I

71-18,270
PETRIE, Brian Malcolm, 1935PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, GAMES, AND SPORT: A SYSTEM
OF CLASSIFICATION AND AN INVESTIGATION OF SOCIAL
INFLUENCES AMONG STUDENTS OF MICHIGAN STATE
UNIVERSITY.
Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1970
Education, physical
U n iv e rs ity M ic ro film s , A XEROX C o m p a n y , A n n A rb o r, M ic h ig a n

(c) 1971
Brinn

Mnlcolm

Petrie

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY,

GAMES,

A N D SPORT:

A SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION AND AN INVESTIGATION
OF S O C I A L I N F L U E N C E S A M O N G S T U D E N T S O F M I C H I G A N
STATE UNIVERSITY

By
Brian Malcolm Petrie

A THESIS
S u b m i t t e d to
Michigan State University
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the r e q u i r e m e n t s
for the d e g r e e of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
D e p a r t m e n t of Heal th,

Physical Education
1970

and Recreation

ABSTRACT
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, GAMES AND SPORT:
A SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION AND AN INVESTIGATION
OF SOCIAL INFLUENCES AMONG STUDENTS OF MICHIGAN
STATE UNIVERSITY
By
B r ia n Malcolm P e t r i e

The purpose o f t h i s study was t o develop a system o f c l a s s i ­
fic a tio n

o f p l a y , games, and s po rt s t o e v a l u a t e the m o t i v a t i o n s f o r

invo lvement i n these a c t i v i t i e s .

Of equal importance was the use o f

the model as the basis f o r d e t e rm i n in g the i n f l u e n c e o f s o c i a l back­
ground f a c t o r s on the m o t i v a t i o n s f o r invo lv e m e nt w i t h p h y s ic a l
a c t i vi t i e s .
Data were c o l l e c t e d through a m aile d q u e s t i o n n a i r e .

A sample

o f 988 stude nts was s e l e c t e d a t random from the undergradu ate popu­
latio n

r e g i s t e r e d f o r the 1969 Sprin g Term a t Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

S i x t y t h r e e p e r c e n t , 624 s t u d e n t s , r e t u r n e d the q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
d a ta were analyzed using n o n - p a r a m e t r i c s t a t i s t i c a l
Data a n a l y s i s
1.

The

pr oc edur es.

supported the f o l l o w i n g c o n c lu s io n s ;

The system o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f the m o t iv a t i o n s
p artic ip a tio n

in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y

for

comprised ten sub­

domains which p r e - t e s t i n g had i n d i c a t e d to be

Brian Malcolm P e t r i e

a p p r o p r ia t e t o the student group.

The most imp orta n t

m o tiv a tio n s were those concerned w i t h fun and e x c ite m e n t ,
h e a l t h and f i t n e s s , competition w i t h s k i l l
nant e le m e n t, and s o c i a l

the predomi­

inte ra c tio n .

Sex had the g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e on the response p a t t e r n s .
Men provided s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r rankings f o r r i s k and
danger, the demonstration o f s k i l l w i t h a weapon, compe­
t i t i o n with s k i l l

predominant, com pe titio n w i t h combat

predominant, and compet ition a g a i n s t the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n ­
ment as m o tiv a to r s o f t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n p a t t e r n s .
VJomen gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r support f o r s o c i a l i n t e r ­
a c t i o n , fun and e x c i t e m e n t , and a e s t h e t i c expression as
m otiv ators f o r t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h ys ica l a c t i v i t i e s .
The most im por tant m o tiv ato rs f o r s p e c t a t o r involvement
w ith physic al a c t i v i t y were the d e s ir e f o r e x c it e m e n t ,
t o see competition w ith s k i l l

predominant, t o watch

dangerous a c t i v i t i e s , and t o observe a e s t h e t i c expr ession.
Sex als o d is c r i m i n a t e d most on s p e c t a t o r involvement.
Men gave h ig h e r rankings f o r watching dangerous a c t i v i t i e s
and f o r competition w ith combat predominant, as motivators
f o r t h e i r s p e c t a t o r inv olv ement, w h i l e women gave s i g n i ­
f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r support f o r the s o c i a l

in teractio n ,

h e a l t h , and a e s t h e t i c m o t iv a t i o n s .
Analysis o f a d d i t i o n a l questions re ve ale d t h a t the male
respondents showed a s i g n i f i c a n t pre ference f o r physical

Brian Malcolm P e t r i e

a ctivites

as l e i s u r e ,

and c o n s i s t e n t l y i n d i c a t e d the

d e s i r e t o a c hieve success, p r e s t i g e , c o m p e t i t i o n , and
the development o f s k i l l

in p l a y , games, and s p o r t s .

The women p r e f e r r e d s o c i a l

and c u l t u r a l

a c tiv itie s

in

t h e i r l e i s u r e and s t r e s s e d responses a s s o c ia t e d w i t h
the i n t r i n s i c forms o f s a t i s f a c t i o n p r e s e n t in p h y s i c a l
a c tiv ity situ atio n s.
6.

The men l i s t e d f o o t b a l l , t e n n i s , b a s k e t b a l l ,

and b a s e b a ll

as t h e i r p r e f e r r e d p a r t i c i p a n t sp o rt s and s t r o n g l y p r e ­
ferred fo o tb a ll

as a s p e c t a t o r s p o r t .

The women f a v o r e d

swimming and t e n n is as p a r t i c i p a n t s po rt s b u t p r e f e r r e d
fo o tb all
7.

and b a s k e t b a l l

as s p e c t a t o r s p o r t s .

The respondents had l i t t l e

d iffic u lty

in associating

p a r t i c u l a r p a r t i c i p a n t s po rt s w i t h s p e c i f i c s o c i a l

cla ss

grou ps .
The most c o n s i s t e n t r e s u l t was the s t ro n g sup po rt pr ovid e d by
the men f o r a t t i t u d i n a l

and m o t i v a t i o n a l statements e x p r e s s iv e o f the

e x trin s ic satisfactio ns

t o be achieved in p l a y , games, and s p o r t s .

They s t r o n g l y endorsed m o t i v a t i o n s which a ll ow ed f o r ready e v a l u a t i o n
using achievement c r i t e r i a
role.

ap p ro p riate to t h e i r a d u lt occupational

The women c o n s i s t e n t l y gave t h e i r sup po rt f o r m o t iv a t i o n s and

attitud es

a p p r o p r i a t e t o an emphasis upon the i n t r i n s i c s a t i s f a c t i o n s

o f p l a y , games, and s p o r t s .

DEDICATION

F or Ann

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I w i s h to e x p r e s s my thanks
Dr.

W. B r o o ko v er ,

ment,

a ss i st a nc e ,

to m y a c a d e m i c adv isor,

w h o p r o v i d e d me w i t h

invaluable encourage­

and c r i t i c i s m w h i c h

led to the r e f i n e m e n t

thanks are e x t e n d e d

to Dr.

of this work.
My sp e c i a l
h er e f f o r t s

in r e c r u i t i n g me

p r o m o t i n g my studies,

to M i c h i g a n

and m o s t of all

J. A.

Wessel

for

State U n i v e r s i t y ,

for the f r i e n d s h i p

in

that

c h a r a c t e r i z e d h er r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h m y w i f e an d m y se l f.
I am indebted

to Dr.

J. M c K e e and Dr.

H.

Karp

for

t heir a s s i s t a n c e as m e m b e r s of my g u i d a n c e c o m m i t t e e ,

and

for

the c o u n s e l they p r o v i d e d d u r i n g my s t u d i e s .
For Mr.

II. Webb,

w h o p r o v i d e d me w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

of the area of the S o c i o l o g y of Sport,
d u r i n g the i n i t i a l

s tages of the study,

and g u i d e d m y e f f o r t s
I will always have

h ig h regard.
I a m also g r a t e f u l
P. M a r c u s

for the a s s i s t a n c e p r o v i d e d by Dr.

in the d e v e l o p m e n t of the s u r v e y i n s t r u m e n t .

iv

table

of

contents

Page
D E D I C A T I O N .....................................................

iii

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S ................................ . ...........

iv

L IS T O F T A B L E S ................................................

viii

CHAPTER
I

II

I N T R O D U C T I O N ........................................

1

S t a t e m e n t of the P r o b l e m ....................
L i m i t a t i o n s of the S t u d y ....................
D e l i m i t a t i o n s of the S t u d y .................
T h e I m p o r t a n c e of the S t u d y ................
H y p o t h e s e s .....................................
O p e r a t i o n a l D e f i n i t i o n s .....................

6
7
8
9
10
11

T H E O R E T I C A L P E R S P E C T I V E S .........................

14

E a r l y T h e o r e t i c a l P o s i t i o n s ................
T h e T h e o r y of P l a y and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of G am e s by C a i l l o i s .......................
T h e M c I n t o s h C l a s s i f i c a t i o n ..... . .........
T he K e n y o n M o d e l for the C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
of P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t y ......................
I n t e g r a t i o n of the C l a s s i f i c a t o r y
T h e o r i e s .....................................
III

M E T H O D S A N D P R O C E D U R E S ...........................
T h e D e v e l o p m e n t of the Survey,,,
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ...............................
T he S e l e c t i o n of the S a m p l e ................
T h e D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . ...
R e m i n d e r N o t i c e s .............................
S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s of the D a t a ...........
The C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the M e m b e r s of the
S a m p l e and R e s p o n d e n t s to the S u r v e y . .-

IV

E V A L U A T I O N O F T HE T H E O R E T I C A L M O D E L S U S E D
TO E X P L A I N P A R T I C I P A T I O N IN P H Y S I C A L
A C T I V I T Y ..........................................
v

15
36
52
55
62
68
68
69
73
73
74
75

97

vi
CHAPTER
V

VI

VII

Pa ge
M O T I V A T I O N S F O R P A R T I C I P A T I O N IN P H Y S I C A L
A C T I V I T I E S ......................................
Soci al F actors R e l a t e d to the
M o t i v a t i o n s for P a r t i c i p a t i o n in
P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t i e s .......................

Ill

M O T I V A T I O N S F O R S P E C T A T O R I N V O L V E M E N T WI T H
P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T I E S ............................

144

Social F ac tors R elated to the
M o t i v a t i o n s for S p e c t a t o r I n v o l v e m e n t
w i t h P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t i e s .................

149

SOCIAL F ACTORS R E L A T E D TO P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T Y
P R E F E R E N C E S .....................................

170

So ci al Fa ctors Re lated to P r e f e r e n c e s
for W o rk or Le i s u r e A c t i v i t i e s ..........
Soci al Fa ctors Re lated to P r e f e r e n c e s
for Cultural, Social/ or P h y s i c a l
A c t i v i t i e s D u r i n g L e i s u r e ................
Social Fa ctors Re lated to P r e f e r e n c e s
for A c t i v e or S p e c t a t o r I n v o l v e m e n t
w i t h L e isure A c t i v i t i e s ..................
Soci al Fa ctors R el a t e d to the Sou rces
of S a t i s f a c t i o n in P l a y i n g G a m e s .......
Social Fact ors Re lated to the E x p l a n a ­
tions for P a r t i c i p a t i o n in G a m e s .......
S oc i al Fa ctors Re lated to P r e f e r e n c e s
for I n d i v i d u a l or T e a m Sports as a
P a r t i c i p a n t ................................
S ocial Factors R elated to the
P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of A t ti t ud e s
T o w a r d P l a y ................................
S oc i al Fa c t o r s Related to the
E x p l a n a t i o n of S p e c t a t o r I n v o l v e m e n t
w i t h S p o r t s ................................
S oc i al Factors Re lated to P r e f e r e n c e s
for I n d i v i d u a l or T e a m S ports as a
S p e c t a t o r ...................................
VIII

IX

103

170
172
183
183
187
192
196
206
210

S O C I A L CLASS I D E N T I F I C A T I O N S W I T H S P O R T S .....

213

Sport P r e f e r e n c e s of the R e s p o n d e n t s
S oc i al Class and S p o r t ......................

213
216

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

231

vi i
Page
B I B L I O G R A P H Y ..................................................

240

APPENDIX
A

T H E Q U E S T I O N N A I R E ..................................

247

B

FOLLOW-UP

C A R D S ....................................

259

C

DETAILED TABLESUSED FOR SUMMARIZATION
OF R E S U L T S .......................................

26 2

LIST O F T ABLES
TABLE
1.

2.

Page
Sex c o m p o s i t i o n of the sample c o m p a r e d to
that of the o v e r - a l l u n d e r g r a d u a t e p o p u ­
lation of M i c h i g a n State U niversity,
Spri ng Term, 1 9 6 9 ..................................

72

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e return by u n d e r g r a d u a t e
class ( N = 9 8 8 ) ......................................

76

3.

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e tu r n by p r o g r a m level

(N=988)

4.

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e r et u rn by sex

5.

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e re t ur n by local r e si dence
(N=9 8 8 ) ..............................................

( N = 9 8 6 ) .............

77
78
79

6.

Age d i s t r i b u t i o n of the respo nd e nt s

( N = 6 2 5 ) ...

81

7.

Sex d i s t r i b u t i o n of the r es p on d en t s

( N = 6 2 5 ) ...

81

8.

M a r i t a l status of the r e sp o nd e nt s

( N= 6 25 ) .....

83

9.

N u m b e r of b r ot h er s in the families of the
r es p on d en t s (N = 62 5 ).............................

84

N u m b e r s of sisters in the families of
r es p on d en t s (N = 62 5 ) .............................

85

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

N u m b e r of o l d e r si blings in the families
of the r es p on d en t s (N = 62 5 ).......................

86

N u m b e r of ch i ld r en in the families of
r es p on d en t s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .............

87

S t r e n g t h of r el i gious c o n v i c t i o n among the
r es p on d en t s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .............................

88

F am i ly r e l i g i o n among the r e s p o nd e nt s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

88

Ty p e of high school at t en d ed by the
res p on d en t s { N = 6 2 5 ) .............................

89

Gross family income of the families of the
r es p on d e nt s (N = 62 5 ).............................

90

viii

ix
TABLE
17.

18.

Page
M a j o r f i n a n c i a l p r o v i d e r for the h o u s e h o l d
w h i l e the r e s p o n d e n t w a s a t t e n d i n g h i g h
s c h o o l (N=6 2 5 ) .............................

91

C e n s u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of the o c c u p a t i o n
levels of the he a ds of the r e s p o n d e n t s 1
h o u s e h o l d s ( N = 6 2 5 ) ................... ............

92

19.

E d u c a t i o n l ev e l of the h e a d of the r e s p o n de n ts '
h o u s e h o l d s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .........................
94

20.

P o p u l a t i o n s i ze of the h o m e to wn s of the
r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 6 2 5 ) ........................ .. ...

95

O c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s of the r e s p o n d e n t s
(N=625 ) ................................... .........

96

21.
22.

C o m p a r i s o n of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n terms u s e d in
the m o d e l s o f C a i l l o i s , M c I n t o s h ,
a n d K enyon,
w i t h th o se of the p r e s e n t s t u d y .........
98

23.

P r o p o r t i o n of the r e s p o n s e s p r o v i d e d in the
p r e s e n t s t u d y e x p l a i n e d by the C a il l oi s ,
M cI n t o s h , and K e n y o n m o d e l s ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24.

25.
26.

27.

28.

99

C o m p a r i s o n of the t h e o r i e s o f Ca il lois,
M c I n t o s h and Ke nyon, w i t h the s t a t e m e n t s
r e c e i v i n g f i r s t - r a n k e n d o r s e m e n t by o v e r
5 p e r c en t of the r e s p o n d e n t s in the
p r e s e n t s t u d y ....................

102

M o t i v a t i o n s for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l
a c t i v i t i e s ( N = 6 2 5 ) ................................

106

S u m m a r y table o f sex d i f f e r e n c e s in the
r a n k i n g s of m o t i v a t i o n s for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s ...........................

112

S o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d among females, and
the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l
a c t i v i t y as a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g i deas and
f ee l i n g s in m o v e m e n t ( N = 3 1 2 ) .....................

122

M a r i t a l s tatus a m o n g females, and the m o t i v a ­
tio n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y
for c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n ­
m e n t ( N = 3 1 7 ) .................................

126

X

TABLE
29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.
37.

38.

39.

Page
M a r i t a l s tatus and the m o t i v a t i o n for
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a
w a y of e x p r e s s i n g ideas and f e e l i n g s in
m o v e m e n t ( N = 6 2 2 ) ..................................

129

R e l i g i o n and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y o f p u r s u i n g
p e r s o n a l risk, thrills , and d a n g e r (N=550)...

133

S t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n and the
m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l
a c t i v i t y as a w a y of p u r s u i n g p e r s o n a l risk,
thrills, and d a n g e r ( N = 6 1 8 ) .....................

135

R e l i g i o n and s t r o n g r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s , an d
the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l
a c t i v i t y as a w a y of i n v o l v i n g the i n d i v i d u a l
a g a i n s t c h a n c e or luck in an e f f o r t to w i n an
o b j e c t or m o n e y ( N = 3 7 8 ) ..........................

136

N u m b e r of b r o t h e r s and the m o t i v a t i o n for
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y
of p u r s u i n g p e r s o n a l risk, t hr i l l s a nd
d a n g e r ( N = 6 2 1 ) .....................................

