MILLER, Donald Richard, 1940AN ANALYSIS OF MANAGEMENT TEAM CHARACTERISTICS, EDUCATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION, AND SELECTED COST FACTORS OF MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1970 Education, administration University Microfilms, A XEROXCompany , Ann Arbor, Michigan Copyright by DONALD RICHARD MILLER 1971 AN ANALYSIS OF MANAGEMENT TEAM CHARACTERISTICS, EDUCATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION, AND SELECTED COST FACTORS OF MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS By Donald Richard Miller A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1970 ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF MANAGEMENT TEAM CHARACTERISTICS, EDUCATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION, AND SELECTED COST FACTORS OF MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS By Donald Richard Miller Purpose, Procedure, and Design This study was undertaken to identify behavioral characteristics of a management team and to investigate the relationship between these characteristics and factors affecting quality of education. Responses were received from thirty-nine of ninety randomly selected Michigan school systems. These thirty-nine systems did not differ significantly from the fifty-one that did not participate on the four cost variables of size, state equalized valu­ ation per pupil, voted millage for operation, and expendi­ tures per pupil for operation. From the literature forty- five items were derived relating to behavioral character­ istics of a management team. These items determined the Administrative Characteristics Survey (A C S ) which was administered to 279 administrators in the thirty-nine districts. The Educational Characteristics Criterion (E C C ) , Donald Richard Miller a measure of factors affecting the quality of education, was administered to 1,630 teachers in the same thirtynine districts. Statistical analysis consisted of a partial cor­ relation technique to investigate the relationships b e ­ tween the ACS and the E C C , controlling for cost factors. The data were analyzed using the school system as the experimental unit. The following hypotheses were tested: Hypothesis I . A positive statistical relation­ ship exists between characteristics of a manage­ ment team and perceptions of factors affecting educational quality. Hypothesis I I . A positive statistical relation­ ship exists between characteristics of a man ag e­ ment team and perceptions of factors affecting educational quality, holding cost factors constant. Correlation coefficients were computed and tested for significance. Major Findings The correlation coefficient between the ACS total scores and the ECC total scores across school systems (Hypothesis I) was -.33 which is statistically signifi­ cant. The partial correlation coefficient for ACS total scores and ECC total scores controlling for cost factors across school systems (Hypothesis II) was -.27 which is not statistically significant and indicates no relation­ ship exists. potheses; These findings are contrary to the hy ­ thus, the hypotheses were rejected. Donald Richard Miller Conclusions 1. Administrator perceptions of the degree of existence of characteristics of a management team, as measured by the A C S , are inversely related to teacher per­ ceptions of factors affecting educational quality, as measured by the E C C , in Michigan school districts. 2. each) The reliability of both instruments (.96 for is very high. 3. The concept of a management team needs revision and development. The idea of a functioning team is sup­ ported in the literature but is not supported by the measures used in this study. Further investigation into the A C S , as it relates to a concept of management team, is warranted. 4. A management team must be defined in terms of two basic types of behavioral characteristics. The first type relates to effective group processes on the m a n a ­ gerial level of a school system, measured by the A C S . The second type relates to the emphasis that the group or team places on the real achievement of the school system, not measured by the A C S . The results of this study demonstrate that the singular emphasis on group processes is not sufficient to be directly related to characteristics perceived by edu­ cators as being desirable in promoting educational quality. The ACS was measuring one basic factor which was identified as characteristics of a management team. However, further Donald Richard Miller consideration of ACS items showed little or no emphasis was placed on "production" characteristics, while major emphasis was placed on group processes and relationships. The ACS is a valid measure of group processes but not of a concept of team management that presses for organizational excellence. The group characteristics identified in the ACS are necessary for the functioning of a management team; however, the concept of a m a n a g e ­ ment team must also include the emphasis on "production" by administrators. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many persons have aided in the course of this study. The teachers and administrators who responded to the questionnaires and aided in collecting data deserve much recognition. Dr. Herbert C. Rudman has served as doctoral c om ­ mittee chairman and has spent long hours in aiding in the conception and the directing of this study. His encourage­ ment and advice have contributed greatly in the completion of this study. Other members of the committee who have offered helpful suggestions are Dr. Fred Vescolani, William Durr, and Dr. Wilbur Brookover. Dr. Dr. David Smith and Dr. Archibald Shaw have both been very helpful in the conception and development of the basic theoretical c o n ­ structs. Ed Keller of the Michigan Association of Elementary School Principals and Dr. Elvin DuVall of the Michigan Congress of School Administration Associations have aided this study greatly with their endorsements and patience for a graduate student conducting research. ii Sincere appreciation is given to the following friends and relatives who aided in tabulating and checking data: Hamoodf Lois and Ken Miller, Ann and Pete Sivori, Barbara Dee Ann and Rusty Miller. goes to Nancy Casey, A special recognition typist, whose speed, accuracy, and good humor are all appreciated for a difficult job well done. To my wife, Gloria, goes a very special recog­ nition. The encouragement, expert editorial advice, the belief, the trust, the and the love are ingredients without which I could not have completed this study. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. Page THE P R O B L E M .................................. Statement of the Problem ................. Objectives of the S t u d y ................. Study R a t i o n a l e ........................... Importance of the S t u d y ................. Assumptions and Limitations .............. Definition of T e r m s .............. 7 Definition of Management Team . . . . 16 Hypotheses to be T e s t e d ....... Organization of the Remainder of the T h e s i s .................................. II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE..................... Related Literature in School Adminis­ tration .................................. Related Literature Outside of Education . Related Literature Concerning the Edu­ cational Characteristics Criterion . . III. IV. 1 1 2 3 5 6 10 17 19 19 33 52 METHODS AND P R O C E D U R E S ..................... 57 Instrumentation ........................... Procedures.................................. Characteristics of Systems Not Participating Data C o l l e c t i o n ........................... Treatment of D a t a ........................ 57 77 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA. . . . General Hypothesis I .................... General Hypothesis II .................... Conclusion.................................. iv 79 82 83 87 87 90 102 Chapter Page V.SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . 104 S ummary..................................... C o n c l u s i o n s ............................... Implications .................................. Recommendations ........................... BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................... 104 106 119 121 124 APPENDICES Appendix A. B. C. Letter Sent to Superintendents Inviting Participation in theS t u d y ................ 131 Letter of Endorsement from the Michigan Congress of School Administrator Associations ............................... 132 Instructions for Responding to the Administrative Characteristics Survey (A c s ) : : : : : : : . . 133 r^r D. Administrative Characteristics Survey rscsi E. G. H. : : : . ; : : : : 7 . . 134 Instructions for Responding to the Educational Characteristics Criterion (e c c ) F. . : ;: : : ; : : : ; . . Educational Characteristics Criterion (e c c } : i i ; : : ; : : r . . 138 139 Characteristics of Participating Sample School Districts........................... 14 3 Characteristics of Non-Participating Sample School Districts ................. 145 v LIST OF TABLES Mean Responses to MTCS by Item ............. 59 Mean Responses to MTCS by Category. 67 Analysis of Variance for MTCS by Category S c o r e ......................................... 68 Means on Four Cost Variables of School Systems Participating and School Systems Not Participating........................... 80 Analysis of Variance for Participating and Non-Participating School Systems by Size . 80 Analysis of Variance for Participating and Non-Participating School Systems by State Equalized Valuation per P u p i l .............. 81 Analysis of Variance for Participating and Non-ParLicipating School Systems by Voted Millage ............................... 81 Analysis of Variance for Participating and Non-Participating School Systems by Expenditures per Pupil .................... 82 Number and Percentage of Responses. 84 Correlation Coefficients Between ACS Total Scores and ECC Category Scores . 89 Partial Correlation Coefficients Between ACS Total Scores and ECC Category Scores Controlling for Cost Factors .............. 91 Partial Correlation Coefficients Between ACS Total Scores and ECC Scores Controlling for Size of the School District 92 vi Table 13. 14. 15. Page Partial Correlation Coefficients Between ACS Total Scores and ECC Scores Control­ ling for State Equalized Valuation per P u p i l ......................................... Partial Correlation Coefficients Between ACS Total Scores and ECC Scores Controlling for Voted Millage for Operation. . 94 . Partial Correlation Coefficients Between ACS Total Scores and ECC Scores Control­ ling for Expenditures per Pupil . . . . 16. Simple Correlations Between Major Variables 17. Significance Levels of Regression Between ACS and ECC Scores Controlling for Cost F a c t o r s ..................................... 96 . 98 100 G— 1. Characteristics of Participating Schools . H-l. Characteristics of Non-Participating S c h o o l s ...................................... vii 95 . 143 145 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Statement of the Problem Recent legislation in Michigan, PL 379, has r e ­ sulted in collective negotiations between school boards and teachers' groups concerning wages, ing conditions. salaries, and w o r k ­ In trying to keep abreast of the rapid changes that have occurred due to this collective b a r g a i n ­ ing, administrators have tapped the resources of private enterprise which has considerable experience in the area* At the same time, many administrators have found them­ selves at a loss to administer agreements which contain, from an administrator's point of view, unmanageable sections. In an effort to implement these provisions administrators have often found themselves working at cross purposes with other administrators. to develop unity in an administration, In an effort administrators have again looked to the private sector in the area of p articipatory management. 1 2 Management Team This search for unity and involvement in decision­ making has resulted in an administrative arrangement called the management team. The concept of a management team has not yet become clear to all who use the term. For the purposes of this study a management team as it relates to educational administration refers to a set of behavioral relationships on the administrative level of a school system that promotes effective group functioning. These relationships— developed from educational and business administration— constitute an operational definition. Management Team and Quality One evaluation of a management team can be in terms of the quality of a school system. Does the existence of the factors affecting a management team relate signifi­ cantly to factors affecting quality? literature from the private sector, As shown in the evaluation of m a n a ­ gerial effectiveness can be stated in terms of organi­ zational effectiveness and productivity. It is then quite feasible to evaluate the application of a managerial tech­ nique to education in terms of those factors that have been identified as contributing to the quality of education. Objectives of the Study The objectives of this study are: 1. To define the management team concept in edu­ cational administration terms. 3 2. To identify the behavioral characteristics of a management team. 3. To determine the degree that the behavioral characteristics of a management team are present in school districts as perceived by the educational administrators of that district. 4. To compare the degree to which the behavioral characteristics of a management team are p re ­ sent in the school districts of Michigan with a measure of the factors influencing the quality of education. Study Rationale The term, "management team," has been used in edu­ cational administration circles with unclear or conflicting definitions. Some object to the word "management.” Others use the term as if it were a panacea for administrative problems. Authoritarians accept the term as a rationale to strengthen their power and a u t h o ri t y, while others accept the term as a rationale to transfer their responsi­ bility to a group. It is clear that the time has come to very clearly delimit and define the term, It is also clear that the rationale for the of a "management team.* basic concepts management team should be investigated in terms of the theory and practice of educational administration. For any particular style of management to be justi­ fied in its application to education, it must be consistent 4 with the achievement of the goals of the system. American educational goals include the provision of a quality edu­ cation for all. This concept is brought forth in recent Supreme Court decisions relating to school segregation which is viewed as a denial of equal opportunity for all to achieve a quality education. Thus, the study of the system of management with respect to the factors affecting the quality of education in a school system is indicated as a measure of organizational effectiveness. Characteristics of a Management Team In defining a functioning management team in terms of a set of behavioral characteristics three broad cate­ gories emerge. The categories will be useful in the further refinement of the instrument and may be of some diagnostic use. The individual characteristics are listed as items in an instrument, istics Survey the Administrative Character­ (ACS), designed to elicit responses from administrators that will indicate to what degree these characteristics are present in a school system. Quality of Education The quality of education is not an easy concept to define; there is not widespread agreement concerning the nature of the quality of education. However, several studies have systematically attempted to identify those factors which contribute to the quality of education. The 5 Educational Characteristics Criterion (E C C ) has been developed to measure the degree to which these factors exist in a school system as perceived by teachers, adminis­ trators, school board members, and others. The use of the Educational Characteristics Criterion will provide some basis or standard with which to better understand the factors relating to a management team that administrators perceive as being present in a school system. While the Educational Characteristics Criterion does not necessarily measure outcomes, it does measure attitudes and perceptions held by teachers about the factors affecting the quality of education (i.e., the input of a school system). A system of management should, to some extent, affect these p er ­ ceptions . Importance of the Study This study will add to the literature on the management team by trying to establish or deny the relation­ ship of a management team approach to factors affecting quality. The establishment of a link will provide the groundwork necessary to further refine the concept of management team and understand what factors in the school system may possibly be affected by this particular type of management. The failure to establish any relationship will be indicative of the possibility that the concept of management team should be discarded or redefined so that 6 there is a management organization in a school system that relates in practice to the goals of the organization. Assumptions and Limitations Assumptions 1. It is assumed that the administrator responses to the Administrative Characteristics Survey will actually represent their perceptions of the relationships existing in the school system. 2. It is assumed that the school system management team score on the Administrative Characteristics Survey will represent the actual administrative situation in the school system. 3. It is assumed that the Educational Ch ar ac t er ­ istics Criterion actually measures the factors which contribute to the quality of education. 4. it is assumed that teachers will respond to the Educational Characteristics Criterion with their honest perceptions of quality. 5. It is assumed that the school districts from the sample that agree to participate in the study are representative of the population of school districts in the state of Michigan exclusive of the school district of the city of Detroit. 7 birni tations 1. The research design of this study does not permit any causal relationships to be estab­ lished. The analysis of the data may yield answers to questions about relationships that may or may not exist. 2. This study is limited to a sample of school districts selected at random from the p opu­ lation of public school districts in the state of Michigan, excluding the school system of the city of Detroit. 3. The study is limited to the extent that the school systems from the sample that agree to participate are representative of the entire sample of Michigan school districts exclusive of the school district of the city of Detroit. Definition of Terms Participating School Districts will be those K-12 public school districts in Michigan, excluding the school district of the city of Detroit, that were selected in a random sample and that agreed to participate in this study. Educational Quality for the purposes of this study will be defined as those attributes of a school system measured by the Educational Characteristics Cr it er io n .