I

I
70-15,098
OSBORNE, John Robert, 1937—
A MODEL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL
IMPROVEMENT SERVICES AT THE INTERMEDIATE
SCHOOL DISTRICT LEVEL IN MICHIGAN.
Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1969
Education, administration

University Microfilms, A XEROXCompany , Ann Arbor, Michigan

A M O D E L FOR T H E D E V E L O P M E N T OF I N S T R U C T I O N A L
I M P R O V E ME N T S ER VICES AT T H E I N T E R M E D I A T E
SCHOOL D I S T R I C T LEVEL IN M I C H I G A N
By
J o h n Robert Osborne

A THESIS
S u b m i t t e d to
M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y
in p a rtial fulfillment of the re q u i r e m e n t s
for the de gree of
D O C T O R OF PHILOS OP H Y
De partment of Se c on d a r y E d u c a t i o n
and C u r r i c u l u m
1969

AB S TRACT
A M O D E L FOR T HE D EV EL O PM E NT O F INSTRUCTIONAL
IM P R O V E M E N T SERVIC ES AT THE I N T E R M ED I AT E
LEV E L IN M IC H IG A N
By
J o h n Robert Osborne

The p urpose of the study was to construct

a model

w hi c h could be used by intermediate districts i n Michigan
in the develo p me n t of i ns t ru c ti o na l improvement
The model was to be
to two questions.
m ed i a t e

services.

const ructed by Is o lating t he responses
First,

to what qu e st i on s shou ld i n t e r ­

school districts give at tention in the development

of I n s t r u c t i o n a l i mp r ov e me n t of instructional Improvement
services?
di stricts

Secondly, with what issues are intermediate
likely to be confronted in the development

of

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Improvement services?
The m a j o r source of d a t a was
views

s em i st r u c t u r e d i n t e r ­

c o nd ucted at four se lected intermediate districts.

T hese districts were se l ected from a list of r e c o mm e nd e d
districts

compiled by a pa n e l of five educators having an

u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i nt e rm e di a te school district a d m i n i s t r a ­
ti on in Michigan.

One interm ed i at e district w a s selected

for each of the fo l lo w in g c o n s t i t u e n c i e s :
(A)

L a rg e -s i ze d local school districts that have
long b e e n establ is h ed an d are si t uated in an
area that could be classified as urban.

J o h n R obert Osborne
(B)

A m i xture of l ar g e- si z ed local school d i s ­
tricts and s at e llite di stricts s i tuated in
an a r ea that could be class ified as being
urban as w e l l as rural.

(C)

S m a l l -s i ze d local school di stricts sit uated
in an area that could be c l as s i f i e d as
b e i n g rural and e m b r a c i n g no m u ni c i p a l i t i e s
of any consequence.

(D)

M e d i u m - s i z e d local school di s tr i ct s e m b r a c ­
ing a large mu n i c i p a l i t y and s it u at e d in an
area that could b e classified as be i ng urban
as w e l l as rural.

The interm e di a te districts

selec te d for study i n ­

clud ed Wayne County Interm e di a te District, Oa k l a n d
I ntermediate District,

COOR I n t e r me d ia t e District,

and

Calhoun -Intermediate District.
Additio n al data r es u l t e d fr om s e m i s t r uc t ur e d i n t e r ­
views of s el ected "experts"
tendents.

These

"experts"

and local school s u p e r i n ­
and local scho ol s u p e r i n ­

tendents w er e se l ected from a list r e c o m m e n d e d by a panel
of three educators h av i ng a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the i n t e r ­
me di ate school district and k n o w l e d g e a b l e of persons
h a v i n g expertise.

Nine persons were se l e c t e d from this

list and included in termediate s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , u n i ­
ve rsity personnel, state d ep a rt m e n t of e du c a t i o n p e r s o n ­
nel,

and local school district s u perintendents.
Data were analyzed by

into three a r e a s :
issues.

c a t e g o ri z in g the responses

general i n f o r m a t i o n , q u e s t i o n s , and

D at a p laced un der g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n wer e

analyzed to extract that i n f o r m a t i o n e s s e n t i a l to

John Robert Osborne
p r o v i d i n g a ge neral u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the nature
study.

D a t a listed under issues w e re

ing those issues

of the

analyzed by i s o l a t ­

i n t e r m e di a te di stricts w o u l d likely

conf ront in d e v e l o p i n g i n s t r u c ti o na l improv e me n t services.
D a t a list ed un d er questions were an a lyzed by i s o l a t i n g
those q ue s ti o ns w h i c h directly affect
i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement

services

the de v el o pm e nt

of

and w o u l d require the

a t t e n t i o n of the in t e r m e d i a t e district.
This

study r e su l te d in the is o la t io n of ten q u e s ­

tions to which the i n t e r me d ia t e d is trict should
i ts e lf in the develo pm e nt
services.

of instru ct i on a l

address

imp rovement

T ho s e ten questions were:

1.

What i n st r u c t i o n a l improvement services need
to be provided? (Present and future needs)

2.

How does an interm ed i at e d is t r i c t de t er m in e
the needs?

3.

What factors contri bute to i ns t r u c t i o n a l
i mp r ov e me n t services b e i n g accessed by
constituent districts?

4.

How are i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m pr o ve m en t services
evaluated?

5.

How do consultants make entry into the local
schools?

6.

What means are available to in termediate d i s ­
tricts to deve lop a p r ocess of sel f-renewal?

7.

How do i n t e r m e di a te districts promote an image
w h i c h is both posit iv e and n o n - t h re a te n in g ?

8.

What implications does the size of a local
scho ol district have on instru ct i on a l i m p r o v e ­
ment services p r o v i d e d by the in t er m ed i at e
district?

J o h n Robert O s bo r ne
9.

10.

H o w does an i n t e r me d ia t e di s tr i ct e nsure that
once a cooper at i ve i n s t r u c t i o n a l improve m en t
service has b e e n i mplemented, local distri cts
w on ' t t h reaten w i t h d r a w a l of fi nancial support?
What course of action s hould in t er m ed i at e
districts take if they pe r ce i ve a need w h i c h
local districts fail to r ecognize?

In a dd i ti o n to the i s o l a t i o n of the above ten q u e s ­
tions,

five issues with w h i c h i n te r m e d i a t e d is t ricts

are

likely to be c on f ro n te d in the d e v e l o pm e nt of i n s t r u c t i o n a l
impr ovement services were also isolated.

These five

issues were:
1.

The absence of de f inite and re l ia b le financial
support for i n t e r me d ia t e school districts.

2.

The lack of effective and r e s p o n s i b l e l e a d e r ­
ship at the state and i n t e r m ed i at e levels.

3.

The e x is tence of c ertain p s y c h o l o g i c a l barriers
b e t w e e n local and i n t e r m ed i at e school d i s ­
tricts .

4.

The m an n er in wh i ch c o n s u lt a ti v e services at
the i n te r me d ia t e school district level are
p r o v i d e d (i.e. Process vs. Substance).

5.

The current i ne f fe c t i v e n e s s of staff d e v e l o p ­
ment prog rams at the local scho ol d is trict
level.

As a result of the i s o l a t i o n of the above q u es tions
and issues a Guide for D e v e l o p i n g I n s t r u c t i o n a l I m p r o v e ­
ment Services was

constructed.

The pu r p o s e of this guide

is to help i n te r me d ia t e school d is t ricts t hink t hr ough
the co n siderations necessary in f o r m u l a t i n g pr o gr a ms
i ns t ru c ti o na l improvement.

of

I nc lu d ed in the Guide are

ten items n e e d i n g consideration.

Th o se

listed i n cl u de d

J o h n Robert O s b o r n e
the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of present
of needs,

and future needs, pr iority

staff co n si derations,

i n te r me d ia t e bo a r d c o n ­

si derations,

autonomy c on s id erations, e v a l u a t i o n c o n ­

s iderations,

tw o-way c o m m u n i c a t i o n considerations,

superintendent
and specific

considerations,

facility considerations.

C onclus i on s
1.

s e l f - re n ew a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,

of the study were that:

Intermediate school district r e - o r g a n i z a t i o n

needs to be a c c o m p l i s h e d in order that e q u a l i z a t i o n of
e d u c a t io n al opportu n it y becomes a reality in the state of
Michigan.

T h e service area should encompass a sufficient

p o p u l a t i o n a n d v a l u a t i o n to permit the ef f ic i en t e m p l o y ­
me nt of competent

and sp e c i a l i z e d i n s t r uc t io n al i m p r o v e ­

ment p e r s o n n e l and the develo p me n t
e f f e c t i v e i ns t r u c t i o n a l improvement
2.

of an a p p r o p r i a t e and
service.

In order to assure r e p r e s e n t a t i o n to all g e o ­

g r a p h i c a l areas of the i nt e rm e di a te district and to
4

re al ize more respon si b le intermediate g o v e r n i n g bodies,
the s e l e c t i o n of b o a r d me mbers

should result f ro m p o p u l a r

elections.
3.

The i n st r uc t io n al improv e me n t

fu n c t i o n of the

i ntermediate district is of direct be nefit to the state
system o f public e d u c a t i o n and justif ies
support,

including money

s u b s t a n t i a l state

for creati ve p r o g r a m d e v e l o p m e n t .

D es i ra b le o r g a n i z a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n w o u l d insist that the
g o v e r n i n g bo a rd have access to some funds which it

J o h n Robert Osborne
completely c o n t r o l s — the a u t h o r i z a t i o n to indepe n de n tl y
raise

funds.
4.

I n s t r u c t i o n a l i mprovement services sh o u l d be

av ailable to all local school d i s t r i c t s , but each should
have f r ee d om to de c id e for itself, b e y o n d legal limita­
tions or r e q u i r e me n ts , w h i c h it shall accept.
5.

As the service areas be come

p o p u l a t i o n and valua tion,

g r e a t e r competency is re quired

o f both the s u p e r i nt e nd e nt
6.

larger, both In

and his staff.

I n t e r m e d i a t e school districts must have a d e ­

qu ate f i na ncial support,

competent

staff personnel, e f fe c ti v e two-way
b e t w e e n themselves

leadership,

competent

c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems

and their constituents,

and active

involvement of t h ei r co ns tituents in p l a n n i n g activ ities
if i n s t r u c ti o na l i mp r ov e me n t services
7.

The

State has appare n tl y

responsibilities

are to be successful;

f ailed to a s s u m e

its

in e n s u r i n g that e q u a li z at i on of e d u c a ­

tional o pportunity beco mes a reality in the State of
Michigan.

Progress with r e ga r d to adequ at e service areas

a n d a de quate f in a ncial su pport has be en slow forthcoming.

DED IC A T I O N

To my w i f e , Pamela.

Her patience, u n d e r s t a n d i n g and

e nc o ur a ge m en t m a de this u n d e r t a k i n g m u c h easier.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my a p p r e c ia t io n to Dr.
B lackman,

Char les A.

C h a i r m a n of my D o ct o ra l Gu i da n ce Committee,

his g ui dance and e n c o u ra g em e nt
do ctoral program.

for

t hroughout my entire

His i n fl u en c e b ot h as te a c h e r and

frie nd will f o rever be remembered.
A p p r e c i a t i o n is also ex te n d e d to Dr. E v er e tt M.
Rogers

for the many o p p o r t u ni ti e s p r o v i d e d for i n t e r a c t i o n

t hroughout my d o ct o ra l p r o g r a m and for the val uable
assistance p r o v i d e d in the early stages

of the research

proj e c t .
I also wi sh to t ha n k Dr.
Suehr,

and Dr.

Dale Alam, Dr. J o h n H.

O r d a n S m uc k e r for the d i r e c t i o n and support

they p r o v i d e d d u r i n g my d o c t o r a l program.
A ck n ow l e d g m e n t

is also ma de of the assis ta n ce

coopera t io n pr o v i d e d by all of the p a rt i ci p an t s
study.

and

in the

T h e i r assist an c e and co o p e r a t i o n was mos t helpful.
S pecial thanks go to my family and friends

their faith,

support,

for

and e n c o u r ag e me n t t hr o ug h o u t the

doctoral program.

ill

T A B L E OP C ON TENTS

Page
D E D I C A T I O N ..............................................
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

.......................................

ii
ill

L IS T OP T A B L E S .............................................

vi

Chapter
I.

II.

I N T R O D U C T I O N ....................................

1

Purpose of the S t u d y .....................
S i g n i f i c a n c e of the Study
..............
M et h o d o l o g y ................................
Assum pt i on s and L i m i t a t i o n s ..............
D ef i ni t io n s of Terms .....................
O ut l in e of S t u d y .........................

3
4
7
10
12
15

R E V I E W OP T HE L I T E R A T U R E ......................

17

D evelop m en t of the I n te r me d ia t e Unit.
.
Interm e di a te Unit In M i c h i g a n . . . .
Summary of Recent Studies and L i t e r a t u r e
B e a r i n g U po n the E m e r g i n g F u nc t i o n s
of the I ntermediate U n i t ................
Issues S ur r ou n di n g the F u t u r e of the
I n te r me d ia t e U n i t .......................'
Su mmary
.........................
III.

M E T H O D ...........................................

17
26
56
71
79
86

D e s c r i p t i o n of the Partici p an t s
. . .
86
D e s c r i p t i o n of Mea sures Used to
C ol lect D a t a ......................
93
D e s c r i p t i o n of Re s e a r c h Procedures
.
.
96
R e v i e w of Steps T a k e n to Collect Da t a
.
107
S u m m a r y ........................................ 110

iv

Ch apter
IV.

Page
FINDINGS

112

D e s c r i p t i o n or the Method of Analysis
U s e d ................................
112
Se ction I:
Gene ral Information.
.
.
.
113
S ection II: Q u e s t i o n s .......................... 127
S ection III: I s s u e s ........................... 149
F i n d i n g s ........................................ 169
S u m m a r y ........................................... 172
V.

SUMMARY, C O N C L U S I O N S AND R E C O M ME N DA T IO N S.

.

S u m m a r y ...........................................
C o n c l u s i o n s ....................................
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s — S t a t e .........................
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s — In te r me d ia t e D is t r i c t
.
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s — Lo c al School D i s t r i c t
.
Implica t io n s
............................
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for F u r t h e r Study .
.
.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

...........................................

174
174
178
181
184
188
189
200
204

A P P E N D I C E S ...................................................210
A P P E N D I X A.

L o c a t i o n of I n t e r me d ia t e Distr ic t s
Included in the S t u d y .................. 211

A pp e nd i x B.

List of Persons

A pp e nd i x C.

I n f o r m a t i o n Cards Used D u r i n g
the I n t e r v i e w ............................. 214

A p p e n d i x D.

I n t e r v i e w G u i d e s us ed in the Study.

216

App e n d i x E.

Correspondence

222

v

I n te r vi e we d

.

.

......................

.

212

L IS T OP T ABLES

T able
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Page
State systems of education:
Organizational
patterns, 1 9 6 5 ................................

21

1965 state e d u c at i on a l s ystem p a tt e rn s and
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l structures ..................

23

Summary table of general d a t a for i n t e r ­
m e d i a t e d i s tr i ct s in the study
. . . .

115

Summary table of i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e me n t
services and p r ograms p r o v i d e d by each
i n t e r m ed i at e district in the study .

118

Summary table of re s ponses r e g a r d i n g
i n s t r u ct i on a l improvement ser vices and
c u r r i c u l u m p e r s o n n e l .........................

120

vi

C HA P T E R I
I NT R O D U C T I O N

D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f g ov e r n m e n t a l

units

from b o t h the

federal and state levels to the local level has b e e n t r a ­
ditio na l in the U nited S t a t e s .

Al t ho u gh the Fe d er a l

s ti t ut i on is silent on the q ue s t i o n of education,
Tenth Amendment,

by implication,

places

the

e d u c a t i o n among

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s r e s e r v e d for each o f the states.
states,

C on ­

The

in turn, have d e l e g a t e d the major a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

and o p e r a t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
Such d e l e g a t i o n of f u nc t i o n has

to local sc h oo l dis tricts.
long b e e n an i nt e gr a l part

of the ov er all ph i lo s op h y of d e c e n t r a l i z e d govern m en t al
units.
R e o r g a n i z a t i o n in M i c h i g a n d u r i n g the past 13 years
has r es u l t e d in a ma r k e d r e d u c t i o n of local public
districts.
were 4,909

school

Si n ce the 1 9 56 -1957 school year, w h e n there
local public s chool di stricts,

reorganization

has d r a m a t i c a l l y r ed u c e d this n u m b e r to the point that
d ur i ng the 1968-1969 school year,

as of April 21,

only 652 local public school districts
Michigan.

are o p e r a t i n g in

These di stricts h av e b e e n pr o v i d e d w i t h

erable a u to n o m y

1969,

consid­

for o p e r a t i o n of the public schools.

2
Boards

of e d uc a t i o n generally ha v e powe rs an d r e s p o n s i b i l ­

ities a l l o w i n g th em to fu n c t i o n somewhat i n d e p en d en t ly of
o ther g o v e r n m e n t a l agencies.

However,

these powers

and

res p on s i b i l i t i e s are d el e g a t e d from the state level,
the state has pr o v i d e d by statutory

enactments

and

for a g o v ­

erni ng agency and a chief educat i on a l o f f i c e r who is
responsible

for d e v e l o p i n g and p r o m o t i n g a state sy s te m

of public education.
As the state superi nt e nd en t 's r es p on s ib i li t ie s
b ecame increasingly

complex,

the chief state school

o ff icer was gener ally unable to pro vide ad e qu a t e l y for
the many and d iverse local districts w i t h i n the state.
As a result,

some type of i n t e r me d ia t e a gency b e t w e e n

the state level and local school di stricts Was deemed
necessary.
ment,
county

As has b ee n true in other areas of g o v e r n ­

the interm ed i at e agency first followed e s t a b l i sh e d
lines.

the bound aries

Then it was r e o r g a n iz e d later to follow
of contiguous school d i s t r i c t s .

arm of the state,

As an

the interm ed i at e level has d i sc h a r g e d

some state r es p on s i b i l i t i e s by m a i n t a i n i n g contact with
the local school district officials and teachers.
Public ed u ca t io n is obviously
of pr o f o u n d change.

i n v o l v e d .in a p e riod

M o d e r n conditions ha ve undoub t ed l y

dictated many changes, but

a concerted effort to improve

the total e d u c a t i o n enterprise is also apparent.
originally

conceived,

As

the interm e di a te level of school

a dm i ni s t r a t i o n is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the needs of a p r e ­
vious era.
to currently

In many instances,

it no longer lends itself

e x isting conditions

and needs.

The State of

Mi chigan is aware of this fact and is be ginning,
propo se d l egislative enactments,

through

to reduce the n u m b e r of

Interm ediate School Districts In M i c h i g a n fr om the p r e ­
sent 60 to b e tw e e n 25 and 35 and to p r o v i d e a dd i ti o na l
powers and re s po n si b il i ti e s.

This

action is p r op o se d to

beco me effective on July 1, 1 9 7 1 . ^
Purpose of the Study
The p u r p o s e of this study was to b u il d a m o d e l w h i c h
could be used in the develop m en t of i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e ­
ment service s at the in t e r m e d i a t e di strict
State of Michigan.

level in the

Th e mo d el was c on s t r u c t e d by is o la t in g

the re s ponses to two questions.

First,

to what qu e st i on s

should the in t er m ed i at e district give a t t e n t i o n in the
d evelopment of I n s t r u c ti o na l im p ro v em e nt

services?

Sec­

ondly , w it h what issues are the i n te r me d ia t e distr icts
likely to be confronted In the d ev e lo p me n t of i n s t r u c ­
tional i m provement

services?

A r e v i e w of the li terature r e ve a l e d that few studies
had be e n co n d ucted in the area of I n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e ­
ment at the inter me d ia t e school d is trict

level.

It was

deemed both approp r ia t e and im portant that this init ial
study be one of a general,

ex p l o r a t o r y nature.

Thus,

the

4
study was

concerned with e x am i ni n g i ns t r u c t i o n a l i m ­

pr o v em e nt

at the i n te r me d ia t e school di strict level in

b r o a d terms while at the same time a t t e m pt i ng to identify
more specific areas for future research.
S ig n if i ca n ce of the S t u d y
A conce rn e d public,

educators,

critics, and public

of ficials r e co gnize the i nc re a si n g i m po r t a n c e of a q uality
e d u c a t io n al p r o g r a m for all boys and g i r l s .
emph asis is re f le c te d in current

This new

le g i s l a t i o n on state and

N at i on a l levels d es igned to foster e d u c a t io n al pr ograms
that w i ll enable y o ut h and adults to live mo re e ff e ct i ve l y
in a r ap i dl y changing society.
i nt e rm e di a te districts
next two years,

A l th o ug h the n u mb e r of

in M i c h i g a n wil l d e cr e as e in the

it appears that they are still c o n s i de r ed

to be e s s e nt i al for a quality state system of education.
As this r e d u c t i o n of i ntermediate districts occurs those
which r em a i n w i l l be ex panded in con stituency and con­
front new or m o d i f i e d problems

in p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l

i mprove m en t services.
The study of the current status of se lected i n t e r ­
mediate distri cts represents one m a jo r source in p r o v i d i n g
data about common and unique issues wh i ch r e o r g a n i z e d d i s ­
tricts are likely to confront in d e v e l o p i n g i n st r u c t i o n a l
i mprovement services.

It was also a m aj o r source in p r o ­

v iding d a t a about questions to wh i ch the r e o r g a ni z ed

di stricts should give at t en t i o n in d e v e l o p i n g i n s t r u c ­
tional i mprovement services.
Thus,

c o n s id e ra t io n of* the current status of

selected i nt e rm e di a te districts

in M i c h i g a n becomes

sig­

ni ficant in p r o v i d i n g da t a f r om w h i c h issues and q u e s ­
tions can be is olated in order to bu i ld a mo d el for the
d evelopment of i n st r u c t i o n a l improv e me n t
i nterme d ia t e

services at the

level.

T h i r t y - t w o states still have some p r o v i s i o n for a
unit of e d u c a ti o na l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f u n c t i o n i n g b e t w e e n the
state and local levels.

S e v e n t e e n states

levels in their overall structure,
has only one level.

and one state, Hawaii,

In many of the

the m iddle unit continues

include only two

"t h ree-level states,"

to f ol l ow county lines, while

several of the states in wh i ch no p r o v i s i o n is made for a
m id d l e - l e v e l have c ounty-wide local sc ho ol districts.
Hawaii has only one school district.

The fact

that. 32

states still make p r o v i s i o n for some type of i n termediate
level agency further emphasizes the need for r es e a r c h c o n ­
cerning the i n te r me d ia t e d is t ri c t' s

functions in the area

of cu r ri c u l u m and i n st r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v em e nt services to
local s chool districts.
The benefits of local au t on o my re q ui r e little e m ­
phasis here.

Inevitably,

however,

such d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n

breeds diversity, and f r om d iv e rsity stems un equal e d u c a ­
tional opportunity and a critical n e e d for systematic

6
c o o r d i na t io n of e f f o r t .

R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of local distr icts

n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g 3 many school di s tricts re main too small
and inefficient

to pr o v i d e quality programs.

has b ecome e x tr emely complex,

Education

and as its scope has

b roadened, many a d di t io n al services have b e e n d em anded
of it.

Very few local districts

ess e ntial services

are able to p r ov i d e all

and p r o g r a m s .

In c r e a s i n g ed u ca t io n al

demands seem to cry out for a new ki nd of agency,
perhaps,

a c hanged role for an e xi s t i n g agency,

or

the i n t e r ­

med i at e district.
A d d i t i o n a l ev i d e n c e of the s i g n i fi c an c e of the study
of the i n t e r m e d i a t e school di strict is found t hr o u g h r e f ­
erence to the of f icial p o s i t i o n of the A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a ­
tion of School A d mi n istrators.
tion of School A d m i n is t ra t or s ,

Since 195^,

the A s s o c i a ­

in a series of formal

resolut i on s , has st r essed the i m po r t a n c e of study of the
i nt e rm e di a te unit of school administration.

This o r g a n i ­

zation's r e s o l u t io n s, pe r ti n en t to the subject,
February,

1 9 62 — R e s o l u t i o n No.

follow:

7

I nt e r m e d i a t e D i strict
T h e A s s o c i a t i o n urges the A.A.S.A. E xe c u t i v e C o m ­
m i t t e e to in i t i a t e a c om p re h en s iv e study of the
int e r m e d i a t e d is trict of school admin istration.
The study should be designed to cl arify the role
of the In t e r m e d i a t e district and its r e l a t i o n s h i p
to ot h er state and local units of school a d m i n i s ­
tration.
The study should seek to es t ab l i s h sound
p r i n c i pl e s and pr o ce d ur e s and r e a s o n a b l e standards
for the or ganiz ation, financial support, staffing,
and o p e r a t i o n of an i n t e r me d ia te dis trict unit.
Also, it s h ou l d r e c o m m e n d steps that should be

7
t ak e n th rough l e g i s l a t i o n or o th e r means t oward
the d e v e l o p m e n t of such i n t e r m e d i a t e distric ts.
February,

1 9 6 7 — R e s o l u t i o n No.

Int e rm e di a te E d u c a t i o n a l

15

Service A g en c ie s

The A s s o c i a t i o n r e co g ni z es that the a ch i ev e me n t of
excellence in our public school p r og r a m s requires
competent c u r r i c u l u m leadership, the services of
cl inical teams, pr o grams d e s i g n e d for conti nuous
staff d e v e l o p m e n t , an ex pa n di n g range of i n s t r u c ­
tion al ma terials, m e d i a services, and many other
p ro g ra m s de p endent on highly s p e c i a l i z e d p e r ­
sonnel, facilities, and equipment.
It fu r th e r
r ecognizes that ef f ec t iv e and e c o n o m i c a l p r o v i s i o n
of such services is b e yo n d the capabi l it y of many
local school districts.
We t h er e f o r e urge that
adminis t ra t or s give serious a t t e n t i o n to the
e st a blishment or s t r e n g t h e n i n g of a series of
intermediate e du c at i on a l service agen cies d e s i g n e d
as an Integral part of the state s ystem of public
edu c a t i o n while at the same time e l i m i n a t i n g small
and Ineffi ci e nt i n t e r m e d i a t e u n i t s .2
The Mi c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n is p r e s e n t l y
prepa ri n g l e gi s la t io n w h i c h is to b ecome ef f ec t iv e in
1971.

This

l e gi s la t io n is c o nc e rn e d w i th the r e d u c t i o n

of i n t e r me d ia t e school d i s t r i c t s

as well as p r o v i d i n g the

reorg an i ze d i nt e rm e di a te di s tr i c t s wi t h a d d i t i o n a l powers
and respon s ib i li t ie s .

T he r e sults of this

study m a y aid

in the p r e p a r a t i o n of this and future l e g i s l a t i o n de a li n g
with the I n te r me d ia t e district.

Ad d i t i o n a l l y ,

the results

should assi st r e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t s in the
developm ent of i ns t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e m e n t .s e r v i c e s .
Methodology
In t alking wi th r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the M i c h i g a n
Department of E d u c a t i o n and In r e v i e w i n g the w r i t t e n

8

sta t em e nt s of the State Board of Education,

It a pp e a r e d

that the r e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r m ed i at e school district,
July

after

1, 1971, w o ul d most likely fit Into o ne of the

fol l o w i n g categories based upon local scho ol district
constituency make-up:
(A)

La r g e - s i z e d local school d is t r i c t s that have
long b e e n e s t a b li sh e d and are s i tu a te d in an
are a that could be classified as urban.

(B)

A m i x t u r e of l a r g e - si z ed local school d i s ­
tricts and satell i te districts s i tuated in an
ar ea that could be c lassified as being u r ba n
as well as r u r a l .

(C)

Sm a l l - s i z e d local school d i st r ic t s sit uated in
an area that could be classified as b ei n g
rural and e mb r acing no mu n ic i p a l i t i e s of any
consequence.

(D)

M e d i u m - s i z e d local school districts e m b r a c i n g
a large m u n i c i p a l i t y and si tu a te d in an area
that could be class ified as b e i n g u r ba n as
well as rural.

As stated earlier,
build a m o d e l wh i ch

the purpose of this study was

to

could be used in the de v el o pm e nt of

I ns t ru c ti o na l Impro v em e nt services at the Interm ed i at e
district

level in Michigan.

In order to b ui l d this model,

it was n e c e s s a r y to Isolate those issues a n d questions
h a v i n g Im p or t a n c e in the d evelopment

of instr uc t io n al

im pr ovement s e r v i c e s .
D at a we re p ro v i d e d fr om three sources.
sources were as follows:
sc hool di stricts,

(1 ) selected i ntermediate

(2 ) "experts" in the field in i n t e r ­

m e d i a t e school a d mi n istration,
superintendents.

T hese

and

(3 ) local district

9
T h e m aj o r source of d a ta was ob t ained t hr o ug h the
t ec h ni q ue of s e m i s t ru c tu r ed i n t e r v i e w i n g conduc t ed at
four s e l e c t e d i nt e rm e di a te districts.

T he s e d is t ricts

h ad con stituency ma k e - u p r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the four types
which was assumed w ould make up the r e o r g a n i z e d districts
after 1971*

Ad ditionally,

these s el ected d i st r ic t s were

p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l impro vement services
school d i s t r i c t s .

to local

These four sel ected d i st ricts were

s el e c t e d from a list of r e c o m m e n d e d d is t r i c t s

compil ed

by k n o w l ed g ea b le persons:
Dr. Kenneth W. Olsen,
Schools;

S u pe r intendent,

Oke mos Public

Dr. Ferris Crawford, A s so c ia t e Superi nt e nd e nt ,
M ic h i g a n State Departm e nt of Education;
Dr. W i l l i a m C. Miller, A s si stant S up e rintendent,
W ayne In t ermediate School District;
Mr. J o h n R. Francis, Superin t en d en t ,
In te rmediate School District.

S h i a w as s ee

■

A n o t h e r source of data was o b t a i n e d th r ou g h the
t ec h nique of s em i st r uc t ur e d i n t e r v i e w i n g of selected
"experts" In the field of i n t e r me d ia t e
tion.

T he s e

school a d m i n i s t r a ­

"experts" were sel ected fr o m a list compiled

by a p a n e l of ed ucators h a vi n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the
i n t e r m ed i at e school di s tr i ct and k n o w l e d g e a b l e about p e r ­
sons h a v i n g expertise in this field:
Dr. Ferris Crawford, A s so c i a t e S u p e r in t en d en t ,
M ic h ig a n State Depar t me n t of Education;

10
Dr. Fred Vescolani, Professor, D e pa r tm e nt of
Hig h er E d u c a t i o n and A dm i ni s tr a ti o n, M i c h i g a n
State Unive rsity; and,
Mr. J o h n R. Francis, S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , S hiawassee
Interme d ia t e School District.
An additi o na l source of data was p r ov i de d th rough
s e m i s t r uc t ur e d I n t e r v i e w i n g of local super in t en d en t s
s el ected on the basis

that each was, or had been,

asso­

ciated wi t h a p a r t i c u l a r category of I n te r me d ia t e school
di strict b e i n g dealt with in the study.
D at a w er e a na lyzed in order to Isolate the r es p onses
to two questions:

First, to what q u es t io n s should the

i n t e r m ed i at e district give a t t e nt i on in the d e v e l o pm e nt
of i n s t r u c t i o n a l im provement

services?

Secondly, w it h

what issues are the in t ermediate distr i ct s likely to be
confronted in the develop m en t of i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e ­
ment services?

Thus,

data were e xa mined in order to i s o ­

late questions and issues

common to all in t er m ed i at e d i s ­

tricts as w e l l as those u nique to a p a r t i c u l a r consti tu e nc y
make-up.
A ss u mp t io n s

and Limita ti o ns

As su mptions
C e r t a i n assumptions were made wit h r e g a r d to this
study,

as follows:
1.

That i n t e rm e di a te school distr i ct s in M i c h i g a n
r e m a i n a necessity.

11
2.

That c ur r ic u l u m Im p ro v em e nt was a f u n c t i o n
of the I n te r me d ia t e sch ool district.

3.

That the four selec te d ca t eg o ri e s of c o n s t i t ­
u en c y m a k e - u p for i n t e r m e d i a t e school d is t ricts
w o u l d g en e ra l ly r ep r es e nt the c o ns t it u en c y
m ak e - u p of the r e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r m e d i a t e school
dis t ricts in M i c h i g a n after July 1
1971*

,

That the e xp r e s s e d opinions of those i n t e r ­
v ie w e d would be b a s e d on actu al op inions and
thereby a r e a s o n a b l y ac c urate p r o t r a y a l would
result.
Limitations
R eaders
of this

study.

should be made aware of c e r t a i n limitations
These l imitations

i n cl u d e d the following:

1.

This study was limited to the i s o l a t i o n of
issues and q ue s tions w h i c h could be used in
b u i l d i n g a mo d el for use in d e v e l o p i n g i n s t r u c ­
tional impro ve m en t services at the i n t e r m ed i at e
district level.
R e aders should not infer that
this was a m o d e l of i n s t r u c t i o n a l improv e me n t
services w h i c h should be p r o v i d e d by the i n t e r ­
med i a t e district.

2.

The lack of systema t ic sa mp l i n g of all i n t e r ­
m ed iate districts r e p r e s e n t e d a l i m i t a t i o n as
far as the results o bt ained w er e concerned.

3.

The bias of the p a r t i c i p a t i n g p e r s o n n e l was
a l im i ta t i o n in that complete o bj e ct i vi t y may
have b e en lacking.

.

This study was limited to i n s t r u c t i o n a l and
c ur r ic u la r i m p r o ve m en t services of a g e ne r al
educat i on a l nature.
It did not include
special education.

5.

This study was li mited to i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e ­
ment services found in s e l e c t e d i n t e r m e d i a t e
d is t ricts in Michigan.

6.

The bias of the r e s e a r c h e r was a l i m i t a t i o n in
that complete o b j e ct i vi t y may have b e e n lacking.
The r es e ar c he r 's b a c k g r o u n d in i n t e rm e di a te
school di s tr i ct w o r k may have i n f l u e n c e d the

qu e s ti o ns selected for the i n t e r v i e w guides
a nd / or a f f e c t e d his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of responses.
7.

T h e ab sence of o bj e ct i ve i n te r vi e we r s r e p r e ­
sented a l i m i t a t i o n as far as the o b ta i n e d
results were concerned.

8.

The small nu m be r of p e rs o ns i n t e r v i e w e d at
each level r e p r e s e n t e d a l i m i t a t i o n in
g e n e r a l i z i n g the obtained results.

9.

The e x p l o r at o ry nature of the study r e p r e ­
s ented a l i m i t a t i o n as far as the s pecificity
of the re sults was concerned.
D e f i n i t io n s of Terms

Interm ediate District Agency
An agency that operates at a r e g i o n a l level,

g iv i ng

c oordin a ti o n and s u p p l e m e n t a r y se rvices to local school
districts and s er v i n g as a link b e t w e e n basic a d m i n i s t r a ­
tive units

and the state e d u c a t i o n agency.

s ynonymously with
di strict,"

It Is use d

" m i d d l e - e c h e l o n ," " in t er m ed i at e school

" i nt ermediate agency,"

"i ntermediate unit,"

and "the county school o f f i c e . " J
State E du c a t i o n Agency
This Is the h i ghest
in the state.

It ref ers

level of school a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
to a state d ep a rt m e n t of e d u c a ­

tion u nd e r the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of a s u pe r i n t e n d e n t

of

education, u su a ll y co n si s t i n g also of a state board of
educat ion that is the ge n er a l p o l i c y - m a k i n g bod y for the
state w i t h i n the limits set by the c o n s t i t u t i o n and the
statutes.

The terms

"state agency,"

"state au thority,"

13
"state ed u ca t i o n d e p a r tm e nt s "
tion," and

"state de p ar t me n t of e d u c a ­

"state depart m en t of public in s tr u ct i on " are

used sy n on y mo u sl y with the t e r m

"state ed u ca t i o n agency.

Basic or Local
Adm i ni s t r a t i v e
Agen cy
This term de notes an ar ea in w h i c h a single board
or o ff i c e r has the i m me diate r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the direct
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of all the school located therein.

Its

d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e ature is that it is a q u a s i - c o r p o r a t i o n
with a bo a rd or chief school o f fi ce r that has the r e s p o n ­
sibility for,

and ei th er complete or p ar t i a l a u tonomy in

the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of all public
boundaries.

schools w i t h i n Its

It Is used s y n o n ym ou s ly wi th

"local school

distri ct" or "local e d u c a t io n al unit."
C u r r i c u l u m or I n st ructional
Improvement Servic es
and Programs
This refers to both the c o or d in a tl v e functions and
suppl em e nt a ry se rv ice functions.
C o o r d i n at l ve Fu n ct i on s
These Inc lude activ ities

c a rried on by an I n t e r ­

mediate school district w hich br i ng t o ge t he r p e r s o n n e l
from local school d i st ricts for the p u r p o s e of Im p ro v in g
education or h e l p i n g districts and/ or other agencies
solve their common p ro b le m s. ^

to

14
S u p p l e me n ta r y Se rvice
Functions
These

consist of direct e d u c a t i o n a l services

r en dered at the c l as s r o o m level to supple me n t the
instr uc t io n al p r o g r a m s
class ro o m work.

local

or to assist teachers in their

7

C ur r ic u l u m Pe r so n ne l
This refers

to any one of the f ol l o w i n g types

c urricu l um wo r ke r s who are dire ctly r es p on s ib l e
i nterme d ia t e school district
school districts

of

to the

and w h o w o r k w i t h local

for the i mp ro v em e nt

of c u r r i c u l u m

and/ or instruction.
Curric u lu m G eneralist
A p e rs o n w h o is r e s p o ns i bl e for i n st r u c t i o n a l
leadership in m or e than one subject m a t t e r area.
p er s on could have re s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

g

Such a

at one or more educa-

tional levels.
Curriculum Specialist
A pe r so n w h o is r es p on si b le

for i n s t r u c t i o n a l

leadership in one subject m a t t e r area.
could have r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
a
levels.

Such.a person

at one or more ed u ca t io n al

15
C u r r i c u l u m Change Agent
A p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n who attempts to In fluence
curricular an d /o r I n s t r uc t io n al decisions in a d ir e c t i o n
that he feels is desirable.

This is a role that might

be p l a y e d by ei t he r the g e n e r a l i s t or the specialist
b u t 9 in this

case, it is the primary ro le of the

i n d i v i d u a l .10
Outline of Study
This
study.

chapter has served as an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the

C ha p t e r II deals w i t h a r e v i e w of the related

literature.

Chapter III p r es e n t s

the p ro c ed u r e s

m e t h o d ol o gy used in c o n n ec t io n w i t h the study.
IV is used to pr e sent the data.

and
Chapter

The final c ha p te r is

used to p resent the summary and conclusions

of the study.

F O O T N O T E S — C HA P T E R I
Ira Polley, State S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f Public I n s t r u c ­
tion, "Proposed Le g i s l a t i o n for the R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of
In termediate School Districts and for A d d i n g A d d i t i o n a l
Powers and Respons i bi l it i es to These D i s t r i c t s , " M i c h i g a n
Depar tm e nt of E d u c a t i o n M e m o r a n d u m , N o v e m b e r 26, 1968,

p. 1.

O

Robert M. Isenberg, "The I n te r m e d i a t e A d m i n i s t r a ­
tive Unit:
A Chronology of R es o lu t io n s A d o p t e d by the
A m e r i c a n Associ a ti o n of School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s , " March,
1967*
(Mimeographed.)
•^Alvin E. Rhodes, B e t t e r E d u c a t i o n Th r o u g h E f fe c ti v e
Intermediate Units (Washington, D. C.:
National Education
Association, 1963), pp. 3-4.
^National C ommission on School D i s t r i c t R e o r g a n i z a ­
tion, Y o ur School District (Washington, D. C.:
Na tional
Edu c a t i o n Association, 1948), p. 6 6 .
^I b i d . ,

p.

47.

^Cal ifornia A ss o c i a t i o n of Cou nty S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
of Sc hools and County Boards of E d u c a t i o n S e c t i o n of C a l ­
ifornia School Boards Association, "The C o m m i t t e e of
T e n , " The Future Role and Fu nction, Size, Structure, a n d
Organ iz a ti o n of the Int ermediate Unit in C a l i f o r n i a
( V i s a l i a , C a l i f o r n i a : A m er i c a n Y e a r b o o k Company, 1 9 6 6 ),
p. 137 Ibid.
^William F. Young, "Curri c ul u m G e n e r al i st
Current Scene," Educat i on a l L e a d e r s h i p , 24, No.
ber, 1 9 6 6 ), 2 3 5 .

in the
3 (Decem­

9Ibid.
York:

10 Everett M. Rogers, D i f f u s i o n of Innovations
The Free Press, 1962) ,
17 .

16

(New

C HA P TE R II
R E V I E W OF THE L I T E R A T U R E

A l th o ug h the county s u p e r i n te n de n cy has o c c u p i e d a
po s i ti o n of im portance in the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of state
school systems

for well over a h u n d r e d years,

the use of

the t er m "i n termediate unit" has d e v e l o p e d only since
1955-

The F i ft y -F i ft h Y e a r b o o k of the D e p a r t m e n t of Rural

E du c at i on a s cr i be d the usage of

"int ermediate unit" to an

emphasis o f what de s ir a bl y should be its pu r p o s e s and
functions.1

However,

pr i o r to r e v i e w i n g b o th the l i t e r ­

ature and studies d ea l in g with the d e v e l o p m e n t of the
i n t e r m ed i at e unit in Michigan,
m ed i at e unit,

and issues

i ntermediate unit,

the fun ctions of an i n t e r ­

s u r r o u n d i n g the

future of the

the d e v e l op m en t o f the county o ff i ce

of e d uc a t i o n in the U n i t e d States and its p re s e n t status
should be p r e s e n t e d as b a c k g r o u n d m a t e r i a l h e l p f u l in
u n d e r s t a n d i n g the litera t ur e and studies w hi c h will be
r ev iewed l a t e r in this chapter.
D e v e l o p m e n t of the In t er m ed i at e Unit
Schools with u s , as w i t h the o l d e r E u r o p e a n c ou n ­
tries fr om which our early settlers came, arose
la rgely as c h ildren o f the church.
From instru­
ments o f religion, they have c ha nged g r a d u al l y
into important instruments of t h e s t a t e . 2
17

18
Thus has Cubberley co m me n t e d c o n c e r n i n g the b a c k ­
g round and develop m en t of the s y s t e m of e d u c a t i o n w h i c h
we have in the U n i t e d States.