138

F a t h e r ' s e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s and the m o t i v a t i o n
for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y t h a t
m a t c h e s s k il l w i t h w e a p o n a g a i n s t a t a r g e t
or q u a r r y ( N = 6 1 2 ) .................................

141

H o m e to wn size a n d the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i ­
p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of
i n v o l v i n g the i n d i v i d u a l a g a i n s t ch a n c e or
luck in an e f f o r t to w i n an o b j e c t or m o n e y
( N = 6 1 1 ) ...............................................

142

M o t i v a t i o n s for s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t in
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .....................

145

D i f f e r e n c e s in f i r s t — p r e f e r e n c e r a n k i n g s of
the m o t i v a t i o n s for p a r t i c i p a n t and
s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t in p h y s i c a l a ct i v i t i e s .

147

C o m p a r i s o n of r a n k i n g s of total e n d o r s e m e n t
s u p p o r t for the m o t i v a t i o n s for p a r t i c i p a n t
and s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t in p h y s i c a l
a c t i v i t i e s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .................................
S u m m a r y ta b l e of s e x d i f f e r e n c e s in the
r a n k i n g s of m o t i v a t i o n s for s p e c t a t o r
i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s ..........

148

151

xi

S o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d a m o n g males, a n d the
m o t i v a t i o n to w a t c h p e o p l e i n v o l v e d in
a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h i m p r o v e the h e a l t h and f i t ­
nes s of the b o d y ( N = 3 0 0 ) ........................

154

M a r i t a l s t a t u s a m o n g females, a n d the m o t i v a ­
tion for w a t c h i n g p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s t h a t
give a f e e l i n g of e x c i t e m e n t (N=317)
......

155

M a r i t a l s t a t u s and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s t h at p r o v i d e a f e e l i n g
of e x c i t e m e n t ( N = 6 2 2 ) ............................

159

S t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n and the
m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g p e o p l e i n v o l v e d in
a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h i m p r o v e the h e a l t h and
fitness of the b o d y ( N = 6 1 8 ) .....................

161

S o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d and the m o t i v a t i o n
for w a t c h i n g p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s t ha t g i v e
a f e e l i n g of e x c i t e m e n t ( N = 6 1 2 ) ................

163

F a t h e r ' s e d u c a t i o n s t a t u s and the m o t i v a t i o n
to w a t c h a p e r s o n m a t c h his sk i ll in the use
of a w e a p o n a g a i n s t a t a r g e t or q u a r r y (N=612)

164

F a t h e r ' s e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s and the m o t i v a t i o n
to w a t c h p e o p l e i n v o l v e d in a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h
i m p r o v e the h e a l t h and f itness of the b o d y
( N= 6 12 ) .............................................

166

R e s i d e n c e and the m o t i v a t i o n to w a t c h a p e r s o n
m a t c h his s k i l l in the use of a w e a p o n
a g a i n s t a t a r g e t or q u a r r y ( N = 6 1 1 ) ............

167

R e s i d e n c e and the m o t i v a t i o n to w a t c h p e o p l e
in c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t p a r t of the n a t u r a l
e n v i r o n m e n t ( N = 6 1 1 ) ..............................

168

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n to the q u e s t i o n , "In w h i c h
k inds of a c t i v i t i e s w o u l d y o u r a t h e r s p e n d
y o u r time; l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s o r w o r k
a c t i v i t i e s ? ” { N = 6 1 9 ) ........... .

171

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n to the q u e s t i o n , "In w h i c h
ty pe of a c t i v i t y w o u l d y o u p r e f e r to s p e n d
y o u r le i sure time?"
( N = 6 2 5 ) ...................

172

S e x and the r a n k i n g s for cultural, social, and
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s as p r e f e r r e d l e i s u r e
p u r s u i t s ............................................

174

xii
T ABLE
52.

Pag e
M a r i t a l status and the r an k in g s for cultural,
s oc i al and p h y s i c a l activi t ie s as p r e f e r r e d
l eisure p u r s u i t s .................................

176

N u m b e r of b r o t h e r s and the r an k in g s for c u l ­
tural , s o ci a l and p h y s i c a l a c t i vi t ie s as
p r e f e r r e d leisure p u r s u i t s .....................

179

T otal n u m b e r of c h il d re n in the fa m i l y and the
ra nkings for c u l t u r a l , s o c i a l , and p h ys i c a l
act i vi t i e s as p r e f e r r e d leisure p u r s u i t s

182

R es p on s e p a t t e r n to the question, "When y o u
p a r t i c i p a t e in g a m e s , w h a t gives y o u the
most satisfaction?"
( N = 6 2 5 ) ...................

184

S ex and the r an k in g s for winning, c o m p a n i o n s h i p
and skill as m a j o r loci for s a t i s f a c t i o n in
g a m e s ...............................................

186

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n s to the q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g
the r an k i n g of six reasons for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in games ( N = 6 2 5 ) ..................................

188

Se x and the r an k in g s for reasons for p l a y i n g
g a m e s ...............................................

190

Re s po n s e p a t t e r n to the qu estion, "When y o u
p a r t i c i p a t e in sports, w h i c h type do you
prefer, i n di v i d u a l or team sports?" (N = 61 7 )..

192

R e l i g i o n and the p r e f e r e n c e for in d i v i d u a l or
t ea m sports as a p a r t i c i p a n t ( N = 5 4 3 ) .........

194

P a r e n t a l o c c u p a t i o n a l status and the p r e f e r ­
ence for i n d i v i d u a l or t e a m sports as a
p a r t i c i p a n t ( N = 6 0 6 ) ................... ..........

195

62.

Professionalization

index d e v e l o p e d by W e b b . ...

197

63.

R es p on s e p a t t e r n to the qu estion, "What do you
think is m o s t i m p o r t a n t in p l a y i n g a game?"
(N= 6 2 5 ) ............................................

198

R es p onses e x p r e s s e d on the p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n
scale (N= 6 2 5 ) .....................................

199

Sex and the r a nk i ng s of the re s ponses to the
q u e s t i o n ;"W hat do y o u think is m o s t im p ortant
in p l a y i n g a g a m e ? " ..............................

201

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.
59.

60.
61.

64.
65.

S e x and s c o r e s o n the P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n
I n d e x ( N = 6 1 7 ) ...................... ...............

203

S t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n a n d the
r a n k i n g s o f the r e s p o n s e s to the q u e s t i o n ;
" Wh a t d o y o u th i nk is m o s t i m p o r t a n t in
p l a y i n g a g a m e ? " ............. ....................

205

S t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n and P r o f e s ­
s i o n a l i z a t i o n I n d e x (N=611)
..................

206

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n to the reque st , " P eo p l e w a t c h
s p o r t s for m a n y reasons; rank the r e a s o n s of
excitement; companionship; escape from
routine; and to see sk i l f u l p e r f o r m a n c e s "
( N = 6 2 5 ) .............................................

207

S e x and the r a n k i n g s for p a r t i c u l a r r e a s o n s
for s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h s p o r t s .........

209

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n to th e q u e s t i o n , " W he n y o u
w a t c h sports, w h i c h typ e d o y o u p r e f e r ? "
( N = 6 1 9 ) ................................ ..................

211

S e x and the p r e f e r e n c e for i n d i v i d u a l or t e a m
s p o r t s as a s p e c t a t o r ( N = 6 1 9 ) ..................

212

The most popular participant sports

(N=625)....

213

The m ost popular participant sports listed by
the m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 3 0 6 ) ....................

214

The m ost popular participant sports listed by
the fe m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 3 1 9 ) .......... .......

214

Most popular

( N = 6 2 5 ) ...........

215

M o s t p o p u l a r s p e c t a t o r s ports l i s t e d b y m a l e
r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 3 0 6 ) ...............................

215

M o s t p o p u l a r s p e c t a t o r s ports l i s t e d b y f e m a l e
r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 3 1 9 ) ...............................

216

U p p e r class p a r t i c i p a n t s p o r t s i d e n t i f i e d
u s i n g t h e n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e m o d e (N=610)

219

M i d d l e cl a s s p a r t i c i p a n t s p o r t s i d e n t i f i e d
u s i n g th e n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e m o d e (N=605)

220

W o r k i n g class p a r t i c i p a n t sp o rt s i d e n t i f i e d
u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e m o d e (N=603)

221

spectator

sports

xiv
TABLE
82.
83.

Page
Lower class p a r t i c i p a n t sports id e n t i f i e d
u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e sp o ns e m o d e ( N = 5 8 8 ) .
Upper class s p e c t a t o r sports i d e n t i f i e d
u sing the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e m o d e

222

( N = 5 9 4 ) . 223

84.

Middle class s p e c t a t o r spor ts i d e n t i f i e d
u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e re s po n se m o d e ( N = 6 0 5 ) . 225

85.

W o r k i n g class s pe c t a t o r sports id e n t i f i e d
u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r es p on s e m o d e ( N = 6 0 3 ) .

86.
8 7.
88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

Lower class s p e c t a t o r sports i d e n t i f i e d
u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e sp o ns e m o d e

(N=592).

P r o p o r t io n s of r e sp onses for each sp o rt in
each social class g r o u p i n g ........................

225
226
229

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a ct i vi t y as a way of p u r s u i n g
p e r s o n a l risk, thrills, and d a n g e r ( N = 6 2 5 ) ....

263

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p hy s ic a l a c ti v it y as a way of m e e t i n g p eo p le
in social s i t u a t i o n s ( N = 6 2 5 ) ....................

263

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
phy s ic a l a ct i vi t y that m at c h e s s k il l in the
use of a w e a p o n a g a i n s t a t ar g et or q u a r r y
(N=625 ) ..............................................

263

Se x and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l ac t iv i ty as a way of i m p r o v i n g the
h e a l t h and fitness of the b o d y (N = 62 5 )........

264

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a way of i n v o l v i n g the
i n di v i d u a l ag a inst "chance" or "luck" in an
att e m p t to w i n an o b j e c t or m o n e y ( N = 6 2 5 ) .....

264

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of h a v i n g fun and
pure e n j o y m e n t ( N = 6 2 5 ) ...........................

264

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a ct i vi t y as a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g
ideas and feelings in m o v e m e n t < N = 6 2 5 ) ........

265

xv

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as c o m p e t i t j o n in v ol v in g
skill as the p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of the p e r ­
form ance ( N = 6 2 5 ) .................................

265

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l ac t i v i t y as c o m p e t i t i o n i nv o l v i n g
comb at as the p r e d o m i n a n t p ar t of the p e r ­
f ormance ( N = 6 2 5 ) .................................

265

S e x an d the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as c o m p e t i t i o n ag ai nst
p ar t of the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t (N=6 2 5 ) ......

266

S ex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g p e o p l e
i n v o l v e d in d a n g e r o u s , t h r i l l i n g / and risky
activi t ie s ( N = 6 2 5 ) ...............................

266

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g p e o p l e
i nv o l v e d in p h y s i c a l ac t iv i ti e s w h i c h are
e nj o y e d for p u r e l y social r easons ( N = 6 2 5 ) ....

266

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g a p er s on
mat c h his skill in the use of a w e a p o n
aga i n s t a ta r ge t or q u a r r y ( N = 6 2 5 ) ............

267

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g people
involved in activi t i e s that improve the
health and fitness of the body ( N= 6 25 ) .......

267

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g p e ople
i nv o lv e d ag a i n s t "chance" or "luck" in an
at t e mp t to w i n an o b j e c t o r m o n e y (N = 62 5 )....

267

S ex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g p h ys i c a l
a c ti v it i es that give you a fe eling of
e x c i t e m e n t (N=6 2 5 ) ................. ..............

268

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g the
e x p r e s s i o n of ideas and fe elings in p h ys i c a l
m o v e m e n t {N=6 2 5 } .................................

268

S e x and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g c o m p e t i ti o n
i n vo l v i n g skill as the p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of
the p e r f o r m a n c e ( N = 6 2 5 ) .........................

268

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g c o m p e t i t i o n
i n v o l v in g c om b at as the p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of
the p e r f o r m a n c e ( N = 6 2 5 ) .........................

269

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g people in
c o m p e t i t i o n agai n s t part of the natural
e n v i r o n m e n t ( N = 6 2 5 ) ..............................

269

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The p h i l o s o p h i c a l
role of play,

g am e s

man y p h i l o s o p h e r s

and t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n of the

and s p o r t s has o c c u p i e d the a t t e n t i o n of

an d s oc i al

s c i e n t i s t s o ve r the centu r ie s .

S ocial p h i l o s o p h e r s h av e b e e n c o n c e r n e d w i t h the
m e a n i n g of play,

games,

an d sports

in the lif e of man,

and

ma n y t h eo r i e s h a ve b e e n a d v a n c e d t ha t a t t e m p t to d i s c o v e r
the r ea sons b e h i n d m a n ' s play,

a n d the r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n

play and o t h e r a s p e c t s of life.
P s y c h o l o g i s t s b e g a n by a t t e m p t i n g to d e t e r m i n e
role of p l ay

the

in the d e v e l o p m e n t of p e r s o n a l i t y a n d then

s hi f t e d the focus of t h ei r i n q u i r y to the area of game
theory.
N o r t h A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g i s t s ha ve
the f un c t i o n of p l ay in so cial

life,

la r g e l y n e g l e c t e d

b u t the i n t e r e s t

e v i d e n c e d by E u r o p e a n s o c i o l o g i s t s has led to the d e v e l o p ­
m en t of v a r i o u s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y t h e o r i e s of play,
sports.

These

various

sp o rt s

in society,
have

focus,

g a m e s and

no t so m u c h on the c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f

as m e a n s o f f u l f i l l i n g p a r t i c u l a r

functions

b u t on the a n a l y s i s of the m o t i v a t i o n s p eo p le

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in such a c t i v i t i e s .
Unfortunately,

e mp i r i c a l

litt le c o n c e r n ha s b e e n g i v e n to the

test o f such theories,

and t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y to

2
e x p l a i n the f u n c t i o n of p l a y in s o c i e t y has r e m a i n e d l a r g e l y
conj e c t u r a l .
The n e g l e c t of the a n a l y s i s of play,
s ports as

important elements

b l a m e d up o n

in s oc i a l

games,

life can g e n e r a l l y be

the s t r o n g o r i e n t a t i o n to w a r d s work,

n e g a t i o n of l eisure a c t i v i t i e s

as

u n w o r t h y of s c i e n t i f i c at t en t io n .
is p a r t of the i d e o l o g i c a l

an d

f r i v o l ou s
This

and,

a n d the
theref o re ,

tradition,

o f course,

s t r u c t u r e of the P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c

w h i c h a f f e c t e d the b e h a v i o u r of the m a j o r i t y of the m e m b e r s
of the A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y

for se v e r a l c e n t u r i e s , a n d has

c e r t a i n l y p l a y e d a p a r t in d e t e r m i n i n g
topics w o r t h y of s c i e n t i f i c

the s e l e c t i o n of

investigation.

The n e w e r e m p h a s i s on the a p p l i c a t i o n of a u t o m a t i o n
to all a s p e c t s of o c c u p a t i o n a l
d i m i n i s h e d stress
study of play,

life,

up o n the n e c e s s i t y

games,

and s ports

to the s o l u t i o n of the p r o b l e m s

and

the p r o s p e c t of a

to work,

has made

the

an e s s e n t i a l p r e - c o n d i t i o n
that m a y o c c u r w i t h

the

a dv e n t of a l e i s u r e - b a s e d s o c i e t y upon a c u l t u r e w h o s e
m em b e r s ha v e

little preparation

The a i m o f this

s t ud y wa s

e s s e n t i a l l y i n t e r - r e l a t e d tasks.
f ic ation o f play,

games,

for such an e v e n t u a l i t y .
the f u l f i l l m e n t of two
First,

a s y s t e m of c l a s s i ­

an d s po r ts h a d to be d e v e l o p e d to

se rve as the b a s i c i n s t r u m e n t to be e m p l o y e d in the e v a l u ­
a ti o n of the m o t i v a t i o n s

for i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h s uc h a c t i v i t i e s .

The se c on d o b j e c t i v e w a s

the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of

of s o ci a l b a c k g r o u n d f actors

the i n f l u e n c e s

u p on the d e g r e e of s u p p o r t

3
p r o v i d e d by the r e s p o n d e n t s
expressed

for the p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n s

in the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n model.

T he d e v e l o p m e n t o f the m o d e l

f o c u s s e d s p e c i f i c a l l y on

the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of p l a y d e v e l o p e d by C ai l l o i s .
fied p l a y and g a m e s on two d i m e n s i o n s :
ga mes

into f ou r c a t e g o r i e s

and v e r t i g o ) , w h i l e

(c ompetition,

He c l a s s i ­

the f i r s t g r o u p e d
chance,

pretense,

the s e c o n d d i m e n s i o n p o s i t e d the

e x i s t e n c e of a c o n t i n u u m of i n c r e a s i n g c o m p l e x i t y of the rule
s t r u c t u r e and a c o n c o m i t a n t d i m i n i s h m e n t

in the c a p a c i t y

for

x m p r o v i z a t i o n .1
■

The C a i l l o i s m o d e l w a s

c r i t i c i z e d by M c I n t o s h o n the

b asis of an i n a d e q u a t e d e f i n i t i o n of the d i f f e r e n t

components

i n v o l v e d in the c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of c o m p e t i t i o n .