^ ^Maurice D. Pelton, "A National Analysis of Edu­ cational Quality as Measured by the Educational 8 Management-Administration. The term management with respect to educational administration has come to be associated with the managing of the nonprofessional or business aspects of a school system. The term adminis­ tration has come to be associated with the managing of the professional aspects of a school system including leader­ ship fun ct io ns , supervisory functions, and personnel administration. For the purposes of this study the terms management and administration will broadly include all aspects of both definitions. The term management team will be synonymous with administrative team and in this context will refer to all the functions necessary to conduct the affairs of a school system both from the business and pro­ fessional aspect. Administrator is a certified employee of the school district who has administrative or supervisory responsi­ bilities in that school district. Teacher is a certified employee of the school district who has students assigned to him for purpose of instruction. 2 Characteristics Criterion (E C C ) , Achievement, and Selected Cost Factors" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1966), p. 9. 2Ibid. 9 Category Score on the ECC i s : . . . the sum of the weighted item responses of the ECC included in each of the following categories of edu­ cational quality: (1) student's level of knowledge and attitudes, (2) community attitudes, (3) curriculum, (4) use of facilities, (5) socio-cultural composition of the community, (6) administration and supervision, and (7) teacher and teaching m e t h o d s . 3 Total Quality Score is the item responses of a teacher to the sum of the weighted ECC. School System Quality Score is the average of all total quality scores on the ECC for that school system. Management Team Total Score is the sum of the weighted responses of an administrator to the A C S . School System Management Team Score is the average of all management team scores on the ACS for the entire school system. Size of a School System is the number of pupils in that school system as recorded on official membership records for the 1969-7 0 school year. Effort of a School System is the amount of total millage voted for operation of that school system for the 1969-70 school year. 3Ibid. 10 Wealth of a School System is the amount of state equalized valuation per pupil of that school system for the 1969-70 school year. Expenditures are defined as the dollar amount of money spent per pupil on the operation of the school system for the 1968-69 school year. 4 Management Team Category Score is the sum of the weighted item responses for the following categories of the A C S : (1) personal and organizational relat io ns hi ps , (2) effective group processes relating to shared decision­ making, and (3) effective group processes relating to unity and communication. Definition of Management Team For the purposes of this study a clear definition of a management team in school administration is necessary. Broadly conceived to include several concepts, the term, "management team," has come into use without a clear and concise definition. For example, Lester Anderson has discussed manage­ ment team in terms of organizational structure being de­ signed to keep communications open in the decision-making process; also, he feels there must be desire of all 4 1968-69 figures were used due to the unavailability of 1969-70 figures. 11 administrators to want a management team.^ Smith discusses the management team from the principal's point of view. He relates management team to decision-making but not necessarily to organizational structure. He develops the ideas of the responsibilities inherent for principals in shared-decision-making and administrators negotiating, although he feels that negotiations are a last resort that would force the issue of involvement.^ A third point of view is put forth by the Michigan Congress of School Administrator Associations w hich develops a management team concept in terms of extensive job d e ­ scriptions and involvement in the negotiations process.^ Still another point of view is expressed by Pino and Johnson as they discuss the administrative team in terms of a team assistant who will free principals from routine Q matters. Walker discusses the management team by stating ^Lester W. Anderson, "Management Team Concept," Michigan Journal of Secondary E d u c a t i o n , X (Spring, 1969), ^David C. Smith, "The Management Team" (position paper published by the Michigan Association of Elementary School Principals, East Lansing, August 13, 1968). 7 "Management Team Concept" (position statement published by the Michigan Congress of School Administrator Associations, March 21, 1968). Q Edward C. Pino and Wesley Johnson, "Administrative Team: A New Approach to Instructional Leadership," The Clearing H o u s e , XLII (May, 1968), 520. 12 that it will vary in every system, and thus there is no definition for team management. 9 Pinis, as does Smith, discusses team management in terms of involvement of principals. In reviewing the literature on the topic of a management team several common elements are apparent. These elements can be stated in terms of relationships among administrators. A management team, then, is the existence of a set of administrative relationships in a school system which may be present or absent independently of one another. A management team varies in degree— not in kind. There may be a greater or lesser degree of the existence of a management team in different school districts. set of relationships is broad, only some of them. understanding, The and this study identifies However, for the sake of clarity and the relationships that determine the existence of a management team are defined as those relationships that are stated in the Administrative Charac teristics S u r ve y. The specific administrative relationships of a management team are derived from the following basic 9 Robert W. Walker and Eugene C. Hammel, "Manage­ ment by Design Using the Team Approach," Michigan School Board J o u r n a l . XVI (February, 1969), 12-14. *®Fritz Pinis, "The Management Team Concept Myth or Reality," Michigan School Board J o u r n a l , XV (January, 1969), 7. 13 concepts. First, the leadership style of the superinten­ dent of schools must encourage involvement and cooperation on the part of the administrative staff so that personal relationships are established that promote effective group functioning. Investigation into the superintendent's leadership style relating to the degree a management team exists should lead to a more complete understanding of the dynamics of a management team. The literature from business management on m a n a ­ gerial style points out one type of leadership that can be very positive in developing a management team. Blake and Mouton describe five basic types of leadership styles. Each leadership style is characterized by its concern on two different axes of a grid. "concern for people"; duction." One axis is identified as the other axis is "concern for pro­ One managerial type they describe best typifies the leader most consistent with a management team. This leader successfully maximizes concern for production and concern for people at the same time. The leader would bring personal goals into congruence with organizational goals to the extent that individuals would identify with organizational goals. The leader would set limits broad enough to allow individuals freedom to operate successfully within them. This leader behavior is neither laissez-faire nor a u t o c r a t i c . ^ Grid Blake and M o u t o n 1s description of this ^ R o b e r t R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton, The Managerial (Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1964). 14 leadership style is similar to the concerns of Halpin and his two basic areas of initiating structure and consideration. 12 Getzels also provided some insight into the question of leadership in his discussion of idiographic and nomothetic dimensions. He states that conflict arises when the idiographic dimension is not compatible with the nomothetic dimension and people feel pulled in two direc­ tions.^ The leadership s t y l e , then, of the superintendent is important and must integrate the personal goals of people with the organizational goals if it is to promote positive human relationships and effective group processes. The second basic concept of a management team is that administrative, organizational, and personal relation­ ships are clearly defined and promote inclusion of all administrators in group processes. This idea refers to situations of respect and trust on the informal level and to discretion on the part of all administrators in their relationships with teachers. The organizational chart is important not for the sake of the organizational relation­ ships j.t proscribes but for the organizational relation­ ships it describes. The system that has an organizational pattern so that it promotes trust and respect among the 12 tration Andrew W. Halpin, Theory and Research in Adminis­ (New York: Macmillan Co., T96TTI 13 Jacob Getzels, "Administration as a Social Process," in Administrative Theory in E d u c a ti o n, ed. by Andrew Halpin (New York: Macmillan Company, I?67). 15 members of the administrative staff has one very important factor of a management team. A third concept of a management team is that the administrative staff must function as a highly effective work group either formally or informally with respect to shared decision-making. The team does not have to control the processes of decision-making and policy formation; must just have a part in them. it A team that controlled the decision-making process would in fact be going beyond participatory management to a system that would be dys­ functional. The existence of a high degree of team manage­ ment due to participation in decision-making does not pre­ clude the need for lines of authority, responsibility, and accountability. A fourth concept of a management team is that the administrative staff must function as a highly effective work group, either formally or informally with respect to unity and effective communication. The administrators must feel that they are a part of the team that manages the school system; they must not feel that the board of e du ­ cation and superintendent are acting unilaterally. To achieve this unity, communications must be free, fluid, and under no restraint. In some school systems there is virtually no communication on the administrative level except between superior and subordinate. Communication in a highly effective work group must include all members of the group as well as being regular and frank. 16 Hypotheses to be Tested General Hypothesis I A positive statistical relationship exists be­ tween characteristics of a management team and perceptions of factors affecting educational quality. Operational H l a : A positive significant corre­ lation exists between the total scores on the ACS and the total scores on the E C C . Operational H I b ; A positive significant corre­ lation exists between the total score on the ACS and each category score on the E C C . General Hypothesis II A positive statistical relationship exists be­ tween characteristics of a management team and perceptions of factors affecting educational quality, holding cost factors constant. Operational H l l a : A positive significant corre­ lation exists between ACS and ECC controlling for the effects of four cost factors. Operational H l l b : A positive significant relation­ ship exists between ACS and ECC controlling for the effect of the cost factor of number of pupils. 17 Operational H I I c : A positive significant relation­ ship exists between ACS and ECC controlling for the effect of the cost factor of state equalized valuation per pupil* Operational H l l d : A positive significant statisti­ cal relationship exists between ACS and ECC controlling for the effect of the cost factor of voted millage for o p e r ­ ation of schools. Operational H l l e ; A positive significant statisti­ cal relationship exists between ACS and ECC controlling for the effect of the cost factor of dollars spent per pupil. O rganization of the Rema i nder o£ the Thesis This chapter has developed the problem by stating objectives, developing the rationale, discussing the im­ portance of the study, and stating the assumptions and limitations that must be taken into account. In the definition of terms and statement of hypotheses a more specific attack on the problem was stated. Chapter II will review the literature pertinent to the problem from three aspects. The first section will deal with specific literature on the management team and school administration; the second section will deal with leadership and organizational styles from the literature outside of educational administration; will review the literature on the ECC. the third section 18 Chapter III will detail the method of operation for the study. Discussion on s a m p l e , statistical methods and design will be included, along with an analysis of the instruments* data. Chapter IV will present an analysis of the Chapter V will consist of summary, conclusions, and recommendations. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This chapter is divided into three sections. The first section deals with current literature concerning the management team and school administration. The second section is concerned with the literature of business manage­ ment and management of organizations. Studies from the private sector of society will be reviewed, along with pertinent studies from other disciplines. The concept of participatory management and group decision-making, along with the general areas of communications and group unity, will be discussed in this section. The third section re­ views the literature on the Educational Characteristics Criterion from the standpoint of the appropriateness of its use in this study. Related Literature in School Administration The Michigan Association of Elementary School Principals (MAESP) published a position paper in August, 1968, outlining its position on the management team. position basically calls for more involvement for ele­ mentary principals in the administration of the total 19 This 20 educational system; in a d d i t i o n , it points out that teachers are bargaining with the school board and that principals might be forced into a bargaining position. However, the paper recommends only informal bargaining procedures for administrators unless there is a complete refusal on the part of the superintendent and school board to involve principals to a greater extent in the determi­ nation of their professional destiny. The paper does not condone the strike; however, it encourages principals to have a part in the administration of the entire system. The position paper also puts forth the idea that if principals are to have this involvement, they must be willing to accept the responsibility that goes along with In 1968, the MAESP and the Michigan Association of Secondary School Principals (MASSP) jointly published a booklet which states their positions with respect to the management team. The MASSP position states that school boards should work to: 1. 2. Establish a clearly worded, written policy which defines the "career role" of the professional administrator with regard to his function, responsibility, potential as to salary and fringe benefits, his expectations for future advancement, and his personal role with relation to the "total management team.M Grant all administrators full recognition as management employees commensurate with other groups providing equal status in the educational structure. ^Smith, "The Management Team." 21 3. Include wit h i n the official Board policies a definition of the professional administrator's role with regard to negotiations between the Board and the teaching staff that clearly states: a) The full administrative management team should plan continuously with regard to all aspects of negotiations so that all members are con­ stantly informed, involved and consulted. b) The principals within the administrative group are fully represented on the actual n e g o t i a t ­ ing team during all bargaining. c) The total administrative group should be in­ volved with the interpretation of the completed document so as to be able to work with and implement the conditions of the Master Contract on the job. > d) The "management team a p p r o a c h ” also spells out the rights of principals that will include such rights, benefits and professional status as is enjoyed by his staff; the recognition as an integral part of the educational staff to negotiate at any time with the S u p e rinten­ dent and the Board of Education on the welfare of his own professional situation; and the right to expect the full support of both the Superintendent and the Board from pressure groups and unnecessary harassment w i t h in the regular scope of his w o r k .2 Accordingly, the MAESP position states: This concept requires that the principal recognize the broader responsibility of the superintendent in matters relating to the central office, school district wide needs, and matters relating to the total c o m ­ munity. It also demands that the expertise of the principal be recognized. It m ust be recognized that the principal is the expert generalist w h o speaks for the school. The role of the principal is to the school community much akin to the role of the superintendent as applied to the total school district. The m a n a gement team concept, in order to be m e a n ­ ingful, must be practiced more than it is preached. It requires that all members of the administrative team keep other members of the team informed on matters of mutual concern. Furthermore, the sharing 2 Guide Lines for Michigan Principals (pamphlet published by Michigan A ssociation of Elementary School Principals and Michigan Association of Secondary School Principals, July, 1968), p. 50. 22 of information should take place before decisions are made and must be implemented at each level by those in­ volved. In short, the management team concept requires a mutual respect among team members and a recognition that they are best equipped to act wit h i n their area of responsibility while acknowledging that a d m i n i s ­ trative decisions are implemented at more than one level within a school sys t e m . 3 As a result, the MAESP is on record as endorsing the management team. The following four points show the factors that they feel should be present in a m a n a gement team: 1. 2. 3. 