He goes on to say that:

So important was this New En g l a n d e v o l u t i o n and
c o n t r i b ut i on and so fully did it fit in w i t h the
changing conditions of the period, that by the
time our national gover nment and the di f fe r en t
state governments were established, the states
w er e b e c o m i n g ready in p r i n c i p l e at least to
accept the theory thus g ra d ua l ly w o r k e d out in
New E ng land that schools we re instit ut i on s and
should be r e garded as instr uments o f the state.^
E d u c a t io n began in the colonies
undertaking.

as a pu r el y local

Lay boards of trustees p e r f o r m e d the a d m i n ­

istrative functions r e l a t i n g to the p r o v i s i o n o f b u i l d i n g s
and materials,
taxes,

a r ra n g e d for the c o l l e c t i o n of fees and

and e m p l o y e d teachers

the pupils.

to conduct the classes

The educat i on a l needs we re simple.

for

The

communities were well d e fi n ed w it h the in h ab i ta n ts

clus­

tered in small villages a n d t o w n s .
As the lands to the we s t and south w e r e se t t l e d and
developed,

it b ecame obvious

that the p a t t e r n of life was

different from that es t a b l i s h e d a l on g the e as t e r n s e a ­
board.

Instead of living in clusters,

hous ed on widely

the p o p u l a t i o n was

scattered f a r m s t e a d s .

was known in New England,

did not exist.

The town,

as it

The towns and

villages e xi sted f u n d a m e n t a l l y , not as places of r e s i ­
dence, but as service centers w h e r e the rural inhabi ta n ts
could sell the products they ra i s e d and o b t a i n others
w hi c h they were unable to pr o d u c e t h e m s e l v e s .

Communities

19
were 3till well defined,
area.

In general,

but they c o v e r e d a m u ch w id e r

the service ar ea of each tow n was l i m ­

ited by the d i s ta n ce wh i ch a farmer could drive his t ea m
and r e tu r n in a day.^
It soon be c a m e obvious

that some form of s u p e r ­

visi on of the schools b e yo nd that e xe r cised by the lay
trustees was

desirable.

Also the concept of free u n i v e r ­

sal ed u ca t i o n was b e g i n n i n g to be c o m e established,

so the

people turned to the state as a unit of go v er n m e n t which
should as s um e u lt i ma t e r es p on s i b i l i t y for education.
the same time, however,

At

they m a i n t a i n e d their de s ir e to

r et a in as m u c h local control as possible.
The county s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y , f u nc t io n in g b e t w e e n the
local d is t ri c t w h i c h o p e r a t e d schools on the one hand,

and

the state e ducational au t hority on the other hand, was
first de v el o pe d in Delaware,

in 1829.^

N ew Y o rk was the

second state to create county s u p e r i n t e n d e n c i e s , In 1843*
followed in the next t h i r t y - fi v e years by most of the
other states.

By 1879* however,

seven states,

in c lu d in g

Michigan,

h a d ab o li s h e d the office of the county s u p e r i n ­

tendent.

Maine,

New York, V er m o n t and New H am p s h i r e at

one time h a d county s up e ri n tendents,

then a bo l is h ed the

office an d later e s t a b l i s h e d the s up e ri n t e n d e n c y district
or the supervi s or y u ni o n as the i n t e r me d ia t e unit.
In a nu m b e r of states the county has alwa ys b ee n
the unit for local rural government.

So it was natural

20
that the o p e r a t i o n of the public school s y s t e m in those
states should ha ve d e v e l o p e d as a f u n c t i o n of the county,
rather than of the city,
district found elsewhere.

town,

or ot h e r ty pe o f local

That plan is d e s i g n a t e d as

the county unit of school a d mi ni stration.
teen states with local districts

Today,

fif­

c ov e r i n g large areas,

often roughly c o i n c i di n g wi th p o l i t ic a l counties,

have

the county as the prevalent unit for the o p e r a t i o n of
the schools.

Included are Alabama, Florid a ,

Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland,
Mexico,

Missis si p pi ,

North Carolina, South Carolina,

Vermont, Virginia,

and West Virginia.

Georgia,
Nevada,

Tennessee,

New
Utah,

C a l i f o r n i a could

be add ed to this list since Ca l if o rn i a wi th five co untywide local districts
and Texas as states

joins Missis si p pi ,

South Carolina,

e m p l o y i n g bo t h c o un t y- u ni t an d co un ty-

intermedia te systems.

The county unit has a county b o a r d

of e du c at i on and a county s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f schools
employed to ad m i n i s t e r the school s y st e m of the county.
In 1965 it was r ep o rt e d that 32 states t e n d e d to
in corporate aspects of the t h r e e - e c h e l o n p a t t e r n in the
state structure for education;

seventeen were classified

as t w o - e c he l on states;

(Hawaii)

and one

was

c on s id e r e d

as fo l lowing a o n e - e c h e l o n pattern, b e c a u s e the entire
state is inclu d ed in one school district.

F r o m an e x a m ­

ination of Table 1, it can be seen that some p r o v i s i o n
for an in t e r m e d i a t e agency b e t w e e n the state and local

21
T A B L E 1. — State systems of education:
pat terns, 1965.

Organizational

One-Echelon
(1)

Two-Echelon
(2)

Three-Echelon
(3)

Hawaii

A la b a m a
Alaska
D el a w a r e
Florida
G eo r gi a
Idaho
Ken tucky
Louisiana
Maryland
Nevada
N ew Mexico
North Car olina
R h o d e Island
T en n e s s e e
Utah
Virginia
West V i r g i n i a

Arizona
A rk ansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Ill inois
I nd i an a
Iow a
Kansas
Maine
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
New H am p s h i r e
New Jersey
New York
North Dakota
Ohi o
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
S o u t h C ar o li n a
S o u t h D akota
Texas
Vermont
Washington
Wisconsin
Wyoming

Perce nt a ge of Total

(50 States)

One-Echelon
Syst em

Two-Echelon
Sys t em

Three-Echelon
System

255

3 4'56

6455

22
levels remains the pr imary a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
form.

In i n t e r p r e t i n g Table 1 it s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d

that some states
c ha r acteristics

(particularly in New England)

exhibit

of b o t h t w o - e c he l on and t h r e e - e c h e l o n

o p e r a t i o n a l patterns.

They have b e e n c l a s s i f i e d in

a cc o rd a n c e with the pr o bable degree of m a j o r emphasis
or p r e d o m i n a t e pattern.
At the present time m o d i f i c a t i o n o f existing s t r u c ­
tures represent
organization.

an e v ol v in g p at t e r n of school di s tr i ct
There ap pears

to be a ten dency for o r g a n ­

izational pa tterns to move away from the structural c o n ­
fines of c o un t y - c o t e r m i n o u s areas.
trends and de v elopments

Some aspects of these

can be see n in Tab le 2,

C on n ec t ic u t is c a t e g or i ze d as a state in w h i c h no
interm e di a te units are really operative.

Here,

a direct

line of au t ho r i t y exists b et w e e n the state and C o n n e c t i ­
c u t ’s local districts.

A s u p e r v i s o r y u nion s u p e r i n t e n d e n t

is l isted in the U. S. O f f i c e of E d u c a t i o n D i re c to r y,
no i n te r me d ia t e educational officer,
In effect,

as such,

but

is present.

the state board o f ed u ca t i o n employs

superin­

tendents a n d assigns t h em to c e rtain communities w h i c h do
not p r o v i d e their own administrator.
Table
one state.

2 shows the mu ltiple patterns

ex hibited w i t h i n

It is possible to indicate w h e t h e r or no t a

state has a n i n t e r m ed i at e s t ru cture and co u nt y -u n it
school districts

can be illustrated.

local

For t h r e e - e c h e l o n

TABLE 2.— 1965 state educational system patterns and organizational structure.
No Intermediate Agency

State

None

Alabama'
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia

X
X

Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland

X
X

Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota

County Unit
Local
Districts

X
X
X
X
X

Intermediate Agency

County
Office

Supervisory
Union

New
Area
Units

X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
TOTALS

X
X

•

X

X

X

X

X

X
ro
•Cr

X
X

X
X

X
X
X

.

X
X
X

X

X
X

X

X
X

19

17

-2 ]\

5

7

25
states,

the type of i nt e r m e d i a t e agency,

office,

s u p e r vi s or y union,

that is, county

or b r o a d e r area,

can also be

shown.
A c c o r d i n g to T ab l e 2, n i n e t e e n sta tes have no
intermediate agency while s e v e n t ee n states,

i nc l uding

fourteen cl a ss i fi e d as n o n - i n t e r m e d i a t e unit states,
have some local school districts o r g a n i z e d a lo n g county
lines.

T w e n t y - f o u r states have county

intermediate units.
for purposes
unions,

Five states,

coterminous

i n c l u d i n g Connecticut

of this c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ha ve su p er v is o ry

and se v en states ha ve o rg anized new area units.

R e f e r e n c e to T ab l e 1 and Table 2 illustrates the
diversity of o r g a n i za t io n al pa tterns of state e d uc a ti o na l
systems.

Despite the variations,

majority of the states

it can be se en that a

continue to include some type of

i n t e r m e di a te - le v el agency in the overall

state st r ucture

for education.
The 1955 Y e ar b o o k of the Depart me n t of Rural E d u c a ­
tion n oted that h i s t o r i c a l l y the
the U ni t ed States developed,
the state government.
of i n termediate unit

i nt ermediate unit in

by and large,

as a n a r m of

I se nberg suggests that a ne w type
is evolving,

and that this m id d l e -

echelon agency must be c o n s i d e r e d as part of the total
state e d u c a t i on a l system.

He called at t en t i o n to the

i nt e rr e lationships b e t w e e n the various

levels, w h e t h e r

the t otal s ystem follows a t h r e e - e c h e l o n or a t w o - e c h e l o n

26
pattern.

He stated that the entire s y st e m is a d el icate

b al a n c e of relationships,

"and w h e n we t inker w it h one
g

segment

of it, all the o th e r levels are affect e d. "

Some writers have indicated that the in t er m ed i at e
unit

is on trial and probably has always b e e n on trial.

They no t ed that

it may be

"that any unit wh i ch attempts

to find a place b e t w e e n the legally fixed r e s p o n si b il i ty
for ed u ca t io n at the state level and the jealo u sl y
g ua r de d o pe r ation of schools at the local dist rict
is inevi tably in t r o u b l e . D e s p i t e

level

the inherent p r o b ­

lems, the t h r e e - e c h e l o n p a t t e r n has p r e d o m i m a t e d in the
U ni t ed States.
The b r i e f review of the development and present
status of the county superi n te n de n cy
was

in the Un i te d States

p r es e nt e d as a b a c k g r o u n d for v i ew i ng the l i te r at u re

and studies related to the development
medi ate unit

in Michigan,

of the i n t e r ­

the functions of an i n t e r ­

mediate unit, and issues s u r r o u n d i n g the future of the
i nt e rm e di a te unit.
Intermediate Unit

in M i c h i g a n

The interm ed i at e school district in M i c h i g a n was
establ i sh e d and is r e g u l a t e d by statutes which as s i g n
authority,

duties,

and r es p on s ib il i ti e s to bo t h the

county b o a r d of education and the county su perintendent.
Although the county superintendent

is a p p o i n t e d by and

27
r e s p o n s i b l e to the county b o a r d of education, he is
granted a u th o ri t y a n d c h ar g ed w i t h various r e s p o n s i b i l ­
ities which are not subject to the a u th o ri t y of the
county board.
T r a d i t i on a ll y ,

the county s up e ri n t e n d e n t a nd the

interme d ia t e unit w e r e vi r tu a l l y

synonymous terms.

Many

of the p ro v is i on s p e r t a i n i n g to the establishment,
auth ority,

and functions of th e i nt e r m e d i a t e unit are

found in the School
Public Acts

of 1955s

Code, w h i c h is Act.

School D i s t r i c t s , " w hi c h includes

office,

deals

e n ti t le d

Sections

"County

291 to 337

e xclusively w i th the county school

but a d di t i o n a l provis i on s are found in var ious

o ther sections

of the act and in ot her statutes.

st at ute provides that,
first

269 of the

State of M i c h i g a n . ®

C h a p t e r V I I I of the School Code,

inclusive,

No.

This

f o l l o w i n g the e le c ti o n of the

county b o a r d of education,

each

county in the state

shall c o ns t i t u t e a county school district.
T he State of M i ch i g a n first c r eated the county
s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y by the p a ss ag e of Act 55 in 1 8 6 7 .
that time,

At

t w e n t y - n i n e states ha d already c r ea t e d the

of fi ce to assist the state e d u c a t io n al a u t h o r i t y in the
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f its e d u c a ti o na l system.

In t r a c i n g

the d e v e l o p me n t of the idea of the county s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
which

found its ex p r e s s i o n in le g i s l a t i o n in 1867,

it is

n ec e s s a r y to go b a c k to the first of the T e r r i t o r i a l

laws

28
dealing with the o r g a n iz a ti on of common schools.
for the establ i sh m en t of common schools,
T e r r i t o r i a l Gover n me n t

of Michigan,

taining fifty or mo re families
failure to do so,

court

1827, p r o ­

in t o wn s h i p s

or ho u seholders.

the t ow n sh ip was

fine of fifty dollars,

ad o pt e d b y the

A p r i l 12,

vided for the es t ab l is h me n t of schools

An Act

con­

For

su bject t o a m i n i m u m

levied by the circuit

or county

of the county to which the deficient t o w n s h i p

belonged.
S ec tion four of the Act

c o nt a in e d the p r ov i si o ns

for the s e l e c t i o n of school i n s p e c t o r s — officials h a v i n g
a s up e r vi so r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y over local district

schools.

Sec. 4.
That the inhabitants of s a i d t o w n ­
ships r e s p e ct i ve l y shall c h oose a su i table nu m b e r
of persons w i t h i n t he i r r e s p e c t i v e towns hips, not
e x c e e d in g five, who shall be inspect ors of
schools in s a i d townships res pectively; which
inspectors shall examine the teachers, a nd approve
or d i s a p pr o ve of the same, and also shall visit
the several schools w i t h i n their r es p ec t iv e t o w n ­
ships quarterly, or o f t e n e r if they deem it
necessary; t hr e e or more of sa id inspectors s ha l l
be competent, both to examine the te achers a nd
the r es p ec t i v e schools, a n d no p e r s o n shall b e
e mp l o y e d as a teacher in any one o f the s c ho o ls
in any of the townships or districts in this
T er r i t o r y w h o shall not h a v e b e e n p r e v i o u s l y
exa mined by the inspectors aforesaid, a n d have
r e c e i v e d a certificate, s i g n e d by at least two of
said inspectors, im p or t in g that he is duly q u a l ­
ified to te a ch the school for w h i c h he ma y be an
applicant, a n d is of good, mo r al character; a n d
it shall be the further duty of the inspectors to
exam ine into the state of schools in their
r es p ec t i v e townships, both as it respects the
profici e nc y of the scholars and the good order and
r eg u la r i ty of the schools; and from time to t i me
give their advice; a n d if any p e r s o n shall

29
p r es u me to keep su c h school w i t h o u t a c ertificate
as aforesaid, he or she shall forfeit a n d pay a
s u m not e xc e eding two h u n d r e d dollars, to be
r e c o v e r e d in any court h a v i n g j u r i s d ic t io n
thereof, one mo iety t h ereof t o the informer, a n d
the o t h e r moiety to the use o f the poo r of the
t o w n s h i p w h e r e such s chool ma y be k e p t . 9
In 1829 the t e r r i to r ia l school law was r e pl a ce d
with a new one-1'0 , which pr ovided
each of the o r g a ni z ed town ships

for the e l ection in
of five

"Commissioners

of Common Sch ools" wh o were to s ee to the d i v i s i o n of
the t ow n s h i p into sc hool di stricts and to i ns t it u te the
elec tion of district of ficers, a n d for the e le c ti o n in
each township of five persons to b e inspec tors

of

schools, w i t h duties s i m i l a r to those given the i n s p e c ­
tors

in the Act of 1827 •
In the revision o f the

law in 1 8 3 3 s the nu m b e r of

school co mmiss ioners e l e c t e d in each t o w n s h i p was
r ed u c e d to three.

To their re s po n si b i l i t i e s was added

the cust ody of the sections

s ix t ee n of the townships,

which we re r e se r v e d for the s upport of schools.
changes w er e made

in the provis io n s

No

for school i n s p e c ­

tors .
In the first general r e v i s i o n of the laws after
Mic h ig a n a c h i e v e d statehood,
missioners

of the c o m ­

and inspectors w e r e c om b i n e d and v e s t e d in

three to w ns h ip inspectors.
followed,

the duties

In th e thirty years which

only m i n o r changes we re made

in the law.

30
C o o p e r and F I t z w a t e r 11 s t a t e d that the n e e d for a
level o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in a p os i ti o n in t er m ed i ar y
b e t w e e n the state government
trict

and the local s c ho o l d i s ­

closest to the people was r e c o g n i z e d as

constitutions were a d o p t e d and as
systems began to take shape.

state e du c at i on a l

The state de p ar t me n ts

e du c ation ne e de d such an agency to assist
dat a about the schools,
sale of public lands,

of

in g a t h e r i n g

in d i s t r i b u t i n g funds

fr o m the

and in s u p e r v i s i n g the m a c h i n e r y

of o r g a n i z a t i o n of school districts.
townships

state

in M i ch i ga n increased,

As the n u m b e r of

the w e a k n e s s e s

of the

cumbersome s y st e m of d e a l i n g with the to w n s h i p school
inspectors b e ga n to a pp e ar to th o se c h ar g ed with the
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the state s y s t e m of schools.
Hosford,

Su p er i nt e nd e nt

state of Michigan,
Dec e mb e r 15,

of Public

O ramel

I ns t ru c ti o n for the

in his report to the l e g i s l a t u r e on

1866, stated:

At a m e e t i n g o f State S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s of Public
Instruction, h e l d in W a s h i n gt o n, in F eb ruary
last, co nsiderable time was spent in d i s c u s s i n g
the quest io n of county superin t en d en c y.
In many of the states repres en t ed , this s y s t e m
o f s ch o ol s u p e r v i s i o n has b e e n in o p e r a t i o n for
many years, a n d the unanimous t e st imony was that
the sy s t e m was most s u c c e s s f u l in its working,
and all h a d come to feel that this was a f i xe d
and absolutely n ec e ss a ry part of t h e i r s chool
system.
Believing, as I do, that the b e s t in terests
our schools are s u f f e r i n g for the want of
vigorous supervision, a n d k n o w i n g that the

of

31
pr esent s ys t em falls to meet this want, I most
earnes tly r e c o m m e n d to the c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the
pres ent legisl a tu r e the p r o p r i e t y of a d o p t i n g
the system of county s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y .12
As stated earlier,

the f or m a t i o n of the office of

county su p er i n te n de n cy was by the pa s sa g e of Publ ic Act
55 in March,

1867.

The

law a u th o r i z e d counties h aving

at least ten scho ol districts to elect
tendent.

a county s u p e r i n ­

The t e r m of office was two years,

office was to be l o c at e d in the county seat.
p rescribed the f o ll o wi n g duties
tendent:

The law

for the county s u p e r i n ­

to examine all candidates

revoke certificates for cause,

and the

for certificates,

to

to visit each scho ol in

the county at least once a year, to co unsel w i t h teachers
and district boards, to note conditions

of buildings

library facilities of the d is t ricts and townships,
to s p onsor teachers'

institutes.

and

and

In a d d i t i o n to these

duties he was re q uired to p e r f o r m m i n o r services

of a

m in i st e ri a l n a t u r e p e r t a i n i n g to the c o ll e c t i o n of re ports
for the State D e p a r t m e n t

of Public

Instruction.

The criticisms of the n e w office we r e so ma ny that
an i n v e s t i g a t i o n was m a d e by the House C om m it t ee
Education.

on

Objectors t o the law c on t en d ed that the s ys t em

was too expens i ve and a common complaint wa s . t h a t the
high er standards for t e a c h e r c e r t i f i c a t i o n e n forced by
certain county s u pe r in t en d en t s had caused teachers' wages
to go up and c reated a sho rtage of teachers.

32
The House Committee found that in many cases the
law was ef f ective and the C o mm i tt e e felt that the fault
did not lie w i th the newly formed county s y s t e m but w i t h
their e l e c t e d s u pe r in t en d en t s
education,

or inspect ors

and appoi nt e d boards

of

as they were called at that time.

The Co mmittee on E d u c a t i o n in 1871 stated:
A f t e r a thorough investigation, and upon the best
i n f o r m a t i o n your committee could obtain, they are
unanim ous in the op inion that the pr e se n t s y st e m
is correct in theory and su c ce ss f ul in pr a ct i ce
. . . they fear its r epeal w o u l d be a step b a c k ­
ward, change in our e d u c a t i on a l s ystem shou ld be
made wi t h great care and ca ution and only w h e n
one sy s te m is clearly a failure or a n other clea rly
s u p e r i o r .13
The p os i ti v e stand by the House Committee did not
quiet the many criticisms

of the county office.

There­

fore, in 1 8 7 5 3 the legis lature r ep e a l e d the law e s t a b l i s h ­
ing the county s up e ri n te n de n t
of Public Act l\2.

of schools by the p as s ag e

The arguments for its ab o li s hm e nt

centered around expense of the office, ineffic i en c y,
one-man power.

and

The old township system was r e c r e a t e d in

its place with a "township superi nt e nd e nt "
taking the place of the

g e ne rally

county superintendent.

The t o w n ­

ship su p er i nt e nd e nt w i t h the to w nship board of school
inspectors p r o v i d e d such e du c a t i o n a l s u p e r v i s i o n in the
townships as there was until 1881.

By that time the

legislature was t r y i n g to find a me t ho d of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
which w o u l d operate in an area larger than the township.
In that year, the legislature c r eated a county b o a r d of

33
school examiners by the p a s s a g e of Act 164.

The. cou nty

boa r d of scho ol ex a miners h a d three m em bers,

e le c t e d for .

a t e r m of three years by the ch airmen of the sev eral
boards of township s chool inspectors.

The

county b oa r d

annually elected one of its m embers to serve as secretary
and ex ecutive officer.

The duti es t r a n s f e r r e d f r om the

township boards i n c l u d e d c e r t i f i c a t i o n of teachers,
revoking of certifi c at e s, a n d i n s p e c t i o n of schools u p on
request of the to w ns h ip inspectors.

In 1887, the l e g i s ­

lature p r o v i d e d for the a ppointment of a secretary of
the board of county examiners,

and made it his duty,

among others, to inspect the schools in the county at
least once a year, and to appoint
where necessary.

assistant visitors

He als o was g iv e n some s up e rv i so r y

duties in r e l a t i o n t o.the t o w n s h i p s chool officials.
is intere st i ng to note that Public Act
M ic higan l eg i sl a tu r e i n 1887

It

266 pa ssed by the

fixed the annual salary of

the county s u pe r i n t e n d e n t at $ 1 ,5 0 0 , p a y a b l e fr o m county
funds.

14

The office of the county c o m m i s s i o n e r of schools
was created by the M i c h i g a n le g is l at u re in 1 8 9 1 , with
the p a ssage of P ublic Act 147.

By the p ro v is i on s of

this act, the county c o m m i s si o ne r of schools,

along wi th

the two county e x a m i n e r s , co n s t i t u t e d a county b o a r d for
the e x a m i n a t i o n of teachers
for the office of county

in the county.

commissioner,

To be e li gible

a p e r s o n was

34
req u ir e d to ha ve ha d at least twelve months

of teachi n g

e xperience, and h o l d a t e ac h in g certificate.

The

c o m m i s si o ne r could hold office only in the county in
which his first grade t e a c h i n g certifi c at e was granted.
The

commissioner,

as we ll as the two school inspectors,

was a pp o i n t e d by the county b o a r d of s u p e r v i s o r s .
term of office was two years.

A pay scale,

to the size of the counties, was

The

gradua t ed

inc luded in the act,

pro v i d i n g sal aries of $500 in counties h a v i n g fifty
schools;

$1,000 w h e r e there were one h u n d r e d schools;

and $1,200 wh ere there were

175 schools, but the m a x i m u m

was n e v e r to ex ceed $ 1 , 5 0 0 . ^
In 1901 the law was re v is ed to p ro v i d e for the
p op u la r e l e c t i o n by b a llot of the county c om m i s s i o n e r
for a t e r m of four years.

The first elections

new Act w e re held in April,

u n d e r the

1903, in all counties e x c e p t ­

ing Lak e and Chippewa, w here the elections w e r e r e gu l at e d
by special le gislative acts.

T h e appoin tm e nt of school

in spectors was d is c o n t i n u e d by the new law.
The 1931 the q u a l if i ca t io n s for the office were
raised so that it was n e ce ssary for a c o m m i s s i o n e r to
have h a d at least t w e n t y - s e v e n months'

e xp e ri e nc e as a

t eacher in the state and h o l d a M i c h i g a n life certificate,
except in counties

of one hu n dr e d or more classrooms,

where the c o m m i s si o ne r must have b ee n a gr a d u a t e from a

35
reputable univers i ty

or college and h o l d e ither a

B achelor of Arts or a B ac h e l o r of Science degree.
The county school district was cr e at e d by the
legi slature by the passage of Public Act 117, in 1935,
in counties ha v in g over 250,000 population.

At the

time of p a ss a ge only one c ounty— W a y n e — q u al i fi e d u n d e r
the law.

Oa k l a n d County, the second to at t ai n a p o p u l a ­

tion of 250,000,
in 19^3.

came u n de r the p r ov i s i o n s of the Act

In 19^7,

the Act was made applic a bl e to the

fi fty-two counties ha v i n g 15,000 or o v e r and in 19^9 the
law b ecame applicable to all counties w i th the p a ssage
of Public Act 217.
Public Act 217, as passed by the le gislature in
19^9, pr o v i d e d for county school offices w i t h a s u p e r ­
intendent of schools and a bo a rd of e d u c a t i o n for each
of the 83 c o u n t i e s .

The county bo a rd of e d u c a t i o n was

to have five mem bers serving for s ix - y e a r terms.

The

terms of the five members were to overlap, w i t h two
members b e i n g c h osen at two succe ssive bi e n n i a l elections,
and the fifth ch os en at the third b ie n ni a l election.

The

b ie n ni a l m e e t i n g was to be held on the s e c o n d Monday in
June, and the ne w l y - e l e c t e d m embers w e r e to take office
on Ju ly 1 f ol l ow i ng the election.

The law also named

the county b o ar d to be the legal s uc c essor to all of the
duties p e r t a i n i n g to schools w h i c h had b e e n h el d by the
town ship bo ar ds and listed the f o l l o w i n g specific duties:

36
1.

To r e ceive f r o m the county t r e a s u r e r m on t hl y

notices of de l in q ue n t taxes due in each school district,
and c o m m u n ic a te same, a lo n g wi t h the statement
interest due,
2.

of

to the several school districts.

To take over th e duties

boards w i th respect

of the township

to t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of school d i s ­

tricts and the al terations of district boundaries.
3.

To r e co m me n d the p ur chase

of library b o ok s for

all s chool libr aries and of all i n st r u c t i o n a l equipment
in scho ol di stricts

not

em p lo y i n g a s up e ri n te n de n t

of

schools and coming u n d e r the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the Act.
*1.

To employ a county s u p e r i n te n de n t of schools

and such as sistants
salary, except

as it may d ee m necessary,

as p r o v i d e d by statute,

to fix his

to a ut h orize the

pa yment by the county t r e a s u r e r of expenses of office
and i n st r u c t i o n a l materials.
employ a q u a l i f i e d

The county board shall

county superin t en d en t for a t e r m of

office not to exceed four years.
5.

To make and k e e p r ev i se d an ac c ur a te map of

the county sh o w i n g the correct bo u nd a ri e s
school districts,

and to provide copies

of the several

of sa id map to

both county and state officials.
6.

To cause the school census to be t a k e n in each

school district.
7.

To make out an annual budget c o v e r i n g the amo unt

necessary to carry on t h e act ivities of the county board.

37
8.

To furnish c o n s u l t a t i v e or s u p e r v is o ry

ser­

vices to any school di s tr i ct e m p l o y i n g a s u pe r in t en d en t
of schools upon the requ est of the b o a r d of e d u c a t i o n
of that district.
9.

U nder c er t ai n conditions, to p r o v i d e for the

education of e xc e pt i on a l
10.

children.

To direct,

su p er v is e and conduct

cooperative

educational programs in b eh a lf of school d i st r ic t s which
request such services f r o m the county bo a r d of educati on,
and to use county

f u n d s , or c o n t r i b ut i on s a c ce p te d from

other sources,

finance such e d u c a t i o n a l programs.

to

The county s u p e r i n te n de n t was to be s e le c te d by
the county board and to serve as its e xe c ut i ve officer,
replacing county

commissioners

c ho s en by p o p u l a r vote.

The law had r eq u ir e d the u p g r a d i n g of the county s u p e r ­
intendent to a point w h e r e it was n e c e s s a r y for h i m to
be a g r ad u at e of a college or u n i v e r s i t y and h o l d at
least a B ac helor of S c ience degree.

He was f u r t h e r

requ ired to be a h o l d e r of a t e a c h i n g c e r t i f ic a te

and

to have taught in public schools in the state for a
period of at least

forty-five months.

T he law listed the f ol l o w i n g specific powers and
duties in a d di t io n to al l powers

and du ti es g r a n t e d to

the county c om m is s io n er of schools by statute:
1.

T o act as e xe c utive s ec r e t a r y of the county
board.

38
2.

To put into pr a c t i c e the educat i on a l
p ol icies of the state.

3.

To supervise and direct the w o r k of assistants
and other employees

of the county b o ar d of

education.
4.

To r e c o m m e n d in w r i t i n g
in distri cts
. of schools

to all school boards

not e mp l oy i ng a s up e ri n te n de n t
all teachers n e ce s s a r y for the

schools.
5.

In districts not e m p l o y i n g a superin t en d en t ,
to suspend any tea cher for cause until the
b oa r d of e d u c a t i o n of the school district
e m p l o y i n g such t e ac h er may consider such
suspension.

6.

To classify and control the p r o m o t i o n of
pupils

7.

in d is t ri c ts not h a v i n g a superintendent.

To superv i se and direct

the w o r k of the teac her

in schools not h a v i n g a superintendent.
8.

To make reports

in w r i t i n g to the district

b o a r d of e d u c a t i o n in r eg a rd to all ma tters
p e r t a i n i n g to the educat i on a l

interests of

the r es p ec t i v e distric ts; provided,

that in

distr ic t s e m p l o y i n g a superin t en d en t ,

such

reports shall be made through the s u p e r i n ­
tendent of s c h o o l s .

39
9.

To receive the institute fee p r ov i de d by law,
e xc l u d i n g first and s e c o n d class
tricts,

school d i s ­

and to remit same to the county

treasurer.
10.

Th examine and audit the boo ks

and records

of any school dis trict w h e n d i r e c t e d to do so
by the S u p e r in t en d en t
11.

To act as assistant

of Public Instruction.

c o n d u c t o r of institutes

a ppointed by the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t
Instru ction,

of Public

and p e r f o r m such other duties

p e r t a i n i n g t hereto as the Su p er i n t e n d e n t
shall r e q u i r e .
12.

To p e r f o r m such duties as the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t
of Public I n s t ru c ti o n may p r es c ri b e,

to

receive all forms and c o m m u n i ca t io n s which
may be sent to h i m or h e r by the S u p e r i n t e n ­
dent of Public Instruction,

and to d is p os e of

the same as d i r e c t e d by said Superi n te n de n t,
and to make annual r eports at the close of
the school y e ar to the S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of
Public In s t r u c t i o n of his or h e r of ficial
labors,

and of the schools

of the

county

t og e th e r w i t h such other i n f o r m a t i o n as may
be r e qu i re d of h im or he r by

law, and at the

close of the- t e r m of office to d e l i v e r all

40
records, books and papers, b e l o n g i n g to the
office to his or h e r successor.
i

13.

To examine the ce rtified copy of st atement of
moneys p r op o s e d to be raised by the several
school d i st ricts in his

county r eq u i r e d by

law to be filed w i t h the t ow nship
the bo a rd of supervisors
ses s i o n of said board;

clerk and

at the O c t o b e r

to notify the di r ector

of the school board or the secretary of the
b oa r d of e d uc a ti o n of any district

that

fails

to file such statements as are requi r ed by law
or that has fail ed to q ualify

for aid u n de r

the ge n eral a p p r o p ri a ti ng act made

for the

p ur p o s e of aiding in the support of the public
school distri cts

of the state of such failure.

W he n the county boards of e d uc a t i o n we r e cre ated in
all of the

counties in 1949, the law p r o v i d e d that the

p erson e le c te d in April,
his successor,
of schools

1947,

as county commissioner,

or

should be ap p ointed as county su p er i nt e nd e nt

for a term e nd i ng June 30, 1951.

A subse quent

change in the Act p r o v i d e d that those pers ons w h o c o n ­
tinued in the office since the change in 1949 were not
subject to the q u a l i f ic a ti o ns pr e sc r i b e d by the law for
the p o s i t i o n of county superintendent.
P e r m i s s i o n was g r an t e d u n d e r S e c t i o n 13 of the
County Scho ol D i st r ic t Act for the c o n s o li d at i on of

41
two or more counties h a v i n g a p o p u l a t i o n of less than
15,000 each to form a single county school d is trict wit h
a single

county board of e du c at i on and one county

superintendent.

Al though this s e ct i on of the Act p e r ­

mitted counties to combine into larger i n t e r me d ia t e
units,

no such combinations

occurred.

D u r i n g the 1962 sess ion of the M i c h i g a n L eg i sl a tu r e
the pa ssage of Act 190 occurred w h i c h e n c o u r a g e d change.
This A c t a wh i c h became effective in the s pring of 1963,
contained the following m a j o r provisions:
1.

The board of the interm e di a te school district
shall suc ceed to the powers

and duties of

the county b o ar d of education.
2.

The intermediate school d i strict must ha ve at
least 5,000 pupils

in the m e m b e r s h i p in the

local school district.
3.

M e mbers of the b o a r d may continue to be e l ected
by a p o pu l ar vote; however,

the county e l e c ­

torate, by a p e t i t i o n signed by a m a j o r i t y of
the school boards r e p r e s e n t i n g 50 p e r cent of
the children, may vote to adopt the el e ct i on
m ethod of s el e c t i n g b o ar d members.
4.

In a r e o r g an i ze d in t ermediate d i strict

there

shall be 7 members on the board.
5.

The officers of the i nt e rm e di a te board are a
p resident, vice-pr e si d en t ,

secretary,

and

42
and treasurer.

The su pe r i n t e n d e n t

serves

as the ex e cu t i v e officer of the board.
secretary

The

and t r e a s u r e r need not be me m bers

of the board.
6.

Th e bu d g e t

of the i nt ermediate

school b oa r d

shall be submitted o n or b e f o r e M ar c h 1, to a
m e e t i n g of one school boa rd m e m b e r r e p r e s e n t a ­
tive of e a ch constituent s chool district.
representatives

of c onstituent

The se

school districts

shall determine, by m aj o r i t y vote, the m a x i m u m
amou nt of budget.

T h e budget shall be s u b ­

m i t t e d to the county tax a l l o c a t i o n board
w h i c h shall allocate

a tax rate

for the support

of the i n t e r m ed i at e school di s t r i c t by the same
p ro c e d u r e

as is used in a l l o c a t i n g rates to

the se v er a l local scho ol d i s t ri c ts , to wnships
17
and county unit of g o v e r n m e n t .
Act 190 w h i c h b e ca m e effe ctive on M a r c h 28, 1963>
provid ed for the r e n a m i n g of t h e county school district
to the i n t e r me d ia t e

school district and set forth the

pro v ision that the i nt e r m e d i a t e school d i s t r i c t shou ld
become a body

corporate with some a d d i t i o n a l r e s p o n s i ­

bilities i n c l u d i n g that of c o n t r a c ti n g by means
d is trict-wide taxes

of

for the p r o v i s i o n of sp ecial e d u c a ­

tion by local school districts

and of a re a v o c a t i o n a l -

technical e d u c a t i o n by local school districts.

Also,' the

43
Act, as amended, p r o v i d e d that u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m ­
stances w h e n local school d is t ricts r ef u s e d to op er ate
ce rtain in s t r u c t i o n a l pr o g r a m s that it, the i nt e rm e di a te
school district,

could ope rate such i n s t r u c t i o n a l programs.

A m o n g the pe r mi s si v e author i ti e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i ­
ties p r o v i d e d by Act 190 of 1962 to the in t e r m e d i a t e
school di strict were the following:
1.

T h e o p e r a t i o n of s p e c i a l i z e d clinics

for the

chi l d r e n of local sc ho ol di stricts.
2.

The direct conduct and o p e r a t i o n of p ro grams
for no n - e d u c a b l e but t ra i n a b l e m e n t a l l y h a n d i ­
capped chi ldren w h e n local c o n s t i tu e nt

di s ­

tricts refuse to op erate such programs.
3.

O pe r at e

schools for wards

of the court.

4.

O perate day-care centers for s e veraly m en t a l l y
h a n d i c a p p e d children.

5.

A l l o c a t e and d is t ri b u t e f i na n c i a l subsidies
f o r s p e c i a l i z e d local sc h oo l o p e r a t i o n s .

6.

T he p r o v i s i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n a l ma t er i a l s ,
libraries, and centers

for the use of c o n s t i t u ­

ent school districts.
7.

T h e p r o v i s i o n of the services

of h e l p i n g

t ea c he r s and i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n s u lt a nt s to
local constituent scho ol distri cts.
8.

T he p r o v i s i o n - o f i n -s e rv i ce e d u c a t i o n a l
e xperiences for faculties

and o p e r a t i n g

44
staffs

of local c on st i tu e nt school d i s ­

tricts.
9.

The

c on d uc t in g of s t a t i s t i c a l and other

research

operations.1^

In 1963 the State S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of Public I n s t r u c ­
tion, Dr. L y n n M.
of propo ne n ts

Bartlett, was

c o n f r o n t e d with a group

of the Id e a that the I n t e r m e di a te sc ho ol

district sh o ul d be pr o vi d ed the a ut h ority and the r e s p o n ­
sibility to o rg anize and to operate d ir e c t l y i n s t r u c ­
tional progra m s d e f i n e d as
program s."

"area v o c a t i o n a l - t e c h n i c a l

These pr o po n e n t s he l d that most consti tu e nt

local school districts

either had. too little f i na n ci a l

resources for o p e r a t i n g such programs
refused to p r o v i d e

or they d e li b er a te l y

for such p ro grams be cause of lack of

interest or lack of convict i on co n ce r n i n g the need for
them.
After c o n f e r r i n g with a great n u m b e r of e d u c a t i o n a l
leaders th r ou g ho u t the state, Dr.
he w o u l d supp ort

B ar tlett

c on c lu d ed that

l e g i s l at i on w h i c h w o u l d au t horize the

electors in an I n te r me d ia t e sc h oo l district to levy a
tax for t h e . s u p p o r t

of such p ro grams but such p r og r am s

must be o p e r a t e d e i t h e r by a local constituent
district or by a community college district.

school
T he c o n t r a c t ­

ing agent was to be the i n te r me d ia t e scho ol district.
This p r o p o s e d l e g i s l a t i o n was' e na c t e d as an a m en d me n t to
Act 190 of the Public Acts of 1 9 6 2 . 1 ^

45
A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the M i c h i g a n E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a ­
tion, sp e aking at the annual co nference of the i n t e r ­
mediate school superin t en d en ts he ld at Hi gg ins Lake in
the Sp ring of 1 9 6 6 , p r op o se d that the i nt e rm e di a te

school

distri ct in M i c h i g a n in the final analysis must b ecome
the op e ra t in g school district.
would solve all such problems
service needs,

He c on t en d ed that this
as school bonding,

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n problems,

a ux i liary

central p u r c h a s ­

ing, the fo c al i z i n g of federal pr ojects, the control of
i nterscholastic athletics, and the p r o v i s i o n of special
education.
As recently as N o v e m b e r 7, 1966,

the M i c h i g a n

intermediate school superintendents have p r o p o s e d that
legislation be de v el o pe d w h i c h would reduce the n u m b e r of
intermediate school districts in the State of M i c h i g a n
from the present sixty to not
than thirty-five.

less than thirty nor more

They pr o p o s e d that these districts

embrace all the g e o g r ap h ic a l areas in the state;

that no

intermediate district should be larger in g e og raphy th an
would perm it a constituent to commute by car f r o m the
periphery of the district to the center of it in one ho u r
of time;

and that the Intermediate district sh o ul d include

no less than one h u n d r e d th o us an d students of s ch o ol age
in residence, ex c e p t i n g w h e n this might violate the
com muting time criterion.

21

46
In January,

1967, the M i c h i g a n A s s o c i a t i o n of

Intermediate S u p e r i n te n de n ts ,

at the re quest of the

S uperintendent of Public In struction, p u b l i s h e d a report
for the c o n s i d e r a t i o n of Dr. J. Alan Thomas, D i r e c t o r of
the Study of F in a ncial Needs of E d u c a t i o n in Michigan.
The purp ose of the report was to p r esent the consensus
opinion of the s up e ri n te n de n ts of in t ermediate
districts

of

school

c o n c e r n i n g the p r o p e r p r esent and future roles

of the In t e r m e d i a t e school di strict

so that such roles

might be w e i g h e d in d e v e l o p i n g ap p r o p r i a t e m e thods
bases for t he i r finan ci a l support.

and

22

The a f o r e m e n t i o n e d p u b l i s h e d report develops

a

case for a " t h r ee - ec h el o n system of school or g a n i z a t i o n
in Michigan."
State,

It identifies the echelons

in t er m ed i at e ,

as b e i n g the

and local levels, respectively.

prese nt i ng the case, the report de scribes the
public purpos e s
with the

In

"changing

of elemen ta r y and secondary education"

c o n c l u s i o n that ne i t h e r the state ed u ca t io n al

authority nor the

local school di s trict can any long er be

expected to m anage and pr o vi de for all the needs of
children, youth,

and adults

and secondary education.

in M i c h i g a n for e le m en t ar y

It emphas iz e s a co n cl u si o n that

"a basic q u e s t i o n is the d iv i s i o n of labor or func tions
to be p e r f o r m e d by each of the echelons and by each of
the elements m a k i n g up the echelons."

23

47
The report indicates

fourteen o p e r a ti o na l tasks to

be pe r fo r m e d in the State as a whole in r e spect to educa-.
tion.

It then suggests a guide for a s s i g n i n g these

tasks to the so -called

"echelons."

It suggests that some

authority sh ou ld "allocate each f un c t i o n to that ec h el o n
of the s y s t e m closest to the student,

where it may be

carried out with c o m p l e t e n e s s , e q u i t y , e f f i c i e n c y , and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ."
that

In this respect, the report states

"In t es t in g for fit

(to echelon),
ph
eche lon should be tried first."
The report proceeds to Identify,

the closest

as a r es u lt of

applying the guide and subsequent criteria,

the types of

newer services that inter m ed i at e school d i st ricts

can

provide best if r e qu e s t e d by local e d u c a t i o n a l districts.
Finally,

the report,

in a d di t io n to d e s c r i b i n g

certain actions be l ie v ed a ppropriate for the State Board
of E d u c a t i o n and others to take, r ec o mm e n d s
enactments to be ma de by the L e g i s l at u re
finance, o rg a ni z at i on ,

spe cific

in re s pe c t to

cooperative arrang e me n ts ,

and

board elections in the i ntermediate school district.
These r e c o mm e nd a ti o ns

are quoted below:

F i n a n c e — The do l la r ce iling should be re m ov e d
from the a p p r o p r i a t i o n to I nt e r m e d i a t e districts.
Not only does it act to limit o p e r a t i o n a l funds
but also to introduce u n ce r ta i nt y in p r o g r a m
planning.
A c eiling makes it i m po s si b le for an
intermediate distri ct to d e t e r m i n e Its. share of
r e d u c t i o n from entitlement u ntil late In the
ye ar of operation.

