71-11,863 HENDRA, Richard I., 1936AN ASSESSMENT OF THE MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT OF MICHIGAN RESERVATION INDIAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AND MICHIGAN CAUCASIAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1970 Education, general U niversity M icrofilm s, A XEROX C om pany , A n n A rbor, M ichigan AN ASSESSMENT OF THE MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT OF MICHIGAN RESERVATION INDIAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AND MICHIGAN CAUCASIAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS By Richard I . Hendra A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1970 ABSTRACT AN ASSESSMENT OF THE MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT OF MICHIGAN RESERVATION INDIAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AND MICHIGAN CAUCASIAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS By Richard I . Hendra The purpose of this research was to determine if sig­ nificant differences existed in m o t i v a t i o n , grade point averages^ achievement test scores and intelligence test scores between Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peers. Data were gathered tricts which provide the from the five public school dis­ educational services for the In­ dian students residing on the four Michigan Indian reser­ vations. Ninth grade students were sampled to include data from students who might be potential drop-outs, as the drop­ out rate of the Michigan Reservation Indian students ap­ proaches 80 per cent. Motivation of the students sampled was measured by the use of the M - S c a l e s . Intelligence test scores and achievement test scores were obtained from school district records. Grade point averages were developed from student Richard I . Hendra grade records in subjects for which there was homework required. An analysis of variance, based on a proportional sub­ class frequency design, was used to analyze the data. One and two tailed "t" tests were also used to determine which data required further analysis. No statistically significant differences at the .05 level of significance were found to exist between measured motivation factors, intelligence test scores, and achieve­ ment test scores between Michigan Reservation Indian stu­ dents and their non-reservation Caucasian peers. Statis­ tically significant differences in grade point averages between the two groups were found to exist. There were no statistically significant differences on measured motivation factors between Michigan Reserva­ tion Indian students and an established Caucasian sample, and no statistically significant differences existed on measured motivation factors between Michigan Reservation Indian students and an established Plains States Indian sample. The conclusions of the study were: 1. There are no statistically significant d i f fe r­ ences between Michigan Reservation Indian stu­ dents and their non-reservation Caucasian peers in measured motivation, measured intelligence and measured achievement. Richard I. Hendra 2. There are statistically significant differences between Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peers in earned grade point a v e r a g e s . 3. The statistically significant difference in earned grade point averages between Michigan Re­ servation Indians and their non-reservation Ca u ­ casian peers is not attributable to a lack of motivation or ability. Supportive evidence for conclusion three suggests that the differences in earned grade point averages might be attributed to: 1. A widespread lack of sensitivity toward the Indian students by school district personnel. 2. Poor attendance records of the Indian students, attributed partially to parental apathy, student health and socio-economic conditions of the family. 3. Limited curricula offered by the majority of the schools, and a serious lack of supporting ser­ vices . 4. Due to the lack of home electrification and o v e r ­ crowded home conditions suggesting poor study habits among the Indian students. Recommendations of the study include: Richard I . Hendra 1. That the five public school districts responsible for providing the educational programs for the Michigan Re­ servation Indians immediately plan and initiate programs to increase the sensitivity of their personnel towards the I n di an . 2. That the Michigan Department of Education employ the personnel necessary to mobilize and assist the various Indian groups in designing academic and supportive programs which will enable the Reservation Indian to reap the r e ­ wards of the educational system. 3. That the Michigan Legislature enact appropriate legislation to fund programs to allow the citizens of the Reservations to become better Indians. include funds for study centers, These programs may teacher training directed towards the Indian culture and norms, supportive services for Indian students and the development of programs to increase the socio-economic status of the Reservation In­ dian community. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation is dedicated to my wife, Ruth. There is little question that without her sacrifices and moral, physical and financial support, this project would not have been completed. I would also like to pay special thanks to my ad ­ visors and friends, Dr. David Smith and Dr. Sam Moore. Their assistance in the planning and development of this dissertation did much to make it a better document. I would also like to thank Dr. Dale Alam, Dr. James McKee, Dr. William Farquhar and Dr. Andrew Porter for lend ing their expertise in the development and review of this dissertation. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACK NO WL EDGMENTS......................................... ii LIST OF T A B L E S ............................................ v Chapter I. II. THE P R O B L E M .................................. B a c k g r o u n d .................................. N e e d ......................................... P u r p o s e ...................................... H y p o t h e s e s.................................. Theory ...................................... O v e r v i e w .............................. 1 3 7 9 9 14 REVIEW OF L I T E R A T U R E ........................ 15 Historical Background ..................... Early H i s t o r y ........................... The Settlement Period ................. Indian Life During the Settlement P e r i o d ............................... The Decline P e r i o d ..................... The Static P e r i o d ..................... The Contemporary Reservation Indian in M i c h i g a n ............................... ..................... Living Conditions Educational Op p o r t u n i t i e s .............. S u m m a r y ...................................... III. 1 DESIGN OF THE S T U D Y ........................... Sample S e l e c t i o n ........................... Measuring Instruments ..................... Analysis P r o c e d u r e s........................ Testable H y p o t h es es ................. S u m m a r y ...................................... ii i 15 15 17 20 22 25 30 30 40 60 62 62 64 65 68 69 Chapter IV. Page STATISTICAL A N A L Y S I S ............................ P r o c e d u r e ..................................... Hypothesis O n e ............................... Hypothesis T w o ............................... Hypothesis Three ........................... Hypothesis F o u r ........................... Hypothesis F i v e ........................... Hypothesis S i x ............................... S u m m a r y ...................................... V. SUMMARY AND C ON C L U S I O N S ........................ S u m m a r y ...................................... C o n c l us i on s.................................. D i s c u s s i o n .................................. Implications for Further Research . . . Impressions.................................. Recommendations ........................... BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................... 70 70 73 77 81 81 83 84 84 88 88 90 91 95 96 98 101 A P P E N D I C E S .................................................... 106 A. M - S c a l e s ............................................. 107 B. G P A - I Q ............................................. 113 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2.1. Navajo school children ......................... 2.2. Buying power per household in counties containing Indian reservations . . 31 36 2.3. Total personal and per capita income in Michigan counties containing Indian reser­ vations ............................................. 36 2.4. Indian and U. S. national average health com­ parisons 38 2.5. Indian students in Michigan schools. . . . 46 2.6. Indian teachers in Michigan schools. . . . 46 2.7. Concentrations of Indian students in Michigan public s c h o o l s ............................... 47 2.8. Pertinent characteristics of the five public school districts serving Michigan Indian reservations .................................. 48 2.9. Physical facilities and Indian enrollment by b u i l d i n g ...................................... 51 2.10. Dropout patterns of school districts and counties containing Michigan Indian Reser­ vations ............................................. 59 3.1. Sampling f o r m a t .............................63 4.1. M-Scales, F ratios Schools by Indian Interaction— f e m a l e s ......................... 74 4.2. M - S c a l e s , F ratios for Schools by Indian Interaction--males ........................... 4.3. M-Scales, F ratios for Differences by Schools— f e m a l e s ............................ 75 v 74 M-Scales, F ratios for Differences by Schools— males ............................... M-Scales, F ratios for Indian— non-Indian comparison— fem al es ........................... 76 M-Scales, F ratios for Indian— non-Indian comparison--males ........................... 76 GPA, IQ, F ratios for Schools by Indian Interaction— females ........................ 78 GPA, IQ, F ratios for Schools by Indian Int erac tion--male s ........................... 78 GPA, IQ, F ratios for Differences by Schools--f em al es ............................... 79 GPA, IQ, F ratios for Differences by Schools— males ............................... 79 GPA, IQ, F ratios for Indian— non-Indian comparison— f e m al es ........................... 80 GPA, IQ, F ratios for Indian— non-Indian comparison— males ........................... f.0 Achievement test scores— females 82 . .............. 82 M-Scales— female Michigan Reservation Indians and Caucasian s a m p l e ................. 85 M-S ca l es — male Michigan Reservation Indians and Caucasian sample ........................ 85 M-Scales— female Michigan Reservation Indians and Plains Reservation Indians 86 M -Scales— male Michigan Reservation Indians and Plains Reservation Indians .............. 86 Achievement test scores— males vi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Background The geographical area that now comprises the State of Michigan was once inhabited by three Indian tribes: the Potawatorai, the O t t a w a , and the C h i p p e w a . In the early nineteenth century, as the white man pushed the great frontier westward, displaced and forced to retreat. the Michigan Indian was During this era, game and land became scarce commodities which resulted in famine for the Indian families. Caucasian diseases and wars further decreased the Indian population of Michigan. In the mid-nineteenth century several treaties were negotiated by the Michigan and Federal governments between themselves and the various Indian tribes. However, Leupp^ points out that as was typical within the United States during this period, Cameron 2 these treaties were seldom kept. states that during the great lumbering and fishing era of Michigan's development, many of the Indians ^Francis E. L e u p p , The Indian and His Problem (New Chas. Scribner & S o n s , 1910), p. 26. 2 Interview with Herman Cameron, Director of the Michigan Commission of Indian Affairs, Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, March, 1969. York: 1 2 found employment in these industries. Further, such work was considered appropriate by the Indians because it was related to their culture and heritage. However, the tasks performed by the Indian were typically the unskilled chores, and when the forest and fishing industries declined the Indian soon found himself again being displaced and forced to retreat. In an effort to cope with the "Indian Problem," four Indian reservations were established in various parts of Michigan between 1855 and 1937. All four currently remain in operation, and serve as resident areas for those M i c h i ­ gan Indians who choose to reside there. In recent years, contemporary Michigan society has become increasingly aware of the plight of the reservation Indians within the state. Unfortunately this awareness has led to the development of very few significant efforts to assist this minority, either by specific legislative action or through any obvious programs developed through the various Departments of the State. In a report to the Governor of Michigan in 1967, Michigan Commission on Indian Affairs stated in part, the "that if we are to assist the Michigan Indian, we must concentrate our efforts on the young." Assuming the preceding observation is one of merit, the future well being of the Michigan Indian is directly incumbent upon a quality educational preparation. 3 The Michigan Reservation Indians are currently being educated in the public schools which are geographically convenient to the reservation. Residents of the three Upper Peninsula reservations avail themselves of the ser­ vices of school districts which are relatively small enrollments of less than 1,000 students) orientation. (K-12 and of a rural Residents of the reservation located in the Lower Peninsula avail themselves of the services of a school district of a modest enrollment approximately 4,500) (K-12 enrollment of and of a small college community orientation. Need Quality education is an elusive term and its d e fi ni ­ tion is dependent upon the school organization and its stu­ dents. If the educational opportunities currently avail­ able for Michigan Reservation Indians do need to be improved, it is imperative that knowledge of motivation and educational achievement be developed for the Indian stu­ dents . In 196 3, Dr. Van C. Johnson 3 noted that a knowledge base of Indian education was needed for Indian students in South Dakota. In response to this need, a study concerning 3 Van C. Johnson, "An Assessment of the Motivation F a c ­ tor in the Estimation of Academic Achievement of Eleventh Grade Indian Students and the Factored Dimensions of the M-Scales: An Exploratory Study" (unpublished Ph.D. d i s ­ sertation, Michigan State University, 1963). 4 the achievement and motivation of Indian students was de ­ veloped . Johnson's study was limited to two all Indian High Schools, operated by the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. Indians attending the schools were residents of Indian Reservations located in seven of the Plains States and represented thirty-five tribes. The instrument utilized in the Johnson study was the Michigan M-Scales, developed by Dr. William W. Farquhar at M ichigan State University. This instrument was compared w ith the Differential Aptitude T e s t — Verbal Reasoning, and the grade point average for academic subjects for two p r e ­ ceding years, for each student tested. The comparisons resulted in an analysis of achievement and motivation. Recommendations of the Johnson study, in part, urge the: "Replication of the study to another sample of Indian students to ascertain whether or not the same academic and motivational differences prevail." "Replication of the study in schools where the Indian student is a minority in a Caucasian environment." "Replication of the study in other geographical areas of the United States." The above recommendations were based on the following concerns: 5 1. The population sampled in the Johnson study may have had characteristics unique to the Indians of the Plains States. 2. The population sampled in the Johnson study may have had characteristics unique to all-Indian student schools operated by the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs. 3. The research begun in the Johnson study could be enhanced and made more meaningful with additional information gathered from a sample from a d i f ­ ferent geographical and educational environment. 4 In a study by Harold J. Miller of Indians attending integrated schools in North Dakota, several factors were reviewed which reinforce the need for this study. The research was confined to schools where the Indians were minority students. 1. As a result, Miller concluded: Non-Indian students performed better in the schools surveyed than did the Indian students. 