4. There must be two-way channels of communication from principals and other administrators to the board of education for the purposes of developing procedures for coming to agreement in the d e t e r ­ mination of salary and wor k i n g conditions. The roles of each administrator must be written and contractural [s i c ] with a salary and benefits schedule commensurate with each level of r espo n s i ­ bility. Salary and benefits of principals must be substantially higher than that of teachers in order to reflect the responsibilities inherent in their positions. It is essential that elementary principals and other administrators be represented and actively involved with negotiating teams in the negotiations process. Local boards must provide inservice education and training for principals and all administrators to update and improve managerial knowledge and skills to meet the demands for more sophisticated p e r ­ formance on the part of administrators. It is essential that elementary principals be encouraged to attend the state and national meetings of their associ a t i o n . 4 The Congress of School A d m i nistrator Associations was formed as administrator associations disengaged from the Michigan Education A ssociation (M.E.A.) collective bargaining began in Michigan. 3I b i d . , p. 59. after formal The Congress has * I b i d . , p. 61 23 published a position paper of the management team concept which is very similar to the position paper on the two principals' associations. Accordingly, there is one state­ ment in the text of the paper which tends to state the basic belief of all the position papers so far published. It is a basic belief of the Michigan Congress of School Administrator Associations that administrators can become more effective through joint participation on local management t e a m s .5 Other publications and studies have treated the concept of a management team from an analytical viewpoint. For e x a m p l e , Anderson looks at the management team from four viewpoints: (1) the principals' of education's view, (4) the legal view. view, (2) the board (3) the superintendent's view, and A c c ording to this article, management team is dependent on all parties wanting an involvement in policy formation of all levels of the administrative staff. There is some evidence to suggest that possibly some administrators do not w a n t this type of functioning. Anderson also points out that the organizational structure must be designed to keep communications open in the decision-making process.® Based on Anderson's article, a study has emerged from the Metropolitan Detroit Bureau of School Studies, Inc. analyzing patterns of organizational structure. The 5 "Management T e a m Concept," p. 1. 6Anderson, "Management T e a m Concept," pp. 24-33. 24 questionnaire distributed in this study tries to determine the type of team organization that schools have. The study identified four basic management team patterns of school organizational structure: 1. 2. 3. 4. School districts where the superintendent meets with just one group that includes all the manage­ ment team members or their representatives were classified as employing "single** management team structure; School districts where the superintendent meets with a group that includes all the management team members or their representatives as well as a group that includes just central administrators were classified as employing "d u a l " management team patterns of school organizational structure; School districts where the superintendent meets with a group that includes all the management team members or their representatives and one or more other groups that include different segments of the management team members were classified as employing "m u l t i p l e " management team patterns of school organizational structure; and School districts where the superintendent does not meet with a group that includes all the management team members or their representatives, but meets with one or more groups that include different segments of the management team members were classified as employing "divisional" management team patterns of school organizational structure.^ Pino and Johnson, discussing management team from an organizational point of view, support organizational change to allow team management to develop. The key to the organizational design as they describe it would be a 7 Metropolitan Detroit Bureau of School Studies, "An Analysis of the Questionnaire, Patterns of School organizational Structure," Detroit, October, 1969, p. 2. (Mimeographed.) 25 team assistant concerned with internal administrative fu n c t i o n s .® Thus, one basic viewpoint about a management team seems to be firmly established— a management team is a function of organizational structure. However, in most other position papers, a management team has been viewed as a w o r k i n g relationship and not necessarily from the organizational structure point of view. This wor k ing relationship concept of the management team in educational administration is that a functioning team w o uld not n e ces­ sarily be an organizational function but rather a set of behavioral relationships among the members of the adminis­ trative staff. Fensch and Wilson develop this idea in terms of a "Superintendency Team" based on administrative g relationships and not organizational structure. Walker and Hammer follow this view by describing a team approach in terms of deriving goals and a c c o u n t a b i l i t y . ^ In Michigan there seems to be a need for some sort of administrative participatory decision-making in e d u ­ cation. A study by Appel points out that "Over half the Q Pino and Johnson, "Administrative Team: Approach to Instructional Leadership," p. 520. New g Edwin A. Fensch and Robert D. Wilson, The S u p e r ­ intendency T e a m (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill B o o k s , 1964). *°Walker and Hammel, "Management by Design Using the T e a m Approach," pp. 12-14. 26 superintendents assume sole responsibility for the p e r ­ formance of all the management f u n c t i o n s ^ Appel goes on to point out that in almost all school systems the superintendent continues to be a partial administrator in each of his buildings. Most superintendents do not have an organization that fosters participatory decision-making by those affected by the organization. clude that " . . . He goes on to con­ in all too many instances the system- wide decisions and courses of action taken are determined by a relatively small number of persons at the central office level." 12 This study shows that the larger the number of teachers employed in the school system the greater degree the superintendent shared and assigned management functions. 13 Openlander discusses the administrative structure in a middle-sized Michigan school district in terms of decentralization rather than a management team. Much of the rationale for decentralization is to diffuse managerial control to the degree that the decision-making process is closer to the point where decisions must be implemented. 14 ^ P a u l Henry Appel, "A Study of Selected Adminis­ trative Principles as They May Be Applied in Certain School Districts in the State of Michigan" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1962), p. 152. 12I b i d . , p. 153. 14 13I b i d ., p. 154. Stuart L. Openlander, "The Development of an Administrative Structure in a Middle Sized City School District" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968). 27 Bringing the decision-making process to the lower levels of the organizational structure is an attempt to accomplish the same result as participatory group decision-making con­ ceived in terms of a management team. One of the basic reasons for the emergence of the push toward the management team in Michigan has been the inconsistent perceptions of the role of principal. The development of a management team could be the agent to solidify and clarify these role perceptions so that less conflict arises. For example, in a study conducted by Maxwell in Flint, Michigan, principals and teachers did not have similar perceptions of the principals' behavior. leader Using the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire (OCDQ), Maxwell came to a conclusion that would support the type of leader behavior a principal would be encouraged to exhibit in a management team situation. In schools where the behavior of the principal and the teaching staff were indicative of a balanced blending of the task-needs dimension of organizational behavior, pupil achievement was h i g h e r . ^ Thus, it seems that the balance of two basic dimensions of an organi­ zation provides the most effective management. Getzels provides the theoretical framework in his model of the Robert Earl Maxwell, "Leader Behavior of Princi­ pals: A Study in Ten Inner-City Elementary Schools of Flint, Michigan" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1967). 28 two dimensions of an organization— the idiographic and the nomothetic. The successful integration of personal goals and organizational goals is what reduces conflict and allows the system to function.*® Egner and Lane point out a distinct need for in­ volvement of building principals in negotiations and decision-making. They state three changes that must come about to affect this involvement: 1. 2. 3. Administrators must accept the fact that the area of unilateral decision-making is over. The future role of the administrator will require a higher level of competence than in the past. There must be a complete reassessment of the roles of board of education, administrator, and teacher. This study indicates the advocacy for management teams in Michigan t o d a y . It is felt that the fusion of an administrative staff into a team will tend to orient the administration to a "management" position which operates a school system as a business and not as a professional organization. On the other hand, Dill proposes five goals of the decision­ making process which take into account the professional nature of an educational organization and, at the same time, proposes one of the basic factors of management team: pp. *®Getzels, 150-65. 17 "Administration as a Social Process," Joan Roos Egner and Kenneth Lane, "Collective Bargaining and Administrative Prerogatives," Peabody Journal of Education, XLVI (November, 1968), 142. 29 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Control g o a l : Insure that decisions do get made and that, for control purposes, there be someone to talk with when it comes time to evaluate deci­ sions or seek explanations for their results. Motivation ^ o a l : Bridge the gap that often exists between m a k i n g a n d implementing decisions by making them in ways that make people who will have to carry them out feel identified with their success­ ful implementation. Quality g o a l : Improve the quality of decisions by involving those who have most to contribute to the decisions. Training croal: Develop skills for handling problems In the men who will move eventually into administrative positions and test for the presence of these skills. Efficiency g o a l ; Get decisions made as quickly ^g and with as little waste of manpower as possible. Each of these goals is a reason for different degrees of participation in decision-making, but each is also an argu­ ment for participation. It is this participation that will take into account the professional nature of the edu­ cational enterprise. Involvement seems to be the key to the establish­ ment of a functioning team on the administrative level. Moody describes how a principal can be "caught in the middle" between the superintendent and the teachers. The role of the principal must change for the administration to function as a unit and maintain consistency in its operation. 19 Egnatoff, discussing principals in william R. Dill, "Decision-making," in Behavioral Science and Educational A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Part I I , e d . by Daniel E. Griffiths (Chicago: University of Chicago P r e s s , 1964), p. 216. ^ H a r o l d Moody, "Plight of the Principal," The Clearing H o u s e , XLII (May, 1968), 542. 30 Saskatchewan, recognizes this problem and concludes that a greater involvement for principals in the decisionmaking process of the school system is needed. 20 Taylor and McPherson basically recognize the same problem and recommend that the solution is to decentralize the communi­ cation and decision-making processes because the principal must assume the role of a junior superintendent. 21 The significance of this statement is the realization that the principal is not involved in these processes; thus, he cannot function effectively in his position. M o r p h e t , Johns, and Reller present the findings of Homans' work on groups as it affects educational adminis­ tration. Three hypotheses are the result of Homans' work and are applicable to group functioning in the educational setting; 1. 2. 3. If the frequency of interaction between two or more persons increases, the degree of their liking for one another will increase, and vice versa. If the interaction between the members of the group are frequent in the external system, senti­ ments of liking will grow up between them, and these sentiments will lead in turn to further interactions over and above the interactions of the external system. A decrease in the frequency of interaction between the members of a group and outsiders, accompanied by an increase in the strength of their negative 20 John G. Egnatoff, "The Changing Status of Saskatchewan's School Principals," Canadian Education and Research D i g e s t , VIII (December, 1968), 354-65. 21 Lloyd Taylor and Philip McPherson, "The Superin­ tendent and the Principal," The National Elementary Principal, XLVII (May, 1968), 80-84. 31 sentiments toward outsiders, will increase the frequency of interaction and the strength of positive sentiments among the members of a group, and vice v e r s a . 22 One factor originally pointed out by Homans is that H . . . underlying human relationships differ from group to group in degree rather than kind." 23 The significance of this conclusion is that the management team, a set of "human relationships," must vary in degree, or kind. A study of the degree of management team is warranted, zation. not in type rather than a study of the type of team o r g a n i ­ The study of a particular administrative style as it relates to a management team is justified in terms of the effect of the process of administration on the organization. In the development of a management team one of the important factors that should be influenced is the c o m m u n i ­ cations among administrators as well as communications with patrons and the general public. In a Michigan study, Smith comments on the type of communications behavior that was considered most effective. "Personal contacts were considered the most important type of communications 22 George C. Homans, The Human G r o u p , cited in Edgar L. M o r p h e t , R. L. Johns^ and Theodore L. Reller, Educational Administration: Concepts, Practices and Issues (Englewood cliffs, N . J . : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c ., 1959), p. 89. 32 contacts with citizens and staff members." McLuhan so deftly points out, 24 Thus, as involvement and face to face communications, or the medium, often is more important than the substance of the message. 25 The leader behavior of school superintendents has a great effect on the functioning of the school system. Dunn reports that school superintendents do act as in­ structional leaders in many cases as perceived by superintendents. 26 Cave states that the leader behavior of administrators contributes to the presence of conflict with teachers' unions. He further states that involvement in the critical areas must be established to reduce con­ flict. While superintendents perceive themselves as in­ structional leaders, it is the behavior of administrators that contributes to existing conflict; this conflict is precipitating the trend toward more involvement on the managerial levels to reduce conflict. Cave found that the major areas that contribute most to conflict include 24 Daniel Otho Smith, "A Study of Certain Communi­ cation Processes of Superintendents in the Nine Class A Public Schools in Michigan Education Association Region 10" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1965), p. 148. 25 Marshall McLuhan and Quentin Fiore, The Medium Is the Massage (New York: Bantam Books, 1967). 26 Bruce J. Dunn, "An Analysis and Identification of Instructional Leadership Acts as Performed and Perceived by the Superintendent of Schools" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964). 33 consideration, initiation of structure, demand reconciliation, duction emphasis. 27 integration, tolerance of freedom, and pro- Leader behavior that successfully copes with these factors will be described later in this chapter. Conclusion In conclusion, the essence of a management team can be stated as the group effectiveness of an a d m i n i s ­ trative staff that is based on clarity of administrative roles, shared decision-making, and effective communication leading to unity. The literature supports the conclusion that in­ volvement in decision-making is necessary in the management of school systems. There is, at present, confusion about the relationships among administrators; this confusion is involvement. the solution to The nature of these relationships is proposed in the several position state­ ments concerning the management team. The degree to which these aspects of "teamness" are present determines the degree of a management team existing in a school system. Related Literature Outside of Education John Kenneth Galbraith puts forth an interesting point of v i e w w hen he states that the top management group 27 Raymond David Cave, "A Critical Study of the Leader Behavior of School Administrators in Conflict with Teachers' Unions" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967). 34 is the single most effective group in a modern corporation. He visualizes the organization of a company as a series of concentric circles of interest. The closer to the center that a group is the more power it wields; the farther away from the center any group is determines the looseness of identification for that group. The closeness of a group to the center helps indicate to what degree the members of that group tend to make the organization's goals their own. Galbraith feels that this conceptual framework is far more accurate in describing actual organizational relationships than is the line staff chart. 28 The con­ clusions that can be drawn are that the management of an organization is the prime motivating force, and that the more the lower levels of management in the organization are involved in the central aspects of management the more they will identify with the goals of the organization. In discussing involvement, Mylander describes an executive committee functioning at the duPont Company. He points out that to give managerial decisions respect at lower levels in the organization, the executive committee, with experts from several fields serving on it, never lets a decision be made in ignorance. The executive group should have aspects of a superman— a balance of expertise op John Kenneth Galbraith, "Motivation and the Technostructure," Personnel Admin i s t r a t i o n , XXXI (November December, 1968), 4-10. 35 that will make the group as a whole an expert on every­ thing.29 In an attempt to see how such a group might work, McGregor analyzing group functioning, states: " . . . the research evidence indicates quite clearly that skillful and sensitive membership behavior is the real clue to effective group o p e r a t i o n ." 