e on the J u d i c i a r y . A d m i n i s t r a ­
tiv e O m b u d s m a n . H e a r in g b e f o r e the S u b c o m m itte e on
A d m in is tr a tiv e P r a c t i c e and P r o c e d u r e o f th e C o m m itte e on
th e J u d i c i a r y , S en ate, on S. 1195. 90th C o n g ., 2nd s e s s . ,
1968.

U. S.

C o n g r e s s . S en ate. C o m m itte e on the J u d i c i a r y . O m b u d s ­
m a n . H e a r in g b e fo re the S u b c o m m itte e on A d m in is tr a tiv e
P r a c t i c e an d P r o c e d u r e o f th e C o m m itte e on th e J u d i c i a r y ,
S e n a te , on S. R e s . 190. 89th C o n g . , 2nd s e s s . , 1966.

U .S .

C o n g r e s s . S en ate. C o m m itte e on th e J u d i c i a r y . R e g io n al
O m b u d sm a n P r o p o s a l . H e a r i n g s b e f o r e th e S u b c o m m itte e
on A d m in is tr a tiv e P r a c t i c e and P r o c e d u r e of th e C o m m it­
te e on the J u d ic ia r y , S en ate, on S. 3123. 90th Cong, ,
2nd s e s s . , 1968.

U .S.

D e p a r tm e n t of H e a lth , E d u c a tio n and W e lf a r e , O ffice of E d u ­
c a tio n . I n t e r n a l S tr u c tu r e : O r g a n iz a tio n and A d m i n i s t r a ­
tio n o f In s titu tio n s of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , by A r c h ie R.
A y e r s and J o h n H. R u s s e l. B u lle tin No. 9. W ash in gton ,
D. C. : G o v e rn m e n t P r i n t i n g O ffice, 1962.

212
R e p o r ts
A c a d e m ic F r e e d o m f o r StudentB a t M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s ity . A
R e p o r t of the F a c u lty C o m m itte e on Student A f f a i r s to the
A c a d e m ic C o u n c il, F e b r u a r y 7, 1967.
C r i s i s a t C o lu m b ia . R e p o r t of th e F a c t - F in d in g C o m m is s io n
A p po inted to I n v e s tig a te the D is tu r b a n c e s a t C o lu m b ia
U n iv e r s it y in A p r i l and M ay 1968. New Y o rk : V in tag e
B o o k s, 1968.
E d u ca tio n a t B e rk e le y : R e p o rt of th e S e le c t C o m m itte e on E d u c a ­
t i o n . B e rk e le y : U n iv e r s it y o f C a lif o r n ia P r e s s , 1968.
F o o te , C a leb ; M a y e r , H e n r y ; and A s s o c i a t e s . T he C u l tu r e of the
U n iv e r s ity : G o v e rn a n c e and E d u c a tio n . The M a jo r i ty
R e p o r t of th e Study C o m m is s io n on U n iv e r s it y G o v e rn a n c e ,
U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia a t B e r k e le y ; a l s o T he D is s e n tin g
R e p o r t. San F r a n c i s c o : J o s s e y - B a s s , Inc. , 1968.
G o a ls fo r A m e r ic a n s : P r o g r a m s f o r A ctio n in the S i x t i e s . T he
R e p o r t of th e P r e s i d e n t ’ s C o m m is s io n on N a tio n a l G o a ls .
(See e s p e c i a lly W r is to n , H e n ry M. , "T h e I n d iv id u a l,"
pp. 3 5 - 5 8 .) P u b lis h e d f o r the A m e r i c a n A s s e m b ly by
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , In c. , 1960.
T he O m b u d s m a n . R e p o r t of th e T h i r t y - s e c o n d A m e r i c a n A s s e m b ly ,
O c to b e r 2 6 -2 9 , 1967. New York: C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity ,
u n d a te d .
O r r , G. S. R e p o rt on A d m in is tr a tiv e J u s t i c e in New Z e a l a n d .
W elling to n : R. E . Owen, 1964.
The P r e s i d e n t ’ s R e p o r t of P r o g r e s s , 1 9 6 6 -6 7 . M ic h ig a n S tate U n i­
v e r s i t y P u b lic a tio n , L.XII, N o v e m b e r, 1967,
U n p u b lish e d S o u rc e s
D is c u s s io n N o tes
M eeting on o m b u d s m a n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . S p o n so re d by H ig h e r
E d u c a tio n E x e c u tiv e A s s o c i a t e s a n d U n iv e r s it y of D e tr o it.
O c to b e r 2 4 -2 5 , 1968.

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D o c u m e n ts
L ittle , J a c k F . O m b u d sm a n , U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia a t I r v in e .
" J o b D e s c r ip tio n C a rd . " U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia P e r s o n ­
n e l O ffice. D ate d F e b r u a r y 15, 1968.
I n te r v ie w s
D a v is , T h o m a s F . O m b u d sm a n , U n iv e r s it y of D e tr o it. P r i v a t e
in te r v ie w h e ld a t U n iv e r s it y of D e tr o it, D e c e m b e r 11, 1968.
DeKoff, I rv in g . D i r e c t o r f o r S tudent I n t e r e s t s , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity .
P r i v a t e in te r v ie w h eld d u r in g m e e ti n g on o m b u d s m a n in
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , D e tr o it, M i c h . , O c to b e r 24, 1968.
G loege, G e o rg e . O m b u d sm a n , E a s t e r n M o n ta n a C o lle g e . P r i v a t e
in te r v ie w h e ld d u rin g m e e tin g on o m b u d s m a n in h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n , D e tr o it, M ich. , O c to b e r 25, 1968.
L e itm a n n , G e o rg e . O m b u d sm a n , U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia a t
B e r k e le y . P r i v a t e in te r v i e w h eld d u r in g m e e tin g on o m ­
b u d s m a n in h i g h e r e d u c a tio n , D e t r o i t , M i c h . , O c to b e r 24,
1968.
N o rm a n , N e lso n F . O m b u d sm a n , San D iego State C o lle g e . P r i v a t e
in te r v ie w h e ld d u rin g m e e tin g on o m b u d s m a n in h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n , D e tr o it, M i c h . , O c to b e r 24, 1968.
R u st, J a m e s D. O m b u d sm a n , M ic h ig an S ta te U n iv e r s ity . P r i v a t e
in te r v ie w h e ld a t M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s it y , D e c e m b e r 12,
1968.
W hite, J . B enton. A s s o c ia te O m b u d sm a n , San J o s e S tate C o lleg e.
P r i v a t e in te r v ie w h eld d u r in g m e e tin g on o m b u d s m a n in
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , D e tr o it, M i c h . , O c to b e r 24, 1968.
L e tte rs
R e ce iv ed B y A u th o r
A n d e rso n , S tanley V. A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r of P o l i t i c a l S cien ce,
U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia a t Santa B a r b a r a . M a rc h 5, 1969.

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B la u s te in , A lb e r t P . P r o f e s s o r of L aw , R u t g e r s U n iv e r s ity .
M a r c h 5, 1969,
Eddy, J o h n P a u l. D e a n o f S tudents, J o h n s o n ( V t . ) State C o llege.
F e b r u a r y 21, 1969.
F r a n z , J o h n M. C h a ir m a n , G ra d u a te F a c u lty S enate C o m m itte e on
P r o b l e m s and P r o c e d u r e , U n i v e r s i t y of M is s o u r i a t
C o lu m b ia . J a n u a r y 24, 1969,
G loege, G e o r g e . O m b u d sm a n , E a s t e r n M on tan a C o lleg e.
b e r 4, 1968.

N o v em ­

G lo ver, F r e d e r i c O. E x e c u tiv e A s s i s t a n t to the P r e s i d e n t , S tan­
f o r d U n iv e r s ity . F e b r u a r y 19, 1969.
G oldfarb , T h e o d o re . F o r m e r O m b u d sm a n , S tate U n iv e r s ity of New
Y o rk a t Stony B ro o k . O c to b e r 21, 1968.
H iatt, R o b e r t W. A c tin g P r e s i d e n t , U n iv e r s it y of H aw aii.
a r y 25, 1969.

F ebru­

K itn e r, H a r o ld . O m b u d sm a n , D ean f o r F a c u lty C o u n sel, K ent S tate
U n iv e r s it y . M a rc h 14, 1969.
L eitm an n , G e o rg e . O m b u d sm a n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a lif o rn ia a t B e r k e ­
le y . F e b r u a r y 5, 1969.
L ittle , J a c k F . O m b u d sm a n , U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o rn ia a t I rv in e .
F e b r u a r y 24, 1969.
M c D e rm id , N ancy. M e m b e r , O m b u d sm a n S e le c tio n C o m m itte e ,
San F r a n c i s c o S tate C o lle g e . F e b r u a r y 18, 1969.
M u n d in g er, Donald C. V ice P r e s i d e n t f o r A c a d e m ic A f f a ir s , V a l­
p a r a i s o U n iv e r s ity . F e b r u a r y 20, 1969.
S ch n eid er, F r a n z , P r o f e s s o r E m e r i t u s , U n iv e r s ity of C a lif o r n ia
a t B e r k e le y . F e b r u a r y 6 , 1969.
Speck, D av id G. A s s i s t a n t D ean o f M en , G e o r g e W ash in g to n U n i­
v e r s i t y . J a n u a r y 24, 1969.
Toll, J o h n S. P r e s i d e n t , S tate U n iv e r s ity of New York a t Stony
B ro o k . M a r c h 10, 1969.

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W hite, J . B e n to n . A s s o c ia te O m b u d sm a n , San J o s e S tate C olleg e.
F e b r u a r y 19, 1969.
O th e r s
B la u s te in , A l b e r t P . , to C liffo rd , E a r l e W . , D ean of Student
A f f a i r s , R u t g e r s U n iv e r s ity . N o v e m b e r 19, 1968.
W hite, J . B e n to n , to C la r k , R o b e r t D, , P r e s i d e n t , San J o s e State
C o lle g e . J u ly 19, 1968.
M a n u s c r ip ts
A n d e rs o n , S ta n le y V. " O m b u d s m a n P a p e r s : A m e r i c a n E x p e r ie n c e
an d P r o p o s a l s . " C h a p te r V. Book m a n u s c r i p t . I n s titu te
o f G o v e r n m e n ta l S tu d ies, U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia ,
B e r k e le y , u n d ated .
M e m o ra n d a
M e m o ra n d u m to Student A f f a i r s Staff. P r e p a r e d by J a c k F . L ittle ,
O m b u d s m a n . U n iv e r s it y of C a lif o r n ia a t I r v in e , A u g u st 3,
1967.
Toll, Jo h n S. "A n n o u n c e m e n t o f S e le c tio n of O m b u d sm e n and O th e r
K ey A p p o i n t m e n t s ." S tate U n iv e r s it y of New Y o rk a t Stony
B ro o k , M a r c h 29, 1967.
_________ . " P r o c e d u r e s f o r th e O m b u d sm e n . " S tate U n iv e r s ity of
New Y o rk a t Stony B ro o k , A p r i l 18, 1967.
_________ . " 1 9 6 6 -6 7 R e p o r t of th e O m b u d s m e n ." S ta te U n iv e r s ity
of New Y o rk a t Stony B ro o k , N o v e m b e r 10, 1967.
N ew s R e l e a s e s
K u rlin s k i, W ay n e. "In W hat M ay Be U. S. C o lleg e ' F i r s t , ' Stony
B ro o k N a m e s 'O m b u d s m e n ' To I n v e s tig a te S p e c ia l

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P r o b l e m s On F a s t- G r o w in g U n iv e r s it y C a m p u s . " N ew s
r e l e a s e , S tate U n iv e r s it y of New Y o rk a t Stony B ro o k ,
A p r i l 13 (1967).
i New s r e l e a s e on a p p o in tm e n t of o m b u d s m a n . O ffice o f P u b lic I n ­
f o r m a tio n , M a c o m b C ounty C o m m u n ity C o lle g e , W a r r e n ,
M i c h . , A p r i l 11, 1968.
P apers
B oland, W a lte r H eed . " A m e r ic a n I n s titu tio n s of H ig h e r E du catio n :
A Study of S ize and O rg a n iz a tio n . " P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n iv e r s it y of M ic h ig an , 1966.
B r a d le y , W a lte r E . "An O m b u d sm a n f o r M a co m b . " M a c o m b
C ounty C o m m u n ity C o lle g e , W a r r e n , M i c h . , F e b r u a r y 20,
1968.
C o lem a n , J a m e s . P a p e r w r i t t e n f o r th e C o m m is s io n on T e s t s ,
C o lleg e E n t r a n c e E x a m in a tio n B o a rd , 1968.
M c C le lla n , Stephen D o u g la s. "An A n a ly s is of How th e Role of Law
H a s A ffec ted S p ecific R e la tio n s h ip s B e tw ee n P u b lic U n i­
v e r s i t i e s and T h e i r S tu den ts: L e g a l G u id e lin e s fo r A d m in ­
i s t r a t i v e D e c is io n -M a k in g . " P h . D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , M ic h ig an
S tate U n iv e r s ity , 1967.
M u n d in g e r, D onald C. " T h e U n iv e r s it y O m b u d sm a n . " U n sign ed ,
u n d ated p a p e r p r e p a r e d a t V a lp a r a is o U n iv e r s ity .
"A P r o p o s a l f o r a Student In fo r m a tio n and C o m p la in t O ffice (O m ­
b u d sm a n ) f o r S o u th ern Illin o is U n iv e r s it y , " U n sig n ed ,
u n d a te d p a p e r p ro v id e d by G e o rg e M c C lu r e , D e p a r tm e n t
of P h ilo s o p h y , S o u th e rn I llin o is U n iv e r s it y a t C a rb o n d a le .
R ust, J a m e s D. U n titled , u n d ated s t a t e m e n t on r o le o f c a m p u s
o m b u d s m a n . M ic h ig an S tate U n iv e r s it y , r e v i s e d J a n u a r y ,
1969.
S andberg, C a r l H. " O m b u d sm an : T he R e d r e s s of C i tiz e n s ' G r i e v ­
a n c e s . " H o n o rs p a p e r , O hio U n iv e r s it y , 1968.