He b e ­

l ieved t h at this c a t e g o r y s h o u l d be b r o k e n d o wn i nt o th r ee
parts:

c o m p e t i t i o n o n the b a s i s of skill,

b as i s of combat,
ment.

and competition

He also c r i t i c i z e d

skill and g am e s of c h a n c e

c o m p e t i t i o n on the

a g a i n s t the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n ­

the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

ga m es of

as b e i n g c o n t r i v e d d i s t i n c t i o n s

b a s e d upon the c o n s i d e r a t i o n of e x t r e m e e xa m p l e s .

To McIntosh,

the most i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n

in the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of

games

and the n a t u r e o f the sa t i s -

and sp o rt s wa s

f ac tion w h i c h

"the m o t i v e

the s p o r t gives,

■^Roger C a i l l o i s ,
games," D i o g e n e s ., vol.
2

n o t u p o n the a c t i v i t y itself".

"The s t r u c t u r e and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
12 (1955), 62-75.

P e t e r C . M c I n t o s h , S p o r t in S o c i e t y ( L o n d o n :
Watts a n d Co. Ltd., 1963), pp. 11 6-133, 128.

C .A.

2

4
In an a t t e m p t

to i n v e s t i g a t e

Caillois and McIntosh,
scales

and a p p l i e d

undergraduate

K e n y o n d e v e l o p e d a g r o u p of a t t i t u d e

t he s e m e a s u r e s

students.

for i n v e s t i g a t i n g a t t i t u d e s

experience;
physical

identified

physical

activity

to a s a m p l e o f c o l l e g e

He c o n c l u d e d

p o r a t i n g six d i m e n s i o n s c o u l d m o r e

dimensions were

the j o i n t m o d e l s of

toward physical
as;

activity

a ct i v i t y -

physical activity
f or h e a l t h a nd

for the p u r s u i t o f vertig o ;

as a s o c i a l

physical

physical

activity

p h y s i c a l a c ti vity,

e x p e r i e n c e . ^

in the a t t i t u d e t o w a r d

and this o m i s s i o n o f an a p p a r e n t l y

e l e m e n t in the A m e r i c a n

K e n y o n a d m i t t e d t h a t an a t t e m p t

g e s t e d t h a t a lack of p r e c i s i o n
original definitions

to i n c l u d e

at fault.

t h at a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c o m p e t i t i v e

for l a t e r su c cess.

p e t i t i o n was

and s u g ­

in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the

could have been

the need of the p a r t i c i p a n t s
quest

strong

i d e o l o g y c a s t d o u b t on the e f f i c a c y

the c o n c e p t of c o m p e t i t i o n h a d b e e n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y

however,

as a

n o t e d t h at the a s p e c t of c o m p e t i t i o n was

o m i t t e d as a s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p o n e n t

of the model.

These

fitness;

a nd p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as an a s c e t i c

It was

incor­

a p p r o p r i a t e l y be e m p l o y e d

a c t i v i t y as an a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e ;
catharsis;

t h at a m o d e l

He noted,
sport was

to d e l a y g r a t i f i c a t i o n

Therefore,

in the

he c o n c l u d e d t h a t c o m ­

an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the d i m e n s i o n ;

physical

3G e r a l d S. Kenyon, "Six s cales for a s s e s s i n g a t t i ­
tude t o w a r d p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y , " R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y , vol.
39, no. 3 (1968), 566-574.

5
a c ti v it y as an as cetic e x p e r i en c e. ^
In v i e w of the d i f f i c u l t i e s

that h a d b e e n e x p e r i e n c e d

in p r o v i d in g e mp i r i c a l support for the C ai l lo i s

theory,

and

for the m o d i f i c a t i o n of that s y s t e m of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by
McIntosh,

it was p r o p o s e d

to a t t e m p t to o p e r a t i o n a l i z e

various co m po n e n t s of the c l as s i f i c a t i o n s of play,
and sports,
concepts

i n co r po r at e the Ke n yo n model,

into a r a n k i n g scale

the

games,

and as s em b le

for investigation.

the

This

scale

w o u l d then be tested to d et e r m i n e w h e t h e r it c o n s t i t u t e d an
inclusive model for the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the m o t i v a t i o n s
for i n v o l v e m e n t in p h y s i c a l activ it i es

in the g r o u p to be

studied.
The e s s e n ti a l fe ature of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme,
then, was that it w o u l d be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the m o t i v a t i o n s
regarded as im p or t a n t by the students of M i c h i g a n St ate
University.

It w o u l d not be p r o p o s e d as a u n i v e r s a l l y

applicable model,

but w o u l d be one w h i c h was c a p a b l e of b e ­

ing em ployed w i t h i n the s p ec i fi c group as a tool for the
i nv e st i ga t io n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p be t w e e n mo t i v a t i o n a l
patterns and p a r t i c u l a r social b a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b l e s .
It was b e l i e v e d that sp ecific social factors w o u l d
be important influen c es upon the m o t i v a t i o n s for i n v o l v e ­
men t w i th p h ys i ca l activities.

4

The va riables of sex,

and

G e r a l d S. Kenyon, "A c o n c e p t u a l model for c h a r a c t e r ­
izing physical activi t y. "
R e s e a r c h paper, D e p a r t m e n t of
Physical Education-Men, U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin, M a d i s o n
(1966), pp. 4-9.
(Mimeographed.)

6
the

size and c o m p o s i t i o n of the

provide

some

f a m i l y w o u l d be e x p e c t e d to

indication of the influences

identifications

u po n m o t i v a t i o n a l

of s e x r o l e

patterns.

religious

f a c t o r s of

s t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s

religious

faith,

type of h i g h

r e g a r d e d as

and

independent variables

school

The associated
conviction,

a t te n d e d ,

or c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e s w h i c h

w o u l d a l l o w s p e c i f i c a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s
ideological
model.

f actors

Final ly ,

backgrounds

a n d the p r e f e r e n c e s

f ac tors

parental occupation,

and p a r e n t a l e d u c a t i o n a l

in p h y s i c a l

su ch

socio-economic

s u ch as p a r e n t a l

w e r e p o s t u l a t e d to be d e t e r m i n a n t s
involvement

between

e x p r e s s e d in the

i m p o r t a n t in the

of the r e s p o n d e n t s ,

were

income,

attainments,

of the m o t i v a t i o n s

for

activities.

S t a t e m e n t of the P r o b l e m
The c e n t r a l c o n c e r n o f this s t u d y w a s

to d e v e l o p a

r an king s c a l e i n c l u s i v e of the v a r i o u s m o t i v a t i o n s
participation by college

undergraduates

in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i ­

ties , and to d e t e r m i n e the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
and s everal

social variables;

the r espondent;
viction;

(5)

occupational

(3)

status;

sex;

(2) m a r i t a l

(4)

s t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s c o n ­

(7) p a r e n t a l

(6)

s t a t u s of

parental

g r o s s f a m i l y income;

(8)

e d u c a t i o n of the h e a d of the h o u s e h o l d ;

n u m b e r of b r o t h e r s ;

residence.

these m o t i v a t i o n s

(1)

type of h i g h s chool a t t e n d e d ;

a m o u n t of f or m al

tion in the

r el i g i o n ;

for

family;

(10) n u m b e r of sisters;
(12)

(11)

(9)

ordinal posi­

t ot a l n u m b e r of s i bl ings;

and

(13)

7
S ub - Pr o bl e ms
(1) To c l ar i f y the d e t e r m i n a n t factors w h i c h

lead the

individual to b e co m e i nv o lv e d in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s by
i n v e s t i g a t i n g the a tt i tudes he l d toward p l ay and its f u n c ­
tions .
(2) To d et e r m i n e w h e t h e r p a r t i c u l a r sports can be
identif i ed as being played,

or watched,

by s p e c i f i c s o c i o ­

e c o n o m i c class groups.

L i m i t a ti o ns
The analys is of play,

of the Stu dy
games,

the a t t e n t i o n of m a n y ph iloso phers,
gists,

and p h ys i ca l educators.

and sports has o cc u p i e d
sociologists,

psycholo­

A l t h o u g h the re v i e w of the

literat ure p ro v id e s a basis for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the m a jo r
conceptualizations,

the analys is c on c e n t r a t e s on H ui z in g a

5

,

Caillois 6 , M c I n t o s h 7 , and Kenyon. 8
The da ta for this study w e r e o b t a i n e d from a r a n d o m
sample of u n d e r g r a d u a t e stu dents e n r o l l e d at M i c h i g a n State

^Johan Huizinga, Homo L u d e n s : A Study of the PlayE le m e n t in C ul t u r e ( B o s t o n : Be a co n P r e s s , 1966).
6Roger Caillois, Man, Pl a y and G a m e s , t r a n s . by M e y e r
(New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., 1961).
7
Peter C . M c I n t o s h , Sport in S o c i e t y .
Q
G er a ld S. Kenyon, V a lu es h e l d for p h y s i c a l activ it y
by selected u rban se c ondary school students In Canada,
Australia, England, a nd the U n i t e d S t a t e s . R e p o r t of U.S.
Offi ce of E d u c a t i o n C o n t r a c t S-376, Madison, Wis.: U n i v e r s i t y
of Wisconsin, 1968.
Barash

8
University

in the S p r i n g T e r m of

l i m i t e d to s t ud e n t s

1969.

Th i s p o p u l a t i o n wa s

t w e n t y - t h r e e y e a r s of age or yo unger,

w h o w e r e c i t i z e n s o f the U n i t e d S ta t es o f Am e ri c a.
C r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o m p a r i s o n s are d i f f i c u l t to j u st i fy
in s o c i o l o g i c a l

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b e c a u s e of the d i f f e r e n t

s oc i e t a l c o n d i t i o n s

th a t o p e r a t e

in e ac h c o u n t r y .

fore , the r e v i e w of the l i t e r a t u r e was

r es t r i c t e d ,

There­
except

in the d i s c u s s i o n of the v a r i o u s

t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n s , to

m a t e r i a l d e a l i n g w i t h the so c i a l

i n f l u e n c e s a n d f un c t i o n s

of play,

games,

and sports

in the U n i t e d St a te s of America.

D e l i m i t a t i o n s of the S t u d y
The

sample wa s d r a w n f r o m a li st of u n d e r g r a d u a t e

st udents e n r o l l e d at M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y f o r the
S pring T e r m of 1969.

Th e su r v e y w a s n ot d i s t r i b u t e d un t il

one m o n t h b e f o r e the e n d of the a c a d e m i c year,
fa ct m a y have

led to a d i m i n i s h e d r e s p o n s e

have b e e n e x p e c t e d had
the q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

a n d this

rate than m a y

the m e m b e r s of the s ample r e c e i v e d

at some e a r l i e r time.

The s urvey i n s t r u m e n t us e d for the c o l l e c t i o n o f the
d at a w a s a m a i l e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
i nv olves

l i m i t a t i o n s in itself,

The use of this
and these

technique

limitations were

c o n s i d e r e d w h e n the s e l e c t i o n of the s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s
for d at a an a ly s is w a s made.

9
The

I m p o r t a n c e of the Study

The study of the S o c i o l o g y of S po r t is a r e c e n t
d e v e l o p m e n t and t he r e is a p a u c i t y of d a ta on p r o b l e m s
van t to this

sub-discipline.

rele­

N o t o n l y is th e re a s h o r t a g e

of e m p i r i c a l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e d data,

b u t t h os e t h e o r i e s or

s ys t em s of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t h at are r e l e v a n t to the s t u d y of
play,

games,

and sport,

a n d t h e i r f u n c t i o n in s o c i e t y have

r e m a i n e d l argely c o n j e c t u r a l .
This

st u dy a t t e m p t e d to d e t e r m i n e the s t r e n g t h of

the p o s t u l a t e d m o t i v a t i o n s
activi ty,

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in p h y s i c a l

a n d thu s p r o v i d e some d e g r e e of e m p i r i c a l s u p p o r t

for the three c l o s e l y r e l a t e d m o d e l s

s e e k i n g to e x p l a i n

such involv em e nt .
It is g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d

that t h eo r i e s

s u b s t a n t i a t e d by the c o l l e c t i o n of u n i q u e

c a n n o t be

f a c t s , b u t that

such a role is the f u n c t i o n of d at a t h at is g e n e r a l ! z a b l e
to a w i d e range of i n s t a n c e s or p o p u l a t i o n s .
ba sis

S u ch is the

for the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n the n o m e t h e t i c an d i d e o ­

g raphic d i sc i p l i n e s .

However,

few d i s c i p l i n e s

r e g a r d e d as b e i n g w h o l l y c o n t a i n e d
e xt r e m e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .

Nagel

c a n be

in one o r o t h e r o f these

s tates t h a t the n a t u r a l

s ci ences c a n n o t c l a i m to be c o m p l e t e l y n o m o t h e t i c as
have be e n m a n y i n s t a n c e s w h e r e

t here

t h e o r e t i c a l s y s t e m s ha ve b e e n

s u p p o r t e d by p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c r a t h e r than by u n i v e r s a l l y
a p p l i c a b l e data.
9

9

It wa s

E r n e s t Nagel,

for this r e a s o n t ha t it w as b e l i e v e d

"The logic of h i s t o r i c a l

analysis,"

10
that#

despite the limitations

i m posed up on g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y

by the selection of n o np a r a m e t r i e statistical p r o c e d u r e s and
by the limitations of the data d ra w n using the survey t e c h ­
nique,

this study could pr ovide s u pport for one or all of the

th eoretical models.

Hypotheses
1.

M o t i v at i o ns

for b o th p a rt i c i p a t i o n and sp e ctator

interests in ph y si c al activity,
2.

va ry w it h sex.

M o t i v at i o ns for b o th pa r t i c i p a t i o n and s pe c t a t o r

interests in ph y si c al activity,

v a r y w it h the m a r i t a l

status

of the individual.
3.

M o t i v a t io n s for both p ar t i c i p a t i o n and spect a to r

interests in physical activity, v a r y w it h religious belief,
the st rength of r el i gious c o n v i c t i o n , and the type of high
school att ended
4.

(parochial or p u b l i c ) .

M o t i v a ti o ns

for bo t h p a r t i c i p a t i o n and specta tor

interests in p hy s ic a l activity,

vary w i th

the o c c u p a t i o n a l

status of the head of the pa rental household.
5.

Motivations

for both p a rt i c i p a t i o n and s p ec tator

interests in p hy s ic a l activity,

vary w i th the p a r e n t a l gross

family income.

in Readings in the P h i l o s o p h y of S c i e n c e , e d . by H er b er t
Feigl and May B ro d be c k (New York: A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s ,
Inc., 1963), pp. 688-700.

11
6.
interests

Motivations

for b o t h p a r t i c i p a t i o n and s p e c t a t o r

in p hy s ic a l activity,

va ry wi t h the am o u n t of

formal e d u c a t io n of the he ad of the p ar e nt a l household.
7.

Motivations

for bo th p a r t i c i p a t i o n and s pe c ta t or

interests in p h ys i ca l activity,
8.
interests
siblings

M o t i v at i on s

vary w it h residence.

for both p a r t i c i p a t i o n and s p e c t a t o r

in p h y s i c a l activity,
in the family,

vary with the n u m b e r of

the nu mb e r of older siblings,

and

the number of b ro t he r s and sisters in the family.

O p e r a t i o n a l Defini t io n s
Attitude:

a s y m b o l i c , socially d e t e r m i n e d , relatively

stable e x p ression of preference,

either positive or negative,

towards an object.
Game:

a game is a fo rm of play in w h i c h the rule

structure has bee n p a r t i a l l y

formalized so that some a g r e e ­

ment exists among the p a r t i ci pa n ts

as to the m a nn e r

of c o n ­

duct regarded as a p p r o p ri a te during r epetitions of the
activity over a p e ri o d of time.
Individual s p o r t :

a p hy si c al

ac tivity w h i c h

an individual in c o mp e ti t io n against time,
height,

distance,

involves
or

as well as a ga inst o ther people in competition.

Such

activities do n o t r equire more than a low level of task
orientation.
■^Harry Webb, "Social b ac k gr o un d s of M.S.U. athletes"
(paper p r es e n t e d at the 83rd A n n i v e r s a r y N a t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n
of the A . A . H .P .E .R . , St. Louis, Mo., March 30, 1968), p. 7.

12

I n v o l v e m e n t : a d e l i b e r a t e a c t i o n to e n a b l e the i n d i ­
v idual

to b e c o m e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an ob j ect;

\-jith p h y s i c a l

in this case,

activ ity.

M o t i v a t i o n : the s t i m u l u s

leading

the i n d i v i d u a l

to

take a p a r t i c u l a r action.
Physical

activity:

a human movement which

c h a r a c t e r i z e d as e i t h e r play,

a game,

P l a y : p l a y is an activity,
p hy s i c a l m o v e m e n t ,

w h i c h is

limits of time an d space,
unp r o d u c t i v e ,

free,

can be

or sport.

generally

involved with

circumscribed within

u n c e r t a i n in c o u r s e an d result,

g o v e r n e d b y rules,

an d a c c o m p a n i e d b y an

a wa r e n e s s of a s e c o n d r e a l i t y as a g a i n s t real
S p o r t : a s p o r t is a f o r m of p l a y

life.

11

in w h i c h a n i n s t i t u ­

t i o n a l i z e d rule s t r u c t u r e has b e e n d e v e l o p e d a n d c o d i f i e d .
F or m al b o d i e s a d m i n i s t e r

to the s t a b i l i t y or c h a n g i n g of

the rule s t r u c t ur e .