2. It appeared that the quality of instruction alone did not explain the differences. 3. Indians who attended integrated schools for several years performed better than Indians who just became a part of the integrated school e n ­ vironment . 4 Harold J. Miller, "The Effect of Integration on Rural Indian Pupils" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Dakota, 1968). 6 Information similar to that described above is not available for Michigan and could be of value and assistance in planning future educational programs and legislation. Other factors which reinforce the need for this study i nclude: 1. Michigan ranks thirteenth 5 of the fifty states in Indian population, yet there is no sophisticated evidence available on the Indian student from which to make inferences about the type of e du ­ cational programs being provided.® 2. Michigan is currently providing no direct a s ­ sistance for either basic educational programs or supportive services for the several school d i s­ tricts serving the Reservation Indians.7 3. Coleman notes that minority groups are c o g ni ­ zant of the fact the upward mobility is related g to educational attainment. 4. Michigan Reservation Indians are becoming more vocal and militant in expressing the lack of ®Don Meyers, "Michigan's Shame: Detroit N e w s , May 17, 1964. Its Tragic Indians," ^Michigan Department of Education, Unpublished report for the National Study of American Indian Education, 1969. 7Ibid. g James S. Coleman, Equality of Educational O p po r ­ tunity , U.S. Office of Education (Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 192. 7 concern expressed toward their problems by the State during the last several decades. 9 Purpose There are three primary areas of interest dealt with in this thesis. 1. They are: To gather empirical evidence on the motivation, achievement and intelligence of Michigan Reser­ vation Indian students attending selected M i c h i ­ gan public schools. 2. To gather empirical evidence on the motivation, achievement and intelligence of non-reservation Caucasian students attending the same selected Michigan public schools. 3. To compare and contrast the evidence obtained from the two groups described above, as well as to compare and contrast these data with p r e ­ viously established M-Scales norms for Michigan Caucasian students. In exploring the above three objectives, the ideology of the Johnson study will be continued and extended. An approach of this scope and design is in agreement with the recommendations of the Johnson study, as supported by the following: 9 Interview with John Winchester, Center for Urban Affairs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, April, 1970. 8 1. This study examined a different population of Indian students to ascertain whether or not similar academic differences prevail. It is suggested that due to the d i f ­ ferences in the educational environment of the Michigan Reservation Indian student from that of the Plains States Indian student, that the Michigan Reservation Indian will demonstrate higher scores on the various data collected than did those in the Johnson sample. 2. This study examined a population of Michigan Reservation Indian students who attend schools in which they constitute a racial minority. Both the Coleman report*’® and the United States Civil Rights Commission Report*'*' a d ­ dress the issue of students from a racial minority p e r ­ forming better in an educational environment that does have racial balance. 3. This study examined and was confined to another geographical area of the United States, State of Michigan. specifically the Because the Michigan Reservation Indian family has assimilated many of the Caucasian values and norms including the English language, it is predicted that this should have a positive influence upon his performance in school. ^Coleman, op. c i t . , p. 307. ^ C i v i l Rights Commission, Racial Isolation in the Public S c h o o l s , Vol. II (Washington, D .C .: Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 183. 9 Hypotheses The hypotheses which follow are offered to define the three principal areas of interest of this document; Ho^; There are differences in the mean scores of the four sub-tests of the M-Scales between Michigan Reservation Indian students and their n o n ­ reservation Caucasian peer group. H0 There are differences in the grade point averages earned by Michigan Reservation In­ dian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. 2 : Ho^: There are differences in the achievement test scores earned by Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. Ho^: There are differences in the intelligence test scores earned by Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. Hog: There are differences in the mean scores of the four sub-tests on theM-Scales between Michigan Reservation Indian students and an established sample of Caucasian students within Michigan. HOg: There are differences in the mean scores of the four sub-tests of the M-Scales between Michigan Reservation Indian students and the Johnson sample of Plains States Reservation Indian students. Theory In 1959, Dr. William W. Farquhar and his associates developed the Michigan M-Scales as a function of a United States Office of Education contract (Project 846, 1959). The Scales are based on the concepts that a student's concern for long-term involvement, unique accomplishment, and competition with a standard of excellence will be 10 indicative of high achievement; while a student's concern for short-term involvement, common accomplishment, and competition with a minimal standard of excellence will be indicative of low achievement. Four sub-tests comprise the M-Scales. The sub-tests include: 1. The Generalized Situational Choice Inventory, which measures the student's need for academic achievement. 2. The Preferred Job Characteristics Scale, which measures the student's occupational aspirations. 3. The Word Rating List, which measures the stu­ dent's perception of himself in an academic setting. 4. The Human Trait Inventory, which measures the unique characteristics of high and low motivation students in an academic situation. Since the development of the M-Scales, many re ­ searchers have used them to explore various areas of in­ terest. Two particular studies besides the one done by Johnson do have a relationship to this thesis. 12 Payne noted that in a survey of eleventh graders in nine Michigan high schools, 12 the M-Scales did significantly David A. Payne, "The Dimensions of an Objective Measure of Academic Self-Concept" (unpublished Ph.D. d is ­ sertation, Michigan State University, 1961). 11 discriminate between low achieving and high achieving stu­ dents. He also expressed concern over the possibility of a homogeneity factor in the eleventh grade students in his sample, due to the many drop-outs which occur prior to the eleventh grade. by Payne, As a result of the concern expressed the author sampled ninth grade students in the several schools surveyed. 13 Green found in his research on Negro students that when compared to the Caucasian, the Negro fails to achieve as well, has a greater tendency to drop-out of school and usually demonstrates a lower need for achievement. It has been previously noted that it is a fundamental purpose of this document to ascertain if similar factors exist between Michigan Reservation Indian students and Caucasians. Intelligence and achievement test scores utilized in the projected comparisons and contrasts between the Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non­ reservation Caucasian peers were determined from the stu­ dent records available within the several selected school districts surveyed. Grade point average data were determined by the r e ­ search of the student records for those grades earned in academic courses in grades seven and eight. 13 In defining Robert L. Green, "The Predictive Efficiency and Factored Dimensions of the Michigan M-Scales for Eleventh Grade Negro Students: An Exploration Study" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1962). 12 academic courses more explicitly, they were considered to be those subjects which required homework to be done by s t u d en ts . As the data gathered for analysis were obtained from a population, the Cornfield-Tukey argument for suggest ing the appropriateness of the use of inferential sta14 tistics on populatxons was accepted. It then followed that a multiple analysis of variance of the means of the various fixed variables was a statis­ tically sound approach for reviewing the data. This opera­ tion required that attention be given to the proportional sub-class frequency technique in the statistical design. A statistical difference at the .05 level of sig­ nificance was considered to be a meaningful difference. This level was established, a priori. For comparisons between the research of this study and that of previous studies, a simple "t" test comparison will be developed. The assumptions made on the factors considered as constants, 1. include: Differences in the M-Scales scores which occured between the ninth grade populations of the several schools 14 J. Cornfield and J. W. T u k e y , "Average Values of Mean Squares in Factorials," Annuals of Mathematics Sta­ tistics , 27:907-949. 13 surveyed and the eleventh grade students of the Michigan Caucasian sample were not the effect of the grade d i f ­ ferences . 2. Differences in intelligence and achievement test scores which occurred between the ninth grade populations of the several schools surveyed were not the result of d i f ­ ferences in the intelligence and achievement testing d e ­ vices utilized, or in the manner in which they were a d ­ ministered . 3. Differences in grade point averages which occurred between the ninth grade populations of the several schools surveyed were not the results of the various techniques utilized in determining the grades or the resultant grade point averages. 4. Differences in the M-Scales scores which occurred between Michigan Reservation Indian students and Plains States Indians of the Johnson study are not due to the differences in time between the Johnson study and this thesis. 5. The group of students under study, although established a priori and relatively small, will be valuable in making inferences as it does consist of the entire p o p u ­ lation of ninth grade Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation peers. The conclusions of this dissertation, as described by the hypotheses and information contained within this 14 section will provide valuable information on the educational patterns now being followed by the Michigan Reservation Indian student, when compared to his non-reservation C au ­ casian peers and other Caucasian students within the State. Overview This thesis is organized so as to present a review of the pertinent literature in Chapter II. The methodology utilized in collecting, organizing and tabulating the data are described in Chapter III. Chapter IV presents an analysis of the data, while Chapter V includes the conclu­ sions of the study as well as implications for further r e ­ search. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Historical Background Early History It is the consensus of most archaeologists that at one time the continent now known as North America was un ­ inhabited by man. H o w e v e r , evidence which has been d is­ covered and studied over the years has led them to h y p o ­ thesize that as time progressed, people of Mongolian descent crossed the Bering Strait from Russia into Alaska, and from there migrated into various regions of the c on­ tinent. These individuals are believed to be the ancestors of the American Indian.^Little history of the Indian was recorded prior to the arrival of Columbus in 1492. Discovery of artifacts has led archaeologists to believe there were five major segments in the evolution of the Indian civilization prior to the Caucasian's arrival. era, the stone boilers, They included the pre-historic the farmers and potters, builders, and the grand pipe era. York: 2 the mound Each division in time ^Clark Wissler, Indians of the United States Doubleday 6 Co. 1948) , pT 5TT 2 I b i d ., p . x v i . 15 (New 16 added to the knowledge and culture of the Indian. The mound builders work is still evident in Ohio and Illinois, as well as that of the Pueblo builders of the Southwest. Historical research suggests the construction of this period took place during the two century span of 900-1100 A.D. 3 The grand pipe era was that phase of Indian d e v elop­ ment which was taking place when the Europeans began their first explorations and settlements. An illustration of the activities of this period includes the formation of the Iroquois Confederation in the area which now comprises the State of New York. Its purpose was to aid in tribal pro4 tection and to establish territorial rights. These early political activities of the Indians were ratified by the use of the grand pipe which "was not only a symbol of peace and brotherly love but a charm to compel it, the symbol of a fine idea."5 Also during this time period, the Indian had begun to organize himself into great families, based on language and habitat. Thus developed the Forest Indians of the Algon- quian and Iroquois in the Northeast, the Sioux in the Midwest, the Plains Indians of the Penutian Indians west of the 3I b i d ., p . 3 2. 4 Hazel W. Hertzberg, The Great Tree and the Longhouse (New York: MacMillan Co., ld<>6) , pT S 5. 5 Wissler, o p . c i t ., p. 38. 17 Rockies, and the Uto Indians in the Southwest.® The fami­ lies or confederacies were comprised of many tribes. instance, For the Algonquian included the tribes of the upper Great Lakes, such as the Ottawa, Chippewa, M e n o m i n i , Fox, Potawatomi, Piankeshaw. Sauk, Miami, Kickapoo, Wea, Mascoutins, and 7 The Settlement Period When Europeans first began to arrive on the shores of North America, group. the Indians were not basically a hostile Their societies were generally refined and sophis­ ticated. But because the Indians' cultures were viewed only in terms familiar to the Caucasian, they were termed savage and barbaric because they were strange and not o understood. And as Leupp states. An intruder who forces his way into an o c ­ cupied homeland, takes possession of it, and establishes there a new language, new customs, and new proprietary relations would naturally be regarded by his unwilling host with SOME SUSPICION. 9 (Emphasis added.) As the Caucasian began to increase in numbers, the Indian's routine and habits became more and more upset. 6 I b i d . , p. 53. ^Emerson F. Greenman, The Indians of M i c h i g a n , M i chi­ gan Historical Commission, Pamphlet No. T~, 1561, p. 8. 0 Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., The Indian Heritage of America (New York: A. A. KnopF^ 1$6S) , p^ 5^ ^Leupp, o p . c i t ., p. 4. 18 When the white man began to explore and develop the terri­ tory and continued to move further west, the Indian frontier was forced back. As this occurred, tribal boundaries were broken and the Indians began fighting the white man on one side, and other tribes on the other. Thus weaker tribes were forced to band with the stronger tribes or become annihilated almost entirely. An example of this type of action occurred between the fierce Iroquois and the H u r o n s . As the Iroquois were forced west they overran the Hurons, killing all they found. The only remnants of this tribe were the escapees who were h id­ den by the Ottawas and Chippewas further west.^® The Forest Indians of Michigan, as previously noted, are of the Algonquian family and consist of three major tribes: the P o t a w a t o m i , who resided in the southwestern area of the Lower Peninsula; the Ottawa, who resided in the northern section of the Lower Peninsula; and the Chippewa or Ojibway, who resided in the Upper Peninsula. Minor tribes included the Hurons, Miamis, and M e n o m i n i e s .^ The French first visited the area which is now known as Michigan in 1622. Father Marquette established the first continuous settlement, ^Greenman, in Sault Ste. Marie, op . c i t . , p. in 23. *^Louise Jean Walker, Woodland Wigwams {Hillsdale, Michigan: Hillsdale School Supply, 1964), p. 8. 19 1668. 12 The French were primarily interested in settling the land and treated the Indian as an equal. cepted reasonably well by the Indians. They were a c ­ The French also made an effort to learn the Indian l a n g u a g e s , and some began to live among them. 13 When the British began to move west and warred with the French, the Indians often sided with the French because of the relationships which had been established. However, when the French were defeated they left the Indians to their own fate, which resulted in considerable bitterness. Later, when the British followed a similar pattern after being defeated in their battles with the Americans, the Indian became very disillusioned about the degree of truth contained in the promises of the white man. 14 In one of the last efforts to stop the European vaders, in­ a brilliant young Ottawa named Pontiac laid seige to Detroit in 1763.15 However the plan failed and e ven­ tually all the remaining resistance of the Michigan Indian was crushed by U.S. General Anthony Wayne during the Battle of the Fallen Timbers near Maumee, O h i o . 