217
W e e k s, K ent M. "A C o m p a r a tiv e A n a ly s is of th e C iv il O m b u d sm a n
O ffic e s in D e n m a rk , F in la n d , New Z e a la n d , N o rw a y and
Sweden. " I n s titu te of G o v e r n m e n ta l S tu d ies, U n iv e r s it y of
C a lif o r n ia a t B e r k e le y , 1967,
W hite, J . B enton. "T he O m b u d s m a n in H ig h e r E d u c a tio n . " T h e s is ,
G ra d u a te D iv isio n , P a c i f ic L u th e r a n T h e o lo g ic a l S e m in a ry ,
1968.
R ep o rts
"T h e F u n c tio n of th e O m b u d sm a n (R e v ise d O c to b e r 3, 1 9 6 7 )."
J o s e S tate C o lle g e .

San

G o ld b erg , H o m e r ; G o ld fa rb , T h e o d o re ; and W e in b e rg , R o b e rt. "A
R e p o rt to P r e s i d e n t T o ll and th e U n iv e r s ity C o m m u n ity
f ro m th e O m b u d sm e n . " S tate U n iv e r s ity o f New Y ork at
Stony B ro o k , u n d ated .
" G ra d u a te F a c u lty P a r t i c i p a t i o n in A c a d e m ic G o v e rn m e n t. " R e p o rt
of th e Ad H oc C o m m itte e on G r a d u a te F a c u lty O rg a n iz a tio n
and P a r t i c i p a t i o n in G o v e rn m e n t and of th e C o m m itte e on
P la n n in g and P o lic y of th e G r a d u a te C o u n cil. U n iv e r s it y of
M is s o u r i a t C o lu m b ia , A p r i l 18, 1968.
" I n s titu tio n a l P o lic y C h a n g e s a t San J o s e S tate C o lleg e C o m in g O ut
of R e c o m m e n d a tio n s o r I n v e s tig a tio n s . " (R e p o rt p r e p a r e d
b y J . B en to n W hite, O m b u d sm a n , 1 9 6 7 -6 8 .) San J o s e
S tate C o lle g e , u n d a te d .
" P o s itio n R e s u m e of O m b u d sm a n a t San J o s e S tate C o lleg e . " O ffice
of th e E x e c u tiv e V ice P r e s i d e n t , San J o s e S tate C o lleg e ,
M ay 3, 1968.
" T h e R e p o rt o f th e U n iv e r s ity O m b u d sm a n to th e P r e s i d e n t f o r the
School Y e a r , 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 6 8 ." ( P r e p a r e d by J a m e s D. R u s t,
O m b u d s m a n .) M ic h ig an S tate U n iv e r s ity , u n d ated .
Speck, D avid G. O m b u d sm a n r e p o r t a d d r e s s e d t o W illia m P . S m ith,
V ice P r e s i d e n t f o r Student A f f a i r s . G e o rg e W ash in g to n
U n iv e r s ity , D e c e m b e r 19, 1968,

218
S p ee c h e s
(All d e l iv e r e d a t m e e tin g on o m b u d s m a n in h ig h e r e d u c a tio n s p o n ­
s o r e d by H ig h e r E d u c a tio n E x e c u tiv e A s s o c i a t e s and U n iv e r s it y of
D e tr o it, O c to b e r 2 4 -2 5 , 1968, in D e tr o it, M ic h .)
C liffo rd , E a r l e W. D ean of S tudent A f f a i r s , R u t g e r s U n iv e r s ity .
"S eco n d T h o u g h ts on th e O m b u d s m a n in H ig h e r E d u c a t i o n . "
D av is, T h o m a s F . O m b u d sm a n , U n iv e r s it y o f D e tr o it.
T r o u b l e s h o o t e r - - T h e O m b u d s m a n ."
R u s t, J a r k e s D. O m b u d s m a n , M ic h ig a n S tate U n iv e r s ity .
O m b u d s m a n in P r a c t i c e . "

"C am pus
"The

S c h lo s s b e r g , N an cy K. A s s o c ia te P r o f e s s o r , W ayne S tate U n i v e r ­
s ity . " T h e O m b u d s m a n in C u r r e n t S ta tu s an d T h e o r y . "
W hite, J . B enton . A s s o c ia te O m b u d sm a n , San J o s e S tate C o lle g e .
" T h e O m b u d s m a n i n P r a c t i c e . 11

A P P E N D IC E S

A P P E N D IX A
L E T T E R TO CAMPUS OMBUDSMEN

219

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

b ast u m w o

. m ic h io a n

C O LU O I o r EDUCATION • DIFAKTM IHT OF A D L U N im A T lO N AND U IO H M EDUCATION
EM O U O N HALL

October 14, 1966

Dr. ________
Ombudsman
In stitu tio n
C ity , S t a t e
Dear Dr.
Among th e c u r r e n t in n o v a tio n s o f I n t e r e s t i n American h ig h e r e d u c a tio n i s t h e
attem pt t o a d a p t th e ombudsman co n ce p t t o th e c o l l e g e and u n i v e r s i t y campus.
To d a te , a t l e a s t sev en p e rs o n s a t f i v e I n s t i t u t i o n s have been named academic
ombudsmen and a number o f o t h e r ap p o in tm e n ts a re b e in g c o n s id e re d .
Because o f t h e w id e s c a le i m p l i c a t i o n s o f th e ombudsman movement i n American
h ig h er e d u c a t i o n , I am c o n d u c tin g a d e s c r i p t i v e and a n a l y t i c a l s tu d y of t h i s
phenomenon f o r my d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n a t M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . I have
receiv ed encouragement and a s s i s t a n c e from the M ic h ig a n S ta te ombudsman, Dr.
James R u st. To o ur knowledge, no o t h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n s tu d y in t h i s a re a i s i n
p ro g re s s.
Since th e p o p u la tio n I am s tu d y in g i s so sm all, I t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y for me to
o b ta in a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f d a ta from each e x i s t i n g academic ombudsman.
My best o p p o r tu n i ty f o r g a t h e r i n g t h i s in fo rm a tio n i s a t the " C o n s u lta tio n on
the Ombudsman i n American H igher E d u c a tio n " O ctober 2 4 -2 5 , 1968, i n D e tro it
sponsored by th e U n iv e r s ity o f D e t r o i t i n c o o p e r a tio n w ith H igh er Education
Executive A s s o c i a t e s . I have r e c e iv e d p e rm issio n from c o n s u l t a t i o n o f f i c i a l s
to tape r e c o r d th e p ro c e e d in g s . I n a d d i t i o n , I p l a n t o conduct and tape r e c o r d
a p r iv a te s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w w ith each campus ombudsman p r e s e n t , I
a n t i c i p a t e t h a t each I n te r v ie w w i l l ta k e about one h o u r . In o r d e r not to i n ­
t e r f e r e w i t h th e c o n s u l t a t i o n program, I p la n to c o n d u c t th e in te r v ie w s d u r in g
these p e r i o d s :
B efore 1:30 p.m. T h ursday, O cto ber 24
A f t e r 9 :3 0 p.m. T hursday, O cto ber 24
B efore 9 a.m. F r id a y , O ctober 25
A f t e r 3 p.m. F r id a y , O ctob er 25

220

The purpose o f t h i s l e t t e r i s t o make you aware o f t h i s s tu d y , t o s o l i c i t
y o u r c o o p e r a tio n and t o r e q u e s t y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n I n th e I n te r v ie w s 1 w i l l
be c o n d u c tin g I n D e t r o i t . I w i l l c o n t a c t you t o make s p e c i f i c a rra n g em en ts
a t th e m e e tin g . In th e e v en t t h a t you do n o t a t t e n d , I w i l l a tte m p t to I n ­
te rv ie w you a t a l a t e r d a t e . I f t h a t c a n n o t be a r r a n g e d , I w i l l send you a
q u e stio n n a ire .
Ombudsmen and o th e r s who a s s i s t I n th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f th e stud y w i l l be p r o ­
v id e d w ith a summary o f f i n d i n g s . My g o a l I s t o com plete th e p r o j e c t by Ju ne
o f 1969.
I would a p p r e c i a t e a re s p o n s e from you p r i o r t o th e D e t r o i t m e e tin g .
S in c e r e ly ,

Ray Rowland
NDEA G rad uate Fellow
C ollege o f E d u c a tio n
Room 401-1 E ric k s o n H a l l
Michigan S t'a te U n iv e r s ity
E a s t L a n s in g , M ichigan 48823

P. S. - M a t e r i a l s you may have which would be u s e f u l I n t h i s stu d y In c lu d e th e
follo w ing :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

P e r s o n a l d a ta s h e e t o r b i o g r a p h i c a l s k e tc h
Job d e sc rip tio n
Copy o f document e s t a b l i s h i n g y o u r o f f i c e
I n f o r m a tio n on how s e l e c t i o n o f ombudsman was made
C o p ie s of p u b lis h e d a r t i c l e s r e g a r d i n g yo u r o f f i c e
C op ies o f s p e e c h e s o r s t a t e m e n ts you have made r e g a r d in g your o f f i c e
R e p o r ts Is s u e d by your o f f i c e

P lease b r i n g th e se and o t h e r p e r t i n e n t m a t e r i a l s to th e D e t r o i t m eeting o r send
to me. M a t e r i a l s w i l l be r e tu r n e d a t y o u r r e q u e s t .

A P P E N D IX B
INTERV IEW SCH EDU LE F O R CAM PUS OMBUDSMEN

A PP E N D IX B
IN TER V IEW SCH EDU LE FO R CAM PUS OMBUDSMEN

A.

B.

P e r s o n a l D ata
1.

N am e of re s p o n d e n t

2.

A ge of re s p o n d e n t

3.

P r e s e n t title

4.

P re v io u s title

5.

A c a d e m ic ran k

6.

T e n u re ?

7.

C o lleg e d e g r e e s h eld

8.

C a r e e r fie ld o r m a jo r a c a d e m ic d is c ip lin e

9.

P re v io u s p r o f e s s io n a l e x p e rie n c e

10.

N u m b e r o f y e a r s a t p r e s e n t lo c a tio n

11.

F a c u lty and a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s h e ld d u rin g th a t p e rio d

12.

P re v io u s e x p e rie n c e in c o u n s e lin g ?

13.

M e m b e rs h ip in p r o f e s s io n a l and h o n o r a r y o rg a n iz a tio n s ,
in c lu d in g o ffic e s h eld

A.

S c h o la rly a c tiv itie s ( r e s e a r c h an d p u b lic a tio n s )

15.

H o n o rs and a w a rd s

16.

O th e r v o lu n te e re d in fo rm a tio n

I n s titu tio n a l D ata
1.

N am e o f in s titu tio n

2.

Age of in s titu tio n
221

A d m in is tra tio n ?

222

C.

3.

L o c a tio n

4.

S ize

5.

G e n e ra l d e s c r ip tio n (c o e d ? p u b lic o r p r iv a te ? u r b a n ? )

6.

O rg a n iz a tio n a l s tr u c t u r e

7.

T ype of g o v e rn m e n t

8.

S tudent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

9.

F a c u lty c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

10.

M a jo r ch a n g es in in s titu tio n in r e c e n t y e a r s

11.

O th e r v o lu n te e re d in fo rm a tio n

O rig in o f O ffice of O m b u d sm a n
1.

D e s c rib e s e q u e n c e of e v e n ts w hich b ro u g h t office o f o m b u d s­
m a n in to e x is te n c e :
a .
b .
c .

2.

O rig in a l s u g g e s tio n o r p ro p o s a l
S u b seq u en t a c tio n (in clu d in g d e la y s )
F in a l d e c is io n (a u th o riz a tio n )

On w hat d a te w a s office o f o m b u d sm an o ffic ia lly e s ta b lis h e d
on y o u r c a m p u s ?

3.

On w h at d a te w e r e you c h o se n to s e r v e a s o m b u d sm a n ?

4.

On w h at d a te d id you b eg in y o u r d u tie s ?

5.

Is th e a s s ig n m e n t a f u ll- tim e r e s p o n s ib ility o r do you sp en d
so m e tim e te a c h in g o r en g ag ed in o th e r a d m in is tr a tiv e
a c tiv i tie s ? E x p la in .

6 . D id you a c tiv e ly se e k th e o ffic e ?
7.

A re you th e f i r s t o m b u d sm an on y o u r c a m p u s ?
o m b u d sm a n ? I f n o t, e x p la in .

T h e only

8.

D id y o u r s e le c tio n in v o lv e any ch an g e in y o u r a c a d e m ic
ra n k o r s a l a r y ? E x p la in .

9.

H as th e le n g th of y o u r t e r m of o ffic e b e e n d e te r m in e d ?
s o , how long i s th e te r m of o ffic e ?

10.

H as a p r o c e s s b e e n d e te r m in e d b y w h ich th e o m b u d sm an
can be re m o v e d fro m o ffic e b e fo re h is te r m e x p i r e s ? If
s o , w h at o ffic ia l o r a g e n c y h a s th is a u th o rity ?

If

223
11.