In their m o r e c o m p l e x

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ma ss

s p e c t a t o r support.

Team s p o r t :

t e a m sp o r t s are

forms,

sp o r t s are

activities which require

the i n t e g r a t e d f u n c t i o n i n g of a c o l l e c t i v e of v a r i o u s
of p l a y e r s w h o

st r i v e to a c h i e v e a c e r t a i n o b j e c t i v e .

s uccess of such a c o l l e c t i v e is c o n d i t i o n a l on all
p o n e n t p ar t s

numbers
The

the c o m ­

(the p l a y e r s ) , t h o u g h p e r f o r m i n g s p e c i a l i z e d

skil ls a n d d i f f e r e n t i a t e d tasks,

o p e r a t i n g as an i n t e g r a t e d

,
.
12
whole.

■^Roger C ai l l o i s ,
^"2H a r r y Webb,
p . 8.

M a n , P l ay a nd G a m e s , pp.

"Social b a c k g r o u n d s of M. S .U .

9-10.
athletes,"

13
Trend:

a l i near r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n two va r ia b le s

w hich is not s t at i s t i c a l l y significant,

but w h i c h appears

to have some su b st a nt i ve s ig n i f i c a n c e and is,
wort hy of further investigation.

accordingly,

C H A P T E R II
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
M a n y t h e o r e t i c a l an d q u a s i - t h e o r e t i c a l

approaches

have b e e n e m p l o y e d in an a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n and c l a s s i f y
play,

and m o re r e ce ntly,

extent,

the t h e o r i e s

g am e s a nd sports.

t h at h av e b e e n a d v a n c e d h av e b e e n in

accordance with particular general
time of t h e i r

To a c e r t a i n

formulation.

Thus,

t h e o r i e s p o p u l a r at the
evolutionary

theories have

been a d v a n c e d to e x p l a i n p l a y w h i l e c o n s i d e r a b l e
given to the D a r w i n i a n p e r s p e c t i v e ;
m a n i f e s t a t i r n of i n s t i n c t s w h e n
lar;

support was

play was explained

as a

su c h e x p l a n a t i o n s w e r e p o p u ­

and F r e u d i a n a nd p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l

theories became

p r e v a l e n t w h e n such e x p l a n a t i o n s of g e n e r a l h u m a n b e h a v i o u r
w er e re a d i l y accept ed.
F r o m the e a r l y

theories

as the dr i ve b e h i n d play,
games and sports

the c o m m o n t h r e a d

e v a l u a t i o n and support.

while other

pure c o njecture.

energy

to the p r e s e n t a n a l y s e s of play,

li n k i n g all

is the

M o s t are b a s e d on

common se nse e x p l a n a t i o n s w h i c h a p p e a r to h av e
validity,

su r p l u s

in te r ms of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s b a s e d u p o n

in d i vi d ua l m o t i v a t i o n s ,
lack of e m p i r i c a l

t h at d e a l t w i t h

some fa ce

" t he o ri e s" w o u l d b e s t be l a b e l l e d as

O n l y t ho se t h e o r i e s or m o d e l s w h i c h h a v e

g ained c o n t e m p o r a r y s u p p o r t and p r o m i n e n c e
14

in the l i t e r a t u r e

15
of the p e r i o d w i l l be d i s c u s s e d
review, w h i l e

in the f ir s t p a r t of this

the c l a s s i f i c a t o r y mo d e l s of m a j o r c o n c e r n to

the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h are d i s c u s s e d in the

Early Theoretical
3..

Surplus

la t t e r section.

P os i t i o n s

Energy Theory

A l t h o u g h t here

is som e e v i d e n c e tha t this e x p l a n a t i o n

of play dates b a c k to the S to i c p h i l o s o p h e r s a nd is b e l i e v e d
to have had a l o ng h i s t o r y of s u p p o r t in the e d u c a t i o n a l
literature,

it has b e e n

S ch i l l e r an d Spencer.
Cer ta i n ly ,

identified predominantly with

11

it w a s

an i n c i d e n t a l p ar t of the d i s c u s ­

sions ma d e by S c h i l l e r on the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n man,
and the a e s t h e t i c s entiments.

T h e m a j o r s t a t e m e n t o f his

b el i ef on the o r i g i n of pl a y w as m a d e
f re e do m in the p l a y of ani mals.

play

in his a n a l y s i s of

S c h i l l e r wrote:

No d o ub t n a t u r e has gi v en m or e than is
n e c e s s a r y to u n r e a s o n i n g beings;
she has
c a u s e d a g l e a m of f r e e d o m to sh i ne even
in the d a r k n e s s of a n i m a l life.
When
the lion is not t o r m e n t e d b y hun ger, and
w h e n no w i l d b e a s t c h a l l e n g e s h i m to
fight, his u n e m p l o y e d e n e r g y c r e a t e s an
o b j e c t for hi mself;
full of ardor, he
fills the r e - e c h o i n g d e s e r t w i t h his
t e r r i b l e roars, a n d his e x u b e r a n t force
r ej o i c e s in itself, s h o w i n g i tself w i t h ­
out an object.
T h e in s e c t flits abo ut

W i l b u r P. B o we n and E l m e r D. Mitchell,
and P r a c t i c e o f O r g a n i z e d P l a y (New York:
A.S.
and Co. 1923), v o l u m e 1, p. 182.

The T h e o r y
B ar n es

16

r e j o i c i n g in life in the sunlight, an d
it is c e r t a i n l y not the cry of w a n t
t ha t m akes i t s e l f h e a r d in the m e l o d i o u s
s on g of the bird;
t h e r e is u n d e n i a b l y
f re e d o m in these m o v e m e n t s , t h o u g h it is
not e m a n c i p a t i o n f r om w a n t in general,
b ut fr o m a d e t e r m i n a n t e x t e r n a l ne c es s i t y .
The a n i m a l w o r k s , w h e n a p r i v a t i o n
is the m o t o r of its activity, and it
p la y s w h e n the p l e n i t u d e of force is this
motor, w h e n an e x u b e r a n t life is e x c i t e d
to a c t i o n .14
There

is c o n s i d e r a b l e

this q u o t a t i o n

for,

aimless m o v e m e n t s

as H o b h o u s e i nd i ca t ed ,

of the i ns e c t s

may be m a n i f e s t a t i o n s
w h i c h are u n k n o w n
w ha t

seems

e v i d e n c e of a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m

of e l e m e n t s

to man. 1 5

to be p l a y

the a p p a r e n t l y

and the calls of the b i r d s
of the c o u r t s h i p p r o c e s s

Certainly,

it is p o s s i b l e

that

in m u ch of a n i m a l a n d i n s e c t b e h a v i o u r

is r e l a t e d to the m a i n t e n a n c e
to deny that a n i ma l s play,
b e h a v i o u r that a pp e a r s

of life.

bu t r a t h e r

T hi s

is n o t m e a n t

to c a u t i o n th a t

to be u n r e l a t e d to p r i v a t i o n

all

and

b r e e d i n g is not n e c e s s a r i l y w i t h o u t such an object.
In his e v a l u a t i o n of the ro l e of h u m a n
Schiller proposed

in

imagination,

that the r e l e a s e of the e n e r g y s u r p l u s

was unhindered:
The i m a g i n a t i o n , like the b o d i l y or ga ns,
has in man its free m o v e m e n t a n d its
m a t e r i a l play, a p l a y in w h i c h w i t h o u t
any r e f e r e n c e to form, it s i m p l y takes
14

J.C. F r i e d r i c h vo n Schil le r , E s s a y s A e s t h e t i c a l
and P h i l o s o p h i c a l (London:
G e o r g e Be l l and Sons, 1884) ,
pp. 112-113.
- ^ L e o n a r d T. H ob h ouse, M i n d in E v o l u t i o n
M a c m i l l a n and Company, Ltd., 1901), p^ fH

(London:

17
p l e a s u r e in its a r b i t r a r y p o w e r an d in
the a b s e n c e of all h i n d r a n c e .
These
pl a y s o f fancy, i n a s m u c h as form is not
m i x e d up w i t h them, an d b e c a u s e a free
s u c c e s s i o n of images m a k e s all t h e i r
charm, t h o u g h c o n f i n e d to man, b e l o n g
e x c l u s i v e l y to a ni m a l life, and o n l y
p r o v e ... t ha t he is d e l i v e r e d fr o m all
e x t e r n a l s e n s u o u s c o n s t r a i n t .16
The r e f e r e n c e to s e n s u a l
feature
wit h

in S c h i l l e r ' s

d i s c u s s i o n of play.

the p r o b l e m o f c o p i n g w i t h

sens uous

instinct

instinct

(rational o r i e n t a t i o n ) .

these forces
it is play

Man

is p r e s e n t e d

the o p p o s i n g f o r c e s of the

(sensation o r i e n t a t i o n )

and th e

of

f r e e d o m and h a r m o n y

as

t h a t m an a c h i e v e s his

t w o f o l d n at u r e ; "

17

"For,

man o n ly plays w h e n in the

word he is a man,

f o rm a l

It is in the b a l a n c e

"which makes m an c o m p l e t e and d e v e l o p s

tan e o u s l y his
for all,

c o n s t r a i n t is an i m p o r t a n t

simul-

to s p e a k o u t o n c e

full m e a n i n g of the

an d he is o n l y c o m p l e t e l y a m a n w h e n he

i
pl
a y s . n 18

It was
write;

undoubtedly Schiller who

"Many years

ago I m e t w i t h

i n f l u e n c e d S p e n c e r to

a quotation

from a

German a u t h o r to the e f f e c t that the a e s t h e t i c s e n t i m e n t s
originate

from the p l a y - i m p u l s e ."

19

F r i e d r i c h von Schiller,
and P h i l o s o p h i c a l , p. 113.
1 7 I b i d ., p.

York:

Essays Aesthetical

71.

1 ^ I b i d ., p. 71.
19
H er b e r t Spencer, The P r i n c i p l e s of P s y c h o l o g y
D. A p p l e t o n and Co.^ 189 8) , v o l . 1 1-2, p^ 6 27.

(New

18
For Spencer;
The activi t ie s we call p l a y are united w i t h
the aesth e ti c activities, by the trait that
n ei t h e r s u b s e r v e , in any d i re c t w a y , the
p ro c e s s e s c on d u c i v e to life.
The b o d i l y
powers, the i n t e l l e ct u al faculties, the
instincts, appetites, passions, and e ve n
those hi g h e s t feelings we hav e lately d ea l t
w i t h , have m a i n t e n a n c e of the o r g a n i c e q u i l ­
i br i u m of the individual, or else m a i n t e n a n c e
of the s p e c i e s , as their i m me diate o r r emote
e n d s .20
As the e v o l u t i o n a r y d e v e l o p m e n t of anim als is t r a c e d ,
it becomes obvious that the h i g h e r the pl ace of the s p e c i e s ,
the less time and ener gy is r e q u i r e d

for the m a i n t e n a n c e of

life;
Better n u t r i t i o n , g a i n e d by s u p e r i o r i t y ,
o c c a s i o n a l l y yields a surplus of vigour.
The appetites b e i n g satisfied, there is no
c raving w h i c h directs the o v e r f l o w i n g
energies to the p u r s u i t of more prey, or to
the s a t i sf a ct i on of some p r e s s i n g w a n t . 2!
The e x p l a n a t i o n of the way in wh i c h this s u rp l us
e nergy comes

to be r el e as e d is l a r g e l y p h y s i o lo g ic a l,

and

draws upon the e x c i t a b i l i t y of the n er vous s y s t e m as the
energy source:
nerve- c e nt r es d i s i n t e g r a t e d by action, are
p e r p e t u a l l y r e - i n t e g r a t i n g th emselves, and
again be c om i ng fit for acti on ... in p r o ­
p ortion as any p a r t of a n e r v e - c e n t r e has
been for a long time u n u s e d - in propo rt i on ,
that is, as repa ir of it has gone on day
a fter day and n ig h t a f t e r night u n h i n d e r e d

2 Q I b i d ., p.
2 1 I b i d . , pp.

627.
628 - 629.

19
by a p p r e c i a b l e waste, it m u s t be b r o u g h t
to a state of m o r e than o r d i n a r y in­
s t a b i l i t y - a state of e xc e s s i v e r e a d i ­
ness to d e c o m p o s e and d i s c h a r g e . 22
The r e su l t of this

state of readiness,

and the

"tendency to su p e r f l u o u s and us eless e x e r c i s e of faculties
that have b e e n q u i e s c e n t , "
that play w i l l

generally

23

is play.

Spencer believed

take the form of an ar t if i c i a l

exercis e of the p o wers w h i c h are mo s t p r o m i n e n t in the
a n i m a l ’s life:
In this way,

t h at play si m ulates r e al - l i f e activities.

the play of a child is a d r a m a t i z a t i o n of the

ac tivities of adults;

boys play ac t iv i t i e s w h i c h are

largely c o n c e r n e d w i t h the e x er c is e of p r e d a t o r y instincts;
and a th r ea d that runs th rough all games is the de s ir e for
conquest.

The sense of su p re m a c y also a cc o un t s for the

activi ty of the i n t e l l e c t u a l

faculties in play.

Although Spencer attempted

24

to ac count for the form

that play takes by r e l a t i n g m o st of the pla y a ct i vi t ie s

to

those organs w h i c h are i m p o r t a n t in the a n i m a l ’s fight for
survival,

m a n y au thors ha ve a t t e m p t e d to i n v a l i d a t e the

theory on these g r o u n d s .

P at rick w r o t e t h a t ;

the m o s t se rious d i f f i c u l t y w i t h Sp e ncer's
theo ry is that it does no t e x plain the
form taken e i t h e r by the plays of c hi l d r e n
or of a d u l t s . His vi e w is that men and
animals in their s u r p l u s - e n e r g y moods ...
22

I b i d . , p.

629 .

2 3 I b i d . , p. 630.
24
I b i d . , pp. 630-631.

20
w o u l d simply go on d o i n g in a d r a m a t i z i n g
w a y w h a t they are a c c u s t o m e d s e r i o u s l y to
do in their w o r k i n g moods.
The horse
w o u l d run, the ti ger w o u l d jump, ... and
the man p r e s u m a b l y w o u l d p l ou g h and reap
and dig and w r i t e books and give lectures.
But this is p r e c i s e l y w h a t the m an does
not d o . He goes f i s h i n g .25
M c D o u g a l l ma d e a si mi l ar criticism,

26

b u t such c o m ­

plaints a p p e a r to be e i t h e r i nv alid e x p e c t a t i o n s
can be e x p e c t e d of a theory,

or o v e r - r e a c t i o n s

as to w h a t

to the u nfair

reading of the t h eo r y as e x p l a i n i n g pl a y m e r e l y t hrough the
exercise of surplus energy.

To di smiss it as a t r u i s m and
27
to accuse S p e n c e r of m i s s i n g the w h o l e p oi n t
is to take a
rather s i m p l is t ic v i e w of the e nt i re discussion.

himself c a u t i o n e d a ga i n s t the a cc e pt a n c e of his
aesthetics

(including play)

S p en c er
theory of

as the c o m p l e t e answer:

To deal fully w i t h the p s y c h o l o g y of
a e s t h e t i c s is o ut of the question.
Its
p h e n o m e n a are e x t r e m e l y i n v o l v e d , and to
treat th e m a de q ua t e l y w o u l d requ ire m a ny
chapters.
Here, in additi o n to the
above g e neral c onceptions, I w i l l set
do wn such hints as s e em n e edful for
r ightly d e v e l o p i n g t h e m . 28
A m or e serious and l e g i t i m a t e c r i t i c i s m w a s mad e by
Groos.

In d i s c u s s i n g the v i g o r o u s play of two d o g s , he

25
G eo r ge Thomas W hite Patrick,
The P s y c h o l o g y of
Relaxation (Boston: H o u q h t o n M i f f l i n C o m p a n y , 1916) , p p . 3233 .
26
W i l l i a m McDougall,
An I n t r o d u c t i o n to Social P s y ­
chology (Boston: J o h n W. Lu ce and C o ., 1926), pT 1 1 1 .
27

Geor ge Thomas W h i t e Patrick,
R e l a x a t i o n , p. 33.
28
635.

H erbert Spencer,

The P s y c h o l o g y of

The Pr i n c i p l e s of Psychology,

p.