1® 12 Greenman , op . c xt *, p . 21. 11W a l k e r , o p . c i t ., p . 32. ^ W i s s l e r , op. c i t ., p . 77. J o s e p h y , op. c i t ., p . 313. 16W i s s l e r , o p . c i t . , p . 81. 20 Indian Life During the Settlement Period The Indians were not the warlike creatures which are depicted in many books and movies on the subject in c on­ temporary society. They were rather home respecting people. "a home-loving and They were good parents and tea­ chers who showed great patience and affection in the train17 ing of their children." The children were trained at an early age to live useful lives and undergo hardships w i t h ­ out complaining. Walker noted in her book that "the pa­ pooses had their arms tied in, too, and so could never develop a habit of sucking their thumbs. Those brought up in this fashion were not often fretful, and seldom cried." During this period, 18 the Indian made many c ontribu­ tions to the American society which was being established. This included the cultivation of corn and potatoes, which are now, with rice and wheat, two of the most important staples of the world. Other contributions were made in showing the settlers how to grow other foods; how to d e ­ velop utensils, available; tools, and clothing from the resources and good hunting and fishing methods. 19 The Indians of Michigan were basically hunters and fishermen, not farmers. This is easily understood when one ^ W a l k e r , o p . c i t . , p. 44; Wissler, o p . ci t . , p. 253; Leupp, o p . c i t ., p. T! Hertzberg, o p . c i t ., p . 7T 18 Walker, o p . c i t ., p. 50. 19 Josephy, o p . c i t ., pp. 31-32. 21 notes that Michigan was once 97 per cent forested. 20 Potawatomies did some farming# the Chippewas hardly any. The the Ottawas a little, and The crops grown included corn, squash, beans, melons, and tobacco. A typical corn crop might yield as high as fifteen bushels per acres. Maple sugar was a spring treat, and the Menominies utilized wild rice to supplement their diets. 21 Because meat was the heart of the Indians' diet, as hunters they were patient, well-schooled and successful. This is illustrated by the fact that the average Indian ate four pounds of meat per day. 22 To meet this need, it has been estimated that the average village of fifty persons 23 required two deer or forty snowshoe rabbits per day. It is also interesting to note that the Indian was very careful about his hunting methods and was an excellent conservationist. They either varied their hunting territory from year to year, or made sure enough males and females of the species remained to replenish the game taken. 24 20 Willard Baird, This is Our Michigan (Battle Creek, Federated P u b l i c a t i o n s , I n c . , 5/959) , p. 37. Mich.: 21 Philip P. Mason, Struggle for Survival, The Story of Michigan's Indians (Detroit! Detroit Historical Museum, 1950)7 p. 3.------22 23 Wissler, op. c i t . , p. 242. Mason, o p . c i t ., p. 24 13. I b i d . , p. 9; Hertzberg, o p . c i t ., p. 68. 22 In the Indian community the men and women had sepa­ rate duties. The men hunted, fished, and protected the tribe while the women prepared food, made baskets, farmed. and Each would feel shamed if required to do the work of the o t h e r . ^ The Indian villages and the people themselves were quite clean. quite high, Research suggests that their intelligence was as illustrated by their ability to recount tribal council events strictly from memory. 26 The villagers were a close group with a communal mode of living to e n ­ hance survival. Their non-dependance on the Caucasians norms and values was not a result of a lack of energy or intelligence, but a result of the conditions of their lives, 27 which were small forest social units, far apart. The Decline Period Prior to the "White Invasion," the Indian was living fairly well in the area which now comprises Michigan. At this point in time there were probably 15,000 Indians living in the territories which now make up the state. The "great decline" took place for many reasons, one of the most important being disease. 25 26 28 Walker, o p . c i t ., p. 46 Hertzberg, o p . c i t ., p. 104. ^ G r e e n m a n , o p . c i t . , p. 5. 28 Baird, o p . c i t ., p. 9. Smallpox, cholera, 23 and other Caucasian illnesses caused widespread death 29 through the villages. Another factor was the various wars between t r i b e s , and the Indians' between the French# British, discussed. involvement in wars and Americans, as previously A third factor was the loss of g a m e , on which, we have observed, the Indian was most dependent. Due to the great demand for furs by both the French and British, Indians slaughtered animals for their pelts. This is documented by the fact that over 100,000 pelts were taken through the Straits of Mackinac for the French in one year!^ A fourth major problem was the introduction of alcohol to the Indian. It has been argued by many that liquor was one of the largest contributors to the d e ­ moralization of the Indian. (However, Wissler makes a p e n e ­ trating observation in his book by noting that such ac ­ cusations may be very deceiving as few Caucasians can cope with alcohol although as a race we have had many more years of experience in its use.) 31 the four factors listed above, Indians. After the wars, Partially as consequences of the fifth blow came to the in about 18 25, large numbers of settlers began to locate in Michigan. They put an addi­ tional strain on the remaining game, and subdued the now weakened tribes into submission. 29 Wissler, o p . ci t . , p. 134; flason, o p . c i t . , p. 13. 3®Walker, o p . c i t ., p. 22. 31W i s s l e r , o p . c i t . , p. 266 . 24 During this period the Indians were forced to cede their lands to the Government. In the period from 1807 to 1842, with the exceptions of a few reservation areas, the entire area which now comprises the State of Michigan was 32 gxven up by the Indian tribes. The remaining Indians either left for western areas where land was still avail­ able for their way of life, or remained in an effort to co ­ exist with the Caucasian. In the author's opinion, this period was perhaps one of the blackest eras of the Caucasian race. Under the policies of removal under the Jackson and Van Buren ad ­ ministrations, tribes were sent to unsettled lands in the West. No one will ever know how many tribes were e n ­ slaved, tortured, debauched and killed. No one can ever estimate the dimensions of human tra­ gedy that cost in addition to lives, the loss of homes, dignity, cultural institutions, standards of security, material and intellectual accomplishment, and liberty and freedom to millions of people. The aggressors were the whites, the scenes of tragedy the very h ome­ lands of the v i c t i m s . ^ 3 The treatment of the Michigan Potawatomies serves as an excellent example of the Caucasians' tice. perception of jus­ As a reward for ceding their remaining lands in Michigan to the government, this forest tribe was promised an equal area of grassy plains in what is now the State of 32 Greenman, o p . c i t ., p. 34. ^ J o s e p h y , o p . c i t . , p. 278. 25 Kansas. Because of the vast ecological differences in the two areas, the relocation required an almost complete change in the tribes' lifestyle and they were reluctant to go. As a result of their resistance, Potawatomies to Kansas, the army literally forced the 34 at bayonet point. During this period the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, (BIA), was established. Originally structured under the Department of War, it was transferred to the D e ­ partment of Interior in 1849.33 The main purpose of the BIA was to assimilate the Indians into the mainstream of 36 American life, by destroying their native cultures. The reasons cited for the Indian decline did take their toll. Records indicate that by 1838 the Michigan Indian population had dropped to 7,914 and by 1860 it had 37 been further reduced to 6,172. The Static Period During the static period the Michigan Indian continued his efforts towards adopting the Caucasian's customs. 34 Kenneth E. Tiedlie, A Study of the Hannahville Indian Community, Michiqan State College, Special Bulletin 3 6 5 7 April, 1551, P . 11. Today ^ S t u a r t Levine and Nancy Lurie, The American Indian (Deland, Florida: Everett/Edwards"^ I n c . , 19(5 8) , pT IT3. 36I b i d . , p. 172. 37 Michigan State Library, Michigan Section Records (unpublished). 26 During the period from 1870-1910 the great lum­ bering boom was taking place in the state. It was easy for the able bodied to find work in the out of doors, which they loved. Also fish­ ing was a commercial enterprize, so it utilized the Indian's skills and provided an opportunity from which to earn a livelihood. However, they were both unskilled occupations so the Indian did not acquire many skills that were to be important when both industries d e c lined.3® Reservations were established in various parts of the state to provide sites where the Indians might reside. The four remaining reservations are described in a report by the Michigan Historical Commission as follows: 1. Bay Mills: Upper Peninsula, Located in Chippewa County of the this reservation's date of establishment is somewhat vague. It contains 1,748 acres of land and approximately five hundred Indians reside there. Its per capita value is estimated to be $208. 2. Hannahville: Located in Menominee County of the Upper Peninsula this reservation was formally established in 1913, although the Indians had been squatters in the area for many years prior to this date. It contains 3,359 acres and approximately one hundred fifty Indians reside there. Its per capita value is estimated to be $191. 3. Isabella: Located in Isabella County near Mt. Pleasant of the Lower Peninsula, tablished in 1855. this reservation was e s ­ From 1893 to 1934 an Indian Boarding School was operated here by the U.S. Bureau of Indian 3 8 Herman Cameron, op. cit. 27 Affairs. There are 1,876 acres involved and approximately four hundred fifteen Indians reside there. The per capita value is estimated to be $166. 4. Keweenaw Bay: Upper Peninsula, Located in Baraga County of the this reservation was established in 1937, and consists of 15,738 acres. dred Indians reside there. Approximately thirteen h u n ­ The per capita value is esti­ mated to be $ 4 3 . ^ The per capita assets of the land described in the preceding outline indicate the value of the land on which the reservations are located. To reinforce the discussion, the following illustration is offered. The per capita assets of the Hannahville Indians are $191. by the number of persons residing there, This multiplied (150) gives an estimated value of their holdings of approximately $28,650. This amount divided by the number of acres they own (3,359) places a value on their holdings of a little more than $8.00 per acre. Tiedlie verifies such an arbitrary c o m p u ­ tation by reporting that it is mostly swamp and rocky o u t c r o p p i n g s .40 The point of the preceding argument is to supplement the comment of Levine and Lurie in that typically the re41 servation lands are almost useless. 39 Michigan Historical Commission, Indian R e s e r v a t i o n s , Information Series No. 2, Lansing, M i c h i g a n , 1957. 40 Tiedlie, o p . c i t ., p. 14. 41 Levine and Lurie, o p . c i t ., p. 70. 28 Also during this period, Indians settled in c ommuni­ ties throughout the state, which were not on reservations. These included villages such as Harbor Springs, Cross Village, Mackinac Island, as well as Detroit and other c i t i e s . 42 During the static period, the Federal Government con­ tinued its policies of Indian assimilation through the Bureau of Indian Affairs. It developed a paternalistic attitude in an effort to improve Indian welfare, which was in a desperate state as a result of his displacement and the 43 stripping of his cultural ways of life. One of the programs developed in Michigan was designed to make farmers out of the Indians. This project was doomed due to land conditions such as those described on the Hannahville reservation, which are typical of the reserva­ tion land in Michigan. Also as previously noted, the c u l ­ tural background of the Indian included farming as a feminine role, and so it was therefore repugnant to the Indian male. Horses and tools were made available, but no assist­ ance or instruction was provided in their use to till what good soil was there. the program was a failure 44 which again disillusioned the Indian. 42 Therefore, Baird, o p . c i t ., p. 9. 4 3 Leupp, o p . c i t ., p. 26. 44 Tiedlie, o p . c i t ., p. 13. On June 2, 1 9 2 4 f as a result of their efforts during World War I , the Indians were given their citizens rights 45 by the Congress and the State. In 1934 the Indian Re ­ organization Act was passed, and in 1953 the ban to sell 46 liquor to the Indians was repealed. In 1934, Governor Comstock made an agreement with the Bureau of Indian Affairs on behalf of Michigan. The agree­ ment stated that the State would look after the affairs of the Michigan Indians and that the Indian Boarding School in Mt. Pleasant w o uld be closed, but education would be pro47 vided. Later the Indian agent for the State was removed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (1940's). The Indian agent was not replaced until a request was made by the Governor's Commission on Indian Affairs in 1965. The BIA agent's office is now located in Gladstone, Michigan, where BIA personnel are available to assist the State's Indian population. 45 U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Answers to Questions About American Indians (Washington, D . C . : Government Printing Office, 1965) , p. 4. 46 I b i d . , p. 5. 30 The Contemporary Reservation Indian in Michigan Living Conditions In the 1960 census, it was recorded that there were 48 9,701 Indians residing in Michigan. Of this number, it has been estimated that 1,119 Indians reside on the four 49 reservations. It has been estimated that there are ap­ proximately 3,000 near Detroit, and 4,000 in other com­ munities scattered throughout the S t a t e . H o w e v e r , the Governor's Commission on Indian Affairs thoroughly d i s ­ agrees with the census totals. They suggest that there is a gross inaccuracy due "to a reluctance of m any resi­ dents with racially mixed backgrounds to accept the Indian 51 d e s i gnati o n ." It should be noted here, that the Indian in Michigan and throughout the country in g e n e r a l , is no longer a vanishing American. By comparing the figures cited above with those previously noted for the 1 8 6 0 's, the increase in the State's Indian population can be readily seen. A p Stan Stiener, The New Indians (New York: Dell, 1968), p. 324. 49 William A. Brophy and Sophie D. Aberle, The IndianAmerica's Unfinished Business (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966), pT 216. ^°Meyers, op. c i t . 51 Governor's Commission on Indian Affairs, "Findings and Recommendations,” June 3, 1964, p. 1. (Mimeographed.) 31 More striking is an example of an increase of the number of Navajo children, as listed in Table 2.1 which follows: TABLE 2.1.— Navajo school children, Year Source: Children in School 1939 5,308 1951 13,883 1961 20,650 Stan Stiener, The New Indians 1968), p. 31. (New York: Dell The present problems facing the Michigan Indian which are of greatest c o n s e q u e n c e , have been described as a lack of education, inadequate housing, unemployment or underemployment, and discrimination. 52 More explicitly, the Michigan Indian's plight has been described in the state­ ment, "A large majority of these people do not have indoor plumbing and very few have water. The saddest situation of all is the Indian children who do not have adequate food, clothes, and shoes. Housing and living conditions for Indians throughout the country have been described as generally poor. Most 52 Stiener, o p . c i t ., p. 3. 53 Letter from Michigan Senator Charles N. Youngblood, Jr., State of Michigan Library, Lansing, Michigan, April, 1966. (Mimeographed.) 