30 He goes on to list the characteristics of both effective groups and poor groups. The factors of effective and poor groups are listed re­ spectively : Characteristics of an Effective Group 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Atmosphere is relaxed, informal working atmosphere— no boredom. Virtually everyone participates in discussion --large amount of discussion which seldom wanders far from topic. Members understand and accept tasks of the group. Members listen to each other! No one is afraid to put forth ideas which have no merit. There will be disagreements. Decisions are reached by a kind of a consensus in which it is clear that everybody is in general agreement. No formal voting. A simple majority does not prevail. There is criticism. It is constructive and frank. People are free in their expressions and feel­ ings. Everyone knows how each other feels. No hidden agendas. When action is taken, clear assignments are made and accepted. There is no power struggle within the group. The chairman does not dominate. 29 William H. Mylander, "Management by Executive Committee," Harvard Business R e v i e w , XXXIII (May-June, 1955), 51-58. "^Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill Book C o m p a n y , Inc. , 1960) , p. 23*9. 36 11. The group discusses group processes. Characteristics of a Poor Group 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Group is not involved in its task. Boredom or indifference exists. A few people dominate the discussion. Dis­ cussion is usually way off the track. Different people often have different private and personal objectives which are contrary to the functioning purpose of the group. People don't listen to each other. Ideas are ignored. Discussion jumps. Some are afraid to speak out for fear of criticism. Disagreements are not dealt with effectively by the group. They may be suppressed or there may be warfare. Often a vote will be taken. There may be "tyranny of the minority." Action is taken prematurely. Minority often is not committed to decision. Action decisions are unclear. No one knows who is going to do what. The leadership rests with the committee chairman. He sits at the "head to the table." Criticism tends to be destructive. Ideas put forth are clobbered; thus, few are put forth. Personal feelings are hidden. Group maintenance is not discussed. McGregor discusses two basic theories of manage­ ment, theory "X" and theory on the "Y." Theory "X" is predicated assumption that work is distasteful, and control and direction must be the main concerns of the managers. Theory "Y" is based on the assumption that people want to work at jobs from which they can derive personal satis­ faction. Theory "Y" promotes the integration of organi­ zational and personal goals and is one of the underlying principles upon which the general concept of a management team is based. 32 3J~Ibid. , pp. 232-38. 32Ibid. , pp. 33-176, p a s s i m . 37 Very similar to the ideas of McGregor are the factors by Likert that exist when group decision-making is working properly: . . . discussion is focused on the decisions to be made. There is a m i n i m u m of idle talk. Communication is clear and adequately understood. Important issues are recognized and dealt with. The atmosphere is one of "no nonsense" w i t h emphasis on high productivity, high quality, and low costs. Decisions are reached promptly, clear-cut responsibilities are established, and tasks are performed rapidly and productively. Confidence and trust pervade all aspects of the relationship. The group's capacity for effective problem solving is maintained by examining and dealing with group processes w h e n n e c e s s a r y . ^ Likert goes on to discuss the linking function of one group to another, w i t h the leader of one group being a member in a higher group with his colleagues and superior. This group method of supervision can have many levels and follow a basic line staff chart. Furthermore, the m a n a g e ­ ment team in educational administration is the r e l a t i o n ­ ships of team members to the team leader w ith respect to authority, responsibility and accountability. Likert discusses the leader's relationships to the group: The group method of supervision holds the superior fully responsible for the quality of all decisions and for their implementation. He is responsible for building his subordinates into a group w h ich makes the best decisions and carries them out well. The superior is accountable for all decisions, for their execution" and for the r e s u l t s .^4 3 3Rensis Likert, The Human Organization McGraw-Hill Book C o . , 196TT^ pp. 50-51. 3 4 I b i d . , p. 51. (New York: 38 Likert supports the participative group style of management as opposed to others that he identified. He feels that it is hard to move toward a participative group style of management if the superior acts or continues to act in an authoritarian manner. He, also, states that the management system of an organization is a major factor in determining its productivity, and he supports the idea of the team approach to management as being more productive. 35 Effective work groups are called by many different names. The term "committee" has come to have a negative connotation. However, Koontz and O'Donnell have listed the reasons for the use of committees on the executive level. Their discussion of the uses of committees closely parallels much of what other authors speak of as group or team functioning. Their reasons for use of a committee are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group Deliberation and Judgment Fear of Authority Representation of Interested Groups Coordination of Plans and Policies Transmission of Information Consolidation of Authority Motivation Through Participation Avoidance of Action^® 35 York: Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management (New McGraw-Hill Book Co. , I n c . , 1 9 (51) , ch. i i i , p a s s i m . 36 Harold Koontz and Cyril O'Donnell, Principles of Management: A n Analysis of Managerial Functions (New York: McGraw-Hill Book C o . , I n c 7, 1968}, pp. 379-8 3. 39 Likewise, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. the disadvantages of committees are: High Cost in Time and Money Compromise at Least Common Denominator Indecision Tendency to be Self-Destructive Splitting of Responsibility Minority Tyranny^7 Koontz and O'Donnell in their discussion examine the plural executive as a top management committee. 38 However, their concept of this group is not consistent with the idea of a management team. A management team implies a single responsible executive with a team par­ ticipating in the management function; however, the plural executive implies a group as the chief executive with no single person responsible. Dale discusses the merits of committee action versus individual action in a company organizational structure. His conclusions are that committee action is superior in jurisdictional matters or disputes, and indi­ vidual action is superior in organization planning, execu­ tion, and decision-making. He feels that committee action and individual action are approximately equal in the areas of control, innovation, and advisory activities. Dale also lists four major requirements for successful committee operation: a) b) c) Diverse opinions should be integrated. The principles of group effectiveness should be more widely applicable. Committee mechanics should be perfected to the 37I b i d . , pp. 383-85. 38I b i d . , p. 385. 40 d) point where they serve, rather than impede the work of the committee, Only subjects which can be handled more effectively by groups than by individuals should be selected for committee discussion; the selection of subjects to be assigned to committees requires careful study.39 Golembiewski, however, discusses team management from a structural standpoint which he calls "the colleague model," a functional group or team with experts in the necessary areas. Reporting to this team is a series of teams each with a similar array of experts. The lower level team can function under guidelines set forth by the higher level team. ance, None of these teams will act in ignor­ for each will have experts from the necessary areas as their members. 40 The advantage of this type of organi­ zational pattern is that each group is self-sufficient to function independently of the others. Golembiewski points out several aspects of the colleague model. One aspect is that the colleague model tends to provide freedom from jurisdictional "hair-splitting." The disputes that have traditionally arisen over the overlapping of departments will be lessened because the basic unit of organization cuts across department lines and contains members from all departments. This type of organization is not new; it has 39 Ernest Dale, Planning and Developing the Company Organization Structure (New York: American Management Association, 1952), p. 167. 40 Robert T. Golembiewski, Organizing Men and P o w e r : Patterns of Behavior and Line-Staff Models (Chicago; Rand McNally and C o . , 1967) , ch. v. , p a s s i m . 41 been known as project management, program management, or matrix overlay. Thus, the experiences from these past management practices can be used. The colleague model allows functional leadership to evolve. Unity of command on technical matters is present for team members are experts from the necessary technical areas. Finally, effective team performance is the key to making the colleague model work. that " . . . Golembieswki stresses the point no team member should be at the mercy of his teaml" Schultz, discussing the necessary factors for effective group operation, points out that compatible groups will function more effectively than non-compatible groups and that the "focal person" will, to a large extent, determine how the group operates. 42 This finding is applicable to the management team concept of operation with respect to the leader behavior of the superintendent. Bridges discusses groups and their functioning from the aspect of "hierarchically differentiated" and "hierarchically undifferentiated" groups. The hierarchi­ cally differentiated groups, groups of peers, are more productive but less efficient in terms of time than the 41I bid. , p. 136. 42William C. Schultz, "What Makes Groups P r o ­ ductive?" Human Re l a t i o n s , VIII (November, 1955), 430-65. 42 hierarchically undifferentiated groups containing more than one level of an organization. 43 Gordon, discussing decision-making with respect to group functioning, states: . . . democratically led groups in which members were allowed to make decisions about their work activities were significantly different from more leader-centered groups in the following respects: a) the members were less aggressive toward each other, b) they showed less dependence on the leader, c) there was more group initiative to start new work, an<^ 44 d) more time was spent in production work. He points out several factors— feelings of personal in­ adequacy, fear of evaluation and rejection, reactions to authority, and ego centered participation— acting against effective group functioning. He also points out three barriers to communication— limited face to face contacts, devaluation of worth of other members, of an individual to defend his ideas. and the tendency 45 In discussing the team approach on the management level, the type of leadership necessary for the team to function hopefully will permeate the organization on all levels. Berelson substantiates this point when he states: 43 Edwin M. Bridges, Wayne F. Doyle, and David J. Mahan, "Effects of Hierarchical Differentiation of Group Productivity, Efficiency, and Risk-Taking," Administrative Science Q u a r t e r l y , XIII (September, 1968), 305- i $ . 44 Thomas Gordon, Group-Centered Leadership Houghton Mifflin Company, 1955), p. 63. ^ I b i d . , pp. 80-86. (Boston: 43 "The leader's style of leadership tends to be influenced by the style in which he himself is led."4** He also dis­ cusses the degree of centralization with respect to the identification of individuals with the goals of the organi­ zation. The more decentralized the organization with lower units autonomous yet visable to higher ones, the better the identification of the members with the organization is likely to b e . 47 Berelson, also, comments on communication flow in an organ­ ization: "The more rigidly or formally organized the hier- archy, the less the upward flow of informal communication." 48 Thus, he makes the case for an organizational structure, providing exemplary leadership, that is decentralized on its lower levels to provide better organizational identifi­ cation. Rapoport discusses the basics of game theory in terms of zero sum games and non-zero sum games. A zero sum game is one in which the sum of the outcomes is zero; if one person wins (+1), the other must lose the sum of the outcomes: (+1) + (-1) “ 0. (-1). Thus, The non-zero sum game is a situation that may exist where one person may win without the other person losing. The sum of the o u t ­ comes may vary and need not equal zero. Thus, it is AA Bernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner, Human Behavior: An Inventory of Scientific Findings (New York: H a r c o u r t , Brace and World, l^t>4) , p. 376. 47I b i d . , p. 369. 48Ibid. , p. 370. 44 possible in a non-zero sum game for both players to win, (+ 1) + (+ 1) =* 2, and the sum not equal zero. Several game types were discussed, but the "Prisoner's Dilemma" demonstrates group processes n e ces­ sary to maximize outcomes for all players. below a non-zero sum game, situation, In the diagram similar to a social or political is represented with payoffs for player one and player two shown respectively within each cell. [Non-Zero Sum Game] 49 Player Two's Choices C D 9,9 Player One's Choices B -10,10 -9,-9 10,-10 Player one must choose A or B while player two must choose C or D. For both to win each must trust the other and choose cell (A,C). However, if either wants to try for ten points rather than nine in cell other choice. However, receive ten points, (A,C), then he makes the if both become greedy and try to they both will lose, cell (B,D). The rules for maximizing outcomes are trust and no s e l l o u t s . 49 Anatol Rapoport, "Critiques of Game Theory," in Modern Systems Research for the Behavioral S c i e n t i s t , e d . by Walter Buckley (Chicago: Aldine Publishing C o . , 1968) , pp. 474-89. 45 This type of situation has direct application to group functioning. example, It is possible to maximize outcomes, if only one m a n is promoted. for The goal of g roup functioning is to operate in a non-zero sum game atmosphere and to successfully maximize outcomes. Pigors and Myers discuss the particular case of managing the "professional" in the organization. They feel that the "professional" needs m o r e participation in the affairs of the organization. As a number of research studies have shown, creative scientists and engineers tend to think in terms of career development, w ith the regard of their peers outside the organization often more important to them than internal managerial approval. They resent the requirements of conformity and desire more p a r t ic i­ pat io n in solving research and engineering problems as colleagues and not as subordinates. Indeed, these aspirations may be true of professionally trained people g e n e r a l l y . 50 Sampson, describing managerial functioning, states, "With increased specialization there is greater acceptance of group management as the only effective way to get the total job done." 51 He also states, "We can best see the importance of groups w hen we think about the fundamental individuality of man. vidualness; Groups are necessary to man's i ndi­ he achieves his individuality as part of a Paul Pigors and Charles Myers, Personnel A d m i n i s ­ tration: A Point of View and a Method (New York: McGrawHill Book Company, 1965), pi 15. 51 Robert C. Sampson, Managing the Managers: A Realistic Appr oa c h to Applying"the Behavioral Sciences {New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1 $ 6 5 } , pi 229. 46 g r ou p. " 52 Sampson goes on to discuss an "engineering management system" versus a "management behavioral system." He states, " . . . the measure of managing is the proper use of p o w e r . H e also points out that for proper management to exist the following changes must not occur: Human relations becomes paternalism. Motivating becomes manipulating. Communications becomes convincing. Counseling becomes appraising. Coaching becomes telling. Leadership becomes bossing. Cooperation becomes conformity. 54 Loyalty becomes personal devotion. Tannenbaum puts forth the idea that participation results in greater productivity with little or no loss of power or influence by management. He feels that partici­ patory management is appropriate to management's function in an organization. "Paradoxically, through participation management increases its control giving up some of its authority." ^ The idea of the managerial grid Blake and Mouton. is developed by On this two dimensional grid two aspects of management are represented, concern for people and c o n ­ cern for production. Five managerial styles are described 52I b id ., p. 215. 53I b i d . , p. 10. 54I b i d. , p. 4. 55 Arnold S. Tannenbaum, Social Psychology of the Work Organization (Belmont, C a l i f . : Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc. , T566) , p. 99. 47 depending on the position on the grid with respect to the Cg two variables. The following is a representation of a grid and the positions: The Managerial G r id ^7 Concern for People (9,9) (1,9) 9 (5,5) 5 1 (9,1) (1,1) 1 5 9 Concern for Production There are five polar positions. sents the hard boiled autocrat; is important, (1,9) The (9,1) position r e p re ­ he feels that production and he has little concern for people. The manager feels that the organization must run smoothly at any cost; people must be happy. Thus, the (1,9) little concern for the goals of the organization. has The (1,1) type manager does just enough to keep from getting fired. The promiser.*' (5,5) type manager is called "the great c o m ­ He tries to manipulate both concerns, duction and people, The Grid pro­ by using compromise to solve conflicts. (9,9) manager type is described as a democratic leader; 5**Robert R* Blake and Jane S. Mouton, The Managerial (Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1964), p. 8. 57I b i d . , p. 10. 