48
O r g a n i z a t i o n — Laws should be e na cted which e n ­
courage c om b in a ti o n of e x is t in g i nt ermediate
d istricts w i th relativ e ly small en rollment into
larg er units.
An enrollment far be y on d the
pre sent 5,000 pupil en r ol lm e nt is essential for
o p e r a t i o n of a complete program.
In sparsely
s et t le d areas of the state where such an e n r o l l ­
ment w o u l d n e ce s si t at e districts of unwieldy
size, it is p r o p o s e d that the district be d e ­
signed so as to require no more than one hour's
d ri v i n g time b e t w e e n central office and farthest
constituent office.
P r i o r to fo r ma t io n of the larger in termediate
di stricts here r ecommended, a r rangements for
t r a n s f e r of local districts from one i n t e r ­
m ed i a t e district to anot her should be f ac i li ­
tated.
N ow such transfers must be approved by
both of the i nv o lv e d i n t e r m ed i at e boards.
This
o ption should be retained.
It should, however,
be s up p l e m e n t e d by an added option wher eby t r a n s ­
fer could be e ff e ct e d upon ap p roval of the board
of the r e c e i v i n g interm ed i at e d is t ri c t and a
succe ss f ul vote in the local district.
Coopera t iv e A r r a n g e m e n t s — Amendments to law
should p rovide for the co o pe r at i on of in t er ­
m ed i a t e di s tricts on a long-range basis in the
p r o v i s i o n of ce rtain shared services.
Examples
might be d a ta p rocessing, c o n s e r v a t i o n e du c ation
center, o p e r a t i o n of a s o p h i s t i c a t e d speech and
h e a r i n g center.
Bo ard E l e c t i o n — An o ption in present law permits
p o p u l a r el e c t i o n of in t ermediate b o a r d members
w h e n a pp r o v e d by referendum.
This option sho uld
be l ib e r a l i z e d by an amendment to the law which
w o u l d ma n d a t e r e f e r e n d u m on the p o p u l a r e l ec t io n
q u e s t i o n w h e n boards of a co nstituent district
or c o m b i n a t i o n o f districts h a v i n g a m aj o ri t y of
pupil en r ol l me n t w i t h i n the interm e di a te district
p e t i t i o n it, or w h e n the m a j o r i t y of boards,
2Cregardless of enrollment, p e t i t i o n such a vote. 5
M e e t i n g at Sault Ste. Marie, M ic h ig a n, in June,
1968, the M i c h i g a n A s s o c i a t i o n of School Admin is t ra t or s
received a report from its R e o r g a n i z a t i o n Study C o m ­
mittee.

This C om m it t ee ha d developed, through a

49
q ue s t i o n n a i r e s u b m i t t e d to all s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s of i n t e r ­
mediate school d i s t ri c ts
constituent districts,
zation.

and to all s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

a set of g u i d e li n es

It had developed,

also,

for r e o r g a n i ­

fr o m an a p p l i c a t i o n of

these g u i d e l i n e s , a set of three a l t e r n a t i v e maps
boundaries

of

of thirty i n t e r m e d i a t e

b ra cing all local scho ol districts

show ing

school di s tr i ct s e m ­
in the State.

The M i c h i g a n A s s o c i a t i o n of School A dm i n i s t r a t o r s
received the report of its R e o r g a n i z a t i o n C om mi t t e e but
it did not adopt the report.

Rather,

it agreed to vie w

the report

as an "in-house d o c u m e n t , " not to be re l ea s ed

for public

information p u r p o s e s .

26

On S e p t e m b e r 23,

1968, the M i c h i g a n A s s o c i a t i o n

of School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s

a c ce p t e d a rep ort

Thomas Study R ev i ew Committee.
overall analysis

This report

from Its
i nc luded an

of the M i c h i g a n S c ho o l F in a nc e

directed by J. A l a n Thomas.

In its analysis,

Study,

the C o m ­

mitt ee re c og n i z e d that the i n t e r m e d i a t e school distri c ts
were in need of e v a l u a t i o n and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n and that
the present n u m b e r of these d is t ricts

s h ould be r e duced

to a more ef f ic i en t n um b er w h i c h could be s t af f ed
properly.
The Co mmittee,

i n Its r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s r e l a t e d to

its anal ysis of the s o -c a l l e d Thom as
following conclusions
districts:

pe rtinent

Study,

d re w the

to In t e r m e d i a t e

school

50
1.

B e ca u se se v eral local and I ntermediate

districts ha ve h ig h ly
systems

already,

school

sophisticated data processing

the State should be enc ouraged,

not only

to assume leade r sh i p in the locating and p l a n n i n g of d a t a
p ro c es s i n g c e n t e r s , but it should in some m a n n e r insure
the co m patibility of eq u ipment w h i c h w o u l d g u ar a nt e e a
st ate-wide data sy s te m ne t wo rk to avoid d u p l i c a t i o n of
effort and to m a xi m iz e efficiency.
2.

The in t er m ed i at e school district s hould not

be authorized, u n de r any circumstance,

to b u i l d b ui l dings

or to equip and o p erate v o ca t i o n a l e du c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s .
The role of the in t er m ed i at e district s hould be no more
27
than to act as a c o n t r a c ti n g a g e n t .
O n N o v e m b e r 12, 1968,

in a m e m o r a n d u m to the members

of the State Board of Education, Dr.
S uperin t en d en t of Public Instruction,

Ira Polley, State
stated the following:

1.
A l th o u g h the e n a b l i n g statutes for i n t e r ­
m ed i at e school districts apply unifor m ly to all
such districts , the functions and roles assumed
by these d is t ricts vary w id e ly t hr o ug h ou t the
State.
Not only is this variance r e l a t e d to
g eo g r a p h i c a l location, size of p o p u l a t i o n em­
braced, and the number of constituent districts
in cluded In each, it seems to be r el a t e d also to
at titudes p r e v a i l i n g in the constituent school
district and the fi n an c ia l resources available
for their operation.
2.
There is a great need for r e d i s t r i c t i n g the
interme d ia t e scho ol district In terms of g e o ­
g ra p h i c a l areas embraced by each.
The present
n umber should be drastic al l y r e d u c e d for e f f i ­
ciency and f i na ncial resource availability.
Contrary to e ar l i e r In f ormation, no agreeme nts

51
have been reached by any re s po n si b le group co n ­
cerning the proper n u m b e r or a r rangements of
reorgan i ze d i n termediate school districts.
3.
There seems to be a need for a state p l an
for intermediate school dist rict develo p me n t in
Michigan.
This plan, p re f er a b l y d e ve l o p e d by
the State Department of Educa tion, should include
such elements as (a) p r o p o s e d bo un d a r i e s of i n t e r ­
mediate school districts; (b) p r o p o s e d revis io n
and r ec o d i f i c a t i o n of all e n a b l i n g statutes p e r ­
taining to intermediate school dis tricts; (c) p r o ­
posed m e thods and sources of f i na n ci a l support of
intermediate school districts; and (d) pr o po s ed
programs and functions to be carried out by i n t e r ­
mediate school districts.
This pl an shou ld be
d eveloped before conside ra t io n is given to such
significant proposals as those to pr ovide the
intermediate district ad di t io n al tax le vying
powers for all school purposes w i t h i n its
b o u n d a r i e s .2o
Presently, the in termediate school district,
other duties,
1.

among

it req uired to p e r f o r m the f o ll o wi n g tasks:

Enfor cement of the finance accou n ti n g code,
the state t r a n s p or t at i on code, the child
a ccounting code, the school lunch code, and
the tea cher c e r t i f i c a t i o n code.

2.

Un d er the d i r e c t i o n of the State Superintendent,
conduct audits and make such other reports as
m ight be r e q u i r e d by h i m co n ce r n i n g local c o n ­
stituent school district operation.

3.

Preside over school di strict boundary a l t e r ­
ations, annexations,

consolidations,

and area

studies.
4.

A dm i ni s t e r the provisi o ns

of Act

190 p e r ­

taining to sp ecial e d u c a t i o n if such

52
provisions have been a d op t ed by the
electorate.
5.

The allocat i on of d el i nq u en t taxes to local
school districts.

6.

The e n forcement
attendance

7.

of compuls o ry school

laws.

Par ticipants in actions of the ta x a l lo c a t i o n
board as p r o v i d e d by the Ta x L i m i t a t i o n Act.

8.

E x pe d it e the p r o v is i on s of Act 289 of 1964
which pertains

to ar ea-wide

district reorgan ization.
O n July

31,

studies for school

29

1968, the State B o ar d of E du c at i on

adopted unanim o us l y the fo l lo w i n g resolution:
That the State Boa rd of E d u c a t i o n ask the staff
to draft legisl a ti o n to be i n tr od u ce d at the next
session to reduce the number of i n t e r m ed i at e di s ­
tricts from its present number to from 30 to 40;
to insure that they are elected on a d e mo c ra t ic
basis and to give t he m the necessary a u t h o r i z a ­
tion to centra li z ed purchasing, c en t ra l iz e d bus
mai n te n an c e and routing; that they h av e centra li z ed
p sy c h o l o g i c a l testing, including experts in p s y ­
chological t es t i n g and counseling; that they be
resp onsible for the p ro g ra m s for both the o u t ­
standing students and those in sp e ci a l ed u cation
and that they have staff me mbers who ca n help
local districts in n e g o t i a t i o n pr o bl e m s and seeing
that the contracts are carried o u t .30
On Nov ember 13, 1968, fo l lo w in g a D e p a r t me n t of
E du c ation staff rep ort s u m m a ri z in g co nclusions and
recomme ndations

re ached by several a u t h o r i t a t i v e groups

concerning the future role of the i n te r me d ia t e school

53
district, the Board ad opted unanimo u sl y

the f o ll o wi n g

resolution:
That the staff consult with a p propriate experts
and p r o c e e d to draft p r op o s e d l e g i s l a t i o n on
the i n t e r me d ia t e school district, for the Board's
c o n s i d e r a t i o n at the next meeting , in accordance
with the m o t i o n adopted July 3 1 9 19 68.31
Th e p r o p o s e d l e gi s l at io n for the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of
intermediate school districts and for a d d i n g ad d it i on a l
powers and r e sp o ns i b i l i t i e s

to these districts

includes

the following:
1.

S ta t e- w id e R e d i s t r i c t i n g Plan
a.

D e v e l o p m e n t . The State Committee on the
R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of School Districts shall
be continued in existence, for the p u r ­
pose of this p r o p o s e d Act, to develop a
p l a n for the r e d i s t r i c t i n g of i n t e r ­
m e d i a t e school districts.

b.

D e ad lines for Complet i on and A d o p t i o n .
The State C o mm i tt e e on R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of
S chool Dist ricts shall pr e sent the c o m ­
p l e t e d plan, no later th an July 1, 1970,
to the State B o a r d of Education.
The
State Board of E d u c a t i o n shall adopt this
plan, or its amended version, and serve
notices on the e x i s t i n g i ntermediate
sch ool districts no later than March 1,
1 9 7 1 3 of such adoption.
Such notices
shall have the effect of law.

c.

H e a r i n g s . Not only shall the State C o m ­
m it t e e on the R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of School
D i st ricts be r e q u i r e d to conduct p ublic
he arings during the develop m en t process
for a plan, the State Boa rd of E d u c a t i o n
shall be r eq u ir e d to hold at least one
state-wide public h e a r i n g before fi nally
a d o p t i n g the p l a n not later than sixty
days after July 1, 1971*

54

2.

d.

Nu m b e r of D i s t r i c t s . Th e n u m b e r of i n t e r ­
medi ate s ch o ol districts to be i n c l u d e d in
the plan shall not be more than 35 nor less
tha n 20.

e.

Exempt ions from R e d i s t r i c t i n g . The p l a n
shall not provide for any change in the
boundaries of an e x i s t i n g interm e di a te
sc ho ol distri ct w h ic h shall have included,
on the 4th Friday count in September, 1 9 6 9 *
an aggregate constituent school m e m b e r s h i p
of 100,000 or more.
(Note:
A c co r d i n g to
p re sent project i on s , such ex e mp t e d distr i ct s
wou l d include Genesee, Kent, Macomb, O a k ­
land, and W a y n e Interm ed i at e School D i s ­
tricts . There seems to be no significant
re a s o n for cha nging the b ou n da r ie s of these
districts .)

f.

O th e r Conditions in R e d i s t r i c t i n g . No
local school district shall be e xc l u d e d
from b e c o m i n g a part of an i n te r me d ia t e
school distrct.
The r e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r ­
mediate school districts, as set forth
in the a dopted plan, shall not divide
const ituent school d i st ricts as these may
exist at the date of adoption.
Also,
w hile the r ed i s t r i c t e d in t er m ed i at e school
districts may include up to 100,000 in
their a g gr egate school membe rs h ip s , these
may not include a g e o g r a p h i c a l area so
large as to re q ui r e more than one and
o ne -half hours of d r i v i n g time fr om any
point in these to the logical location
of th eir central admin is t ra t iv e offices.

O t h e r Changes in the I n t e r m e di a te School D i s ­
t rict Laws
a.

E l e c t i o n of B o a r d s . P r o p o s e d amendments
• shall p r ov i de for the p o p u l a r el e c t i o n in
all i nt e rm e di a te s chool d istricts, r e ­
d i s t r i c t e d and ex e mp t ed from r e di s tricting,
of a seven me m be r b o a r d of e d u c a t i o n wi th
s ta g gered terms arranged so that two new
me mbers will be e l e c t e d every two years,
wi th the e x c e p t i o n of one e l e c t i o n at
w hi c h time only one m e mb e r shall be
elected.
The elections shall be h el d in
the co ns tituent school districts at such

55
times that the ne ed for s pecial e le c ti o ns
with the r e s u l t i n g costs are avoided.
b.

c.

Int erim B o a r d . Until such time, aft er
July 1, 1971, that board members may be
elected on a po p u l a r basis, the board
members incumbent in the interm e di a te
school districts on June 30, 1971, shall
continue to serve in these offices as
members of an i n te r im board.
The pl ace of
r es i dency of incumbent b o a r d members shall
determine the interim board on w hich they
shall be d e s i g n a t e d to serve.
(Note:
This m ethod of d e s i g n a t i n g i n te r i m b oards
may cause a variation, f r o m r e o r g a n i z e d
di stricts to r e o r g a n i z e d distr icts, in
the n u mb e r s e rv i ng on i n t e r i m b o a r d s .)
Newly P r ov i de d P o w e r s . With the c o n c u r ­
rence and agreement of one of more c o n ­
stitue nt school dis tricts, the in t er m ed i at e
school district shall be p r o v i d e d the
authority, on a p e rm i s s i v e basis, to assist
the constituent school di strict or d i s ­
tricts in (1) n e g o t i a t i n g and i m pl e m e n t i n g
labor contracts; (2) p r o v i d i n g p u r c h a s i n g
services; (3) p r o v i d i n g bus m a i n t e n a n c e and
bus r ou t in g services; (4) p r o v i d i n g p s y ­
chological te s t i n g and c o u n s el i ng services;
(5) p r o v i d i n g co mputer serv ices and ma chine
a cc o un t in g services; and (6) p r o v i d i n g
c ur r ic u lu m con sultative services and other
in-service t r ai n i n g pr ograms for teachers.
(Note:
The interme d ia t e school d i st ricts
are p re s en t ly author iz e d to operate p r o ­
grams d e s i g n a t e d as "coo perative e d u c a t io n al
progra ms" on b e h a l f of consti t ue n t school
d i s t r i c t s . These could include p r ograms
for the gifted as well as the handicapped.
As a rule, the interm e di a te school di stricts
• confine t he i r activities in the o p e r a t i o n
of e du c a t i o n a l programs to those in v ol v in g
contracting, with the use of sp ecial p r o p e r t y
tax revenues, w it h certain consti tu e nt d i s ­
tricts for the p r o v i s i o n of such services
for other constituent school districts.
E ve n w it h the pr esent en a bl i ng au t hority to
employ teachers and to operate classes on
b ehalf of constituent school distri c ts , the
int ermediate school districts s e e m re l uc t an t

56
to do this b ec a us e the State Sch ool Aid
Act pr o v i d e s no r ei m bu r se m en t for the
o pe r a t i o n of classes by in t er m ed i at e school
distr ic t s e x c e p t in g for th o se m e nt a ll y
h a n d i c a p p e d c h il d re n wh o are trainable but
not e du c a b l e . ) 3 2

Summary of Recent Studies and Literature
B e a r i n g U p o n the E m e r g i n g Functions
of the I n termediate Uni t
Among the ge n er a ll y a c ce p t e d sta ndards for i n t e r ­
mediate unit o pe r a t i o n is the statement
orientation

(responsibility)

district should be to the

that

"the basic

of the in t er m ed i at e school

local di s tricts

in the I n t e r ­

'S -3

mediate district a r e a . ,,JJ

Ac c ep t a n c e of this criterion

is tantam o un t to a cc e pt a nc e of the id ea that the i n t e r ­
mediate u n i t ’s p ri mary
local sch ool districts.
terms,

emphasis

shou ld be service to

St at ed in slightly different

some w ri t er s have n o t e d that the interm ed i at e

unit's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y sh ould be g en e rally

limited to

those functions d e s i r e d by local school districts.
in termediate

The

agency is seen as a creature of local school

d i s t r i c t s .^
A N a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n on the Interme d ia t e A d m i n i s ­
trative Unit was

c r eated in 1952 by the D i v i s i o n of

County and Rural S u pe r in t e n d e n t s

of the D e pa r tm e nt of

Rural Educat i on , N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n Associ a ti o n,

as a

result of the new interest in the interm ed i at e unit.
1955 one of t he i r re c om m e n d a t i o n s

concerning desirable

legal fr a me w or k i n cl u d e d this statement:

In

The St ructure of the I ntermediate Unit Shou ld
Be F l e x i b l e . The legal f ra m ework should pe rm it
c ooperation a m on g i nt e rm e di at e units and the
joint o p er ation of serv ice pr ograms wh en d e s i r ­
able, and should al l ow adjustment to meet c h a n g ­
ing functions, r e s p o n s ib il i ti e s, and c i r c u m ­
stances .35
A l v i n E. Rhodes stated that p r o g r a m f le x ib i li t y is
essential and that all of the service programs u n d e r t a k e n
by the i n te r me d ia t e unit
of the ar e a served,

should be a d apted to the needs

and should also include these three

functions:
1.

Ar t i c u l a t i v e F u n c t i o n s . The m i n i s t e r i a l or
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r oc esses assig ne d by state
a ut h ority to m a i n t a i n a r ti c u l a t i o n among the
various segments of the state s ystem of p ublic
e ducation, e.g., attendance accounting,
f in a nc i al acco unting, legal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
and a pp l ications, and school e l ec t i o n routines.

2.

Co o r d i n a t i v e F u n c t i o n s . Activi ti e s carried on
among school districts for the purpose of i m ­
p r o v i n g e d u c a t i o n or h e l p i n g districts solve
comm on problems.
Such services ge n er a ll y r e ­
late to d i s t r i c t - w i d e activities and p r o b l e m s ,
e.g., c u rr i cu l um planning, workshops, and
s p e c i a l study committees.

3.

S u p p l e m e n t a r y Serv ice F u n c t i o n s . Direct e d u c a ­
t i o n a l services at pupil or c l as s ro o m level to
supplement the local I ns t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m or
assist teachers w it h c l as s ro o m work, e.g.,
s u p e r v i s i o n of Instructj.<bn, p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e r ­
vic es, library serv ices, and programs for
e x c e p t i o n a l c h i l d r e n . 36
The C o m m i s s i o n on the Am e rican S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y of

the A me r ic a n A s s o c i a t i o n of Sch ool A d m i n i s t r a t o r s has
stated that

local di s tr i ct s will need the services

of an

interme diate unit to supplement t h e i r own efforts in providing a c o mprehensive e d u c a ti o na l program.

37

58
Pound studied the status
tenden cy in Indiana.
mediate unit was

of the county s u p e r i n ­

He concluded that

if the i n t e r ­

o r g a n i ze d it wo u ld be able to streng th e n

the a d mi n is t ra t iv e units it was th en serving.
these units

could p ro v id e services

He be l i e v e d

and e d u c a t i o n a l o f f e r ­

ings w hich local districts were un a b l e to pr o vi d e efficiencly and economically.

He r e c o m m e n d e d the ad d it i on of

specific functions in the area of e d u c a t i o n a l leadership,
special services to local school a d mi n i s t r a t i v e units,
appellate f u n c t i o n s , and di re ctory functions

to the i n t e r ­

'so

mediate unit.
The ferment of interest in the i n termediate unit
reflec ted in the studies r ev i e w e d was

likewise obse rved

in studies of the i n t e r m e di a te unit in these s t a t e s :
•50
240
4l
California,
Pennsylvania,
Wisconsin,
and In the
Great Plains School D is t ri c t O r g a n i z a t i o n Proj ect wh i ch
includes the states of N eb r as k a,
Missouri.

42

Iowa, South Dakota, and

Nor was e v id e nc e of interest in studying

the county s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y

lacking in Michigan.

A study

conducted in 1955 by E d w a r d J. E rnatt sought to de t er m in e
the nature and extent
school districts
school office.

of i n s t r u c t i o n a l ser vices p r ov i de d

in the state of M i c h i g a n by the county
The nu m be r of availa b le r es e ar c h p e r ­

sonnel, number of teachers, pupils served,
these services,

the cost of

the av a i l a b i l i t y of in s t r u c t i o n a l e q u i p ­

ment, and m at e rials

f u rn i sh e d fr o m the county office

59
were used as m e as u re s of service.
page qu e stionnaire

Erna tt m a i l e d a 25

co vering 40 di fferent

services to all

83 county s u pe r in tendents, and 63 i ns t ru m en t s were r e ­
turned.
1.

Some

conclusions re a c h e d we r e as follows:

County s u p e r i nt e nd e nt s devote

10 to 15# of

their time in s u p e r v i s i o n of e l e m e n t a r y
education.
2.

Services

such as c u r r i c u l a r r e s e a r c h and

pilot projects

did not r e ceive much a t t e nt i on

from the county s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
3.

Ge nerally

services o f f e r e d by the

county

office varied in direct p r o p o r t i o n to the
wealth of the c o u n t y .
4.

Generally

few i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e rv i ce s were

43
bei n g p r ov i d e d by the county o f f i c e s .
Schaibly did a d e sc r ip ti v e study in 1956 of the
present status of t h e in t e r m e d i a t e of fi ce in Michigan.
He i n ve s ti g at e d the need for the i nt e r m e d i a t e

office

in

terms of service which s hould be p r o v i d e d by the office.
Some conclusions r e ac h ed by Colon S c h a i b l y are as follows:
1.

Inequalities of e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s

exist

among school d i st r ic t s w h i c h m i g h t be r e du c ed
through the interm ed i at e unit.
2.

The direct

control of the in t er m ed i at e a d m i n i s ­

trative unit sh o ul d be ve sted in a bo a rd of e d u ­
cation r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the ar ea it s e r v e s .

60
3.

The D ep a rt m e n t of Public

I ns t ru c ti o n should be

the logical agency in the state to p r ov i d e the
leadership in d e v e l o p i n g f unctional i n te r me d ia t e
units , b ecause of the legal powers

and duties

giv e n to the S u p e r in t en d en t of Public Instruction.
4.

U n d e r the leade rs h ip of the i nt e r m e d i a t e unit
local districts
grams

should d e velop c ooperative p r o ­

for p r o v i d i n g some needed services which

local districts

can not afford to p r ovide for

themselves.
About this

same time H a r l a n B e en and Th o m a s James

work ing with a committee i n te r es t ed In the future of the
county school di s trict

at t empted to de t ermine w h e t h e r or

not there s ho u ld be an interm e di a te unit structure in
M ic higan and,

if so, what

sh ou ld be its nature.

A re­

port was p r e p a r e d that r ev i ew e d the past, d e s c r i b e d the
present,

and set forth t e n t a t i v e conclusions

mendations.
1.

and r e c o m ­

Some of the relevant findings are as follows:

The develo pm e nt

of an i n te r me d ia t e structure

capable of a d a p t a t i o n to meet i n c r e a s e d demands
of local di s tricts is an e ss e nt i al to the
ret e n t i o n of local control.
2.

Th e interme d ia t e district must not stand as a
v es t ed interest

in the way

of d ev e lo p me n t of

b e t t e r ways of d o in g things,
greater a u t o n o m y .

or In the path of

61

3.

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and control should be as close
to the pe op le as possible.

As rapidly as local

di stricts be c om e able to take re s po n si b il i ti e s,
they should be en c ou r ag e d to assume them.
4.

The i nt e rm e di a te office will de velop to its
g re atest p o t e n t i a l only w h e n there is g e ne r al
r e c o g n i t i o n of need

for services wh i ch

are

not now b e in g r e n d e r e d by local districts.
Ca rroll Munshaw,

in his

45

study of the county office

in Wayne C o u n t y , M i ch igan, makes

the f ol l o w i n g statement

regarding the need for agreement b e t w e e n the county bo a rd
of e d uc a ti o n and the county s up e ri n te n de n t of schools,
stating as f o l l o w s :
Al though many of the duties and re s po n si b i l i t i e s
of the county school office are p r e s c r i b e d by law,
co nsiderable latitude is p e r m i t t e d in discret i on a ry
functions, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the scope and extent
of services which may be made avail ab l e to local
districts.
Also, the m a n n e r in which the requi re d
functions are carried out is subject to wide v a r i a ­
tion.
Prescribed duties, many of t h e m of the r o u ­
tine re p o r t a o r i a l type, can be p er f o r m e d in a p e r ­
func tory and arbitrary m a n n e r with the emphasis on
the author i ty which is de l egated to the county
office as an arm of the Department of Pub lic In ­
struction.
On the other hand, the emphasis can be
p re d i c t e d upon a p h i l o s o p h y of service wi t h the
authority aspect kept in the b a c k g r o u n d except in
u nu s u a l instances.
The pol icies which d e te rmine
both the scope of the service p r o g r a m to the local
dist rict and the m a n n e r in w hi c h the p r e s c r i b e d
duties are pe r fo r me d de p en d largely upon the i n­
sight of the members of the county bo a rd of e d u c a ­
tion.
If the county b oa r d me m b e r believ e d, for
example, that the primary conc ern of the county
school office should be the rural n o n - s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
schools - and that w h a t e v e r funds can be ma de
available by the county should be u s e d to augment

62
the e d u c a t io n al p r ograms in these schools, the
services to the larger schools in the county are
likely to be severely lim ited or non-existent.
If, on the o ther hand, county b o a r d members view
the county school office as a service agency for
all schools in the county, re ga r dl e ss of size,
a different p r o g r a m em phasis should r e s u l t . 46
E lwood Larsen,
of the i n t e r m e di a te

in his

study of the e me r g i n g role

school district in M ic h ig a n,

drew the

following conclu s io n s r e g a r d i n g functions to be p e r f o rm e d
by the i n t e r m ed i at e unit:
1.

The i n t e r m e d i a t e

school di strict

instead of b e i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y

offices

o ri ented should c o n­

centrate on p r o v i d i n g specific servic es w h i c h i ndividual
school di stricts

are unable

vices included:

(1) in -service training,

(3) i n s t r u c ti o n al ma t er i a l s

to offer.

and

R e c o m m e n d e d s e r­
(2)

(4) effective

counseling,
communica­

tion with local districts.
2.

At the time of his study, L a r s e n found that

intermediate scho ol districts most frequen t ly p e r f or m ed
the f o l l o w i n g duties:
ren,

(a) Service for e x c e p t i on a l c h i l d ­

(b) In-ser vi c e p ro g rams,

and (d) Special consultants.

(c) C o m m u n i c a t i o n services,

47

The M i c h i g a n A s s o c i a t i o n of In t er m ed i at e School
Admini strators has Id e nt i f i e d the types of n e w e r s e r ­
vices that the in t e r m e d i a t e school d i strict can pr ovide
best if r e q u e s t e d by local e d u c a ti o na l d i s t r i c t s .
services are listed as f o l l o w s :

Th ese

63
1.

Programs of s p ecial education.

2.

Staff and c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t serv ices by
h ighly

3.

competent

consultants.

Ed u c a t i o n a l diagnostic
centers.

and r e m e d i a t i o n

(Speech p at h ology and corr ection,

a u di o lo g y and language develop m en t ,

reading,

p s y c h o m e t r i c s , e d u c a t i o n a l guidance,

social

w o r k and vo c a t i o n a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n ) .
4.

E d u c a t i o n a l r e se a r c h o pe r at i on s and systematic
studies.

5.

T e s t i n g services,

i nc l uding c e n t r a l iz e d lending

libr ary of tests,

s co r in g and c o mp uting s e r ­

vices,
6.

r ep o rting and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n services.

C o o p e r a t i v e p u r c h a s i n g and qu ality
p ro g ra m s

con trol

for such items as foods, p a p e r stock,

s t a n d a r d items of machinery,

fuel,

and bus

fleets.
7.

S ta f f d evelopment progr a ms
dri v er s ,

office staffs,

for cooks, bus

and m a i n t en a nc e

personnel.
8.

I n s t r u c t i o n a l m at e ri a ls

9.

D at a p r o c e s s i n g systems.

center.

10.

Public i n f o r m a t i o n serv ice directed.

11.

Law enforc em e nt

functions p er f o r m e d on be h al f

of the State Ed u ca t i o n Department.
12.

Programs of v oc a ti o na l education.

48

64
Dr.

Ira Polley, State Su p er i n t e n d e n t

of Public

Ins truction In Michi ga n , has stated the f ol l ow i ng r e ­
g ar d in g functions to be p er fo r m e d by the i nt e rm e di a te
school district:
T he s tate-wide p r e d o m i n a t i n g o pi n i o n of local
school a dm i ni s tr a to r s and that of the a d m i n i s ­
trators of intermediate school d is t ri c ts seems
to be that the general roles a s cribed to the
intermediate school distri cts should be confined
to advisory, co nsultative, and e d uc a ti o na l p r o ­
g r a m and ad m in i st r at i ve services in addition to
most, if not all, of the r eg u la t or y functions
p re s en t ly assigned to them.
In o t h e r words, the
intermediate school district s hould provide
those ancillary services necessary to improve
the state system of e d u c a t i o n but l ea v i n g the
direct r es p o n s i b i l i t y for a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s u p e r ­
vision, and i n st r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m o p e r a t i o n t o
the local constituent s chool d i s t r i c t s . 49
M od e r n intermediate unit e mp hasis is on the
vice function.

Th e effect i ve i nt e rm e di a te

office

ser­
is,

therefore, no longer seen as only a clerical, re g u l a t o r y ,
or supervisory agency,

although such r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

are still i n cluded in the o v e r a l l
In de f i n i n g specific
area conditions
thus,

function.

i nt e r m e d i a t e

f u n c t i o n s , local

and needs must be carefully

considered;

sensitivity to serv ice and p r o g r a m r e q u i r e m e n t s

of

the co nstituency must be built into the interm ed i at e
structure,

as well as a degree of f le x ib i li t y to allow

adaptation to the ma ny

changing needs.

Cla s s i f i c a t i o n of the numerous pr og r am s and s e r ­
vices is a difficult

task.

Knezevi c h,

in his d i s c u s s i o n

of "the ev o lv i ng i n termediate unit of school

65
administrationused

an outline of the various

with t w e n t y - f o u r m a i n categories.

50

services

A n o t h e r classi-

ficatory s y stem sees the interm ed i at e service p r o g r a m in
terms of b r o a d f u n c t i o n a l classif i ca t io n s
(1) a r t i c u l a t i v e , (2) c o o r d i n a t i v e * and
al
ary.

in c lu d i n g

(3) s u p p l e m e n t ­

Still a n o t h e r po s s i b l e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was noted

in the f o l l o wi n g three m a j o r divisions
agency:

(1) c u r r ic u la r services,

and (3) bu s in e ss

services.

of one service

(2) s pecial services,

52

A n o t h e r i nt e r m e d i a t e uni t u t ilizes the services
five assistant s u p e r i n te n de n ts ,

eac h of w h o m is as s igned

to a de finite, yet broad, a r ea of r e sp o nsibility.
areas pr o v i d e hints

of

T he s e

as to a p os s i b l e scheme for c l a s s i f i ­

cation of i n t e rm e di a te programs
(1) a d m i n i s t r a t i v e services,

and services. • Th ey are

(2) s up p or t i n g services,

(3) re s ea r ch and d e ve l op m en t services,

(^4) element a ry

curr ic ulum and i n s t r u c t i o n services, and
curriculum and in s t r u c t i o n services.
Probably the most

53

co m prehensive

of an i n t e r me d ia t e unit is that

(5) secondary

list of funct ions

compiled by the Iowa

Center for R es e a r c h in School Admini s tr a ti o n.

This

c lassif i ca t io n was b a s e d on five broad c a t e g o r i e s :
(1) a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and staff p e r s o n n e l services

and p r o ­

grams,

(3) s t u ­

(2) i n s t r u c t i o n a l services and programs,

dent p e r s o n n e l services

and pr ograms,

tion services and programs,

and

(4) sp ecial e d u c a ­

(5) r es earch and

development

services

and programs.

Of particular

interest are those services or pr o grams

listed u n d e r

each broad category which have

im p l i c a t i o n for the area

of curricular or i ns t r u c t i o n a l

improvement.

T h o s e s e r­

vices or programs are as f o l l o w s :
A.

A dm i n i s t r a t i v e and S t af f P e r s o n n e l Servic es
and Programs
1.

Co n ve y i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g state e d u c a ­
tional agency directives, policies, and
recommendations.

2.

A d vi s in g the state e d u c a t i o n a l agency con­
cerning local problems needs, and desires.

3.

Re l at i ng with e ducational, s e m i - e d u c a t i o n a l
and other organiz a ti o ns (liaison services
for local districts).

4.

P r ov i di n g liaison b e t w e e n sch ool distr ic t s
and governm e nt a l and n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l
agencies.

5.

W o rk i ng with local district a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
and teacher s p ec i al in terest councils .

6.

Prepa r in g and d i s s e m i n a t i n g p ub l i c a t i o n s
(periodic b ul l et i n s , n e w s l e t t e r s , special
r e p o r t s , i n f o r m a t i o n s u m m a r i e s , news
releases, news c li p pi n g files, and annual
r e p o r t s ).

7.

O p e r a ti n g and a d m i n i s t e r i n g a c ooperative
pur c ha s in g p r o g r a m (equipment and supplies)

8..

Pr o vi d in g p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n n e l services,
and n on - pr o fe s si o na l , w h e n applicable.

9.

A s s i s t i n g local d is t ri c ts w it h b u i l d i n g
programs.

10.

Preparing, a d m i n i s t e r i n g , and co o r d i n a t i n g
local i nt e r- d is t ri ct s er v ic e contracts.

11.

Co n sultative and a d vi s o r y services.

67
12.

A d d it i o n a l services
personnel.

13.

A d di t i o n a l r e sp o ns i b i l i t i e s to local d i s ­
trict boar ds of education.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

B.

C.

for n o n - p ro f es s io n al

P r o v i d i n g special consultative service.
P e r f o r m i n g liaison functions.
A s s i s t i n g with s el e ct i on of chief
administrator.
P r o v i d i n g assistance with problems of
p r o f e s s i o n a l ne g o t i a t i o n and collect ive
bargaining.
W o r k i n g wit h local boards in various
c ooperative endeavors.
F o r m i n g r eg i o n a l as sociations of local
scho ol boards.
A s s u m i n g in-service t r a i n i n g r e s p o n s i ­
bi lities ( o r i e n t a t i o n 9 w o r k s h o p s , s e r ­
vices and p r o g r a m s , and short courses).

Stu dent P er s onnel Services

and Programs

1.

D a t a p r o c e s s i n g services.

2.

Guidance and co u ns e l i n g services (consulta­
tive and/or direct services to students).

3.

Sponso r in g , directing,
Day ."

4.

P r e p a r a t i o n of guidan c e manuals and guides.

5.

In-ser vi c e t ra i ni n g for student personnel
staff specialists.

6.

Prepar a ti o n, develo p me n t, administration,
and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of st a n d a r d i z e d tests.

S pe ci a l E d u c a t i o n Services

and p l a n n i n g "Career

and Programs

1.

Indirect or direct p r ograms
for e x c e p t i o n a l children.

and services

2.

Classes, schools, programs,
for e x c e p ti o na l children.

and services

3.

I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d children's programs.

4.

O p e r a t i o n of h os p i t a l schools.

5.

A d di t io n al v i s i t i n g t e a c h e r pr o grams for
the h o m e b o u n d child and f o ll o w - u p a ct i vitie
after ho s pi t al discharge.

6.

Early c h il d ho o d d e v e l o p m e n t

7.

O p e r a t i o n or c o o r d i n a t i o n of pro grams
the g i ft e d child.

8.

C o nsultative services
(direct or indirect).

9.

O u t d o o r e d u c a t i o n p r ograms
children.

10.

centers.
for

for the g if t ed child
for e x c e p t i o n a l

Wo r k- s tu d y pro grams for t he p h y s i c a l l y or
m en tally handic apped.

R es earch and D e v e l o p m e n t Se rvices

and Programs

1.

Basic re s e a r c h functions (evalu a ti o n and
a ssessment pr oj ects, co m p u t e r assis t ed
i ns truction, and studies of needs).

2.

C o o p e r a t i o n and assist an c e
resea rc h projects.

3.

E s t a b l i s h i n g and a dm i ni s t e r i n g , r eg i onal,
state, and n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t i n g
programs.

4.

A d d i t io n al test

5.

D e v e l o p m e n t of local and a r e a t e s t i n g norms

6.

Resea rc h and study d es i gn services.

7.

D i s s e m i n a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g
c ur r ic u l u m r e se a rc h p ro grams and find ings
from var ious s o u r c e s .

8.'

I n f o r m a t i o n a l p ro g r a m s d e a l i n g with i n n o v a ­
tive p r a c t i c e s .

9.

S p ecial c u r r i c u l u m r e s e a r c h at local d i s ­
trict request.

10.

in various

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and ana lysis

Planni n g for the use of funds
and other sources.

from fe deral

69

E.

11.

D e t e r m i n a t i o n of c ommon r e s e a r c h and p l a n n i n g
needs of several school districts.

12.

Provisions for consultants to w o r k wi t h
c onstituent districts on r e se a r c h and
d e v e l o p m e n t a l problems.

13.

Provis ions for federally f i n a n c e d s u p p l e ­
m en t ar y e d uc a ti o n centers.

14.

L ia i s o n w i t h R e g i o n a l E d u c a t i o n Laboratories.

15.

Surveys of area e d u c a t i o n a l needs and c o n ­
cerns .

16.

R e s p o n s i b i l i t y for re v ie w of const ituent
districts' federal project proposals.

17.

O n - g o i n g e v a l u a t i o n of federal programs.

18.

P r o g r a m analyses and ev al uations
dist rict request.

19.

Gen eral c o ns u lt a ti ve and in-ser vi c e
t ra i n i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s with local d i s ­
trict personnel.

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Services

at local

and Programs

1.

General and limited s u p e r v is i on of
instruction.

2.

G e neral curric u lu m i n f o r m a t i o n services.

3.

S pecial consul t at iv e assistance for local
district supervisors.

4.

Sp ecial co n su l ta t iv e assist ance for teachers.

5.

E m p l o y me n t of o ut side subject m a t t e r and
special a re a consultants.

6.

P r o g r a m p l a n n i n g w i t h local a dministrators.

7.

C o o r d i n a t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n a l a ctivities of
o ther agencies wi th o n -g o in g school programs.

8.

Direct in-service p r o g r a m and d e v e l o p m e n t a l
r es p on s i b i l i t i e s w i t h c er t if i ca t ed p r o f e s ­
sional p e r s o n n e l (consultation and c o o r d i n a ­
tion for local, district, regional, and

70
state i ns t ru ct i on a l and curricu l ar
activities.
9.

A d d i t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s for in -service
progr am s th rough faculty m ee t in g s, d e m o n ­
st rations, worksh op s , institutes, p r o f e s ­
sional m e e t i n g s , and i n d i v i d u a l and group
conferences.

10.

Provisions for a u d i o - v i s u a l services i n c l u d ­
ing act ual op e ra t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n a l
m at e ri a l s c e n t e r s .

11.

A d d i t i o n a l fu nc tions of a u d i o - v i s u a l and
i ns t ru c ti o na l materials c e n t e r s .

12.

Servi ces for local school district
libraries.

13*

Re s p o n s i b i l i t i e s for e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n
d e p e n d i n g u p on area arrangements.

14.

C on s ul t at i ve and p r o d u c t i o n re s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
in the use of closed circuit t e l e v i s i o n at
the local district an d /o r b ui l di n g level.

15.

O ut d oo r ed u ca t i o n program.

16.

Adult and special s ec o n d a r y programs.

Robert

54

I s en b e r g is a no t he r authority who has

listed funct ions w h i c h an in t e r m e d i a t e school dis trict
might perform.

In pa r t i c u l a r he has

tion w hi c h an in termediate

i n di c at e d the f u n c ­

school dist rict

or unit might

pe rform in the area of cu r ri c ul a r or i n st r u c t i o n a l
improvement of the local school districts.

He has stated:

Curri cu l um leadership, through a continuous p r o ­
gram of in-service education, increas i ng l y
appears e s se n t i a l as a component of every school
program.
The days w h e n it was r e a s o n a b l e to
expect teachers to keep u p - t o - d a t e in their area
of sp ecial p r e p a r a t i o n on t he i r own time and at
their own e x p e n s ? -are gone.
Change takes place
too r a p i d l y ; there is no evide nc e that the pace

71
w il l slacken.
And e d u c a ti o n is m u ch too impor tant
to leave to chance the p os s i b i l i t y that teachers
w i l l keep thems elves up-to-date.
The k in d of in-service p r o g r a m t h rough w hi c h
curricu l um leadership, e x p e r i me n ta t io n , and what
is frequently called a ct i on r es e a r c h can be
assured, requ ires a re g u l a r and continuous
access to p e r s o n n e l w h o are "up" on the latest
r es e ar c h in the p a r t i c u l a r field of study, who
know about content changes, about m a t e r ia l s
available and approaches that w or k successfully.
S om e times such help can be secured from a n earby
college or u n i v e r s i t y . Sometimes n o t . The time
has come however, w h en schools must take
seriously the need to b u i l d this kind of a s s i s t ­
ance in to the system.
It would be d es i ra b le if
the w h ol e r a ng e of such curric u lu m spe cialists
could be in every school bu i ld i ng . . .
at the
elbow of every teacher.
Unfort un a te l y, it is not
p r e s e n tl y e ve n re a so n a b l e to think that every
school distri c t could employ this kind of c u r r i c u ­
lum staff.
But a staff of c u r r i c u l u m specialists,
ava i lable to w o r k wi th indivi d ua l teachers and
faculty groups on an interme d ia t e unit ar ea basis,
is not at all inconceivable.
There is enough now
g oi n g on to d e m o ns t ra t e the efficiency and e f f e c ­
tive ness of the a p p r o a c h . 55
Issues S u r r o u n d i n g the F uture of
the Interm e di a te Unit
The li t er a tu r e suggests three Issues a f f e c t i n g the
future of the i n t e r me d ia t e unit of school administration.
These three Issues are
and re o rg a n i z a t i o n ;

(1) the Issue of r e s t r u c t u r i n g

(2) the issue of financing;

and

(3)

the issue of the interm e di a te unit's place in an
urbanized so ciety

and its re l a t i o n s h i p to larger local

school d i s t r i c t s .
Many authori t ie s in the field b e li e ve that the
intermediate unit does indeed have a future in A m e r i c a n

72
education.