D id any o rg a n iz e d g ro u p a c tiv e ly s u p p o rt th e e s ta b lis h m e n t
o f th e o ffic e ? If s o , id e n tify and d e s c r ib e .

12.

D id any o rg a n iz e d g ro u p a c tiv e ly o p p o se th e e s ta b lis h m e n t
o f th e o ffic e ? If s o , id e n tify and d e s c r ib e .

13.

D e s c rib e p r o c e s s by w hich you w e r e c h o se n o m b u d sm an :
a .
b.
c.

D.

E.

N o m in atio n p r o c e d u r e
E le c tio n o r a p p o in tm e n t p r o c e d u r e
O ffic ia l o r a g e n c y m a k in g fin a l s e le c tio n

R a tio n a le fo r O ffice o f O m b u d sm an
1.

W hat w e r e the m a in a rg u m e n ts a d v a n c e d by p ro p o n e n ts to
ju s tify th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of o ffic e of o m b u d sm a n ?

2.

C an you r e c a l l an y in c id e n ts on y o u r c a m p u s p r i o r to th e
e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e office w h ich s u p p o rte d th o s e a r g u m e n ts ?

3.

W hat o ffic e s , s e r v i c e s and p r o c e d u r e s a lr e a d y e x is te d on
y o u r c a m p u s fo r h an d lin g in d iv id u a l p ro b le m s a t th e tim e
th e o ffice o f o m b u d sm an w a s e s ta b lis h e d ?

4.

H ave any of th o se s e r v ic e s ch an g ed o r b e e n d isc o n tin u e d
s in c e the a p p e a r a n c e of the o m b u d sm a n ?

D e s c rip tio n o f O ffice of O m b u d sm an
1.

D e s c rib e the lo c a tio n of y o u r o ffic e on th e c a m p u s.

2.

D e s c rib e th e p h y s ic a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f th e o ffic e .

3.

D e s c rib e th e o ffice e q u ip m e n t and f a c ilitie s (su c h ite m s a s
te le p h o n e , ta p e r e c o r d e r , copying m a c h in e , in te rc o m s y s ­
te m , e t c . )

4.

Do you w o rk alo n e o r do you h a v e a s s is ta n c e in th e o ffic e ?

5.

If you h a v e a s s is ta n c e , id e n tify th e o th e r s ta f f m e m b e r s by
t it le and d e s c r ib e th e i r d u tie s .

6.

W h e re d o e s y o u r o ffic e fit in to th e a d m in is tr a tiv e f r a m e ­
w o rk of y o u r in s titu tio n ?

7.

T o w hom do you s u b m it w r itte n r e p o r t s ?

I

224
8.

W hat i s co n tain e d in th e r e p o r t s ?

9.

How often a r e w r itte n r e p o r ts s u b m itte d and how d e ta ile d
a r e th e y ?

10.
11.

F.

G.

How w id ely c ir c u la te d a r e y o u r w r itte n r e p o r t s ?
T o w hom i s y o u r o ffic e f is c a lly a c c o u n ta b le ?

12.

D o es an y o ffic ia l o r a g e n c y h av e a u th o rity to in v e s tig a te
th e o p e ra tio n s o f y o u r o ffic e ?

13.

H a s su c h an in v e s tig a tio n e v e r o c c u r r e d ?

O b je c tiv e s of O ffice of O m b u d sm an
1.

L is t and b r ie f ly d e s c r ib e the m a jo r o b je c tiv e s of y o u r
o ffic e , in o r d e r of p r io r i ty if p o s s ib le .

2.

How do th e s e o b je c tiv e s m a k e y o u r o ffice d if fe re n t fro m
an y o th e r o ffice on y o u r c a m p u s ?

O p e ra tio n a l P r o c e d u r e s
#

1.

On y o u r c a m p u s , w ho m a y s e e k a s s is ta n c e fro m th e o m ­
b u d sm a n ?
a
b
c
d
e
f

.
.
.
.
.
.

U n d e rg ra d u a te s tu d e n ts
G ra d u a te s tu d e n ts
F a c u lty
A d m in is tr a to r s
C iv il s e r v ic e (n o n -a c a d e m ic ) e m p lo y e e s
P e r s o n s fro m o ff c a m p u s

2.

F ro m w h ich g ro u p in d ic a te d in 1 do you r e c e iv e th e l a r g e s t
n u m b e r of c lie n ts ? T he s m a lle s t n u m b e r of c lie n ts ?

3.

A re y o u r r e c o r d s and f ile s c o n fid e n tia l o r a r e th e y op en fo r
in s p e c tio n by any in te r e s te d p e r s o n ?

4.

Do you h av e a c c e s s to o ffic ia l r e c o r d s th ro u g h o u t th e c a m ­
p u s ? In d ic a te w h at k in d s of in fo rm a tio n a r e n o t a v a ila b le
to you.

5.

In w hat w ay s do you p u b lic iz e y o u r a c tiv itie s ?
a.
b.

S p e e c h e s to c a m p u s o rg a n iz a tio n s
N e w sp a p e r a r t i c l e s

225
c.
d.
e.
f .

R ad io a n d / o r te le v is io n in te rv ie w s
N o tic e s o r p o s te r s
L e tt e r s to s tu d e n ts o r c a m p u s o rg a n iz a tio n s
O th e r w ay s (sp e c ify )

6.

How m a n y c lie n ts c o n ta c t you in a ty p ic a l w eek ( o r w h a t­
e v e r tim e p e rio d s e e m s m o s t a p p r o p r ia te ) ?

7.

L is t th e b ro a d c a te g o r ie s of c o m p la in ts r e c e iv e d b y y o u r
o ffic e , su c h a s g r a d e s , fe e s , h o u sin g , li b r a r y , p a rk in g ,
e tc .

8.

C an you ran k th e s e c a te g o r ie s of c o m p la in ts fro m m o s t
fre q u e n t to le a s t fre q u e n t?

9.

W hat i s th e a v e ra g e le n g th of tim e it ta k e s to so lv e a p ro b ­
le m p r e s e n te d to y o u r o ffic e ?

10.

W hat k ind of c o m p la in ts do you re fu s e to c o n s id e r (out of
y o u r ju r is d ic tio n ) ?

11.

D e s c r ib e a " ty p ic a l" c a s e and i t s d is p o s itio n .

12.

W hat te c h n iq u e s do you g e n e r a lly u se to so lv e a p r o b le m ?
a
.b
c
d
e

.
.
.
.
.

C o u n selin g o r a d v is in g c lie n t
A p p ea l to a u th o rity
P e r s u a s io n
Im p lie d t h r e a t of in v e s tig a tio n
O th e r te c h n iq u e s

13.

In g e n e r a l, how w ould you d e s c r ib e th e r e a c tio n s of facu lty
and a d m in is t r a to r s a g a in s t w hom c o m p la in ts h av e b een
lodged ?

14.

How do you p r o c e e d if n o re m e d y can b e found f o r a v alid
c o m p la in t?

15.

C an d e c is io n s m a d e by th e o m b u d sm an b e o v e r r u le d ?
so , by w hom ?

16.

Is th e r e an y a u th o r ity on c a m p u s to w h ich a p e r s o n w ith a
c o m p la in t m a y a p p e a l b e y o n d th e o m b u d sm an ?

17.

In y o u r d a y - to - d a y o p e r a tio n s , w hich o f th e s e m e a n s of
c o m m u n ic a tio n do you u s e th e m o st and th e le a s t ?
a .
b.
c.

T ele p h o n e
F a c e - to - f a c e c o n ta c t
W ritte n m e s s a g e s

If

226
H.

I,

E f f e c ts of O m b u d sm an
1.

C an you r e c a l l an y in c id e n ts of o rg a n iz e d s tu d e n t s u p p o rt
f o r the o ffic e of o m b u d sm a n ? D e s c r ib e .

2.

C an you r e c a l l any in c id e n ts of o rg a n iz e d s tu d e n t o p p o si­
tio n to th e office of o m b u d sm a n ? D e s c rib e .

3.

C an you r e c a l l any in s ta n c e s in w h ic h in s titu tio n a l p o lic ie s
o r p r o c e d u r e s h a v e b e e n changed a s a d ir e c t r e s u l t of
in q u ir ie s a n d / o r re c o m m e n d a tio n s by the o m b u d sm a n ?
D e s c rib e .

4.

Do you b e lie v e th e o ffic e of o m b u d sm a n w ill co n tin u e to
fu n ctio n a s it is d u rin g th e next te n y e a r s ? If n o t, do you
e x p e c t i t to be ex p an d ed , re d u c e d o r a b o lis h e d ?

A ttitu d e s and O p in io n s
1.

How w o u ld you d e s c r ib e th e g e n e r a l a ttitu d e of p r o f e s s io n a l
stu d e n t p e r s o n n e l w o r k e r s on y o u r ca m p u s r e g a r d in g th e
o m b u d sm a n ?

2.

W hat e d u c a tio n and e x p e rie n c e w ould b e s t p r e p a r e a p e r s o n
to s e rv e e ffe c tiv e ly a s a ca m p u s o m b u d sm a n ? L is t s e v e r a l,
th e n ra n k th em in o r d e r of im p o r ta n c e .

3.

W hat t e r m s b e st d e s c r ib e the r o le o f the c a m p u s o m b u d s­
m an?

4.

If you c o u ld s ta r t o v e r ag a in a s a c a m p u s o m b u d sm an ,
w hat w o u ld you do d iffe re n tly ?

5.

You p ro b a b ly had s o m e n o tio n s o f w h at you w o u ld be d o in g
a s a c a m p u s o m b u d sm an w hen y ou a s s u m e d th a t o ffice.
H ave y o u r a c tu a l o p e r a tio n s d if fe re d fro m y o u r e x p e c ta tio n s ?
If so , in w h a t w a y s ?

6.

B e c a u se o f the r e la tiv e is o la tio n o f the c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n
fro m h is c o lle a g u e s and h is d is c ip lin e , th e p o s s ib ility o f
ro le c o n flic t e x is ts . H ave you e x p e rie n c e d th is fe e lin g ?
If so , how do you c o u n te r it ?

7.

Do you c o n s id e r y o u r s e lf a p a r t o f o r a p a r t f ro m w hat i s
c o m m o n ly r e f e r r e d to a s th e a c a d e m ic " E s ta b lis h m e n t"
(th o se w h o hold and w ield p o w er o v e r o th e r s ) ?

227
8.

D o you b e lie v e th e o ffic e of o m b u d sm a n h a s h e lp e d a lle v ia te
stu d e n t h o s tility and f r u s t r a tio n r e g a r d in g a d m in is tr a tiv e
b u r e a u c r a c y and th e a c a d e m ic " E s ta b lis h m e n t" ?

9.

C an you r e c a l l th e g r e a t e s t d is a p p o in tm e n ts you h a v e e x p e ­
r ie n c e d in s e r v in g a s a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n ? D e s c r ib e
th e m .

10.

C an you r e c a l l th e g r e a t e s t s a tis f a c tio n s you h a v e e x p e r i ­
e n c e d in s e r v in g a s a c a m p u s o m b u d sm a n ? D e s c r ib e
th e m .

11.

How long sh o u ld th e te r m of o ffice be f o r a c a m p u s o m b u d s­
m a n ? W hy?

12.

A r e y o u r b u d g et, s t a f f and f a c ilitie s a d e q u a te f o r h an d lin g
th e w o rk lo a d of y o u r o ffic e ?

13.

Should th e fin d in g s an d re c o m m e n d a tio n s o f th e c a m p u s
o m b u d sm a n b e p u b lic iz e d ? W hy o r w hy n o t?

14.

In y o u r o p in io n , w h a t a r e th e b ro a d s o c io lo g ic a l im p lic a ­
tio n s of th e o m b u d sm a n " m o v e m e n t" in A m e r ic a n h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n ?

15.

H ave you e s ta b lis h e d c o n ta c t w ith o m b u d sm en on o th e r
'c a m p u s e s ? Do you f e e l you can im p ro v e y o u r p e r f o rm a n c e
by e x c h an g in g in fo rm a tio n and id e a s w ith y o u r c o u n te r p a r ts
e ls e w h e r e ?

16.

Do you b e lie v e c a m p u s o m b u d sm e n w ill g a in p r o f e s s io n a l
s ta tu s and b e c o m e a p e rm a n e n t a d d itio n to A m e r ic a n c o l­
le g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s ? A re you fa v o ra b le o r u n fa v o ra b le
to w a rd e f f o r ts to f o rm a n a tio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n o f c a m p u s
o m b u d sm e n ?

A P P E N D IX C
INFO RM A TIO N O BTAINED FROM
CAM PUS OMBUDSMAN IN TERV IEW S

TABLE C l
CHARACTERISTICS OF CAMPUS OMBUDSMEN AT SIX INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
(OCTOBER, 1968)

Item

Name

Age

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley
G eorge
Leitm ann
43

Columbia
U niversity
Irving
DeKoff
45

Thom as
D avis

M ichigan
State
U niversity
Ja m e s
Rust

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

N elson
N orm an

Benton
W hitea

37

58

51

37

Ombudsman

Ombudsman

Ombudsman

Ombudsman

A ssista n t
P ro fe ss o r;
Dean

P ro fe s s o r

P ro fe s s o r

Campus
M in iste r

A ssista n t
P ro fe s s o r

P ro fe s s o r,
A ssista n t
Dean

P ro fe s s o r

A sso ciate
P ro fe s s o r
(Equivalent)

P re s e n t title

Ombudsman

P rev io u s title

P ro fe s s o r

A ssista n t
Dean

A cadem ic rank

P ro fe s s o r

None

Y es

No

Y es

Y es

Y es

No

P h .D .