21
no tes th at they c h a s e d e a c h o t h e r u n t i l
t hrough f a t i g u e .

f o r c e d to s t o p

T h e n o n e or o t h e r of the dogs w o u l d g e t

up and g o a d the o t h e r i nt o a r e n e w a l of the game.
A n d so it goes w i t h e n d l e s s r e p e t i t i o n ,
until w e g e t the i m p r e s s i o n t h at t h e d o g
w a i t s o n l y long e n o u g h to c o l l e c t the
n e e d e d s t r e n g t h , n ot til l s u p e r f l u o u s
v i g o r u r g e s h i m to a c t i v i t y .29
Certainly,

it is d i f f i c u l t

to ex plain,

e m p l o y m e n t of the s u r p l u s e n e r g y theory,
c hi ldren an d e v e n a d u lt s

t h r o u g h the

the d e s i r e of

to p l a y un t il a b s o l u t e e x h a u s t i o n

is reached.
T h e s u r p l u s e n e r g y t h e o r y ha s h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e
fluence on e d u c a t i o n a l

thinking.

for i n t r o d u c i n g a t h l e t i c s

It w a s u s e d as an a r g u m e n t

in t o the u n i v e r s i t i e s

that s t u d e n t s w o u l d d i s s i p a t e

It w a s

not

supervision

al s o p a r t of the a r g u m e n t f o r the

d e v e l o p m e n t of p l a y g r o u n d s ,
adolescent energies

in o r d e r

t h e i r s ur p l u s e n e r g i e s ,

in an t i— s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , b u t in s p or t s w h e r e
was possible.

in­

as it w a s b e l i e v e d t h a t if

could b e d i ve r te d ,

juvenile d e l i n q u e n c y w o u l d result.

l ow e r

f r e q u e n c i e s of

30

29

K ar l Gross, T h e P l a y of A n i m a l s , t r a n s . b y E l i z a ­
b et h L. B a l d w i n (New York: D. A p p l e t o n a n d Co., 1898), p. 19.
3^ A l l e n V. S a p o r a a nd E l m e r D. M i t c h e l l , T h e T h e o r y
of Pl a y and R e c r e a t i o n (New York: T h e R o n a l d P r e s s C o mp a ny ,
1961), (3rd E d i t i o n ) , p p . 79-80.

22
2 * Instinct Practice Theory
, T h i s p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h K a r l Gross,
w h o b e l i e v e d t ha t i n s t i n c t s w e r e the m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e s of
life.

To him,

play was

of p r e p a r i n g the child,
serious

i n s t i n c t u a l a n d s e r v e d the p u r p o s e
t h r o u g h its p r ac t i c e ,

f o r the m o r e

c o n c e r n s of a d u l t life.
T he p r o g e n y of the m o r e h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d a n i m a l s ,

w hi c h i n cl u d e s man,
lectual,

are h e l p l e s s

an d u n d e v e l o p e d in i n t e l ­

p h y s i c a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l

capacities

The p e r i o d of c h i l d h o o d an d y o u t h m a k e s

at birth.

the d e v e l o p m e n t of

these f a c u l t i e s p o s s i b l e f or the;
i n s t i n c t i v e a p p a r a t u s b e i n g i n a d e q u a t e for
his life tasks, a p e r i o d of p a r e n t a l p r o ­
t e c t i o n is n e c e s s a r y to e n a b l e h i m to
a c q u i r e i m i t a t i v e l y and e x p e r i m e n t a l l y the
c a p a c i t i e s a d a p t e d to his i n d i v i d u a l needs.
The m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d the lif e t a s k s , the
m o r e n e c e s s a r y are t h e s e p r e p a r a t i o n s ; the
lo n g e r this n a t u r a l e d u c a t i o n c o n t i n u e s ,
the m o r e v i v i d do the i n h e r i t e d c a p a c i t i e s
b ecome.
P l a y is the a g e n c y e m p l o y e d to
d e v e l o p c r u d e p o w e r s a n d p r e p a r e t h e m for
life's use s.... P l a y d ep e n d s , then, first
of all on the e l a b o r a t i o n of i m m a t u r e
c a p a c i t i e s to full e q u a l i t y w i t h p e r f e c t e d
instin ct, a n d s e c o n d l y on the e v o l u t i o n of
h e r e d i t a r y q u a l i t i e s to a d e g r e e far
t r a n s c e n d i n g this, to a s t a t e of a d a p t a b i l i t y
and v e r s a t i l i t y s u r p a s s i n g t h e m o s t p e r f e c t
i n s t i n c t .31
G r o o s 1 t h e o r y b r e a k s d o w n w h e n t h r e e m a j o r ar e as are
analyzed.

31
Bal d w i n
375.

First,

there is a r e l i a n c e on i n s t i n c t s as the

Kar l Gross, T h e P l a y of M a n , trans. b y E l i z a b e t h L.
(New York: D. A p p l e t o n an d C o mpany, 1901), pp. 374-

23
motivating

forces o f h u m a n l i f e .

Th e a t t r i b u t i o n of h u m a n

b e h a v i o u r to h e r e d i t a r y en d o w m e n t s ,
p ro c es s a m e re

w i t h the

socialization

tool for the h o n i n g o f s uc h i n h e r i t e d

n eg a te s the c o n s i d e r a b l e
and a u x i l l i a r y

influence of social

t r a i n i n g on the e d u c a t i o n

traits,

interaction

of the child.

An

e x p l a n a t i o n b a s e d o n the d i s c u s s i o n of i n s t i n c t s may be
s at i sfactory,

in a p r e — s c i e n t i f i c sense,

the b e h a v i o u r o f t h e lo w e r animals,

bu t is i n c a p a b l e of e x ­

pla i n i n g the rich d i v e r s i t y of h u m a n
Second,

in a c c o u n t i n g f o r

life.

it c o m p l e t e l y omits a n e v a l u a t i o n

ation of the role o f p l a y in a d u l t life.
c on c er n for the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of his
of his p l ay

...

G r o o s a d m i t t e d his

theory

is of b u t s l i g h t b i o l o g i c a l

t hough the p r a c t i c e

and e x p l a n ­

to adults;

"Much

significance,

th e o r y is o f t e n a p p l i c a b l e e v e n in l a t e r

life to m o v e m e n t a n d f i g h t i n g play,

and s ti l l m o r e so to

social play".'*^
Thir dly,

Groos

fails

to d e m o n s t r a t e

th at all o f the

play p a t t e r n s of c h i l d r e n a r e n e c e s s a r i l y p r e p a r a t i o n s

for

adult life and the d e v e l o p m e n t o f h e r e d i t a r y e n d o w m e n t s .
Certainly,

there is no n e e d for an e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t

p r e s e n t in o r d e r for c h i l d r e n to e n j o y t h e m s e l v e s .
sist that pl a y m u s t h a ve such a f u n c t i o n
much r i gi d i t y into the m o t i v a t i o n s

To in­

is to i n t r o d u c e

for h u m a n b e h a v i o u r .

very f r e e d o m a n d s p o n t a n e i t y of c h i l d r e n ' s p l a y b e l i e s

32

Karl Groos,

to be

T h e P l ay o f M a n , p.

378.

too
The

su ch

24
a strong b e l i e f in the i n f a l l i b i l i t y of the p o we r s of n at u ra l
selection.

33

As Sea shore n o t e d :
C hi l dr e n s e l d o m p l a y w i t h the i nt e n t i o n of
fitting th e m s e l v e s for life, n o r are adults
o r d i n a r i l y co n scious o f s e r v i n g this p u r ­
pose in p l a y . C h i l d r e n p l a y , as do the
rest of u s , b e c a u s e it satisfies c e r t a i n
cravin gs and seems to be the e t e r n a l l y fit
and na t u r a l thing to do.
It is o n ly in
the l a r g e r , r e t r o s p e c t i v e vi e w that we
realize h o w n a t u r e has w r o u g h t m a rvels of
d e v e l o p m e n t th r o u g h the o pe r a t i o n of th e
play i n s t i n c t s .34
Despite Seashor e 's final e m ph a si s on instincts,

the

important p o i n t is that po st hoc an alysis of h u m a n b e h a v i o u r
has led m an y s cientists
explanations,

into s imilar d i f f ic u lt i es

and p a r t of Groos'

in their

d i f f i c u l t y lies at this

source.
Groos m a de an im p or t a n t a dd i ti o n to his theory,

how­

ever, w h i c h has had a c o n s i d e r a b l e and long l asting e ff e ct
on the analysis and j u st i f i c a t i o n of play.

He i n t r o d u c e d

the concept of catharsis, w h e r e b y p e n t - u p em otions can be
released th rough the accept a bl e

"safety-v alve" of play.

35

33

Robert Edward Neale, "Play and the Sacred: T o w a r d
a The ory of R el i gi o n as Play" (unpublished Th.D. D i s s e r t a ­
tion.
Union T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y in the City of N e w York,
1964) (Ann Arbor, Mich.: U n i v e r s i t y M icrofilms, Inc., 6410, 525), p. 17.
34

York:

Carl E. Seashore, P s y c h o l o g y in Daily L i f e
D. Ap p le t o n and C o m p a n y , 191 "5) , pT 2~.
35

(New

Karl G r o o s , Das spiel, zwei V or t r a g e v on Karl Groos
(Jena: G. Fischer, 19 22), P a r t I I .

25
H o w e v e r , this co n c e p t ap pears c o n t r a d i c t o r y to his n o t i o n
of t h e , r i gi d i nf l u e n c e of n a tural selection.
3.

R e c a p i t u l a t i o n T h e o r y of Play
Hall looked in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n f r o m Groos

attempting to e x plain play.

W here Groos'

t h e o r y was

in

f or ward-

looking , d e a l i n g as it did w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of skills for
adult lif e , Hall b e l i e v e d that the play of a g ro w i n g ch i l d
passed t h rough the same stages or cu l tu r al e po c hs
race had e x p e r i e n c e d o v e r the c e n t u r i e s .
this

view,

of history.

hei n d i c a t e d his

that his

By a d h e r i n g to

s upport for the cy c l i c a l

theory

In a s u c c i n c t s t a t e m e n t of his position,

he

wrote;
The v i ew of G roos that play is p r a c t i c e for
future ad u lt ac t iv i t i e s is very p a r t i a l ,
superficial, and perverse.... I r e ga r d play
as the m o t o r ha b it s and spirit of the pa st
of the race, p e r s i s t i n g in the presen t, as
r u d i m e nt a ry f un c ti o ns so m etimes of and
always akin to r u d i m e n t a r y organs.... Thus
we r eh e ar s e the a c ti v it i es of ou r a n c e s t o r s ,
back we k n o w not h o w f a r , and r e pe a t their
life w o rk in su mmative a nd a d u m b r a t e d w a y s .
It is r e m i n i s c e n t , albeit u n c o n s c i o u s l y , of
our line of d e s c e n t ; and each is the k ey to
the other.
The p s y c h o - m o t i v e impulses that
p ro m p t it are the forms in w h i c h our f o r e ­
bears have t r a n s m i t t e d to us t h e i r h a bi t u a l
a c t i v i t i e s . Thus stage by stage we r ee n ac t
the i r l i v e s .36
Where Groos b e l i e v e d that the p la y i n s t i n c t arose in
natural selection.

Hall f o ll ow e d L a m a r c k

in the b e l i e f that

acquired ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s c o u l d b ecome i n h e r i t e d as new in ­
stinctual p a t t e r n s .

* ^ G . S t an l e y H a l l ,

Youth:

Its Edu cation,

Regimen,

and

26
Hall's

theory was b a s e d on the very p o or f o u n d a t i o n

of a b i o l o g i c a l
lates phylogeny.

theory that s t r e s s e d that o n t o g e n y r e c a p i t u ­
Such a s it u a t i o n has not be e n d e m o n s t r a t e d

to e xi s t in fact, w h i l e the s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n

the pa st

actions of the race and the play of c h i l d r e n in the p r e s e n t
has y e t to be demonstrated.

The theory does no t e x p l a i n h ow

play pr o gr e ss e s s e q u e n t i a l l y in children,
for the richness of adult play.

no r does

it a cc o un t

The bulk of the a v a i l a b l e

research indicates that the types of a c ti v i t i e s

the c h i l d

performs in his play r e su l t f r om the social t r a i n i n g he has
received,

and from the level of n e u r o - m u s c u l a r skill he has

attained.
4.

R el a xa t i o n T h e o r y of Play
Pa trick b e l i e v e d t h a t :
If we look at the m a t t e r p hy s i o l o g i c a l l y , it
is very e v i d e n t , in the case of the a d u l t ,
that there are some b r a i n c e n t e r s , or some
brain t r a c t s , or some forms of c er e b r a l
functioning, t h a t are put u nder severe s train
in o u r m o d e r n st r en u o u s life and that there
must be some ki n d of a c t i v i t y w h i c h w i ll
relieve these c e n t r e s , or these t r a c t s , d u r i n g
a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of e ac h w a k i n g day and
involve o t h e r ce nters no t so su b j e c t to e x ­
h au s ti o n . Such a c t i v i t y we ca ll p l ay and
s p o r t . P e rhaps the w o r d "relaxation" w o u l d
be a mor e e x a c t d e s c r i p t i o n of i t . 37

Hygiene

(New York:
37

D. A p p l e t o n and Company,

George Thomas W h i t e Patrick^
R e l a x a t i o n , p. 49.

19 07), pp.

73-74.

The P s y c h o l o g y of

27
As

the c o m m o n ty p es of a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h a p p e a r to

cr ea te the m o s t s t r a i n a n d a n x i e t y in m o d e r n
ce rn ed w i t h

the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of a t t e n t i o n ,

ab s t r a c t r e a s o n i n g o v e r
involve

and frequently

the u t i l i z a t i o n of o n l y the s m a l l e s t m u s c l e s ,

theory appears

ation a n d c a t h a r s i s
that m a n seeks

type.

the e x e r c i s e o f the

do not r e q u i r e a b s t r a c t r e a s o n i n g
The

in his p l a y

g am e s

and

larger muscle masses
to any g r e a t e xtent.

q

and
q

°

The recreation theory holds

to r e - c r e a t e h i m s e l f f o l l o w i n g

His p l a y o f f e r s h i m a c h a n c e

"recha rge his b a t t e r i e s "

to

and r e s t o r e his e n e r g y so t ha t he

can m a i n t a i n his e f f i c i e n c y
to be a c o n s i d e r a b l e

at w o r k

and

in his

life.

There

e l e m e n t of the P r o t e s t a n t w o r k

ethic in the w r i t i n g s c o n c e r n e d w i t h
and M i t c h e l l s u m m a r i z e

Play,

to i n c o r p o r a t e m u c h o f the r e c r e ­

th e or i es .

the e x e r t i o n s of work.

it is

s e e k i n g in t h e i r p l a y and

e x e r c i s e of the o p p o s i t e

sports i n v o l v e

ap pears

the use of

l on g p e r i o d s of time,

not s u r p r i s i n g to see a d u l t s
sports,

li f e are c o n ­

this

theory.

so m e of t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s

Sapora

in the

following:
L or d Karnes, E n g l i s h p h i l o s o p h e r , e x p r e s s e d
this i d ea w h e n he said, "Play is n e c e s s a r y
for m a n in o r d e r to r e f r e s h h i m s e l f a f t e r
l ab o r. "
Gu ts M uths, a G e r m a n e d u c a t o r
e m p h a s i z e d the r e c r e a t i v e v a l u e of p l a y as
w e l l as its v a l u e for d e v e l o p m e n t a nd
t r a i n i n g ....
On e of its s t r o n g e s t s u p p o r ­
ters wa s M o r i t z L a z a r u s of the U n i v e r s i t y

^ ^A l l e n V. S a p o r a an d E l m e r D. M i t c h e l l ,
of Play and R e c r e a t i o n , p. 82.

The Theory

28
of B erlin, w h o u r g e d p e o p l e to "flee f r o m
e m p t y i d l e n e s s to a c t i v e r e c r e a t i o n in
p l a y ."
Th e r e c r e a t i o n t h e o r y is b a s e d 0 * 1 t he
obvious principle that a certain amount
of r e s t and s l e e p is n e c e s s a r y , b u t b e y o n d
t ha t a c h a n g e to an a c t i v e an d i n t e r e s t i n g
o c c u p a t i o n is m o r e r e s t f u l t h a n c o m p l e t e
idleness.
P l a y r e v i t a l i z e s a nd r e s t o r e s the
m e n t a l l y a nd p h y s i c a l l y tired.
As L a z a r u s
p u ts it, " After w o r k w e r e q u i r e r e s t w h i c h
accomplishes recuperation.
But hardly ever
d o es m e r e empty, i n a c t i v e r e s t s u f f i c e for
r e c u p e r a t i o n ” ,39
The catharsis

t h e o r y m a y b e t r a c e d b a c k to A r i s t o t l e ,

b u t a l so c om e to be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Groos, 4 0 Carr, 41 a n d
Claparede.^

In this case,

play

suppressed feelings

for his

a s afety

valve

an i n d i v i d u a l f in d s
an d e m ot i o n s :

to a l l o w the r e l e a s e of e m o t i o n s

a r e l e a s e in
P l a y acts

as

and a n x i e t i e s

w h i c h m i g h t o t h e r w i s e b e r e pr e s s e d .
C a r r m a d e a c l e a r s t a t e m e n t of the c o n c e p t of c a t h a r ­
sis w h e n he w r o t e the fo l lo wi n g;
C a t h a r s i s ... i m p l i e s the i d e a of p u r g i n g
or a d r a i n i n g of t h a t e n e r g y w h i c h has
a n t i - s o c i a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s , a n d h e n c e the
c a t h a r t i c v a l u e m a y be p r e d i c t e d of o n l y

39
40

I b i d ., p . 81
K a r l G r o o s , Das

spiel,

zwei V o r t r a g e v o n K a r l G r o o s .

41

H a r v e y A. Carr, "The S u r v i v a l V a l u e s of P l a y . "
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the D e p a r t m e n t of P s y c h o l o g y a n d E d u c a t i o n ,
U n i v e r s i t y of C o l o r a d o , v o l . TJ no. 2 (19 02), 1-4 7.
42

E d o u a r d C l a p a r e d e , P s y c h o l o g i e de l ' E n f a n t e t
Pedaqogie E x p d r i m e n t a l e .
(E x pe r i m e n t a l P e d a g o g y a n d the P s y ­
c hology of the Child) trans. b y M a r y L o u c h a n d H e n r y H o l m a n
(New York: L o n g m a n s , G r e e n a n d Co. Inc., 1911).