48 this leadership style will promote the effective function­ ing of a management team. the two concerns; (9,9) However f he does not compromise he integrates them. Blake describes the managerial type in terms of behavior with respect to six elements: Element A Decisions . . . I place a high value on getting sound creative decisions that result in under­ standing and agreement. Element B Convictions . . . I listen for and seek out ide as , o p i n i o n s , and attitudes different from my own. I have clear convictions but respond to sound ideas by changing my mind. Element C Conflict . . . When conflict arises, I try to identify reasons for it and to resolve underlying causes. Element D Emotions (T e m p e r ) . . . When aroused, I contain myself, though my impatience is visible. Element E Humor . . . My humor fits the situation and gives perspective; I retain a sense of humor even under pressure. Element F Effort . . . I exert vigorous effort and others join in.58 He goes on to describe the other managerial positions in these terms. The main conclusion that can be drawn is that the managerial type that is necessary to exert leader­ ship for a management team must be a positive dynamic type of leadership that seeks to successfully integrate compromise) (not the goals of people with the goals of the organization. Blake and Mouton develop the methods and procedures for working with a group of executives in an attempt to develop (9,9) type leaders. 59 Blake, Avis and Mouton 58Ibid. , pp. 3-4. 59 Blake and Mouton, Corporate Excellence Through Grid Organization Development. 49 describe a dynamic corporation organization along with methods and procedures for a corporation to evolve.6 ® This text provides a model for present and future organizational structure, and the concepts discussed are very relevant to educational administration. Halpin discusses open and closed climates in relationship to organizational variables and leader be­ havior. His Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire (L B D Q ) measures the degree to which each of two aspects of leader behavior, initiating structure and consideration, is reported as being present in the leadership of a particular administrator.61 These two aspects are quite similar to the two concerns of Blake and Mouton. Getzels also has developed two basic dimensions of organizational function­ ing that he calls the nomothetic and the idiographic. These two dimensions are basically the same as those stated . 62 above. Mullen has conducted a case study of three managers in an insurance company, each having a different personality type. The analysis of their functioning provides an insight 60 Robert R. Blake, Warren E. Avis, and Jane S. M o u t o n , Corporate Darwinism: An Evolutionary Perspective on Orga n iz ing Work in the Dynamic Corporation {Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1966). 61Halpin, Theory and Research in A dm in is tr at i on . 62 Getzels, p. 152. "Administration as a Social Process," 50 into how the laissez-faire and authoritarian personalities react in managerial positions wi t h respect to their superiors and their subordinates. 63 Executive Evaluation in the Corporation discusses an "excellently-managed" com­ pany from the standpoint of interaction on executive levels. One significant factor that comes to light, and that is not widely practiced in educational administration, is the emphasis on the training of a successor by the executive himself. In discussing media, McLuhan demonstrates that involvement is the key to effective communications. are extensions of ourselves; Media thus, we must be truly in- volved with the process to understand it. ideas have current application, 65 McLuhan's for he points out that the world of electric circuitry is involving us all in the affairs of the world. times; 66 Involvement is the temper of the we arc all becoming involved, and we all expect to be involved. 63 Management James H. Mullen, Personality and Productivity in (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966). ^ A m e r i c a n Institute of Management Incorporated, Executive Evaluation in the Corporation (New York; A merican Institute oi Management Incorporated, T 9 5 9 ) . ®^Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, T O T H ----------------- ^McLuhan, The M e di u m Is the M a s s a g e . 51 Possibly Barnard has supplied the basic definition of what the group process develops. "A group is evidently a number of persons plus some interrelationships or interactions to be determined.” 67 The system of interactions is what must be considered the advantage of the effective work group. Conclusion Involvement is the key to effective group function­ ing on the managerial level. Reeves offers three propo­ sitions that relate to staffing and directly speak to the topics discussed in this section. A. D. F. The effectiveness of personnel management tends to be related directly to the extent to which p r o ­ vision is made for employee participation in both planning and management activities within the employees' sphere of endeavor. . . . The effectiveness of personnel management tends to be related directly to the extent to which the promotion of the best qualified persons are made without decreasing the morale of the others. . . . The effectiveness of personnel management tends to be related directly to opportunities provided for personnel to internalize and identify their personal goals with those of the organization. Thus, proposition "A” relates directly to participatory management; proposition "D” relates to the discussion on 67 Chester I. Barnard, The Functions of the Execu­ tive (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1 9 3 & ) , p~. §9. 68 Floyd Reeves, "Selected Principles for Consider­ ation as Principles Relating to Staffing,” East Lansing, April 3, 1967. (Mimeographed.) 52 game theory; and, proposition "F" is related to the theo­ retical positions of Getzels, Halpin, and Blake. Related Literature Concerning the Educational Characteristics Criterion The Educational Characteristics Criterion (E C C ) has been developed as a measure of factors contributing to the quality of education. However, the quality of education, or the quality of the educational system, concept to define. is a difficult If quality of education is defined as the level of achievement of students as they progress through the system, then an achievement test would be the appropriate measure of quality. However, a definition of quality of education cannot be stated in such narrow terms if education is to consist of anything but the achievement of the basic academic skills. rapidly as ours, In a society changing as so narrow a definition cannot be accepted. Kraft states a concept of quality that is the basis of the formulation of the E C C : "The concept of quality is a relative one which exists more in the mind of an individual than it does in a particular program." 69 Thus, the idea of quality being measured by attitudes toward edu­ cation and the educational characteristics of a school system is established. 69 Leonard Kraft, "The Perceptions Held by P ro ­ fessors of Education, Professors in Areas Other Than Edu­ cation and School Board Members on Ninety Factors Which May or May Not Affect the Quality of an Educational P r o­ gram" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan State Uni­ versity, 1962), p. 3. 53 Berg develops this idea into a rationale for the form and substance of the E C C . Educational quality m a y be defined as those educational characteristics of a school district, both school and community, which are perceived by educational aut ho r i­ ties as being effective in accomplishing the purposes of American public school education. Quality is p e r ­ ceived differently by each individual because of goals, values, and experiences. Because of the lack of commonality in the effect of these influential factors o n individual perception, there is difficulty in establishing a generally acceptable definition of e d u ­ cational quality among educators and laymen. For the purposes of this study the educational characteristics of school districts that are used as a definit io n of quality are those for whi ch there have been established a significantly high agreement among specialists in educational programs. It is assumed that certificated personnel may perceive accurately the educational characteristics of their school district. Agreement regarding educational quality is expected from certifi­ cated school personnel who have a generally similar frame of reference in terms of training and professional expectations.?0 Thus, a survey of the certificated personnel of a school district concerning the characteristics of both school and community is established as a basis for estimating the quality of a school district. Particular items on such a survey to determine factors affecting quality have been established and re­ searched along with related cost-factors in five different studies. Kraft started with ninety items, 70 identified by Arthur D. Berg, "The Determination of the Dis­ crimination and Reliability Indices of the Educational Characteristics Criterion with Implications Concerning Educational Cost-Quality Relationships" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1962), pp. 4-5. 54 Rudman, 71 thought to be related to quality and attempted to achieve agreement among professors and school board members. 72 Berg reduced the list of items, based on Kraft's findings, to fifty-six and determined the discrimination and reliability indices in a Michigan study. He, also, estab­ lished the basic cost-quality relationships for the in73 strument now called the E C C . Mueller, in a national study, compared responses to the ECC from teachers and administrators with respect to the same identified cost factors. He found that there was substantial disagreement in teacher perceptions and administrator perceptions. He suggests that possibly the higher administrator perceptions of quality are due to the higher degree of identification with organizational goals of the administrator. extent of projection of 'self' "The into the rating of school district quality eouJd affect the objectivity of the perceptions." 74 It seems reasonable to achieve a more 71 Herbert C. Rudman, author of the E C C , developed the original items for the instrument and directed the re­ search in its development. 72 Kraft, "The Perceptions Held by Professors of Education, Professors in Areas Other than Education, and School Board Members on Ninety Factors which May or May Not Affect the Quality of an Educational Program," p. 4 . 73 Berg, "The Determination of the Discrimination and the Reliability Indices of the Educational Character­ istics Criterion with Implications Concerning Educational Cost-Quality Relationships," p. 1. 74VanDyck Mueller, "A Study of the Relationships Between Teacher-Administrator Perceptions of Educational 55 accurate measure of factors affecting school system quality by considering only the perceptions of teachers. Springer, using a fifty-five item E C C , in a Michigan study, attempted to predict school achievement as measured by the Stanford Achievement Test from scores on the E C C . Springer found high agreement between teacher and administrator responses to the E C C . His study reports a positive, but not significant, correlation between the ECC and school achievement. He states that administrators' scores are better predictors of achievement than are teachers' scores. 75 Pelton in a national study, Michigan study, similar to Springer's found that "There is a positive relation­ ship between administrator and teacher perceptions of characteristics of quality education as measured by the Educational Characteristics Criterion (E C C ). **76 He further concludes that "The evidence that has been accumulated in Quality as Measured by the Educational Characteristics Criterion (E C C ) and Selected Cost Factors" (unpublished E d .D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964), p. 183. 75 Owen Springer, "A Study of the Relationships Be ­ tween the Educational Characteristics Criterion (E C C ) , the Stanford Achievement T e s t , and Selected Cost Factors" (un­ published Ed. D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1964), pp. 102-07. 76 Pelton, "A National Analysis of Educational Quality as Measured by the Educational Characteristics C r i t er io n, E C C , Achievement, and Selected Cost Factors," p~. 56. 56 the present study and earlier ones seem to justify the con­ clusion that, in general, teachers and administrators do perceive the characteristics of quality education in the same way." 77 Pelton states that no judgment can be made at this time concerning the relationship between cost factors and the ECC scores. 78 Conclusion The ECC seems to be a reliable and valid instrument to administer to the teachers of a school system for the purpose of determining the degree to which certain factors thought to affect the quality of education are present. Also, there seems to be evidence to suggest that cost factors should be taken into account when using the E C C . 77I b i d . , p. 97 78I b i d . , p. 99. CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationships between perceptions of characteristics identified with a management team, measured by the Adminis­ trative Characteristics Survey (A C S ) , and perceptions of factors affecting quality as measured by the Educational Characteristics Criterion (E C C ). Instrumentation Administrative Characteristics Survey (ACS) In the development of the Administrative Charac­ teristics Survey a review of the literature led to the determination of three basic concepts identified with a management team. As a result, fifteen items were selected as factors for each concept of a management team. This procedure resulted in forty-five items being included in a preliminary instrument called the Management Team Charac­ teristics Survey (M T C S ) . In a pilot study, the MTCS was administered to nine professors of educational adminis­ tration and one professor of sociology to determine the 58 degree that the forty-five items were related to a m a n ag e­ ment team in a public school system. The overall response to the MTCS indicated that the instrument as a whole was "somewhat related" to a management team in a school system. The range of possible responses on the MTCS was "highly related," related." "somewhat related," "slightly related," and "not The respective weights of the responses were four, three, two, and one. Table 1 reports the mean re­ sponses of professors to the MTCS items. had means below 3.00. Thirteen items All items, according to this survey, achieved a rating of "slightly related" or better. There was space on the questionnaire for the professors to add any suggestions for consideration as items; however, none were suggested. The items are designed to relate to one of three categories, and each category represents one basic concept. These categories with respective items are listed below: I. Personal and Organizational Relationships 3. There is mutual respect among all administrators. 4. An attitude is present that each administrator is best equipped to function in his own area. 6. Responsibility of all administrators is clearly defined. 8. The school board provides extensive inservice education concerned with administrative relationships. 59 TABLE 1.— Mean responses to MTCS by item. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Tf(MB Item Item Mean All administrators keep each other informed on matters of mutual concern. 3.7 0 Information is available to administrators before decisions are made. 3.78 There is mutual respect among all adminis­ trators. 3.50 An attitude is present that each adminis­ trator is best equipped to function in his own area. 3.00 Knowledge that administrative decisions are implemented at more than one level in a school system is present in all administrators. 3.40 Responsibility of all administrators is clearly defined. 3.40 All administrators are represented or actively involved with the management negotiating team in the negotiations process. 3.33 The school board provides extensive in-service education concerned with administrative relationships. 3.00 The administrative staff meets frequently. 3.50 There is recognition of the status of administrators by their superiors. 2.50 The administrative staff in no way infringes on any administrator's right to make decisions necessary to perform his job as defined in his job description. 2.7 0 There is a unity of command in the school system. 3.33 At administrative staff meetings discussion is focused on decisions to be made. 3.78 60 TABLE 1. — Continued. t, _ Item 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Item Mean The superintendent accepts individual responsibility for all group decisions that are made as well as for their implementation, 2.88 Group processes are discussed when necessary at administrative staff meetings. 3.22 Communication among administrators is broadly conceived to include discussion and persuasion as well as occasional edict. 3.55 Leadership is conceived of as shared decision making as opposed to "one-way management." 3.22 The superintendent encourages autonomous action on the part of principals with respect to individual schools. 3.00 There is a willingness to change when a need is perceived as opposed to a demand for change for the sake of similarity. 3.33 All administrative staff members are involved in policy decisions concerning administration of the budget. 3.33 Loyalty is based on the perceived goals of the entire school system rather than to some individual or group. 3.55 The school board encourages shared decision making among all members of the adminis­ trative staff. 3.22 Communication among administrative staff members is clear and understood. 3.78 Each administrative staff member has a clear overall view of the entire educational program. 3.11 All administrators are consulted w hen possible before major decisions are made on a systemwide basis. 3.80 61 TABLE 1.— Continued. t • » - Item 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 3 5. 36. 37. Item M ea n Administrators in the system do not tend to form cliques. 3.00 All administrators in the system have specific job descriptions. 3.00 There are clearly defined lines of accountability. 3.30 All administrators are involved in d e t e r ­ mining their own salary and working conditions. 2.60 All administrators are involved in d e t e r ­ mining their own job description. 3.30 Members of the administrative staff never make decisions or participate in activities that overlap on another administrator's area of responsibility. 2.20 Few if any decisions are made in the school system that must be modified after they are implemented to fit particular circumstances. 2.00 The school board provides extensive inservice education for all administrators con­ cerning collective bargaining. 1.90 All administrative staff members are welcome at school board meetings. 2.90 There is a high probability that any administrator who possesses the requisite skills and so desires can become a member of the school board's bargaining team. 2.3 0 Ad mi nistrative staff meetings are never dominated by one person's ideas or by one person's talking. ^ 3.11 At administrative staff meetings anyone m ay disagree w ith the superintendent without fear of retribution. 3.67 62 TABLE 1.— Cont i n u e d . Item 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. Item Mean All administrators can justify to the public decisions with which they personally d i s ­ agree. 2.67 There is a strong feeling in all adminis­ trators to support policies or decisions that they must implement and whi ch were m a de over their objections. 3.44 The school board supports the idea that all administrators are managers and not teachers. 2.67 All administrators feel that they represent the management to the teachers. 