32 Indian housing consists of a one or two room shack, with no water on the premises, and what water is available is con­ taminated. Over 90 per cent of the Indian homes have in54 adequate sewage disposal systems. Michigan reservation Indians often occupy inadequate homes which also do not have potable water supplies and the areas are not electrified. This point can be em­ phasized by the fact that the Hannahville reservation had no electric utility serving it until 1966, and as of 1970 only some of the residents can avail themselves of e lec­ trical service. Without this important utility, refriger­ ation is almost non-existent, as are familiar communication devices such as radio and television. In a survey of the Gay Mills reservation, it was noted that 80 per cent of the homes had no inside water supply, 25 per cent of the homes had no electrical ser- vices, and 65 per cent of the homes needed major repairs. 55 Employment for the Indian is a problem on the national and state level. Unemployment rates of 30 per cent to 50 per cent are not uncommon on m any of the reservations throughout the country. 54 56 The last hired, first Brophy and Aberle, op. c i t . , p. 168. ^ 5Sam Taylor, The R e d m a n ’s A p p a l a c h i a , Michigan C o m ­ mission on Indian A f f a i r s , 196^ , p . 13. {Mimeographed.) ^ B r o p h y and Aberle, o p . c i t . , p. 68. 33 fired doctrine has been used around some reservations, but 57 more serious was the "not hired at all" doctrine. Many job opportunities available in reservation areas are not open to Indians because they lack the vocational skills necessary for the duties required. Other job opportuni­ ties are closed strictly due to blatant and open discrimi­ nation . It is interesting to note that the Federal Government has been spending annually through various programs an amount equal to between $650 to $900 per Indian. If this were in the form of direct support, it could provide am income of almost $4,685 for an Indian family of five. This would be a considerable improvement over an estimated co national Indian income of only $1,600 per year. As another illustration, one can note that the U. S. Depart­ ment of Health, Education, and Welfare last year allocated approximately $10,000,000 for non-Indians to study 59 I n d ians. The Bureau of Indian Affairs, bogged down hopelessly in governmental red tape, has become a hate symbol for the Indian as a result of its paternalistic attitude.68 ^Stiener, op. c i t . , p. There 24. 58I b i d . , p. 259. 59 Vine Deloria, Jr., "This Country Was a Lot Better Off When the Indians were Running It,” New York Times M a g a ­ zine , March 8, 1970, p. 56. 68Brophy and Aberle, o p . c i t ., p. 121. 34 has been little done by the agency over the years to either promote economic opportunities for Indians on their reservations, or to provide adequate training to assist the Indian in learning the skills necessary to acquire a job in his vocational interest area. The situation in Michigan is quite indicative of the problems described above. Indian unemployment or u n der­ employment has been estimated to run as high as 90 per 61 cent of the employable reservation Indians. This high statistic, however, is somewhat reflective of the economic characteristics of the geographical area in which three of the reservations are located, namely the 62 Upper Peninsula of Michigan. In a recent study, the following facts were presented: 1. There has been a 5,000 person population loss in the Upper Peninsula from 1960 to 1970. 2. There has been a 3.8 per cent employment gain in the Upper Peninsula from 1960 to 1968. 3. The unemployment rate for the area was 10.3 per cent in 1960 and was 8 per cent in 1968. Eight per cent was more than double the national ®^Jean Worth, Marquette Daily Mining J o u r n a l , Marquette, Michigan, January 31, 197(5. 62 Michigan Employment Security Commission, The Upper Peninsula . . . Perspectives, Problems and P r o s p e c t s , L a n s i n g , M i c h i g a n , A u g u s t , 1969. 35 average of 3.6 per cent and almost double the Michigan average of 4.4 per cent for that year. The evidence presented does in no way explain Indian unemployment being much higher than non-Indian unemploy­ ment, but does note that the economic conditions of the area, in general, are not good. The author previously noted that the national average family income for Indians is approximately $1,600. In Michigan it has been estimated to be between $1,000 and 63 $1,499. In an effort to relate this to the areas sur­ rounding the reservations, the following tables have been developed (see page 36). As can be seen, the family income of the Michigan Reservation Indian is in no way reflective of either the State averages, or the averages of the areas adjacent to the reservation. As a final point on the income of the Michigan Reservation Indian, a recent investigation noted that two brothers residing on the Keweenaw Bay reservation had a combined income of only $45.00 per month. 64 The situation of the Michigan Indian who has left for the city does appear to vary from reservation life. Many Indians have relocated in Detroit with some finding the situation no better than on the reservation due to 63 Taylor, op. c i t ., p. 12. 64 Julie Morris and Edward Shananhan, P r e s s , April 27, 1970. Detroit Free 36 TABLE 2.2.--Buying power per household in Michigan counties containing Indian reservations. Reservation County Location Keweenaw Bay Bay Mills Baraga Chippewa (Sault Ste. Marie) Delta (Escanaba) Menominee Hannahville Isabella Isabella (Mt. Pleasant) Averages by County State of Michigan Average Poou, 5.. _ lation House— Buying , . ,„ Income/ holds Household 7,700 35,300 20,400 33,200 15,800 22,900 37 ,700 17,300 27,360 2,300 10,100 6,600 9,800 4 ,900 6,700 9,600 4 ,000 7 ,700 Michigan Reservation Indain Average per family Source: $ 6,233 S 7,535 $ 7,720 $ 7,245 $ 7,620 $ 6,710 $10,123 $12,945 $ 7,569 $ 8,685 $ 1,500 Sales Management Magazine, Section D, CountyCity Data by S t a t e s , estimated , New Y o r k , June 10, 1969. TABLE 2.3.— Total personal and per capita income in M i c h i ­ gan counties containing Indian reservations. Reservation County Location Per Capita Income Keweenaw Bay Baraga $2,062 Bay Mills Hannahville Chippewa Delta Menominee Isabella $2,900 $2,480 $2,391 $2,394 Isabella State of Michigan Average Michigan Reservation Indian Average per family Source: • $3,365 $1,500 Michigan Department of Commerce, Research Division, Unnumbered Bulletin, Lansing, Michigan, September, 1969. 37 unemployment. Others have found jobs and are living more comfortably. There are some efforts being expended in Michigan to improve the economic position of its Indian population. These include a greater interest by private industry, as well as an expanded program being developed by the Michigan Civil Service C o m m i s s i o n . ^ The health of the Indian is also a factor which has been of constant concern to the Indian population. As noted earlier in this chapter, Caucasian diseases for which the Indian has little immunity were large factors in the decline of the Indian population. This lack of im­ munity is still a factor, although a lack of contemporary precautionary methods must also be considered. Table 2.4 develops a comparison between the national Indian population and the general population of the United States. It has also been noted that the Indian death rate is eight times the national average for intestinal infections, five times greater for tuberculosis, for accidents, homicide, three times greater influenza and pneumonia. 6 7 The 65 I b i d . , April 28, 1970. 66lnterview with Russell Hendrick, Michigan Depart­ ment of Social Services, Lansing, Michigan, June, 197 0. ®7Brophy and Aberle, op. c i t ., p. 163. 38 TABLE 2.4.— Indian and U. S. national average health comparisons. Health Statistic Indians (1959) United States Average (1959) Birth rate/1000 41.4 24 .1 Child mortality rate/1000 53 .7 27.1 Child mortality rate (1-4 yrs.) 4.9% 1.0% Child mortality rate (0-6 y r s .) 21.2% 6.8% Average age at death 41.8 yrs Source: 62.3 yrs. William A. Brophy and Sophie D. Aberle, The Indian— America *s Unfinished Business (Norman, O k l a . : University of Oklahoma Press, 1966), p. 162. Indian death rate for old age diseases is only .5 that of the national average, which may be related to the fact that with the average age at death being 41.8 years, there are not many left to contract the diseases associated with old age. The incidence of illnesses of all types appears to be considerably higher among Indians than for the general population. One investigation recorded that the incidence of gonorrhea was 500 per cent higher, strep throat 1,000 per cent higher, meningitis 2,000 per cent higher, and dysentery 10,000 per cent higher. 68 68 Stiener, o p . c i t ., p. 196. 39 The Michigan Reservation Indian appears to be repre­ sentative of many of the characteristics described above. The average age at death has been estimated gQ to be 42, and the infant mortality rate to be twice that of the Michigan average. In a comprehensive health study recently undertaken by the Michigan Commission on Indian Affairs, fifteen m e d i ­ cal tests including blood pressure, blood condition, heart condition, urinalysis. X-rays, and weight were given. the 308 Indians screened, Of 196 were found to have abnormal­ ities with 51 per cent having one or m o r e . ^ A r e v i e w ^ of the 1967 and 1968 health statistics for reported illnesses in the counties in which the reser­ vations lie was made. However due to the high probability of poor reporting from the Indian reservations, and the lack of breakdown by smaller political subdivisions and illnesses, its relevance to this discussion is subject to question. There are many reasons suggested for the higher rates of illnesses on Michigan Reservations. These include poor water, improper diets, poor sanitation practices, poor 69 Taylor, op. c i t ., p. 20. 70 Michigan Commission on Indian Affairs, "Report for U. S. Senator Robert Griffin," Lansing, Michigan, 1970, p. 6. (Mimeographed.) "^Michigan Department of Health, Center for Statis­ tics, "Reports for 1967, 1968," Lansing, Michigan. (Mimeographed.) 40 housing and less accessibility to medical services. 72 However, Tiedlie notes in his study of the Hannahville Reservation that "although they live in poverty, they did not live in filth. Educational Opportunities The history of Indian education has been a story of considerable effort with little accomplishment. The Ameri can Indian has been subjected to sub-standard educational opportunities ever since the Caucasian decided that the savages should assimilate his values, norms, and societal mores. In the early years, the only education available to the Indians was that provided by the various missionary groups throughout the country. The skills taught were few, and a great emphasis was placed on converting the Indians to Christianity. Josephy comments on this point by stating "although Christianity may have saved many Indian lives, it helped to destroy the Indian institutions and cultures, which left them disorganized and weak in the midst of whites who had already overrun their lands." 74 Following the efforts of the missionaries, the Federal Government began playing an ever-increasing role 72 Taylor, op. c i t . , p. 5. 73 Tiedlie, op. c i t . , p. 15. 74 Josephy, op. c i t ., p. 281. 41 in educating the Indian population of our country. Under the direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, two basic programs developed. One approach was to build schools for the Indians on their reservations, while the other ap­ proach was to assist the Indian youngsters in enrolling in nearby public schools. Neither program has met with much s u c c e s s , documented by recent statistics which indi­ cate that only about one-fifth of the nation*s adult 75 Indians have completed high s c h o o l . For some years, the BIA schools serving the various reservations have been under attack. Recently their effectiveness and approach has been the subject of many heated debates in Congress and its various committees, but little change is apparent. The philosophy of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the schools it operates has been one of transforming the Indian into a person who is more acceptable within the national Caucasian society. In a very blunt fashion, some anthropologists have openly accused the BIA schools of trying to turn the Indians in their care into White-AngloSaxon-Protestants (WASPS). Another writer depicts the situation as one where the Indian children are snatched from their homes and 75 Washington Monitor (Washington, D . C . : National School Public Relations Assoc., November 24, 1969). ^ L e v i n e and Lurie, o p . c i t . , p. 10. 42 shipped to boarding schools where anything Indian is p ro­ hibited. Upon completion of their education they are free to go into a white world that does not want them, or return 77 to their reservations as strangers. M any of the schools are described as compounds resembling penal institutions, which place more emphasis on absenteeism and discipline than curriculum. 7 8 The Indians who have been going to the various p u b ­ lic schools have not fared m u c h better. has been a large problem, Discrimination evidenced by an observation that as late as 1964 an Indian was not allowed to go to a white school in Louisiana. 79 The general result has been reflected in the poor achievement of the Indian student. The majority are over age for their grade, have up to a two year lag in their reading abilities, and are prone to drop out of school. 80 Erikson, in a study of Indians in North Dakota, concluded that the problem was not innate ability. The results of his investigation showed that the average measured intel­ ligence of the Indian was in fact superior to that of the 77 Peter Farb, "The American Indian— A Portrait in Limbo," Saturday R e v i e w , October 12, 1968, p. 29. 78 Washington M o n i t o r , op. c i t . 7 9Levine and Lurie, op. c i t ., p. 146. 80 Brophy and Aberle, o p . c i t ., pp. 138-140. 43 average Caucasian. 81 More recent studies in the South­ west support the basic conclusions made by Erikson. The basic problem appears to be related to the learn­ ing experiences being provided for the Indian students. In some areas of the country language differences exist in that the Indians speak their native dialect at home but only English is used in the schools. Cultural differences are perhaps existent in almost all of the schools serving 82 Indian s t u d e n t s . The curriculum and methodology, patterned after the norms aporopriate for middle class white schools, have done little to compensate for the differences outlined above. This is made obvious by the teacher who requested her Indian students to develop a theme on "Why we are all 83 happy the Pilgrims landed." Little has been done to include and emphasize the culture and heritage of the Indian.®^ A study completed 85 by Vogel indicated that the Indian typically has been 81 Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society (New York: W. W. Norton Co., 1963), p^ 161. 82 Estelle Fuchs, "American Indians at School--Time to Redeem an Old Promise," Saturday Review, January 24, 1970, p. 57. 83 "The Angry American I n d i a n : Starting Down the Protest Trail," Time, February 9, 1970, p. 17. ®*Brophy and Aberle, op. c i t ., p. 145. 85 Virgil J. Vogel, The Indian in American History Chicago: Integrated Educational Associates, 1968) . 44 obliterated from the textbooks, or presented in a manner that is defaming to his character. Little attention is paid to the fact that twenty-seven of our fifty states bear names of Indian origin, as well as four of the Great Lakes and countless animals, flowers, rivers, and m o u n ­ tains . In Wax's classic study of BIA schools in the D a k o t a s , he concluded that the personnel staffing the institutions could be m uch more effective if they had specialized train­ ing to assist them in becoming more responsive to the 86 particular needs of the Indian students. This important area of teacher sensitivity to the problems of the student was also discussed in Coleman's Equality of Educational Opportunity report. One solution to the problem might be to employ more Indian teachers in the schools serving Indian students. Presently it has been noted that only 16 per cent of the teachers in BIA schools are Indian. 88 Another solution, which has been stressed as perhaps the most i m p o r t a n t , is to make provisions for the Indian community to develop decision making roles in the policy 86 Murray L. Wax, Rosalie H. Wax, and Robert V. Dumont, Jr., Formal Education in an American Indian Com­ munity; Cooperative Research Project No. 1361 (Atlanta: Emory University Press, 1964), pp. 6^-72. 8 7 Coleman, op. c i t ., p. 317. 88 Fuchs, op. c i t ., p. 57. 45 making and operation of their schools. For years, the Caucasian's have dictated the policy of the schools. ever, How­ there is little doubt that there are capable Indian leaders and they do want to handle the affairs that are shaping their destinies. 8 9 Also this approach could have a tremendous positive effect on the attitudes of the Indian students towards school, for again as Coleman observes, the school can have little effect upon the student that is independent of his background. 