29
certain play reactions.
Th e v a l u e of
fo otball, boxing, a n d o t h e r p h y s i c a l
c o n t e s t s in r e l i e v i n g the p u g n a c i o u s
t e n d e n c i e s of bo y s is r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t
as examples.
W i t h o u t the n u m b e r l e s s
w e l l o r g a n i z e d se t forms of p l a y p o s ­
s e s s e d by s o c i e t y w h i c h g iv e a h a r m l e s s
o u t l e t to the m i s c h i e v o u s an d u n a p p l i e d
e n e r g y of the young, the ta s k of the
t e a c h e r a n d p a r e n t w o u l d be a p p a l l i n g . 43
The m a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h
and c a t h a r s i s

theories

the r e l a x a t i o n ,

r e c r e a t io n ,

is t ha t t h e y all a p p l y p r e d o m i n a n t l y

to the a d o l e s c e n t a nd a d u l t g r o u p s of s oc iety.
do not p r e s e n t s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p l a n a t i o n s

The theories

for the p l a y of

children, w h o p r e s u m a b l y do n o t h a v e the p r e s s u r e s ,
s uppressed e m o t i o n s , o r i n t e l l e c t u a l

anxieties,

f a ti g u e a b o u t w h i c h

the

c onstructs a re concerned.
5.

F r e u d i a n T h e o r y of Pl ay
In the F r e u d i a n a n a l y s i s of play,

were c o n c e r n e d w i t h a d u l t i mi t at i on ,

the d o m i n a n t

ideas

the r e p e t i t i o n - c o m p u l -

sion p r i n c i p l e a n d the p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e .

These were linked

in the fol lowing:
It is c l e a r t ha t in t h e i r p l a y c h i l d r e n
r e p e a t e v e r y t h i n g that h a s m a d e a g r e a t
i m p r e s s i o n o n t h e m in re a l life, and t h a t
in d o i n g so they a b r e a c t the s t r e n g t h of
the i m p r e s s i o n and, as o n e m i g h t pu t it,
make
t h e m s e l v e s m a s t e r o f the situati o n.
But on the o t h e r h a n d it is o b v i o u s t h a t
all their p l a y is i n f l u e n c e d by a w i s h
that d o m i n a t e s t h e m the w h o l e tim e - the
w i s h to be g r o w n - u p a nd to b e ab l e to do
w h a t g r o w n - u p p e o p l e do.
It can a l so be

43

H a r v e y A.

Carr,

"The s u r v i v a l v a l u e of p l a y . " p.

18

30
o b s e r v e d that the u n p l e a s u r a b l e n a t u r e of
an e x p e r i e n c e does no t al w a y s u n s u i t it
for p l a y . ...
As the c h i l d p a s s e s o v e r
f r o m the p a s s i v i t y of the e x p e r i e n c e to
the a c t i v i t y of the game, he h a n d s on the
d i s a g r e e a b l e e x p e r i e n c e to one of his
p l a y m a t e s and in this w a y r e v e n g e s h i m ­
self on a s u b s t i t u t e ... e v e n u n d e r the
d o m i n a n c e of the p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e , t h e r e
are w a y s and m e a n s e n o u g h o f m a k i n g w h a t
is in i t s e l f u n p l e a s u r a b l e in t o a s u b j e c t
to b e r e c o l l e c t e d and w o r k e d o v e r in the
m i n d .44
A c c o r d i n g to Freud,

the i n d i v i d u a l w i l l

mize his p l e a s u r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e s

seek

to m a x i ­

an d to r e m e m b e r an d r e e n a c t

the a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h g a v e p l e a s u r e

in the past.

Pleasure

can also be a t t a i n e d b y the d e v e l o p m e n t of a s e n s e of
mastery o v e r an o b j e c t o r an incid e nt ,
com p ul s io n i m p u l s e
ences w h e t h e r

fo rc es

an d the r e p e t i t i o n -

the i n d i v i d u a l

to r e p e a t e x p e r i ­

they w e r e p l e a s u r a b l e or not,

develop this a w a r e n e s s

of ma s t e r y .

so t h at he can

These bases were

re­

garded as the s o u r c e o f the p l a y i m p u l s e in children.
The d i f f i c u l t i e s

in F r e u d ' s

analysis

lie in hi s c o n ­

tention that c h i l d r e n e x p r e s s t h e i r d e s i r e to be
all of their p l a y ac t i v i t i e s ,
the idea that ad u lt s play.

a n d the v i r t u a l

a d u l t in

r e j e c t i o n of

B ot h of th ese a s s u m p t i o n s

are

q u e s t i o n a b l e at best.

44

S ig m u n d Freud, B e y o n d the P l e a s u r e P r i n c i p l e , trans.
by James S t r a c h e y (New York:
B a n t a m Books, Inc., 1967),
pp. 36-37.

31
6.

Piaget, 's D e v e l o p m e n t a l Th e or y of Play
Under this

scheme,

the child w a s b e l i e v e d to pass

through three d e f i n i t e stages of d e velopment,

each of w h i c h

was c h ar a c t e r i z e d by a di f fe r en t type of play.
The in d iv i du a l' s d e v e l o p m e n t is c o n c e r n e d w i t h his
adjustment to the o p p o s i t e
accommodation.

functions of a s s i m i l a t i o n and

A s s i m i l a t i o n was d ef i n e d as follows:

It is this o b j e c t i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n of
external m o ve m e n t s and p o s i t i o n s by the
m ov e m e n t s of the subject, as w e l l as
the s u bj e c t i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n r e s u l t i n g
from the fact that p e r c e p t i o n or c o m p r e ­
h ension of these m o v e m e n t s and p o s i t i o n s
e s s e n t i a l l y d e p e n d s on the subject's
p oi n t of view, that we call a s s i m i l a t i o n .
A s s i m i l a t i o n is involved w i t h

the m o d i f i c a t i o n of the

p o s i t i o n and mo v em e nt s of e x t e r n a l o b ­
jects, b o t h s u b j e c t i v e l y and ob jectively,
and b eing an action su s ce p ti b le of
r ep e ti t io n and g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , it gives
rise to a r e co g ni t io n that is v i s u a l ,
t a c t u a l , k i n e s t h e t i c , e t c .46
A c c o m m o d a t i o n was d efined in r e la t io n to the ac t io n
of g r a s p i n g :
For i n s t a n c e , a c c o r d i n g as the o b j e c t to
be gr asped is more or less d istant there
is p e r c e p t i o n of this d e p t h and a c o r r e l a ­
tive d i s p l a c e m e n t of the hand, and the
ha nd and the eyes follow the m o v e m e n t of
the o b j e c t . It is this m o d i f i c a t i o n of
^ J e a n Piaget, Play, Dreams and Imita ti o n in C h i l d ­
hood , t r a n s . by C . G a t t e g n o and F .M. Ho dgson ( L o n d o n :
Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1962), p. 274.
4 6 I b i d . , p.

274.

32
the m o v e m e n t s and p o i n t of vi e w of the
sub j e c t u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of the m o v e ­
ments and p o s i t i o n s of e x te r na l objects
that w e call a c c o m o d a t i o n .47
In the first,

or s e n s o r y - m o t o r a c t i v i t y period,

there

is an e q u i l i b r i u m b e t w e e n a s s i m i l a t i o n and ac c ommodation.
In this stage of d e v e l o p m e n t the
volved in practice,

where

child's p l a y is la r g e l y i n ­

the ch i l d ex h ib i ts

assimilation and the r e p e t i t i o n of m o v e m e n t s
In the second s tage of d e v e l o pm e nt ,
representative a c t i v i t y stage,

there

functional
for p l e a s u r e . ^ ®

the e g o c e n t r i c

is a u t i l i z a t i o n of

signs and s y mbols and a f l u c t u a t i n g p r i m a c y b e t w e e n a s s i m i l a ­
tion and accomm o da t io n .

W h e n a s s i m i l a t i o n is p a r a m o u n t o ve r

accommodation the c h il d plays;
mount over as similation,

w h e n a c c o m m o d a t i o n is para49
the c h i l d imitates.
T he c h a r a c t e r ­

istic play a ctions of this

stage

are s ym b ol i c games such as

when the child p u sh e s a b o x and m a k e s - b e l i e v e th at it is a
car. 50
In the third or o p e r a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a c t i v i t y
stage,

there is a m o r e p e r m a n e n t d e v e l o p m e n t of an e q u i l i b r i u m

between a s s i m i l a t i o n and a c c o m m o d a t i o n .
this stage m ar k s

T he c o m p l e t i o n of

the a t t a i n m e n t of a m a t u r e a d a p t a t i o n w h e r e

4 7 I b i d ., p.
48I b i d . , pp.

275.
113-114.

49I b i d . , p. 276.
50 I b i d ., pp.

111- 1 1 2 .

33
assimilation takes

care of r eality and a c c o m m o d a t i o n takes

into a c count the e a r l i e r and later states in o r d e r t ha t the
51
operation or r e v e r s i b l e action can be produced.
It is this mobile, r ev e rs i b l e e q u i l i b r i u m
that en sures the c o n s e r v a t i o n of concepts
and judgments, and that g overns both the
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of o p e r a t i o n s b e t w e e n i n d i ­
vi duals (social e x c h a n g e of thought) and
the i n t e r i o r concept u al sy s te m of the
i n d i v i d u a l h i m s e l f . 52
The play a c ti v i t i e s of the third st age are games of
rules:

rules w h i c h have be en h an d ed down via the s o c i a l i z a ­

tion process,

or that have d e v e l o p e d am ong the p l a y e r s of

the p a r t i c u l a r game.

CO

J

It is d u r i n g this final stage that the ch i ld mu st
give up the play

forms w h e r e i n he s u b o r d i n a t e d r e a l i t y to

his own ends and a c h i e v e a state in w h i c h his self is
located in the e n v i r o n m e n t and his p l a y is o r i e n t e d toward
r e a l i t y .^
Two d i ff i cu l ti e s

are ap p ar e nt in P ia g et ' s theory.

It

is obvious that he place s a hi g he r value and e mp h a s i s on the
types of activities that lead to i nt e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t
and this ov e r - e m p h a s i s

leads h i m to ne g l e c t of the af f ec t i v e

components of human life.

5 1I b i d . , p.

289.

^ 2 I b i d . , p.

240.

5 3 I b i d . , p.

143.

^ A l l e n V. Sa p o r a and Elmer D. Mitchell,
of Play and R e c r e a t i o n , p. 109.

The T h e o r y

34
Second,

hi s e x p l a n a t i o n of a d u l t p l a y is u n s a t i s f a c t o r y .
Neale believes

55

that;

T o p o s i t a " s u b t l e e q u i l i b r i u m " an d a s s e r t
t h a t a d u l t p l a y " r e c o n c i l e s thi s l ud i c a s s i m i l a ­
tio n w i t h the d e m a n d s of s o c i a l r e c i p r o c i t y " is
to c o n t r a d i c t his c l a i m t ha t p l a y is e s s e n t i a l l y
ego-centric and assimilitative.
P i a g e t has
a f f i r m e d a b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the p l a y
of the c h i l d an d t ha t of the adult.
Assuming
t h a t the c h i l d is b a s i c a l l y e g o - c e n t r i c , his
p l a y w i l l be e g o — c e n t r i c a n d a s s i m i l a t i v e ;
and,
a s s u m i n g t h a t the a d u l t is n ot e g o — c e ntric, his
p l a y w i l l b e of a d i f f e r e n t n a t u r e a nd c l e a r l y
not a s s i m i l a t i v e .
T h e c o n c l u s i o n fo l l o w s t h a t
e i t h e r p l a y m u s t be d e f i n e d as p r o p e r to the
c h i l d o r to the a d u l t only, or t h a t the d e f i n i ­
t io n o f p l a y m u s t be s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e
to i n c l u d e both.
In e i t h e r case, P i a g e t ' s c o n ­
t r i b u t i o n is i n s u f i i c i e n t .5 ^
7.

Huizinga's

C u l t u r a l T h e o r y o f Play

For Huizinga,
T he p l a y c o n c e p t m u s t al w a y s r e m a i n d i s t i n c t
f r o m all the o t h e r forms of t h o u g h t in w h i c h we
e x p r e s s the s t r u c t u r e of m e n t a l and s o c i a l life.
H e n c e w e s h a l l h a v e to c o n f i n e o u r s e l v e s to
d e s c r i b i n g the m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of playS i n c e o u r theme is the r e l a t i o n of p l a y
to c u l t u r e w e n e e d n o t e n t e r into all the
p o s s i b l e forms o f p l a y b u t can r e s t r i c t o u r ­
s e l v e s to its so c i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s .
These
we m i g h t ca l l the h i g h e r forms of p l a y . 5 ?
Accordingly,

Huizinga developed a cultural definition

5 5 R o b e r t E. N eale, P l a y a n d the Sacred:
Theo ry of R e l i g i o n as P l a y , pp. 30-32.
^ ^ I b i d ., pp.

Toward

a

32— 33.

5?Johan Huizinga, Homo L u d e n s :
E lement in C u l t u r e , p. 7.

A S t u d y of the P l a y —

35
of play and m a d e a b e g i n n i n g on the d e v e l o p m e n t of a s y st e m
of classification.
two forms.

T h e d e f i n i t i o n of play was w r i t t e n in

In the first p r e s e n t a t i o n the d e f i n i t i o n is

stated as follows:
S um ming up the formal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
play we m i g h t call it a free activity
standi ng quite c o n s c i o u s l y out side
"ordinary" life as b e i n g "not serious",
b ut at the same time a bs o rbing the p l a y e r
i nt e n s e l y and utterly.
It is an a c tivity
c on n e c t e d w it h no m a t e r i a l interest, and
no pr o f it can be g a i n e d by it.
It p r o ­
ceeds w i t h i n its own p r o p e r bo u nd a r i e s of
time and space a cc o r d i n g to f ix e d rules
and in an or d e r l y manner.
It promotes the
f or m ation of social g r o u p i n g s w h i c h tend to
s ur r ou n d th e ms e lv e s w i t h secrecy and to
stress th eir d if f er e n c e from the common
w o r l d by d i sg u is e or o th e r m e a n s . 58
While this d e f i n i t i o n has pr o bl e ms w it h re s pect to
the role of games of chance,

and the ne c es s it y of secrecy.
59
it is a l a t e r ,
elements w h i c h w e r e cr i ti c iz ed by C a illois
summarized d e f i n i t i o n that appears to be of g re a t e r utility,
and includes a mi n i m a l degree of logical difficulty.
A cc o r d i n g to this conception:
p l a y is a v o l u n t a r y a c t i v i t y or o c cu p a t i o n
e x e c u t e d w i t h i n c ertain fixed limits of
time and p l a c e , a cc o r d i n g to rules freely
accepted b u t a b s o lu t el y binding, hav ing
its aim in itself and a c c o m p a n i e d by a
feeling of tension, joy and the c o n s c i o u s ­
ness that it is "different" from "ord inary
l i f e " .60
5 8I b i d . ,

p .

13.

59

Roger Caillois,
of g a m e s " , p. 63.

"The S t ru c t u r e and c l as s i f i c a t i o n

88Johan Huizinga,

Ho mo L u d e n s : A Study of the Play-

36
He i d e n t i f i e d t wo b a s i c

components

the h i g h e r forms of p l a y w e r e derived.

from which

These

all of

components were

concerned w i t h p l a y as a c o n t e s t for s om e th i n g ,

and p l a y as

a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of something.
T h e s e two f u n c t i o n s can u n i t e in s u c h a
w a y that the g a m e " re p r e s e n t s " a contest,
or e ls e b e c o m e s a c o n t e s t for the b e s t
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of something.
Thus all p l a y c o n s i s t s of c o m p e t i t i o n or d i s p l a y

(imitation),

or a b l e n d i n g of the t w o functions.

The T heory of P l a y and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of G a m e s b y C a i l l o i s
C a i l l o i s b e g a n his
of work of Huizi ng a .

analysis

He b e l i e v e d

of p l a y w i t h an e v a l u a t i o n
t ha t the m a j o r d e f i n i t i o n

provided w a s in o ne r e s p e c t too broad,
limited.

and in another,

T h e i n c l u s i o n of the s e c r e t and m y s t e r i o u s

too

a sp e ct s

of h um a n cu l t u r e as p a r t of p l a y w a s r e g a r d e d as i n a p p r o p r i ­
ate in v i e w of the f ac t t ha t m u c h of p l a y is w i t h i n
sphere of s p e c t a c u l a r and o s t e n t a t i o u s
aim is to d e m o n s t r a t e one's
them in subterfuge.

a c t i v i t y in w h i c h

the

a b i l i t i e s r a t h e r th an c l o a k

62

On the o t h e r hand,

the o m i s s i o n of t h os e as p e c t s of

play co n ce rn e d w i t h m a t e r i a l

El ement in C u l t u r e , p.
6 1 I b i d . , p.

the

interests

s uc h as g a m i n g and

28.

13.

Rog er C ai l l o i s ,

Man,

P l a y and G a m e s , p.

4.