2.78 All administrators are treated impartially by other administrators. 2.33 All administrators are included in some level of administrative staff meetings. 3.55 All administrators subordinate to the superin­ tendent take the responsibility for the d e c i ­ sions that they make. 3. 33 There is respect for personal qualities of administrators by their superiors. 3. 22 63 10. There is recognition of the status of adminis­ trators by their superiors. 11. The administrative staff in no way infringes on any administrator *s right to make decisions necessary to perform his job description. 18. The superintendent encourages autonomous action on the part of principals with respect to i n d i ­ vidual schools. 21. Loyalty is based on the perceived goals of the entire school system rather than to some indi­ vidual or group. 26. Administrators in the system do not tend to form cliques. 27. All administrators in the system have specific job descriptions. 28. There are clearly defined lines of accountab i Ii ty . 37. At administrative staff meetings anyone may disagree with the superintendent without fear of retribution. 42. All administrators are treated impartially by other administrators. 44. All administrators subordinate to the superin­ tendent take the responsibility for the decisions that they make. 45. There is respect for personal qualities of administrators by their superiors. 64 II. Effective Group Processes Relating to Shared Decision-Making 7. All administrators are represented or actively involved with the management negotiating team in the negotiations process. 9. 13. The administrative staff meets frequently. At administrative staff meetings discussion is focused on decisions to be made. 14. The superintendent accepts individual responsi­ bility for all group decisions that are made as well as for their implementation. 15. Group processes are discussed when necessary at administrative staff meetings. 17. Leadership is conceived of as shared decision­ making as opposed to "one-way" management. 19. There is a willingness to change when a need is perceived as opposed to a demand for change for the sake of similarity. 20. All administrative staff members are involved in policy decisions concerning administration of the budget. 22. The school board encourages shared decision making among all members of the administrative s taff. 25. All administrators are consulted when possible before major decisions are made on a systemwide basis. 65 29. All administrators are involved in determining their own salary and working conditions. 30. All administrators are involved in determining their own job description. 31. Members of the administrative staff never make decisions or participate in activities that overlap on another administrator's area of responsibility. 36. Administrative staff meetings are never d o m i ­ nated by one person's ideas or by one person's talking. 43. All administrators are included in some level of administrative staff meetings. III. Effective Group Processes Relating to Unity and Communication 1. All administrators keep each other informed on matters of mutual concern. 2. Information is available to administrators before decisions are made. 5. Knowledge that administrative decisions are implemented at more than one level in a school system is present in all administrators. 12. There is a unity of command in the school system. 16. Communication among administrators is broadly conceived to include discussion and persuasion as well as occasional edict. 66 23. Communication among administrative staff members is clear and understood. 24. Each administrative staff member has a clear overall view of the entire educational program. 32. Few if any decisions are made in the school system that m u st be modified after they are implemented to fit particular circumstances. 33. The school board provides extensive in-service education for all administrators concerning collective bargaining. 34. All administrative staff members are welcome at school board meetings. 35. There is a high probability that any admi ni s­ trator who possesses the requisite skills and so desires can become a member of the school board's bargaining team. 38. All administrators can justify to the public decisions w it h which they personally disagree. 39. There is a strong feeling in all administrators to support policies or decisions that they must implement and w hich were made over their objections. 40. The school board supports the idea that all administrators are managers and not teachers. 41. All administrators feel that they represent the management to the teachers. 67 Table 2 reports the category breakdown of the m ean item responses. Note that each category and the total all exceed a m ea n score of 3.00. TABLE 2.— Mean responses to MTCS by category. Category 1 Category 2 Relation­ ships Shared DecisionMaking X 3. 23 3.10 Category 3 Unity and Communication Total 3.12 3. 02 A slight discrepancy may be apparent due to the fact that some respondents did not respond to every item. Calcu­ lations were based o n mean item responses. A one-way analysis of variance was performed to d e termine if any of the three categories were felt to be significantly less related to a management team than the others. The null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the mean item scores of the three categories of the MTCS was tested (Table 3). An "F" statistic of .67 was not large enough to reject the null hypothesis at the .01 or .05 level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted; there is no significant difference in the me a n item scores of the three categories. Due to the fact that there was no significant difference in the perception of the three categories as they related to a management team, the items 68 and categories were retained with only minor changes in wording to improve clarity. TABLE 3.— Analysis of variance for MTCS by category score.a Sources of Variation Sums of Squares Degrees of Freedom Between Mean Squares F 2 .32 .16 .67 Within 42 9. 93 .24 « • Total 44 10. 25 « ■ ♦ • a H0: *1 “ *2 oi * .01 a ■ .05 X3 HA: X 1 r> x 2 * x 3 If HO is false then F >_ 5.18 If HO is false then F >_ 3.23 This evidence seems to suggest that the categories are measuring' the same basic concept, the existence of characteristics of a management team. H o w e v e r , the items are designed to measure what is theorized as three separate aspects of a management team. Thus, the categories were retained until m or e evidence concerning the actual administration could be obtained. The forty-five items, put into a separate form, constitute the Administrative C h a r a c ­ teristics Survey (A C S ) . The Administrative Characteristics Survey was administered to 27 9 school administrators in Michigan during the course of the study. A s a result, were analyzed to de termine reliability. these d ata A reliability coefficient was computed from an analysis of v ariance with 69 school systems as one variable and items on the ACS as the other variable. The formula for the reliability coefficient is: mean square school systems mean square school systems In the case of ACS ”r M * .96. The standard error is computed by the formula: Se (STD. error) Se = . 87. Thus, the ACS has a high reliability coefficient based on this administration of the instrument. The data were also analyzed using the Computer Institute for Social Science Research (CISSR) sis program on the control data 6500 computer. factor a naly­ The CISSR IDCORR p rogram on the control data 3600 computer was used in order to construct a correlation matr ix which took into account missing data. This correlation matrix was then used as input for the CISSR factor analysis program. (Factor AA) Results of the factor analysis show that the ACS is basically unidimensional; one attribute. the ACS is basically m ea suring There seemed to be no pattern of relation­ ships that identified subtests. 70 Conclusion on Reliability and Structure of ACS The ACS appears to be measuring one basic concept reliably. The items derived from the literature were selected to pertain to a management team. The analysis of the pilot project to determine if professors also identi­ fied these items with a management team seemed to support the conclusion. unidimensional, The ACS has high reliability, .96, is and is most likely valid. Educational Characteristics Criterion (ECC) The ECC was developed by Dr. Herbert C. Rudman as an instrument to measure the characteristics which affect the quality of education either directly or indirectly. The factors identified by Rudman were further refined by Kraft taking into account the perceptions of professors and school board members to determine their validity as items.'1' Several other studies developed the instrument now called the E C C . Berg determined the reliability and discrimination indices for the E C C . He found the relia- bility of the ECC when administered to teachers to be .89. 2 ^Kraft, ’‘The Perceptions Held by Professors of Edu­ cation, Professors in Areas Other than Education, and School Board Members on Ninety Factors Which May or May Not Affect the Quality of an Educational Program." 2 Berg, "The Determination of the Discrimination and Reliability Indices of the Educational Characteristics Criterion with Implications Concerning Educational CostQuality Relationships," p. 174. 71 The ECC has fifty-five items distributed in seven categories. I. The items by category are: Student's Level of Knowledge and Attitudes 8. Students show a positive attitude toward scholastic work. 9. Students evidence accurate knowledge of self. 16. Students are knowledgeable about the educational and social opportunities available to them. 51. Pupils consider an academic grade of at least "B" to be the norm for academic achievement. 52. The professional staff of the schools in the community consider an academic grade of at least "B" to be the norm for academic achievement. 54. Parents and patrons in the community consider an academic grade of at least "B" to be the norm for academic achievement. 11. Community Attitudes 21. Parents and patrons (those residents of a school district without school-age children) are highly knowledgeable about education. 27. Citizens are highly organized to discuss school problems. 28. The perceptions of parents and patrons concern­ ing the purposes of education are consistent and clear. 29. The local newspaper has shown a high interest in local school affairs. 72 30. There is no lag between the values taught in the school and what is practiced in the com­ munity . 36. A high percentage of the electorate in the community vote in school elections. 37. There are outstanding community leaders in this community who exhibit great interest in school affa ir s. 39. The community exhibits a great concern for the development of aesthetic and artistic interests. 40. A two-way communication channel readily exists between the home and the school. 45. The parents in this community expect their children to perform their share of family chores. 53. A high value is placed on education by the parents and patrons (those residents of a school district without school-age children) of the community. 55. Parents condone or encourage early dating for their children. III. Curriculum 4. Teachers perceive a coherent and coordinated structure to the educational program. 5. Concensus exists among the staff concerning the goals of the educational program. 73 6. A structure has been developed that permits continual curriculum improvement. 15. A great variety of instructional materials are presently used in the classrooms. 17. A complete comprehensive testing program in­ cluding intelligence and achievement testing is available in the schools. IV. Use of Facilities 32. The physical facilities of the school system (buildings and equipment) are completely adequate. V. Socio-cultural Composition of the Community 25. The social status of teachers is very high in this community. 34. Cultural experiences are readily available in the community. 38. This is a highly stable community which does not have too many people leaving. 41. A high percentage of high school students own personal cars. 42. A high percentage of homes own television sets. 44. A high degree of ethnic, racial, and religious homogeneity exists among the local population. 46. This community is composed of people who are predominantly Protestant. 47. The community is composed of people who are predominantly Catholic. 74 48. This community is composed of people who are predominantly Jewish. 49. The population of this community is equally divided between Protestants and Catholics. 50. One or two ethnic groups comprise the largest number of residents in the community. VI. Administration and Supervision 10. Professional staff of the school system are involved in in-service education. 22. Lay members of the community are highly i n ­ volved in the planning of educational goals with the school staff. 23. Regulations governing student conduct are highly explicit and detailed. 26. Regulations governing personnel policies are highly explicit and detailed. 35. Teachers' judgments are almost always used in the determination of educational policies. VII. Teacher and Teaching Methods 1. Teachers have intimate knowledge of children. 2. Teaching practices reflect concern for indi­ vidual differences. 3. Teaching practices reflect a knowledge of indi­ vidual differences. 7. Evidence exists of instructional and/or c u r r i c u ­ lar experimentation. 75 11. Teachers thoroughly understand the information gathered on students and use this information to make sound educational decisions. 12. All teachers are certified to teach at the grade level or subject they are now teaching. 13. Teachers have complete freedom to teach what they consider to be important. 14 . A great variety of instructional techniques are presently used in the classrooms. 18. Teachers often avail themselves of professional help. 19. Complete freedom is granted to students to investigate any local, state, national, or international issue. 20 . Availability to students of materials that reflect all shades of political and sociological points of view. 24 . High degree of teacher participation in social and political activities of the community. 31. There exists a high level of cooperation among the teachers of the staff. 33. The community and its residents are used for instructional purposes. 43. A great deal of homework is assigned to stu­ dents. 76 In the course of this study the ECC was adminis­ tered to 1,630 teachers in Michigan. analyzed to determine reliability. These data were then A reliability c o ­ efficient was computed from an analysis of variance with school systems as one variable and items on the ECC as the other variable. The formula for the reliability coefficient is: _ mean square I mean square interaction [school systems mean square school systems In the case of the ECC " r '* = .96. The standard error is computed by the formula: Se (STD* Error, . /I=F Se ** .37. Thus, the ECC with a reliability coefficient of .96 has a high reliability based on this administration of the in­ strument . The data were also analyzed using the CISSR factor analysis program on the control data 6500 computer. First, the raw data were submitted to the CISSR IDCORR program on the control data 3600 computer. This program produced a correlation matrix for the items on the ECC taking into account missing data. This correlation matrix was the input for the CISSR factor analysis (Factor AA) program. 77 The factor analysis of the ECC showed one basic factor was being measured, and several subordinate factors were also being measured. The results of the factor analy­ sis confirmed the high reliability of the E C C . No con­ clusions about subtests could be drawn from this factor analysis. Conclusions on Reliability and Structure of ECC The reliability of the E C C , .96, based on this administration of the instrument, confirms the finding of Berg that the reliability of the ECC is high based on teacher responses. Berg reported a reliability coefficient of .89.3 The factor analysis generally confirms the high reliability of the ECC although only general trends are evident. The ECC is a highly reliable and stable instru­ ment measuring one general factor. Procedures Sample The experimental unit for this study is the school system. The population was defined as all K-12 public school systems in Michigan excluding the school system of the city of Detroit. From the Department of Education, a list of 527 K-12 school districts was obtained and the 3 Ibid. 78 systems were numbered. A point was randomly picked in the table of random numbers. Proceeding down that column and up the next, three digit numerals were selected. If the numbers were smaller than 528, then the school system with the numeral selected was included in the sample. number was 528 or larger, occurred more than once, it was disregarded. it was disregarded. If the If a number This pro­ cedure continued until a sample of ninety school systems was selected. Each of these ninety school systems was asked if they would participate in the study. Ninety systems were selected to ensure a participating sample of between twenty and sixty systems. Mailing Procedures On February 13, 1970, a letter, stating the purpose of the study and outlining what was needed from each system for data collection, was mailed to the superintendent of each school district in the sample. Included in this letter was a copy of each instrument, a letter of endorse­ ment for the study from the Michigan Congress of School Administrator Associations, and a return post card for each school district to indicate if they would be willing to participate. On February 27, 1970, a follow-up card was sent to each district not yet heard from indicating that the terminal date for acceptance into the study would be 79 March 6, 197 0. As a result, thirty-nine systems responded favorably and were included in the study. As soon as possible after receiving their acceptance, the thirty-nine school systems that responded favorably were provided with the necessary numbers of ECC and ACS questionnaires. For the purpose of this study a mean score on the ECC for a school system was needed. Therefore, in school systems having over 100 teachers a random sample of 60 teachers was selected to respond to the E C C . In the one school system with over 1,000 teachers a random sample of 100 teachers was taken. The samples were selected by taking every Nth name on an alphabetical list of the entire teaching staff of the school district. "N" was determined for the school district as satisfying: N x 60 > Number of Teachers in System. Thus, each teacher had an equal chance of being selected in the sample. In school systems with 100 or less teachers all were asked to respond to the E C C . All administrators were asked to respond to the ACS in all systems. Characteristics of Systems Not Participating An analysis of school systems not participating was ma d e to determine if there was any systematic d i f f e r ­ ence from the schools that did participate in the study. A listing of characteristics of schools participating and not participating is included in Appendices G and H. 80 The data for comparison are based on the four cost factors used in the study. Table 4 provides the means for each group on each variable. TABLE 4.