90 In Michigan, the situation is somewhat brighter than that for the nation as a whole. However, the educational opportunities and attainment for the Indian population is far from being comparable to that of the Caucasian p opu­ lation. There are currently over two million school children attending the public and non-public schools within M i c h i ­ gan. Of this number, approximately 0.3 per cent are identified as being Indian, as shown in Table 2.5. Of the over 100,000 teachers in the public and non-public schools of the state, Table 2.6 shows the per cent and number of Indian teachers which have been identi­ fied. 8 9 Stiener, op. c i t . , p. 263. 90 Coleman, o p . c i t ., p. 325. 46 TABLE 2.5.— Indian students in Michigan schools. Type of School % Indian Number of Indians All Schools .3 6,473 Public Schools .2 4,4 99 Private and Parochial Schools .7 1,974 Source: Michigan Department of Education, "Preliminary Analysis of the 1968-69 School Racial Census," Unnumbered Bulletin, Lansing, Michigan, 1969. TABLE 2.6.— Indian teachers in Michigan schools. Type of School % Indian Number of Indians All Schools .2 207 Public Schools .1 139 .5 68 Private and Parochial Source: Schools See Table 2.5. The Indian students attending public schools within Michigan are scattered in various geographical locations. The major concentrations of Indian students are identified in Table 2.7. Of the school districts identified in Table 2.7, five are of particular interest in this study, since they serve the four Indian Reservations of Michigan. The disticts 47 included in this study are shown with selected character­ istics in Table 2.8. TABLE 2.7.— Concentrations of Indian students in Michigan public schools. Number of Indian Students School District Tribe Sault Ste. Marie 274 Chippewa Detroit 218 Mixed Grand Rapids 131 Ottawa Mount Pleasant 123 Chippewa-Ottawa Brimley 109 Chippewa L 'Anse 107 Chippewa Bark River-Harris 59 Potawatomi Baraga 49 Chippewa Source: Michigan Department of Education, Unpublished report for the National Study of American Indian Education, 1969. With the exception of the Mt. Pleasant District which has a small city-small university orientation, tricts have a rural setting. the dis­ Using the data presented in Table 2.8, the following comparisons can be developed: 1. None of the districts have local resources equal to the State of Michigan average as they all fall below the State Equalized Valuation per Child. TABLE 2.8.— Pertinent characteristics of the five public school districts serving Michigan Indian reservations. School District State Equalized pu ^ \Ja1naf irtn/ * Valuation/ Child Area Average in -------Square Miles s No. of Number of Total Certifi- Personnel on Instructional cated Sub-standard Expense Personnel Certificates Per Child Mt. Pleasant $12,058 4,514 132 $2,399 223 Baraga $ 8,127 707 186 $8,213 L'Anse $ 8,488 1,146 447 Brimley $8,877 533 Bark RiverHarris $ 5,673 723 Appropriate State Averages $15,198 Source: 6.3% $535.27 38 9 - 23.7% $425.07 $8,488 54 3 - $423.26 270 $7,764 25 0 - 0 189 $9,139 31 1 - $9,145.20 14 - 5.6% $375.63 3.2% $412.03 $657.01 Michigan Department of Education, Bulletin 1012, Lansing, Michigan, December, 1969; Michigan Department of Education, Unpublished Statistics of Michigan Teacher Certification, 1969-70, Lansing, Michigan. 49 TABLE 8 (continued) MICHIGAN INDIAN RESERVATION LOCATIONS 50 2. With the exception of Mt. Pleasant, the remain­ ing four high schools do not graduate classes of over one hundred students. Conant argues that a high school of this size usually does not provide a reasonable curriculum to meet the educational needs of many of its s t u d e n t s .91 3. With the exception of Brimley, teachers' compare favorably with the State average. salaries If there is a relationship between pay security and teaching, this should be a positive factor. 4. With the exception of Baraga, the percentage of teachers without a degree and/or holding a sub-standard Michigan Teaching Certificate does not appear to be u n ­ favorable . 5. None of the districts are expending funds for Total Instructional Expense that are equal to the State of Michigan Average. In summarizing the information presented in Table 2.8, it appears that with only a few variances, the d is­ tricts appear to have favorable relationships to the state averages with the exception of local resources and in­ structional expenditures. Table 2.9 depicts the physical facilities presently being utilized by the five districts studied, and identi­ fies the schools being attended by the Reservation Indian 91 James B. Conant, The American High School Today (New York: McGraw-Hill, 19^9) , p"I 37. TABLE 2.9.— Physical facilities ant Indian iM o l l m e n t by building. School Buildings Baraga Latrendresae El. Baraga H.S. Bark River-Harris Bark River-Harris Bark River-Harris High School Brimley Brimley School Grades Housed K-6 !?• of g £ - 14 7-12 K-8 ^ ' cial 1 1 1 1 1 Bus. Ed. 1 Homo Ec. Ind. Arts Music Library Gym 1 Cafeteria 17 9-12 1 1 1 1 1 Kdgn. Spec. Fd. Gym Library Cafeteria 1 Bus. Ed, 1 1 1 1 1 K-6 Kd.m. Music Library Mltp. 14 Year Built (Plus Additions) Planned Capacity Present Enrollment Number of Indian Students Enrolled 1967 450 416 49 21 1905 400 391 28 1932 tn 1958 500 530 59 44 1893 160 170 15 1955 1962 500 480 109 109 Home Ec. Ind. Arts Science Library Cafeteria Xdgn. Bus. Ed. Home Ed. Ind. Arts Music Science 1 Gym 1 Library TABLE 2.9.— Continued. School Building. L'Anse Laird El. Grades HouMd ot Special K-8 Sullivan El. K-6 13 2 1 1 1 Kdgn. Spec. Ed. Library Cafeteria L'Anse H.S. 7-12 15 2 3 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 Art Bus. Ed. Home Ec. Ind. Arts Lang. Lab. Music Science Library Gym Year built (Plus Additions) Planned Capacity Present Enrollment Number of Indian Students. Enrolled 1924 1541 1949 1965 175 92 107 1 400 451 43 1927 700 595 63 Ui h> Ht. Pleasant Ganiard El. K-6 11 1 Kdgn. 1 Library 1 Mltp. 1935 1938 1948 1954 325 342 123 9 Kinney El. K-6 11 1 Kdgn. 1 Library 1 Mltp. 1932 1954 325 327 42 Pancher El. K-6 10 1 Kdgn. 1 Library 1 Mltp. 1936 1954 300 309 0 McGuire El. K-6 12 1 1 1 4 1 1961 1966 390 325 8 Kdgn. Library Mltp. Spec. Ed. Art TABLE 2.9.— Continued. Number of Indian Students Enrolled Grades Housed No. of Class­ rooms Special Purpose Rooms Year Built (Plus Additions) Pullen El. K-6 11 Kdgn. Library Mltp. Cafeteria 1951 1954 1966 325 390 Rosebush El. K-6 10 Kdgn. Library Mltp. 1949 1960 300 287 Vowles El. K-6 13 Kdgn. Library Mltp. Art 1961 1966 375 419 Art Home Ec. Lang. Lab Ind. Arts Music Science Spec. Ed. Library Gym Cafeteria 1966 800 775 30 Art Bus. Ed. Home Ec. Ind. Arts Lang. Lab. Music Science Library Audio-Vis. Gym Cafeteria 1955 900 1,363 15 School Buildings West Inter. 7-8 Mt. Pleasant M.S. 9-12 Source: 14 Planned Capacity Present Enrollment 14 tn u> Michigan Department of Education, Unpublished S ta tistics from the School F a cilities Inventory, Lansing, Michigan, 1969; Michigan Department of Education, Unpublished S ta tistic s from the Racial Inventory by D istrict and School, Lansing, Michigan, 1970. 54 students. In analyzing the data presented in Table 2.9, the following generalizations are presented: 1. The elementary facilities of the five districts appear to be fairly adequate in that there are library and multipurpose areas available, and in general they are of fairly recent construction. 2. With the exception of Mt. Pleasant, the secondary facilities being utilized in the districts under study are quite inadequate and are of fairly old construction. Areas considered important for a comprehensive program by 92 Conant, such as language labs, science labs, and areas for vocational instruction, 3. appear to be quite limited. Facilities for true exploratory educational p ro­ grams in the middle grades appear to be non-existent in the four small school districts of the Upper Peninsula. 4. Racial balance does not appear to be a large factor in any of the five school districts, as it appears that the Indian population is not isolated in a particular building of the district. However, it may be appropriate at this point to call attention to the fact that there are no Indian teachers employed by the five school districts, nor do any Indians serve on their Boards of Education. 5. In general, the planned capacity and actual capacity of the facilities being utilized are not indicative of serious overcrowded classroom conditions. 92I b i d . , p. 52. 55 In summarizing the information presented in Table 2.9, it appears that with the exception of Mt. Pleasant, the secondary facilities of the school districts serving the Michigan Reservation Indians are old and inadequate. Racial isolation does not appear to be a problem within the district, and with an occasional exception, facility overcrowding is not e v i d e n t . Guidance services provided by the school districts vary in full-time equated counselor-pupil ratios from approximately 1 to 175, to 1 to 3 00. a range termed acceptable by Conant. 03 94 These fall into However attention should be called to the fact that only one school d i s­ trict, Mt. Pleasant, has m ore than one full-time counselor, and that the remaining four districts utilize personnel with additional teaching assignments. Also, the avail­ ability of ancillary services considered important to the operation of a good guidance program are not available in the four districts without full-time guidance personnel. Of the five school districts involved in this study, only two, L'Anse and M t . Pleasant, have accreditation standings. A review of their secondary curriculums shows that they offer more than one foreign language for at least two years, four years of English, and four years of 93 School District Records, individual records re ­ viewed which are available in the five school districts in the study, 1970. 94 Conant, op. c i t ., p. 44. 56 mathematics and science. M t . Pleasant offers strong pr o ­ grams in the vocational fields including business education and industrial arts. The L'Anse High School is somewhat weaker in its course offerings in these areas. In reviewing the secondary curricula of the Baraga, Bark R i v e r - H a r r i s , and Brimley school districts it is noted that the basic academic course offerings are present. This includes at least four course offerings in English, science, mathematics, and the social sciences. However it is typical to observe that the psychology teacher also teaches chemistry, and that the history teacher also serves as the school librarian. None of the three school d i s ­ tricts offers any foreign language program. In the vocational sciences, these programs, limited. too, are A maximum of four courses in industrial arts are available each year, three courses in h o m e m a k i n g , and six courses in business education. In summary, the students attending the accredited schools can avail themselves of a broader selection of course offerings in an effort to develop am educational program more tailored to their interests and abilities. The students in the non-accredited high schools apparently are faced with a very limited selection of academic courses, and a severely limited selection of vocationally oriented class offerings. 57 During the 1969-70 academic year, all Michigan School Districts participated in the Michigan Assessment Program. This consisted of testing all students in grades four and seven and obtaining scores on vocabulary and basic skills achievement. in c l u d e d :95 Factors considered in analyzing the data 1. Socio-economic status 2. Student attitudes and aspirations 3. School district financial resources 4. School district staff resources Although the data are far from being thoroughly 96 analyzed and reviewed, a preliminary report shows that the education profiles for the regions (three and four) in which the Michigan Indian Reservations are located are above the mean scores for the State as a whole. The report also notes that in g e n e r a l , with the exception of composite achievement, the rural districts did not do as well as the rest of the schools within these regions. The Michigan Assessment Program information could be of significance to future studies of the schools serving Michigan Indian students when its analysis is complete. Attendance statistics for Indians and non-Indians were not available from the school districts. 95 In reviewing Michigan Department of Education, Assessment Re ­ port , No. 4, Lansing, Michigan, 1970, p. 1. ^ ^ I b i d . , p p . 14-17. 58 this area of concern the responses of school officials ranged from a significant absenteeism problem among Indian students, to being observed as not too dissimilar from that of the non-Indians. In a review of this question on the Bay Mills Reservation, it was noted that the Indian stu­ dents accounted for more than 75 per cent of the secondary school absences although they only consisted of 16 per cent of the school's population. 97 Reasons cited in the study for the poor attendance included parental apathy and a lack of good clothing. The drop-out patterns for the five school districts serving the Michigan Reservation Indians are presented in Table 2.10. In g e n e r a l , the dropout rate for the five school d is­ tricts serving Michigan reservations is well below the State of Michigan average, and in several instances the individual district dropout rate is below the county average dropout rate. However these figures are somewhat deceiving and present a skewed picture when related to the Indian population of the districts. For instance, the L'Anse dropout rate is indicated to be 2.81 per cent. How­ ever a Guidance Department survey shows that of the 27 7 Indian students enrolled in the L'Anse High School from 1961 to 1970, only 14 dropped out, 97 Taylor, o p . c i t ., p. 10. for a calculated dropout 59 TABLE 2.10.— Dropout patterns of school districts and coun­ ties containing Michigan Indian reservations. County School District District Membership Over 16 Baraga Chippewa 195 9 4.61 L 'Anse 426 12 2.81 (County) 621 21 3.38 Brimley 159 7 4 .40 2,200 103 4 .68 159 4 2.51 (County) 2 ,590 97 3.74 (County) 755 17 2.25 Mt. Pleasant 1,520 55 3.61 (County) 2,177 89 4 .08 Bark River-Harris Menominee Isabella Dropout Rate in Per cent Baraga (County) Delta Number of Drop­ outs 1967-68 Average Dropout Rate for the State of Michigan Source: 6.73 Michigan Department of Education, Public High School Dropouts in Michigan for 1 9 % 7 - 6 8 , Statistical Bulletin No. 4007, L a n s i n g , Michigan, December, 1969. rate of less than 6% for Indians. However during this same period only 3 2 Indian students graduated, or approximately 15 per cent of those enrolling who could have graduated. The survey does not indicate what happened to the other 8 5 per cent. 60 In the Bark River-Harris High School, of nine Indian freshmen entering school in the fall of 1969, only seven completed the year. This is a dropout rate of 22 per cent for the Indian population of that class, well above the 2.5 per cent indicated for the general school district population. In summarizing, it does appear that while the dropout rate for the districts under study is low for the general school population, it is considerably higher for the Indian segment of the school population. This trend is easily verified by a study done on the years of educational attainment for the Isabella Indian Reservation. Of the 103 adult residents questioned the mean educational attainment was only 8.53 years, with only 13.6 per cent reporting high school completion. QQ Summary The Michigan Reservation Indian occupies one of the lowest positions of the socio-economic scale for the State. In addition he suffers from various illnesses to a greater degree than his non-Indian peers. His general environment is poorer than that of the average Michigan resident, and often times his home needs major repairs, electrification, good water, and indoor plumbing. 98 Four of the five schools Michigan Commission on Indian Affairs, Unpublished statistics developed in 1964, Lansing, Michigan. 61 he attends are substandard and somehow find a way to force over 80 per cent of his numbers out before graduation. Little effort is expended in involving him in the decision making processes which affect his own destiny, nor is much attention paid to his cultural heritage which has made so many contributions to today's society. In reviewing today's situation as it exists on the Michigan Indian Reservations, the words of Leupp in 1910 could be never more true. He suggested then that the Indian problem was a human problem, and perhaps we should try to assist them in being better Indians, rather than trying to convert them into Caucasians. 99 99 Leupp, op. c i t ., pp. 4 2-53. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Sample Selection Since the basic concern of this study is limited to the motivation and achievement of Michigan Reservation In­ dians and their non-reservation peers, the sampling p ro­ cedures were quite limited. Random selection of school districts was impossible as there are only five public school districts which serve the students residing on the four Michigan Indian Reservations. They are the Baraga, Bark River-Harris, Brimley, L'Anse and Mt. Pleasant school districts. In an effort to add to the meaning of the study, ninth grade male and female students were utilized. ninth grade was selected, a priori, The for several reasons. First, Michigan attendance laws require students to remain in school until they reach their sixteenth birthday. Most ninth graders, even if retained in previous grades are under sixteen so the study included data on potential d rop­ outs . Secondly, the ninth grade was selected because stu­ dents at this grade level and general age have acquired 62 63 an awareness of the world in which they live and can make capable decisions about their motivational patterns. Finally, the school records for ninth grade students are fairly complete, which added to the reliability of the s t udy. There were twenty samples taken in the study. These samples were developed from the ninth grade male and female Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation C a u ­ casian peers in the five selected school districts of Michigan. This is outlined in Table 3.1. TABLE 3.1.— Sampling format. Reservation Non-reservation Indian Students Caucasian Peers Baraga Male Female Male Female Bark River-Harris Male Female Male Female Brimley Male Female Male Female L 1Anse Male Female Male Female Mt. Pleasant Ma le Female Male Female 5 5 5 5 School District Total of twenty samples The four samples from each of the five school districts comprise the entire population of the ninth grades for each district. This procedure was utilized in an 64 effort to conceal the researcher's interest in possible racial differences from the students. Such a concealment procedure reduced the probability of a confounding variable due to testing from appearing in the data and is suggested as an appropriate research practice by Campbell and Stanley.^" In an effort to remove the possible effects of the confounding variable of history, maturation and admin­ istration, the measuring instruments were administered by the same individual in each of the five school districts on subsequent days of the week. From the total samples gathered, random selections from each cell were determined through the use of a Table of Random Numbers, for the actual analysis of the data. Measuring Instruments There were four types of data gathered for each stu­ dent involved in the study: 1. Motivational Score: This score was obtained through the use of the Michigan "M" Scales developed by 2 Dr. William F a r q u h a r . four subtests: The "M" Scales are comprised of The Generalized Situational Choice Inven­ tory: The Word Rating List; The Human Traits Inventory; and ^D. T. Campbell and J. C. Stanley, Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Design for Research (Chicago: Rand McUaiiy 2 &' C 6 ~ 1963), p. 9.-------------- William W. Farquhar, U.S. Office of Education, search Project No. 846 (8458), 1959. Re­ 65 The Preferred Job Characteristics Scale. The "M" Scales are based on the concepts that a student's concern for long­ term involvement, unique accomplishment, and competition with a standard of excellence are indicative of high achievement, while a student's concern for short-term in­ volvement, common accomplishment, and competition with a minimal standard of excellence are indicative of low achieve me nt . 2. Achievement Score: This score was obtained from the school district records for each student. The verbal reasoning factor was the score utilized. 3. Intelligence Score: This score was obtained from the school district records and was taken from a test that is independent from the achievement score. 4. Grade Point Average: The grade point average was computed for each student, utilizing the grades received in the academic subjects taken in the seventh and eighth grades. Academic subjects are considered as those which require homework, i.e., history, arithmetic, English, etc. Analysis Procedures Attention was paid to several factors which had to be considered in developing the analysis procedures. This effort was expended to insure a testable design and to r e ­ duce the possibilities of committing either a type one or type two statistical error. First, the study involved the 66 entire population of the ninth grade Michigan Indian Reser­ vation students and their non-reservation Caucasian peers. Cornfield and Tukey^ have developed a sophisticated r a ­ tionale whereby the use of inferential statistics when analyzing a population is appropriate. Their argument lies in the concept of making generalizations to future p opu­ lations, or in the instant case, to future ninth grade Michigan Reservation Indian students. Secondly, is small. the Indian population under study admittedly However it does comprise the entire population of the State and is the entire population of interest. Arguments concerning the actual size were not considered to be of sufficient magnitude to impair the usefulness of the study. Finally, in an effort to insure that the responses given on the "M" Scales were representative of the students' true feelings, utilized. individual student identification was not Recognition was given to the fact that making student by student direct comparisons between the four items gathered was not possible. It is also noted that the use of blocking designs would not be possible. This may have caused the loss of some precision in the study; h ow ­ ever, it is felt that honest responses on the "M" Scales are more important than the other factors mentioned. ^Cornfield and Tukey, o p . c i t ., pp. 907-949. 67 The data collected from the "M" Scales were scored by the Michigan State University Scoring Center. The data were then key-punched so that the Michigan State University Computer Center could compute the analyses described below: 1. Analysis of Variance: An analysis of variance was performed on the following sub-sections of the data: "M" Scales— Male; "M" Scales--Female; Achievement- Intelligence-Grade Point Aver ag e — Male; and Achievement- Intelligence-Grade Point Ave ra g e- - F e ma le . The appropriateness of the use of an analysis of variance for the data collected is described in Chapters 4 8 and 12 of Hays' works on inferential statistics. A random sample was taken from the data gathered. In order to facilitate the use of an analysis of variance, the data were arranged so they followed the Proportional Sub-Class Frequency Model. 2. "t" test: A simple "t" test was performed on the comparisons made between the evidence collected in this study and the mean scores previously developed for a large Michigan Caucasian sample, ple, and a South Dakota Indian sam­ in previous studies by Fa rquhar5 and Johnson.® The appropriateness of the use of the ”t" test for making the 4 William L. Hays, Statistics Rinehart, and Winston, 1 ) . 5 Farquhar, o p . c i t . ^Johnson, op. c i t . (New York: Holt, 68 comparisons described, is described in Chapters 9 through 12 in Arm or e' s7 works on statistical inference. The statistical and meaningful levels of significance for both the analysis of variance and "t" test were es tab­ lished, a priori, at the .05 level. Testable Hypotheses The hypotheses which follow are offered to test the three principal areas of interest of this document. Stated in the null form, they are: Ho^: There are no statistically significant d i f ­ ferences in the mean scores of the four sub­ tests on the M-Scales between Michigan R e ­ servation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. Ho2 : There are no statistically significant d i f ­ ferences in the grade point averages obtained by the Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. Ho^: There are no statistically significant d i f ­ ferences in the achievement test scores obtained by the Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. Ho^: There are no statistically significant d i f ­ ferences in the intelligence test scores o b ­ tained by the Michigan Reservation Indian stu­ dents and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. Hog: There are no statistically significant d if ­ ferences in the mean scores of the four sub­ tests on the M-Scales between Michigan R e ­ servation Indian students and an established sample of 12,000 Caucasian students within Michigan. Sidney J. Armore, Introduction to Statistical A n a l y ­ sis and Inference for Psychology and RducatiorT (New York: John Wiley and Sons, T ^ b b ) . ” 69 HOg: There are no statistically significant d i f ­ ferences on the mean scores of the four sub­ tests of the M-Scales between Michigan R e ­ servation Indian students and the Johnson sample of Plains States Reservation Indian stu­ dents . Summary A Michigan Reservation Indian sample, and a sample from his non-reservation Caucasian peers, were drawn from the ninth grades of the five school districts serving the four Michigan Indian Reservations. achievement scores, "M" Scales scores, intelligence scores, and grade point averages were developed for each student included in the study. An analysis of variance and a "t" test at the .05 level were computed to determine if the stated hypotheses were to be accepted or rejected. * CHAPTER IV STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Procedure The five selected school districts from which the data were drawn were visited and the M-Scales administered on subsequent days of the week. tration was: Monday, Mt. Pleasant; Tuesday, nesday, Brimely; Thursday, L'Anse. The order of adminis­ Baraga; W e d ­ Bark Ri ve r- Ha r ri s; Friday, The order was determined only by the convenience to the school district in administering the M-Scales. In the small districts of Baraga, Bark River-Harris, and Brimley, the M-Scales were administered to the entire ninth grade class in attendance on the day the schools were visited. Supporting data were gathered from the students* records only of the students tested. In the larger districts of L'Anse and Mt. Pleasant, the M-Scales were administered to over 7 5 per cent of the ninth grade students in various classes so as to provide a random sample of non-Indians. The total Indian population was included by having the Guidance Department of the p a r ­ ticular district administer the M-Scales students not in the classes sampled. 70 to those Indian Supporting data were 71 gathered from the student records only of the students tested. In developing the data for use in the Proportional Sub-Class Frequency Model for an Analysis of Variance, the size of the cells was dictated by the smallest number of Indians and non-Indians from a school district from which data had been obtained. For males, Baraga, Brimley, and L'Anse reported four Indian males and Brimley reported twelve non-Indian males. This resulted in the cells being determined to be four In­ dian and twelve non-Indian male students. In those d i s ­ tricts which reported a greater number of males classified either as Indian or non-Indian, a random sample was taken so as to provide four Indian and twelve non-Indian stu­ dents for the appropriate cells of the Proportional SubClass Frequency Model. For females, Bark River-Harris reported no female Indian students and subsequently had to be eliminated from this section of the analysis. Of the remaining four schools, Baraga and L'Anse reported two female Indian stu­ dents and Brimley reported fourteen female non-Indian s t u d en ts . This resulted in the cells being determined to be two Indian and fourteen non-Indian female students. In those districts which reported a greater number of females classified either as Indian or non-Indian, a random sample was taken so as to provide two Indian and fourteen 72 non-Indian students for the appropriate cells of the Pro­ portional Sub-Class Frequency Model. The random sampling was accomplished by assigning a number to each student in the group to be sampled. Care was taken in assigning the numbers to the student infor­ mation so that no series of numbers was utilized more than once. A table of random numbers^" was then used to de ter­ mine which data were to be analyzed. The achievement score data gathered were not c om ­ parable across school districts due to the different methods by which the scores were recorded by the five se­ lected school districts sampled. This required that Hypo­ thesis Three be analyzed by a two-tailed ”t" test proce­ dure . Care was taken to review the data and their analyses to reduce the possibility of committing either a type one or type two statistical error. Close inspection of both processes led to the conclusion that the possibilities of committing either a type one or type two error were negligible. The data to be analyzed by the Proportional Sub-Class Frequency Model of an Analysis of Variance were transferred to data processing cards and the services of the Michigan ^See Table I V , Table of Random Numbers in David V. H u n t s b e r g e r , Elements of Statistical Inference (Boston: Allyn and B a c o n , l $ 6 l ) , pp. 560-263. 73 State University Computer Center were utilized. A detailed account of the results of the procedure, as well as the results of the "t" test procedures, are described in the following sections. Hypothesis One There are no statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the four sub-tests of the MScales between the Michigan Reservation Indian stu­ dents and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. To test the hypothesis, data were made. three separate tests of the The first, Schools by Indian Interaction, showed significance for the females but not for the males (Tables 4.1 and 4.2, page 74). The second, Differences by Schools, again showed significance for females but not for males (Tables 4.3 and 4.4, page 75). The third test reviewed the data to determine if sig­ nificant differences existed between the Indians and nonIndians for which the M-Scales data were available 4.5 and 4.6, page 76). (Tables The "F" test statistic for females is .8263 which is not significant at the .05 level. The "F " test statistic for males if .0720 which is not signifi­ cant at the .05 level. This resulted in a failure to re ­ ject the null hypothesis that significant differences exist between Reservation Indians and their Caucasian peers when measured by the M-Scales. 74 TABLE 4.1.--M-Scales, F ratios for Schools by Indian Inter­ action— f e m a l e s . Sub-Test sub Test Mean Square Between RaHn F Ratio Significance Level at .05 GSCI 51.1451 2 .5223 none PJCS 33.4196 0.7142 none WRL 132.0796 1.1555 none HTI 24.4368 1.1422 none Overall F 2.5337 significant Step-down F 2.8366 significant TABLE 4.2.- -M -S ca le s , F ratios for Schools by Indian Inter act ion--males. Sub-Test Mean Square Between F Ratio Significance Level at .05 GSCI 15.6938 0.4215 none PJCS 7 .7771 0.4678 none WRL 84.1354 1.1210 none HTI 6.8917 0.3624 none Overall F .8600 none Step-down F .5625 none TABLE 4.3.-- M - S c a l e s , F ratios for Differences by Schools f em al es . Sub-Test Mean Square Between F Ratio Significance Level at .05 GSCI 68.0618 3.3566 significant PJCS 11.6696 0.2494 none WRL 82.8713 0.7250 none HTI 25.8118 1.2065 none overall F 1.9638 significant Step-down F 1.6470 none TABLE 4.4.— M - S c a l e s , F ratios for Differences by Schools— males. Sub-Test Mean Square Between F Ratio Significance Level at .05 GSCI 36.4313 0.9786 none PJSC 9.2646 0.5573 none WRL 3.7229 0.0496 none HTI 2.3792 0.1251 none Overall F 0.5896 none Step-down F 0.1524 none 76 TABLE 4.5.— M-Scales, F ratios for Indian--non-Indian c o m ­ parison— females . Sub-Test Me £ t w l e “ re F Ratio Significance bevel GSCI 6.7522 0.3330 none PJCS 25.0804 0.5360 none WRL 7.7701 0.0680 none HTI 25.5558 1.1945 none Overall F 0.8263 none Step-down F 2.2581 none TABLE 4.6.— M - S c a l e s , F ratios for Indian--non-Indian co m ­ parison— males. Sub-Test Mean Square Between F Ratio Significance Level at .05 GSCI 44.2042 1.1873 none PJCS 48.6000 2.9235 none WRL 510.4167 6.8008 significant HTI 84.0167 4.4181 significant Overall F 2.2581 none Step-down F 1.3278 none 77 Appendix A presents the pertinent data from the analyses performed, including the analysis design, cell names, correlation matrix, mean square within cells inter­ action, and the validity tests of the M-Scales between In­ dians and non-Indians. Hypothesis Two There are the grade servation Caucasian no statistically significant differences in point averages obtained by Michigan Re­ Indian students and their non-reservation peers. This hypothesis was tested by three separate analy­ ses of the data. The first, School by Indian Interaction, showed no significance for either males or females (Tables 4.7 and 4.8, page 78). The second, Differences by Schools, cance for females, but none for males showed signifi­ (Tables 4.9 and 4.10, page 79). The third test reviewed the data to determine if sig­ nificant differences existed between the Indians and nonIndians for which the GPA data was available and 4.12, page 80). (Tables 4.11 The "F" test statistic for females was 4.8051 which is significant at the .05 level. The "F" test statistic for males was 17.2348 which also was sig­ nificant at the .05 level. Therefore null Hypothesis Two suggesting that there were no significant differences in the GPA's of Michigan Reservation Indians and their non­ reservation Caucasian peers was rejected. 