37
betting s e e m e d to rule o u t m a n y

forms of a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h

occupy a c o n s p i c u o u s r o le in the a c t i v i t y s e l e c t i o n s of
members of v a r i o u s so c i et ie s .
activities

63

from the d e f i n i t i o n w o u l d a p p e a r to b e e i t h e r a

drastic oversi g ht ,

or the o p e r a t i o n of a v a l u e s y s t e m u p o n

the s el e c t i o n of t h os e a c t i v i t i e s
of " p l a y " .

Many play activities

c la s si f ic a ti o n of
a wager

T h e e l i m i n a t i o n of su ch

to b e a c c o r d e d the t itle
can b e s u b s u m e d u n d e r the

z e r o - s u m s i tu a ti o ns ,

and the i n c l u s i o n of

a g a i n s t a p a r t i c u l a r r e s u l t does n o t a l t e r the

defin it i on of the

sit uation; it m e r e l y m a g n i f i e s

of the w i n or loss.
any goods,

T h e g a m e does not,

in itself,

it r e d i s t r i b u t e s w e a l t h w h e n w a g e r s

and it emp loys

e n e r g y in w a s t e f u l

forms

the

scope

create

are made,

at all times.

P la y is an o c c a s i o n of p ur e w a st e : w a s t e
of time, energy, ingenuity, skill, and
o f t e n of m o n e y for the p u r c h a s e of g a m b l i n g
e q u i p m e n t or e v e n t u a l l y to p a y for the
establishment.
As for the p r o f e s s i o n a l s
... w h o
m u s t think
in
terms of prize,
salary,
or t i tl e - it
is c l e a r th a t they
are n ot p l a y e r s b u t wo r k e r s .
W h e n they
play, it is at some o t h e r g a m e . ® ^
T he d e f i n i t i o n p r o v i d e d b y C a i l l o i s u p o n w h i c h his
later t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n w a s b a s e d w a s

t h at p l a y is an

activity w h i c h is;
1. F r e e : in w h i c h p l a y i n g is n o t o b l i g a t or y ;
if it were, it w o u l d at o nc e lose its
a t t r a c t i v e and joyous q u a l i t y as d i ve r si o n;

I b i d ., p . 5.
^ ^ I b i d ., pp.

5— 6.

38
2. S e p a r a t e : c i r c u m s c r i b e d w i t h i n limits of
space and time, d e f i n e d and fi x ed in advance?
3. U n c e r t a i n : the course of w h i c h c a n n o t be
d e t e r m i n e d , nor the re s ul t a t t a i n e d b e f o r e ­
hand, and some latitude for i n n o v a t i o n s b e i n g
left to the p la y er ' s initiative;
4. U n p r o d u c t i v e : c r e a t i n g n e i t h e r goods, n o r
wealth, nor ne w e l em e nt s of any kind; and,
e xc e pt for the e x c h a n g e of p r o p e r t y among the
players, en d i n g in a s i t u a t i o n i d e n ti c al to
th at p r e v a i l i n g at the b e g i n n i n g of the game;
5. G o v e r n e d by r u l e s : u n d e r c o n v e n t i o n s that
s us p e n d o r d i n a r y laws, and for the m o m e n t
e st a b li s h n e w legislation, w h i c h along counts;
6. M a k e - b e l i e v e : a c c o m p a n i e d b y a s p e c i a l a w a r e ­
ness of a second r e a l i t y or of a free un reality,
as a g ainst real l i f e . 65
Ca illois

then a t t e m p t e d to p r o v i d e

that w h i c h H u i z i n g a

o mi t te d , a d e s c r i p t i o n and s y s t e m of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of g a m e s .
Rather than a t tempt to c l a s s i f y these a c t i v it i es
the types of i m p l e m e n t s used,
of the contestants,

or the

or the q u a l i f i c a t i o n s

locale of the action,

dimensional m a t r i x w a s developed.
were grouped u n de r four headings:
being d o m i n a n t ) ; alea
mimicry

in terms of
r eq u i r e d

a two

On the one plane,
agon

g a me s

(with c o m p e t i t i o n

(with chance or luck b e i n g p a r a m o u n t ) ;

(with the a c c e n t on s i m u l a t i o n ) ; and il i n x

(where

the pursuit of v er t i g o was

the d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ) .

Within each of these areas,

all of the a p p r o p r i a t e ga m es

could be placed on a p a i d i a - l u d u s
form, paidia d es c r i b e s
tured,

free of control,

exuberance.

In its p o l a r

those a c ti v it i es w h i c h are u n s t r u c ­
full of improvisation,

At the o t h e r e x t r e m e

^^ I b i d ., pp.

continuum.

9-10.

impulse,

and

are those a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h

39
may be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as di s ci pl i ne d ,

c o n t r o l l e d and w e i g h e d

down by formal r u l e s .^

Agon
In ga m es

c h a r a c t e r i z e d u n d e r this rubric,

competition

is the m a j o r c o m p o n e n t of all of the a ctions w h i c h
make up the activity.
are usually made

together

W h e r e c o m p e t i t i o n is involved,

efforts

to p ro v i d e some d e g r e e of e q u a l i t y of o p p o r ­

tunity for the contestants.

If all c o n d i t i o n s

are e q u i v a l e n t

except a b i l i t y , it is p o s s i b l e

for the i n d i v i d u a l s

c o mp e t i n g

to de t ermine w h o is su perior.

In o r d e r to m a k e a v i c t o r y

clean-cut and r e du c e c o m p l e x i t y , the c o m p e t i t i o n is u s u a l l y
u n i d i m e n s i o n a l , in that on ly one q u a l i t y , such as s p e e d ,
jumping a b i l i t y , e n d u r a n c e , s k i l l , s t r e n g t h , e t c . , is m a t c h e d
in each contest.
individuals,

G am e s of this na t ur e m a y take p l a c e b e t w e e n

or b e t w e e n te ams of players,

but in all cases

the source of satis fa ction is in the d e m o n s t r a t i o n of a
_
67
superiority o v e r o t h e r s .
Games p u r s u e d for the feeling of c o m p e t i t i o n m a y be
enjoyed regard l es s of the level of skill of the co m pe t it o rs ,
provided that some level of e q u a l i t y can b e as s u m e d at the
start of the event by each of the p a rt i c i p a n t s ,
Caillois st r essed t h a t ;

66 I b i d . , pp.

12-13.

67 I b i d . , pp.

14-15.

a lt h o u g h

40
... the p r a c t i c e of agon p r e s u p p o s e s
sustained atten t i o n , appropriate train­
ing, assiduous ap p li ca t io n , and the
des i re to win.
It i mplies d i s c i p l i n e
and pe r severance.
It l eaves the c h a m ­
p io n to his own devices, to evoke the
b es t p o s s i b l e game of w h i c h he is
capable, and it ob l i g e s h i m to pl ay the
game w i t h i n the fi x ed l i m i t s , and
a c c o r d i n g to the rules a p p l i e d e q u a l l y
to all, so that in r et u rn the v ic t o r ' s
s u p e r i or i ty w il l be b e y o n d d i s p u t e . 68
Such d e d i c a t e d p r e p a r a t i o n ap pears to c o n f i n e the
practice of games of agon to t hose a t h l e t e s w h o h a v e finely
developed their s k i l l s , and to e l i m i n a t e

those w h o pl a y to

achieve a re l at i ve level of s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r p a r t i c u l a r
opponents r a t h e r than to a c hieve c h a m p i o n s h i p status.
Alea
In b o r r o w i n g the L a t i n name for d i c e as the t itle of
this category,

Ca illois w i s h e d to e x e m p l i f y the fact that

in these activities

the p l a y e r s are a b s o l u t e l y equal

subject to d e s t i n y and the laws of p r o b a b i li t y.
no adversary to be defeated,

and

There

is

and the p l a y e r c a n n o t gain an

advantage by e m p l o y i n g p a r t i c u l a r skills as no amount of
training,

a p p l i c a t i o n or de s i r e can i n f l u e n c e the result:
... alea n e gates work, pa t ience, experience,
and qu a li f ic a t io ns .
Professionalization,
a p p l i c a ti o n and t r a i n i n g are eliminated.
In one instant, w i n n i n g s m a y be w i p e d out.
A l e a is total d i sg r a c e or a b s o l u t e favor.
It grants the lucky p l a y e r i n f i n i t e l y mo r e
than he could p r o c u r e by a l i fe t im e of

6 8 I b i d . , p.

15.

41
labor, d i s c i p l i n e , and fatigue.
It
seems an i n s o l e n t and s o v e r e i g n i n s u l t
to m e r i t ... A g o n is a v i n d i c a t i o n of
p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; a l e a is a
n e g a t i o n of the will, a s u r r e n d e r to
d e s t i n y .69
A g o n and a l e a are s i m i l a r in one i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r ­
istic e v en t h o u g h t h e y s ee m to o c c u p y p o l a r p o s i t i o n s

on a

continuum of i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l :
... th e y b o t h o b e y the same law - the
c r e a t i o n for the p l a y e r s of c o n d i t i o n s
of p u r e e q u a l i t y d e n i e d t h e m in real life.
F or n o t h i n g in li f e is clear, since
e v e r y t h i n g is c o n f u s e d f r om the v e r y b e g i n ­
ning, luck and m e r i t too.
Play, w h e t h e r
a go n o r a l e a , is thus an a t t e m p t to s u b s t i ­
tut e p e r f e c t s i t u a t i o n s for the n o r m a l
c o n f u s i o n of c o n t e m p o r a r y life.
In games,
the ro l e of m e r i t or c h a n c e is c l e a r and
indisputable.
It Is a l so i m p l i e d t ha t a l l
m u s t p l a y w i t h e x a c t l y the same p o s s i b i l i t y
of p r o v i n g t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y or, on the
o t h e r scale, e x a c t l y the s a me ch a n c e s of
w in n i n g .
In one w a y or anothe r , one
e s c a p e s the r e al w o r l d and c re a t e s another.

0

Mimicry
This

fe ature of an e s c a p e

f r o m the real w o r l d

the cr e a t i o n of a n e w o n e a d a p t e d
game m a y b e

seen in the e x t r e m e

for the p u r p o s e s o f the

f o r m in g a m e s w h i c h

m imicry and a l l o w the i n d i v i d u a l to " e s c a p e h i m s e l f
become a n o t h e r " .71

6 9 I b i d . , pp.
70

Ibid.,

p.

7 1 l b i d ., p.

and

stress
and

The player may disguise himself with

17-18.
19.
19

a

42
mask or costume,

or d i s c a r d his p e r s o n a l i t y

in an e f f o r t to

create a s econd r e a l i t y or an a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y .
Mimicry m a y be se e n in the ef f o r t s
and "be"

t h ei r paren t s,

of c h i l d r e n to i m i t a t e

in the ro l e p l a y i n g of adults

play, or in the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the
heroes

on

spectators,

the p l a y i n g

spectators with

field. In the l a t t e r case,

in a
their

the

by p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t an d v o c a l e n c o u r a g e m e n t ,

believe they can i n f l u e n c e
observing and e n s u r e

the c o u r s e of the e v e n t they are

the s u c c e s s of the g r o u p t h ey

In a d e f i n i n g statement,

Caillois

favour.

related mimicry

the c o m p on e nt parts of play.
W i t h one ex c ep t i o n , m i m i c r y e x h i b i t s all
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of play: lib erty, c o n ­
vention, s u s p e n s i o n of rea lity, and
d e l i m i t a t i o n of space and time.
H ow e ve r ,
the c o n t i n u o u s s u b m i s s i o n to i m p e r a t i v e
and p r e c i s e rules c a n n o t be o b s e r v e d rules for the d i s s i m u l a t i o n of r e a l i t y and
the s u b s t i t u t i o n of a s e c o n d reality.
M i m i c r y is i n c e s s a n t invention.
T h e ru le
of the g a m e is unique: it c o n s i s t s in the
a ctor's f a s c i n a t i n g the spectator, w h i l e
av oiding an e r r o r t ha t m i g h t lead the
s p e c t a t o r to b r e a k the spell.
The specta­
tor m u s t lend h i m s e l f to t h e i l l u s i o n
w i t h o u t first c h a l l e n g i n g the decor, mask,
or a r t i f i c e w h i c h for a g i v e n time he is
asked to b e l i e v e in as m o r e re a l than
r e a l i t y itself.

7 2 I b i d . , pp.

19-22.

7 3 I b i d . , pp.

22-23.

72

to

43
Ilinx
T h e s e games

are m ad e up of all those

which a m o m e n t a r y d i s t o r t i o n of p e r c e p t i o n
achi eved

in a state

similar

ment in such a c t i v i t i e s

activities

and s t a b i l i t y is

to that of verti go .

The e n j o y ­

is the fe e l i n g of panic,

loss of c on t r o l o v e r the situation.

in

shock

and

74

E s s e n t i a l is the p u r s u i t of this s pe c ia l
d i s o r d e r or s u d d e n panic, w h i c h de fi nes
the t e r m vertigo, and in the true c h a r a c ­
t e r i s t i c s of the games a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it:
viz. the f r e e d o m to accept or ref use the
e xperience, st r i c t and fixed limits, and
s e p a r a t i o n f r om the res t of r e a l i t y . 7 5
V e r t i g o m a y be a c h i e v e d th r o u g h
fairground r o l l e r - c o a s t e r or rotor,

the e x p e r i e n c e on

t h r o u g h rapid a c c e l e r a ­

tion and the a p p l i c a t i o n of c o r n e r i n g s t r e s s e s
in a fast car,

in some

a

forms of dancing,

to the b o d y

in b o dy surfing,

and in h ig h sp e ed skiing.
V i r t u a l l y all of the p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s p l a y e d by
man c o ntain some

f o r m of rules which,

degree of complexity,

dependent upon their

a l l o w such a c t i v i t i e s

to be p l a c e d on

a c o nt i nu u m from the p o l a r e x t r e m e of i m p r o v i z a t i o n , to th at
of formal

structure.

child the in itial

In the d e v e l o p m e n t a l

activities

s e q u e n c e of the

appear related

to the q u e s t

knowle dge of the i m m e d i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t and p l e a s u r e
in the e xe r c i s e of the p e r c e p t u a l

^ ^ I b i d . , p.

23.

7 5 j b i d ., p.

26.

faculties.

for

is found

Gradually

some

44
intrusion o f the p a r e n t u p o n the e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n p e r i o d
introduces
child.

som e

cultural

and w i t h this

niques and a r t i f a c t s

the

in t o the life o f the

The w a y of p l a y of the p a r t i c u l a r

be imposed,

child.

regularities

i m p o s i t i o n c o me

appropriate

O nc e the p a r t i c u l a r

child

r e al i z e s

physical a ct i v it i es ,

society begins
some o f the

tech­

for s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f the

conventions

are

l e a r n e d an d

that th e re are set w a y s of p e r f o r m i n g
the

four st r e a m s

a l e a , m i m i c r y a n d ilinx)

begin

of a c t i v i t i e s

W h e n rules b e c o m e

(a g o n ,

to s e p a r a t e and b e c o m e

distinct m ea n s of a c h i e v i n g p a r t i c u l a r p l e a s u r e s
tions.

to

f o r m a l i z e d in some

and s e n s a ­

a c t i v i ti e s,

the p l e a s u r e e x p e r i e n c e d in s o l v i n g a
p r o b l e m a r b i t r a r i l y d e s i g n e d for this
p u r p o s e a ls o i n t e r v e n e s , so that r e a c h ­
ing a s o l u t i o n has no o t h e r g oa l th an
p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n for its o w n sake.
Thi s

final s ta t e

is the p u r e

f o r m of l u d u s .

rules may be i m p o s e d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y w h e r e
for so l ution o f p r o b l e m s ,

t he y m a y be

of a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s , o r by
laws and p r i n c i p l e s

logic

The

is r e q u i r e d

i m p o s e d by the v a g a r i e s

the e x p l o i t a t i o n

in o r d e r to a c h i e v e

of natural

a p a r t i c u l a r end in

P l a y .77
C a i l l o i s d e f i n e d p a i d i a as:
a w o r d c o v e r i n g th e s p o n t a n e o u s m a n i f e s t a ­
tio n of the p l a y instinct:
a cat e n t a n g l e d
in a ba l l of wool, a d o g s n if f i n g , an d an

7 6 I b i d . , p.
7 7 I b i d . , pp.

29 .
27-29.