--Means on four cost variables of school systems participating and school systems not participating. School Systems Participating Size SEV/Pupil 3275.64 3563.37 $13,962.76 $15,908.77 12.32 12.89 $638.90 $641.06 Voted Millage Exp/Pupil School Systems Not Participating A one-way analysis of variance was performed com­ paring the two groups of school systems on each of the four cost variables. The null hypothesis was stated that the groups did not vary significantly on each of the four cost factors. Following are the ANOVA tables for the four a n a l ys es : TABLE 5.— Analysis of variance for participating and non­ participating school systems by size.a Sources of Variation Degrees of Freedom Between Groups Sums of Squares 1 1829646.39 Within Groups 88 1868231186.49 Total 89 1870060832.90 aHO: Si - S2 HA: Si * S 2 Mean Squares 1829646.39 .09 21229899.85 . . 81 TABLE 6.--Analysis of variance for participating and non­ participating school systems by state equalized valuation per pupil.3 Sources of Variation Degrees of Freedom Between Groups Sums of Squares Mean Squares F 1 83692659.8 83692659.8 1.3 Within Groups 88 5388565816.0 61233702.4 • • Total 89 5472258475.8 * • S± * S 2 a HO: a = .05 HA: • • Sx ^ S2 Reject HO if "F" > 4.00 TABLE 7.— Analysis of variance for participating and non­ participating school systems by voted millage.3 Sources of Variation Degrees of Freedom Between Groups Sums of Squares Mean Squares 1 7. 33 7.33 Within Groups 88 2033.03 23.10 Total 89 2056.13 aH0: S1 - S2 a = .05 HA: • * S1 ? S 2 Reject HO if "FM > 4.00 .32 • • • ♦ 82 TABLE 8.— Analysis of variance for participating and no n ­ participating school systems by expenditures per p u p i l . 3 Sources of Variation Degrees of Freedom Between Groups Sums of Squares Mean Squares 1 106.38 106.38 Within Groups 88 786148.52 8933.51 Total 89 786254.90 a HO: ■ S2 a - .05 HA: F .01 . . a • • • Sx ? S2 Reject HO if "F" > 4.00 In all four analyses "F" was not large enough to reject the null hypotheses; therefore, the null hypotheses are accepted. It may be concluded since the school systems that did participate do not vary significantly from the school systems that did not: particip.ihe the participating sysLeins do represent the population to the same degree that the sample represents the population. The results of this study then are applicable to the school systems of the state of Michigan excluding the city of Detroit. Data Collection Questionnaires were mailed to seventeen school systems with instructions for distribution and stamped self-addressed mailing containers for return. Question­ naires were delivered to twenty-two school systems. eight of these systems, a stamped addressed mailing In 83 container was provided for the system to return the data by mail; in the other fourteen systems, were picked up. the questionnaires With only one exception questionnaires were delivered to systems in which a sample was taken. In all systems where the questionnaires were delivered the procedures for their distribution were explained to the person responsible with i n the system. A total of 2,074 E C C 1s and 375 ACS *s were distributed to thirty-nine school districts. turned data. Every system that agreed to participate re ­ Table 9 reports the data d istribution and return. Cost data were collected from the Michigan D e p a r t ­ ment of Education. Size in pupils was taken from the official membership reports of the school system to the state. Voted millage was taken from the reports of inter­ mediate districts to the state and reported to two decimal places. State equalized valuation was also taken from the reports of the intermediate districts and was divided by the number of pupils and reported to two decimal places. Dollars spent for operation was taken from the 1968-69 annual financial report of the school system, divided by the number of pupils for 1968-69 and reported to two decimal places. Treatment of Data As the data were collected and returned by mail, the systems and questionnaires within systems were coded -0 OV Ov o o o to to o CO t-1 cn t— ■ H* OV Ik CO ov oo Ov 00 O' cn o CP o 4 00 o * to 4k t-1 to cn vO 00 cn Ov to cn o 4k H* VO 4k OV -4 ov ov o co Ul 00 -4 -J ov ov o o o o ov # CO -4 CO CO 00 CO CO o ov CO 00 to to O 00 H* O H O O OV OV H O ov » O O OV ov . ov >4 CO CO CO CO ov 'J CO ~4 00 >4 CO H* H* O O o o o o o CO Ov H O Co * VO CO o • 00 • I-* • * • • • cn 00 ov cn ov LTt o cn NJ co OV ov •o CP to Cn ■*4 CO o 'J to VO OV • Ov Ov 00 o 00 VO ov * H • o cn VO •4 tO CO co co to o co CO CO o o • o o VO to • o Ov ECC's Sent cn CO ECC's Returned CO • CO CO to cn o • o o Percentage Returned of «4 School System to to ov • OV co percentage H O H 00 and to 00 K-* VO 9.— Number to 00 to O TABLE to H 4k -J • o o o o • o o « t-1 o cn • •j H o • o o • 'O o • o o U1 •4 H • 4k CO vo o • CO ►—1 I-* o O • o o CO 00 Ov t—* o H O o * o o ACS’s Sent ACS’s Returned CO CO • CO co Percentage Returned responses. o o • o o H 0 U) Ul vo 00 Ul -J Ul Ov ft u> ui Ul V* ^ v. w. ts. w I—* o Ul to vo tU GO NJ •J tO OV tO Ul to Xk to vo to to School System ISJ H* Ov ■si V© vo OV © ov o 00 o uj -a CO IO Xk u o to OV Ul •si Ul © -J Xk 00 lU • to H* Xk U l • o o ov 00 Ul CO * CO to UJ • CO o ■o Ul • Ul UJ • •si Ul uv tv 00 "J •o cv 00 • • Ul vo -4 Ul © Ul © o yr to sw Xk Ul u • © o • o © © o OV ov Ov UJ ov 00 o o Xk IO OV to Ul •o Xk <0 00 o ov o o vo Ul Xk ov OV uj •o 00 « Ov * t—1 to 00 Ul * o o •si ov i ov ■o -U Ul ov CO ov Ul ov Ul • o 00 to vo Ul • ov Ul vo 1* • hto vo Ul t o o to ECC's E C C 1s Returned ►3 w r > w v o • I 1 o o 3 ft H3 C ft a s j o « o © Percentage Returned 00 Ul u> Xk Ul ov to vo UJ OV to 00 o * 00 H o o • o o H* o o Ul Ul to Ov Ul ov OV Ul Ul Ul OV to to Ul ACS's Returned t-* o o • o o H o o • o © © • o o M o o • o © Percentage Returned to 'J -u * o o VO o • vo M to Ul • o o t-> o o • o o y 1— c c • o © 1— © Ul Ov 1 -^ © • X u • U © • o OV © Ul © •sj © ov ov • © U1 • -s i t- t-1 o o • o o OV OV • ov •si M o © a o o ACS's Ul © 86 by number and the responses were transferred to IBM 555 optical scan sheets. ACS or E C C . Each sheet was coded to indicate The optical scan sheets were m achine scored, and cards were punched from them by Evaluation Services at Michigan State University. The IBM cards received were printed and the printout was checked for errors in the cards. These card decks were used as input for a summary data program whi c h summarized category and total scores for each school system. cards. These data were punched on separate The summary data deck and the cost data deck were used for the stat series least squares (LS) program on the CDC 3 600 computer. From the raw data input the CISSR IDCORR program punched a correlation matrix for each instrument. These matrices were input into the CISSR FACTOR Analysis (Factor AA) program. A set of item mean scores from the raw data input were used to run the respective reliability routines from a program supplied by research consultants in the College of Education. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA In analyzing the data, each hypothesis was tested to determine if the data supported that particular h y ­ pothesis. The comparisons were based on a least squares solution to a basic correlation regression problem. F o ll ow ­ ing is each hypothesis and the data for testing that hy­ pothesis. General Hypothesis I A positive statistical relationship exists between characteristics of a management team and perceptions of factors affecting educational quality. Two operational hypotheses were tested which relate to general hypothesis I. Each of the hypotheses will be treated separately. Operational H l a . A positive significant statistical correlation exists between total scores on the ACS and total scores on the E C C . The correlation coefficient for ACS total scores and ECC total scores is -.33. Using a =* .05 for signifi­ cance this correlation is significant. This finding indi­ cates that the relationship between ACS total school system 87 88 scores and ECC total school system scores is inverse. size of the correlation coefficient, -.33, The is of such a mag nitude that there are only five chances out of 100 that this inverse statistical relationship is by chance. fore, there is a probability of relationship exists. pothesized; T h er e­ .95 that some systematic This finding is opposite than hy­ the negative value of the correlation was not hypothesized. However, the statistical relationship, -.33, is not large enough to be meaningful in terms of the amount of variance in the ECC for which it accounts, cent. Thus, 10.89 per the ACS is inversely related to the ECC but not strongly inversely related. has not been achieved; therefore, The hypothesized result it must be concluded that Hla is rejected. Operational H I b . A positive significant statistical correlation exists between the total scores on the ACS and each category score on the E C C . Table 10 presents the correlation coefficients be­ tween the ACS total scores and each category of the E C C . The correlations are all negative in sign and three are significant at the .05 level. Three categories: (1) s t u d e n t s ’ level of knowledge and attitudes, lum, and (2) curricu­ (5) socio-cultural composition of the community, are significantly correlated with the ACS total score. The lowest negative correlation is between ACS total score and ECC category four. This category, use of facilities, c o n ­ tains only one item and any relationship concerning 89 category four must be interpreted carefully. It is interesting to note that the negative sign holds for all correlations reported although it is not significant in all cases. TABLE 10.— Correlation coefficients between ACS total scores and ECC category scores. ACS Total Significant at a = .05 ECC— 1 (Students' Knowledge) -.33 Sig. ECC-2 (Community Attitudes) -.32 Sig. E CC -3 (Curriculum) -.28 N.S. ECC-4 (Facilities) -.18 N.S. E C C - 5 (Community Composition) -.37 Sig. ECC-6 (Administration) -.22 N.S. ECC-7 (Teaching Methods) -.25 N.S. The evidence does not support HIb. HIb is r e ­ jected due to all negative correlation coefficients, three of which are significant, in the analysis of thirty- nine systems. Conclusion It must be concluded that the relationship between the ACS and the E C C , based on common correlations, verse or negative. is in­ Four of these eight negative c o r r e ­ lation coefficients are large enough to be significant at the .05 level. These statistical data do not support 90 general hypothesis I; in fact, they refute it. The lack of evidence to substantiate general hypothesis I is not sur­ prising for intervening cost variables are reported in the literature on the ECC to have some effect on the E C C . ever, How­ the significant negative correlations were not e x ­ pected; they are indicative of some relationship that is in existence. General hypothesis I is rejected as are both of its operational hypotheses. General Hypothesis II A positive statistical relationship exists between characteristics of a management team and perceptions of factors affecting educational quality, holding cost factors constant. Five operational hypotheses were tested which r e ­ in to to general hypothesis II. Each operational hypothesis will he IreaLed separately. Operational 1111a. A positive statistical signifi­ cant correlation exists between ACS and ECC con­ trolling for the effects of four cost factors. A partial correlation coefficient of -.27 was com­ puted for ACS controlling for the four cost factors to­ gether. This coefficient is negative and not significant at the .05 level. Table 11 presents the partial correlation co ­ efficients between each subtest of the ECC and ACS total scores controlling for the four cost factors. 91 TABLE 11.— Partial correlation coefficients between ACS total scores and ECC category scores controlling for cost factors. ACS Total Significance Level a = .05 Knowledge) -.29 N.S. ECC-2 (Community Attitudes) -.28 N.S, ECC-3 (Curriculum) -.20 N.S. ECC-4 (Facilities) -.11 N.S. ECC - 5 (Community Composition) -.27 N.S. ECC-6 (Admini strat ion) -.15 N.S. ECC-7 -.20 N.S. ECC-1 (Students' (Teaching Methods Each partial correlation coefficient has a nega­ tive sign; none are significant. relationship exists. of Tour co:;L factors. Thus, no statistical This analysis controls for the effects These cost factors were identic ic'd in previous studies nu nI footing ECC scores. The result of this analysis shows that with the cost factors being con­ trolled the same conclusion about the relationship between the ACS and ECC holds true. That relationship is that ACS and ECC are not positively related. However, the sizes of the negative correlation coefficients are not large enough to be significant at the .05 level of significance. Yet the relationships are all negative in sign and in the relative magnitudes as the relationships in general hy­ pothesis I where cost factors were not controlled. No 92 statement can be made about significant inverse relation­ ships when all four cost factors are controlled. The fact that no statistical relationships were obtained when p osi­ tive significant relationships were hypothesized is signifi­ cant to the extent that HIla must be rejected. Operational H l l b . A positive significant statisti­ cal relationship exists between ACS and ECC con­ trolling for the effects of the cost factor of number of pupils enrolled in the district. Table 12 reports the partial correlation coef­ ficients between ACS total scores and ECC total and sub­ scores controlling for the cost factor of size of the school district. TABLE 12.— Partial correlation coefficients between ACS total scores and ECC scores controlling for size of the school district. ACS Total Significance Level u - .03 ECC Total -. 26 N.S. ECC-1 (Students* Knowledge) -.29 N.S. E C C - 2 (Community Attitudes) -.27 N.S. ECC-3 (Curriculum) -.21 N.S. ECC-4 (Facilities) -.11 N.S. E C C - 5 (Community Composition) -.29 N.S. ECC-6 -.17 N.S. -.18 N.S. (Administration) ECC-7 (Teaching Methods) 93 It was felt by this investigator that the size of a school system might be the most significant of the cost variables in this study. As the group becomes larger, it is more difficult to have effective group functioning. In very large systems the effect of size could be indicative of relationships that are more impersonal and thus work against a functioning management team. The partial correlation coefficients as reported in Table 12 indicate no relationship between ACS and ECC when cost factors are controlled. Even though the partial correlation coefficients are still negative in sign none are significant. The effect of controlling for size com­ pares the ACS and ECC on the basis of all school systems being the same size. A result of this comparison shows that the partial correlation coefficients are all nega­ tive in sign but less negative than were the partial correlation coefficients when size was not controlled. Tlu'so d.ita do not permit the acceptance of Hllb. Operational H I I c . A positive significant relation snip exists between ACS and ECC controlling for the effect of the cost factor of state equalized valuation per pupil. Table 13 consists of partial correlation coef­ ficients between the ACS total scores and the ECC total and subscores controlling for the state equalized valu­ ation per pupil. 94 TABLE 13.— Partial correlation coefficients between ACS total scores and ECC scores controlling for state equalized valuation per pupil. ACS Total Significance Level a = .05 ECC Total -.34 Sig. ECC-1 (Students' Knowledge) -.33 Sig. ECC “ 2 (Community Attitudes) -.34 Sig. ECC-3 (Curriculum) -.28 N.S. ECC-4 (Facilities) - .19 N.S. E CC-5 (Community Composition) -.36 Sig. ECC-6 -.22 N.S. -.28 N.S. (Administration) ECC-7 (Teaching Methods) Controlling the variable of state equalized valu­ ation per pupil allows comparison of ACS and ECC scores on the basis of all school systems having the same state equalized valuation per pupil. The results of this com­ parison are virtually the same as if this factor was not controlled. All partial correlations are negative in sign, and four of the eight comparisons are significantly nega­ tive at the .05 level. These same four comparisons were significant when no cost variables were controlled. result of this comparison, As a it must be concluded that con­ trolling for state equalized valuation per pupil does not affect the relationship; HIIc is rejected. it is consistently negative. Thus, 95 Operational H I I d . A positive significant st atisti­ cal relationship exists between ACS and ECC c o n ­ trolling for the effect of the cost factor of voted millage for operation of schools. Table 14 presents partial correlation coefficients between the ACS total scores and the ECC total and subscores controlling for the cost variabl e of voted millage. TABLE 14.— Partial correlation coeffici ents between ACS total scores and ECC scores controlling for voted millage for operation. ACS Total ECC Total Significance Level a * .05 -.30 N.S. Knowledge) -.31 N.S. E C C - 2 (Community Attitudes) -.30 N.S. E C C - 3 (Curriculum) -.26 N.S. ECC-4 (Facilities) -.15 N.S. E C C- 5 (Community Composition) -.35 Sig. E CC -6 (Administrat i on ) -.19 N.S. ECC-7 (Teaching Methods) -.23 N.S. ECC— 1 (Students' When voted millage per pupil is controlled, the effect is that all school systems are compared on the basis of having an equal voted millage per pupil. In # other words, each community is compared on the basis of putting forth an equal effort to supply local revenue per pupil. The effort or voted millage per pupil factor r e ­ sults, with one exception, in partial correlations that 96 show no relationship but are negative in sign. parison of ECC subtest five, of the community, The c o m ­ socio-cultural composition and the ACS total is negatively signifi­ cant at the .05 level. Due to the fact that no sign if i­ cant positive relationship is evident, Hlld is rejected. Operational H l l e . A positive significant s tatisti­ cal relationship exists between ACS and ECC c o n ­ trolling for the effect of the cost factor of dollars spent per pupil. Table 15 presents partial correlation coefficients between the ACS total scores and the ECC total and sub­ scores controlling for the cost factor of expenditure per pupil. TABLE 15.— Partial correlation coefficients between ACS total scores and ECC scores controlling for expenditures per pupil. ACS Total ECC Total Signifieanco > I "r-4 ^ to .^ g, X* u -H C0 h -H d S ^ &£ « factors CO oj ^ O £ 4> ^ U 4 J 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 ?. 8. 9. o I -H D U +J 1 *-* O ai Vr TJ Uflt (-4 CD 5 1 O at CD 4* m w -H t-M H s& CO 6 2 36 «> CD CD All administrators keep eteh other in­ formed on matters of mutual concern. 4 3 2 1 Information is available to administra­ tors before decisions are made. 4 3 2 1 There is mutual respect among all admin­ istrators. An attitude is present that each admin­ istrator is best equipped to function in his own area. Knowledge that administrative decisions are Implemented at more than one level in a school system is present in all administrators. Responsibility of all administrators is clearly defined. All administrators are represented or actively involved with the management negotiating team in the negotiations process. The school board provides extensive in-service education concerned with administrative relationships. The administrative staff meets fre­ quently. 