E d.D .

M .A .T .

P h .D .

P h .D .

B .D .

T enure ?
H ighest d eg ree

228

D ire c to r
fo r Student
In te re s ts

U n iv ersity
of D etro it

TABLE C l —Continued

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley

C a re e r field
o r m a jo r
discipline

E ngineering

P rev io u s
p ro fessio n al
experience

G overnm ent;
u n iv e rsity
teaching

11

P o sitio n s held
during th at
period

A ssistan t
p ro fe s so r to
p ro fe sso r

P rev io u s
experience in
counseling?
adm inistration?

Yes
No

M ichigan
State
U niversity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

P h y sical
Education

M athem atics

E nglish

H isto ry

Theology

U n iv ersity
teaching,
a d m in istra ­
tion

Teaching at
a ll lev els

18

In stru c to r,
a s s is ta n t
dean

Yes
Y es

8

In stru c to r,
dean

Yes
Yes

College and
u n iv e rsity
teaching

21

A cting
d epartm ent
chairm an,
a s s is ta n t
dean

Yes
Yes

Radio; high
school,
college
teaching
8

A ll
academ ic
ranks

No
No

M in istry ,
counseling

7

Cam pus
m in is te r

Y es
Y es

229

Y ears at
p re se n t
location

U niversity
of D etro it

Colum bia
U niversity

TABLE C l —Continued

Item

Scholarly
ac tiv itie s

H onors
and aw ards

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erkeley
Jo u rn a l
a rtic le s
and books
G en eral

Colum bia
U niversity

U n iv ersity
of D etroit

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

Jo u rn a l
a r tic le s

Textbook
m an u scrip t

J ournal
a rtic le s

Fencing
coach
citation

" T e a c h e r of
Y ear" aw ard

Phi B eta
Kappa

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

Jo u rn a l
a rtic le s

Jo u rn al
a rtic le s

M inor

None

230

aln a ll ta b le s, San Jo s e State College inform ation p erta in s to Benton W hite in h is capacity a s
om budsm an in 1967-68. He w as asso c ia te om budsm an in 1968-69 w hile Ralph Poblano se rv e d as
om budsm an.

TABLE C2
CHARACTERISTICS OF SIX INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION WITH CAMPUS OMBUDSMEN
AS REPORTED BY THOSE OMBUDSMEN (OCTOBER, 1968)

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erkeley

Columbia
U n iv ersity

U n iv ersity
of D etro it

Michigan
State
U niversity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

100

215

88

114

72

111

N um ber of
students

28,000

17,500

8,000

39,949

D escription

Coed, public,
se m i-u rb a n

Coed, urban.
C atholic

Coed, public,
se m i-u rb a n

Coed, public, Coed, public,
u rb an
urban

O rganization

16 se p a ra te
One of 9
cam puses of colleges, 2
sta te u n iv e r­ of which a re
to ta lly auton­
sity , each
om ous.
with a
ch an cello r.

P re sid e n t,
d eans,
d ep artm en t
chairm en.

15 colleges,
a ll under
c e n tra l con­
tr o l.

B oard of
Shifting
from college tr u s te e s for
to u n iv e rsity . State College
System .

Item

Institution1s
age (in y e a rs)

23,000

24,000
231

Coed, p r i­
vate, Ivy
League

-f

I

TABLE C 2--C ontinued

Item

G overnm ent
Ii

Colum bia
U niversity

U n iv ersity
of D etro it

D ivision is
s m a lle s t ad ­
m in istra tiv e
unit; A ca­
dem ic Senate;
B oard of
R egents b e ­
tw een u n i­
v e rs ity and
le g isla tu re .

U n iv ersity
M ore student
o riented than
Council is
b efo re.
ad v iso ry
body; provost
is chief ad ­
m in istra tiv e
o fficer; no
faculty
senate.

V ery in te lli­
gent, a g g re s ­
siv e; only top
3% of high
school g ra d u ­
a te s adm itted;
n e a rly h alf of
stu d en ts a re
in graduate
w ork; v ery
s m a ll ra c ia l
m in o rity .

Highly
selected ;
la rg e contin­
gent of
foreign s tu ­
d en ts; g ra d u ­
a te s outnum ­
b e r u n d e r­
g rad u ates.

Above
national
n o rm s; 85%
a r e Catholic;
m o st a re
g rad u ates of
C atholic high
schools in
D etro it a re a .

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

R egents,
p resid e n t,
provost,
A cadem ic
Council,
A ssociated
Students.

C alifornia
State College
System (18
units).

P re sid e n t,
academ ic
and
executive
vice
p resid e n t.

P re se n c e of
in creasin g ly
la rg e num ­
b e rs of f ir s tra te students
h as tr a n s ­
form ed cam ­
pus.

V ery able;
u n iv e rsity
tak es v ery
sm a ll upper
percentage of
high school
g rad u ates;
s ta te colleges
take la r g e r
segm ent,
down to top
30%.

Whole sp e c ­
tru m , but
v e ry sm a ll
r a c ia l
m in o rity ;
a c tiv ist s tu ­
dent g o v ern ­
m ent.

232

Students

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley

TABLE C2—Continued

Item

F aculty

U niversity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley
F a irly
ag g ressiv e;
r a th e r
lib e ra l.

U niversity
of D etro it

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

Not p a ro ­
chial; try in g
to get 12unit teaching
load reduced
to 9.

M iddle-ofroad to lib ­
e ra l; ty p ical
sta te college
lim itatio n s.

One of the
m o re b r il­
lian t in
nation; e x ­
tre m e ly
w ellqualified.

M ajo rity have
P h .D .' s;
p re fe r to
w ork on
sm a ll cam ­
pus.

Wide range
from many
in stitu tio n s;
m uch r e ­
se a rc h and
ex p erim en ­
tation.

Significant
in c re a s e in
black s tu ­
dents; new
p resid e n t;
m a jo r
changes in
p ro g re s s .

Building new
do rm s to
a ttra c t d is ­
tant students;
m o re black
students;
m o re involve­
m ent in
com m unity.

Growth
Rapid
grow th; a d ­
m in istratio n
encourages
innovation;
m o re student
pow er and
re s tle s s n e s s .

4

Growth; new
p resid e n t;
A cadem ic
Council with
students a s
voting m em ­
b e rs .

233

M ajor changes M ost
in recen t y e a rs o ccu rred
since 1964
F re e Speech
M ovement;
c u rric u la
revam ped;
q u a rte r s y s ­
tem .

Columbia
U niversity

TABLE C3
ORIGIN OF OFFICE OF CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN AT SIX INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
AS REPORTED BY THOSE OMBUDSMEN (OCTOBER, 1968)

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erkeley

Columbia
U niversity

U niversity
of D etroit

M ichigan
State
U niversity

O riginally
suggested by
P ro f. F ran z
Schneider,
long-tim e
faculty m em ­
b e r (date not
estab lish ed ).

DeKoff, in
1965, re c o m ­
m ended ex­
pansion of
"D ire c to r of
Student I n te r ­
e s ts " office
which had
been in o p e r­
ation about
10 y e a rs .

Campaign
F aculty
C om m ittee
p ro m ise of
candidate fo r on Student
p resid e n t of A ffairs held
Student Gov­ h e a rin g s on
student rig h ts
ern m en t in
sp rin g of
and re s p o n si­
1968.
b ilitie s in
1966-67 at
re q u e st of
u n iv e rsity
p re sid e n t.

Subsequent
action

C onsidered
by A ssociated
Students and
F acu lty Student R e la­
tio n s Com ­
m ittee of
A cadem ic
Senate a fte r
1964 F re e
Speech M ove­
m ent.

D eK off's
recom m enda­
tion su p ­
ported by
C om m ittee
on Student
Life in 1967.

Student
G overnm ent
p resid e n t
proposed
faculty nam es
fo r om buds­
m an to Stu­
dent Senate,
w hich in te r ­
viewed D avis
in August of
1968.

A fter study
and h earin g s,
com m ittee
issu ed A ca­
dem ic F r e e ­
dom R eport
of 1967,
which re c o m ­
m ended office
of om buds­
m an.

San Jo se
State College

Campaign
In fa ll of
p ro m ise of
1967 black
candidate for students
d e m o n stra t­
A ssociated
Student Body ed in p ro te st
p resid e n t in
of conditions
sp rin g of
on cam pus
and in com ­
1968.
m unity;
p resid e n t of
college se t
up h e a rin g s.
Candidate
won election;
no opposition
to om buds­
m an idea
from adm in­
is tra tio n o r
faculty.

College p r e s i­
dent proposed
om budsm an to
p ro te c t rig h ts
of ethnic m i­
n o ritie s on
cam pus; sup­
p o rted by
A cadem ic
Council
E xecutive
C om m ittee.

234

O riginal
suggestion
o r pro p o sal

San Diego
State College

TABLE C3—Continued

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley

Columbia
U n iv ersity

U niversity
of D etro it

M ichigan
State
U niversity

San Diego
State College

San J o s e
State College

M eeting of
A cadem ic
Senate in
May of 1968.

F inal
decision
m ade in
Ja n u a ry of
1968.

Instigation
from Student
Senate to
academ ic
vice
p resid e n t and
p resid e n t fo r
authorization.
No faculty
involvem ent
in selectio n .

A ccepted by
A cadem ic
Council,
A cadem ic
Senate,
T ru s te e s by
sp rin g of
1967; student
le a d e rs given
chance to
veto nam es
on p ro v o st1s
lis t of 60
nom inees;
u n iv e rsity
p resid e n t
m ade final
selectio n .

Both college
p resid e n t and
student gov­
ernm ent <
le a d e rs
involved in
selectio n ;
financial
problem
delayed final
action u n til
m id-S eptem ­
b e r of 1968.

A s soon
a s black
com m unity
accepted
p roposal,
college p r e s i­
dent asked
W hite to fill
position.

D ate office
w as
established
\

M ay 16,
1968

Jan u ary ,
1968

A pril,
1968

M arch 16,
1967

Septem ber,
1968

S eptem ber 22,
1967

235

F inal
authorizatio n

TABLE C3—Continued

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erk eley

Columbia
U niversity

Announced on A pril, 1968
May 28, 1968,
by u n iv e rsity
president*3

Ju n e, 1968,
by A cadem ic
Senate
C om m ittee on
C om m ittees

Date f irs t
om budsm an
began duties

Septem ber 30, Ju ly 1, 1968
1968

F u ll-tim e
o r p a rt-tim e
assignm en t ?

H alf-tim e
(also
teach es)

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

August, 1967

S eptem ber 15, S eptem ber 27,
1968
1967

Septem ber 5,
1968

Septem ber 1,
1967

Septem ber 15, O ctober 1,
1968
1967

P a rt-tim e
(holds o th er
a d m in is tra ­
tiv e offices)

F u ll-tim e
(teaches one
co u rse p e r
y ea r)

F u ll-tim e
(teaches offcam pus
course
annually)

F u ll-tim e

Rank rem ain s
unchanged but
s a la ry is in ­
crea sed .

No, but is
now on 12m onth in stead
of 9-m onth
assignm ent.

E quivalent to
asso c ia te
p ro fe sso r; no
p rev io u s a c a ­
dem ic rank.

236

Date f irs t
ombudsm an
w as chosen

Any change
in rank o r
s a la ry ?

U n iv ersity
of D etro it

No

F u ll-tim e

Status change
and sig n ifi­
cant s a la ry
in c re a se .

No

TABLE C3—Continued

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley

Columbia
U niversity

U niversity
o f'D etro it

Y e a r-to -y e a r A cadem ic
year

A cadem ic
c
year
t

Can om buds­
m an be
rem oved from
office before
te rm e x p ire s?

If so, method No p ro c e ss
of rem o v al is estab lish ed ;
only u n iv e r­
unknown.
sity p r e s i­
dent could do
it.

"Student
G overnm ent
can rem ove
m e any tim e;
u n iv e rsity
a d m in istra ­
tion c a n 't do
it."

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

U ndeterm ined
Inform al
arran g em en t
w ith p r e s i­
dent of u n i­
v e rsity ; a fte r
2 y e a rs e ith e r
can m ake
change.

U ndeterm ined
( F ir s t om ­
budsm an a c ­
cepted on
o n e-y ea r
b asis)

By u n iv ersity
p resid e n t.

No p ro c e s s
estab lish ed ;
would have
to be done by
p re sid e n t of
college.

U ncertain

237

Length of
te rm of
office

M ichigan
State
U niversity

TABLE C3—Continued

U niversity
of C alifornia
at B erk eley

Item

Group(s) which
supported
estab lish m en t
of officed

U n iv ersity
o f D etro it

C om m ittee on U n iv ersity
Student Life. Student Gov­
ern m en t.

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity
F aculty
C om m ittee
on Student
A ffairs.

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

Student
G overnm ent,
student
new spaper,
AAUP.

None

aAIl six om budsm en indicated that-they did not activ ely seek the office.
bA fter h is appointm ent, DeKoff receiv ed u n iv e rsity p re sid e n t’ s approval to se rv e in "an
om budsm an-like c a p a c ity ." On O ctober 1, 1968, h is title w as changed from "D ire c to r of Student
In te re s ts " to "D ire c to r fo r Student In te re s ts . "
L eitm ann h as been asked to se rv e a second o n e-y ea r te rm ,
^ o om budsm en indicated aw aren ess of any organized opposition to the estab lish m en t of the
office;

238

StudentF aculty
R elations
B oard of
A ssociated
Students;
a lso group
w hich p ro ­
posed office.