78 TABLE 4.7.--GPA, IQ, F ratios for Schools by Indian Inter­ action— f e m a l e s . Mean Square Between GPA F Ratio Significance Level at .05 9.3156 1.4523 none 349.1927 2.3723 none Overall F 1.2919 none Step-down F 1.1583 none IQ TABLE 4.8 .— GPA, IQ, F ratios for Schools by Indian Interaction - - m a l e s . Mean Square Between GPA F Ratio Significance Level at .05 2.1721 0.3879 none 563.6771 2.2242 none Overall F 1.1969 none Step-down F 2.0490 none IQ 79 TABLE 4.9.--GPA, IQ, F ratios for Differences by Schools-females. Mean Square Between F Ratio Significance Level at .05 1.3506 0.2106 none 521.6927 3.5442 significant Overall F 3.0781 significant Step-down F 6.3940 significant GPA IQ A TABLE 4.10. — GPA, IQ, F ratios for Differences by Schools— males. Mean Square Between F Ratio Significance Level at .05 8.9451 1.5975 none 754.2021 2.9760 significant Overall F 1.9168 none Step-down F 2.2652 none GPA IQ 80 TABLE 4.11.--GPA, IQ, F ratios for lndian--non-Indian c o m ­ parison-- females . Mean Square Between F Ratio Significance Level at .05 30.8217 4.8051 significant .8058 0.0055 none Overall F 5.0187 significant Step-down F 4.8978 significant GPA IQ TABLE 4.12.- -GPA, IQ, F ratios for indian--non-Indian comparison - - m a l e s . Significance Level at .05 Mean Square Between F Ratio 96.5075 17.2348 significant 1733.4375 6.8400 significant Overall F 8.9290 significant Step-down F 0.6976 none GPA IQ 81 Appendix B presents pertinent data from the analyses performed, including the cell means, correlation matrix, and mean square within cells interaction. Hypothesis Three There are no statistically significant differences in the achievement test scores obtained by Michigan R e ­ servation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. This hypothesis was tested by non-directional "t" tests (two-tailed) between Indian students and non-Indian students for each school (nine separate "tH t e s t s ) . tests for males did show significance at the Two .05 level. Three tests for males and all four tests for females did not prove to be significant at the .05 level (Tables 4.13 and 4.14, page 82). As a result, null Hypothesis Three which suggested there were significant differences between Reservation In­ dians and their non-reservation Caucasian peers on achieve­ ment test scores failed to be rejected. Hypothesis Four There are no statistically significant differences in the intelligence test scores obtained by the Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peer group. This hypothesis was tested by three separate analyses of the data. The first, Schools by Indian Interaction, showed no significance for either males or females (Tables TABLE 4.13.— Achievement test scores— females. School Indian Mean Indian Variance Caucasian Mean Caucasian Variance "t" Value 1 56.0 196.00 43.0 200.24 1.140 none Significance at .05 Mo Females 2 3 9.3 0.64 9.7 3.00 -0.952 none 4 20.0 225.00 51.4 931.25 -1.340 none 5 13.2 0.01 14.9 2.89 -1.333 none TABLE 4. 14.— Achievement test scores— males. School Indian Mean Indian Variance Caucasian Mean Caucasian Variance "t" Value 1 15.0 288.50 33.7 555.48 -1.365 none 2 12.3 138.96 32.5 35.87 -4.229 significant 3 7.9 0.37 7.5 2.48 1.465 none 4 47.5 493.75 54.3 288.26 -0.596 none 5 11.2 0.31 14.1 46.29 -2.500 significant Significance at .05 83 4.7 and 4.8, page 78). The second, Differences by Schools, showed significance for both males and females (Tables 4.9 and 4.10, page 79). The third test reviewed the data to determine if sig­ nificant differences existed between the Indians and nonIndians for which the IQ data were available and 4.12, page 80). (Tables 4.11 The "F" statistic for females was .8058 which was not significant at the .05 level. The "F" statistic for males was €.8400 which was significant at the .05 level. However, in the step-down analysis when the variance common to GPA is removed, the "F" statistic was .6976 and no significance is shown at the .05 level. Based on the analysis, Hypothesis Four which suggests that significant differences in IQ test scores exist b e ­ tween Reservation Indians and their non-reservation C a u ­ casian peers fails to be rejected. Appendix B presents the pertinent data from the analy­ ses performed on the GPA--IQ data. Hypothesis Five There are no statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the four sub-tests on the M-Scales between the Michigan Reservation Indian students and an established sample of 12,000 Caucasian students within Michigan. This hypothesis was tested by using a one-tailed "t” test at the .05 level of significance. At the .05 level, the "t" test statistic is 1.729 for males and 1.895 for 84 females. At this level there was no significance noted on any of the four sub-tests of the M-Scales (Tables 4.15 and 4.16, page 85). Based on the analysis, null Hypothesis Five which suggests that significant differences exist between the means on the M-Scales between Michigan Reservation Indians and an established sample of 12,000 Caucasian students within Michigan fails to be rejected. Hypothesis Six There are no statistically significant differences on the mean scores of the four sub-tests of the M-Scales between Michigan Reservation Indian students and the Johnson sample of Plains States Reservation Indian students. This hypothesis was tested by using a one-tailed "t" test at the .05 level of significance. At the .05 level, the "t" test statistic is 1.729 for males and 1.895 for females. At this level there was no significance noted on any of the four sub-tests of the M-Scales 4.18, page (Tables 4.17 and 86) . Based on the analysis, null Hypothesis Six which sug­ gests that significant differences exist between the means on the M-Scales between Michigan Reservation Indians and Plains States Reservation Indians fails to be rejected. Summary An analysis of the scores of the four sub-tests of the M-Scales, grade point averages, achievement test scores TABLE 4.15.— M-Scales— female Michigan Reservation Indians and Caucasian sample. SubTest Maximum Score Indian Mean Stand. Dev. Cauc. Mean "t" Statistic Significance at .05 GSCI 30 20.5 26.25 20.45 0.005 none PJCS 33 27.8 10.41 27.44 0.098 none WRL 48 27.6 85.62 28.99 -0.046 none HTI 26 15.1 22.37 17.51 -0.305 none TABLE 4.16.— M-Scales— male Michigan Reservation Indians and Caucasian sample. SubTest Maximum Score Indian Mean Stand. Dev. Cauc. Mean "t" Statistic Significance at .05 GSCI 45 27.1 23.14 30.76 -0.708 none PJCS 20 13.2 14.71 16.20 -0.912 none WRL 48 22.6 30.08 30.41 -1.162 none HTI 26 15.2 25.86 18.97 -0.651 none TABLE 4.17.— M-Scales— female Michigan Reservation Indians and Plains Reservation Indians. SubTest Maximum Score Mich. Indian Mean Stand. Dev, Plains Indian Mean GSCI 45 20.5 26.26 23.21 -0.293 none PJCS 20 27.8 10.41 28.91 -0.302 none WRL 48 27.6 85.62 25.88 0.057 none HTI 26 15.1 22.37 16.59 -0.189 none "t" Statistic Significance at .05 TABLE 4.18.— M-Scales — male Michigan Reservation Indians and Plains Reservation Indians. SubTest Maximum Score Mich. Indian Mean GSCI 45 PJCS Stand. Dev. Plains Indian Mean "t" Statistic 27.1 23.14 32.41 -1.027 none 20 13.2 14.71 15.60 -0.729 none WRL 48 22.6 30.08 27.51 -1.113 none HTI 26 15.2 25.86 15.30 -0.002 none Significance at .05 87 and intelligence test scores was done using the .05 level of statistical significance. There were no statistically significant differences found between Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peers on the four sub-tests of the M-Scales, achievement test scores, or intelligence test scores. There were statistically significant di f ­ ferences found in their grade point averages. In a comparison between the Michigan Reservation In­ dian students' mean scores on the four sub-tests of the MScales and an established Caucasian sample no statistically significant differences were noted. Finally, in a comparison between the Michigan Re ­ servation Indian s t u d e n t s ' mean scores on the four sub-tests of the M-Scales and a sample of Plains States Indian R e ­ servation students, no statistically significant d i f f e r ­ ences were noted. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to gather and analyze empirical evidence on the motivation, measurable intelli­ gence and academic achievement of the Michigan Reservation Indian students for comparison with their non-reservation peers. There are four separate and distinct Indian Re­ servations located within the geographical confines of Michigan. Three are located in various parts of the Upper Peninsula and one is located in central Lower Michigan. The educational services for the Reservation Indian students are provided by the five public school districts within whose boundries the reservations lie. A review of the school districts and their operations noted that only two of the five had accreditation standings. The remain­ ing three had very small student enrollments, limited curricula and few supportive services. Supportive evidence noted that the Michigan Reser­ vation Indian occupies a very low socio-economic position within the state, is subject to poor health and usually lives in a substandard home. This did appear to have an 88 89 influence on school attendance and study habits and may be a factor in the Indian drop-out rate which approaches 80 per cent. Data for the study were obtained by visiting each of the four reservations and the five public school dis­ tricts which serve them. Motivation was measured by the utilization of the M-Scales, developed by Dr. William W. Farquhar.^" Intelligence test scores and achievement test scores were obtained from the school r e c o r d s . Grade point averages were computed for each student in the study, from only those courses which were academically oriented and re ­ quired homework. Data were gathered for the entire population of ninth grade Reservation Indian students in Michigan and their non-reservation peers. Random sampling was utilized to prepare the data for an analysis of variance based on a proportional sub-class frequency design to be tested at the .05 level for significance. The analysis showed that there were no statistically significant differences between Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peers on the four sub-tests of the M-Scales, achievement test scores. intelligence test scores or Statistically significant d i f ­ ferences were found to exist in grade point averages ^Farquhar, o p . c i t . 90 between Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non­ reservation Caucasian peers with the Indian students re­ ceiving the lower grades. Analyzing the data as they compared to Michigan Caucasian means as established by Farquhar, 2 a "t" test de ­ termined that there were no statistically significant d i f ­ ferences between the Michigan Reservation Indians and the established means at the .05 level of significance. In an analysis to review the data as they compared to a Plains State Reservation Indian s t udy2 a "t" test d e t e r ­ mined that there were no statistically significant d i f ­ ferences between the Michigan Reservation Indians and the established means at the .05 level of significance. Conclusions The analysis of the data suggests the following con­ clusions : 1. There are no significant differences in the m o t i ­ vational attitudes of Michigan Reservation Indian students and those of Michigan Caucasians. 2. There are no significant differences in the in­ telligence test scores and achievement test scores of Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peers. 2I b i d . 3 Johnson, op. c i t . 91 3. There are significant differences in the grade point averages of the Michigan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peers, with the Indian students receiving the lower grades. 4. The significant differences in the lower grade point averages for the Indian students are not directly attributable to a lack of motivation or innate ability. Discussion The conclusions of this study appear to be of merit and are supportable by the works of other researchers in the area of Indian e d u c a t i o n . Conclusion one suggests that there are few m o t i v a ­ tional differences which exist between Michigan Reservation Indians and their non-reservation Caucasian peers. The M-Scales' validity was analyzed by a separate "t" test, and it was found to contain no significant differences between the Indian respondents and the non-Indian respondents. Also, Johnson 4 noted in a study of Plains States R e ­ servation Indians that they performed significantly better on the GSCI sub-test of the M-Scales when compared to a pre-established Caucasian sample. 4I b i d . Johnson concluded that 92 this may be an indicator of a higher motivational factor for Indian students than previously was believed to exist. Conclusion two suggests that few differences exist in the intelligence test scores and achievement test scores when a comparison is made between Michigan Reservation In­ dian students and their non-Indian peers. Although this conclusion is interesting when the real or imagined cul­ tural biases in the measuring devices are considered, supported by the work of E r i k s o n 5 in the Dakotas. it is Another contributing factor may be the fact that English is the predominant language spoken in the homes of the Michigan Reservation Indians. In M i l l e r ’s^ study of Indian students, it was noted that the Indian student did not achieve as well as his Caucasian peers. However, it was found that the Indian students did have more scholastic success in an integrated school setting. This finding supports the arguments p r e ­ sented in Coleman's study on Equality of Education O ppor­ tunity .7 These sources support conclusion three, that the Michigan Reservation Indian students do earn grade point averages which are consistently lower than their Caucasian peers. 5 Erikson, o p . c i t ., p. 161. ^Miller, op. c i t . 7 Coleman, o p . c i t ., p. 307. 93 Conclusion four is perhaps the most interesting of the conclusions and can be the subject of many inferences. The data and analyses of this study do not indicate appre­ ciable differences in ability and motivation between M i c h i ­ gan Reservation Indian students and their non-reservation Caucasian peers. However very noticeable differences in grade point averages were found to exist, as well as the supporting evidence indicating an Indian drop-out rate of almost 80 per cent. In reviewing the supportive data, several sources were found through which these differences could be ex ­ plained. One source was the poor attendance habits that ap ­ peared to exist in relation to the Michigan Reservation 8 Indian students. Taylor noted that although the Indian students made up 16 per cent of one of the secondary school's population, of the absences. they accounted for over 75 per cent Reasons cited included parental apathy and a lack of good clothing. Another source is the educational programs being o f ­ fered. As has been noted, in this study, in four of the school reviewed the comprehensiveness of their programs has been seriously questioned. In the larger district more courses are available, but the students are a very o Taylor, o p . c i t ., p. 10. 