10. There is recognition of the status of administrators by their superiors. 11. The administrative staff In no way in­ fringes on any administrator's right to make decisions necessary to perform his Job as defined in his Job description. 134 4 - 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 3 4 3 2 3 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 Factors , 0 ►» 1 — I rIOV r-) a> W « H -H 3 (fl h 6 a> 0 0 +> §8 E « 6 I 12. There Is a unity of command in the school system. 4 3 4 3 2 4 3 2 15* Group prooesses are discussed when nec­ essary at administrative staff meetings. 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 13. At administrative staff meetings d is ­ cussion is focused on decisions to be made. 14. The superintendent accepts individual responsibility for all group decisions that are made as well as for their im­ plementation. 16. Communication among administrators is broadly conceived to include discusslon and persuasion as well as o cca­ sional edict. I?. Leadership is conceived of as shared decision making as opposed to "one-way m a n a g e m e n t ." 18. The superintendent encourages autono­ mous action on the part of principals with respect to individual schools. 19. There is a willingness to change when a need is perceived as opposed to a demand for change for the sake of sim­ ilarity. 20. All administrative staff members are Involved in policy decisions concernlng administration of the budget. 21. Loyalty is based on the perceived goals of the entire school system rather than to some Individual or group. 4 3 4 4 2 3 3 4 2 2 3 2 22. The school board encourages shared decision making among all members of the administrative staff. 4 3 2 23. Communication among administrative staff members is clear--and under- 4 3 2 stood. 135 teristlc 0 1 •«-< 0 -w <8 w m as N 0£«) ^ O 4-> o t -■-« g£ Factors P o >» I ■«-» ^ g ^ f f l >H* ( 0 n l 0 4-> < 8 Vi W J£ 4> t H H N * —1 a 9> CO 6 P to <6 I* p & h *2O P O O P QJZ Q> 0 24. Each administrative staff memb e r has a clear over-all vlevr of the entire educatlonal program. 4 3 2 25* All administrators are consulted when possible before majdr decisions are m ade on a system-wide basis. 4 3 2 26. Administrators in the system do not tend to form cliques. 4 3 2 27. All administrators in the system have specific Job descriptions. 4 3 2 28. There are clearly defined lines of a c ­ countability. 4 2 9 . All administrators are Involved in d e ­ termining their own salary and working conditions. 30. All a dmin i s t r a t o r s are involved in d e ­ termining their own Job descriptions. 31. Members of the administrative staff never make decisions or participate in activities that overlap on another administr a t o r ' s area of responsibility. 3 2 . Pew if any decisions are made in the school system that must be modified a fter they are implemented to fit particular circumstances. 33* The school board provides extensive in-service education for all administrators concerning collective bar­ gaining. 34. All administrative staff members are welcome at school board meetings. 35* There is a high probability that any administrator who possesses the r e ­ quisite skills and so desires can become a member of the school board's bargaining team. 136 3 4 4 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 1 t P a CO * <0 9 X c O 1 ■H O 4J ) OS U 4* E52T1 W 08 u . Factors O 4) S O P >* 1 0 r-t O ■M rH Qt to CD 2 T! 2 2 * «> le 1 ( = 10 O O 9 OS 0 n 52 t ! 3 U H V CO 6 4> +> 2 3 36. Administrative staff meetings are never dominated by one person's ideas or by one person's talking. 4 3 2 1 37. At administrative staff meetings anyone may disagree with the superintendamt without fear of retribution. 4 3 2 1 3 8. All administrators can Justify to the public decisions with vrhich they personally disagree. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 41. All administrators feel that they rep­ resent the management to the teachers. 4 3 2 1 42. All administrators are treated impar­ tially by other administrators. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 39* There is a strong feeling in all ad­ ministrators to support policies or decisions that they must implement and which were made over their objec­ tions. 40. The school board supports the idea that all administrators are managers and not teachers. 43 All administrators are included in some level of administrative staff meetings. 44. All administrators subordinate to the superintendent take the responsibility for the decisions that they make. 45. There is respect for personal qualities of administrators by their superiors. 137 APPENDIX E INSTRUCTIONS FOR RESPONDING TO THE EDUCATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS CRITERION (E C C ) INSTRUCTIONS FOR RESPONDING TO TNI 1DPCATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS CRITERION T o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n ti * r t i p o n d t a t to tho E d u c a t i o n a l C h a r i c t a t l s t l c s C r l t t r l o a (E C C ) w i t h i n tho s a m p l e o f c o o p e r a t i n g M i c h i g a n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s in g r i s t l y a p p r e c i a t e d . It is l n p o r t n n t that y o u r r o s p o n s s s to tho ECC r o p r o n o n t y o u r o w n i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i o n s ; t h o r o f o r # it is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t y o u c o n p l a t a tha E C C w i t h o u t p r i o r d i s c u s s i o n w i t h o t h a r f a c u l t y m e n b a r s , p r o f o r a b l y in p r i v a t e and q u i e t s u r r o u n d i n g s . All informs* t lo n w i l l ba t r o a t o d c o n f i d e n t i a l l y a n d a n o n y n o u s l y . Approximate r o s p o n d a n t tlno is t h i r t y m i n u t e s ; h o w e v e r t h s r a is n o ti n s U n i t Use p e n c i l and m a r k w i t h f i r n p r a s s u r a O N tha n u n b a r r a p r a s a n t l n g tha c h a r a c t e r i s t i c th at y o u p e r c e i v e . R a l a t a tho s t a t e m e n t s to your building experience. E x a m p l e of m a r k i n g on e Factor 1. item: Most Characteristic Somewhat - Slightly - Least Teachers have inti* m a t e k n o w l e d g e of children. 4 3 I (Moto: T h e "I" on the "2" w i l l i n d i c a t e that yo u r p e r c e p t i o n the s t a t e m e n t is that it is " s l i g h t l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c " of y o u r b u l l d l o a s i t u a t i o n .) 1 of U p o n c o m p l e t i o n of y o u r r e s p o n s e s to al l ECC I tems, p l a c e the ECC a n d this i n s t r u c t i o n s h e e t la the e n v e l o p e and S E A L the e n v e l o p e flap. Do n o t put y ou r n a m e or o t h a r m a r k i n g s o n tha E CC or e n v e l o p s . R e t u r n the e n v e l o p s w i t h e n c l o s e d ECC to y o u r b u i l d i n g p r i n c i p a l or to the c o l l e c t i o n p o i n t p r e s c r i b e d b y the p r i n c i p a l ol tho s u p e r l n t a n d a n t . It is h i g h l y d e s i r e d that y o u c o m p l e t e the ECC at y o u r v e r y e a r l i e s t o p p o r t u n i t y and r e t u r n it w i t h i n 24 h o u r s , an d if d e l a y e d , w i t h i n 48 h ours. 138 APPENDIX F EDUCATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS CRITERION (ECC) EDUCATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS CRITERION Factor t u w (««< » O •A « U • m u • SS U ** 1. 2. 3. 4. 3. Taachara have children. Intimate knowledge I V 3 terlatlc H e r b e r t C. R v d a t n M i c h i g a n S c a t * llalatttlty of 4 3 2 1 Teaching practlcea reflect concern for i n d i v i d u a l d l f f e r e n c e a . 4 3 2 1 Teaching practlcea e d g e of i n d i v i d u a l 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 E v i d e n c e e x l a t a of l n a t r u c t l o n a l and/or curricular e x p e r i a e n t a t l o o . 4 3 2 1 Studenta ahow a positive to w a r d e c h o l a e t l c work. 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 F r o f e a a l o n a l a t a f f of the a c h o o l a j a t e a are i n v o l v e d In l n - a e r v i c e education. 4 3 2 1 T e a c h e r a t h o r o u g h l y u n d e r a t a n d the i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d on a t u d e n t a and uae th la I n f o r m a t i o n to m a k e aound educational declalona. 4 3 2 1 A ll t e a c h e r a a r ^ c e r t i f i e d to te a ch at the g r a d e le v el or a u b j e c t t h ey are n o w t e a c h i n g . 4 3 2 1 reflect a k n o w l ­ dlfferencea. Teachera perceive a coherent c o o r d i n a t e d a t r u c t u r e to the e d u c a t i o n a l pr o g r a m . and C o n c e n a u a e x l a t a a a o n g the a t a f f c o n c e r n i n g the goala of the educational prograa. 6 . A a t r u c t u r e h a a b e e n d e v e l o p e d that permlta continual iaproveaent. 7. e. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Studenta evidence e d g e of aelf. Teachera have curriculum attitude accurate kno w l ­ complete freedom to m m Factor U U *4 mow o jet e X u u 14. A great v a r i e t y of I n s t r u c t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s ere p r e s e n t l y u s e d In the c l i s i r o o a a . 15. A greet v a r i e t y of I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s ere p r e s e n t l y use d In the c l a s s r o o m s . 16. S t u d e n t s ere k n o w l e d g e a b l e a bout the e d u c a t i o n a l and s o c i a l o p p o r ­ t u n i t i e s a v a i l a b l e to them. 17. A complete comprehensive testing p r o g r a m i n c l u d i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e and a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t i n g la a v a i l a b l e In the sc h ools. 18. T e a c h e r s o f t e n a v ai l t h e m s e l v e s of p r o f e s s i o n a l help. 19. C o m p l e t e f r e e d o m Is g r a n t e d to s t u ­ d en t s to i n v e s t i g a t e any l o c a l , s tate, n a t i o n a l or i n t e r n a t i o n a l Issue. 2 0 . A v a i l a b i l i t y to s t u d e n t s of m a t e r i a l s that r e f l e c t all s h a d e s and s o c i o l o g i c a l p o i n t s 21. 22 . of p o l i t i c a l of view. P a r e n t s and p a t r o n s (those r e s i d e n t s of a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w i t h o u t s c h o o l age c h i l d r e n ) are h i g h l y k n o w l e d g e ­ able a b o ut e d u c a t i o n . Lay m e m b e r s of the c o m m u n i t y are h i g h l y i n v o l v e d in the p l a n n i n g of e d u c a t i o n a l goals w i t h the s c h o o l staff. 23. Regulations governing student conduct are h i g h l y e x p l i c i t and d e t a i l e d . 24. High d e g r e e of t e a c h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n In s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l a c t l v i t l a s of the c o m m u n i t y . 25 . T he s o c i a l s t a t u s of t e a c h e r s h i g h in th is c o m m u n i t y . 26. Regulations governing personnel p o l i c i e s are h i g h l y e x p l i c i t and detailed. Is v e r y ** u 9 I a u u * 9 • S0 4U9 wiH• M O W Slightly Charac­ teristic u i^ u ** u w ■ 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. C l t i s e n s art h i g h l y o r g a n i s e d dlacuaa school problems. terlstl I -h m i a u me » m «•**«« t w _ Factor • m u O A • » *> *» m m 0,0 4 3 2 4 3 2 to T h a p e r c e p t i o n s of p a r e n t s and p a t r o n s c o n c e r n i n g the p u r p o s e s of e d u c a t i o n are c o n s i s t e n t an d clear. The l o c a l n e w s p a p e r h a s s h o w n a h i g h I n t e r e s t in local s c h o o l a f fa ir s . 4 3 2 T h e r e la no b e t w e e n the v a l u e s tau g ht in the s c h o o l a n d wh a t Is p r a c ­ t i c e d In the c o m m u n i t y . 4 3 2 T h e r e e x i s t s a h i g h level of c o o p e r a t i o n a m o n g the t e a c h e r s of the ataff. 4 3 2 T he p h y s i c a l f a c i l i t i e s of the s c h o o l s y s t e m ( b u i l d i n g s and e q u i p m e n t ) are completely adequate. 4 3 2 T he c o m m u n i t y and Its r e s i d e n t s are u se d for I n s t r u c t i o n a l p u r p o s e s . 4 3 2 C u l t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e s are r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e In the c o m m u n i t y . 4 3 2 T e a c h e r s * J u d g m e n t s are a l m o s t a l w a y s u s e d In the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of e d u ­ cational policies. 4 3 2 A h i g h p e r c e n t a g e of the e l e c t o r a t e In the c o m m u n i t y vo t e In s c h o o l e l e c t i o n s . 4 3 2 T h e r e are o u t s t a n d i n g c o m m u n i t y l e a d e r s in this c o m m u n i t y w h o e x h i b i t g r e a t I n t e r e s t In s c h o o l a f fa i r sf .* 4 3 2 3 2 t 36. 37. 36. 39. 40. 41. 42. T h i s Is a h i g h l y s t a b l p c o m m u n i t y w h i c h d o e s not h a v e too m a n y p e o p l e l ea ving. 4 The c o m m u n i t y e x h i b i t s a great c o n c e r n for the d e v e l o p m e n t of a e s t h e t i c a nd artistic Interests. 4 3 2 A two-way communication channel readily e x i s t s b e t w e e n the h o n e and the s c hool. 4 3 2 A h i g h p e r c e n t a g e of h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s own p e r s o n a l cars. 4 3 2 A high percentage of h o m e s own i _ Factor m m W M f4 « « W 94 • m i *4 «-* » 4IOW 0^9 ___________________________________________________________W O W 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. A great deal students. of h o m e w o r k la a s s i g n e d to 4 A h i g h d e g r e e of e t h n i c , r a c i a l a n d religious homogeneity exists among the l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n . 4 T h e p a r e n t s in this c o m m u n i t y e x p e c t t h e i r c h i l d r e n to p e r f o r m t h e i r s h a r e of f a m i l y c h o r e s . 4 T h i s c o m m u n i t y is c o m p o s e d of p e o p l e w h o are p r e d o m i n a n t l y P r o t e s t a n t . 4 T h i s c o m m u n i t y is c o m p o s e d of p e o p l e w h o are p r e d o m i n a n t l y C a t h o l i c . 4 T h i s c o m m u n i t y Is c o m p o s e d of p e o p l e w h o ar e p r e d o m i n a n t l y J e w i s h . 4 The p o p u l a t i o n of t h i s c o m m u n i t y is equally divided between Protestants and C a t h o l i c s . 4 O n e or two e t h n i c l a r g e s t n u m b e r of community. 4 g r o u p s c o m p r i s e the r e s i d e n t s la the P u p i l s c o n s i d e r an a c a d e m i c at l e a s t to be the n o r m academic achievement. grade for of 4 T h e p r o f e s s i o n a l staff, of the s c h o o l s in the c o m m u n i t y c o n s i d e r an a c a d e m i c g r a d e of at l e a s t *'8” to be tha n o r m for a c a d e m i c a c h l e v e m s n ' t . 4 A h i g h v a l u e is p l a c e d on e d u c a t i o n b y the p a r e n t s a n d p a t r o n s (thoae r e s i d e n t s of a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w i t h o u t s c h o o l - a g e c h i l d r e n ) of the c o m m u n i t y . 4 P a r e n t s an d p a t r o n s In the c o m m u n i t y c o n s i d e r an a c a d e m i c g r a d e of at l e a s t n B" to be the n o r m for a c a d e m i c achievement. 4 P a r e n t s c o n d o n e or e n c o u r a g e d a t i n g for t h e i r c h i l d r e n . 4 early 142 WUtf » « « ja • • M f* <* M ■ W M •*« « • M • W O W ** * m • >J APPENDIX G CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICIPATING SAMPLE SCHOOL DISTRICTS 143 TABLE G-■1.— Characteristics of participating schools. Voted Millage Expenditure Per Pupil $ 9443.95 12.25 $639.92 4154 16538.14 8. 50 561.72 3 4362 21039.22 15. 00 859.55 4 891 8136.69 9. 00 604.87 5 1240 8832.81 15. 00 623.26 6 6715 12899.30 19. 50 669.33 7 2920 13463.41 16. 35 615.57 8 3883 14545.07 12.00 657.14 9 703 7492.53 15. 00 634.33 10 1308 23458.60 8. 20 602.68 11 2503 10728.40 14.00 526.58 12 1181 13230.99 18. 50 734.81 13 2455 12599.08 14. 00 619.75 14 1087 11525.58 12.00 571.2 3 15 2062 17069.45 13. 00 627.56 16 4070 10898.56 12. 00 608.91 17 806 13166.80 13.00 614.67 18 35363 19809.93 10. 00 842.82 19 3435 9315.06 17. 00 638.77 20 5528 15981.98 14. 00 595.52 21 725 12955.57 10. 00 538.43 Size SEV Per Pupil 1 629 2 System 144 TABLE G-l.— Continued. System Size SEV Per Pupil Voted Millage Expenditure Per Pupil 22 1500 $18792.44 13.00 $640.76 23 8974 10246.73 16.00 606.55 24 1716 9966.05 12.00 600.04 25 600 12914.72 15. 50 594.36 26 1440 7398.99 17. 00 635.25 27 1712 15835.75 10. 00 576.65 28 1984 10018.93 9. 00 599.65 29 3588 8986.92 13.40 669.99 30 5842 20146.79 19.13 863.29 31 663 22869.05 8. 00 472.44 32 2462 8667.20 13. 00 612.53 33 1295 12860.74 5. 50 554.84 34 1336 36898.17 3. 50 668.41 35 877 13138.14 10. 00 591.21 36 1865 11928.87 11. 00 583.63 37 3187 8613.99 13. 00 560.22 38 2347 23130.15 7. 50 654.07 39 342 9002.87 5. 50 775.84 Totals 127750 $544547.61 480.33 $24917.15 $13962.76 12. 32 $638.90 X 3275.64 APPENDIX H CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-PARTICIPATING SAMPLE SCHOOL DISTRICTS 145 TABLE H-l.— Characteristics of non-participating schools „ . t>ys 1969-7 0 Size 1 390 2 SEV Per Pupil Voted Millage Expenditures Per Pupil 4751.67 10. 00 $643.15 173 9316.06 15. 00 617.62 3 2134 50327.69 5. 00 683.55 4 4573 14640.31 10. 00 657.52 5 67 36925.37 4 .00 444.64 6 704 23705.33 9. 00 669.96 7 3747 12773.75 9. 00 590.85 8 3775 8984.70 5. 00 533.50 9 723 8793.98 15. 00 476.99 10 9015 26665.77 13. 00 771.63 11 2376 15337.44 11. 00 606.01 12 6478 11752.43 17.75 667.14 13 793 8924.88 25. 00 681.85 14 2735 14241.38 12.60 663.71 15 1275 11673.98 15. 50 659.50 16 1203 11771.49 12. 50 649.45 17 3432 11127.98 16.50 575.72 18 1076 16668.64 3. 00 648.69 19 1571 7531.74 12. 50 577.33 20 6143 11849.37 11. 00 578.88 21 1163 12471.36 9. 00 551.79 $ 146 TABLE H-l.— Continued. c . y 1969-70 Size SEV Per Pupil Voted Millage Expenditures Per Pupil 22 2123 $17132.93 12. 00 $601.17 23 2227 13801.20 16. 00 654.19 24 1782 11541.82 9. 00 610.31 25 3784 13104.17 15. 00 653.55 26 2411 12226.25 15. 00 596.14 27 4237 11331.29 10. 00 649.71 28 6370 12172.43 19.97 602.32 29 1750 6832.37 7 .00 577.67 30 16367 23520.29 15. 00 786.12 31 4716 8821.10 22. 00 695.30 32 6014 24534.86 17. 00 848.77 33 5421 11123.50 10. 00 612.22 34 18505 11448.60 15. 00 627.59 35 498 37078.01 16. 00 1065.65 36 503 20882.26 7.75 560.55 37 480 38167.63 8. 00 842.67 38 329 17757.93 10. 50 565.84 39 3492 16733.86 7. 00 558.86 40 1387 24943.59 6. 95 644.79 41 3504 13470.63 8. 00 574.07 42 2015 10082.85 12. 00 552.39 147 TABLE H - l .— C o n t i n u e d . 1969-70 Size Voted Millage Expenditures Per Pupil 43 2496 $19523.61 10. 98 $599.26 44 5630 7546.53 19.00 524.30 45 4808 6612.38 17 .00 669.94 46 9710 11436.60 29. 00 713.61 47 8499 19670.32 16. 50 762.51 48 2741 14656.25 22. 00 687.66 49 3120 19521.92 20. 00 793.33 50 2332 8625.42 16. 00 539.47 51 935 16811.34 6. 50 583.39 181732 $811347.25 657.20 $32702.82 3563.37 $15908.77 12.89 $641.06 Totals X SEV Per Pupil