Columbia
U niversity

TABLE C4
RATIONALE FOR OFFICE OF CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN AT SIX INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
AS REPORTED BY THOSE OMBUDSMEN (OCTOBER, 1968)

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erk eley

U niversity
of D etro it

A rgum ents
used to ju stify
establish m en t
of office

Many student To a c t as a
ca taly st fo r
com plaints
reg ard in g
resolving
student
academ ic
sta tu s and
g riev an ces.
p ro g ram .

Any la rg e
organization
needs an
om budsm an.

Cam pus
incidents
which
supported
th o se a rg u ­
m ents

F re e Speech
M ovement of
1964; im p e r­
so n al n atu re
of operation;
student
needed so m e­
one to talk to
o th er than
s e c r e ta ry o r
dean.

Item

See R eport of Many sm a ll
Cox C om m is­ ir rita tio n s .
sion (issued
a fte r student
rebellion in
sp rin g of
1968).

M ichigan
State
U niversity
T estim ony of
stu d en ts in
h e a rin g s
conducted by
F aculty
C om m ittee
on Student
A ffairs.

San Diego
San Jo se
State College State College
Rapid growth
causing p r o ­
ced u ral
pro b lem s;
student did n 't
know w here
o r how to get
help.

No specific
Schiff case;
g en e ra l s tu ­ incidents.
dent u n re s t
and a p p e a r­
ance of New
Left; s it-in s .

I

«

C om m unica­
tions b re a k ­
down in
organization
regard in g
executive
d ecisio n s;
college p r e s ­
ident needed
to be b e tte r
inform ed.
B lack student
w as refu sed
adm ission to
a so ro rity ;
p resid e n t of
college w as
unaw are of
incident.

239

Columbia
U n iv ersity

TABLE C 4--C ontinued

Campus
agencies and
p ro ced u res for
handling in d i­
vidual student
pro b lem s in
existence
before office of
om budsm an
w as e s ta b ­
lished

D epartm ent
ch airm en ,
a s s is ta n t
deans,
deans, vice
ch an cello r
and chan cel­
lo r; ju d ic ia ry
com m ittee;
dean of s tu ­
dents office.

Have any of
th e se s e rv ic e s
been changed
o r d isco n tin ­
ued?

No

Columbia
U niversity
A sso ciate
dean of s tu ­
den ts fo r
Columbia
College;
nothing on a
u n iv e rsity wide b a s is.

M ore co o rd i­
nation but no
significant
changes e x ­
pected; d is c i­
p lin a ry func­
tion to be
rem oved from
d ean 1s office.

U n iv ersity
o f D etro it

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

N on-academ ic
p ro b lem s to
dean of s tu ­
dent a ffa irs ;
academ ic
p ro b lem s to
college
deans.

Many offices
to handle a
wide v a rie ty
of p ro b lem s,
such a s s tu ­
dent a ffa irs,
academ ic
a d v ise rs,
a s s is ta n t
deans, coun­
selin g cen ter;
but weak
sy stem in
som e col­
leg es.

P re sid e n t of
college and
F aculty
Senate
responsive
to student
needs; plus
u su al s e r ­
v ices.

Student
A ctiv ities
Office and a ll
i ts se rv ic e
agencies;
academ ic
com m ittees;
m any g rie v ­
ance p ro c e ­
d u re s.

No

No. "I r e f e r
m any s tu ­
dents to
th e m ."

No. "One
problem is
that m any
students
don11 know
w h a t's
available to
th e m ."

"T hey o p e r­
ate m o re
effectively
when they
know so m e ­
one d ire c ts
stu d en ts to
them and
checks b a c k .'

240

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erk eley

TABLE C5
DESCRIPTION OF O FFICE OF CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN AT SIX INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
AS REPORTED BY THOSE OMBUDSMEN (OCTOBER, 1968)

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erkeley

Columbia
U niversity

U niversity
of D etro it

Location of
the office
on cam pus

T em p o rarily
in a sm a ll
wooden
building at
n o rth end of
cam p u s;
eventually to
be with o th e r
A cadem ic
Senate offices
n e a r c e n te r
of cam pus.

Low L ib ra ry Student
(administra~- Union.
tion building)
in the cen ter
of M orningside cam pus
(D eK off's
choice).

A rrangem en t
of the office

Two ro o m s,
one fo r
ombudsm an
and one for
s e c re ta ry .

N ice, larg e
p riv ate of­
fice, outer
office and
reception
a re a ; co n fer­
ence room
and work
room to be
added.

"N ine-bynine foot
cubicle with
round table
and four
c h a ir s .11

M ichigan
State
U niversity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

B asem ent of B asem ent of
M o rrill H all, new Student
Union.
one of the
o ld e r build­
ings on cam ­
pus; between
Student Union
and Student
S ervices
building.

Old b a r ­
ra c k s build­
ing in h e a rt
of cam pus,
betw een a d ­
m in istra tio n
building and
office of
college p r e s ­
ident.

"W indow less,
O u ter office
and in n e r
g rim room
office; "only w ith bright
orange rug I
suitable
place at tim e p ro v id e d ."
of appoint­
m ent. "

R eception
a re a and two
offices fo r
om budsm an
and asso c ia te
om budsm an;
"not v e ry
a ttr a c tiv e ."

TABLE C5—Continued

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley

Columbia
U n iv ersity

U n iv ersity
of- D etro it

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College
None

A ccess to
copying
m achine.

R eco rd er,
a c c e s s to
copying
m achine.

A cc ess to
re c o rd e r,
copying
m achine.

D ictaphone,
copying
m achine.

A ccess to
re c o rd e r,
copying
m achine.

A ssistan c e in
office o p e ra ­
tion

S ecretary ;
p ro v isio n fo r
g rad u ate law
student
a s s is ta n t,
"but h a s n 't
becom e
n e c e s s a r y ."

F u ll-tim e
"top-flight"
executive
s e c re ta ry ; 5
student
r e s e a rc h
a s s is ta n ts .

None, but
"m u st get
student s e c ­
r e ta r ia l
h e lp ."

F u ll-tim e
s e c re ta ry
"who so m e­
tim e s ad vises
students in
m y a b s e n c e ."

None in
office; " s e c ­
r e ta r y of .
student body
p resid e n t
tak es m y
c a l l s ."

A sso ciate
om budsm an
(o n e -q u a rte r
tim e) and
s e c r e ta ry
(fu ll-tim e ).

"It doesn11;
I am not a c ­
countable to
p resid e n t of
c o lle g e ."

Ombudsm an
is m e m b e r of
college p r e s ­
id en t' s staff.

t

C om m ittee of "R ight now
W here does
it' s in
one of A ca­
the office fit
in in stitu tio n 1s dem ic Senate. lim b o ."
a d m in istra tiv e
s tru c tu re ?

Ombudsman
"H andm aid"
of U n iv ersity re p o rts to
Student Gov­ u n iv e rsity
p re sid e n t.
ern m en t.

242

Office
equipm ent

TABLE C 5--C ontinued

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erk eley

A cadem ic
To whom a re
w ritte n re p o rts Senate.
subm itted?

How often a re
re p o rts m ade?

Outstanding
individual
c a se s (but no
nam es);
a n a ly s is ;
leg islativ e
p ro p o sals.

Annually

U niversity
of D etro it

M ichigan
State
U niversity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

U n iv ersity
p resid e n t.

Student Gov­
ern m en t
p re sid e n t and
Senate; a c a ­
d em ic deans;
faculty.

U n iv ersity
p resid e n t
(provost gets
copy).

P re sid e n t of
college and
student body
p resid en t.

College
p resid e n t.

"A ction
pro p o sals"
(reco m m en ­
dations) plus
su m m ary of
pro b lem s
ombudsm an
h as d ealt
with.

Sum m ary of
p ro b lem s and
p ro ced u res
used to solve
them , plus
reco m m en ­
dations.

Sum m ary of
om budsm an's
a c tiv itie s,
student p ro b ­
lem s, so lu ­
tio n s, r e c ­
om m enda­
tions.

G en eral im ­
p re ssio n s;
m a jo r ca ses;
recom m en­
dations.

Sum m ary of
a c tiv itie s of
office, with
reco m m en ­
dations.

As needed.

A s n e c e s­
s a ry .

Annually

Monthly,
"but I hope
they won' t be
too exacting."

As often a s
n e c e ssa ry ,
plus end-ofy e a r re p o rt.

243

What is
included in
the re p o rts ?

Columbia
U niversity

TABLE C5—Continued

U niversity
of C alifornia
a t B erk eley

Item

•How w idely
circu lated
a re re p o rts ?

D oes any
agency o r
official have
authority to
investigate^
the office?

M ichigan
State
U niversity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

Faculty, s tu ­ U n iv ersity
p resid en t
d ents, a c a ­
dem ic deans, and provost.
u n iv e rsity
p resid e n t.

A ll ad m in is­
tr a to r s and
o th e rs in te r ­
ested in the
office.

Not m ade
public but
copies go to
offices and
p erso n s r e ­
fe rre d to in
re p o rts .

U niversity
of D etro it

Not c irc u ­
lated but
open to any
m em b er of
A cadem ic
Senate; m ay
be p rin ted in
m inutes.

U n iv ersity
p r e s id e n t's
decision.

A cadem ic
S enate.

U niversity
p resid e n t.

U n iv ersity
Student
G overnm ent.

U niversity
p resid e n t.

U n iv ersity
p re sid e n t.

P re sid e n t of
U n iv ersity
Student
G overnm ent.

T ru s te e s,
u n iv e rsity
p resid e n t,
A cadem ic
Council.

No

\
Not c le a rly
estab lish ed .

Unknown

In addition to stan d ard ite m s, telephone(s) and ty p ew riter(s).
^At none of the in stitu tio n s had such an investigation actually o ccu rred .

P re sid e n t of
college.

T ru s te e s,
chancellor,
p resid e n t of
college.

244

To whom is
the office
fiscally
accountable ?

Columbia
U n iv ersity

TABLE C6
OBJECTIVES OF O FFICE OF CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN AT SIX INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
AS REPORTED BY THOSE OMBUDSMEN {OCTOBER, 1968)
M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

Colum bia
U n iv ersity

U n iv ersity
of D etro it

What a r e the
m a jo r o b jec­
tiv e s of the
office?

To h e a r
student
g riev an ces
reg ard in g
academ ic
sta tu s
d ecisio n s;
a fte r in v e sti­
gation, r e c ­
om m enda­
tio n s m ay be
m ade w here
ap p ro p riate .

To m ake
contact with
e n tire u n i­
v e rsity ; to
inform ad ­
m in is tra to rs ,
faculty and
students
reg ard in g
redefinition
of office fo r
handling
g riev an ces.

To m ake c e r ­
ta in a ll s tu ­
dents have
opportunity
to be h eard ,
covering wide
range of
co m p lain ts—
academ ic,
p erso n al,
financial,
etc.

To help s tu ­
dents find
solutions
fo r th e ir
p ro b lem s,
w hether
academ ic
o r nonacadem ic.

How do th ese
objectives
m ake the
office d iffe r­
ent from
other offices
on cam pus ?

Autonomy
and n e u tra l­
ity; office is
not linked to
a d m in is tra ­
tion, A sso ­
ciated Stu­
d en ts, o r, in
a se n se, to
faculty.

U nansw ered

"S houldn't be
d ifferen t.
E v ery dean,
a s s is ta n t
dean, adm in­
is tr a to r and
faculty m em ­
b e r should be
an om buds­
m an in h is
own r ig h t."

U nansw ered
M ore scope
and pow er of
investigation;
im m ediate
and forceful
a c c e ss to
se n io r faculty
•.
and h ig h er
echelon a d ­
m in is tra to rs .

Item

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

To be a v a il­ O riginally,
to p ro te c t
able to any
student with hum an rig h ts
any problem ; of ethnic
m in o ritie s
to help him
solve it o r
on cam pus:
now,
to p ro ­
te ll him how
te c t individ­
he can get
a s sista n c e .
u a l rig h ts of
a ll students
on cam pus.

The om buds­
m an p e rso n ­
a liz e s in d i­
vidual con­
c e rn . "If
ev e ry office
operated
p erfectly , he
w o u ld n 't be
n e e d e d ."

245

U niversity
of C alifornia
a t B erk eley

TABLE C7
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES OF O FFICE OF CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN AT SIX INSTITUTIONS OF
HIGHER EDUCATION AS REPORTED BY THOSE OMBUDSMEN (OCTOBER, 1968)

Item

U niversity
of C alifornia
a t B erk eley

U nd erg rad ­
uate and
graduate
students.

U n d erg rad ­
u ate and
g raduate
students,
a d m in is tra ­
to r s , faculty,
p e rso n s from
off cam pus,
civ il se rv ic e
em ployees.

U n d erg rad ­
uate s tu ­
d ents.

U n d erg rad ­
uate s tu ­
d ents.

U n d erg rad ­
uate s tu ­
dents .

E thnic
m in o ritie s
am ong u n d e r­
g raduate s tu ­
dents.

O ff-cam pus
p erso n s.

P a re n ts of
students.

G raduate
students.

O ff-cam pus
p e rso n s.

U n d erg rad ­
u ate and
graduate
students, a d ­
m in is tra to rs
(including
p resid en t),
faculty.

L a rg e st
num ber of
clien ts ?

U n d erg rad ­
E venly
divided b e ­
u ate s tu ­
tw een u n d e r­ d ents.
g rad u ate and
g rad u ate s tu ­
d en ts.
N on-students.

246

U n d erg rad ­
uate and
graduate
students, and
a few p a r ­
en ts.

U n d erg rad ­
u ate and
graduate
students,
a d m in is tra ­
to rs , faculty.