All wo u ld concur, ho wever, that to be s u c c e s s ­

ful in its important task, the t r a d i t i o n a l county

inter­

mediate agency must be r e v i t a l i z e d and must u ndergo
w idespread r e s t r u c t u r i n g and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n bot h in terms
of roles

and o r ga n i z a t i o n a l structure.

A c c o r d i n g to mo s t

writers, the b r oa d area, or r e g i o n a l approa c h represents
the only solution to the i n te r m e d i a t e a g e n c y ’s structural
problems.

This w o u l d m e a n that

longer be sacred.

county

lines w o u l d no

R e gi o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l service agencies

would thus be formed thr ough combina t io n s of counties
by disreg ar d in g county bo u n d a r i e s
areas into a service

agency.

or

and o r g a n i z i n g large

56

A f u nd a me n ta l c o n s i d e r a t i o n in the d i s c u s s i o n of
the future of any ed u c a t i o n a l agency
financial support of the agency.

is the m e t h o d of

This

co n ce r n is as

important to the i n t e r m e d i a t e unit as it is to the local
school di strict, the state e d u c a t i o n agency,
institutions of h i g h e r education.
unit-, in p articular,

and various

For the intermediate

the i mp o rt a n c e of p r o v i d i n g fi nancial

resources w h i c h are as d e fi n i t e and re l i a b l e as the r e ­
sources of local school d i st ricts and the stage agency is
stressed.^

W he n the m i d d l e e c h e l o n in the total state

system is considered,
and reliable

it is appar en t that the "definite

criterion" is, in practice,

Most writers

o ft e n neglected.

agree that the i n t e r m e d i a t e bo ard

should be granted fiscal in t egrity and independence.

73
Sabin, for example,

r e c o m me n de d that the board be f i s ­

cally independent, have the p o w e r to determ ine the budget
with no r ev i ew by an outside agency,

and have the right

to levy t a x e s . ^
It was noted in sev eral stud ies that the mi dd le
echelon e d u c a t i o n a l service un it was he avily dependent
on cooperative,
port.

c o n t r a c tu a l agreeme n ts

for p r o g r a m s u p ­

Th e se a r ra n ge m en t s violate the stan dard of p r o ­

viding a "d efinite and reliable" source of finance.
revenue d e r i v e d from such agreements oftentimes
stability

The

lack

and continuity.

The i nt e re m di a te un it has a di s ti n ct job to do,
as different and as essential to good e d uc a t i o n as the
specific roles

of local school districts

ed ucation agency.

and the state

It is imperative, therefore,

sources of fi n ancial support

that its

shoul d be as definite and

as re l i a b l e as are the r e so urces of these other a d m i n i s ­
trative units.

The future of the i n te r me d ia t e unit

depends u p o n d e fi n i t e and reliable fi nancial s u p p o r t .
Besides the issues m e n t i o n e d above,

several a u t h o r i ­

ties have q u e s t i o n e d the i n t e r m e di a te a g e n c y ’s place in
an u rb a n i z e d s o ciety and its r e l a t i o n s h i p to larger local
school districts.

B e ca u se so many a uthorities have

qu e s ti o ne d the future of the i nt e r m e d i a t e unit In
m e t r o p o l i t a n - s u b u r b a n areas this issue w i l l be treated
in g r e a t e r detail.

74
M i g r a t i o n from rural to u r b a n areas has r e p r e s e n t e d
a p r o n o un c ed trend in the U n i t e d States d ur i ng the past
quarter century.

B e t w e e n 1940 and 1950, the total p o p u l a ­

tion in America i nc r e a s e d by almost
ever, only

18.3 million.

How­

3.5 m i l l i o n of this total was r e f l e c t e d in

po pulation increases in what have b e e n classi fi e d as
non - me t ropolitan areas.

Stat ed in terms of r u r a l - u r b a n

net migra tion, n o n - m e t r o p o l i t a n areas lost
of p o p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n 1940 and 1950.
enough,

9.3 p er cent

I n te restingly

the central cities showed a 1.6 p er cent decline

during the same period, but the subur b an areas

of the

"megalopolis" had a net p o p u l a t i o n g a i n of 26.7 per cent.
M igration p at terns

from rural to u r b a n regions

and f r o m

the core city to its satellites have co n tinued and are,
therefore,

readily id e ntifiable as na t i o n w i d e trends.

One writer forecast

59

.

a rise in total p o p u l a t i o n of at

least 30 m i l l i o n p eo p le in the 1960's w i t h urban regions
receiv ing at least tw e nt y -f i ve m i l l i o n of this increase.
Thus, by 1970, ov er two-thirds of the people of the
United States may

live in the m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s .

If

recent trends continue, the m aj o r i t y of the re sidents
of the

"megalopolis" wi ll be found In the s u b u r b s . ^
Ano t h e r source cited s i mi l ar figures and es timates

that 170 m i l l i o n people,

70 per cent of the country's

population, wi ll be residents
in 1 9 8 0 . 61

of m e t r o p o l i t a n complexes

75
S ev e ra l critics

of the i n t e r m e di a te unit b el i ev e

that the ev i dence just br i ef l y d e s c r i b e d w i l l serve to
sound the

"death knell" for the in t er m ed i at e o r g a n i z a ­

tional agency.

In c re a si n g u r b a n i z a t i o n and the a c c o m p a n y ­

ing exodus from the central core to r ap i dl y gr o w i n g
suburb an school distri cts are duly n o te d by those wh o
advocate the total abandonment of the i ntermediate
cept.

con ­

Many w ri t er s have emphasi z ed the i nt e rm e di a te

office role as leader in rural e d u c a t i o n and the i n t e r ­
mediate unit is considered a s tr u ct u ra l form d e s i g n e d
for a rural society.

There fore,

in v i ew of obvious and

massive u r b a n i z a t i o n in the United States,

some a u t h o r i ­

ties w o u l d d i s c o n t i n u e op e ration of the m i d d l e - e c h e l o n
agency, pa r t i c u l a r l y
Proponents

in large m e t r o p o l i t a n complexes.

of the int ermediate unit have,

of late,

ex­

pressed some very i nt e re s ti n g ideas on this subject,
however.
Ca mpbell,

Cun ningham,

and M cPhee noted the pr o gress

of the m i d d l e - e c h e l o n agency in some m e t r o p o l i t a n s e t ­
tings.

These authors stated that

"despite the ge n er a l

c onfusion i’eg a r d i n g the fu n ct i on of the i n te r m e d i a t e unit,
some i nt e r m e d i a t e o rg a nizations,

s ee m ingly most o ft e n

those in m e t r o p o l i t a n s e t t i n g s , hav e forged ahead w i t h
substantial and appare ntly useful p ro g ra m s. "

62

76
As su g gested by Fitzwater:
It is significant that the r ap i d l y i n c r e a s i n g
size of s ub urban local d is t ri c ts , r a t h e r than
r es u lt i ng in an o v er a ll r e d u c t i o n in i n t e r ­
mediate unit strength, has b e e n a c c o m p a n i e d by
a m a r k e d e x p a n s i o n and h i g h e r d e gr e e of s p e c i a l ­
izat ion in in t e r m e d i a t e d is trict fu n ctions and
s e r v i c e s .^3
It appears, theref or e ,

that i n c r e a s i n g u r b a n i z a t i o n and

" s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n ” w i ll

lead to the s t r e n g t h e n i n g of the

intermediate e c h e l o n ra t h e r than c o n t r i b u t i n g to the
end of this form of organization.
Writers

such as M o r p h e t , Johns,

and R e l l e r o b ­

served that most p eople have not faced the issue of the
intermediate unit r e a l i s ti c al l y.

T h e y noted that many

smaller school districts are c on c erned with a ut o no m y and
have st r ug g le d to m a i n t a i n local c ontrol against the
inroads of the i n t e r m e di a te unit.
that such r es i st a n c e

It appears,

is ev en more apparent

however,

in larger

districts w hich have tended to ignore e s t a b l i s h e d i n te r ­
mediate units due to a b e l i e f that the larger local
school s ys t em can pr o vi d e suffi ci e nt p ro g ra m s

and ser-

64
vices .
A recent

study in C a l i f o r n i a r e c o g n i z e d the fact

that very large m e t r o p o l i t a n school di stricts
Los Angeles,

San Franci s co ,

resources quite different
tricts.^

such as

and San Di ego have needs and

from the

"average"

scho ol d i s ­

77
In a recent address,

Ise nberg p r e d i c t e d that the

intermediate u n i t - m e t r o p o l i t a n school di s trict r e l a t i o n ­
ship wi ll soon u nd e r g o drastic

alteration.

He n o te d

that people frequen t ly ask if the large city school
should be a part of the interm ed i at e unit.

Ac c or d i n g

to I s e n b e r g 9 this q u e s t i o n should be and w i l l soon be
answered In the affirmative.

He s u b s t an t ia t ed his p o s i ­

tion by s u g g e s t i n g that the c i t y ’s e d u c a t i o n a l future
could we l l depend u p o n its a s s o c i a t i o n with the i n t e r ­
mediate u n i t . ^
Ise nberg called atten t io n to several of the more
serious

" I l l s ” of A me r ic a n cities.

He

suggested that

financial, racial, and p o l i t i c a l troubles are b r inging
serious p ro b l e m s and that

cities

are e x p e r i e n c i n g e x ­

treme di f fi c ul t ie s In p ro v id i ng and s u s t a i n i n g h ighquality ed u ca t io n al programs.

He stated that perhaps

the big gest p r o b l e m o f all is that too m a n y officials
"still stop t h i n k i n g wh e n they reach the city line,"
the a ss u mp t io n b e i n g that the city's pr o bl e m s

somehow

/T rj

be gin and end at the city l i m i t s .
I se n be r g stated that

cities

and added that e du c at i on in the
trouble.

cities

Therefore, he concluded,

able solution,

"are in d ee p trouble,"
Is a l s o In

"If there is a w o r k ­

cities will need to deve lop cooperative

wo rking r e l a t i o n s h i p s . "

68

Therefore,

both the cities

78
and educa t io n s h o u l d benefit from an a f f i l i a t i o n wi th
intermediate units h a v i n g large service areas.
Despite abund an t ev i de n ce u n d e r s c o r i n g the n e c e s ­
sity for i n c l u s i o n of the city school system in the
intermediate d i st r ic t ,

it must be re c og ni z ed that su ch

is not yet g e n e r a l l y the case nationwide.

The trend is

still for the s tr o ng m i d d l e - e c h e l o n agency to pr ovide
quality servic es to s ub u rb a n schools while the city
system is excluded, u su a ll y by the city school's own
volition.
The i n t e r m e d i a t e un i t does have a future, but
the future r e p r e s e n t s
r ev i talization must

a severe

challenge.

Significant

take place if it is to merit the

enthusi asm of its advocates.

One report has r e f e r r e d to

the "new e m er ging" i nt e r m e d i a t e unit in the f o ll o w i n g
terms:
The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e tool that can make b e tt e r
edu c at i on p o s s i b l e at less cost has be en i n ­
vented.
It now remains for an e n l i g h t en e d
public and a r e s o u r c e f u l p r o f e s s i o n to put it
to greater u s e . 69
The above q u o t a t i o n represents
intermediate unit,
in general.

a challenge for the

the e d u c a ti on a l p rofession,

A future role

and p ub l ic

for the m i dd l e e c helon of the

three level state s ystem seems
will be in d e f i n i n g the role,

to exist.

The chellenge

and in r e s t r u c t u r i n g the

traditional in t e r m e d i a t e unit so that it can succes sf u ll y
fulfill its expectations.

79
Su mmary
In this chapter, a p o rt i o n of the c h a p t e r has b e e n
devoted to the d e v e l o p me n t of the county office of e d u c a ­
tion in the U nited States.

E m p i r i ca l r e s e a r c h and r e ­

lated literature was r ev i e w e d in terms of the d e v e lo p me n t
of the i nt e rm e di a te unit in Michig an,
an intermediate unit,

the functions

of

and issues s u r r o u n d i n g the future

of the i n t e r m e di a te u n i t .

FOOTNOTES— CHAPTER II

N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n Asso ciation, Departm e nt of
Rural Education, "Rural E d u c a t i o n - - A F o r w a r d Look,"
Yearbook 1955 (Washington, D.C.:
The Association,
1955), p. 141.
p

E l l w o o d P. Cubbe rl e y, Public E d u c a t i o n in the
United States (Boston:
H o u g h t o n - M i f f l i n Company, 193*0,

p . 12.
•3
JE ll w o o d P. Cubberley, State S chool A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
(Boston:
H o u g h t o n - M i f f l i n Company , 1 9 2 T 5 T P • 5"!
ii
S hi rley C o o p e r and C. 0. Fitzwater, Cou nty S c ho o l
A dm i ni s tr a ti o n (New York:
Harper and Br others, 1954),
p. 1 2 .
c;
^The h i s t o r i c a l in f o r m a t i o n in this s e c t i o n has
been d rawn largely f r o m the f o l l o w i n g s o u r c e s : N at i on a l
E du c at i on A s so c ia t io n , Departm e nt of Ru ra l Educati o n, "The
County S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of Sc hools in the United States,"
Year book 1950 (Washington, D.C.:
The A ssociation, 1950),
p p . 30-34; N. W i l l i a m Newsom, "The L egal Status of the
County S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , " U. S. O ff i ce of E d u c a t i o n B u l l e ­
tin , 1932, No. 7 (Washington, D.C.:
Go v er n me n t P r in t i n g
Office, 1932), kl pp.; I o w a C e n t e r for R es e ar c h in School
Administration, "The M u l t i - c o u n t y Re g io n al Ed u c a t i o n a l
Service Agency in Iowa," R e p o r t , .September, 1967, 192 pp.;
Glenn W. Hoffman, The F l ex i b l e Interm ed i at e Unit in
California:
A Study of R e g i o n a l E d u c a t i o n a l Activit i es
Performed C o o p e r a ti v el y by County Of fices of E d u c a t i o n
(June, 1966), pp. 13-15 and 1 8 .
£
Robe rt M. Isenberg, "The E v ol v in g I n termediate
Unit," an address q uoted from Proceedings of Conference
on School D is t r i c t R e o r g a n i z a t i o n and the I ntermediate
U n i t , H a r r i s b u r g , Pennsy l va n ia , A p r i l , 1966, p. 21,
pp. 26-27.
^Ronald F. Campbell, L u v e r n L. C unningham, R o d e r i c k
F. McPhee, The O r g a n i z a t i o n and Cont rol of A m e r i c a n Schools
(Columbus, O h i o : Charles E. M e r r i l l Books, I n c ., 1965),
p. 1 1 6 .

80

81

Act 269, Public Acts of 1955 (R evision t hrough
the 1962 Session, M i c h i g a n L e gi s la t ur e ), State of
Michigan.
^Michigan T e r r i t o r i a l Laws, II, pp.

472-477.

■^Mic hi g an T e r r i t o r i a l Laws, II, pp.

769-777-

11Cooper and Fitzwater,

104.

o p . c i t . , p.

12

C lair L. Taylor, "Development of the County
School A d mi n is t ra t io n ," M i c h i g a n E d u c a t i o n J o u r n a l , 32
(February, 1955), 251.
1 3 I b i d ., pp.

263-264.

■^Act 266, Public Acts of 1887, State of Michigan.
15Act
Mi c h i g a n .

147, Public Acts

of 1891, Sec.

l6Act 269, Public Acts of 1955,
of Michigan.
1^Act

190, Public Acts

Sec.

of 1962, State

10, State of
2 9 8 , State
of Michigan.

l 8Ibid.
■^Ira Polley, "Report on the In t e r m e d i a t e School
District," Depart m en t of E d u c a t i o n M e m o r a n d u m (Lansing,
Michigan), N o v e m b e r 16, 1 9 6 6 , p. 4.
(Unpub li s he d miraeo.)
2<^Ibid . , p . 4 .
2 ^Ira Po l le y , " P r e s e n t and P o te n ti a l Role of the
Intermediate Scho ol D i st r ic t ," D e p a r t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n
M e m o r a n d u m (Lansing, Michigan), N o v e m b e r 12, 1 9 6 8 , p. 3.
(Unpublished mimeo.)
22

M i c h i g a n A s s o c i a t i o n of I n t e r m ed i at e School
A d m i n i s t r a t o r s , Th e I n t e r m e di a te Scho ol D i s t r i c t — Mi d d l e
E ch elon of M i c h i g a n Ts T h r e e - E c h e l o n State S y s t e m of
E d u c a t i o n , January, 19&72 3I b i d . , p.
24

10.

I b i d . , p . 15 .

2 5 I b i d . , pp.

23-24.

82
p^
Polley, "Present
27I b i d . , p.

and Potential Role

. . .

p.

8.

9.

28Ibld_. , pp. 11 - 1 3 2Q
^Polley, op, c i t . , p.

3-

30

Ira Polley, M i c h i g a n Department of E d u c a t i o n
Memorandum, "Proposed L e g i s l a t i o n for the R e o r g a n i z a t i o n
of I nt e rm e di a te S c h o o l Districts and for Ad d in g A d d i ­
tional Powers and R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to Th e s e Distr i ct s ,"
(Lansing, M i c h i g a n ) , N o v e m b e r 26, 1968, p. 1.
31I b i d . , p.
3 2I b i d . , pp.

1.
2-5.

33Robert C. Sabin, "A Sur vey of the Need for an
Intermediate School District In Oregon w i t h Implic a ti o ns
for Its F u t u r e D e v e l o p me n t" (unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a ­
tion, U n i v e r s i t y of Oregon, 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 14-15.
34
J Campbell,

Cunningham, and McPhee,

o p . c i t . , p.

112.

35

N a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n on the I n te r me d ia t e A d m i n i s ­
trative Unit, E f f e c ti v e Intermediate U n i t s — A Guide for
Development (Washington, D.C.:
Departm e nt of R ur a l E d u ­
cation, N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n Associa tion, 1955), pp. 8-9.
38A l v i n E. Rhodes, B e t t e r E d u c a t i o n T h r o u g h E f f e c ­
tive I n te r me d ia t e Units (Washington, D.C.:
D e p a r t m e n t of
Rural E du c at i o n , N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n As sociation, 1963),
p. 12.
37

A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n of School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
The A m e r i c a n S chool S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y , T h i r t i e t h Y ea rbook
(Washington, D.C.:
N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n As s oc i at i on ,
1952), pp. 377-378.
^ C l a r e n c e A. Pound,'‘The Changing Status of the
County S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y In I n d i a n a " *(unpub lished Ph.D.
dissert ation, I n d i a n a U n iv e rs i ty , 1953), p. 145.
3^The C om m ittee of Ten, The Futu re of the I n t e r ­
mediate Unit in C a l i f o r n i a (Los Angeles, California:
California A s s o c i a t i o n of County Super i nt e nd e nt s ,
September, 1966), 73 pp.

83
40

P e n n s y l v a n i a A s s o c i a t i o n of County S u p e r in t en d en t s,
The I n t e r m e di a te U n i t — A Report of C o n s e n s u s , May, 1 9 6 6 ,
12 pp.
/jl
Rus s el l T. Gregg and George E. Watson, C o o r d i n a ­
tors,. "The County Superin te n de n t in Wisconsin:
A Study
of the I n t e r m e di a te Unit of E d u c a t io n al A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
with P a r t i c u l a r Re f erence to Wisconsin" (Madison:
Uni­
versity of W i sc o ns i n, 1957), 331 pp.
(M imeographed.)
142

E. R. Stephens and J o h n Spiess, "The E m e r g i n g
Ed ucation Service Agency," Po s it i o n P a p e r for the Great
Plains S chool D i st r ic t O r g a n i z a t i o n Project, C o n f e r e n c e
R e p o r t , Vol. 2, No. 3, May 25, 1968, pp. 1-5.
l i -3

E dw a r d J. Ernatt, "Instru c ti o na l Services R e n ­
de red by County S chool O f fices in M i c h i g a n and R elated
Factors:
A v a i l a b l e Personnel, Nu m be r of Teachers and
Pupils Served, E x p e nd i tu r es Per Pupil Served, and A v a i l ­
able E qu i pm e nt and Materials" (unpublished Ph.D. d i s s e r t a ­
tion, Un i v e r s i t y of Michigan, 1956), pp. 157-167.
iiii

Colon L. Schaibly, "A Study of S e le c te d F u n c t i o n s
of the C ounty School O ffice in M i ch i g a n " (unpublished
Ph.D. di s se r t a t i o n , M i ch i g a n State Univers i ty , 1956),
pp. 204-209.
H a r l a n D. B e e m and H. Thom as James, R ep o rt of
the M i c h i g a n Co m mittee for the Study of the I n t e r m e d i a t e
Unit of Sc hool A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (Chicago, I l l i n o i s :
Midwest A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Center, U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago,
1956), pp. 47-52.
46

C ar r o l l L. Munshaw, "The Extent of A g r e e m e n t and
Disagreements A m o n g S e le c t e d Scho ol O f fi c ia l s R e g a r d i n g
the Role of the County S chool O ffice in Wayne Co unty,
Michigan" (u npublished Ph.D. di s s e r t a t i o n , Wayne State
University, 1958), pp. 135-136.
47

El w o o d Larsen, "The E m e r g i n g R o l e of the I n t e r ­
mediate S c hool District In M i c h i g a n w i t h Im plications
for Branch C o unty" (unpublished Ed.S. thes is, W e s t e r n
M ic h ig a n U n i v e r s i t y , 1966), pp. 69-71.
UO

M i c h i g a n A s s o c i a t i o n of Interme d ia t e Sc h o o l
A dm i ni strators, o p . c i t . , pp. 16-17.
49

Ira Polley, "Analysis of S e ve r al Studies P e r t i ­
nent to the Present and P ot e ntial Role of the I n t e r ­
mediate S chool DIctri c t, " D e p a r t me n t of E d u c a t i o n M e m o ­
r andum (Lansing, Michigan), No v ember 12, 1968, p. 12.

84
‘SO

S t e p h e n J. Knezev ic h, A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of E d u c a ­
tion (New York:
H a r p e r and Br o thers Publishers, 1962),
p . 160 .
■^Rhodes , op . c i t . , pp.

5- 6 .

52

" S e r v i c e s a b ro c h u r e (San Diego, California:
San Diego County D e p a r t m e n t of E d uc a ti o n, u n d a t e d ) .
^ " E d u c a t i o n a l S er v ic e s, " a b r o c h u r e (Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania:
A l l e g h e n y County Schools, 1966-67).
54

Iowa Ce n t e r for R e s e a r c h in School A d m i n i s t r a ­
tion, o p . c i t . , pp. 139-147-

55 Robe rt M.

Isenberg, ed., T h e Co m mu n it y School
and the In t e r m e d i a t e U n i t , Y e a r b o o k 1954 ( W a s h i n g t o n ,
D.C.:
Depart me n t of Ru r al Ed u ca t i o n , N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n
Association, 1954), p. 1 6 8 .
56
W i l l i a m J. Emerson, "The I n te r me d ia t e School
D i s t r i c t — Mi d d l e E c h e l o n of a T h r e e - E c h e l o n State S y s t e m
of Schools," a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d to the N a t i o n a l Council
of Professors of E d u c a t i o n a l A d mi n is t r a t i o n , Areata,
California, August, 1 9 6 5 , pp. 19-20; Robert M. Isenberg,
"National T r e n d s — I n t e r m e di a te Un it Concept," an ad dress
to the W o r k s h o p f or Iowa S chool S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , S p irit
Lake, Iowa, June, 1967; Charles 0. Fitzwa t er , "Patterns
and Trends In State School S ys t e m D e v e l o p m e n t , " J o u r n a l
on State Sch ool S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t , Vol. 1, No. 1 ( S p r i n g ,
1967), 28-32.
57

Rh odes,

o p . c i t . , p.

^^Sabin, o p . c i t ., p.
States
p. 55.

11.
421.

•^Donald J . B o g u e , Th e P o p u l a t i o n of the U nited
(New York:
The Free Press of Glencoe, 1959),

C at h e r i n e B. W u rster, "Frame work For an U r b a n
S ociety," In Goals for A m e r i c a n s , Report of the P r e s i ­
dent's C o m m i s s i o n on N at i o n a l Goals (Englewood Cliffs,
N ew Jersey:
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Inc., I960), pp.. 225-247.
^ E l l i s G. Hanson, "The Impact of D em o g r a p h i c
Changes on L ocal Sc h o o l D is t ri c ts , " a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d at
th e Central R e g i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e of the N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a ­
ti on of State Boards of E du c at i on , Des Mo ines, Iowa,
April, 1 9 6 7 , p. 3.

85
6P
p.

C a m p b e ll,

C u n n in g h a m ,

and

M cPhee,

o p .

c i t .,

118.
^Fitzwater,

o p . c i t . , pp.

28-32.

^ E d g a r L. M o r p h e t , Roe L. Johns, and Th eodore
L. Reller, E d u c a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
(2d ed.; E n g l e w o o d Cliffs, New Je rsey:
Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1967), p. 286.
6 *-5

^A rt hur D. Little, Inc., E m e r g i n g R e qu i re m en t s for
Effective L e a d e r s h i p for C a l i f o r n i a E d u c a t i o n ( S a c r a m e n t o :
California State Departm e nt of Ed uc a ti o n, No vember, 1964),
p . 50.
6 fa

R o b e rt

p.

Is e n b e rg ,

"T he

E v o lv in g

21.

6 7I b i d .
68I b l d .
69

Rhodes, o p . c i t . , p.

13*

In te rm e d ia te

U n it,"

CHAPTER III
METHOD

T h is

c h a p te r

ce du re s

used

ip a n ts ,

and

to
th e

w i l l

be

c o lle c t

d a ta ,

m easures

D e s c rip tio n
D a ta
s e le c te d

w e re

"e x p e rts "

in

tio n ;

lo c a l

and

c o lle c te d

in te rm e d ia te
th e

f ie ld
s c h o o l

d e v o te d

used

o f

p re s e n tin g

d e s c rip tio n

in

th e

fro m

sch o o l
o f

a

to

th e

th e

p ro ­

p a r t ic ­

s tu d y .

P a rtic ip a n ts

th re e

s o u rc e s ,

d is t r ic t s

and

in te rm e d ia te

d is t r ic t

o f

th e

as

th e ir

sc h o o l

fo llo w s :
s t a f f ;

a d m in is tra ­

s u p e rin te n d e n ts .

S e le c te d In te rm e d ia te
S chool D is tr ic ts

The m a j o r source of d at a was o b t a i n e d th r ou g h s e m i ­
structured i n t e r v i e w i n g conducted at four selected I n t e r ­
mediate d i s t r i c t s .

The selected i n t e r me d ia t e districts

h ad constituency m ak e - u p re p re s e n t a t i v e of the four types
which was a s su m e d w o u l d m a ke-up the r e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r ­
mediate school districts

after 1971-

Addit io n al l y,

these

selected districts were p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u ct i on a l I m p r o v e ­
ment services to local school districts
this study.

These

at the time of

four in termediate s chool districts

we re selec te d fr om a list of r e c o m m e n d e d districts
86

87
compiled by the fo l lo w in g persons:
W. Olsen,

Dr.

Kenneth

formerly A d mi n is t ra t iv e A ss i stant

of O ak l a n d

Intermediate Sc ho ol District; Dr. W i l l i a m C. Miller,
Deputy Su p er intendent, Wayne County Interm e di a te School
District;

Dr. Ferris Crawford, As s oc i at e Superi n te n de n t,

Bureau of E d u c a t i o n a l Services, M i c h i g a n State D e pa r t m e n t
of Education; Mr. J o h n R. Francis,

S u p e r i nt e nd e nt ,

Shiawassee I n te r me d ia t e School District;
Peake,

and Mr.

Ray

formerly Su p er i nt e nd e nt , B r anch Interm ed i at e

School District.
above educators,

Based u p o n the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
the fo l lowing interme d ia t e

of the

school d i s ­

tricts were selected to be in cluded in the study:
County In t er m ed i at e School District;
School District;
and COOR

Wayne

O a kland Inter m ed i at e

Calhoun I n termediate School District;

(Crawford, Oscoda, Ogenaw,

and Roscommon)

I ntermediate Sc h oo l District.
T h e s e four Interm e di a te school d i st ricts p r o v i d e d
data for this study th rough s e m i s t r u c t u r e d in terviews
with those pe rsons on t he ir staffs h a v i n g r e sp o n s i b i l i t y
for I n s t r u c t i o n a l impro vement in the area of general
education

(K-12).

Wayne County Intermediate
School District
W ayne County I n termediate School District was
selected as b e i n g re p resentative of the fo l lo w in g c a t e ­
gory:

"A m i x t u r e of large - si z ed local school di stricts

88
and sate llite districts

sit uated in an area that could be

classified as b e i n g u r b a n as w e l l as rural."
in termediate d i s t r i c t ’s 622 squ are miles,
local sch ool districts;
teachers;

As of July

28,000

578,193 p ublic and
1, 1968 this di strict ha d

$1 0 ,0 9 7 *690,344 e qu a l i z e d valuation.
trict's boundaries

one finds 39

1,023 school buildings;

and 710,245 students,

132,052 non-public.

W i t h i n this,

W i t h i n this d i s ­

is located the City of Detroit.

This

district was selec t ed for this p a r t i c u l a r category p r i ­
marily b e c a u s e of its mi xture of v a r y i n g sizes of local
school districts and be c au s e of its rural nature in the
so uthern part of its district.
Oa kland Intermediate
School District
O a k l a n d Interm e di a te S chool Di strict was sel ected
as b e i n g r e p r e se n ta t iv e

of the f ol l ow i ng c a t e g o r y :

"Large­

sized local school districts that have long be e n e s t a b ­
lished and are s it u a t e d in an area that

could be c l a s s i ­

fied as urban."

900 square miles,

W i t h i n this district's

one finds 28 local school districts;
12.000 teachers;

400 school b ui l di n gs ;

and 258,000 students,

30.000 non-public.

228,000 p u b l i c and

This di strict has a v a l u a t i o n of a

little more than $3*000,0 00,000.

The City of Po nt iac is

located w i t h i n the b o u n d ar i es of the i n t e r m ed i at e d i s ­
trict, and the district b orders the City of Det roit on
the north.

The smallest local school district has an

89
enrollment of 1,400 pupils.

This district was se l e c t e d

for this p a r t i c u l a r category pr i ma r il y b e c a u s e of the
type of local school di s tricts it serves

(i.e.

large-

sized and long e s t a b l i s h e d ) , and the absence of areas
which could be

called rural.

This

district

is u r b a n and

suburban in nature.
C00R Interm e di a te
School District
This i nt e r me d ia t e school di s t r i c t was

selected as

being r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the f ol l ow i ng category:
sized local school districts

"Small­

si t ua te d in an area that

could be classi f ie d as b e i n g rural and e m b r a c i n g no
m un i cipalities of any conseq u en c e. "
trict's area, a p p roximately

W i t h i n this d i s ­

2,070 squ are miles,

one finds

only 7 school distr ic t s located in four di f ferent

counties.

This interme d ia t e district has 19 school bu i ld i n g s ,
7*655 students,

7*160 public school students

non-public school students.
v al u ation of $155*372,555.
teachers

and

and 495

The entire di strict has

a

COOR has a total of 290

and serves the counties of Crawford, Oscoda,

Ogemaw, and Roscommon.
Calhoun I n termediate
School District
C al h o u n I n te r me d ia t e S c h o o l Di s t r i c t wa s s e lected
as being r ep r es e n t a t i v e of the f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r y :
"Medium-sized local school d is t ricts

e m b r a c i n g a large

90
municipality and s it u a t e d in an area that

could be

classified as b e i n g u r b a n as w e l l as rural."
trict en c om p as s es

This d i s ­

an area of about 800 squa re miles with

the City of Battle Creek lo c at ed w i t h i n its b o un d ar i es
and serves 11 school districts.
trict has a p p r o xi m at e ly

This i n t e r m ed i at e d i s ­

81 buildings;

37,000 st udents,

3^,850 p u b l i c school students and 2,140 n on - pu b li c sc h oo l
students;

and 1,600 teachers.

It has a v a l u a t i o n of

$484,011,841.
"Experts"
A n o t h e r source of da ta was ob t a i n e d by u t i l i z i n g
s em i st r uc t ur e d i n t e r v ie w in g of sele cted

"experts" i n the

field of i n t e r me d ia t e school administration.
"experts" we r e s e le c t e d from a list

These

co mpiled by a p an e l

of ed ucators h a v i n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the i n t e r m e d i a t e
school di s tr i ct and k n o w l e d g e a b l e about p er s on s h a v i n g
expertise in this
mediate

levels.

field at u n i v e r s i t y ,

state,

T h e p an e l of educators

and i n t e r ­

included:

Dr.

Perris Crawford, As s oc i a t e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , B ureau of
E du c at i on a l Services, M i c h i g a n State D ep a rt m e n t of E d u c a ­
tion; Dr.

F r e d e r i c k Vescolani,

Professor,

of A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and H i g h e r Education,
University;

and Mr. J o h n R. Francis,

Department

M i c h i g a n State

S u p e r i nt e nd e nt ,

Sh iawassee I n te r m e d i a t e School District.

91
<

This pa n el was r e q u e s t e d to r e c o m m e n d three p e r ­
sons at each level, e i th e r active or retired,

us ing the

f ollowing criteria:
1.

Some one famili a r with the function of the
interm e di a te unit of school a d mi n i s t r a t i o n
in Michigan..

2.

So meone who occupier, or has occupied, a
p o s i t i o n of leaders h ip m os t likely to
influence the opini^ ns of other school
p e r s o n n e l and citizens.

3.

Individuals suffi ci e nt l y intere st e d in
p a r t i c i p a t i n g in an i n te r vi e w r e g a r d i n g the
future of the i nt e rm e di a te district in p r o ­
v id i n g instructional i mprovement services.

The actual lett er sent
seen in Appe ndix

to eac h panel m e m b e r may be

E.

Those per sons wh o were s e le c te d from the re c om m en d ed
list as

compiled by the above panel included:

Hecker,

Professor, D ep a rt m en t

Dr.

Stanley

of A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and H igher

Education, M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y

(past m e m b e r of the

J. Alan Thomas M i c h i g a n School Fin ance Study and p re s ently
a member of the G o ve r no r 's
Dr. Ralph Kellog g,

Corrmittee on School F i n a n c e ) ;

Di r e c t o r of

C u r r i c u l u m Services,

Mi c h i g a n State D e p a rt m en t of E d u c a t i o n

(formerly a

d ir ector of i n s t r u ct i on at an i ntermediate school d i s ­
trict in the state of California);

Dr. W i l l i a m Emerson,

Su perintendent of O ak l a n d I nt ermediate School District;
Mr. Wi l l i a m Shunck,
School District;

Mr.

S u p e r i nt e nd e nt

of Wayne I n termediate

Steve Glaza, S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of

Calhoun I nt ermediate Sc hool District;

and Dr. J ac k Kirsh,

92
D ire c to r

o f

In s tr u c tio n ,

W a s h te n a w

In te rm e d ia te

S chool

was

th ro u g h

D is t r i c t .

L o ca l S chool D is t r ic t
S u p e rin te n d e n ts
An

a d d itio n a l

s e m is tru c tu re d
sch o o l
th a t

each

in

was
o f

to

L a n c a s te r,
(p re v io u s ly

w ith

had

S t.

Johns

E s c o tt,

in

as

sch o o l

s y s te m

S chool

D is t r ic t ) ;

and

an

L a in g s b u rg ,

a

S t.

Macomb

a s s is ta n t

H ow ard

M ic h ig a n

th e

d e a lt

s e le c te d

Jo h n s,

M r.

and
E a rl

M ic h ig a n

In te rm e d ia te
and

p re s e n tly

H a s le tt,

M r.
M ic h ig a n

In te rm e d ia te

In g h a m

M a litz ,

(a s s o c ia te d

S chool

b a s is

p a r tic u la r

s u p e rin te n d e n t

w ith

th e

D is t r ic t ) ;

S y s te m ,

th e

on

in c lu d e d :

O a k la n d

S chool

lo c a l

b e in g

s u p e rin te n d e n t

w ith

In te rm e d ia te

w ith

s tu d y

th e

S chool

M r.

s e le c te d

S y s te m ,

p re s e n tly
and

s e le c te d

d is t r ic t

th is

lo c a l

a s s o c ia te d

p ro v id e d

s u p e rin te n d e n ts

w ith

H a s le tt

D is t r ic t

S h ia w a s s e e

w e re

In te rm e d ia te

S chool

S y s te m ,

a

th re e

sc h o o l

S chool

a s s o c ia te d
as

o f

a s s o c ia te d

Those

p a r tic ip a te

C lin to n

(p re v io u s ly

been

s tu d y .

D is t r ic t

th e

R ic h a rd

o r

d a ta

They

in te rm e d ia te

th is

a g re e in g

S chool

in te rv ie w in g

s u p e rin te n d e n ts .

c a te g o ry
w ith

s o u rc e .o f

D is t r ic t ) .

o f

a

lo c a l

In te rm e d ia te

L a in g s b u rg
w ith

th e

S chool

93
D e s c rip tio n
o f M easures
to C o lle c t D a ta

D e s ig n

o f

th e

A fte r
ty p e
to

o f

be

th a t

re v ie w in g

a p p ro p ria te
a

case

in te rv ie w in g
in

s e c u rin g

in te n d e n ts

The

th ro u g h
Its
o f

fo r

s tu d y

d a ta
who

in

m e th o d

fro m

th a t

i t

a

a d v a n ta g e
o f

th e

is

As

be

fo llo w e d -u p .

q u e s tio n n a ire

p ic tu r e

th e y

as

f a i l
o f

to

be

tio n

s u b je c t

is

d ig

o p in io n s

can

th e

d e s ig n

was

s e m is tru c tu re d
was

and

u t iliz e d

lo c a l

c o lle c tio n
b e tw e e n

can

be

s u p e r­

and

a

th e

o f

c la r it y .

A

th a t

a re

fe e lin g s .

m a in te n a n c e

th e
o f

P u ll
to

use

a lt e r

th e

q u e s tio n n a ire

d a ta

can

s e rio u s

enough

th ro u g h

d a ta

in te rv ie w

m ore

th e y

re s e a rc h

in d iv id u a ls .

made

w ith

T hus,

d e e p ly

o b ta in e d ,
and

d e s c rip tiv e

fe e d b a c k ,

g re a te r

s tu d ie s

in fo rm a tio n
o f

deemed

was

s tu d y .

c o n tra s te d

le a d s

tru e

s tu d y

a d a p ta b ility .

s u b je c ts

m its

w e ll

th e

it s

im m e d ia te

to

in

in te r a c tio n

no

is ,

th e

d e s ig n

th is

m e th o d

p ro v id e s

th a t

a n a ly z in g

The

"e x p e rts "

in

th a t

o f

same

th e

in v o lv e s

s itu a tio n .

as

d a ta .

u t iliz in g

T h is

b o th

as

v e rb a l

re sp o n se s

o b ta in e d

in -d e p th

c o lle c tin g

p a rtic ip a te d

d ir e c t

in te rv ie w

an

and

In te rv ie w

p r in c ip a l
th e

lit e r a t u r e

d e s ire d ,

in te rv ie w

u n iq u e

th e

te c h n iq u e s .

R e se a rch
The

is

S tu d y

in fo rm a tio n

o f

Used

be

c r itic is m

o fte n

s h a llo w —

to

p ro v id e

In

th e

a

In te rv ie w

c a re fu l

ra p p o rt,

p e r­

m o tiv a ­
th a t

94
proba bl y w o u l d not be re v e a l e d u n d e r any o t he r c i r c u m ­
stances .
O n the other hand, the i nt e r v i e w has def inite l i m i ­
tations

as a r e se a rc h tool.

Most import ant,

the very

adaptability g a i n e d by the i n t e r p er s on a l s i t u a t i o n leads
to subject ivity and p o ssible bias.

The in teractions b e ­

tween the r e s p o n d e n t and the i n t e r v i e w e r are subject to
bias f r o m many sources.
please the inter vi e we r ,

Ea g erness of the r e sp o n d e n t to
a vague a n t a g o n i s m that sometimes

arises b e t w e e n the i n t e rv i ew e r and the r espondent,

and

the tendency of the i nt e r v i e w e r to see k out answers that
support his p r e c o n c e i v e d notions are but a few of the
factors

that

could contribute to the po s sible b i a s i n g of

dat a o b t a i n e d fr o m the interview.

Ru m m e l i n di c at e d that

in research areas where depth is needed,

the use of the

in terview is u s ua l ly the one called for de spite the above
l i m i t a t i o n s .^
St ructure in R es earch
Interviews
In terviews m a y be c lassified in a n u mber of different
ways.

Perhaps the most important

ture.

S tr u ct u re refers

is the level of s t r u c ­

to the amount

of d i r e c t i o n and

r estriction i m posed by the i n t e r v ie w situation.