94 small minority and could almost be classified as racial isolates. The lack of supportive services is another large factor in the poorer success of the Indian students. School district efforts to provide guidance services o r i ­ ented to the needs of the Indians appear to be almost non­ existent. This is not surprising when it was previously noted that the guidance services in four of the school districts were less than exemplary for all the students. School nurse services, testing services and remedial ser­ vices were also less than adequate in the majority of the school districts surveyed. The lack of teacher sensitivity towards the Michigan Reservation Indian students is another contributing factor. Many of the teachers interviewed during the course of this study lacked a basic knowledge of the Indians and their environment on the reservations. Some indicated an open lack of concern for the Indian students, although no overt acts of discrimination were observed. Finally, the study habits of the Michigan Reservation Indian students also may be a factor. Due to the poorer household conditions which exist on Michigan's Indian Re­ servations, it is not hard to speculate on the conditions present which are not conducive to doing homework. As p r e ­ viously noted in the supporting evidence, many homes are 95 not electrified, many are overcrowded, and many are in poor repair. In conclusion, it appears that it would be most ap­ propriate for those school districts which serve the Michigan Reservation Indian students to develop programs designed to assist their Indian clientele to become better Indians. These may include study centers, better support­ ive services, increased teacher sensitivity, and active support of plans designed to better the Indians' socio­ economic status. Implications for Further Research Based on the conclusions of this study it appears that what is needed is not further studies, but assistance in developing plans of action. Perhaps one area of research which would be b e n e ­ ficial to the development and implementation of various programs to increase the Michigan Reservation Indians scho­ lastic rewards and decrease his drop-out rate might be directed towards developing more explicit answers to the questions raised by conclusion four of this study. stated in a more forthright manner, Re ­ if ability and m o tiva­ tion are not the factors, what areas can be identified which are causing our Michigan Reservation Indians to well than their peers in school? do less 96 Such a study may find that a greater emphasis should be placed on interviewing techniques than on paper and pencil testing procedures. Appropriate interviewees may include parents, drop-outs and students who reside on Michigan Indian Reservations. Impressions As a result of the research and the supporting e vi­ dence which make up this document, several impressions were made which do deserve a place in this dissertation. First, the school districts visited by this researcher displayed an alarming lack of genuine interest in assisting the Reservation Indian students enrolled. There was little evidence that specific programs were being developed nor were operational programs aimed at improving the educational success of the Indian students. This is more alarming when one considers that the majority of the schools receive direct Federal assistance due to the fact that they are charged with educating Reservation Indian s t u d e n t s . District personnel demonstrated a very poor knowledge of the Indian students* academic background, tions and general welfare. living condi­ This lack of sensitivity may no doubt directly contribute to the Indian students' lack of success in school. obvious Too often the researcher heard the comment "they don't want the things we want." 97 Secondly, the lack of concern is not totally attri­ butable to only the school districts. Other units of government also are remiss in their constitutional respon­ sibilities. clearly. Two illustrations bring this into focus very As noted, many Indian homes are not electrified. On one segment of one of the Reservations, the federally subsidized REA cooperative electric utility refuses to provide service for a group of Indian homes unless a m o n e ­ tary "guarantee of payment fund" is provided. Such a r e ­ quirement is not demanded in the course of typical in­ stallations of the company. Another illustration is the poor maintenance procedures being followed for the roads on Reservation lands. It was noted that several years ago during the spring thaw, the road to one segment of one of the Reservations was impassable to automobile and school bus traffic for over two weeks. Such conditions did not exist in other populated sections of the township. Finally on a state level, Michigan has little to show for its concern with its Indian population. There have been few legislative enactments designed to improve the welfare of the Reservation Indians. The Michigan Depart­ ment of Education has employed personnel with expertise in assisting Negroes and Mexican Americans, but has no in­ dividual charged with improving Indian education. As one reflects upon the preceding paragraphs, it is difficult for this researcher to show much pride in his 98 Caucasianism as it related to the treatment of the Indian. We stole their land, we stole what part of their culture we wanted and destroyed the rest, and we reduced a proud racial group to second-class citizens. It seems very sad that a society which advocates democracy, equality and Christianity has not yet progressed to a state where it can express a real love and concern for all of its members. Recommendations Based on the research and supporting evidence of this dissertation, the following recommendations are of ­ fered : 1. The five school districts serving the Michigan Reservation Indian students should plan and initiate p r o ­ grams to increase the sensitivity of their personnel towards the Indian immediately. 2. The Michigan Department of Education should employ the necessary personnel to mobilize and assist the various Indian groups in designing academic and supportive p ro­ grams which will enable the Reservation Indians to reap the rewards of the educational system. 3. The Michigan Legislature should enact the appro­ priate legislation to fund programs designed to allow the citizens of our Reservations to become better Indians. These programs may include funds for study centers, teacher training directed towards the Indian culture and norms. 99 supportive services for Indian students and the development of programs to increase the socio-economic status of the Reservation Indian community. 4. The various units of government within Michigan should live up to their constitutional obligations to all citizens of the state and provide the services necessary for all of their constituents to live in a meaningful manner. BIBLIOGRAPHY 100 BIBLIOGRAPHY Armore, Sidney. Introduction to Statistical Analysis and Inference for Psychology and E d u c a t i o n . New Y o r k : John Wiley and Sons, 196 6. Baird, Willard. This is Our M i c h i g a n . Battle Creek, Mich.: Federated P u b l i c a t i o n s , I n c . , 1959. Brophy, William A. and A b e r l e , Sophie D. The Indian-America's Unfinished B u s i n e s s . Norman, O k l a . : University of Oklahoma Press, 1766. Cameron, Herman, Director of the Michigan Commission of Indian Affairs. Interview, Sault Ste. Marie, Michi­ gan, March, 1969. Campbell, D. T. and Stanley, J. C. Experimental and QuasiExperimental Designs for R e s e a r c h . C h i c a g o : Rand McNally & C o . , 196 3. Ci ril Rights Commission. Racial Isolation in the Public S c h o o l s , Vol. 11. W a s h i n g t o n , D .C .: Government Printing Office, 1967. Coleman, James S. Equality of Educational O p p o r t u n i t y . U.S. Office of E d u c a t i o n . Washington, D . C . : Govern­ ment Printing Office, 1966. Conant, James B. The American High School T o d a y . Y o r k : M c G r a w - H i l l , 1959. New Cornfield, J. and Tukey, J. W. "Average Values of Mean Squares in Factorials." Annuals of Mathematics Sta­ tistics , 27:907-949. Deloria, Vine Jr. "This Country Was a Lot Better Off When the Indians Were Running It." The New York Times M a g a z i n e , March 8, 1970, p. 56. Erikson, Erik H. Childhood and S o c i e t y . W. W. Norton, 1963. 2d e d . New York: F a r b , Peter. "The American Indian: A Portrait in Limbo." Saturday R e v i e w , October 12, 1968, p. 29. 101 102 Farquhar, William W. U.S. Office of Education. Project No. 846 (8458), 1959. Research Fuchs, Estelle. "American Indians at School--Time to Re ­ deem an Old Promise." Saturday Review, January 24, 1970, p. 17. Governor's Commission on Indian Affairs. "Findings and Recommendations." June 3, 1964. (Mimeographed.) Green, Robert L. "The Predictive Efficiency and Factured Dimensions of the Michigan M-Scales for Eleventh Grade Negro Students: An Exploration Study." Un­ published Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State U ni­ versity, 1962. Greenman, Emerson F. The Indians of M i c h i g a n . Michigan Historical C o m m i s s i o n , Pamphlet No. 5"! 1961. Hayes, William. Statistics. and Winston*! 1063. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Hendrick, Russell. Interview, Michigan Department of Social Services, Lansing, Michigan, August, 196 9. Hertzeberg, Hazel W. The Great Tree and the L o n g h o u s e . New Y o r k : The MacMillan Company, 1066. Huntsberger, David V. Elements of Statistical In f e rence. Boston: Allyn and B a c o n , 1061. Johnson, Van C. "An Assessment of the Motivation Factor in the Estimation of Academic Achievement of Eleventh Grade Indian Students and the Factored Dimensions of the M-Scales: An Exploratory Study." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 196 3. Josephy, Alvin M . , Jr. The Indian Heritage of A m e r i c a . New York: A. A. K n o p f , 1968. Leupp, Francis E. The Indian and His P r o b l e m . Chas. Scribner 6 £>ons, 1 9 l 0 . New York: Levine, Stuart, and Lurie, Nancy. The J^nerican Indian T o ­ day . Deland, Florida: Everett/Edwards, I n c . , 1068. Mason, Philip P. Struggle for Survival, The Story of M i c h i gan's Indian!"! D e t r o i t : Detroit Historical Museum, lrco. ------- 103 Meyers, Don. "Michigan's Shame: Detroit N e w s , May 17, 1964. It's Tragic Indians." Michigan Commission on Indian Affairs. "Report for U.S. Senator Robert Griffen." Lansing, Michigan, 1970. {Mimeographed.) Michigan Commission on Indian Affairs. Unpublished sta­ tistics developed in 1964. Lansing, Michigan. Michigan Department of Commerce, Research Division. Un­ numbered Bulletin. Lansing, Michigan, September, 1969. Michigan Department of Education. Assessment R e p o r t , No. 4. Lansing, Michigan, 1970. Michigan Department of Education. Michigan, December, 196 9. Bulletin 1012. Lansing, Michigan Department of Education. Public High School Drop­ outs in Michigan for 1967-6 8 . Statistical Bulletin No. 400?. Lansing, Michigan, December, 196 9. Michigan Department of Education. "Preliminary Analysis of the 1968-69 School Racial Census." Unnumbered Bulletin. Lansing, Michigan, 1969. Michigan Department of Education. Unpublished report for the National Study of American Indian Education, 1969. Michigan Department of Education. Unpublished Statistics from the Racial Inventory by District and School. Lansing, Michigan, 1970. Michigan Department of Education. Unpublished Statistics from the School Facilities Inventory. Lansing, Michigan, 196 9. Michigan Department of Education. Unpublished Statistics of Michigan Teacher Certification, 1969-70. Lansing, Michigan. Michigan Department of Health, Center for Statistics. "Re­ ports for 1967, 196 8." Lansing, Michigan. (Mimeo­ graphed .) Michigan Employment Security Commission. The Upper Penin­ sula . . . P e r s p e c t i v e s , Problems and P r o s p e c t s . L a n s i n g , M i c h i g a n , A u g u s t , 1969. 104 Michigan Historical Commission. Indian R e s e r v a t i o n s . In­ formation Series No. 2. Lansing, Michigan, IT57. Michigan State Library. published .) Michigan Section Records. (Un­ Miller, Harold J. "The Effect of Integration on Rural In­ dian Pupils." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, U ni­ versity of North Dakota, 196 8. Morris, Julie, and Shananhan, Edward. April 26, 27, 28, 29, 1970. Detroit Free Press. Payne, David A. "The Dimensions of an Objective Measure of Academic Self-Concept." Unpublished Ph.D. d i s ­ sertation, Michigan State University, 1961. Sales Management M a g a z i n e , Section D. County-City Data by S t a t e s , e s t i m a t e d . New York, June 10, 1969. School District Records. Individual records reviewed which are available in the five school districts in the study, 1970. Stiener, Stan. The New I n d i a n s . New York: Dell, 196 8. Taylor, Sam. The Redman* s A p p a l a c h i a . Michigan Commission on Indian Affairs, 1^67. (Mimeographed.) "The Angry American Indian: Starting Down the Protest Trail." T i m e , February 9, 1970, p. 57. Tiedlie, Kenneth E. A Study of the Hannahville Indian C o m ­ munity . Special Bulletin 369, Michigan State C o l l e g e , A p r i l , 1951. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. Answers to Questions About American I n d i a n s . Washing­ ton^ DTcTi Government Printing Office, 1965. Vogel, Virgil J. The Indian in American H i s t o r y . Integrated Educational Associates, 1963. Walker, Louise Jean. Woodland W i g w a m s . Hillsdale School Supply, 1964. Chicago: Hillsdale, Mich.: Washington M o n i t o r . Washington, D.C.: National School Public Relations Assoc., November 24, 1969. 105 Wax, Murray L. ; Wax, Rosalie H . ; and Dumont, Robert V., Jr. Formal Education in an American Indian Community: Cooperative ttesearch Project No. l 3 6 l .~ A t l a n t a : Emory University Press, 1 9 m Winchester, John. Interview, Center for Urban Affairs, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, April, 1970. wissler, Clark. New Y o r k : Worth, Jean. Ma Michigan Indians of the United S t a t e s . Doubledlay & Co. , 1948. “ *" ting J o u r n a l . Garden City, Marquette, Youngblood, Senator Charles N . , Jr. "Letter to the People." State of Michigan Library, Lansing, Michigan, April, 1966. (Mimeographed.) APPENDICES 106 APPENDIX A M-SCALES 107 108 TABLE A . 1.--Analysis design— females. Race Cell Observations School 1 Indian 1 2 2 Indian 3 2 3 Indian 4 2 4 Indian 5 2 5 Caucasian 1 14 6 Caucasian 3 14 7 Caucasian 4 14 8 Caucasian 5 14 TOTAL N = 64 TABLE A. 2.--M-Scales cell means- - f e m a l e s . WRL Cell GSCI PJCS HTI 1 26.00000 27.50000 35.00000 17 .00000 2 13.50000 29.50000 26.00000 9.50000 3 24.50000 31.00000 31.00000 17 .50000 4 18.00000 23.00000 18.50000 16.50000 5 19.64286 25.92857 27.00000 16.64286 6 18.92857 25.42857 24.85714 16.92857 7 20.07143 25 .00000 31.50000 17.07143 8 19.42857 27 .07143 31.35714 17.50000 109 TABLE A .3.— M-S ca le s— sample correlation ma tr i x - - f e m a l e s . GSCI PJCS HTI WRL GSCI 1.000000 PJCS .672579 1.000000 WRL .614701 .320726 1.000000 HTI .549631 .342629 .742567 1.000000 TABLE A .4. --M-Scales— mean square interaction within cells— females m Sub-Test Variance Standard Deviation GSCI 20.276786 4.5030 PJCS 46.790816 6.8404 WRL 114.302296 10.6912 HTI 21.394133 4.6254 110 TABLE A . 5 -— M-Scales validity--females. Indian Mean 1 81.5 Indian Cauc. Cauc. Variance Mean Variance 20.25 2 74.3 89.65 "t" value Signif. at .05 1.411 none Mo females 3 74.0 21.00 75.2 228.88 -0.104 none 4 81.5 6.25 74.2 899.00 0.322 none 5 57.5 72.25 77.1 343.00 -1.960 none TABLE A . 6 .--Analysis d e s i g n - - m a l e s . Cell Race School Observations 1 Indian 1 4 2 Indian 2 4 3 Indian 3 4 4 Indian 4 4 5 Indian 5 4 6 Caucasian 1 12 7 Caucasian 2 12 8 Caucasian 3 12 9 Caucasian 4 12 10 Caucasian 5 12 TOTAL N =* 80 Ill TABLE A . 7.— M-Scales cell m e a n s — males. GSCI PJCS 1 23.50000 14 .25000 22.75000 13.50000 2 29.25000 14.50000 24.50000 16.25000 3 25.75000 11.75000 25.00000 14.50000 4 26.75000 12.75000 22 .25000 15.50000 5 30.00000 12.50000 18.25000 16.25000 6 28.66667 14.91667 30.08333 18.08333 7 28.66667 14.58333 26.08333 17.50000 8 26.75000 13.33333 25.83333 17.75000 9 29.50000 15.25000 27.66667 17.25000 10 30.25000 16.66667 32.25000 17.25000 Cell WRL HTI TABLE A . 8.— M-Scales sample correlation m a t r i x -- m a l e s . GSCI PJCS WRL GSCI 1.000000 PJCS .644869 1.000000 WRL .525287 .429987 1.000000 HIT .679217 .517702 .498546 HTI 1.000000 112 TABLE A . 9.— M-Scales mean square interaction within cells— males. Sub-Test Variance Standard Deviation GSCI 37.229762 6.1016 PJCS 16 .623810 4.0772 WRL 75.052381 8.6633 HIT 19.016667 4.3608 TABLE A. 10.— M- Scales validity- - m a l e s . Indian Variance Cauc. Mean Cauc. Variance if^ n value Signif. at .05 School Indian Mean 1 37.0 46.50 42.8 68.07 -1.184 none 2 41.8 16.01 39.1 103.27 0. 482 none 3 39. 3 56.76 37.5 45.25 0.419 none 4 31. 5 140.75 40.8 50. 36 -1.755 none 5 35.0 22 .50 44 .3 76. 84 -1.897 none APPENDIX B G P A — IQ 113 114 TABLE B .1. — G P A — IQ cell mean s— females . Cell GPA IQ 1 5.6875 124.5000 2 5.5625 110.5000 3 2.5600 87.5000 4 4.8000 107.5000 5 5.5841 109.5714 6 7.0268 102.7857 7 7.9064 104.8571 8 6 .4861 111.4286 TABLE B.2.--GPA— IQ--sample correlation matri x - - f e m ales. GPA GPA IQ IQ 1.000000 .711829 1.000000 115 TABLE B . 3.— GPA- -IQ mean square interaction within cells— females. Standard Deviation GPA IQ 6 .414404 2.5327 147.195153 12.1324 TABLE B. 4.— GPA- -IQ--cel1 m e a n s - - m a l e s . Cell GPA IQ 1 2.4375 72.2500 2 .8438 82.0000 3 3.5938 106.000 ) 4 3.4875 101.0000 *5 2. 7875 96.0000 6 5.4375 103.5000 7 4.1458 94 .9167 8 4.6979 99.8333 9 6.2328 105.4167 10 5. 3185 107.3333 116 TABLE B .5.— G P A — IQ sample correlation m a t r i x - - m a l e s . GPA GPA IQ IQ 1.000000 .425234 1.000000 TABLE B.6.— G P A — IQ mean square interaction within cellmale s . Variance GPA IQ Standard Deviation 5.599559 2. 3663 253 .427381 15.9194