U n d erg rad ­
uate and
g rad u ate
stu d en ts, for
academ ic
p ro b lem s
only.

S m allest
num ber?

San Jo se
State College

U n iv ersity
of D etro it

Who m ay seek
a ssista n c e
from the
om budsm an?

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

Columbia
U n iv ersity

TABLE C7—Continued

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erkeley

Columbia
U n iv ersity

U n iv ersity
of-D etroit

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

Confidential

Confidential

Confidential

R ecords open
o r confiden­
tia l?

Confidential

Some open
but som e
confidential.

Open
"b ecau se I
n e v e r re c o rd
anything con­
fidential. "

D oes om buds­
m an have
a c c e s s to
official
re c o rd s on
cam pus?

Yes

Y es, except
classified
governm ent
re s e a rc h
co n tra cts.

Y es, "but it
m ight be
m o re diffi­
cult if I
w e re n 11 also
a d e a n ."

Y es, except A ll except
Y es, includ­
psychological ing faculty.
fo r student
health o r
re c o rd s.
p sy c h ia tric
re c o rd s ; un­
c e rta in about
faculty p e r ­
so n al
re c o rd s .

N ew spapers,
faculty bul­
letin .

N ew spapers,
sp eech es,
rad io .

N ew spapers,
sp eech es,
n o tices on
bulletin
b o ard s.

Speeches,
new spapers,
radio.

*

Speeches,
new spapers,
rad io in te r ­
view s.

Speeches,
new spapers,
radio-T V .

247

How does
om budsm an
publicize
a c tiv itie s ?

TABLE C7—Continued

Item

N um ber of
client contacts
in typical week

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erkeley
6 to 8

Columbia
U n iv ersity
Too soon to
d eterm in e.

U niversity
of D etro it
25

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

27

12 to 15

About 15

G rad es, use
of fa c ilitie s,
ad m issio n
policy, reg u ­
latio n s.
i

Housing, food
se rv ic e s ,
lib r a r y s e r ­
v ice, book­
s to re .

G rad es,
fees, h o u s­
ing, lib ra ry ,
parking,
u n fair g ra d ­
ing, rude
tre a tm e n t,
poor te a c h ­
ing.

Wide range
of academ ic
and nonacadem ic
p ro b lem s.

G rades,
fees, h o u s­
ing, p e r ­
sonal.

G rades,
fees, h ous­
ing, lib ra ry ,
parking.

M ost frequent
com plaints

Lack of
inform ation.

Too soon to
d eterm in e.

A cadem ic
re q u ire ­
m en ts.

P ro b lem s of
in stru c tio n .

G rades

Housing

I

I

248

Broad c a te ­
g o rie s of
com plaints
receiv ed

TABLE C7—Continued

Item

U niversity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley

Columbia
U niversity

U niversity
of D etroit

Michigan
State
U niversity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

Simple p ro b ­
lem s take 1
o r 2 days;
se rio u s p ro b ­
lem s h a v e n 't
been resolved
yet.

Some p ro b ­
lem s take
about 2
m inutes, but
o th e rs w ill
take 2 y e a rs.

F o r som e
com plaints
no solution is
p o ssib le; in
g en eral, 2 to
4 days.

Some can be
■settled in a
few seconds;
"one I have
spent se v e ra l
h o u rs on fo r
alm o st a
m o n th ."

Some can be
settled in 3
m inutes;
o th e rs take
w eeks, even
m onths.

Some can be
handled by a
phone call,
"but I 'v e
w orked a s
long a s 3
w eeks on one
co m p lain t."

What kinds of
com plaints a re
not consid­
e re d ?

Nonacadem ic o r
solely p o liti­
cal.

U ncertain

None

Any student
problem that
involves offcam pus peo­
ple o r law s.

Em otional
problem s
that should
go to a
counselor.

, P re lim in a ry
'in q u iry m ade
fo r a ll com ­
plaints.

Typical case
and its
disposition

Student u p set Too soon to
by change in d eterm in e.
academ ic r e ­
quirem ent;
investigation
rev ealed that
it d id n 't
affect h e r.

P re -s e n io r
w asn11 p e r ­
m itted to buy
s e n io r ring;
investigation
put an end to
a r b itr a r y
regulation.

F o r 2 y e a rs
student w as
unable to get
u n iv ersity to
change h e r
home ad ­
d r e s s ; om ­
budsman
c o rre c te d it
by phone call.

Student with
fath er in
se rv ic e
claim s r e s i ­
dent low -fee
sta tu s; le g is ­
la to r is help­
ing om buds­
m an solve
problem .

F aculty m em ­
b e r charged
w ith im p ro p er
tre a tm e n t of
N egro student
m ade public
apology a fte r
ombudsm an
intervened.

249

Length of
tim e required
to solve a
problem

TABLE C7—Continued

Item

U niversity
of C alifo rn ia
a t B erk eley

Columbia
U niversity

U n iv ersity
of t)e tro it

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

Counseling,
inform ation
gath erin g ,
p ersu asio n ,
reco m m en ­
dations.

Get and check
fa c ts because
som e com ­
p lain ts a re
unjustified;
appeal to
au th o rity if
n e c e ss a ry .

Counseling,
advising,
app eal to
authority,
p ersu asio n ,
publicity.

R eactions of
faculty and
a d m in istra to rs
ag ain st whom
students m ake
com plaints

M ost se rio u s
case brought
ad v e rse
reac tio n from
faculty m em ­
b e r involved.

R eaction in
one ca se in ­
volving a d ­
m in is tra to r
w as s a tis fa c ­
to ry .

E xcellent co­ G en erally
excellent
operation in
g e n e ra l: "so cooperation.
fa r only one
faculty m em ­
b e r and one
a d m in istra to r
have given
m e tro u b le ."

L isten,
advise,
explain,
re f e r , take
d ire c t action,
review .

San Jo se
State College

Advice to
Get d e ta ils,
student; p e r ­ r e f e r student
to p ro p e r
suasion to
faculty and
office; o r in ­
a d m in istra ­
v e stig a te ,
find solution
to rs .
o r m ake
reco m m en ­
dation.
"No p attern
h e re a t a l l , "

"D efensive
a t f ir s t but
now that they
know I w ill
defend them
if they a r e
rig h t, accep ­
tance has
in c re a s e d ."

250

P ro b le m ­
solving
techniques
used

San Diego
State College

TABLE C 7--C ontinued

Item

P ro c ed u re if
no rem edy can
be found for
valid com ­
plaint

U niversity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley
Publicity

Columbia
U n iv ersity

U n iv ersity
of D e tro it

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

Follow -up on
reco m m en ­
dations; "if
one ad m in is­
tr a to r balks,
1 take it to
the next
le v e l."

"I se rv e a s
contact m an
betw een
faculty
d ec isio n ­
m aking
groups and
s tu d e n ts ."

"I adm it I 'm "If no rem edy
stum ped. If can be found
I get s e v e ra l w ithin the
s tru c tu re , I
like it, I go
to p resid e n t go beyond the
o r p ro v o st
s tr u c t u r e .11
fo r advice o r
with su g g e s­
tio n s. "

Recom m end
a change in
ru le s o r p ro ­
cedure so
problem
won' t happen
again.

P r e s id e n t's
office.

To whom m ay
a com plainant
appeal beyond
the om buds­
m an?

C hancellor
(highest
au th o rity on
cam pus).

P re sid e n t
(final
au th o rity on
cam pus).

P re sid e n t of
Student Gov­
ern m en t o r
u n iv e rsity
p re sid e n t.

StudentFaculty
Ju d ic ia ry o r
u n iv e rsity
p resid e n t.

Which m eans
of com m uni­
cation is used
m o st by the
om budsm an?

With com ­
plainant,
fa c e -to -fa c e
contact; fo r
gathering
inform ation,
telephone.

Telephone
and fa c e -to face contact.

F a c e -to -fa c e
contact.

With s tu ­
F a c e -to -fa c e
dents, face - contact.
to -fa c e con­
ta c t; w ith
faculty, te le ­
phone.

Which is used
the le a s t?

U nansw ered

W ritten
m e ssa g e s.

Telephone

W ritten
m e ssa g e s.

Vice
p resid e n t o r
p resid e n t.

W ritten
m e ssag e s.

Telephone
and fa c e -to face contact.

W ritten
m e ssa g e s.

TABLE C8
E FFE C T S OF O FFICE OF CAMPUS OMBUDSMAN AT SIX INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
AS REPORTED BY THOSE OMBUDSMEN (OCTOBER, 1968)

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erk eley

Columbia
U niversity

U n iv ersity
of D etro it

Student Faculty
R elations
B oard of
A ssociated
Students gave
office "v ery
stro n g su p ­
p o rt. 11

U nansw ered

Student Gov­
ern m en t.

Any evidence
of organized
opposition to
office of
om budsm an?

No

"Student gov­
ern m en t
opposition at
f ir s t because
m y appoint­
m ent w as by
u n iv e rsity
p resid e n t
without s tu ­
dent involve­
m ent. "

No

Some a g ita ­
tion in favor
of office on
p a rt of stu ­
dents "but I
d o n 't r e c a ll
student gov­
ernm ent
going on
re c o rd in
fav o r of it."
No

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

1968 cam ­
paign
p ro m ise of
Student Gov­
ernm ent
p resid en t.

"Students
wanted it
continued, a t
le a st black
com m unity did.
Students have
estab lish ed
m
th e ir own om - n>
budsm an in
student gov­
ern m en t. 11.
252

Any evidence
of organized
support for
office of
om budsm an?

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

No

"M exicanA m erican
com m unity
does not tru s t
any college
officials, to
an e x te n t."

TABLE C8—Continued

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erk eley

W ill office of
om budsm an
function " a s
i s 11 for next
ten y e a rs ?

U niversity
of D etro it

"One com ­
m ittee
decided to
g et rid of old
ru le s; lib ra ry
s e t up g rie v ­
ance com ­
m ittee of
students and
fa c u lty ."

"C e rta in
req u ire m e n ts
fo r g rad u a­
tion w ere
ch an g ed ."

Should be a
fu ll-tim e
position;
qualified
people h ard
to find
b ecause it is
such a d iffi­
cult job.

W ill continue W ill receiv e
a m uch b e tte r
to function.
definition;
om budsm an
w ill be con­
cerned w ith
m o re than
Students;
m o re sta ff
m ay be
needed.

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo s e
State College

"O peration of
s e v e ra l cam ­
pus offices is
tightened up
a s re s u lt of
m y in q u irie s
and re c o m ­
m endations. "

"M ore s tu ­
dent p a r tic i­
pation on
college com ­
m itte e s ."

"A num ber of
p o licies w ere
changed, in
such a re a s
a s p la c e ­
m ent, h o u s­
ing, te r m i­
nating
e n ro llm e n t."

"No idea; I
don11 fo re se e
any r e a l le s ­
sening of
student te n ­
sion, not in
im m ediate
f u tu r e ."

"Don11 know;
it m ay have
perm anent
u tility ."

It h a s a place
and w ill con­
tinue func­
tioning; its
ro le w ill be
b e tte r u n d e r­
stood; it w ill
be expanded
to include
b ro a d e r
sp e ctru m of
p ro b lem s.

253

Any in stan ces "Not yet. I
w here p olicies hope it w ill
o r p ro ced u res h ap p en ."
w ere changed
a s d ire c t
re s u lt of om ­
budsm an' s
in q u irie s and/
o r re c o m ­
m endations ?

Columbia
U niversity

TABLE C9
ATTITUDES AND OPINIONS OF CAMPUS OMBUDSMEN AT SIX INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
(OCTOBER, 1968)

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erkeley

On the whole,
A ttitude of
v e ry co o p er­
student p e r ­
sonnel w o rk e rs ativ e.
reg ard in g om ­
budsm an

What a r e b est
qualifications
fo r cam pus
om budsm an?

Y e a rs of
ex perience on
a p a rtic u la r
cam pus; sy m ­
pathetic to ­
w ard students;
open m inded;
not su b ject to
outside p r e s ­
s u re s ; te n u re ;
no w o rrie s
about p rom o­
tion.

Colum bia
U niversity

U n iv ersity
of D etro it

M ichigan
State
U niversity

"V ery much
in accord
w ith what I
am doing
b ecause we
a r e acting a s
a unit; good
feed b ack ."

Unknown; "I
A verage o r
le s s than av­ have had no
era g e ; "o u r
feedback
dean of s tu ­
from th e m ."
dent a ffa irs
d o esn '1 'buy'
th is position
a s m uch a s
he sh o u ld .11

Teaching and
a d m in istra ­
tive e x p e ri­
ence, plus
student con­
ta c t; e x p e ri­
ence on a
p a rtic u la r
cam pus
depends on
its siz e .

"S ort of born
to the p o si­
tion; ra p p o rt
w ith students;
love fo r u n i­
v e rsity ;
teaching e x ­
p erien ce; an
o u tsid er
would have
d iffic u lty ."

Much e x p e ri­
ence as
classro o m
te a c h e r; som e
a d m in istra ­
tiv e e x p e ri­
ence useful;
also student
advising o r
counseling;
leg al e x p e ri­
ence o r a c ­
c e ss to law ­
y e r.

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

"V ery
healthy;
m any of them
are my p e r­
sonal frien d s.
T h e r e 's no
reaso n for
com petition."

"T hey a r e
su spicious of
om budsm an,
som ew hat
m isinform ed
and resen tfu l;
they feel an
in tru sio n on
th e m ."

E ducation
(discipline)
m akes little
difference;
ex perience in
w orking with
students.