C e rt a in

types o f i n f o r m a t i o n such as the limited sp ecific facts
or opinions

c ol l ec t ed In public o p i n i o n polls

highly s tr u ct u re d i nt e rv i ew situation.

call for a

In this type of

95
s tu d y ,

th e

In te rv ie w e r

b r ie f

s e rie s

"yes"

o r

o f

"n o ,"

u s u a lly

q u e s tio n s
o r

by

a n sw ere d

e ith e r

s e le c tin g

one

o f

a

a lte rn a te

re s p o n d e n t’ s

g re a te r

d e p th ,

is

th a t

such

s a tis fa c t o r ily
a d v a n ta g e
fo r
is
th e

o f

th e

th is

ty p e

lik e ly

to

s a m p le
The

w ith

a

a nsw ers

and

th e

m a ile d

d a ta

g e t

th e

d a ta

in te rv ie w

o f

fro m

and

p s y c h ia try .

th e

in te rv ie w e r

fo r

d a ta

to

to

n a tu re

o f

v ie w s ,

th is

spondent

th a t

m ore

o f

is

b e s t

p la n

up

s tru c tu re

in

c o lle c te d
The

q u e s tio n n a ire

th e
th e

q u ite

o n ly

in te rv ie w e r
p erson s

in

and

a

th e

ty p e
to

a re
o f

le a d

in fo rm a tio n

sought

is

h ig h ly

is

covered

m ust

by

o f

s u b je c tiv e

th e

and

adapt

Un­

in

s itu a ­

d i f f i c u l t
d is ­

th re a te n in g

u n s tru c tu re d

c o n s ta n tly

o r

to w a rd

p s y c h o lo g ic a lly

Because

p la n

o b je c tiv e s .
fo r

in d iv id u a l.

p ro ce d u re

re sp o n d e n t

c a lle d

o r

th e

q u e s tio n s

g e n e ra lly

e xpress

u s u a lly

th e

by

p s y c h o lo g y

in te rv ie w

asks

in te r v ie w e r 's

th e

c lin ic a l

d e ta ile d

u s u a lly

illu s t r a t e d

in te rv ie w s ,

meet

th e

is

in

to

to p ic s

and

used

in te n d e d

s u b je c t

tre s s in g

fo llo w e d

m a ile d

u n s tru c tu re d

e m p lo y ,

in te rv ie w s

w h e re

th e

n o t

g e n e ra l

s tru c tu re d
tio n s

In

does

c o m m e n ts

g iv in g

be

is

in te rv ie w

a p p ro a ch e s

makes

o f

o f

s e le c te d .
u n s tru c tu re d

a

th e

c o lle c tio n

c lie n t-c e n te re d

has

n o t

le v e l
c o u ld

o v e r

re sp o n se s

a re

s e t

q u e s tio n n a ire .

th e

but

a

be

to

case

re sp o n d e n t

can

The

th is

each

th a t

c h o ic e s .
o b ta in

asks

to

in t e r ­

th e

re ­

tim e -c o n s u m in g .

96
The
was

th a t

p a r tic u la r
known

s e m is tru c tu re d
can

be

T h is

u s in g

open

p le te

d a ta .

v a n ta g e

o f

m ittin g

a

o p in io n s

fo rm

a s k in g

d e p th ,

th o ro u g h

th e

not

be

a

o f

m e n tio n e d
th e

in te rv ie w in g
c o n s tru c t

a

in te rm e d ia te
m odel
was

to

o f

o f

th e

in te rm e d ia te

o f

s tu d y

These

m o re

com ­

th e

The

has

w h ile
o f

p e r­

r e s p o n d e n t's

w o u ld

The

ad­

s t i l l

th e

th a n

th e

be

p o s­

s e m is tru c tu re d
o f

o b je c tiv ity

d a ta

th a t

c o u ld

a p p ro a ch .

P ro ce d u re s

d e s ig n

o f

u t iliz in g

th is

s tu d y

th e

c o u ld

be

used

by

re o rg a n iz e d

d is t r ic t s

in

d e v e lo p in g

im p ro v e m e n t
by

is o la tin g

q u e s tio n s
F ir s t ,

d is t r ic t s

g iv e

to

th u s
what

s tu d y

t h e ir

s e rv ic e s .
th e

The

re sp o n se s

becam e

tw o

q u e s tio n s

a tte n tio n

was

s e m is tru c tu re d

o f

tw o

s tu d y .

o b ta in

purpo se

w h ic h

sch o o l

d e e p ly ,

o th e r

R e se a rch

ques­

m o re

v a lu a b le
any

th e

p ro b in g

c o m b in a tio n

by

m e th o d

te c h n iq u e s .
m odel

s tru c tu re d

to

th e m

g a th e rin g

e a r lie r ,

c o n s tru c te d

q u e s tio n s .
tiv e s

case

re q u ire d

in te rv ie w

b e h in d

s tu d y

in fo rm a tio n

o b je c tiv e

o b ta in e d

in s tr u c tio n a l

be

o rd e r

d e s ira b le

D e s c rip tio n

th a t

in

th is
In

o f
by

in

in te rv ie w .

q u e s tio n n a ire .

p e rm its

s u c c e s s fu lly

As

fo llo w e d

used

u n d e rs ta n d in g

re a son s
m a ile d

th e

s e rie s

re a s o n a b ly

th e

and

be

a

o f

s e m is tru c tu re d

p ro v id e s

and

som e

q u e s tio n s

b e in g

u s in g

m e th o d

s e m is tru c tu re d

th e n

The

and

In te rv ie w

by

can

m ore

th e

in te rv ie w

o b ta in e d

tio n s .

s ib le

as

in te rv ie w

in

th e

was

to

own
m odel
to

tw o

o b je c ­

s h o u ld
d e v e lo p m e n t

97
of i ns t r u c t i o n a l i mprovement
what issues

serv ices?

Secondly,

are i ntermediate distri cts

confronted in the develo p me n t

with

likely to be

of i n s t r u c t i o n a l •i m p r o v e ­

ment servic es?

tions

In order to secure responses

for these two q u e s ­

it was necessary

select di s tr i c t s ,

"experts,"

to:

first,

and local s up e ri n te n de n ts to p a r t i c i p a t e in

the study and second ly, to cons truct

an i nt e rv i ew guide

for use in the s e m i s tr u c tu re d i n t e r v i e w s i t u a t io n which
was deemed necessary to the study.

The s e le c t i o n pr o ­

cedure u s e d and a d e s c r i p t i o n of the p a r t i c ip a nt s
study are found e a r l i e r in this

in the

chapter.

Interview Guide
The next
tive guide

step of the study was to develop a t e n t a ­

for use d u r i n g the i n t e r v i e w that w o u l d make

it p os sible to o b t a i n the d at a r e q u i r e d to meet the two
specific obje ctives.

In p r e p a r i n g the i n te rview guide,

two m a j o r objectives were kept in mind:

e a c h q u es t i o n

must be aimed at one of the specific objectives of the
research,

and it must be p r e s e n t e d In such a way that

the r es p on d e n t wo u ld u n d e r s t a n d what was w a n t e d and w o u l d
be m o t i v a t e d to give the Information.
It was d ec i d e d that a d i f f e r e n t

I n te rview guide

would be n e ce ssary for each type of r e sp o nd e nt

(I.e.

i ntermediate staff, i n t e r m e d i a t e s up e rintendent, u niversity

98
"e x p e rt,"

s ta te

in te n d e n t).

d e p a rtm e n t

T hus,

fiv e

" e x p e r t,"

te n ta tiv e

and

lo c a l

g u id e s

w e re

su p e r­
d e v e lo p e d .

T r ia l
A fte r
g u id e s ,

a

d e v e lo p in g

p ilo t

s tu d y

p ro ve

th e

g u id e s

s tu d y

a ls o

u s in g

th e

p ro ce d u re

s tu d y

was

c o lle c te d .

in te rv ie w
p e rio d .

th e

m a in

h e lp e d

w e re
T h is

o p e ra tio n

o f

S ta te

c o n d u c te d
th e
w e re

m a in

th e

p ilo t

a t

d a ta

m e th o d s

a ls o

a ffo rd e d
w h ic h

s tu d y

t o t a l
th e s e

o f
tw o

to

s ix

th is

to

in

m a in
th e

t r i a l

be

in

used
a t

th e
in

tw o

D is t r ic t

t r i a l

and

p e rio d

p a r tic ip a tin g

d iffe r e n t

lo c a tio n s

p ilo t

p ra c tic e

S chool

th o s e

The

th e

c o n d u c te d

The

im ­

o p e n in g

was

was

E d u c a tio n .
s im ila r

fo r

o f

and

e x p e rie n c e

d u rin g

In te rm e d ia te

o f

e v a lu a te

d e v e lo p

re s e a rc h

re c o rd e r

persons

c o n d u c te d

to

in te rv ie w

p ro c e d u re s .

p e rfe c te d

s tu d y

D e p a rtm e n t

A

in te rv ie w

and

ta p e

s tu d y .

c o n d u c te d

S e v e ra l

The

te n ta tiv e

in te rv ie w e r

S h ia w a s s e e

w ith

f iv e

b e fo re

p ilo t
th e

was
th e

tr ie d

s tu d y .

lo c a tio n s :
th e

and

th e

was
in

in te rv ie w s

o v e r

a

tw o

day

p e rio d .
The
th e

in te rv ie w

te n ta tiv e
m o d ifie d
th a t
D.

p ilo t

w e re

s tu d y

g u id e s .

g u id e s
as

a

used

p o in te d
C e rta in

had

to

be

r e s u lt

o f

th e

in

th e

m a in

out

n e ce ssa ry

q u e s tio n s

e lim in a te d
p ilo t
s tu d y

may

used

and

s tu d y .
be

re v is io n s
in

o th e r
The

seen

in

th e
q u e s tio n s

q u e s tio n s
in

A p p e n d ix

99
Reasons
Used in

fo r
th e

I t

th e
Q u e s tio n s
S tu d y

was

d iffe r e n t

deemed

c a te g o rie s .

d ire c te d

a t

A

c a te g o ry

second

re sp on se s

s e c u rin g

w h ic h

what

q u e s tio n s

tio n

in

th e

s e rv ic e s ?
w o u ld
in g

A

lik e ly

in s tr u c tio n a l

in te rv ie w
fo u n d

in

m e d ia te

is s u e s

q u e s tio n s

h a v in g

q u e s tio n s

d e p a rtm e n t

s u p e rin te n d e n ts
p re fix

( E ) .

may

re fe rre d

g u id e

th e

th e

d e v e lo p m e n t

a

used

fo llo w ­
d is ­
o f

p r e fix

used

in

fiv e

d iffe r e n t

(A )

w e re

q u e s tio n s

d u rin g

in te rv ie w s

d u rin g

p r e fix

In

a tte n ­

w h ic h

in te rm e d ia te

used

Q u e s tio n s
by

g iv e n

th e

(D )

"e x p e rts ."

to

g iv e

answ er

Q u e s tio n s

In te rv ie w

to

im p ro v e m e n t

p e rs o n n e l.

w e re

e l i c i t

fo llo w in g :

h e lp

w e re

w ith

id e n tifia b le
a

n a tu re .

s e rv ic e s ?

s u p e rin te n d e n ts .

q u e s tio n s

in

q u e s tio n s

q u e s tio n s

a re

th re e

w o u ld

d is t r ic t s

w o u ld

c o n fro n te d

Those

s t a f f

a re

be

what

w h ic h

in c lu d e d

fo r

g e n e ra l

in s tr u c tio n a l

w h ic h

in te rv ie w

"e x p e rts "

s ta te

o f

im p ro v e m e n t

g u id e s .
th e

w e re

be

fo llo w in g

in te rm e d ia te
(B )

re sp o n se s

a

th e

in te rm e d ia te

c a te g o ry

w ith

o f

answ er

d a ta

in c lu d e d

q u e s tio n s

h e lp

s h o u ld

to

se cure

c a te g o ry

in c lu d e d

t h ir d

to

in fo rm a tio n

w o u ld

q u e s tio n s :

The

One

d e v e lo p m e n t

e l i c i t

t r ic t s

n e ce ssa ry

w e re
L o ca l

th o s e

in te rv ie w s
h a v in g
w ith

used

w ith

p r e fix

(C).

q u e s tio n s
s c h o o l

q u e s tio n s

g u id e s

used

A p p e n d ix

D.

in

th e

a

w ith

p r e fix

in t e r ­
u n iv e rs ity
Those

g iv e n

to

d is t r ic t
h a v in g
m a in

a

s tu d y

100
Category I (General
Information Questions)
The f o l l o w i n g q u es t io ns were us ed in the m a i n
study to secure i nf o r m a t i o n of a g en e ra l nature.
A-l What i n s t r u c t i o n a l i mprovement services,
p ro g rams, or p er s on n el does

this office p r o ­

vide to local school districts?
A-3 What is the most e f fe ctive i n s t r u c ti o na l
i mprovement service and/or c u r r i c u l u m w o r k e r
pr o v i d e d by this

office?

Which service and/

or curric u lu m w o r k e r wo u l d yo u first provide?
PROBE;

R ationale,

entry strategy,

evaluation,

and type of s er v ic e and/or c u r r i c u l u m worker.
A-6 Would yo u consider that the services pr e se n tl y
being p r ov i d e d are s u cc e s s f u l in m e e t i n g the
needs of local d i st i r c t s ?

PROBE:

Evaluation.

A-7 What systems of c o m m u n i c a t i o n are op e ra t i n g
b e t w e e n the local districts

and. this i n t e r ­

m ed i at e district?
B — 1 Would y o u de s c r i b e your p h i l o s o p h y r e g a r d i n g
the In termediate district's role In the ar e a
of i n st r uc t io n a l Improvement?

PROBE:

Rationa le.
B - 8 a Su ppose that you have just b e e n hired as the
s up e ri n te n de n t of an I n t e r m e di a te d i strict
y o u d i s c o v e r that it has n ev e r p r o v i d e d

and

101
Ins t r u c t i o n a l I mprovement services
local districts.

to the

Your i nt e rm e di a te bo a rd has

g iven yo u complete f re e d o m to set-up i n s t r u c ­
tion al im provement servic es as well as a s s u r ­
ing you that the necessary mo n ey to finance
these services

is available.

W o u l d you provide

i ns t r u c t i o n a l i mp r ov e me n t services?

PROBE:

Rationale.
E-6 What w o u l d you like the i n t e r m e di a te district
to pr o vide

that they are not p r o v i d i n g at the

pres ent time?
Category II (Questions
Intermediate Distr ic t s
Should Give A t t e n t i o n
to in D e v e l o p i n g
Instruc tional I m p r o v e ­
ment Services)
T h e f ol l o w i n g questi o ns were used in the m a i n study
to secure r es p onses r e g a r d i n g those qu e stions in t ermediate
districts s hould give a t te n ti o n to In the develop m en t of
In struc tional improvement services.
A-3 What is th e mo st e f fe c ti v e i ns t ru c ti o na l i m ­
p ro v em e nt

service and/or c u r r i c u l u m worker

p r o v i d e d by this office?

Which service and/

o r c u r r i c u l u m w o r k e r w o u l d you f irst provide?
PROBE:

R ationale, entry st rategy, evaluation,

and type of service and/or c u rr i c u l u m worker.

102
A-4 What means
district

are us e d by this intermediate

to de t ermine the services and/or

c urricu l um personnel
vide?

PROBE:

di strict,

is should or could pro-

. .

L e a d e r s h i p of intermediate

size of the interme d ia t e district,

su pport of local districts, ph ilosophy,
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of local district p e r s o n n e l
and p ro g rams, and evaluation.
A-6 Wo u ld you consider that the services p r e ­
sently b e i n g p ro v id e d are successful in
m e e t i n g the needs of local districts?
PROBE:

Evaluation.

A-7 What systems of commun i ca t io n are op e ra t in g
b e t w e e n the local districts and this i n t e r ­
m ed i at e .district?
A-9 How does this office get local school d i s ­
tricts to f i nancially support and t h e n to use
the services

and pe r so n ne l av ailable for

i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement?
A-8 and What means does an i n t e r m ed i at e district use
B-3
to f a c i l it a te change w i t h i n I t s own structure?
PROBE:

E l i m i n a t i o n or a d di t i o n of services and

m o d i f i c a t i o n of e xi s t i n g services and personnel,
evalua t io n ,

and crit eria d e te r m i n a t i o n and

u t i l i z a t i o n .'

103
A-ll and What questions sh o u l d i n t e r m e d i a t e d is t ricts
B-5
give a tt e ntion to in the d e v e l o p m e n t of
i n s t r u c ti o na l i m p r o v em e nt

services?

B-8 Sup pose that you hav e just b e e n h i r e d as the
s up e rintendent

of an i n t e rm e di a te d is trict

y ou d i sc o v e r that

it has n e v e r p r o v i d e d i n ­

struct i on a l improvement
districts.

and

services

to the local

You r i n t e r m e d i a t e bo a rd has g i v e n

you complete f r e e d o m to set-up i ns t ru c ti o na l
impr ovement services as well as a s s u r i n g yo u
that the n ec e ss a ry money is available.
B-8b How wo u ld you de t er m i n e what

services, pro­

grams , and/or c u r r i c u l u m p e r s o n n e l yo ur office
w o u l d provide?
services,

PROBE:

Direct v s . in-direct

r at i on a le , evalua ti o n,

and means

of

self-renewal.
B-8c What is likely to be the most e ff e ct i ve s e r ­
vice to p r ov i de for entry st rategy?

PROBE:

Rationale.
B-8d What

is likely to be the first type of

c u r r i c u l u m w o r k e r you w ou l d hire?

PROBE:

Rationale.
C-3 and Do y o u b e li e ve that by g r a n t i n g m o r e powers
D-3
and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to the i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s ­
tricts

and, by r e du c i n g th e ir number,

inter­

m ed i a t e districts w i l l p ro v i d e i m proved

104
i n s t r u c t i o n a l i mprovement services

to local

schoo l districts?
E-3 W ha t means are used to involve local distr ic t s
in de c i di n g u p o n services, programs,

a nd/or

p e r s o n n e l to be p r o v i d e d by the i n t e r m e d i a t e
di strict in the area of instru ct i on a l i m ­
provem e n t?

PROBE:

E v a l u a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a ­

tion s y s t e m s .
E-5 Wh a t has b e e n the most effective i n s t r u c t i o n a l
i mprovement

s e rv i ce re c e i v e d from the i n t e r ­

m ed i a t e district?

PROBE:

Re a sons, t y pe of

se rvice a nd/or c u r r i c u l u m personnel.
Category III (Issues
Intermediate Districts
Are Likely to Confront
in the D e v e lo p me n t of
Inst ructional I m p r o v e ­
ment Services)
The f ol l o w i n g qu e st i on s were u s e d in the m a i n study
to secure responses r e g a r d i n g the issues i n t e r m e di a te
districts are likely to confront

in the develo pm e nt of

in struc tional i m provement services.
A- 2- Why are you pr o vi d i n g the services that you are
and not o t h e r types?

PROBE:

Sophistication

of local d is t ri c ts , fi n an c ia l support

and

usage of services by local districts,

and

rationale.

105
A-3 What is the most effective

Instructional

Improv e me n t service and/or
p ro v id e d by this

office?

c u r r i c u l u m wo r ke r
W hich s e rvice and/or

cur r ic u lu m w o r k e r w o u l d you first provide?
PROBE:

Ration al e,

entry strategy, ev aluation,

and type of service and/ or c u r r i c u l u m worker.
A-4 What means

are u s e d by this in t e r m e d i a t e d i s ­

trict to d e t e r m i n e the services

a n d / o r cu r ri c u­

lum p e r s o n n e l it should or could provide?
PROBE:

L e a d e r s h i p of i n t e r m e d i a t e di strict,

size of the i n t e rm e di a te district,
local di stricts, p hi lo s op h y,

support

of

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of

local distr ic t p e r s o n n e l and p r o g r a m s , and
evaluation.
A-5 What

limits this

services?
tricts,
members,

office in p r o v i d i n g a dditional

PROBE:

finances,
image,

P r o v i n c i a l i s m of local d i s ­
size of d i s t r i c t , board

and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of local

districts.
A-7 What systems of c o m m u n i c a t i o n are o p er ating
b e t w e e n the local districts

and this

inter­

m ed i at e district?
A-10 and What issues are likely to be c o n f r o n t e d by
B-4
this d is t r i c t w i t h i n t h e next five y ears in
terms

of p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement

services to local scho ol districts?

106
B-2 Wh at

limits i n t e r m ed i at e d is t ricts in p r ov i d i n g

i n s t r u c t i o n a l improve m en t services and/or
c u r r i c u l u m p e r s o n n e l to local school districts?
B-6 Do you b el i e v e that by gr a n t i n g more powers
and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
tricts

to the interme d ia t e d i s ­

and by r e d u c i n g their number,

inter­

m e d i a t e districts wi ll p r ovide impr oved
i n s t r u c t i o n a l I mprovement services to local
scho ol d istricts?
B - 7 , C-2, W hy ha ven't most i nt ermediate districts b e e n
D-2, and
E-4
more success f ul in the past in p ro v iding
i n s t r u c t i o n a l im pr ovement

services to local

scho ol districts?
B-8b H ow w ou l d you de t er m in e what services, p r o ­
grams,

a nd/or c u r r i c u l u m p e r s o n n e l your

office w o u l d pro vide?

PROBE:

i n- d i r e c t services, rationale,
a nd me a ns
B - 8 c What is

Direct vs.
evaluation,

of self-renewal.

likely to b e the most ef fective

s ervice to p r o v i d e

for entry strategy?

PROBE:

•Rationale.
B-8d What is likely to be the first type of
c u r r i c u l u m w o r k e r you w ou l d hire?
Rationale.

PROBE:

107
C-l and What do yo u see as future Issues c o n f r o n t i n g
D-l
the i n t e r m e di a te districts in p r o v i d i n g i n ­
s t r u c t io n al im p r o v e m e n t ser vices to local
scho ol d is t ricts over the next 5 years?
E — 1 What do yo u be l ie v e s hould be the inter
medi ate d i s t r i c t ’s role in p r o v i d i n g i n ­
s t r u c t io n al improve m en t services to local
school distr ic t s?

PROBE:

Type

of s er v ic e and/or consultant,

of aid, type

and d egree of

involvement.
E -2 W o u l d you say that this i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s ­
trict

(has, h a s n ’t) b e e n active in the past

in p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l improv e me n t
vides to loc al school d i st r i c t s ?
Reasons

ser-

PROBE:

for districts b e i n g active or in ­

active, empire building,

threate n in g ,

image,

and person a li t ie s .
R e v i e w of Steps T a k e n to Collect D a t a
Select ion Proc edure
S e l e c t i o n pr o ce d u r e s use d in this study we re d i s ­
cussed ea r l i e r in this

chapter.

Schedule
Letters were sent to each i n t e r m e d i a t e di strict
and to the o t he r p a r t i c i p a n t s

in the study r e q u e s t i n g

108
their a ss i st a nc e and c o o p e r at io n in the study.

Requests

were made to visit these individuals and to conduct
interviews.

See A pp e nd i x E for sample

letters.

The i n t er v ie w schedule that re s ul t ed was as follows:
C al h o u n I ntermediate School
Di strict

May 19 and
M ay 20

COOR Interme d i at e School District

May

21

O a k l a n d - I n t e r m e d i a t e School
Dist rict

May
May

2 3 and
26

Wa yne In t er m ed i at e School
District

May 27 and
J un e 3

Dr. Ja c k Kirsh

J un e 5

Mr.

Steve Glaza

May

19

Dr. W i l l i a m E m e r s o n

May

23

Mr.

W i l l i a m Shunck

May

27

Dr.

Stanley Hecker

J un e 9

Dr. Ralph Kellogg

Ju ne 10 and
Ju ne 11

Mr.

R i chard Escott

J u ne

11

Mr.

Howard Malitz

Ju ne

12

Mr.

Ea rl L a n c a s te r

Ju n e

13

Each of the interviews

lasted a p p r o x i m a t e l y one

hour except for one group interv i ew s es s i o n at C a l h o u n
Intermediate School District.

This group i n t e rv i ew

session in v olved t hree persons and las ted ap proximately
three h o u r s .
Eac h i n t e rv i ew s es s io n b e g a n with a short i n t r o ­
ductory statement about the b ac k gr o un d of the i nterviewer

109
and Included in f or m i n g the pa r ti c ip a nt s

as to the

s t u d y ’s pu r p o s e and the importance of th e ir p a r t i c i p a ­
tion in the study.

In addition,

each p a r t i c i p a n t was

given two cards to read and keep in front of h i m during
the i nt e rview session.

These cards contained d e f i n i ­

tions of terms which were used in the study and he l pe d
ensure that a common u n d e r s t a n d i n g would ex ist b e t w e e n
the respondents

and the i n t e r v i ew e r with r egard to terms

used in the questions asked.

R e f e r to A pp e n d i x C for

Information on cards.
Taped Interviews
In o rd e r to reduce the t e ndency to make an u n ­
conscious s e l e c t i o n of data f a vo r in g b iases,
data were tape recorded.

interview

The tape re c orded d a t a could

be pl a ye d b a c k mo r e th an once an d thus s t ud i ed mu ch more
thoroughly th an if data were l imited to notes t a k e n
during the interviews.

The tape re c or d er m e t h o d of

recording d a t a speeded up the interview p rocess be c au s e
there was no n e ce s si t y for e xt e nsive note taking.
There were a few interviews

conducted where the

tape r e co r d e r was not used du r in g the course of the
interview.

This was the result of the i n t e r v i e w e r b e ­

lieving that the use of the tape r ec order might h i n d e r
responses f ro m persons, b e in g interviewed.

In these

cases extensive notes were m a d e d uring the i n t e r v i e w

110

session and i m m e d ia t el y after the in t er v i e w se s si o n was
completed t he s e notes

and additi on a l comments were placed

on tape.
Disturbances
C ertain d is t r u b a n c e s were encoun te r ed during the
interview sessions.

It was pr a c t i c a l l y im p os s ib l e to

control the i n t e r v i e w environment.

Since each in t erview

was conducted at the p a r t i c i p a n t ' s place

of employment,

environmental condi tions were not exactly the same in
each case.

S everal inter views en c o u n t e r e d te lephone

interruptions

al t ho u gh re quests had b e e n made for no

interruptions to take place.

T wo interviews were d i s ­

turbed by the p l a y i n g of radios

in offices next to

where the intervi e ws were b e i n g conducted.

One of the

interviews was

clacking of

typewriters

conducted over the excessive

in an outer se c re t ar i al office area.
Summary

This

chap ter has b e e n u s e d to present

of the p a r t i c i p a n t s

a descri pt i on

in the study, d e s c r i p t i o n of me a sures

used to collect d a t a and a d e s c r i p t i o n of r e s e a r c h p r o ­
cedures used in the study.
with the r e s e a r c h findings.

C ha p t e r IV w i l l be co ncerned

FOOTNOTES— CHAPTER III

J. Francis Rummel, An Introd uc t io n to Re s ea r ch
Procedures in E d u c a t i o n (New York:
H a r p e r and Broth ers,
Publishers, 1958) , p. 8"4.

Ill

CHAPTER IV
FIND INGS

This

chapter wi l l be de vo ted to d e s c r i b i n g the

method of analysis used, p r e s e n t i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g the
relevant data,

and r e p o r ti n g on the

findings.

Descr ip t io n of the M et h od
of Analys is Us e d
The pu rpose of the study was to construct a m od e l
which could be used by intermediate

districts

ing instructional improvement services.

in d e v e l o p ­

D a t a were

collected by means of s e m i st r uc t ur e d inter views
with various sources.
three headings:

c on d ucted

Data were t h e n c a te g or i ze d u nd e r

ge neral i n f o r m a t i o n ; q u e s t i o n s ; and

Issues.
D a t a categor i ze d under the h e a d i n g of g eneral
information we re analyzed in such a m a n n e r as to e x tract
that in formation esse ntial to pr o vi d i n g a general u n d e r ­
standing of the nature of the study.

D a t a ca t eg o ri z ed

under the h e ad i ng of questions were a na lyzed in order to
isolate those qu estions to wh ic h i n t e r m ed i at e school d i s ­
tricts should direct their a tt e n t i o n in the d e v e l o p me n t
of instructional improvement

services.

112

The m e t h o d of

113
analysis

consisted of I s o l a t i n g only those Identif i ed as

being o f crucial c on cern to the develop m en t
tional improv e me n t
heading of issues
which var ious

services.

of i n s t r u c ­

D a t a c at e go r iz e d u n d e r the

i nc luded a listing of th ose issues

sources i de n ti f i e d as likely

fronted by r e o r g a n i z e d d i s t r i c t s .

to be co n ­

The analysis

con­

sisted of i s ol a t i n g those issues wh i ch directly affected
the deve lopment

of i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement services.

S e c t i o n I:

G e neral I nf o rm a ti o n

T hi s se c t i o n will be d ev o te d to a p r e s e n t a t i o n
and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of those d a t a which were
to be of a g e n er a l I n f o r m a t i o n nature.
sented includ d e s c r i p ti o ns
trict v is ited, pr o gr a ms

considered

D a t a to be p r e ­

of each i n termediate d i s ­

and services provided, n u mb e r

and category of c u r r i c u l u m p e r s o nn e l employed, that ser ­
vice and category of c u r r i c u l u m pe r so n ne l deemed the
most Im p or t a nt

to pr o v i d e

first, and that service or

pr ogram d ee m ed the most e f fe ct i ve for m a k i n g entry

into

the local schools.
D escrip t io n of Each
District V isited
Wayne Coun ty I n t er m ed i at e
School D i st r ic t
W a y n e Coun ty I n t e r me d ia t e School District was
re prese ntative of the f o l l o w i n g category:

"A mi x tu r e of

114

large-sized local school districts

and satellite d i s ­

tricts situated in an ar ea that

could be c l as s if i ed as

being urban as well as rural."

As Table 3 in dicates

this in te rmediate district comprises 622 square miles.
It has 39 local school d i st ricts wit h a total of 1,023
school buildings.
the district.

28,000 teachers

are emp loyed w i t h i n

It has a total of 71 0,245 students

with

578,193 b e in g public school students and 132,052 b e i n g
non-public school s t u d e n t s .
district is $10 ,097,690 ,344.

The v a lu a t i o n of this
W i t h i n Its b o u n d a r i e s is

located the City of Detroit.
Oakland I ntermediate
School District
Oa kland Interm e di a te School District was r e p r e s e n t a ­
tive of the f ol l owing category:

" L a r g e- s iz e d local school

districts that have long b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d an d are s i t u ­
ated In an area that could be

c l a s s i fi e d as ur ban."

Table 3 Indicates, this in t er m ed i at e d is t r i c t
900 square miles.

It has

It e mp l oy s

‘ There are a total of 258,000

12,000

students,

public school students and 30,000 n on - pu b l i c
students.

comprises

28 local school di s tr i c t s with

a total of 400 school buildings.
teachers.

As

228,000

school

This district has a v a l u a t i o n of a little more

than $3,000,000,000.

The City of P ontiac is located

within the boundaries

of the interm ed i at e d is t ri c t s , and

the district bo rders the City of D et r oi t on the north.

TABLE 3.— Summary table of general data for intermediate districts in the study.

Number of Number
Area
of
District
Local
(Square Miles)
Districts Teachers

Number
of Students
Public

NonPublic

Number of
School
Buildings

Valuation of
the
District

1,023

$ 1 0 ,0 9 7 ,6 9 0 ,3 M

622

39

28,000

578,193 132,052

Oakland

900

28

12,000

228,000

30,000

400

Calhoun

800

11

1,600

3^,850

2,140

81

$

48M,011,&Ml

2,070

7

290

7,160

495

19

$

155,372,555

115

Wayne

COOR

Note:

Data were provided by the superintendent at each intermediate
district visited.

$ 3,000,000,000

116
The smallest local school di s t r i c t has

an en r ol l me n t

of

1,*100 pupils .
COOR Intermediate
School District
This interm e di a te sc ho ol d is t ri c t was
tive of the following category:
school districts

representa­

" S mall-sized local

situated in an area that

could be

classified as b e i n g rural and e m b r a c i n g no m u n i c i p a l i ­
ties of any

consequence."

Table

3 in d icates that this

district covers approxi m at e ly

2,070 square miles.

finds only 7 school d i st ricts

located in fou r diffe rent

counties.

One

The interm e di a te distric t has 7,655 students,

7,160 public school students and 495 n o n - p u b l i c students.
The district has a v al u at i on of $155,372,555.
trict has 19 buildings and 290 t e a c h e r s .

The d i s ­

The four

counties co mprising the COOR Interm e di a te D is t ri c t i n ­
clude Crawford, Oscoda, Ogemaw,

and Roscommon.

Calhoun In termediate
School District
Cal houn Intermediate S c h o o l Distr ic t was r e p r e ­
sentative, of the follow i ng category:
school districts

"M e di u m- s iz e d local

embracing a large m u n i c i p a l i t y and

situated in an area that could be c la s si f ie d as b e i n g
urban as w e ll as rural."

T able

district covers an ar ea of about

3 indicates

that this

800 square miles wi th

the City of Battle Cr eek l ocated w i t h i n its boundaries.

117
Eleveh di stricts ma ke up the in t er m ed i at e district.
has 81 b u il d in g s

and 1,600 teachers.

of 37,000 students,

There are a total

34,850 p u blic school studen ts

2,140 n o n- p ub l ic school students.

It

and

This district has

a v a lu a ti o n of $484,011,841.
Programs and Services
Provided
Table 4 lists

the p r og r a m s

and services

each interm e di a te d i strict visited.

found at

D at a suggest that

local di s tricts e m p l o y i n g c u r r i c u l u m p e r s o n n e l and
e mphasizing i n s t r u c t i o n a l im p rovement,
access to great numbers
and services of a highly

in turn, have

of i nt e rm e di a te district pro grams
s p e c i a l i z e d nature.

Both Wayne

County and O a k l a n d I n t e r m e di a te S ch o ol Di s tricts have
constituent school di s tricts
instru ctional improvement.
two int ermediate d is t ricts
districts become

large e nough to p rovide for
Persons

i n t e rv i ew e d at these

commented that as local school

capable of p r o v i d i n g for their own

instructional improvement they b e g i n to r e co gnize the ir
own limitations and turn to the i n t e r me d ia t e district for
more programs and s e r v i c e s .

T hese p r ograms and services

are highly specialized.
D a t a suggest that
large enough to p r ovide

local districts wh i ch are not
for t h e i r own in s tr u ct i on a l

Improvement have access to fewer Interm e di a te district
programs and services.

Programs and services w h ic h are

118

T A B L E 4 . — S u m m a r y t a b l e of i n s t r u c t i o n a l
programs provided by each intermediate

Wayne

County

Intermediate

A s s i s t C e n t e r ( T i t l e III)
Action Programs
Information Services
Materials Production
Staff Development
Curriculum Development
Data Processing
Disadvantages Youth
Educational Television
Elementary Education
Federal Grant A ssistance
Home E conomics
G uidance and C o u n s e l i n g
Health E d u c a t i o n
Instructional Materials
Oakland

Calhoun

COOR

School

District

School

District

Instructional Materials Center
Vocational Education
Federal Programs Consultant
Data Processing
E . P . I . C . ( T i t l e III)
Educational Planning
to I m p r o v e the C o m m u n i t y

Intermediate

Instructional Media Center
(12 c o u n t y a r e a s )
Program Coordination
Data Processing
In-service Education Programs

District

M e a s u r e m e n t s and G u i d a n c e
Program Evaluation
Special Projects
Library
Professional Library
Educational Media
W o r k s h o p s and C o n v o c a t i o n s
In-service
Data Processing Services

Intermediate

Area Studies
Teacher Recruitment
In-service E d u c ation (Teachers
and B o a r d s o f E d u c a t i o n )
Arranges University E x t e n s i o n
Courses

School

Paraprofessional Programs
R e a d i n g a nd L a n g u a g e A r t s
Research
School Facilities Planning
School Law
Science
Secondary Education
Shared Learning
School Studies
Vocational and Technical Ed u ca t i o n
S t a d i s ( Ti tl e III)
State-wide Dissemination
In-service Education

Intermediate

L a n g u a g e A r t s ( T i t l e III)
Mathematics
English
Reading Clinic
Reading Consultants
Science
Social Studies
Systematic Studies (Research)
Vocational Education

i m p r o v e m e n t s e r v i c e s a nd
d i s t r ic t in the study.

School District

119
provided by the in t er m ed i at e district
nature.

are general

in

Both Calhoun and C OO R I nt e rm e di a te Districts

have constituent

school districts w h i c h are unable to

provide for t h e i r own i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement.

Per­

sons in t e r v i e w e d at these two i n te r me d ia t e districts
commented that th e ir constituent
quired as s is t an c e

school districts

of a ge n e r a l nature.

re­

What appears

to

be occu rring is that the small local di s trict ne e d i n g
the most help have

less

and services than does

access to intermediate p r ograms
the large

local district.

Num ber and Ca t egory of
Curricu l um P er s o n n e l
Found in Each District
Ta ble

5 shows that COOR Interme d ia t e School D i s ­

trict h a d a to t al of three consultants
they conside r ed to be Genera l is t s.

on their staff who

C a l h o u n Intermediate

School D is trict h ad a total of e le v en cons ultants

on

their staff a n d all w er e c o ns i de r ed to be G e n e r a l i s t s .
Wayne County I n t e r m e d i a t e School District h a d a to tal
of t w enty-eight c o n s u l t a n t s .
Generalists,

W a y n e County had e l e v e n

t h i r t e e n S pe c i a l i s t s ,

and four Change Agents.

Oakland I n t e r m e di a te S c ho o l D is t ri c t h a d a total of
f orty-seven c o n s u l t a n t s .
be Specialists

Fo r t y - f i v e were c o ns i de r ed to

and two we re Generalists.

B ecause of the constit u en c y

of COOR,

consultants

having a general b a c k g r o u n d in c u r r i c u l u m de velopment

TABLE 5.— Summary table of responses regarding instructional improvement services and curriculum personnel.

Unit of
Analysis

Most Important
First Service
to Provide

The First Consultant
to be Hired

Generalist (K-12)

Most Effective Service
or Trogram Which Provides
Entry into the Local
Schools for the
Consultantsa

Services
Desired
but not
Presently
Provided^

Instructional
Improvement
is Seen as a
Function of
Intermediate
Districts

Present Curriculum
Personnel Employed
(Number and Type)

3

—

Yes

Media Center of
Generalist (K-12)
Staff Development (Specialist in InService)

Media and Staff
Development

Yes

11

—

Wayne

Staff Development Specialist
(Academic Area)

Determination of Needs

Yes

11

13

Oakland

Content Specialists (Content
Area Help)

Content Area Assistance

Yes

2

1(5

Media Center

Calhoun

Intermediate Media and
Supts.
Diagnostic
Reading Help

Specialist
(Academic Area)

Yes

Specialist
Reading and Content Area
(Reading and Academic)

University
"Experts"

Staff Development Specialist
(In-Service
Education)

State
"Experts"

Media Center if
Generalist (K-12)
not found locally

Local
Supts.

Materials Center

Yes

Yes

Leadership of District
(Competent personnel &
Communication)

Generalist (K-12)

Program
Development
(K-12)

aNo response was sought from the state "experts" or the local superintendents on this item.
b0nly the local superintendents were asked to respond to this item.

Yes

3
11

^

28

120

Media

COOR

121
(K-12) were deemed appropriate.

The districts

of Calhoun

and Oakland have school distri c ts r e q u i r i n g a h i g h e r
level of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n t h a n was the case with COOR.
Calhoun, however, does not require t he level of s p e c i a l i ­
zation that Oa k la n d requires.

C al houn has el ected to

provide g en e r a l co nsultative service w i th concen t ra t io n
on the pr ocess of change.
to access

Oakland, however, has decided

(i.e. provide) the local schools

in its d i s ­

trict with hi g h level specialists w i t h c o n c e n tr a ti o n on
the process of change.

Wayne Cou nty I n termediate School

District, h a v i n g a mix of small anr large local school
districts, has
generalists,

el ected to pro vide a pr o du c t m ix of

specialists,

and change

agents.

The change

agents were found to be w o r k i n g in the ar ea of staff
development.
Service and Category of
Curriculum Personnel
Deemed the Most
Important to Provide
First
E x a m i n a t i o n of T able 5 indi cates that the most
important service to pr ovide first was dependent u po n the
nature of the constituency.

C O O R and Calhoun Intermediate

Districts have constituent districts w hi c h lacked s u p p l e ­
mentary i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e d i a ma te rials because of the cost
factor involved.

Thus, these in t er m ed i at e districts

de termined that the most important first service was that

122
of p r o v i d i n g m a te rials which w o u l d s u p p l e m e n t
local school di stricts

could p r o v i d e

on th e i r own.

Way n e County and O a k l a n d I n t e r m e d i a t e
tricts, however,

that w h ic h

School D i s ­

had co n st i tu e nt s w h i c h did not require

access to services

of a m e d i a n a tu r e b e c a u s e of the a v a i l ­

ability of these services w i t h i n t h e i r own districts.
The most important

service r e q u i r e d for these d i st r ic t s

was that of staff d e ve l op m en t help.

All of the c o n ­

stituent di s tricts were d e t e r m i n e d to re q uire

staff

development help but evi dence I n d i c a t e d b o t h a lack of
time and e x pe rtise to p e r f o r m it.
The da t a suggest that the most i m p o r t a n t s e rvice
to provide wi l l vary f r o m i n t e r m e d i a t e d is trict

to

intermediate district

of ea ch

district,

if it is b a s e d u p o n needs

since these needs are d i f f e r e n t

in ty pe and

priority.
Local and I nt e r m e d i a t e sc h oo l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
interviewed cited two services

as b e i n g the m os t im p or t an t

to pr ovide first.

m e d i a centers,

They were:

tic re a d i n g c e n t e r s .

and d i a g n o s ­

M e d i a h e l p was d e e m e d im p or t an t

because it w o u l d help teachers do a b e t t e r job of c l a s s ­
room teaching.
deemed im p ortant
intendent

D i a g n o s t i c r e a d i n g centers we re
to provide.

One i n t e r m e d i a t e

also
super­

cited ev i de n ce of severe r e a d i n g p ro b l e m s

school c hi l d r e n In constituent

sc h o o l di stricts.

among

He

believed that constituent s chool d i s t r i c t s w o u l d b e ne f it

123
from a regio na l di a gn o st i c r e a d i n g center.

In most cases

the local di s trict is u nable to p ro v i d e the ne cessary
expertise to r es olve severe r ea d in g problems.
di agnostic r e a d i n g center w o u l d per mit

A re gional

every local d i s ­

trict the o p p o r tu n it y to avail i t se l f of e x p e r t i s e not
available w i t h i n its own district.

This su p er i nt e nd e nt

stated that this service wo u ld most

likely be used since

every school district has re a di n g problems.
State and Univers i t y
mediate d i st ricts
because most

"experts" b el i e v e d the i n t e r ­

should pr ovide m e d i a centers first

local school districts

vide t he i r own center and b e cause

are unable to p r o ­

it is n ec e ss a ry

for

teachers to h a v e access to good m e d i a and m a t e r i a l s
In struc tional purposes.

These same

"experts"

development as b e i n g a no t h e r import ant

for

saw staff

area b e ca u s e of

the need for teachers to d e velop ne w t e a c h i n g approaches.
T ab l e 5 shows that COOR I n t e r me d ia t e Di s trict
would first p r o v i d e
cause of the

a curriculum generalist

(K-12).

Be­

lack of any c u rr ic u l u m he lp of any c o n s e ­

quence w i t h i n the local co nstit uents,
a need to p r o v i d e

this distr ic t saw

access to c u r r i c u l u m assista n ce

of a

general n a t u r e .
C al h ou n w o u l d also select a c u r r i c u l u m g e n e r al i st
as the first

consultant to provide.

This i n te r me d ia t e

district, like that of COOR, is made up of many
districts l a cking any kind of c u r r i c u l u m help.

small

124
Both Wayne County and O a k l a n d I n t e rm e di a te D i s ­
tricts saw a need to first pr ovide c u r r i c u l u m s p e c i a l ­
ists to their consti tuents.

Both of these i n te r me d ia t e

districts have hi g hl y s o p h i s t ic a te d
stituents.

local school c o n ­

The h ighly s o p h i s t i c a t e d district usually

has its own g en e ra l is t s and need to access sp e c i a l i z e d
consultative he lp in aca demic areas.
Inter me d ia t e school district s u pe r i n t e n d e n t s wo u ld
first provide re a d i n g s p e c i a l i s t s .

Th ey b e l i e v e d re a di n g

specialists to be a service w h i c h w o u l d p ro v id e the
greatest he lp to the g re atest n u m b e r children.

They

also p o i n t e d out that re a d i n g was one a r ea w h e r e all
schools need help and improvement.
The u n i v e r s i t y

"experts"

see in-service

ists as the first type to be provided.

special­

Specia l is t s

in

in-service e d u c a t i o n are seen as be i n g e ss e n t i a l to
staff de velopment p ro g ra m s
The state

"experts"

curriculum g eneralist

for the local scho ol teachers.
saw a need to first p rovide

assist an c e to local schools.

reason gi ven was that most

The

schools in M i c h i g a n re quire

curricular help of a general nature.

The state

also b e l i e v e that i n t e r m e di a te di st ricts

"experts"

s hould contract

for the services of s pecialists th r ough the colleges and
universities r at h er th an h i r i n g th e i r own specialists.

125
Mos t E f f e c t iv e Se rv ice
for G ai n i n g Entry
(Consultants )"
COOR and C al h ou n I n t e r ­
mediate Districts
Tab l e 5 shows that r e so u rc e m e d i a services w e re
found to be a highly ef f ective service to p ro v id e entry
for the c u r ri c u l u m consultants.

C o n s u lt a nt s w o ul d use

this service to b r i n g e d u c a t io n al m a t e r i a l s

and m e d i a

to the a t t e n t i o n of local school fa culties and then use
this as a means of i de n t i f y i n g and a t t a c ki n g p r oblems
a ff e ct i ng i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement.

M e d i a services

a ppeared to h el p d ev e lo p a good image for the i n t e r ­
mediate district.

Teachers p e r c e i v e d it as b e i n g n o n ­

t hr e at e ni n g and helpful.

T h u s 3 teachers be c am e re c eptive

to help from c u r r i c u l u m consultants b e c a u s e of the succ ess
of the m e d i a services.
Wayne County I n t e r ­
mediate Dis trict
T ab l e 5 shows that the pe rsons

in t e r v i e w e d in this

district b e li e v e d the most ef f ec ti v e service in w h i c h to
provide entry

for c ur r ic u l u m con sultants was that of

i nv o lving the

community in a d e t e r m i n a t i o n of n e e d s .

The involve m en t o f local co ns tituents

in m a tt e rs a f f e c t ­

ing them helps to create an enviro nm e nt

in which the

i ntermediate d is t r i c t is p e r c e i v e d as b e i n g n o n ­
threatening.

W a y n e County In t er m ed i at e b e l i e v e d local

126
constituents w o u l d se ek c u r r i c u l a r assista n ce more
readily w h e n it was p e r c e i v e d as b ei n g n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g
to the local constituents.
Oa kland In te rmediate
District
Ta ble

5 shows that O ak l a n d ' s

most effective

service in w h ic h to pr o vi d e entry for its

curriculum consu ltants was
ance.

sta ff b e l i e v e d the

that

of co ntent area a s s i s t ­

Local c onstituents were be l ie v ed m or e likely to

seek services of a s p e c i a l i z e d nature and, In turn, use
the curri cu l um s p ecialists p r o v i d e d in t h os e areas.
State

"Experts"
Table 5 shows that

state

"experts" b e l i e v e d that

the mos t e ff e ct i ve ser vice an i n t e r m e d i a t e district

can

provide for entry of its consu ltants is that of l e a d e r ­
ship.

L e a d e r s h i p was m e n t i o n e d as being n e ce s s a r y to

attract competent c u r r i c u l u m c onsultants w h o w o ul d be
accessed by the constituents.

L ea d er s h i p was also seen

as being important in the area of es t a b l i s h i n g effect ive
systems of c o m m u n i c a t i o n in order that local constituents
become aware o f the c o ns u l t a t i v e help available.

It was

stated that if local c o ns t it u en t s know about consultative
help and if those consultants

are seen as being competent

by the local c o n s t i t u e n t s , they will be a cc e s s e d by the
local c o n s t i t u e n t s .

127
S e c t i o n II:

Q u es t io n s

The use of s e m i s t r u c t u r e d I n t e r v i e w i n g wi t h the
different sources

identified e ar l ie r r e s u l t e d in the

collection of numero us quest ions
others.

and the su g ge s ti o n of

D a ta were compiled in a m a s t e r list u n d e r the

general h e a d i n g of q u e s t i o n s .
examined in ord er to isolate

This m a s t e r list then was

those

crucial concern to the develop m en t
pr ovement services

considered to be of
of i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m ­

at the in te r me d ia t e district

Analysis re s u l t e d in is o la t io n of ten questions
intermediate school districts

level.
to w hi c h

sh ou ld d ir e ct a tt e nt i on

in the de ve lopment of i ns t ru ct i on a l improv em e nt

services.

This s e ction will be d ev o te d to a p r e s e n t a t i o n and
i nt e r pr e ta t io n of ten i so l at e d q u e s t i o n s .
tions i so l a t e d included:

(1) What i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e ­

ment services need to be pr o vided?
needs);

(Present and future

(2) How does an i nt e rm e di a te di s t r i c t de t er m in e

the needs?;

(3) What factors

contribute to i n s t r u c ti o na l

improvement services b e i n g a cc essed by
tricts?;

The ten q u e s ­

constituent d i s ­

(4) How are i n s t r u c t i o n a l improv e me n t servic es

evaluated?;

(5) How do consu ltants make entry into the

local schools?;

(6) What means are a v ai lable to i n t e r ­

me diate dist ricts to develop a process

of s e l f - r e n e w a l ? ;

(7) How do i n termediate districts p r o m o t e an image w h i c h
is both po sitive and n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g ? ; (8) What i m p l i c a ­
tions does the size of a local sch ool di s trict h a ve on

128
Instructional improv em e nt
mediate district?;

services p r o v i d e d by the i n t e r ­

(9) H o w does

an i n t e rm e di a te district .

ensure that once a c ooperative instru ct i on a l improvement
service has b e e n im plemented,

local dis tricts won't

threaten w i t h d r a w a l of f in a nc i al support?;
course of a ction should

and

i n t e r m ed i at e districts

they p e rceive a need w h i c h local districts

(10) What
take if

fail to

recognize?
1.
What I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Improvement Services Need
to be Provided? (Present
and F uture Needs)
The da t a co l lected in this study in d i c a t e that a
legitimate fun ction of an intermediate distr i ct

is to

provide i n s t r u c t i o n a l i mprovement services to its c o n­
stituents .

In order to p r o v i d e approp ri a te i n s t r u ct i on a l

improvement services , the int ermediate d i strict must
identify p resent and future needs of its constituents.
Thus,

an important

plan ning consists

function b e comes
largely

one of planning.

This

in d e v e l o p i n g some me ans of

id entif ication of the needs of local c o n s t i t u e n t s .
It was found that the needs of one p a r t i c u l a r d i s ­
trict are not n e c e s s a r i l y
intermediate district.

the same as those of another

The needs of a district

small local school districts

havi ng

are not the same as those

of an inter m ed i at e di s trict ha v i n g large local. s ch o ol
districts.

Persons

I n t e r v i e w e d ex p re s s e d the o pinion

129
that any In t e r m e d i a t e district that provid e s services
m od e le d a f te r a nother i n te r me di a te district h a v i n g d i s ­
similar needs is

"doomed to failure."

2.
H o w Does an I n t e r ­
mediate District
Determine the N e e d s ?
D a t a suggest that many techniques are av ailable
to intermediate districts
Two means
(i.e.

identi fi e d were:

for d e t e r m i n a t i o n of needs.
external d e t e r m i n a t i o n

cooperative p l a n n i n g groups, or r ef e rence groups),

and int ernal d e t e r m i n a t i o n

(i.e.

i n te r me d ia t e staff).

External D e t e r m i n a t i o n
of Needs
Externa l ly ,

in t ermediate districts de t er m i n e needs

through cooperative p l a n n i n g groups
involving both the interm e di a te

and re f erence groups

and local dis trict staff

members.
Cooperative Planning
Groups
A cc o r d i n g to persons i n t e r v i ew e d at the In t e r m e d i a t e
district

level,

the most effective means

available to an

intermediate district in d e t e r m i n a t i o n of needs
constituents is to "go to them."

of its

The local constit u en t s

are in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n to know what t h ei r own needs are.
Two int ermediate distr icts w h ic h were vi sited h a d e s t a b ­
lished cooperative p l a n n i n g g r o u p s .

Both c ooperative

130
p l an n in g groups were

composed of nearly

one hu ndred p e r ­

sons r e p r e s e n t i n g a c ro s s - s e c t i o n of the intermediate
district's

constituency.

administrators,
lay-public.

These groups in c luded teachers,

students, business,

industry,

and the

The coop erative p l a n n i n g group d ev e loped a

list of needs ov er a pe r i o d of a year.
included both pr esent

and future needs.

listed in p ri ority of importance.

Thus,

The

list of needs

These were then
a list of needs

was identi f ie d w h i c h were seen as b e i n g most important
to constituents.

This

districts w i t h a means
vices to provide.

list p r ov i d e d the i nt ermediate
of de t e r m i n i n g a p pr o pr i at e s e r ­

A key w o r k seemed to be that of

INVOLVEMENT.
Re ference Groups
A no t h e r e ff e ctive way identified, in w h i c h to
determine the needs of an in termediate district, was
that of e s t a b l i s h i n g r ef e re n ce groups.
group was

A r ef e re n ce

found to be either formal or informal.

Form al re f erence g r o u p s .— Most persons
b elieved that form al groups

can be most import ant in

obtaining da t a about current and future needs
ceived by the local constituents.
specific services were
formal g r o u p s .

as p e r ­

Most requests

found to result directly

The f o l l ow i ng types

ones d eemed important

I nt e rv i ew e d

for
from

of formal groups were

for I n t e r me d ia t e p e r s o n n e l to be

1 31
involved with on a regio na l basis:
associations;
intendents'
directors

p r i n c i p a l s ’ as s oc iations';

associations;

n e g o t i at i ng teams;

assist a nt s u p e r ­

c u r r i c u l u m d i r e c t o r s ’ groups;

of m e d i a groups;

d epartment

c h ai r ma n groups;

school b o a r d s ' a s s o c i a t i o n s ; d a t a

p r o c e s s i n g directors;
Most persons

superintendents’

and guidance directors'

groups.

interv ie w ed i nd i cated that if these

groups

did not exist then the i nt e r m e d i a t e d is trict should p e r ­
form a fa c i l i t a t i n g role in e s t a b l i s h i n g these groups.
It was

found that

in termediate p e r s o n n e l were

directly involved in the leadership of the above listed
county-wide r ef e rence groups.

They s erved as e xe c ut i ve -

secretaries of the groups and provi d ed such services to
their p a r t i c u l a r reference groups
d is t ri b ut i on of minutes,

as ty ping of minutes,

a r r a n gi n g programs

for their

group, and s c h e d ul i ng m e et i ng s w i t h i n the inter me d ia t e
district's facilities.

Not only does this type of group

help In d e t e rm i ni n g the p e r c e i v e d needs of local c on ­
stituents but it also pr o v i d e s

a means

for the i n t e r ­

mediate p er s o n n e l to "plant seeds" about ne eds w hi c h
they p e r c e i v e d as being Important to the local schools.
One interm ed i at e district

su p er i nt e nd en t re f e r r e d to this

as "stacking the deck for the future in a po s i t i v e
m a n n e r ."
Info rmal g r o u p s ;--Somet i me s an i n t e r m ed i at e d i s ­
trict was found to collect d a t a about nee ds through

132
i nterac t io n w i t h i nf o rm a l groups.

The i n t e r m e d i a t e

con­

sultant sometimes was i n f o r m e d of a need or r e c o g n i z e d
a need, not pr e vi o u s l y

i d e n t if i ed I n his re ference group,

during i n t e r a c t i o n w i th a group of teachers w h il e p r e ­
se nting a p r o g r a m of i n- s er vi c e e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n a local
district.
Internal D e t e r m i n a t i o n
of Needs
Internally,

the in t e r m e d i a t e distri ct

can d e t e r m i n e

needs th rough i n t e r a c t i o n a mo n g its own staff.

Many

times the i nt e rm e d ia t e s taff can b es t id e nt i fy needs
local di stricts
recognize.

fail to recognize

D a t a suggest that

limit themselves
district needs

or do not w a n t to

local districts

tend to

to looking only at t h e i r own i n d i v i du a l

and not in terms of r eg i on a l n e e d s .

intermediate staff was

found best able to address

The

Itself

to a d e t e r m i na t io n of long-ra n ge needs w i t h i n the I n t e r ­
mediate district.

This resu lts

be tt er able to pr oject

largely b ecause they are

themselves into a r eg i o n a l outlook.

In te rmediate s t af f m embers w e re found to use their
own refere nce group to collect d a t a about needs
"plant se eds."

and to

This en tails d e v e l o p i n g p ro g rams, w he r eb y

the need w h i c h the i n t e r m ed i at e staff b e lieve to be
Important is
districts.

"created" as b e i n g I m po rtant to local school
Th o se needs d i s c o v e r e d in the I n formal and

133
formal r e f e r e n c e groups
with other me mbers

are r e layed to and d i s c u s s e d

of the intermediate staff.

All i n termediate d i st ricts v i s i t e d cited the i m ­
portance of e s t a b l i s h i n g some means of p ri o r i t y
of the d e t e r m i n e d needs.

for each

D a t a suggest that the fo l lowing

could be used by an intermediate d i st r ic t in e s t a b l i s h i n g
the pri ority of n e e d s :
1.

Is it one that

can be done w el l yet meet the

great es t need or demand?
c h l l d r e n s teachers,

(Does it affect

or schools?)

2.

Is it a service that is n e e d e d regionally?

3.

Do local dist ricts have a need for it?

4.

Do local districts

5.

Has an awareness for the need b e en created?

6.

Can the in t e r m e d i a t e district pr o vi d e this

see a n ee d for it?

service w i th m i n i m u m d i s l o c a t i o n and expense?
7.

Is this

service w i thin the Interm e di a te d i s ­

t r i c t ’s a re a o f sovereignty?
3.
What Fa ctors Co n tr i bu t e
to Instru ct i on a l Improvement
Services B ei n g A c ce s se d by
Constituent Districts?
D a t a suggest that

local districts

avail themselves

only of those i n s t r u c t i o n a l impro v em e nt

services which

they know about and w h ic h they pe r ce i ve

as b e i n g of

importance In m e e t i n g the needs of their district.

Thus,

those i n st r u ct i on a l i mprovement services d e v e l o p e d to

1 3 2*
meet a n e ed as i d e n ti f ie d by the local districts t h e m ­
selves have

a m uc h g re a te r chance of b e i n g a c c e s s e d than

ones w h i c h are not seen as m e e t i n g a n e ed i d e n t i f i e d by
local districts.
It was found im portant for the i nt e r m e d i a t e d i s ­
trict to e s t a b li s h systems
and local districts,

of co m mu n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n itself

in order that local di s tr i ct s bec ome

aware of services available.
fall to access

Many times

local districts

services be c au s e they do not know about

them.
Dr. W i l l i a m Em e r s o n of Oa k la n d I n te r me d ia t e D i s ­
trict believes

that a local district also w i l l not

"access itself to a d u p l i c a t i o n of effort, redun dancy,
generality,

or low level capability."

He also believes

that an in t e r m e d i a t e district has four options w i t h i n
its operations

strategy.

A.

Access the consti t ue n cy to h i gh levels of
s p e c i a l iz e d e d u c a ti o na l pr a ct i ce (clinical
o p e r a t i o n s );

B.

Access the constituency to high levels of
p r e p a r a t i o n and experience by those h a v i n g
competence in discrete academic fields
(consultancies);

C.

Access the constituency to high level
collections of p r o f e s s i o n a l m e d i a and
bib l i o g r a p h y referency;

D.

Access the c onstituency to high levels of
technology (computers in t e le p r o c e s s i n g
mode and t e ch nical consultancies)

135
Local sch ool districts
change.

are contin u al l y inv olved in

T e x t b o o k s e le c ti o n is only one example.

school districts

Local

ap pear always to be in need of help in

arriving at answers to such questi ons

as:

1.

W hich method, technique, or te x tb o ok
s hould local districts adopt?

2.

How do

3.

How do local districts decide w h i c h of the
diffe re n t me t ho ds , techni q ue s , or textbooks
to go for?

4.

W h i c h o p t i o n of i n s t a l l a t i o n s h ou l d local
distr ic t s apply?

5.

H o w do local districts d ecide w hich f or m of
e v a l u a t i o n to use, once it is adopted?

local

districts in stall it?

I ns t ru c ti o na l improvement

services w h i c h help to

answer the above questions would u n d o u b t e d l y be accessed
by constituents
viewed.

a c co rding to i n te r me d ia t e staff i n t e r ­

If a service was c on s id e re d to be g o o d , con­

sistent , and p r e d i c t a b l e , local districts we re found to
access it.
Sover ei g nt y ivas another fa ctor found to affect
accessing of in s tr u c t i o n a l i mprovement
districts.

Both the local

they possess

services by local

constituent district

intermediate di s trict has sovereignty.

the

and the

Th at is to say,

certain powers and authority wh i c h may not

be divided, shared, or p ar c el l ed out to o t h e r agencies.
Relationships b e t w e e n sovere ign c o rporations must be

136
cooperative in ord er for i n s t r u ct i on a l i m p r o ve m en t s e r ­
vices to be accessed.
Once an i n st r u c t i o n a l improvement

service is

developed and available to local school d is t ri c ts it must
not be wasted.

Resources p ro v i d e d by the i n te r me d ia t e

district w h ic h a br idged the s overeignty
trict were found to be wasted.

of the local d i s ­

The local di strict must

determine the w o r k to be done, h o w and w h e n it is to be
done, and who else it is to involve.
ent district that ma i ntains
work becomes

effective.

It is the c o n s t i t u ­

the en v i r o n m e n t w h e r e the

Thus,

it is im p er a t i v e that the

intermediate distri c t does its b us iness w i t h the c o n ­
stituent district
his direction.

in the co n stituent's

The local district

context

and under

so vereignty will not

be abridged if this is done.
Ano t h e r fact or identif i ed was that of the p o w e r
structure of the local school d i s t r i c t s .

One in t er m ed i at e

school district v i si t ed had a large local school district
whose p o w e r s t r uc t ur e r es t ri c t e d usage of i nt e rm e di a te
district services.

This local district b e l i e v e d that

they n eeded little h e lp from outside sources since they
believed that they already h ad the ne c es s ar y i n s t r u c ­
tional improvement resources.

This

local district

denced failure to best util ize their own resources

evi­
and

appeared to be so unsure of itself as not w i l l i n g to
access service

from outside sources.

A lt h ou g h this local

137
district's p o w e r structure was not a c c e s s i n g services,

or

encou ra g in g Its t e a c h i n g s t a f f to access services,
teachers we r e u s i n g some services

anyway.

^ . How are I ns t ru c ti o na l
Improvement Services
Evaluated?
All I n t e r m ed i at e di stricts v is i t e d e x p r e s s e d great
concern r e g a r d i n g the m a t t e r of evaluation.

Evaluation

was found to be n e ce ssary for d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r an
existing i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m pr o ve me n t service n eeded to be
modified or spun-off.
techniques

E v i d e n c e colle ct e d suggest several

are av ailable for use by i n termediate d i s ­

tricts .
Internal E v a l u a t i o n
Q u a n t i t a t i v e .— All i n t e r m ed i at e districts v i si t ed
quantified both the nu m be r and type of requests r e ce i ve d
for a p a r t i c u l a r service.

This t a b u l a t i o n p r o v i d e d some

evidence c o n c e r n i n g the success
or service.
consultants

of a p a r t i c u l a r p r o g r a m

The number of visits made by the different
as w el l as the persons v i s i t e d also was

found to p r ov i de evidence of p r o g r a m success

or failure.

The different types of assista nc e p r o v i d e d to local
schools was

also I d en t i f i e d as b e i n g anot her means of

evaluation of p r og r a m s

and services.

Q u a l i t a t i v e .— All In t er m ed i at e d i st ricts v i sited
indicated that studies

and surveys were

conducted as a

138
means of fo l low-up on how p a r t i c u l a r ser vices were used
and what

changes were e ff e c t e d in the local schools.

In formal f e e d b a c k .— I n t e r a c t i o n w i t h those being
served was a n ot h er means of e v a l u a t i o n identified.
Intermediate di stricts were f ound to go p e r i o d i c a l l y to
those persons u s i n g the services
assess the success
services.

or fa ilure of c ertain p ro grams or

So metimes,

f e ed b ac k r es u l t e d f r o m i nt e r a c t i o n

with constituent teachers
universities w h e r e

and a sking t he m to

at in - se r vi c e m ee t in g s

interm e di a te

or at

staff p e r s o n n e l were

teachers and local co ns tituent teachers w e r e s t u d e n t s .
Advisory g r o u p s .— E s t a b l i s h m e n t of a dv isory groups
for the different s e r v i c e s , e s pe c ia l ly those of a co o p e r a ­
tive nature, w e re i d en t i f i e d by i n t e r m e d i a t e staff m e m ­
bers as b e i n g very important

for evaluation.

Certain

intermediate d is t ricts had e s t a b l i s h e d ad visory g r o u p s .
These advisory g r o u p s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the different
school districts, a d v i s e d and ma de r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
cerning changes ne e de d in the different p r ograms
services.
groups

con ­

and

Th o se i n t e rm e di a te districts h a v i n g advisory

considered t h em to be an effec t iv e means

of

ev aluating i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o ve m en t services.
Outside e v a l u a t i o n .— L it t le e vi d e n c e was found of
intermediate districts

e m p l o y i n g m u c h ou t side evaluation.

Intermediate districts b e l i e v e d this to be a w ea k link
in the I nt ermediate d i s t r i c t ’s e v a l u a t i o n process.

All

139
intermediate districts i n di c at e d that the state d e p a r t ­
ment of e d u c a t i o n s hould be more a c ti v el y i nv olved in
providing guidelines,

standards, an d e v a l u at i ve a s s i s t ­

ance .
Staff e v a l u a t i o n .— D a t a suggest the e s t a b l i sh m en t
of a staff s t ee r i n g committee in each in t er m ed i at e d i s ­
trict.

The staff s t ee r i n g comm ittee could m a ke p e ri o di c

assessment of the programs and services in its district.
One i ntermediate d istrict's staff c on d ucted s elfevaluations

on their own p e r f o r m a n c e

time as one means

over a p e r i o d of

of ev aluation.

5.
How Do Consultants
Make Entry Into the
Local S c h o o l s ?
Dat a collected in this
constituents w i l l access
are able to

study indicates

th emselves

that local

to consultants w h o

help r e so l ve a need p e r c e i v e d as b e i n g i m ­

portant by the local constituents.

Therefore,

inter­

mediate districts h a v i n g consultants on their staff with
a high er level of s p ec i a l i z a t i o n th an the local d i s ­
tricts have

available will be acc essed more qu i ck l y than

will those interm ed i at e dist ricts h a v i n g s p e c i a l i z a t i o n .
equal to or less tha n is available at the local districts.
If a local district fails to access it self th ro ugh
requests to the i nt e rm e di a te district,

the consultant

may need to pursue a st rategy of "aggressive consul ta t io n ."

140
Data Indicate that

local d i st ricts n e e d i n g the most help

are u su a ll y the mo st r el u ctant to call for help.
techniques were

Several,

i d en t i f i e d as a va i la b le to a consultant

in p u r s u i n g a s tr ategy of "aggressive co n sultation."
These techniq u es included:
1.

Enlist the aid of that di strict n e e d i n g help

in the co l le c t i o n of d a ta for a r eg i on a l survey in an
academic area.

Co nsultants

s hould enlist their help in

analyzing the c ol l ec t ed data.
become apparent
district
2.

to them.

The n e ed for help will

Ask t he m if the intermediate

can be of help to them.
P.T.A.

pro grams a p pe a r to be another excellent

way to g a in entry.

C onsultants

s ho u ld get to the p r o ­

gram chairman and arrange to p re sent

a p r o g r a m about

good i n s t r u ct i on a l programs w i t h i n the interm ed i at e d i s ­
trict.

Inform this group of the services

available from

the i n te r me d ia t e office.
3.

C u r r i c u l u m directors

other means

or p r i n c i p a l groups

a v ai lable to g a in entry.

groups provide

are

M e e t i n g wi th these

the consultants w i t h an opportunity to

advance certain po s itive points of view, r e ga r d i n g c u r­
riculum and i ns t r u c t i o n a l m a tt er s

and services

av ailable

from the i n t e r me d ia t e district.
4.
tions."

A n o t h e r t ec h nique is to u t il i ze
Consult a nt s

"human r e l a ­

can invite two cu r r i c u l u m directors
_t

or principals to lunch who have si m i l a r school districts.

141
Talk to one about the success his p r o g r a m Is having.

Let

the o th e r pe r so n t h in k about his own p r o g r a m in co mparison
to his n e i g h b o r ’s.

At a later date,

who needs help in his program.

call the pe r so n up

Let h i m know that you

want to help in his program.
5.

A no t he r technique is to kn o w e v e r y t h i n g which

is going on in the i n t e r m ed ia t e district.
books,

Know the t e x t ­

for example, b ei n g us ed in all local districts.

Inform local districts

that

consultants w il l be glad to

help t h e i r t e x t b o o k s e le c ti o n committee by p ro v i d i n g inservice programs on what is a good t e x t b o o k and they are
selected.

This gives the consultant

an opport un i ty to

slow d o w n the s e l e c ti o n pr o ce d u r e in order to help the
committee to d i s c o v e r new le arning me t h o d s

and receive

special help n e e d e d in d i s c i p l i n e areas.
6.
What Means are Available
to Intermediate Districts to
Develop a Process of
S e l f - r e ne w al ?
One key fa c to r i d e n t i f i e d from the da t a was the
innovativeness

of the i n t e r m e di a te s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

Many

of those i n te r vi e we d stated that the s up e ri n te n de n t mu st
be aware of wh at is g oi n g on in education, w il l i n g to
share his ideas, able to keep his own staff "excited"
and u p-to-date,

and capable of d e v e l o p i n g pride in both

the staff and the organiz ation.

All p er s on s

i nterviewed

cited as an i mp o rtant co n t r i b u t i o n to s e l f - r e n e w a l that

1H2
of superintendents giving ev i de nc e to s t af f of both
support

and autonomy.

E s ta b l i s h m e n t

of an action r e s e a r c h group to try

new things was also ident i fi e d as b e i n g important.

In

many i n termediate districts v i s i t e d federal fu n di n g was
found to pr ovide for the o p p o r t un i ty of t r y i n g so m et h i n g
different.

M a ny persons m e n t i o n e d that such f un d in g

helped the i nt e rm e di a te d is trict to beco me
Intermediate

districts which were

action r e search groups
First,

" r i s k - t a k e r s ."

found to have such

cited two resu lts

of su ch groups.

these groups had a po s it i ve effect on all staff

members.

Secondly,

action r es e ar c h groups g e n e r a t e d ne w

programs for the in t er m ed i at e district.
T h e hi r in g of innovative
identified as being important
persons

staff m e mbers was also
for self-renewal.

from outs ide of the i n t e r m e di a te

who had tra veled a nd/or were
sidered excellent
staff to take

district

area

"hungry" P h . D . ’s w er e c o n ­

for self-renewal.

Encouragement

courses, visit innovative progr a ms ,

at universities,

Th ose

of
teach

and attend state and n a t i o n a l w o r k s h o p s

and conferences was
A no t he r means

also m e n t i o n e d as b e i n g important.
available

which intermediate districts

for d e v e l o p i n g s e l f - r e n e w a l
i d e n t i f i e d was that of ha v i n g

an informed I n t e r m ed i at e board of education.

Sev eral

persons mentioned the i mp o rt a nc e of b o a r d me m be r s
ing state, na t ional

attend­

and r e g i o n a l m e e t i n g s In o r d e r to

143
become b etter aware of In t er m ed i at e re sp onsibilities.
T h u s , b oard members w h o became aware of i n t e r me d ia t e
responsibilities w e re seen as co n t r i b u t i n g to the s e l f ­
renewal of the i n t e r m e d i a t e district.
One i n t e r m ed i at e
retreats

district was found to conduct

for key s ta f f m e m b e r s .

This district used the

retreat to b r a i n - s t o r m new and old ideas and programs.
Oakland I nt e rm e di a te D i st r ic t

conducts two retreats

year, each for a p e r i o d of two days.

a

O t he r int ermediate

districts v i s i t e d were found to h o l d w ee k ly me e ti n gs of
the entire staff;

e n c o u r ag e staff me mbers

se lf-evaluation of their own perfo r ma n ce ;

to conduct
es t ab l is h a

staff s t ee r in g c o mm ittee to ev aluate pr o gr a ms and to
offer r ec o mm e n d a t i o n s

for new programs to be pr o vi d ed

by the i n te r me d ia t e district;
for ev a lu a t i o n of progra m s
D at a suggest that

and util ize outside agencies

and services.

it is e ss e nt i al for the i n t e r ­

mediate district to d e v el o p a flexible po sture in order
to meet c h an g i n g needs.

In order to be flexib le the

intermediate district must itself be Innova t iv e and
receptive to change w i t h i n its own structure.
7.
How Do I n t e rm e di a te D i s ­
tricts Pr omote an Image Which
is Both Positive and N o n ­
t hr e a t e n i n g ?
D at a suggest that i n t e r m ed i at e districts may not
always find this p os s ib l e or necessary.

Persons

144
in terviewed co m mented that
tricts

some things

i n te r me d ia t e d i s ­

attempt to do wi ll se em ne gative and t h r e a te n in g

to ..local constituents.

Th e s e persons did i nd icate that

continuous co m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h the constituents is
necessary and vital.

One thing is clear,

tricts mu st be inv olved in developing,
lists of needs

and s e r v i c e s .

local d i s ­

cooperatively,

To do a ny t hi n g else is to

create an image of a ne g at i ve type.
E x a m i n a t i o n of the d a t a resulted in the i d e n t i f i ­
cation of five things

an int ermediate di strict sh o ul d do

to develop a p o s i t i v e and n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g image.
1.

The interme d i at e district

should pr ovide

services w h ic h d o n ’t t h r e a t e n the local d i s t r i c t ’s
sovereignty.
2.

The i n termediate district

should provide

services which d o n ’t "mess up" the local dis trict

in ­

ternally .
3.

The in termediate district should pr ovide

services which d o n ’t cause fuss,
Many services represent
ministrators.

confusion, or argument.

a threat to local d i strict a d ­

They do not represent a threat to teachers.

They are a threat to local ad ministrators be c a u s e they
have succeeded in the s y st e m as it is t o d a y .

To change

the s y s t e m these administrators w o u l d have to s ucceed
in a new system.
teachers.

They- have more to lose th an do the

Teachers

are not as di c ta t ed by what

the

145
structure i s .

Thus , teache rs can su c c e e d or fail without

too m uc h to worry about.
4.

The i n t e r m e di a te d i s t r i c t ’s activi t ie s

and

servic eability s hould be predictable.
5.
able.

The be n ef i ts to be ga i ne d s ho u ld be p r e d i c t ­

This

is b a se d upon the h i story and ex periences

the intermediate district

of

over a p e ri o d of time.

8.
W ha t Implications Does
the Size of a Local School
District Have on I n s t r u c ­
tional Impro vement Services
Provided by the Inter me d ia t e
District?
Large Local School
Districts
These districts

sometimes

see little n e ed to draw

upon the interm e di a te district r es o urces
districts were seen to w i th draw,

This

size,

at the i n te r me d ia t e

type of district u su a ll y believes

it has the n ec e ss a ry resources
(i.e. wealth,

Some

or t h r e a t e n to withdraw,

financial support of certain programs
district level.

for help.

to meet its own needs

and level of specia li z at i on ) .

These

districts -tend to o ve r - e s t i m a t e both w h a t they are doing
and h o w well they are doing it.

Many p ersons i n t e r v i e w e d

at the local and i n te r me d ia t e level c o mm e nt e d that this
type of district

looks to the i n t e r m e d i a t e di strict for

help of a highly s p e c i a l i z e d nature.

Th ey u su a l l y access

only highly sp e ci a li z ed areas of a hi gh quality nature

146
which they

cannot afford to provide on their own and

which appear to be able to meet a n e e d which they p e r ­
ceive as b e i n g imp ortant.

Da t a su ggest that these d i s ­

tricts tend to look only at needs

in their o w n district

and fail to vie w needs in a regional light.
the resources they do ha ve

In fact,

could be shared w i t h the

smaller school d i st r i c t s w i t h i n the i n t e r me d ia t e district
if they b e l i e v e d in a r eg i o n a l concept, r at h er than a
localized concept .
Small Local School
Districts
These districts u s ua l ly require the m os t help but
make fewer re quests for services.

They a pp e ar to feel

threatened by the interm e di a te district.
the interme d ia t e district as an agency
same financial support

and,

They perceive

competing for the

since lo cal district are

usually too small and lack adequate f in a ncial
provide th e ir o w n services,

support to

express f e ar about the q u ality

and scope of services p r o v i d e d by the i n termediate d i s ­
trict .
M an y p ersons in t e r v i e w e d e x p r e s s e d the o p in i on that
K-12 r e o r g a n i z a t i o n in M i c h i g a n has p r o g r e s s e d slowly
during the last few years, wi th the result that many
districts r e m a i n too small to be eff ective in p ro v iding
their own services.

Ma ny could be c ha r ac t er i ze d as b e i n g

unsophi sticated and, thus,

affects the type of

147
Instru ctional I mprovement

service an I nt ermediate d i s­

trict is likely to provide.

Districts of this type

usually require those services w h i c h a so p hi s t i c a t e d
district already has itse lf and considers basic.
unsophi s ti c at e d district appears
intermediate district
help and services

The

likely to draw u p o n the

for g en e ra l c u rr i c u l u m consultant

of a m e d i a nature.

A fact of life which was i dentified in those i n t e r ­
mediate districts h a v i n g b ot h types of local school d i s ­
tricts was

that the s ma l le r local districts need the

larger d i s t r i c t s ’ financial support more th an the larger
districts need the s m al l er districts'

support.

Dat a

suggest that in order to provide a p r o g r a m in an i n t e r ­
mediate district h a v i n g a large local school di strict
wi th in its b oundaries,

the interm ed i at e d is trict will

need to get that dis trict's

support

first.

In those i n t e r m e di a te di stricts ha v i n g large nu m be r
of large local school districts,

it was found that s e r ­

vices of the i nt e rm e di a t e district were b e i n g accessed.
Persons interv i ew e d at these dist ricts s ug g es t ed that
local districts r e c o g n i z e d that they were able to get
those services

cheaper, that those services were highly

specialized, and that the i n t e r me d ia t e district was not
perceived as a threat.

148
9.
How Does an I n t e r ­
mediate Di strict Ensure
That Once a Coop erative
Inst ructional Improvement
Service Has Be e n I m p l e ­
mented, Local Districts
W o n ft T h r e a t e n W i th d ra w al
of F in a nc i al S u p p o r t ?
Da ta suggest that local di s tr i ct s tend to w i t h d r a w
funds,

or t h r e a t e n w ithdrawal, w h e n services b e i n g p r o ­

vided by the i nt e rm e di a te d is trict b e g i n to a pp e ar
threatening to them.

In o rd e r to get

around this, i n t e r ­

views indicate that in s tr u c t i o n a l i m p r o v em e nt

services

should be fi nanced from the ge n er a l e d u c a t i o n b udget as
derived from tax a l lo cated millages.
districts

Thus,

i n termediate

could r e t a i n a degree of a ut o no m y f r o m the

pressures w h ic h

likely w o u l d result w h e n local school

districts di s ag r ee with basic p o li c i e s
district, p e r s o na l it i es

of the interm e di a te

of I n t e r m e d i a t e staff,

or specific

program objectives.
Many of those pe rsons i n t e r v i e w e d s ug g es t ed that
services g eared specif ic a ll y at m a k i n g signi fi c an t
positive changes

in the local schools

and

should be financed

from sources outside the a r e a of local control.

Several

intermediate districts u t i l i z e d E SE A T it l e III funds as
an ef fective means of fi n an c i n g progr a ms

of this nature.

Local schools were not able to w i t h d r a w f in a ncial support
since they did not p r ov i de these monies.

All i n t e r ­

mediate district p e rs o nn e l i n t e r v i e w e d ex p re s s e d the

1*19
opinion that the state should e st a blish a s p ecial fund
for use by I n t e r me d ia t e distr icts
degree of autonomy

in or der to achieve a

in certain areas.

This special fund

was also viewed as h e l p i n g the i n termediate district
become

to

" r i s k ~ t a k e r s ."

10.
What Course of A c ti o n
Should In termediate Districts
Take if They Pe r c ei v e a Need
Which Local D is t r i c t s Fail
to R e c o g n i z e ?
Dat a suggest

that the inter me d ia t e dis trict should

never establish a p r o g r a m to meet needs which the local
district has failed to recognize.
staff m ember stated,

As one interme d ia t e

"This type of p r o g r a m is do o m e d to

f a i l u r e ."
Most persons

in t er v ie w ed i n di cated that the i n t e r ­

mediate district m u s t initiate means
the local distric t s,

of d e v e l o p i n g wi t hi n

through the d i ff erent systems

of

communication available to the interm ed i at e district,
rec ognition of needs.
district must

In other words,

create an awareness
Se ction I I I :

Various

the i n termediate

of the n e e d s .
Issues

sources p r ov i de d data about those issues

which were b e l i e v e d as likely to be confr o nt e d by r e ­
organized interm ed i at e school districts

in the future.

Many issues w e r e identif i ed as we ll as the s u g g e s t i o n of
others.

Data were compiled in a m a st e r list un d er the

150
general h e a d i n g of I s s u e s .

This m a s t e r list t he n was

analyzed in order to isolate those issues which d i r e c t l y •
affected the develo pm e nt of i ns t ru c ti o na l i mprovement
services at the interm e di a te dist rict

level.

Analysis

resulted in the is o la t io n of five issues likely to be
confronted by interm ed i at e school distr icts

in the future.

This s e ct i o n will be d ev o te d to a p r e s e n t a t i o n and
interpretation of those five

issues se en as likely to be

confronted by i n te r me d ia t e school di stricts
ment of instru c ti o na l i mprovement
were iso lated included:

tricts;

(2) The

services.

(1) The ab sence

reliable financial support

in the d e v e l o p ­
Issues which

of d ef inite and

for i n t e r m ed i at e

school dis-

lack of e f fe ctive and re s p o n s i b l e

ship at the state and i n t e r m ed i at e levels;

l e ad e r­

(3) The e x i s t ­

ence of cert ain p s y c h o l o g i c a l barriers b e t w e e n local and
intermediate school dis tricts;
consultative

services at the i n termediate

level are provided
(5) The

(4) The m a n n e r in which

current

(i.e.

school district

Process vs. Subst ance);

and

ineffe ct i ve n es s of staff develo p me n t

programs at the local school district

level.

1.
The Absence of D e finite
and Reliable Financial
Support for Intermediate
School Dist ricts
Data suggest that i ntermediate school districts

are

not pres ently r e ce i v i n g definite and r el i ab l e financial
support.

All persons i n t e rv i ew e d i n di c at e d that the

151
absence of definite and re l i a b l e

financial support of

intermediate school di stricts was the m a j o r issue p r e ­
sently c o n f r o n t i n g interm ed i at e school districts

and

most likely to continue to be the m a jo r issue wi t h i n the
next five y e a r s .
Valuat ion and Tax
Allocations
Data ind icate that some i nt e r m e d i a t e districts
Michigan have h i g h e r valuations
itself was

than do others.

found to create great

the nature of services
to its c o n s t i t u e n t s .

inequities

This in

as far as

an i ndividual district provides
COOR Interm e di a te School Dis trict

with a va l ua t i o n of $ 1 55,372,555 prov ides
tional improvement

in

fewer i n s t r u c ­

services than does Wayne County I n t e r ­

mediate School District wi th a v a l u a t i o n of $10,097,690,344.
Persons i n t e r v i e w e d at the interm e di a te

school district

level stated that they be l i e v e d i n t e r m ed i at e school d i s ­
tricts having a low valuation,

in turn,

more I n s t ru c ti o na l improvement services

needed to provide
to local co n ­

stituents than did in te rmediate school districts ha v in g
a high valuation.

These same persons b e l i e v e d that

though the need is g r eater among i nt ermediate districts
having low v a l u at i on these districts

are unable to p r o ­

vide the needed s e r v i c e s .
Every

intermediate distri c t has its

op e rating funds

largely de t er m in e d by a tax a l lo c a t i o n board.

This board

152
sets a p o r t i o n of the 15 mills
support of schools.
the 15 mills has
one h un dreds

aside to be used in the

The s c h o o l s ’ al l oc a t e d p or t i o n of

fluctua t ed at times from a low of three

(.0 3 ) of one mill to a high of three tenths

(0.3) of one mill.

An i n t e r me d ia t e d i strict h a v i n g a low

v al u ation to b e g i n with and the n re c ei v i n g a low al located
mi llage was

found to ex p er i e n c e severe d i ff i cu l ti e s with

regard to p r o v i d i n g services of a qu a li t y nature.
The tax a l l o c a t i o n bo a rd meets to d e t e rm i ne how
the 15 mi lls w i l l be d i s t r ib u te d am ong the
ships,

local schools,

county, t o w n ­

and i nt ermediate district.

the local school di strict

is the only one of the four

units able to go to the public
tax a l l o c a t i o n board was

Since

for extra millage,

found in some

the

cases to decrease

its a l l o c a t i o n from y ea r to ye a r b e c a u s e of the increased
costs of o p e r a t i n g the county and t o w n s h i p s .

It should be

pointed out that the m e m b e r s h i p of the tax al l oc a t i o n
board includes

only two persons

out of the six members

who could be seen as truly sympathetic with the problems
of the schools.

What e ve r mi l la g e is I ni t ia l ly allocated

to the schools it remains
mediate d i s t r i c t .
mediate district

at that level for the i n t e r ­

The p r o b l e m here is that the i n t e r ­

cannot go to the public for additional

millage.
Not only does this sy s t e m create pr o blems
local schools

for the

in the m a t t e r of tr yi ng to get a dditional

153
millages p a s s e d but,

it tends to create real problems

be tw een the local school districts
district.

The local schools

and the inter m ed i at e

see the interm e di a te d i s ­

trict as a c o mp e t i t o r for the same funds
i ntermediate d i st r i c t

and vi e w the

as a threat to their very existence.

A lt hough an i n t e r m ed i at e distr ic t

could go to the

electorate to es t ab l i s h a fixed allocation,
so.

few have done

For some i n t e r m e d i a t e districts vi s i t e d the cost of

a special e l ec t i o n would amount to more t h an the benefi t s
likely to be r e a l i z e d f r o m the i nc r ea s ed millage.
State A p p r o p r i a t i o n
One of the o v e r - r i d i n g concerns

of those persons

in te rviewed at the i n t e r m ed ia t e district

level was

the

nature of the support r e ce i ve d fr om the state.