E xperience
in academ ic
com m unity;
good rap p o rt
w ith students;
som e adm in­
is tra tiv e
"know-how";
cam pus m in ­
is t e r fits
th is d e s c rip ­
tion.

TABLE C9—Continued

Item

U niversity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San J ose
State College

Colum bia
U niversity

U niversity
of D etro it

S e ttle r of
g riev an ces,
im p a rtia l
judge, M r.
H onesty.

Foot in the
d oor, wedge
in the w all.

One who
encourages
students to
work through
estab lish ed
channels.
U nansw ered

"I would keep
good re c o rd s
from the b e ­
ginning, no
m a tte r how
busy I w a s ."

L earn m o re
about ro le;
re la te b e tte r
to M exicanA m erican
com m unity.

"Much m o re
v arie d ; I
expected
m o re a c a ­
dem ic com ­
p lain ts. 11

"Y es. I did
not have tim e
to study what
to do; ju st
s ta rte d do­
ing i t . "

"O thers
expect him
to be som e
kind of god
and reso lv e
a ll difficulty.
He is n 11 and
c a n 't . "

C ourt of la s t
re s o rt.

If you could
begin again as
an om buds­
m an, what
would you do
d ifferen tly ?

U nansw ered

"I would have "I would
s ta rte d a s an dem and f o r­
om budsm an." m a l accep ­
tan ce of
position by
u n iv e rsity
p re s id e n t."

Have ac tiv itie s
differed from
ex pectation s?

No

"Not re a lly ,
"I changed
except they
ex isting
operations to a r e m u ltip ly ­
m eet m y ex ­ ing. "
pectatio n s. "

Red tape cut­ A dvocate of
te r , m iddle
hum an rig h ts
m an, friend
of all, public
defender,
m ira c le m an.
255

What te rm s
b est d escrib e
om budsm an
ro le ?

TABLE C9—Continued

Item

U niversity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley

Columbia
U niversity

U n iv ersity
of D etro it

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

"No, b ecause
th is is a h alftim e appoint­
m ent. "

"I h a v e n 't
felt iso lated
y et; om buds­
m an who gets
stuck in h is
office c a n 't
be effective."

O ccasionally

"I have felt
som e is o la ­
tion from m y
academ ic
d ep artm en t,
but I tr y to
keep in touch
through m e e t­
ings and by
teaching a t
le a s t one
co u rse a y e a r
in m y a r e a . "

"I feel v ery
lonesom e
being se p a ­
rated from
m y co l­
leag u es. I
am not k eep ­
ing up in m y
subject
f ie ld ."

No, because
ro le of om ­
budsm an is
so s im ila r to
ro le of cam ­
pus m in iste r.

A re you a p a rt
of o r a p a rt
from the
cam pus E sta b ­
lish m en t?

"The in ten t
is to be a p a rt
from the
E s ta b lish ­
m e n t."

A p a rt of it.
"I c a n 't d i­
v o rce m y self
from those in
pow er; yet
m y ro le is
p e c u lia r ."

A p art fro m
it. " I’ m
m o re student
orien ted .
F o rm a l su p ­
p o rt fro m
u n iv e rsity
p resid en t
won' t change
that, e ith e r."

"A p a rt of it,
but in a c u r­
io u s position.
I w as given
p o st by E s ­
tab lish m en t
to c ritic iz e
it. I 'm a
faculty m e m ­
b e r, not an
a d m in is tra ­
to r ."

A p art from
it, "although
th is is d e ­
batable.
Om budsm an
c a n 't be a
defender of
sta tu s q u o ."

A p a rt of it.
"O m budsm an
m u st have
som e kind of
com m itm ent
to the in s ti­
tution. "

256

Have you
experienced
ro le conflict?

f

TABLE C 9--C ontinued

Item

U niversity
of C alifornia
a t B erkeley

Columbia
U niversity

U niversity
of D e tro it

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

"Not yet. It
w ill n ev er
rem ove a ll
the f r u s tr a ­
tion but it
c e rta in ly w ill
h e lp ."

"I' m s u r­
p rise d a t the
am ount of
quiet on
cam pus now
and the
am ount of
hope th at
changes w ill
o c c u r ."

"A bsolutely.
I have m o re
understanding
and m o re
p a tie n c e ."

"If so, v ery
slightly. It
s till goes
o n ."

"Y es, but we
h a v e n 't come
to any of the
m ain te s ts
y e t ."

"Y es, but it
i s not going
to prevent a ll
confronta­
tio n s. "

D isappoint­
m ents
experienced in
serv in g as
om budsm an

U nansw ered

U nansw ered

"When so m e­
one d o e s n 't
ap p reciate o r
m is in te rp re ts
what I am
d o in g ."

Inability to
do anything
about valid
g riev an ces
concerning
stu d en tfaculty r e la ­
tionships,
esp ecially
g ra d e s.

"Running into
a stone w all.
Students a re
in h aste. I
hate to be a
long-range
o p e r a to r."

Inability to
re la te to
M exicanA m erican
com m unity.

257

Does the office
of om budsm an
help allev iate
h o stility and
fru stra tio n of
stu d en ts?

TABLE C 9--C ontinued
i

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erk eley

Colum bia
U niversity

U niversity
of D etro it

M ichigan
State
U niversity
Helping s tu ­
dents in
alm o st
d esp erate
situ atio n s.

Moving a
A cceptance
and p ra is e of
case sheet
from "in
black com ­
p ro c e ss" file m unity.
to "co m ­
pleted" file.

"Two y e a rs
fo r m e,
although 3 o r
4 m ight be
m o re s e n s i­
ble. No
lo n g er than
th a t."

One y e a r,
renew able
fo r another
v ear. "A fter
a y e a r o r so
you a re p sy ­
chologically
drained and
p erh ap s a
b u re a u c ra t
y o u rse lf."

Tenured
faculty m em ­
b e r on 2 y e a r appoint­
m ent. "E ach
om budsm an
h a s h is blind
spots and
m ight lo se
p e rs p e c tiv e ."

No

Y es. "P lu sh
fa c ilitie s a r e
not im p o r­
tan t. "

U nansw ered

Getting any
Students
filterin g into s m a ll p ro b ­
lem solved.
office with
com plaints o r
ju st to talk.

How long
should om ­
budsman* s
te rm of office
be?

Two y e a rs .

Two y e a rs ,
p erh ap s
longer.

A re your
budget, fa c ili­
tie s and sta ff
adequate?

Yes

No. M ust be
la rg e r to
in c re a s e
work load.

Two y e a rs .
"It* s good to
have new
b lo o d .11

No

V

"Y es, so
f a r ."
»

San Jo se
State College

258

S atisfactions
experienced
in serv in g as
om budsm an

San Diego
State College

I

TABLE C9—Continued

Item

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
at B erkeley

Columbia
U niversity

Depends on
c a se . If
publicity pin­
points com ­
plaint, no.
If identity
can be con­
cealed and
case is of
g en e ra l
in te re s t, y es.

U ncertain.
Some m eans
i s needed to
le t students
know that
office is
viable.

Sociological
im plication s
of cam pus
om budsm an
developm ent

A m elio rates
im p e rso n al
n atu re of the
la rg e ca m ­
pus, but
shouldn11 u n ­
duly p re s s u re
young faculty
m e m b e rs to
conform .

Only way of
m aking
b u re a u c ra c y
m o re hum an­
is tic .

Yes

A "gim m ick,"
but a v ery
good one. A ll
suni v e rs ifie s
w ill have one
in^ten y e a rs
because s tu ­
dents w ill
dem and it.

M ichigan
State
U niversity

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

Caution m ust "H aven11
be ex ercised . m ade up m y
m in d ."
"I wouldn* t
publicize an
individual
c a s e ."

When they
involve policy
he can* t get
changed. At
tim e s, he can
help u n iv e r­
sity by m ak ­
ing a public
iss u e (poli­
cies r a th e r
than people).

Is it sp re a d ­
ing because it
is a "gim ­
m ick" to keep
students
q u iet? "If I
believed that
I* d give up
th e jo b ."

P erso n alizin g
la rg e in s ti­
tutions; g iv ­
ing individual
a c c e ssib ility
to o rg an iz a­
tion.

A new in ­
stru m en t in
p ro jectiv e
psychology.
E ach se e s in
it w hat he
w ants to.
Adding new
fro stin g to an
old job is an
erro r.

259

Should findings
and re c o m ­
m endations of
om budsm an be
w idely publi­
cized ?

U niversity
vof D etroit

TABLE C9—Continued

Columbia
U niversity

U niversity
of D etro it

Have you m ade
contact with
other cam pus
om budsm en ?

Yes

"A bsolutely."

Yes

W ill cam pus
ombudsm an
attain p ro fe s ­
sio n al sta tu s
and becom e
perm anent
addition to
academ ic
sc en e?

"S ep arate
p ro fessio n , 1
doubt; p e r ­
m anent ad d i­
tion, y e s ."

"Y es. People
with common
concerns band
to g e th e r ."

Item

M ichigan
State
U n iv ersity
"L im ited ,
but it h as
im proved
m y p e rfo r­
m ance. "

"T h ere
Y es, but a
should n ev e r
national o r ­
be a p ro fe s ­
ganization
would be dif­ sio n al om ­
budsm an.
ficult to
m ain tain b e­ I 'm not keen
cause no one about a p ro ­
fessio n al o r ­
w ill sta y in
ganization. "
office long.

San Diego
State College

San Jo se
State College

"I am try in g
to develop
unity among
C alifornia
om buds­
m en. "

Y es, by c o r­
respondence.

"P ro b ab ly
not. Individ­
u al w ill have
standing in a
p ro fessio n
before he
g ets the job."

"A qualified
y e s . N ational
organization
could help
people sh a re
id e a s ."

260

U n iv ersity
of C alifornia
a t B erkeley

A P P E N D IX D
FORM USED BY OMBUDSMAN
A T MICHIGAN STA TE UNIVERSITY

261

No. ___________
O F F IC E O F TH E OMBUDSMAN
D a t e ___________
N a m e _________________________________

S tudent N u m b e r _____

C o lle g e _______________________________

M a j o r ___________ •

—C la s s

F

S

L o ca l A d d re s s

J

S

G

Spec. P r o g r a m

( C ir c le One)

___________________________

T elep h o n e ____________________
1 w ish to c o n su lt th e O m b u d sm an about

A P P E N D IX E
L E T T E R S IN CLUD ED W ITH Q U ESTIO N N A IRE
SEN T TO STU D EN TS WHO CONSULTED
' OMBUDSMAN A T MICHIGAN STA T E UNIVERSITY

262
M IC H IG A N STATE U N I V E R S I T Y

b a st i a n k n g

.

m ic h io a n h i d

OFFICE OF TUB OMBUDSMAN

F e b ru ary 3» 1969

The opening o f t h e O f f i c e of-Ombudsman In 1967 a t Michigan
S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y marked a n o t h e r I n n o v a t i o n In American h i g h e r
e d u c a t i o n . S i n c e t h e n , t h e r e has been much I n t e r e s t on t h e campus
and a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n r e g a r d i n g I t s f u n c t i o n s .
Although I have r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e Informal " f e e d b a c k " from
s t u d e n t s who have c a l l e d on me, as y e t no o r g a n i z e d e f f o r t has been
made t o o b t a i n an e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e o f f i c e from s t u d e n t s who have
used I t s s e r v i c e s .
Now the tim e has come f o r such an a s s e s s m e n t . With my c o o p e r a ­
t i o n , Mr. Howard Ray Rowland, a d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t In t h e C o l le g e of
E d u c a t i o n , • Is c o n d u c t i n g by means o f t h e e n c l o s e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e a
s u rve y o f s t u d e n t s who c o n s u l t e d th e Ombudsman d u r i n g t h e l a s t f o u r
months o f 1968. You a r e I n clu de d In t h a t g r o u p .
I s i n c e r e l y hope
t h a t you w i l l f i l l o u t t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e and send I t p r o m p tly t o
Mr. Rowland In t h e e n v e l o p e p r o v i d e d . R e s u l t s o f t h i s s u r v e y w t l l
a f f e c t t h e f u t u r e o p e r a t i o n o f t h i s o f f i c e and p e rh a p s t h e o p e r a t t o n
of s i m i l a r o f f i c e s which a r e b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d on o t h e r campuses.
To i n s u r e f u l l and f r e e r e s p o n s e from s t u d e n t s s u r v e y e d , Mr.
Rowland has d e v i s e d a syste m whereby n e i t h e r he nor I w i l l be a b l e
t o I d e n t i f y by name t h e I n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n d e n t s . The o n ly e x c e p t i o n s
wi l l be s t u d e n t s who v o l u n t a r i l y r e v e a l t h e i r names t o Mr. Rowland s o
t h a t he might c o n t a c t them f o r I n t e r v i e w s . So p l e a s e d o n ' t h e s i t a t e
t o " t e l l I t l i k e I t I s " In t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Your p a r t i c i p a t i o n
wi l l be g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d by a l l co n ce rn e d .
Sincerely

(/

James D. Rus

Ombudsman

263
M I C H I G A N STATE U N I V E R S I T Y
om ci

or

b a st l a n h n o

•

m ic h iq a m

4m

ij

t u i om b u d sm an

F e b ru ary 17» 1969

R e c e n tl y you were s e n t a survey q u e s t i o n n a i r e s e e k i n g Informa­
t i o n a bo u t your e x p e r i e n c e wi t h t he Of f i c e of Ombudsman. H r. Howard
Ray Rowland, the d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t who I s c o n d u c t in g t h e s u r v e y , Informs
me t h a t some o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s s t i l l have n o t been r e t u r n e d .
Enclosed Is a n o t h e r copy of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e . P l e a s e f i l l I t o u t
and send I t to Mr. Rowland In th e env elo pe p r o v i d e d a t you r e a r l i e s t
c o n v e n i e n c e . Responses n o t r e c e i v e d w i t h i n t h e n e x t two weeks can no t be
Included In t h e s u r v e y r e s u l t s .
May I 'r e m i n d you a g a i n t h a t t h i s Is t h e ' f i r s t s y s t e m a t i c e f f o r t t o
a s s e s s t h e Of f i c e o f Ombudsman by su r v e y i n g s t u d e n t s who have used I t s
services.
Your p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i l l make th e s t u d y more c o m plete .
Please
involved In
that event,
t h a t he w i l l

be a s s u r e d t h a t your name w i l l not be r e v e a l e d t o anyone
t h i s e v a l u a t i o n , u n l e s s you v o l u n t e e r f o r an I n t e r v i e w .
In
only Mr. Rowland wi l l l e a r n your i d e n t i t y and he has pledged
keep I t c o n f i d e n t i a l .