It was

reported that the p e r c e n t a g e of r e - i m b u r s e m e n t

changes

from year to y e a r and usually

is not d e t e rm i ne d until a

very late date in the y e a r in so far as pl a n n i n g for the
coming y e a r is concerned.

Great uncertainty results

program p l a n n i n g w h e n o p e r a t i o n a l

in

fu nding is also u n ­

certain .
C omposition of
Intermediate
Boards
The

c o m p o s i t i o n of an i n te r me d ia t e bo a rd was also

reported to hav e some affect u po n the financial support
to be realized.

At the p r esent time, i nt e rm e di a te board

15*»
members

are v oted for m e m b e r s h i p on the b o ar d by a

r epresentative
trict.

from the b oa r d of each cons tituent d i s ­

Because some

local school districts p e rceive the

in termediate di strict
programs

as a threat to t heir own local

and also view the in t er m ed i at e district

as c o m ­

peting for the same tax a ll o cated funds, it was rep orted
that some local districts

attempt to elect a board which

would be s ympathetic to local needs rath er th an to
regional needs.
might

As a result,

an in termediate district

find its ow n board r es i s t i n g efforts

to expand

operations.
Autonomy
I nt e rm e di a te districts were found to d epend upon
four sources

for operational

were i d en t if i ed as federal,
tive programs.

funds.
state,

These four sources
local, and c o o p e r a ­

At the present time,

received as a result

only those funds

of federal funding wer e m e n t i o n e d

by the interm ed i at e staff members

i n te r vi e we d as p r o ­

viding any degree of autonomy w ithin the interm e di a te
district.

In t ermediate s t af f members m e n t i o n e d that

federal funding p ro v i de d the intermediate distri c t with
the o p portunity to try new and different pro grams without
the fe ar of h a v i n g funds w i t h d r a w n if the pr o ject failed
to meet objectives.

These staff me mbers b e l i e v e d It to

be essential to secure

funding for creative projec ts at

155
the i ntermediate

level.

One s u g g e s ti o n m a d e was

the state should p r ovide some funds

that

on a m a t c h i n g basis

aimed specifi c al l y at e s t a b l i s h i n g p r oj e ct s
nature at the interme d ia t e district

of a creative

level.

Quality of Staff
Intermediate staff m e mb e rs

i n t e r v i e w e d agreed that

if an interm e di a te distri ct is to pr o vi d e both qu al ity
services

and programs

it must have q u ality

staff members.

In order to attract the competent and e x p e r ie n ce d p e r ­
sonnel needed to implement quality

services

these same intermediate staff me m be r s

and p r o g r a m s ,

in dicated that it

would require additi on a l f u n d s .
Fle xibility
D a t a indicate that an i n t e r m e di a te d i strict needs
to re main flexible

in o rd e r to provide p r og rams,

and p er s onnel for m e e t i n g the c h an g i n g needs.
indicate that i n t e r me d ia t e districts

cannot

services,

D a t a also

remain in a

flexible p os i t i o n if they have to d e pend largely u po n
indefinite and u n re l i a b l e fu nding f r o m both state and
local sources.
2.
The Lack of E f fe ctive
and R esponsible L ea d er s hi p
at the State and I n t e r ­
mediate Levels
Mu ch concern was e v i d e n c e d as to the

lack of both

present and long-range p l a n n i n g by the s t a t e .

Many

156
intermediate district p e rs o n n e l m e n t i o n e d that few goals
have been e s t a b l i s h e d in such t e c h n o lo g ic a l areas as
data processing.

These same pe rsons i nd i ca t ed that

little has b e e n said about the directions
districts

in t ermediate

should go or what their r e s p o ns i bi l it i es

should

be in that area.
I nt ermediate district p e rs o nn e l were

critical of

the state for b e i n g lax in es t a b l i s h i n g standards and
guidelines

for both the int ermediate district and Its

personnel.

They also criticized the lack of two-way

communication and the failure to involve inte rmediate
district p e rs o nn e l In m atters
specifically was the failure

affecting them.

Me n ti o n e d

of the state to involve

intermediate district pe r so n ne l in the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of
intermediate sc ho ol districts.
R e o r g a n i z a t i o n of in t er m ed i at e districts was
to be of great

found

co ncern to those in termediate districts

planning new p r o g r a m s .

T hese di stricts m e n t i o n e d that

they lacked i nf o rm a ti o n about where the new districts
would be.

One district has

a $4,000,000 area v o ca t io n al

center b e in g built with its location previously d e t e r ­
mined by where
located.

the p o p u l a t i o n center of t he.district was

If this district

it appears obvious

is one which will be added to,

that the p o p u l a t i o n center will change.

Thus, this $4,000 ,000 investment might well be located in
the w ro n g l oc ation to be effective.

This

in te rmediate

157
district believes
enlarged that

that

if their district

certain problems will be

the possi b il i ty

is one that is

created.

They see

of h a v i n g to return to the taxpa y er s and

local schools for support

of a d d i ti o na l centers t h r o u g h ­

out their in termediate district.

This d is t ri c t a n t i c i ­

pates ha v in g a real image p r o b l e m with t heir local school
districts and t a x p a y e r s .
Many persons

i nterviewed at the i n t e r m ed i at e d i s ­

trict level m e n t i o n e d that they b el ieved the state e x ­
hibits

little real concern for the needs of the i n t e r ­

mediate districts.

The y indicated that s e l d o m had the

state involved the in termediate districts

in matters

affecting interm e di a te d i s t r i c t s .

also reported

It was

that the state had failed to support a d eq u at e ly the i n t e r ­
mediate districts both financially and w it h resources

of

a consultative nature.
All interme d ia t e districts vi sited ex p re s s e d a
concern for the lack of e valuative help e m m e n a t i n g from
the state.

Inter me d ia t e districts admit that they need

help in evaluat i ng their services and felt that the
state could provide someone
them in a liason,

from their s taff to w or k with

evaluative,

One district said they were

and/or co n su l ta t iv e capacity.

"flying b lind"

as far as

knowing if they were doing a good Job.
A no ther area of concern m e n t i o n e d by inte rmediate
staff members had to do with a state de p ar t m e n t ruling

158
re g a rd i ng nu m b e r of hours

of college course w o r k needed

in order to q u ality for a p e rm anent te a ching
At the pr e s e n t time a t e a c h e r m u s t
hours of 15 q u a r t e r hours

certificate.

complete 10 semester

of course wor k beyond their

Ba chelor D egree at an a pp roved teachers

college in order

to q u ality for a P e rm a ne n t t e a c h i n g certi ficate in
Michigan.

In t e r m e d i a t e s taff m em bers b e l i e v e d that the

state d ep a rt m e n t needs to implement

a change

in their

a dm i ni s tr a ti v e ru l i n g that these hours mu s t be in college
approved courses.

They b e l i e v e d that this

same n u mber

could be In approved in-ser v ic e e d u c a t i o n courses

co n­

ducted u n d e r the d i r e c t i o n of the i n t e r m ed i at e district.
This w o u l d en c ou r ag e

i n t e r m ed i at e districts to do some

things w h i c h are of a local concern and help

solve local

problems In the area of staff development.
M uc h co n ce r n was noted about the n ature of the
leadership p r e s e n t l y

found t h r o u g h o u g the state.

Accord­

ing to t h os e i n t e r v i e w e d an o r g a n i z a t i o n is only as good
as its

leadership.

M a ny e x p r es s ed the o p i n i o n that many

intermediate districts have ineffe ct i ve

leadership.

One

of the reasons

cited was the ca r ry - ov e r of the county

superintendent

concept of admin istration.

A n o t h e r reason

cited was the failure of the state to e s t a b l i s h higher
standards and q ua l if i c a t i o n s

for superintendents.

Per­

sons i nt e r v i e w e d s tated that they b e l i e v e d h igher levels
of q u a l i f i c a t i o n plus hi g h e r c o mp e n s a t i o n could well

159
attract the competent superintendent.
some I nt e rm e di a te s up e ri n t e n d e n t s may

D a t a suggest that
lack a f o rward-

looking p h i l o s o p h y r eg a rd i ng the i nt e r m e d i a t e district's
functions and roles.

Many s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

appear to be

a r ef l ec t io n of their o w n i nt e rm e di a te d i s t r i c t b o a r d of
education's attitudes

and u n d e r s t a n d i n g s

of the powers-

and r es p on s ib i li t ie s of the i n t e r m e d i a t e district.
One subject i n t e r v i ew e d stated that
a r es p on s ib i li t y of all staff m e m b e r s . "

" l ea d er s hi p is
D a t a suggest

that an i n te r me d i at e staff sh o u l d ha v e c e r t a i n qualities.
Those which we re d eemed n e ce ssary were that the staff be
empathetic,

change - ag e nt or iented, i n n o v a t o r s ,

and able

to operate in the enviro n me n t of the c o n s t i t ue n t' s design.
A no t he r key concern e v id e nc e d in the d at a was the
failure of some i n t e r me d ia t e boards
exercise re s p o n s i b l e

leadership.

many times the best can didates

of e d u c a t i o n to

It was r e p o r t e d that

fail to get e l ected to

intermediate boards be c a u s e of the e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e
used.

Presently, b o a r d mem bers

are e l e c t e d by one r e p r e ­

sentative from each of the local consti tu e nt d i s t r i c t s .
Candidates wh o espouse a re g i o n a l co nc ept som etimes

fail

to be ele cted by this small group of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s who
view the interm ed i at e district- as b e i n g a p o ss i bl e threat
to local schools'

sovereignty.

Most subjects

i n t e r v i e w e d e m p h a s i z e d a need for

having po p u l a r elections

of i n t e r m e d i a t e

school b o a r d

160
members

ra t h e r than the present system.

present

local school d i strict control,

district

could we ll r ealize

p re s ently held.

a degree

I nstead of the
the i nt e rm e di a te

of autonomy not

Policy m a ki n g by an el ected lay board

directly a cc o un t ab l e to the people is a s y s t e m which
holds ul t im a t e

control in the hands

of citizens

harmonizes wi t h the principles of political
S ub jects

and

democracy.

in terviewed indicated that the smaller

intermediate school districts tend to attract in dividuals
to the b o a r d of ed u ca t io n w h o reflect

a provincial atti­

tude w i t h re g ar d to in t ermediate district operations.
The l arger i n t e r me d ia t e school districts, ho wever, were
found to attract

those individuals w h o are h i ghly edu­

cated and cosmopolite.

D a t a also indicate

inte rmediate school boards
political visiblity

that some

are used as a m e an s of g a ining

for future ambitions.

D a t a suggest that the in t ermediate s up e ri n te n de n t
establish an ef f ective ed u ca t io na l p ro g r a m for his board.
Many subjects

cited the need of e du c at i ng i nt ermediate

boards r e g a r d i n g regional problems and region al solutions.
It was m e n t i o n e d many times

that since they make d e c i ­

sions and approve budget r e q u e s t s , the board must

also

be in f or m ed and involved in order to e xe r c i s e leadership.
The i n t e r m e di a t e school di strict
viewed in this

su p er i ntendents

inter­

study encour aged their boards to attend

state, natio na l ,

and r eg ional m e et i ng s

to see and hear

l6l
about i n n o v a ti v e pro grams w h i c h m i g h t have import a nc e to
their own district.

These su p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e p o r t e d that •

they be l ie v ed the attendance

of t h e i r board memb ers

such meetings had he l p e d them to b e c o m e

at

or i ented to the

regional concept and had helped t h e m to exe rcise l e a d e r ­
ship .
3.
The E x is t en c e of Certain
Psychological Barriers
Between Local and I n t e r ­
mediate School Districts
D a t a suggest that
local districts

ce rtain b a rriers

arise between

and the i n t e r m e di a te distr icts which

impede the e d uc ation of children.
Lack

o f

U n d e rs ta n d in g

One of the barriers d i s c o v e r e d from the da t a was
that of the local districts h a v i n g a lack of u n d e r s t a n d ­
ing as to the role of the i n t e r me d ia t e di s trict
functions

it p e r f o r m s .

lack of involvement

This was found to result

of local districts

of interm e di a te programs

c o m m u ni c at i on system.

T h re a t to
E x is te n c e

T h e ir

from a

in the d e ve l op m en t

and is indica ti v e

effective

and the

of an i n ­

Some local districts viewed the i n t e r m ed i at e d i s ­
trict as a threat to their existence.

They e xp r es s ed

concern that in t er m ed i at e d is t ricts w o u l d take over their

162

op erating functions and become
region al in scope.
be the Thomas

a large op e rating district,

The basis of this

fear was found to

Report r e c o m m e n d a t i o n that

intermediate d i s ­

tricts should take over the fiscal o p e r a t i o n of any d i s ­
trict h a v i n g less

than 2,500 students

in it.

Thus,

small

local districts do not want to give away mu ch money or
authority to i n termediate d i s t r i c t s .
from supporting,
use current

financially,

They also r e frain

new programs

and fail to

services w h i c h are available.

Conflict in Empire
Building
Some local districts were found to look no farther
than the ir own district bound ar y
trict does not want
districts be c a u s e

lines.

One local d i s ­

to do anythi n g to help other local

"it's t h ei r p r o b l e m not mine."

Their

perceptual field is limited to the indivi du a l district.
In this

case the

conflict

in empire b u i l d i n g is b et w ee n

local d i s t r i c t s .
Data suggest that some
in termediate district

local d i st ricts see the

as b u i l d i n g its own empire w h e n it

suggests to local districts

a r eg i on a l approach to

meeting needs of the entire i n t e r m e di a te district.
also indicate that

Data

local di stricts see the intermediate

district c o mp e ti n g for the same functions

and money.

one time r el a ti o ns h ip s b e t w e e n the local di strict and
the Intermediate district were primary,

fa ce-to-face;

At

163
now they have been r e pl a c e d by memos
suggests

and letters which

a large bu r ea u cr a cy to the local district.

This,

was found to confirm the idea which the local districts
had about the in termediate district b u i l d i n g its own
empire.
Personalities
Staff

of

I nterviews with

local school p e r s o n n e l suggest

that the persona l it y of staff mem bers has

i mp o rt a nc e to

the attitude which local districts d ev e lo p toward i n t e r ­
mediate districts.

Some local schools

r ep o rt e d that they

had w i t h d r a w n financial support or failed to use certain
services b e cause of actions

and/or p e r s o n al i ti e s

of

certain intermediate staff members.
Quality of Programs
and Staff
Local districts were

found to sometimes become

threatened by the high quality of programs

and/or staff

being p ro v id e d by the in termediate district.

They

indi­

cated that they realized that their own p r ograms were
not as good.

In order not to be furt her e m b a r r a ss e d

they de cided not to avail themselves

of the programs,

services, a n d / o r staff available from the inte rmediate
district .
Da ta suggest that if an int ermediate di strict is to
lead and if it is to be serviceable

it must have people

164
who are competent to act in an e nv i ro n me n t
find themselves.

Thus,

in w h i c h they

as the en v ir o nm e nt be co mes more

sophisticated and special i ze d these p e rsons also must
become more s o p h is t ic a te d and specialized.
Competition for Funds
Local dist ricts were found to want to p ro m o t e that
which they already have.
develops new services

Wh e n the i n t e r m ed i at e district

or p r o g r a m s , they are v iewed as

competing for funds which the local school di strict needs
for their own i n s t r u c ti o na l i m pr ov e me n t programs.
the interm ed i at e district gets

W h en

an i nc r ea s e in their tax

allocation the local school dis trict u sually
having to go to the local taxpayers

finds itself

and se e k i n g ap p roval

for an additi on a l op e ra t in g millage.

Local schools

report

that they feel t hr e at e ne d by the i nt e r m e d i a t e district
in both c a s e s .
History of In termediate
D i s t r i c t ’s Me t ho d of
Operation
If the history of an i n t e r m e d i a t e d i strict has b ee n
one of p ol i tical compulsion,

local distr i ct s were found

to "withdraw" f r o m the interm e di a te district.

They were

found to b ecome d i s t r us t fu l of the i n te r me d ia t e distri ct ' s
purposes.

Loc al districts also v i e w the i n t e r m e di a te

district in a p oo r light if h is t or y and e x p e r ie n ce i n d i ­
cates :

(1) poorly or ganized programs

and u n q u a l i f i e d

165
staff me mbers;

(2) i nc o n s i s t e n c y on the part of the

i nt ermediate district;

or (3) unpredictability.

D at a suggest that if the serv ice of the i nt e rm e di a te
district is a hi story of gene rality,
Local d is t ricts
vices, pr o gr a ms ,

appear to select

it is doomed to fail.

and use only those ser­

and/or staff having a h i gher level of

s pe c ia l i z a t i o n than is

av ailable w i t h i n their own local

district.
The M a n n e r in Which
Consultative Services at
the Interm ed i at e School
District Level are
Provid ed (i.e. Process
v s . SubstanceT
E vi d e n c e was found w hi c h suggests that an issue
exists as to w h ic h type of c o n s u l ta t iv e service sho uld
be pro vided by an in t ermediate district.
substance

(content areas)

ing process
given were

Proponents

argue that districts e m p h a s i z ­

are commit t in g a fatal error.
that:

of

Two reasons

(1) that there is not enough to process

(not a sp e c i a l i z e d a f f a i r — too common since local schools
can provide this); and
schools are about.

(2) it does not get at what

T h e s e persons

see the interm e di a te

district n e e d i n g to p ro v i d e s p ec i al i ze d help in content
areas if it is to be u ti l iz e d by the local districts.
The pr o po n e n t s

of process

argue that even though

local schools have av a ilable the techniques
they may:

(1) be unable to use it; or

of process

(2) be un w il l i n g

166
to use It.

Inter me d ia t e districts

a re s po n s i b i l i t y

are be l ie v ed to have

to provide proc ess help.

T h es e persons

see a need to g e ne r at e the process of change w i t h i n the
local s c h o o l s — and letting the local schools
di rection to go.

decide the

Most process persons b e l i e v e d that the

best ap proach w o u l d be through an a f f e c t i v e

approach

rat her than st rictly through an i n t e l l e ct u al approach.
Both the p r ocess and substance approaches
themselves wi th d e v e l o p i n g a proc ess
a local school district.
spe cialized area:

c oncern

of change w i t h i n

Both operate from a highly

substance

(content

(areas such as st a ff development).

areas)

and process

D a t a suggest

that if

an i n termediate district is to r e m a i n flexible it should
not commit i tself to one or the other but to a pr oduct
mix e mp l o y i n g bo th techniques.
The p r o p on e nt s of bot h approa c he s agree that the
change agent should be in s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d w i t h i n the i n t e r ­
mediate district.

These persons

indicated to consider

employing som eone w i th a broad b a c k g r o u n d of e xp e ri e n c e
to give i n s t r u c t i o n a l

improvement services

a thrust of

a continuous nature.
5.
The Current I n e f f e c t i v e ­
ness of St a ff D e v e l o pm e nt
Programs at the Local
School Distr ic t Level
The current ineffec t iv e ne ss

of staff develo p me n t

programs at the local school dis trict

level was

cited

167
by many sources

as one of the p r esent

issues

likely to

continue as an issue w i t h i n the next five years.
district s ta f f m e m b e r in d ic a te d that it was

One

"harder to

get things done tod ay than it was five or ten years

ago

in the area of s ta f f d e ve l op m en t ."
Some of the reasons w h i c h the d a ta indicate c o n ­
tribute to m a k i n g this an issue were ne gotiations,
t e a c h e r - p r e p a r a t i o n programs,

and the lack of avail able

tools for c la s sr o om t e a c h e r s .
Many sources re p o r t e d that as a result of p r o ­
fessional negoti at i on s w i t h i n their p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r ­
mediate district,

the n umber of hours

available for

in-service e d u c a t i o n at the local di s t r i c t
decreased.

level had

Thus, many local di st r ic t s were r e q u e s t i n g

assistance from the in t er m ed i at e d is t ri c t in the area of
staff d evelopment or in-service education.

Da t a also

suggest that staff de v el o pm e nt requires mo re time than
a one day

"show and tell" experience p r e s e n t l y

found in

many local school districts.
Persons

i n t e r v i e w e d at the i nt e r m e d i a t e d is trict

level ex p ressed the opinion that the u n iv e r s i t i e s

and

colleges a pparently were f a lling to pr o v i d e teachers
with the necessary

expertise r e q u i r e d in such areas

the urban school situation.

Thus,

as

in the case of the

urban school teacher, additio n al p r e p a r a t i o n through
staff d evelopment p r ograms was deemed important.

168
Intermediate district sources
implica tions

cited this as ha v in g further

for i n st r uc t io n al improvement

services p r o ­

vided by the interm ed i at e school district in the future.
A survey

conducted by an interme d ia t e school d i s ­

trict r ep o rt e d that

its teachers were not really do i ng

the kind of t e a c h i n g job de e me d appropriate.
mediate district

This

concluded that the teachers were

and the students were

inter­
"telling"

"listening" the ma j or i ty of the time.

This in t er m ed i at e district r ec o gn i ze d a need to de v el o p
an awareness

th rough staff d ev e lo p me n t programs of the

need for teachers to change

from a b e h a v i o r of "telling"

to one of "explaining and showing."

Th ey al so realized

that the s t u d e n t s 1 be h a v i o r must not only be that of
"listening" but also that of "doing."

Thus,

this

inter­

mediate di strict b e g a n to supply its teachers with ad d i­
tional tools n e ce ssary to change the t e a c h i n g s it u at i on
and e n v i r o n m e n t .

Da t a suggest that i nt e rm e di a te school

districts may be required to provide l ea de r sh i p in p r o ­
grams of staff development.

Some interm ed i at e school

districts were found to have d e ve l op ed
as pr o vi d in g the time,
required.

"soft-ware"

such

location, and c ur r ic u l u m p e r s o n n e l

Others were found to have d ev e lo p ed mode ls of

good t ea c hi n g behavior,

t r ai n ed key teachers

the local schools as "models,"

to r e t u r n to

and e ntered the local

school en vironment to d e mo n st r at e the different t e ac h i n g
models.

169
Persons Interv ie w ed at the I n t e r m e d i a t e school
district level repor t ed that the Importance
development wi ll continue to i nc r e a s e in the

of staff
future.

As the need for s t a f f develo pm e nt increases th ese p e r ­
sons see the local school d istrict's
also increasing.

need for a s si s t a n c e

Many b el i ev ed that the i nt e rm e di a te

school district may be in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n to attack,
through a regional approach, the pr o bl em s a s so c ia t ed
with staff development.
Findings
This study r e s u l t e d in the i s o l a t i o n of te n q u e s ­
tions to which the i n t e r m ed i at e distri c t s hould address
itself in the development
services.

of i n s t r u c t i o n a l i mprovement

These q ue s tions were:

1.

What i n s t r uc t io n al i m p r o v e m e n t services need
to be provided? (Present and future needs)

2.

How does an interm ed ia t e di s tr i ct
the needs?

3.

What factors contri bute to in s t r u c t i o n a l
i mprovement services b e i n g a c ce s se d by
cons tituent districts?

4.

How are in s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v em e nt
evaluated?

5.

How do co nsultants m a k e entry into the
local schools?

6.

What means are a v ai lable to i n termediate
districts to develop a p ro c e s s of se l f­
renewal?

de termine

services

170
7.

How do I n t e r m ed i at e districts p ro m o t e an
image which is both p o sitive and n o n ­
threatening?

8.

What implications does the size of a local
school dis trict have on i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m ­
provement services p r o v i d e d by the i n t e r ­
med i at e district?

9.

How does an in t er m ed i at e dis trict en su re that
once a cooperative i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o ve m en t
service has b e e n implemented, local distr icts
won't t h r e a t e n w i t h d r a w l of f i n a n c i a l support?

10.

What course of ac t io n should i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s ­
tricts take if they pe r ce i ve a need which
local di stricts fail to recognize?

In ad d i t i o n to the i s o l a t i o n of the above ten q u e s ­
tions, five issues likely to conf ront i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s ­
tricts in the d e v e l o pm e nt of I n s t r u c t i o n a l Im p ro v em e nt
services were also isolated.

These five issues were:

1.

The absence of definite and r e l i a b l e finan ci a l
support for interm e di at e school districts.

2.

The lack of e ff e ctive and r e s p o n s i b l e l e a d e r ­
ship at the state and in t e r m e d i a t e levels.

3.

The existence of c er t ai n p s y c h o l o g i c a l barriers
b e t w e e n local and inter me d ia t e s chool districts.

4.

The m a n n e r in which c onsultative services at
the interm e di a te school d is trict l e ve l are p r o ­
vided for (i.e. Process vs. Substance).

5.

.The current i ne f fe c t i v e n e s s of s ta f f d e v e l o p ­
ment pr ograms at the local school d i strict
level.

Additional Findings
In ad d ition to the is o la t i o n of questions
mentioned above,

and issues

ce r ta i n o t he r findings resulted.

171
1.

The i n t e r m ed i at e school dis trict should
assist local school distr i ct s in i n s t r u c ­
t io n al improvement.

E v e r y o n e i n t e r v i e w e d d u r i n g the course of this
study e x p r e s s e d strong opinions r e g a r d i n g the ne cessity
for i nt e r m e d i a t e districts

to assist th e ir constituents

in the area of i n s t r u ct i on a l improvement.

D at a suggest

that i n t e r m e d i a t e districts may be in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n
to pr ovide c e rt a in types of i n st r u c t i o n a l impro vement
services th an local constituents.
children was not

Direct

services to

consid e re d to be a f u n c t i o n of the

intermediate district.

I ns t r u c t i o n a l improv em e nt s e r ­

vices d e emed approp r ia t e i nc l ud e d those w h i c h were r e ­
gional in scope and
2.

su p p l e m e n t a r y to schools and teachers.

The local s c hool dis trict will not access
i ts e lf to a d u p l i c a t i o n of effort, redundancy,
genera l it y , or low level capability.

Local schools wi l l not ut ilize services
themselves alre ady performing.

These schools

they see
also look

for help w h e n they lack the ne c essary e xp e rt i se w i t h i n
their own system.

Thus,

i n s t r u c t i o n a l im provement

vices likely to be u s e d must

ser­

include a level of s p e c i a l i ­

zation not av a il a bl e w i t h i n a local district.
3.

I n st r u c t i o n a l i mp r ov e me n t services and
c u r r i c u l u m consu ltants are unlikely to
be the same in every i nt e rm e di a te school
district.

I n t e r m ed i at e school di stricts w i ll un l ik e ly p r o ­
vide the same i n s t r u c t i o n a l i mprovement services

and

172
curriculum consultants if they are b a s e d u p o n the needs
of their constituents.

In t ermediate districts,

as

presently established, vary In co n st i tu e nc y ma k e - u p and,
therefore, hav e va rying levels
within each local district.

of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n op e rating

Thus, the needs

of each

intermediate district will be different.
Su mmary
This

chapter has d e sc r ib e d the m e t h o d of analysis

used, p r es e nt e d and interp r et e d the releva n t data,
reported on the findings.

Chapter V w i ll present a

summary of the problem, me thod, and fi ndings;
sions; implications;

and the model which was

for use at the interm e di a te

and

conclu­
c onstructed

level in d e v e l o p i n g i n s t r u c ­

tional improvement s e r v i c e s .

F O O T N O T E S — C HAP TER IV

■^Interview wi th Dr. W i l l i a m J. Em er s on , S u p e r i n ­
tendent, O ak l an d I n t e r m e d i a t e School Di s tr i ct , M ay 23,
1969 .

173

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY,

T h is

C O N C L U S I O N S AN D R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S

chapter wi ll p r es en t

a b r i e f st a tement of the

purpose of the study, a d e s c r i p t i o n of the sources of
data and me t ho d of analysis,

a li sting of the m a i n f i n d ­

ings, conclu si o ns b a s e d u p o n those findings, p r e s e n t a ­
tion of the model c o n s t ru ct e d for use in the develop m en t
of i n st r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e me n t services at the interme d ia t e
level in Michigan,

re c om m en d at i on s ,

and implications.

Summary
T h e purpose o f the study was to construct

a model

which could be used by i n t e r m ed i at e distri c ts in M i c h i g a n
in the develo p me n t
The m o d e l was to be
sponses

of i ns t ru c ti o na l improv em e nt

constru c te d by i s o l a t i n g the r e­

to two questions.

should i nt e r m e d i a t e

services.

First,

to what questions

school districts give a t te ntion in

the de v el o pm e nt of i n s t r u c t i o n a l i mprovement services?
Secondly, with what

issues are i n t e r m ed i at e districts

likely to be c on f ro n t e d in the de v el o pm e nt
tional impr ovement

of i n s t r u c ­

services.

T he ma j or source of data was s e m i s t r u c t u r e d I n t e r ­
views c on d uc t ed at four s e l e c t e d i n t e r m ed i at e districts.
17 4

175
These districts were s el ected from a list of r e c o m m e n d e d
districts

compiled by a pa nel of five e d uc ators ha v i n g an

underst a nd i ng of i n te r m e d i a t e
tion in Michigan.

school distr i ct

administra­

One i n t e r m e d i a t e di s trict was selected

for each of the fo l lo w in g constituencies:
(A) L a r g e - s i z e d local school d i st ricts that
have long been e s t a b l i s h e d and are sit uated
in an area that could be classif i ed as
urban.
(B) A m i x t u r e of l a r g e - s i z e d local school d i s ­
tricts and sa t e llite d i st r ic t s situat e d in
an area that could be classified as being
u r b a n as well as rural.
(C) S ma l l - s i z e d local school di s tricts situated
in an a re a that could be c la s si f ie d as b ei n g
r ural and e m b r a c i n g no m u n i c i p a l i t i e s of
any consequence.
(D) M e d i u m - s i z e d local school districts e m b r a c ­
ing a large m u n i c i p a l i t y and s i t u a t e d in an
area that could be classi fi e d as b e in g
urban as well as rural.
The i n t e r me d ia t e di stricts
cluded Wayne

sel ected for study i n ­

In t ermediate Di s tr i ct

B) , Oakland In termediate D i st r ic t
A), COOR I n t e r me d i at e District

( re presenting category
(r e presenting category

(r e pr e se n ti n g ca tegory C),

and Calhoun Interm ed i at e D i st r ic t

(r epresenting category

D).
A dditional data r e s u l t e d fr om s em i st r u c t u r e d i n t e r ­
views of select ed
tendents.

These

"experts"
"experts"

and local school s u p e r i n ­
and local school s u p e r i n ­

tendents were se lected from a list r e c o m m e n d e d by a panel
of three educators h av i ng an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the

176
Interme diate school di strict and k n o w l ed g ea b le of pe r ­
sons h a v i n g expertise.

Nine pe rsons were s e le c t e d from

this list and i n cl u d ed i n t e r m e di a te s up e ri ntendents,
un iversity perso nnel,
personnel,

state department of e d u c a t i o n

and local school distri ct superintendents.

D a t a were ana lyzed by c a t e go r iz i ng the responses
Into th ree a r e a s :
issues.

ge n er a l i n f o r m a t i o n , q u e s t i o n s , and

Data p l a c e d u nder general in f o r m a t i o n were

analyzed to extract that

i n f o r m at i on e s se n ti a l to pro­

viding a ge neral u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the nature of the
study.

D a ta listed under issues were analyzed by iso­

lating those issues

inter me d ia t e d i st ricts would

confront in d e v e l o p i n g i ns tr u ct i on a l improvement
vices.

likely
ser­

D a ta listed under questions wer e a na l y z e d by

isolating those questions which directly affect the
development of i ns t r u c t i o n a l i m provement
would r e qu i re

services

and

the a t t e n t i o n of the Interm e di a te district.

This study re s ul t e d In the isolation of ten qu e s­
tions to which the i n te r me d ia t e district should ad dress
Itself in the d e ve l op m en t of in s tr u ct i on a l Improvement
services.

T h e se ten questions were:

1.

What i n st r uc t io n al im provement services
need to be provided?
(Present and future
needs )

2.

How does an i n t e r m ed i at e distri ct
the needs?

determine

177
3.

•4.

What factors contribute to instructional
impro ve m en t services being accessed by
constituent districts?
How are i n st r u c t i o n a l i mprovement
vices evaluated?

s er ­

5.

How do con sultants ma ke entry into the
local schools?

6.

What means are available to inter me d ia t e
districts to develop a process of
se lf-re newal?

7.

How do interm ed i at e districts pr o mo t e an
image w h i c h is both p os i t i v e and n o n ­
th re atening?

8.

What implications does the size of a local
school distri ct have on i ns t ru c ti o na l
improve m en t services p ro v i d e d by the
inter me d ia t e district?

9.

How does an intermediate district ensure
that once a coope rative instru ct i on a l
impro ve m en t service has been im plemented,
local districts w o n ’t t h re a te n w i t h d r aw a l
of financial support?

10.

What course of a ction should interm e di a te
districts take if they pe rceive a need
w hich local districts fail to recognize?

In a dd i t io n to the i so la t io n of the above ten
questions,

five issues with which interm ed i at e districts

are likely to be co nfronted in the de velopment
str uctional improvement

of i n ­

services were also isolated.

These five issues were:
1.

The absence of de finite and reliable
f inancial support for interm e di a te
school districts.

2.

The lack of effective and respon si b le
leaders hip at the state and i n termediate
levels.

178
3.

The existence of ce rt a in p s y c h o l o g i c a l
b ar riers b e tween local and interm ed i at e
school districts.

4.

The manner in w h ic h consult a ti v e services'
at the i n t e r m ed i at e school di s trict level
are p r ov i de d (i.e. Process vs. Substance).

5-

T he current in e ff e c t i v e n e s s of staff
d e v e l o p me n t pr o gr a ms at the local school
district level.

A d d i t i o n a l findings i n c l u d e d the following:
1.

The i nt e rm e di a te school dis trict should
assist local school di s tricts in
i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement.

2.

The local school d is trict wi ll not access
i ts e l f to a d u p l i c a t i o n of effort,
redundancy, genera l it y , or low level
capability.

3.

Instru c ti o na l improv e me n t services and
c ur r ic u l u m consult a nt s are un l ikely to be
the same in every in t e r m e d i a t e school
district.
C onclusions

Adequate Se rvice Area
Interm e di a te school di s tr i c t r e o r g a n i z a t i o n needs
to be a c co m p l i s h e d in order that e q u a l i z a t i o n of e d u ­
cational oppor tu n it y becomes
Michigan.

a reality

in the state of

The service area should encom pass

a suffi­

cient p o p u l a t i o n and v a l u a t i o n to p er m it the ef ficient
employment of competent and s pe c ia l iz e d instru ct i on a l
improvement p e r s o nn e l and the d e v e l op m en t of an a p p r o ­
priate and e f fe ctive I n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement service.

179
Elec ted G o v e r n i n g Body
In order to assure r e p r e s e n t a t i o n to all g e o g r a p h i ­
cal areas

of the Interm e di a te dis trict and to r e alize

more re s po n si b le In t er m ed i at e g o v e r n i n g b o d i e s , the
selection of b oa r d members

should result

from p o pu l a r

elections.
A de q ua t e F i na ncial
Support
The i n s t r u c t i o n a l impro ve m en t f u n c t i o n of the
intermediate dist rict

is of direct be n ef i t to the state

system of publ ic e d u c a t i o n and ju s tifies
state support,
development.
insist that

substan t ia l

i n c l ud i ng money for creative p r o g r a m
D e s i r a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n w o ul d

the g o v e r n i n g board have access to some

funds w h ic h it completely c o n t r o l s — the a u t h o r i z a t i o n to
raise funds i n d e p e n d e n t l y .
Local D e t e r m i n a t i o n
Instructional Im p ro ve m en t services
able to all local school distr icts,

sho uld be a v a i l ­

but each should have

freedom to decide for Itself, b ey o n d legal l imitations
or requirements, wh i ch It shall accept.

180
Competent A d m i n i s t r a t o r
and Staff
As the service areas b e c o m e

larger, b o th in p o p u ­

lation and valuat io n , g r e a t e r co m pe t e n c y Is r e q u i r e d of
both the s up e r i n t e n d e n t and his staff.
Successful Instruc t io n al
Improvement Services
I n t e r m e d i a t e school d is t ri c ts m us t h a ve ad equate
financial support,
staff person n el ,

co mpetent leadership,

effective t w o- w ay

competent

communication sys­

tems b e t w e e n th e ms e l v e s and their c on stituents,

and

active I n v o l ve m en t of their

consti tu e nt s In p l a n n i n g

activities If I n st r uc t io n al

i mprovement

be successful.

services

are to

T he ab s ence of any one of the above

factors contri bu t es to a d ec r e a s e in e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
State Re s po n s i b i l i t i e s
The State has ap p ar e nt ly f a il e d to assu me its
respons i bi l it i es

In e n s u r i n g that ad e qu at e

and adequate financial

support are p r o v i d e d

service areas
in order

that e q u a l i z a t i o n of e d uc at i on a l o p p o r t u n i t y b ecomes a
reality In the State of Michigan.
slow forthcoming.

Progress has b e e n

181
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s — State
That
1.

the State:
E s t a b l i s h e ff e ct i ve se rvice areas which
embrace a sufficient p o p u l a t i o n and v a l u a ­
tion to p e rmit ef f icient employment

of

competent and s p ec i al i ze d i n s t r u c t i o n a l
i m p r o v e me n t p e r s o n n e l and the development
of an ap p r op r ia t e and effective i n s t r u c ti o na l
improv e me n t program.

The state sh ould ma ndate

both i n te r m e d i a t e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n and K-12
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n ra t he r than to effect p e r ­
m is s i v e
2.

legislation.

Provide financial support which is definite,
reliable,

3.

and adequate.

Provide the i n t e r m ed i at e d i st r ic t s with
indepe n de n t fund r ai s i n g authority.

3.

Provide the in t er m ed i at e d is t ri c ts with
financial support

for the d e ve l op m en t

of

small r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p me n t type projects
in i n s t r u ct i on a l improvement.
5.

R e - e s t a b l i s h systems of tw o-way

co m mu n i c a t i o n

b e t w e e n itself and the i n te r me d ia t e districts.
6.

A ct ively seek the i nvolvement of the i n t e r ­
med i a t e districts in those ma tters dire ctly
aff e c t i n g interme d ia t e districts.

182
7.

Establish n e ce ssary

l e gi s la t io n to bring

about the po p u l a r e l e c t i o n of i n te r m e d i a t e
boards of education.
8.

Provide i n t e r m e di a te districts with
evaluative assistance.

9.

Provide personnel h a v i n g a b a c k g r o u n d in
and an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i n t e r m e di a te d i s ­
tricts to w o r k with the i n t e r m e di a te d i s ­
tricts in a liason,
consultant

10.

Implement

e v a l u a t i v e 9 and

capacity.
long- range p l a n n i n g r e g a r d i n g

the d i r e c t i o n and goals of the i nt e rm e di a te
district w i t h regard to i n st r uc t io n al
improvement.
All persons

interviewed indicated that in their

opinion the absence of definite and re liable financial
support of i n te r me d ia t e school di stricts was the ma j o r
issue presently

co nfronting i n t e r m e di a te school d i s ­

tricts and most likely to continue to be the ma j or
issue w i t h i n the next

five years.

Ev i de n ce was also

collected which indic a te d that great inequities

exist

in the services p ro v i d e d by i n t e r m e di a te s chool d i s ­
tricts to their constituents.

F ac t o r s i d e n t i f i e d as

exerting I nf l uence toward c o n t r i b u t i n g to in e qu i ta b le
services were:

i nequitable v a l u a t i o n of interm e di a te

school districts;

un c er t a i n tax allocations;

u n c e rt a in

183
and unreliable state appropriation;

di s t r i c t size

(population and area); m e t h o d of s e l e c t i o n and c o m p o ­
sition of Interme d ia t e board;

d e g r e e of autonomy;

and

organizational flexibility.
A no t he r m a j o r issue I de n ti f i e d was the lack of
effective and re s p o n s i b l e

leadership at bo t h the state

and Inter m ed i at e school d i s t r i c t level.

I n t e r m e di a te

district p e rs o nn e l I n t e r v i e w e d wer e cr itical of the
state of being lax in e s t a b l i s h i n g s ta n dards
lines for the I n t e r m e d i a t e

school district,

failure to p r ovide

evaluative,

tive assistance.

liason,

These same

and g u i d e ­
and for

a nd / or c o n s u l t a ­

In di viduals were also

critical of the i n e f f e c t i v e leader sh i p d i s p l a y e d at many
intermediate school districts

th roughout the state.

Anot her a re a of c on c e r n i d en t if i ed was the lack of
two-way communi c at i on b e t w e e n state and i n t e r me d ia t e
school districts.

Specific m e n t i o n was made by all

persons interviewed of the state fa i ling to Involve
intermediate district p e r s o n n e l in matters
them.

One example

a f f e ct i ng

cited was with r e g a r d to i nt e rm e di a te

school district r eo r ga n iz a ti o n.

A dd i t i o n a l l y ,

the state

was cited for its failure to establish long-r a ng e p l a n ­
ning regarding d ir e ct i on s and goals In the a re a of
instructional I mp r ov e me n t at
district

level.

’he i nt e rm e di a te sch ool

184
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s - - I n t e r m e d i a t e Di strict
That the I nt e rm e di a te District:
1.

Provide i n s t r u c t i o n a l improve m en t
to its

2.

services

constituents.

Not provide a service for which a need is
not perceived.

3.

C on c en t ra t e u p on p r o v i d i n g

"quality"

services

r ather than "quantity."
4.

E st a bl i sh a c ooperative p l a n n i n g group

to

identi fy needs.
5.

E st a bl i sh ef f ec t iv e two-way

c o m m u ni c at i on

systems b e t w e e n itself and its constituents.
6.

Provide se rvices w hi c h are not a d u p l i c a t i o n
of effort,

redundant,

or of a low-level

capability.
7.

Respect the s o ve re i gn t y of its co nstituents.

8.

Exercise leadership in the i n i t i a t i o n of
programs.

9.
10.

E st a blish a fl e xible posture.
Attract and r e ta i n innovative,

competent,

and highly q ua l i f i e d staff m e m b e r s .
11.

E s ta b li s h small r e se a rc h and d e ve l op m en t
programs

in the area of i ns t ru c ti o na l

improvement.
12.

E st a bl i sh r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
those services provided.

advisory groups for

13.

Pursue a s t ra t eg y of

"ag gressive c o n s u l t a ­

tion" with those di stricts n e e d i n g help but
not a cc e s s i n g themsel v es

to c on s ul t at i ve

service s p r o v i d e d by the in t e r m e d i a t e d i s ­
trict .
1^.

Be the risk taker,
challenger,

15.

the e x p e r i m e n t o r , the

and the a gi t a t o r for action.

Conduct both q u a l i t a t i v e and q u a n t i t a t i v e
evaluations

of its

i n st r uc t io n al i m p r o v e ­

ment services in order to d e te rmine
ne c e ssary m o d i f i c a t i o n s
16.

or "spin-offs."

E st a b l i s h some means of in ternal e v a l u a t i o n
of i n s t r u c t i o n a l improv e me n t services.

17.

Encour a ge and support board and staff to
atte nd state and national
shops,

conferences, w o r k ­

and o u t s t a n d i n g i nn o va t i v e p r og r am s or

pr ojects .
18.

Provide a d egree of autono m y to its staff
members.

19.

E s ta b li s h ef f ective i nt e rn a l tw o -way c o m m u n i c a ­
tion s y s t e m s .

20.

Provide leaders hi p in e s t a b l i s h i n g both formal
and informal re fe r e n c e groups b e y o n d that of
local s u p e r in te n de n ts groups .

21.

Not

"compete" w i th other i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s ­

tricts .

Those i n s t r u c t i o n a l improve m en t

186
services p r ovided should be based on actual
needs
22.

of its

constituents.

E s t a b l i s h ef f ective two-way c o m m u n i c a t i o n
with the State D e p a r t me n t of Educati on.

23.

De v e l o p a p ro cess of s el f -r e ne w al w i t h i n
its own o rg a n i z a t i o n a l structure.

24.

De v el o p an image w h ic h is r ef l e c t e d to its
c on stituents as b e i n g both po s itive and n o n ­
threatening .

25.

V i e w its role as one of co n t r i b u t i n g to the
s tr e ng t h in the di st r ic t s of its c o n ­
s ti t ue n cy .

26.

R e - a s s i g n services to local d i st r ic t s when
the latter, b ecause of changed circumstances,
can p e r f o r m the services

All persons

equally well.

i n t e r v i e w e d sta ted that

they b e li e v e d

a legitimate fu n ct i on of an inter m ed i at e school district
is to pr o v i d e i n s t r u c ti o na l improvement
constituents.

services

to its

In the op i ni o n of those i n t e r v i e w e d local

districts .avail th e ms e lv e s only of those i n s t r u c t i o n a l
improvement

services w h i c h they p e rc e i v e as b e i n g of

importance in m e e t i n g the needs of their own local
district.
T ho s e

local s u pe r in t e n d e n t s and in t e r m e d i a t e

staff me mbers who w e re I n t e r v i ew e d re p o r t e d that
important for the I n t e r m ed i at e school distr ic t to

it was

187
establish systems of* commun ic a ti o n w it h local school
districts.
was that

T h e r e a s o n which was most o ft e n m e n t i o n e d

local districts need to become in f or m ed as to

what is a v a i l a b l e 3 and for the interm ed i at e district
learn what the needs of the local schools

are.

to

Local

districts r e po r t e d l y did not access t hemselves to a
duplica t io n of effort, r edundancy, ge nerality,
level capability.

or low

Those i n t e r m ed i at e school district

p er s onnel who were interv i ew e d repor t ed that the most
effective means avail able to an interm e di a te district
determination of needs of its const i tu e nt s

is t hr ough

cooperative p l a n n i n g groups r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

of a cross-

in

section of the interm e di a te school district.
Resou rc e s provid e d by the inter m ed i at e school d i s ­
trict which a b r i d g e d the sovereignty of the local d i s ­
trict were found to be wasted.

A strategy of "aggressive

consultation" was r e p o r t e d by two in t er m ed i at e school
districts as a means

of h e lp i ng

access themselves to services
Many means w e re
as being available

at the i nt e r m e d i a t e

identified included:

identified by those interv i ew e d

of a pro cess of s e l f - r e n e w a l .
innovativeness

and his staff; establishment

search group

level.

to intermediate school districts

for the development

tendent

local school d i st ricts

Means

of the s u p e r i n ­
of an action r e ­

to try new ideas out; i n n o v a t iv e ne s s

the interme d ia t e board; p r o v i s i o n for retreats;

of

188

e st ablishment of e f f e c t i v e
of communication;

systems of i n ternal systems

provisions

for staff autonomy;

and

p r o v i s i o n for both in t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l evaluation.
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s — Local School Di s trict
That the Local School District:
1.

R e quest or d e ma n d that
ment

instructional improve­

services be p r o v i d e d by the i n te r me d ia t e

district w h e n these s er vi c es
ef f e c t i v e l y
2.

can be done more

or e c o n o m i c a l l y at that level.

V i e w the i n te r m e d i a t e d is trict as a c o o r d i n a t ­
ing and s u p p l e m e n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n interested
in e q u a l i z i n g e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s w i t h i n
its b o u n d a r i e s .

3.

Lend its a s s i s t a n c e in se c ur i ng ad e q u a t e
f i n a n c i n g for in t e r m e d i a t e d i strict
t ional i m p r o v e m e n t

4.

instruc­

services.

Pr ovide its tea chers w i t h credit toward
adv a nc e me n t

on the salary sched u le for in-

service p r o g r a m s

su c c e s s f u l l y c o mp l e t e d u nd e r

the in t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t ’s direction.
could then direct
pro b l e m s

Schools

a t t e n t i o n to t h e i r own uniq ue

and involve th e ir own t e a c h i n g staffs

in s o lving these problems.
I n t e r m ed i at e staff members, r e po r te d that some
local schools fail to r e co g ni z e

that

some i ns t ru c ti o na l

189
services

can be provi de d more e f f e c t iv e ly and e c o n o m i ­

cally at the i n t e r me d ia t e schoo l district level t h a n can
be p r o v i d e d locally.

Sp e ci f ic a ll y m e n t i o n e d were those

services aimed at e qu a li z i n g e d u c a t i o n a l o pp o rt u ni t ie s
of c hi l dr e n in the area.
T ho s e local school s u p e r i nt e nd e nt s and i n t e r ­
mediate staff m e mb e r s i n t e r v ie w ed r ep o rt e d that many
local school d i st r ic t s pr es e n t l y have i n e f f e ct i ve
development p r o g r a m s .
a major issue today,

Not only was

staff

this i de n ti f i e d as

but it was the o p in i on of these

persons that it would continue to be a m a j o r issue in
the years to come.
Fact ors r e p o r t e d l y
major issue were:

contrib u ti n g to m a ki n g this a

the current

s i t u a t i o n wi th r egard to

collective n e g o t i a t i o n in the state;

lack of q ua l if i ed

staff at the local level to conduct staff development;
and the a bs ence of d ef i n i t e and r e l i a b l e fi n ancial
support.
Impl ications
The. m od e l d e v e l o p e d as a result of this study is
designed to assist in d e v e l o p i n g i n s t r u c ti o na l i m p r o v e ­
ment services at the inter m ed i at e di strict
use of this mo d el re q ui r es

level.

The

the i n t e r m e d i a t e distric t

personnel to think through c e rtain consid e ra t io n s d eemed
necessary in f o r m u l at i ng progr am s of i ns t r u c t i o n a l

GUIDE FOR DEVELOPING INSTRUCTIONAL IMPROVEMENT SERVICES
The purpose of this guide is to help intermediate school
districts think through the considerations necessary
in formulating programs of instructional improvement.
Items Needing Consideration
I.

Determination of Present and Future
Needs
1.

Describe the groups you will involve
in determining both present and
future needs.
(Ex. district-wide
cooperative planning group,
principal groups, superintendent
groups, curriculum director groups,
and academic department head
groups,)

2.

Explain how you will assure that the
district-wide cooperative planning
group will represent a cross-section
of the' entire intermediate school
district.

3.

Describe how your staff will be in­
volved in the determining of needs
for the intermediate school district.
(Ex. establishment of a staff steer­
ing committee.)

Your Thinking to be Recorded

Items Needing Consideration

Jj.

Identify the present and future
needs as determined by the
different groups.

Priority of Needs
1.

Is it a service that is needed?

2.

Does this service affect the most
pupils, schools, or teachers?

3.

Do local districts have a need
for it?
Do the local districts see a need
for a service which your staff has
identified as being important?

5.

What plans do you have for creat­
ing a recognition of this staffperceived need? Describe how you
plan to "plant the seed."

6.

Will you be able to provide this
service with a minimum of expense
and dislocation?

7.

How will you support this service
financially?

8.

Is this service within your
sovereignty?

Your Thinking to be Recorded

Items Needing Consideration

9.

Ill.

Will this service be one of
high-level specialized educa­
tional practice?

10.

Will this service require high
levels of preparation, compe­
tency and experience?

11.

Describe how you will attract
and retain the necessary per­
sonnel to implement and direct
this service.

12.

Will this service be one of
high-level specialization not
available within the local
school districts?

13.

Will the service be predicable,
good, and consistent?

l^J.

Describe the responsibilities of
the advisory groups you will
establish for this service. How
will district-wide representa­
tion be assured?

15.

Identify the needs having the
greatest priority.

Staff Considerations
1.

Describe how autonomy for staff
members will be assured.

Your Thinking to be Recorded

Items Needing Consideration

2.

Identify the conference, work­
shops, and conventions each
staff member will be encouraged
to attend.
(List)

3.

Describe how you plan to support
and encourage the staff to
attend state and national con­
ferences .

4.

Describe how you plan to en­
courage and support visitations
to innovative programs.

5.

Identify the formal reference
groups the staff members will
belong to within the inter­
mediate school district.
(List)

6.

Describe what you plan to do to
encourage your staff to be
innovative.

7.

Will you be employing any staff
members from outside your inter­
mediate district?

8.

Will your staff have a greater
degree of competence and pro­
fessional preparation than that
found at the local district level

Your Thinking to be Recorded

Items Needing Consideration

9.

Describe how intermediate dis­
trict pride will be established
among staff members.

10.

How will you be assured that each
staff member will be able to work
within the environment of a local
district and under its direction?

11.

What type of personality is re­
quired within your district which
will permit effective accomplish­
ment of instructional improvement
by your staff members?

12.

What do you believe will be the
most effective service or pro­
gram which will provide entry
for your consultants into the
local schools? (What evidence
is available?)

13.

Identify the means that are
contemplated for evaluation of
each staff member.

1*1.

Describe how you plan to in­
volve your staff in suggesting
new programs needed and in the
evaluation of current programs.

15.

Explain how you plan to communi­
cate with your staff members
and how often.

Your Thinking to be Recorded

Items Needing Consideration
IV.

V.

Your Thinking to be Recorded

Intermediate Board Considerations
1.

Describe your plans for communi­
cating with and involving your
board in matters of instruc­
tional improvement concerns.

2.

Describe the educational pro­
gram you plan to provide for
newly elected board members.

Autonomy Considerations
1.

VI . Evaluation Considerations
1.

Describe the goals and objec­
tives that have been determined
for each service and indicate
how these were determined.

2.

Describe the type of evaluation
that will be necessary.

3.

Describe the function which the
staff steering committee will per­
form in the evaluation of pro­
grams and services.

195

Describe those programs of an
innovative nature which you
would like to be free of local
control. (How do you plan to
support them financially?)

Items Needing Consideration

Describe the function which
formal reference groups such as
superintendent groups, curricu­
lum directors, or principal
groups will perform with regard
to evaluation of services.

5.

Describe the criteria that you
will use in "spinning off" ser­
vices and staff personnel.

6.

Describe the type of outside
evaluation that is contemplated,
(i.e. State Department of Educa­
tion or University Consultants.)

7.

Describe how feedback about the
effectiveness of programs and
services will be collected from
classroom teachers.

VII. Two-way Communication Considerations
1.

Describe the means that will be
used to communicate with inter­
mediate staff (i.e. monthly staff
meetings.)

2.

Describe the means that will be
used to communicate with inter­
mediate district division heads
(i.e. weekly division or depart­
ment head meetings.)

196

4.

Your Thinking to be Recorded

Items Needing Consideration

3.

VIII.

Describe the means of communi­
cation contemplated and how often
it will take place between the
intermediate school district and
such groups as: intermediate
board of education, local dis­
trict superintendents, princi­
pals, curriculum directors, local
district teachers, State Depart­
ment of Education, and the
general public.

Superintendent Considerations
1.

Describe how you plan to encour­
age and support your staff to be
innovative. (List some of the
activities planned.)

2.

Describe.how you plan to develop
an innovative behavior pattern
for yourself.
(List some of the
conventions, workshops and other
activities you plan to involve
yourself in.)

Self-Renewal Considerations
1.

Describe how your office will
develop a flexible posture.

197

IX.

Your Thinking to be Recorded

Items Needing Consideration

2.

Describe possible procedures which
would likely help generate new
ideas or program (i.e. Retreats for
key staff members.)

3.

Describe the steps you have taken
to establish a research and develop
ment section within your inter­
mediate district organization.

Your Thinking to be Recorded

Specific Facility Considerations
(Ideal Conditions)
Describe the type of activities
which might be conducted in the
intermediate district facilities
(Board meetings, formal reference
group meetings, programs of
in-service education.)

2.

What percentage of time will this
faculty be used for each
activity.

3.

What kind and amounts of instruc­
tional materials and equipment will
be needed in this facility? List
specifically and briefly describe
use (Ex. video-tape equipment in-service education.)

198

1.

Items Needing Consideration

What furniture3 storage space3 etc.
is needed for this facility?
List specifically and briefly
describe use.
5.

What kind of areas are needed?
What percentage of time will be
devoted for a particular kind of
activity.

6 .' Indicate any special ideas you

have concerning the relationship
between the different areas to
be located within this facility
(Ex. materials Center - designed
to house materials and serve as
an area for in-service education).

Your Thinking to be Recorded

200

improvement.

Thus,

i n st r uc ti o na l im p ro v em e nt

services

should result th r o u g h a system a ti c p r o c e d u r e rather th an
through a h a p h a z a r d approach.
The model should also aid i nt e r m e d i a t e distri cts
pr esently p ro v i d i n g i ns t r u c t i o n a l impro v em e nt

services

to assist in the e v a l u a t i o n of those services.
A l t h o u g h the m od e l was intended
intermediate school districts,
the in t er m ed i at e distr icts,
other states.

for Mi c hi g an

it has implic at i on s

for

or ar e a service centers,

in

States presently e x p e r i e n c i n g or c o n ­

templating r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of their inter me d ia t e units
should find this model to be he lpful in the de velopment
of instru c ti o na l im provement

services.

The questi ons

to

which i n t e r me d ia t e di s tr i ct s need give a t t e n t i o n are
likely

to be the same no m a t t e r what the state.

Like­

wise, the issues which were identi f ie d as likely to
confront M i c h i g a n i nt e rm e di a te d is t ricts
instructional im provement

in p r ov i di n g

services will p r obably be

quite si milar to issues other states are likely to
confront.
R ec o mm e n d a t i o n s
This study was
It was pr imarily

for F u r t h e r Study

of a general,

ex p lo r at o ry nature.

concerned with e x a m i n i n g instru ct i on a l

improvement at the i n t e r m ed i at e school dist rict
in broad terms.

At the same time,

however,

level

it did

201
attempt to identify more specific areas for future
research.
1.

F u r t h e r study is suggested in i d e n t i fy i ng

operati o na l s trategies be i ng e m ployed by the d i ff e re n t
i n t e r m e di a te school districts and the rationale behind
these strategies.

It w o u l d be pa r t i c u l a r l y

import ant

to d i sc o v e r if there are strategies wh i ch can be em ­
p loyed by all i n t e r m e d i a t e school d i st ricts
instruc t io n al improvement
2.

at the local level.

It Is also suggested that f u rther study Is

needed wi th reg ard to the
tive service

two major types of c o n s u l t a ­

(Process or Substance)

i nterme d ia t e school district.
examine,

in e ff e cting

or compare,

p r o v i d e d by an

Such a study m i g h t well

interm ed i at e school d is t ri c ts of

similar m a k e - u p but pr o vi d i n g d if f er e nt types of c o n ­
sultative s e r v i c e s .

Such questions

as the foll owing

were r ai s ed in this study and might be answered in such
a study:
a.

Is one type of consult a ti v e service mo r e
ef fective at the local level than another?
b.
U n de r what conditions is each optimal?
Why?
c. . What factors co ntribute to this e f f e c t i v e ­
ness?
Why?
d.
Is one typ e of co n sultative service m o r e
r eadily a cc e pt e d by the local d i st r ic t s?
Why?
3.

A n ot h er s u g g e s t i o n for further study might

well include an e x a m i n a t i o n into the factors wh ich
influence

the degree to w h ic h in t ermediate

school

202
di stricts b ecome involved w i t h i ns t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e ­
ment at the local level.

Such qu estions as the f o l l o w ­

ing were r aised in this study and r e m a i n e d u n a n s w e r e d :
a.

g.

Why are some interme d ia t e school d is t ricts
m or e i nv o lv e d in i n s t r u c t i o n a l improv em e nt
t ha n others?
What factors contr ibute to this i nvolvement?
What are the percep t io n s of local school
d is t ri c ts and the State De p a r t m e n t of E d u c a ­
tion as to the r o l e which i n t e r m e d i a t e school
d is t r i c t s should p e r f o r m in the area of
i ns t r u c t i o n a l improvement?
Do local school d i st r ic t s and the State
D e p a r t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n see the in t e r m e d i a t e
school district as a change agent?
Do i n te r me d ia t e school districts see
th emselves as change agents?
Why do some local school d i st r ic t s see the
i nt e r m e d i a t e school district as an agency
to assist in in s tr u ct i on a l improve m en t while
others do not?
What factors contribute to this r e c e p ti v en e ss ?

^.

It is r e c o m m e n d e d that this

b.
c.

d.
e.
f.

study be r e p l i ­

cated using a m u c h larger sample from each of the three
sources u se d in c ollecting data.
s el ected— i nt e r m e d i a t e
"experts"
tration,

Th ose sources be i ng

school di stricts and their staff,

in the field of i nt e r m e d i a t e school a d m i n i s ­
and local school d i strict s u pe r intendents.

B IB L IO G RA P HY

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A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of E d u c a t i o n .
New York:
H a r p e r and Brothers Publis h er s , 1962.
Larsen, E l w o o d . "The E m erging Role of the I nt e rm e di a te
School District in M i c h i g a n w it h Implic at i on s for
Branch County."
U n p u b l i s h e d Ed.S. thesis, W e st e rn
M i c h i g a n U n iversity, 1 9 6 6 .
Little, Arthur D., Inc.
E m e r g i n g R e q u i r e m e n t s for
E ff e ctive Le a d e r s h i p for C a l i f o r n i a E d u c a t i o n .
Sacramento:
C a l i f o r n i a State D e p a r t m e n t of
Education, November, 1964.
M i c h i g a n A s s o c i a t i o n of I nt e rm e di a te S chool A d m i n i s t r a ­
tors.
The In t er m ed i at e School D i s t r i c t — Mi ddle
E ch e l o n of M i c h i g a n ’s T h r e e - E c h e l o n State Sy s te m
of E d u c a t i o n ^ J a n u a r y , 1 9 6 7 .
Mic h i g a n T e r r i t o r i a l L a w s .

II, pp.

472-477,

769-777-

M o r p h e t , Edgar L; Johns, Roe L.; and Reller, T h eo d or e L.
E d u c a t i on a l O r g a n i z a t i o n and A d m l n l s t r a t i o n .
2d ed.
En g l e w o o d Cliffs, New Jersey:
P re n t i c e Hall I n c ., 1967.
Munshaw, Carroll L.
"The E xtent of A gr e e m e n t and D i s ­
agreements A m o n g Se l ected School O f fi c i a l s R e g a r d ­
ing the Role of the County School O f f i c e in Wayne
County, M i c h i g a n . "
U n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D. disser t at i on ,
Wayne State Un i v e r s i t y , 1958.
Nati onal C om m is s i o n on School D is t r i c t R eo r ganization.
Your School D i s t r i c t . Washin g to n , D.C.:
Natio n al
E du c at i on A s s o c i a ti o n, 1948.

207
N at i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n on the Inter me d ia t e A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
U n i t . E ff e ctive Interm ed i at e U n i t s — A G u i d e for
D e v e l o p m e n t . W as h in g to n , D.C.:
D e p a r t me n t of
Rural Education, N at i on a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i at i on ,
1955.
Nat i on a l E d u c a t i o n As s ociation, Depart me n t of Rural
Education.
"Rural E d u c a t i o n — A F o r w a r d Look."
Yea r bo o k 1 9 5 5 . Washington, D.C.:
The A s s o c i a ­
tion, 1955.
_______. "The County Superi n te n de n t of Schools in the
U n i t e d States."
Y ea r b o o k 1 9 5 0 . Washi n gt o n, D.C.:
The Associ a ti o n, 1950.
Newson, N. William.
"The Legal Status of the County
Superintendent."
U. S. Offi ce of E d u c a t i o n
B u l l e t i n , 1932, No. 7.
W ashington, D.C.:
Govern­
ment Print i ng Office, 1932.
Pennsyl v an i a A s s o c ia t io n of County Su perintendents.
The
_____ I nt e rm e di a te U n i t — A Report of C o n s e n s u s .
P o l l e y , Ira.
"Analysis of Several Studies Pertinent
to the Present and P ot e ntial Role of the I n t e r ­
m e d i a t e School Di s tr i c t . "
M i c h i g a n Department
of E d u c a t i o n M e m o r a n d u m . N o v e m b e r , 26, 1 9 6 b .
_______. "Present and Potential Role of the I n t e r ­
m e d i a t e School D i s t r i c t ." M i c h i g a n Depart me n t
E d u c a t i o n M e m o r a n d u m . Novem be r 12, 1968.
(U npublished m o m e o .)

of

_______. "Proposed L e g i s l a t i o n for the R e o r g a n i z a t i o n
of I nt e rm e di a te School D is t ricts and for A dd i ng
A d d i t i o n a l Powers and R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to These
Districts."
M i c h i g a n De p ar t me n t of E d u c a t i o n
M e m o r a n d u m . N o v e m b e r 26, 19 68'.
_______. "Report on the I nt er m ed i at e School D i st r i c t . "
M i c h i g a n D e pa r tm e nt of E d u c a t i o n M e m o r a n d u m .
N o v e m b e r 16 , 1966 . (Unpublished mime.o. )
Pound,

Cla rence A.
"The C ha n g i n g Status of the County
S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y in Indiana."
U n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D.
d i s s e r t at i on , In d iana Univer si t y, 1953-

Public Acts of 1 8 8 7 .

Act 266.

State of Michigan.

20 8
Public Acts of 1891.
Michigan.

Act 1^7 , Sec.

10.

Public Acts of 1955.
Michigan.

Act 269, Sec.

298.

State of
State of

Public Acts of 1955 (R evision t h ro u gh the 1962 Session,
M i c h i g a n L eg islature).
Act 269*
State of
Michigan.
Public Acts of 1962.

Act 190.

State of Michigan.

Rhodes, A l v i n E.
Better E d u c a t i o n T h r o u g h E ff e ct i ve
I nt e rm e d ia t e U n i t s . Washing t on , D.C.:
Department
of Rural Education, N a ti o na l E d u c a t i o n Associ a ti o n,
1963.
Rogers, Ever ett M.
D i f f u s i o n of I n n o v a t i o n s .
The Free Press^ 1962.

Ne w York:

Rummel, J. Francis.
An I nt r o d u c t i o n to R e s e a r c h P r o ­
cedures in E d u c a t i o n . New York:
H arper and
Brothers, Publishers, 1958.
Sabin, Robert C.
"A Survey of the Need for an I n t e r ­
mediate School District in O r e g o n w i t h I m p l i c a ­
tions for Its Future D e v e l o p m e n t . "
Unpublished
Ph.D. disser ta t io n , U n i v e r s i t y of Oregon, 1 9 6 5 .
Schaibly, Colon L.
"A Study of Se l ected F u n c t i o n s of
the County School O ffice in M i c h i g a n . "
Unpublished
Ph.D. di s sertation, M i c h i g a n State Un i ve r si t y,
1956.
"Services," a bro chure.
San Diego, California:
San
D iego County D ep a rt m e n t of Educa ti o n, undated.
Stephens, E.R., and S p i e s s , John.
"The E m e r g i n g E d u c a ­
tion Service Agency."
P o s i t i o n Paper for the
Great Plains School Di s trict O r g a n i z a t i o n Project.
C on f e re n ce R e p o r t , Vol. 2, No. 3, May 25, 1968,
pp. 1-5.
Taylor, Clair L.
"Development of the Coun ty School
A dm i ni s t r a t i o n . "
Michigan Education J o u r n a l ,
32 (February, 1955), 251.

209
T h e Co m mittee of Ten.
The F u t u r e of the Intermediate
U n i t in C a l i f o r n i a . Los Angeles:
California
A s s o c i a t i o n of County S u pe r in t en d en t s, September,

1966 .
W urster, C at h erine B.
"Framework for an Urban Society."
Goals for A m e r i c a n s . Report of the Pr esident's
C o m m i s s i o n on Na t io n al Goals.
E ng l e w o o d Cliffs,
N e w Jersey:
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Inc., i 9 6 0 .
Young, W i l l i a m F.
" C urriculum Ge n er a li s t in the
Cu rrent Sce ne."
E d u c a ti o na l L e a d e r s h i p , 24,
No. 3 (December, 1966). 235.

APPENDICES

210

211

Calhoun I n t e r m e d i a t e D i st r i c t
(Marshall, M i c h i g a n )
C.O.O.R. I n t e r m e d i a t e District
(P r u d e n v i l i e , M i c h i g a n )
Oakland I n t e r m e d i a t e D is trict
(Pontiac, M i c h i g a n )
Wayne I n t e r m ed i at e District
(Detroit, M i c h i g a n )

65 mi.
C al houn

mi.
Wayne

L oc a ti o n of I n t e r m e d i a t e D is t ri c ts i n c l u d e d in Study

AP P E N D I X B
LIST OF PERSONS INTERV IEW ED

CA LHOUN IN T E R M E D I A T E SCHOOL DI S TR I CT
Nr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.

R o g e r Ross
Carl Buehler
D o n C a rter
D o r an Osborne
Harry Mi l le r
N e l s o n Kreuze
A r t h u r Gillis

COOR I N T E R M E D I A T E SCHOOL D I S T R I C T
Mr. Ja ck Keck
O AK LAND I N T E R M E D I A T E SCHOOL D I S T R I C T
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.

K. W. Brown
D avid Wells
Loyal Joos
Rob ert F i c h t e n a u
Robert Jo h n s o n

WAYNE C OU N TY I N T E R M ED I AT E S CHOOL D I S T R I C T
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.

W i l l i a m M i ll e r
Samuel M a n g i o n e
Rachel Brake
Al l en L. Be r ns t e i n
L eonard S. D e ma k
David L. He i nz m an
No r m a n J. Milchus
Charles E. Barnett
Robert Wall

"EXPERTS"
Dr. W il l i a m J. E m e r s o n - Superi n te n de n t, O a k l a n d I n t e r ­
m ediate School District
Dr. Jack Kirsh - D i r e c t o r of Instruction, W a s h t e n a w
In termediate School District

212

213
Dr. Stanley He cker - Professor, De p ar t m e n t of A d m i n i s t r a ­
tion and H igher Educa tion, M i c h i g a n State
U ni v er s it y
Dr. Ralph K el l og g - Di r ec t or of Curric u lu m , M i c h i g a n
State De p ar t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n
Mr. S te v en G l a z a - Superi n te n de n t, C a l h o u n In t ermediate
School District
Mr. W i l l i a m A. Shunck - Superintendent, Wayne County
I n t e r m ed i at e School District
LOCAL SCHOOL S UP E RI N T E N D E N T S
Mr.

R ic hard Escott - Su p er intendent, Ha s l e t t Public
Schools
Mr. Howard Ma l i t z - Su p er intendent, L a i g n s b u r g Public
Schools
Mr. Earl L a n c a s t e r - Superi n te n de n t, St. Johns Public
Sc hools

APPENDIX C
I N F O R M A TI O N CARDS U S E D D URING THE I N T E R V I E W

C u r r i c u l u m Personnel
This refers to any one of the fo l lo w i n g types of
c urricu l um workers who are di r ec t ly r e s p o n s ib l e to
the in t e r m e d i a t e school district and who work w i t h
local school districts for the im p ro v em e nt of c u r ­
r iculum an d/or instruction.
*

- •• •

C u r r i c u l u m g e n e r a l i s t . A p e r s o n who is r e ­
spons ible for in s tr u ct i on a l leader sh i p In mo re than
one subject matter area.
Such a p e r s o n could have
r es p o ns i bi l it i es at one or more e d u c a t i o n a levels.
C u r r i c u l u m s p e c i a l i s t . A p e r s o n who is r e ­
s ponsible for Instruc t io n al le adership In one s u b ­
ject area.
Such a p e r s o n could have r e s p o n s i b i l i ­
ties at one or more e du c at io n al l e v e l s .
C u r r i c u l u m change a g e n t . A p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n
who attempts to influence curricu l ar a n d / o r I n s t r u c ­
tional decisions in a d i re c t i o n that he feels is
desirable.
This is a role that m i gh t be p l ayed by
either the general i st or the specialist but, in
this case, It is the p rimary role of the individual.

215

C u r r i c u l u m or I n s t r u c t i o n a l I mprovement
Services and Programs
This refers to b o t h , t h e c o o r d i n a t i v e
supple m en t ar y se r vi c e f u n c t i o n s .

f u nc tions and

C o o r d i n a t i v e f u n c t i o n s . T h es e include a ct i vi t ie s
carried on by an i n t e r me d ia t e school district w h ic h
bring t o gether p e r s o n n e l from local school d is t ri c t
for* the p u r p o s e of i m p r o v i n g e d u c a t i o n or h e l p i n g
districts a nd/or o t h e r ag e ncies to solve their c om m on
problems.
(Examples:
i n - s e r v i c e p r og r a m s for
teachers, s p ecial c onsultant se rvice for school d i s ­
tricts, l e a d e r s h i p in the d e v e l o p m e n t of curricula,
or co o pe r at i ve r e s e a r c h on comm on s chool district
p r o b l e m s .)
S u p p l e m e n t a r y service f u n c t i o n s . These consist
of di re ct ed u c a t i o n a l services r e n d e r e d at the c l a s s ­
room level to su p pl e m e n t the local i n s t r u c t i o n a l
programs or to a ssist teachers in t h e i r c l a s sr o om
work.
(Example:
i n s t r u c t i o n a l ma t er i al s centers.)

AP PE N D I X D
I N T E R V I E W GUIDE:

I N T E R M EDI ATE

STAFF P E R S ON N EL

A-l

What i n s t r uc t io n al I m pr o ve m en t services, pr ograms,
or p e r s o n n e l does this offi ce p r ovide to local
s chool districts?

A-2

W h y are y o u p r o v i d i n g the services that y ou are
and not other types?
P R O B E : S o p h i s t i c a t i o n of
local districts, financial support and u sa g e of
ser vices by local district, and rationale.

A-3

What Is the most e f fe ctive in s tr u ct i on a l I m p r o v e ­
ment service and/or c u r r i c u l u m w or k er pr o v i d e d by
this office?
W h ic h service a nd/or c u rr i cu l um
w o r k e r would you first provide?
P R O B E : R ationale,
entry strategy, eval uation, and type of service
and/or c u r r i c u l u m worker.

A-4

What means are used by this I n t e rm e di a te d is t ri c t
to d e te rmine the services and/or cu r ri c u l u m
p e r s o n n e l it should or could provide?
PROBE:
L e a d e r s h i p of In t e r m e d i a t e district, size of
the i nt e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t , support of local d i s ­
tricts, p h il o so p hy , s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of local
d is trict p e r s o n n e l and programs, and evaluation.

A-5

What limits this office in p r o v i d i n g ad d it i on a l
servi ces?
PROBE:
P r o v i n c i a l i s m of local d i s ­
tricts, finances, size of district, b o ar d me m be r s,
Image, and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of local districts.

A -6

Wo u ld yo u c o ns i d e r that the services p r e s e n t l y
b e i n g p r o v i d e d are s uc c es s fu l in m e e t i n g the
needs of local distric t s?
P R O B E : Evaluation.

A-7

Wh at systems of c o m m u n i c a t i o n are o pe r at i ng
b e t w e e n the local d is t ri c ts and this i n t e r me d ia t e
district?

A—8

What means does an i n t e r m ed i at e d i strict u s e to
facilit a te change w i t h i n its own structure?
PROBE:
E l i m i n a t i o n or a d d i t i o n of services and
216

217
m o d i f i c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g services and p e r ­
sonnel, evalu ation, and cr i teria d e t e r m i n a t i o n
and utilization.
A-9

How does this offi ce get local school di stricts
to f i na n ci a ll y su pp ort and t he n to use the
services and p e r s o n n e l a v ai l a b l e for i n s t r u c ­
tional improvement?

A — 10

What issues are likely to be confro nted by
this district w i t h i n the ne x t. f iv e years in
terms of p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l improvement
services to local s chool districts?

A-ll

What qu e stions should i n t e r m ed i at e distr icts
give a t t e n t i o n to in the d ev e lo p me n t of
i n s t r u c ti o na l im p r o v e m e n t services?

218
INTERVIEW G U I D E :

INTERMEDIATE

SUPERINTENDENTS
B-l

Would you d es c r i b e y ou r p h i l o s o p h y regarding
the i n t e r m ed i at e district's role I n the area of
i ns t ru c ti o n al improve m en t ?
PROBE:
Rationale.

B-2

What limits interm e di a te d i st ricts in p r o v i d i n g
Instr uc t io n al impr ovement services and/or cur­
r ic u l u m p e r s o n n e l to local school districts?

B-3

What means does an I nt e rm e di a te d i strict use to
facilitate change w i t h i n its own structure?
P R O B E : E l i m i n a t i o n or a d dition of services and
m o d i f i c a t i o n of e x is t in g services and personnel,
e valuation, and criteria d e t e r m i n a t i o n and
utiliza tion.

B-4

What issues are likely to be confr onted by this
district w i t h i n the next five y ea r s in terms of
p r o v i d in g i n s t r u ct i on a l i m p r o ve m en t services to
local school districts?

B-5

What questions sh ou ld interme d ia t e districts
give atten t io n to in the d ev e l o p m e n t of i n ­
struct i o na l improvement services?

B—6

Do you b el i ev e that by g r anting m o r e p o wers and
r es p o n s i b i l i t i e s to the in t e r m e d i a t e distri cts and
by r e d u c i n g their number, i n termediate di stricts
will p r o v i d e improved i n s t r u c t i o n a l Improvement
services to local school districts?

B-7

Why haven't most intermediate distri c ts been mo re
s uccessful in the past in p r o v i d i n g instru ct i on a l
I m p r o v em e nt services to local school districts?

B-8

Suppose that you have just be en hired as the
superintendent of an interm ed i at e di strict and
you d i s c o v e r that it has never pr o vi d ed i n s t r u c ­
tional Impro vement services to the local districts.
Your i n te r me d ia t e b oa r d has g iv e n you complete
free dom to set-up I n st r u c t i o n a l I m p r o ve m en t s e r ­
vices as well as a ss uring you that the necessary
money is available.
a.
Would you p r ovide i ns t ru c ti o na l impro ve m en t
services?

219
b .

c.
d.

How w ou l d you d e te r mi n e what s e r v i c e s ,
pr ograms, and/or c u r r i c u l u m p e r s o n n e l your
office wo u ld provide?
P R O B E : Direct vs.
in-direct services, ration ale, evalu ation,
and means of self-renewal.
What is likely to be the mos t effective
service to pr o v i d e for entry strategy?
P R O B E : Rationale.
What is likely to be the first type of
cur r ic u lu m wo r ke r you w o u l d hire?
PROBE:
Rationale.

220
INTERVIEW G U I D E :
DEPARTMENT

STATE

"EXPERTS"

D-l

What do you see as future issues co n f r o n t i n g the
Int e rm e di a te districts in p r o v i d i n g in s tr u c t i o n a l
i mprove m en t services to local school d is t ricts
over the next five years?

D-2

Wh y h a ven't most i n t e r m e di a te di s tr i ct s be en
mo re su c ce s s f u l in the past in p r o v i d i n g
i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m pr o ve m en t services to local
school districts?

D-3

Do y ou be l ieve that by g ra n t i n g more p owers and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to the I nt e rm e di a te di s tr i ct s
and, by r e du c i n g their number, i n te r me d ia t e
districts will p ro v id e improved i n s t r u ct i on a l
I mp r ov e me n t services to local school distri c ts ?

221
IN TER V I E W GUIDE:

LOCAL SCHOOL D I S T R I C T

SUPERINTENDENTS
E—1

What do you b elieve should be the i n t e r me d ia t e
dist rict's role in p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l
i mprovement services to local s chool d is t ri c ts ?
P R O B E : Ty pe of aid, type of s e rvice and/or
consultant, and degree of involvement.

E-2

Would you say that this in t e r m e d i a t e district
(has, hasn't) b e en active in the past in p r o ­
vid i ng i n s t ru c ti o na l improvement se rvices to
local school di s tr i ct s ?
P R O B E : Reasons for
d is t ri c ts being active or in-ac tive, empire
building, threatening, image, and p e rs o n a l i t i e s .

E-3

What means are us ed to involve local di s tr i ct s
in decid in g u po n services, programs, and/or
p e r s o n n e l to be p r ov i de d by the i nt e rm e di a te
district in the area of in s tr u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e ­
ment?
PROBE:
E v a l u a t i o n and c o m m u n i c a t i o n
systems.

E-lJ

Why ha ven't most i n t e r m e di a te d i st r i c t s b e e n mo re
s uccessful in the past in p r o v i d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l
improvement services to local sch ool di s tr i ct s ?

E-5

What has been the most effective i n st r u c t i o n a l
improvement service re c ei v ed from the i n t e r ­
m e d i a t e district?
P R O B E : Reasons, type
service and/or c u rr i cu l um personnel.

E-6

What would you like the i n t e r me d ia t e d is t ri c t
to p r ov i de that they are not p r o v i d i n g at the
present time?

APPENDIX

E

May 12, 1969

Dr. F r e d e r i c k V e s c o l a n i
Department of A d m i n istration
and Higher Education
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
Dear

Sir:

I a m p r e s e n t l y a t t e m p t i n g to i d e n t i f y i n d i v i d u a l s in M i c h i g a n
h a v i n g some e x p e r t i s e In the a r ea of i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t school
administration.
I w o u l d l i k e f o r y o u to r e c o m m e n d I n d i v i d u a l s f r o m
t hree levels:
University, State, and Intermediate Superintendents.
T h e s e p e r s o n s m a y e i t h e r b e p r e s e n t l y a c t i v e or r e t i r e d .
Two other persons are
Crawford, State Department
Superintendent, Shiawassee

p a r t i c i p a t i n g in this search:
o f E d u c a t i o n , a n d Mr. J o h n R.
Intermediate District.

to be u se d

are

as

D r. F e r r i s
Francis,

The

criteria

follows:

1.

So m eo ne f a m i l i a r w it h the f u n c t i o n of the i n t e r m e d i a t e
u n i t o f s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in M i c h i g a n .

2.

S o m e o n e w h o o c c u p i e s , o r h a s o c c u p i e d , a p o s i t i o n of
l e a d e r s h i p m o s t l i k e l y to i n f l u e n c e t h e o p i n i o n s of
o t h e r s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l and citizens.

3.

I n d i v i d u a l s s u f f i c i e n t l y i n t e r e s t e d i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g in
a n i n t e r v i e w r e g a r d i n g t h e f u t u r e of t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
d i s tr i ct in p r o v i d i n g I n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e m e n t s e r v i c e s .

I w o u l d l i k e f o r y o u t o r e c o m m e n d t h r e e (3) p e r s o n s fo r e a c h
level and i n d i ca te their t i tl e and a d d r e s s .
I s i n c e r e l y h o p e that
y o u m a y f i n d t h e t i m e to a s s i s t m e i n l o c a t i n g t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s .
I f y o u a r e u n a b l e t o do s o w o u l d y o u p l e a s e let m e k n o w .
I would
l i k e t o h a v e y o u r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s no l a t e r t h a n M a y 2 0, 19 69Thank you
matter.

In a d va n c e

for y o u r

help

and

consideration

in this

Sincerely,

J o h n Robert Os b o r n e
4400 O k em os Ro ad Apt. 214-::
Okemos, Michigan
48864
(517)

222

351-5387

223

' APPENDIX

E

May

Dr. W i l l i a m J. E m e r s o n
Superintendent
Oakland Intermediate School
Campus Drive
Pontiac, Michigan
48053
Dear

16,

1969

District

Sir:

I am p r e s e n t l y c o n d u c t i n g a study of s e l e c t e d i n t e r m e d i a t e
s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s in M i c h i g a n .
T h e p u r p o s e o f this s t u d y is to
b u i l d a m o d e l w h i c h c a n b e u s e d in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l
i m p r o v e m e n t s e r v i c e s at t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l in M i c h i g a n .
The
m o d e l w i l l be b a s e d u p o n t h e r e s p o n s e s to t w o q u e s t i o n s :
to w h a t
q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t s g i v e a t t e n t i o n in the
d e v e l o p m e n t of i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e m e n t ser vi ce s ? and w i t h what
i s s u e s a r e I n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t s l i k e l y to b e c o n f r o n t e d in t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t of I n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e m e n t se rvices?
As y o u p r o b a b l y k n o w , t h e M i c h i g a n D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n is
p r e s e n t l y p r e p a r i n g l e g i s l a t i o n w h i c h is p r o p o s e d to b e c o m e e f f e c ­
t i v e i n 1 9 7 1 d e a l i n g w i t h t w o t h i n g s : r e d u c t i o n I n n u m b e r of
i n t e r m e d i a t e school d is t r i c t s , and g r a n t i n g of a d d i t i o n a l p ow e rs
and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
T h e r e s u l t s o f t h is s t u d y m a y a i d i n t h e
p r e p a r a t i o n of this and future l e g i s l a t i o n d e a l i n g w i th I n t e r m e d i a t e
d i s t r i c t s and s h ou ld a ss i st r e o r g a n i z e d i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t s in
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e m e n t s e r v i c e s .
Y o u r d i s t r i c t w a s on e o f t h o s e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r s t u d y by a
c o m m i t t e e k n o w l e d g e a b l e in i n t e r m e d i a t e d i s t r i c t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
T h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of y o u r d i s t r i c t is m o s t i m p o r t a n t to t h e s t u d y
b e c a u s e o f i ts p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t i t u e n c y m a k e - u p .
Your cooperation
in p e r m i t t i n g me to v i s i t y o u r o f fi ce and conduct I n t e r v i e w s w it h
t h o s e s t a f f m e m b e r s w o r k i n g i n th e a r e a of i n s t r u c t i o n a l i m p r o v e ­
ment ( ex cl u d i n g sp ec i a l e d u c a t i o n P e rsonnel) w o u l d be m o s t a p p r e ­
ciated ahd ehlpful.
I w o u l d l i k e to v i s i t y o u r o f f i c e o n F r i d a y ,
M a y 2 3 r d a n d M o n d a y , M a y 2 6 t h if p o s s i b l e .
I will t e l e p h o n e y o u r
o ffice on W e d n e s d a y , Ma y 21st, to v e r i f y t h o se dates.

t hi s

I w i l l b e p l e a s e d t o s e n d y o u a s u m m a r y of t h e r e s u l t s
study if you desire.
T h a n k you for y o u r c oo pe ra t io n.

of

Sincerely,

John Robert Osborne
4400 O kemos Road Apt. 214-H
Okemos, Michigan
48864
(51 7)
351-5387