If you have a l r e a d y r e t u r n e d the f i r s t q u e s t i o n n a i r e , you may d i s ­
reg ard t h i s a p p e a l .
Thank you f o r you r c o o p e r a t i o n .
S incerely

I

L

ends

James D. Rust
Ombudsman

A PPE N D IX F
Q U ESTIO N N AIRE SEN T TO STU D EN TS WHO CONSULTED
OMBUDSMAN A T MICHIGAN STA T E UNIVERSITY

Form No.

OMBUDSMAN SURVEY
at
Michigan State University
(W in te r T e rm 1969)

This confidential survey is being conducted by Howard Ray Rowland, NDEA Graduate Fellow,
Room 401-1, Erickson Hall, College of Education, Michigan State University (Phone 353-3708).
OMBUDSMAN SURVEY AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
(Winter Term 1089)
P lease read this fir st; The Office of Ombudsman was established in 1967 at Michigan State
University in response to a recommendation of the Academic Freedom Report that a senior
faculty member be appointed to "asBlst students in accomplishing the expeditious settlement
of their problem s.11 To a s se s s the effectiveness of that office, this questionnaire is being
mailed to all students who consulted the ombudsman during the period September 1 through
December 31, 1968. Your cooperation is earnestly solicited. Please answer all questions
and mall the completed questionnaire to the researcher within two weeks. For your conven­
ience, a return envelope is enclosed.
Important! The researcher conducting this survey does not know your name. Although infor­
mation you provide will be made available to interested persons, including the ombudsman,
you will remain anonymous to all concerned. This precaution is taken to enable you to answer
a ll questions candidly and completely. UnleBS you choose to do so in Section F, do not reveal
your name on this form. Thank you!
A.

Information About You
IN THIS SECTION, ANSWER ALL ITEMS AS THEY APPLIED WHEN YOU CONSULTED
THE OMBUDSMAN SOMETIME BETWEEN SEPTEMBER 1.AND DECEMBER 31, 1068.
1. When you consulted the ombudsman, your class rank was:
(1)
Freshman
(2) ___ Sophomore
(3)
Junior

(4)
Senior
(5) ___ Special Student
(6) _ _ _ Graduate Student

(7)

Other (indicate)
___________________

2 . When you consulted the ombudsman, you r age (in y ea rs) w a s : ___________

3. Your s e x is ;

(1)

(2)

_ _ _ Male

F em ale

4. When you consulted the ombudsman, your m a rita l Btatus w as:
(1)

S ingle

(2)

M arried

(3) _ _

D ivorced

(4) ____ Widow o r W idower

5. When you consulted the ombudsman, you w ere a leg a l resid en t of:
( 1) ___ M ichigan

(2)_____ Another sta te

(3) ____ A nother country

6. When you consulted the ombudsman, your student resid en ce was:
On cam pus

Off cam pus

__ in a resid en ce h a ll
.
(2) ----- in m arried housing

(3) ___ in su p erv ised housing (hom e of p arent(s) or

(1)'

rela tiv e(s), co -o p h ou se, fratern ity, sorority,
su p erv ised apartm ent)

(4)

in unsupervised housing

7. When you consulted the om budsm an, you r sc h o o l o r c o lle g e within the U n iv e r sity w as;

(1) ___ University College
(2) __ College of Agriculture
and Natural Resources
(3) ___ College of ArtB and Letters
6
(4) ___ College of Business
(5) ___ College of Communication Arts
°
^ ---- College of Education
m _
College or Engineering
(B) ___ College of Home Economics

(0)____
(10)____
....
(11) ___
(12)____
(13) ___
....
(14)____
___
(1<)____

College of Human Medicine
James Madison College
,
... _ ,,
Justin Morrill College
,
_ .
_
Lyman Driggs College
_ ..
,., .
,
.
College of Natural Science
_
.
College of Social Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine
olhcr |>[lsclfy)

8. When you consulted the ombudsman, were you also enrolled in Honors College?
(1) ___ Yes
(2) ___ No
0. When you consulted the ombudsman, your cumulative grade point average was:
(1) ___ 4.0
If uncertain about your cumulative grade point
3 0 to 3 0
average, remember this letter grade scale:
(3)
2.0 to 2.0
(4) ___ 1.0 to 1.0
in ___ |.Below
|
i1.0
n
(5)

A* ■ a4.n0
B ■ 3.0 to 3.9
C
_ - ,2.0_ .to ,2.0_
D ■ 1. 0 to 1. 0
Below D ■ Below 1.0

1

(6) ___ None (first-term student)

10. When you consulted the ombudsman, how many institutions of higher education other
than Michigan State had you attended?
(1)
None
(2)
One
(3)
Two
(4) ___ More than two
11. If you had attended some other institution(s), Indicate kind(s):
(1) __ Two-year college
(3) ___ Other (explain)
(2)
Four-year college or university
______________________________
12. When you were in high school, what was the approximate total enrollment of the
school you attended for the greatest length of time?
(1)
Under 500 (2)____ 500 to 1000 (3)
1000 to 2500 (4)
Over 2500
Your Prior Knowledge About the Ombudsman
From which source(s) did you learn about the
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

___ Student(s)
___ Residence Hall Advlser(s)
___ Instructor(s)
___ Academic Adviser(s)
___ Adminlstrator(s)

(6) ___ Academic Freedom Report
State News
(7)
(8)
_ Professional Counselors)
(0)
Other (indicate)

2. If you checked more than one source, from which did you get the most information
about the ombudsman? (Check only one)
(6)
_ Academic Freedom Report
(1) ___ Student(s)
__ State News
(2) ___ Residence Hall Adviser(s)
(7)
_ Professional Counselor(s)
(8)
(3) ___ Instructor(s)
Other (indicate)
(4) ___ Academic Adviser(s)
(9)
(5) ___ Admlnistrator(s)
C.

Nature of Your Problem
Indicate the general nature of the problem you took to the ombudsman: (Check one or
more)
Academic Status
(9)
(1) ___ Registration and Admission
(10)
Academic Advice
(2) ___ Academic Requirements
Health Center
(3) ___ Traffic Regulations
(11)
Employment
(12)
(4) ___ Financial Need
(13)
(5) ___ Quality of Instruction
■ Library
(14)
Grades
(6) ___ Housing
(15) ----- Other (indicate)
(7) ___ Use of Facilities and Services
(8)

Tuition and Fees

2. The identity of a student who consults the ombudsman is not revealed except possibly
to those directly involved in his complaint. Would you have consulted the ombudsman
if his records were open for inspection by anyone?
(1)
Yes
(2)
No
(3)
Uncertain
D,

Disposition of Your Problem
1. To how many people in authority did you take your problem before consulting the
ombudsman?
(1) ___ None
(3) _ _ Two
(5)
Morethanthree (indicate)
(2) ___ One
(4) ___ Three
____________________________
2. If you made an appointment with the ombudsman, how long beyond the appointed hour
did you wait to see him ?
(1) ___ No delay at all
(3)
10to30 minutes
(5)
Over60minutes
(2) ___ Under 10 minutes
(4) ____ 30 to 60 minutes
3. If you did not make an appointment with the ombudsman, how long did you wait to see
him after arriving at his office?
(1) ___ No delay at all
(3)
10to30 minutes
(5)
Over60minutes
(2) ___ Under 10 minutes
(4) ____ 30 to 60 minutes

4. How long did it take tho ombudsman to handle your problem?
(1) ___ 10 minutes or less
(4) ___ 1 day to 1 week
(2) ___ 10 m i n u t c B to 1 hour
(5) ___ 1 week to 1 month
(3) ___ 1 hour to 1 day
(6) ___ more than 1 month
5, As far as you personally arc concerned, to what extent is the problem you took to the
ombudsman now solved?
(1) ___ Completely solved
(2)
More than half solved
(3) ___ Half solved
(4) ___ Less than half solved
(5) ___ Not solved at all
(6) ___ The problem is worse than it was before
G. How much did the ombudsman help you with your problem?
(1) ___ Much more than 1 expected
(2) ___ Slightly more than 1 expected
(3) ___ About as much as 1 expected
{4) ___ Slightly less than I expected
<5) ___ Much less than I expected
7. How would you describe your degree of satisfaction with the way the ombudsman
handled your problem?
<1} ___ Totally satisfied
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
<7)

___
___
___
___
___
___

Mostly satisfied
Slightly satisfied
Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Slightly dissatisfied
Mostly dissatisfied
Totally dissatisfied
•

8. In your opinion, did the ombudsman do all he could within the authority of his office
■to help you with your problem ?
(1) ___ Yes
{2)
No
(3) ___ Uncertain
0. If the ombudsman could not help you attain the outcome you desired, did he adequately
explain why?
(1)
Yes
(2)
No
10. After consulting the ombudsman, did you experience unpleasant treatment by any
person(s) involved in his investigation of your complaint?
(1)
Yes
(2)
No

11, If y o u r a n s w e r to Q u e stio n 10 w a s Y e s , p le a s e d e s c r ib e what happened;

12. IN THE EVENT YOU ARE NOT PRESENTLY ENROLLED, ANSWER THIS QUESTION
AS IF YOU WERE STILL A STUDENT AT MICHIGAN STATE:
If you had another problem you could not handle through normal University "channels,"
would you return to the ombudsman?
(1) ___ Yes, for any kind of problem
(2) ___ Yes, but only for certain problems
(3) ___ Uncertain about returning
(4) ___ No, would not return
13. Would you recommend the ombudsman to other students?
(1) ___ Yes, for any kind of problem
(2) ___ Yes, but only for certain problems
(3) ___ Uncertain about recommending
(4) ___ No, would not recommend
Your Attitudes Regarding the Ombudsman
1. The ombudsman should be: (Check one)
(4) ___ a student
(1) ___ a teaching faculty member
(5) ___ a lawyer
(2) ___ a non-teaching faculty member
(administrator)
(6) ____ a campusm inister
(3) ___ a professional student personnel (7) ___ none of these (explain)
worker
2. How long should one person serve us ombudsman?
(1)
L ess than 2 years
(2)
2 years

(3)

More than 2 years

3. ReaBon(s) for your answer to Question 2 ; _________________________________________

4. Which group or combination of groups should select the ombudsman?
(6) ___ Faculty and Administration
(1) ___ Administration
(7) ___ Administration, Faculty and
(2) ___ Students
Students
(3) _____ Faculty
(8) ___ Other (indicate)
(4) ___ Students and Faculty
(5) ___ Students and Administration

5. Read the following list of traits. Then mark a 1 in front of the most important trait
an ombudsman should have. Mark a 2 in front of the second most important trait and
a 3 in front of the third most important. DO NOT MARK MORE THAN THREE.
(1) ___ Patience
(2)

Empathy

(3) ___ Understanding

(?) ___ Efficiency

(12) ___ Experience

(8) ___ Campus "contacts"

(13) ___ Sensitivity

(9) ___ Authority

(14) ___ Effectiveness

(4) ___ A ccessibility

(10) ___ Persuasiveness

(5) ___ Impartiality

(11) ___ Honesty

(15) ___ Other (identify)

(6) ___ Knowledge of
campus operations
and regulations
Are the services of the ombudsman widely known among students?
(1) ___ Yes

(2) ___ No

(3) ___ Uncertain

7. What was your general impression regarding the location of the ombudsman's office
on the campus?
(1) ___ Very positive
(2) ___ Positive
(3) ___ Neither positive nor negative
(4) ___ Negative
(5) ___ Very negative
8. In your opinion, where on the campus should the ombudsman' 8 office be located?
(1) ___ Where it is
(2) ___ Student Union
(3) ___ Student Services Building

(4)____ Administration Building
(5)____ Other
(specify)

8. Drawing from your personal experience, do you believe the ombudsman helps alleviate
student frustration and hostility?
(1) ___ Yes
(2) ___ No
(3)
Uncertain
10, The functions of the ombudsman should be:
(1) ___ continued without modification
(2) ___ discontinued
(3) ___ modified in some way
11. If you believe the ombudsman's functions should be modified, indicate how:

p . Your A v a ila b ility for In terview

The researcher may want to interview some respondents. If you have no objection to
being contacted for an interview, please list your:
Nam e___________________________________________________________________________
Address
________________________________________

Phone________________________

MAKE ANY ADDITIONAL COMMENTS OR SUGGESTIONS YOU WISH ON THIS PAGE OR ON
A SEPARATE SHEET.

PLEASE PLACE COMPLETED QUESTIONNAIRE IN RETURN ENVELOPE AND MAIL
IMMEDIATELY. DO NOT PUT YOUR RETURN ADDRESS ON ENVELOPE. THANK YOU I