45
i n f a n t laughing at his r a t t l e r e p r e s e n t
the first i d e n t i f i a b l e ex a mp l es of this
type of activity.
It i n t e r v e n e s in
e ve r y h a p p y e x u b e r a n c e w h i c h ef f e c t s an
i mm e d i a t e and d i s o r d e r e d a gitation, an
i m p u l s i v e and ea sy re creation, b u t r ea d i l y
c a r r i e d to e x c e s s , w h o s e i m p r o m p t u and
u n r u l y c h a r a c t e r re mains its e s s e n t i a l if
n ot u ni q ue r ea s on for being.
From somer­
s aults to scribbling, f r o m s qu a bb l e to
uproar, p e r f e c t l y clear i l l u s t r a t i o n s are
n ot l acking of the c o m p a r a b l e s y mp t om s of
m ovemen t s, colors, or n o i s e s . 7 8
L u d u s , on the other hand;
re la tes to the p r i m i t i v e d e s i r e to find
d i v e r s i o n and a m u s e m e n t in arbitrary,
p e r p e t u a l l y r e c u r r e n t o bstacles.
Thousands
of o c c a s i o n s and d e v i c e s are in v en t ed to
s atisfy s i m u l t a n e o u s l y the d e s i r e for r e ­
l a x a t i o n and the need, of w h i c h m a n c a n n o t
be rid, to u t i l i z e p u r p o s e f u l l y the k n o w ­
ledge, experience, and i n t e l l i g e n c e at
his disposal, w h i l e d i s r e g a r d i n g selfc ontrol and his c a p a c i t y for r e s i s t a n c e to
suffering, fatigue, panic, or i n t o x i c a t i o n
... ludus stands for the s p e c i f i c e l em e nt
in p l a y the im p ac t and c u l t u r a l c r e a t i v i t y
of w h i c h seems m o s t i m p r e s s i v e ... in d i s ­
c i p l i n in g the ^>aidia, its g e n e r a l c o n t r i ­
b u t i o n is to give the f u n d a m e n t a l c a t e g o r i e s
of p l ay th e ir p u r i t y and e x c e l l e n c e . 79
Some d i f f i c u l t y was e n c o u n t e r e d by C a i l l o i s
system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by v i r t u e of the

in his

fact that the four

categories of p l ay w e r e no t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e .

It is p o s ­

sible to classify p a r t i c u l a r g ames in te r ms of c o m b i n a t i o n s
of two or m o r e of the b a s i c c o m p o n e n t s of ag 6 n , a l e a , m i m i c r y ,
or i l i n x .

T h e analy si s of the c o m b i n a t i o n s of m o r e than two

7 8 I b i d ., pp.

27-28.

7 9 I b i d . , pp.

32-33.

46
of the categories w a s om i t t e d as C a il l oi s b e l i e v e d that such
combinations w e r e ra r e j u xt a p o s i t i o n s in w h i c h the d o m a i n s
were r e l a t i v e l y a u t o n o m o u s

and had little i n f l u e n c e u p o n the

actual c h ar a c t e r of the games.

80

E ve n in the ana lysis of the six p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s
of the d o m a i n s taken two at a time;
compatible

two a p p e a r e d to be i n ­

(forbidden r e l a t i o n s h i p s ) , two w e r e

accidental a s s o c i a t i o n s

(contingent r e l a t i o n s h i p s ), and on ly

two appear ed to have any c o m p a t i b i l i t y at all
relationships).

8

largely

(fundamental

X

Cai l lo i s s p e c i f i e d th at the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
competition and v e r t i g o
tion

(a g o n - i l i n x ) and c h an c e and s i m u l a ­

(alea- m i m i c r y ) c a n n o t p o s s i b l y occur.

The i n t r o d u c t i o n

of the spasms a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v e r t i g o w o u l d have the e f f e c t
of destroying

the c o ntrol that is n e c e s s a r y

ance of the c o m p e t i t i v e spirit.

for the m a i n t e n ­

Vertigo destroys

all the

components of agon that are r e q u i r e d for the d e m o n s t r a t i o n
of superiority;

control,

the use of skill,

to adhere to the r u l e s , etc.

the w i l l i n g n e s s

In a s i milar fashion,

the

introduction of the d o m a i n of si m ul a t i o n into games of c hance
rules out the p o s s i b i l i t y of e q u a l i t y u n d e r destiny.

If

destiny is to be p a r a m o u n t in d ec i di n g the w i n n e r , then any
deception or ruse d e s t r o y s the level of e q u a l i t y or i nt r od u ce s

80I b i d . , pp.

71-72.

81I b i d ., pp.

72-76.

47
an extraneous e l e m e n t into the action.
when v e r t i g o is al l ie d to c om pe t it i on ,
allied to c h a n c e , C a i l l o i s

A s n o g a m e is p o s s i b l e
or w h e n s i m u l a t i o n is

s p e c i f i e d th a t such c o m b i n a t i o n s

were to be r e g a r d e d as f o r b i d d e n re l at i on s hi p s.

82

Whe n the c o m b i n a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d ab o ve are reversed,
however,

the a s s o c i at i on s are. viable.

C e r t a i n l y it is p o s ­

sible that an i n d i v i d u a l o b s e s s e d w i t h g a m e s of c h a n c e could
develop the sen se of d i s t o r e d p e r c e p t i o n t h a t o ccurs
vertiginous activities.

in

T h e c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t w e e n ale a and

ilinx m a y be a t t r i b u t e d to the fa c t that in both,
a resignation of the will.

Similarly,

there is

a g o n and m i m i c r y can

readily be c o mb i ne d as the c o m p e t i t i o n is r e i n f o r c e d b y the
spectacle w h i c h su rrounds

it.

It is the i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p

between the p layers and the s p e c t a t o r s th at allo ws the c o m ­
bination of the two d om a i n s

to be viable.

However,

as b o t h

alea and agon can c o n t i n u e u n c h a n g e d by the a d d i t i o n or
removal of th ese domains,

Caillois

s p e c i f i e d that the asso-

ciations be r e ga r de d as c o n t i n g e n t r e la t io n sh i ps .

8

3

The only r e l a t i o n s h i p s r e g a r d e d b y C a i l l o i s to be
fundamental w e r e th o se l inking agon and a l e a , and m i m i c r y
with i l i n x .

In each of th e se two cases,

symmetry b e t w e e n the elements.

t here is a b a s i c

As w a s n o t e d previo us l y,

there is a level of a b s o l u t e e q u a l i t y b e t w e e n the pl a ye r s

82I b i d . , pp.
fi1
I b i d ., pp.

72-73.
73-74.

48
and a s trong r u le s t r u c t u r e in t h e d o m a i n s o f a g 6 n an d a l e a .
Re gulation is an e s s e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t in t h e s e types,

al­

though the m a n n e r of d e c i d i n g u p o n a v i c t o r is e n t i r e l y
different.

In c o m p e t i t i v e a c t i v i t i e s ,

th e i n d i v i d u a l can

win only b y u t i l i z i n g h i s o wn r e s o u r c e s
ent to o v e r c o m e the o pp o s i t i o n .

to a l e v e l s u f f i c i ­

In g a m e s of chance,

vidual a b i l i t i e s m e a n n o t h i n g and f a c t o r s o u t s i d e
and m a n i p u l a t i o n

of the p l a y e r s d e c i d e the result.

be placed o n a c o n t i n u u m s t r e s s i n g d i f f e r e n t
c ompetition and r e c o u r s e to chance.

indi­

the c o n t r o l
Games m a y

combinationsof

84

j u s t as the d o m a i n s of c o m p e t i t i o n an d c h a n c e h a v e a
common a d h e r e n c e to rules,
vertigo

g a m e s w h i c h c o m b i n e s i m u l a t i o n and

(m i m i c r y - i l i n x ) presume,

world w i t h no rules.

in t h e i r e x t r e m e

a

In g a m e s of m i m i c r y t h e r e is an a w a r e ­

ness in the p l a y e r of the si mulation,
duction of v e rtigo,

form,

the a w a r e n e s s

b u t w i t h the

is e l i m i n a t e d .

W h e n one

wears a m a s k the p e r s o n a l i t y is d i s g u i s e d a n d this
the awareness b y o t h e r s of the i d e n t i t y of

intro­

loss of

the m a s k e d

indi­

vidual allows h i m to e n j o y a fe e l i n g of l i be r at i on . He can
magnify this into a d i s t o r t i o n of p e r c e p t i o n an d reality.
The a ss o c i a t i o n of the t w o c a n b e so p o w e r f u l t h a t the s e n s e
of play m a y be

lost.

Indeed,

Caillois believes

that such a

combination is a n a t u r a l c o m p o n e n t of the r e a l m of th e
sacred,

and as such,

8 4 I b i d . , pp.

provides

74-75.

for m u c h of the f a s c i n a t i o n

and

49
terror i n v o l v e d in s u c h a c t i v it i es .
.McIntosh e v a l u a t e d
Caillois and f o un d
could b e made.

85

the c l a s s i f i c a t o r y

sy s t e m of

several areas where valid criticisms

He b e l i e v e d t h a t the d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

c ompetitive g a m e s a n d g a m e s of chance,

which differed

m ainly in the d e g r e e of p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l p o s s i b l e
fluence the p l a y s i t u a t i o n ,
ing e x t r e m e e x a m p l e s .

was viable only whe n consider­

In m a n y g a m e s w h i c h c o u l d be

classif ied as g a m e s of chance,
situation p r e s e n t e d

to i n ­

it is p o s s i b l e to take a

to the p l a y e r by " de s tiny"

and to

translate it i nt o a v i c t o r y t h r o u g h the e m p l o y m e n t of
strategy an d p s y c h o l o g i c a l
bridge and p o k e r w e r e g a m e s

insight.

McIntosh stated

in w h i c h suc h sk i l l s

employed to a l l o w so m e c o n t r o l f o l l o w i n g
the factors of chance.

that

c ou l d be

the o p e r a t i o n of

86

Thi s c r i t i c i s m a p p e a r s to be s o m e w h a t invalid,
Caillois h i m s e l f d i s c u s s e d

the f ac t t ha t m a n y g am e s

regarded as c o m b i n a t i o n s of the four d o mains,

as

ca n be

and the

activities u s e d as e x a m p l e s b y M c I n t o s h w o u l d a p p e a r to
fit on the a g o n — a l e a contin u um .
Never-the-less, McIntosh's
agon c at e go r y doe s h a v e merit,

d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the sense

that it does n o t m a k e a n y d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o m p e t i t i o n

85I b i d . , pp.
86

75-76.

P e t e r C . M c I n t o s h , S p o r t in S o c i e t y , p.

125.

50
involving

individuals

and teams,

himself and his o wn standards,

b y the i n d i v i d u a l a g a i n s t

or b e t w e e n the i n d i v i d u a l and

elements of t h e n a t u r a l e nv i r o n m e n t .

In e a ch case,

the

source of s a t i s f a c t i o n is the a c h i e v e m e n t of a m e a s u r e of
superiority,

b u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the i n d i v i d u a l

player and his a d v e r s a r y is differ e nt .

8

7

M c I n t o s h a ls o i n d i c a t e d th a t he h a d some d i f f i c u l t y
in accepting as a s p e c i a l d o m a i n the p u r s u i t of ve rtigo,
w here the loss of p e r c e p t u a l c l a r i t y or e q u i l i b r i u m w a s
main de f in i n g element.

W h i l e it w a s

vities s u ch as th o se i n v o l v i n g

the

a d m i t t e d t ha t in a c t i ­

fairground devices

t he r e w a s

a loss of e q u i l i b r i u m t h at p r o v i d e d t h e t h r i l l and e x c i t e ­
ment,

in m o s t a c t i v i t i e s

vertigo,

involving

speed,

acceleration

and

the p l a y e r is a w a r e of the r i s k of a loss of

e qu i li b ri u m and u s e s

skill to try to p r e v e n t t h at s i t u a t i o n

occurring* 8 8
The f ea t u r e of r e al

i n t e r e s t in this d i s c u s s i o n ,

however, w a s m i s s e d by Mc I nt o s h .
example of a v e r t i g i n o u s s p o r t
then the

If w e u s e

skiing

as an

(as di d C a i l l o i s a nd M c I n t o s h ) ,

a w a r e n e s s of the r is k of a loss of e q u i l i b r i u m and

the e m p l o y m e n t of s u f f i c i e n t c o n t r o l to e n a b l e the p l a y e r to
m aintain the t h r i l l of s pe e d and a c c e l e r a t i o n w i t h o u t

losing

his m o m e n t u m w o u l d a p p e a r to be an e x a m p l e of a v i a b l e or
ft7

I b i d . , pp.

126-127.

8 8 I b i d . , pp.

125-126.

51

fundamental a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n c o m p e t i t i o n a nd vertigo.
This a g pn - il i n x c o m b i n a t i o n w a s t e r m e d a f o r b i d d e n r e l a t i o n ­
ship by Caill o is ,
association,
racing,

b u t it seems

c a p a b l e of b e i n g a l e g i t i m a t e

especially when considering

skiing,

the s p o r t s of m o t o r

an d m o u n t a i n e e r i n g .

A f ur t h e r c r i t i c i s m m a d e b y M c I n t o s h of the C a i l l o i s
schema was c o n c e r n e d w i t h e r r o r s of o mi s si o n.

The play

activities that h a ve as t h e i r c e n t r a l p u r p o s e t h e e x p r e s s i o n
of ideas,

feelings,

and b e a u t y in h u m a n m o v e m e n t d o n o t

appear to be able to fit in t o the

struct ure.

In t h e s e a c t i ­

vities the aim is n ot u s u a l l y to be b e t t e r t ha n
or to court the loss of e q ui l i b r i u m ;

s o m e o n e else,

the s o u r c e of p l e a s u r e

is located in the p e r f o r m a n c e of a m o v e m e n t w i t h grace,
and artistry. 89
serious one,

T h is p a r t i c u l a r o m i s s i o n a p p e a r e d

Certai n ly ,

the males of our

society.

stitute a p p r o p r i a t e

g a m e or s p or t p l a y e d b y

Th e d e f i n i t i o n s

activities

ated in the ex i s t i n g
quence of these,

is c e n t e r e d on su ch

there is no r e a s o n w h y w o m e n c o u l d not

perform w e l l in any p l a y activ ity,

for the

th e re a pp e a r s

as to w h a t c o n ­

sexes

socialization patterns

are i n c o r p o r ­
and as a c o n s e ­

to be a d e f i n i t e d e f i c i e n c y

in the r e lative n u m b e r s of m a l e s
play forms,

to be a

e s p e c i a l l y in v i e w of the fact t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e

female p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p l a y a c t i v i t i e s
forms.

style

i n v o l v e d in the a e s t h e t i c

and of f em a l e s i n v o l v e d in the a g g r e s s i v e a c t i v i ­

ties .

89 I b i d . , p.

128.

52
Another difficulty was

the

include or e v e n m e n t i o n t h o s e
predator.

activities

Such activities ma y

ing pursuits,

f a i l u r e to a d e q u a t e l y

i n c l u d e the h u n t i n g and f i s h ­

or e v e n m a r k s m a n s h i p

is re p r e s e n t e d as a target.
games and s p o r t s

fit poorly

in w h i c h m a n is a

All

training where

the q u a r r y

told,

the r e c r e a t i o n a l
9 o
i n t o the C a i l l o i s model.

The McIntosh Classification
In r e s p o n s e

to his

c r i t i c i s m of

McIntosh p r o p o s e d h i s o w n t h e o r e t i c a l
tion.

He p r o p o s e d

a d i v i s i o n of the

the C a i l l o i s m o de l ,
s y s t e m of c l a s s i f i c a ­

c a t e g o r y of a g S n i s t i c

games into t h r e e par ts.
He e m p h a s i z e d ,

however,

sport here g i v e n d e p e n d s on
satisfaction w h i c h
itself" ,

91

t h a t " th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of

the m o t i v e

the s p o r t gives,

n o t u p o n the a c t i v i t y

t h e r e b y h o p i n g to e l i m i n a t e

herent in the C a i l l o i s

s c h e m a of h a v i n g

lar games and s p o r t s as b e l o n g i n g
or to c o m b i n a t i o n s

an d the n a t u r e of the

the d i f f i c u l t i e s

to c l a s s i f y p a r t i c u ­

to t wo or m o r e

those g a m e s

s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r an

opponent or o t h e r t e a m o n some e x e r c i s e of skill.

I b i d . , p.

126.

9 1 I b i d ., p.

128.

a separate

a n d s p o r t s w h i c h e n a b l e an

individual or t e a m u n i t to d e m o n s t r a t e

90

categories

of the do m ai ns .

The f i r s t c o m p o n e n t of this m o d e l p r o v i d e d
category for all

in­

These

53
activities m a y b e r e g a r d e d as c o m p e t i t i v e g a m e s
where the p r e d o m i n a n t s o u r c e of s a t i s f a c t i o n
exercise of s k il l d o m i n a n c e o v e r o t hers.
may inclu de

t r a c k a n d f i e l d e ve nts,

some e le m e n t s of h u n t i n g
social and o r g a n i z e d

and

sports.

and sports

is in the

Such

activities

swimming competitions,

fishing,

an d a v a r i e t y of

92

A se c o n d d i v i s i o n of t h e c o m p e t i t i v e g a m e s w a s m a d e
up of a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h i n v o l v e p e r s o n a l

or g r o u p combat.

The aim in such g a m e s

a m e a s u r e of

is to d e m o n s t r a t e

su periority a g a i n s t an o p p o n e n t

in a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h

stress

physical c o m b a t or c o m b a t u s i n g a v a r i e t y of w e a p o n s .
such a c t i v i t i e s

the a im is to f o r c e f u l l y

In

incapacitate

through v i o l e n c e or r e s t r i c t i o n of m o v e m e n t ,

or to s t r i k e

the o p p o n e n t w i t h a s w o r d or s t i c k in s u c h a p l a c e o n the
body that s e v e r e i n j u r y or d e a t h w o u l d b e

the r e s u l t if

padding and o t h e r p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s w e r e n o t p r o v i d e d .
For McIntosh,

the

s p e c i a l f e a t u r e of p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w i t h
an o p p o n e n t e i t h e r d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h limb
and b o d y or i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h foil,
blade or single stick d e serves a special
c a t e g o r y .9 3
T he t h i r d c a t e g o r y c o m p r i s e d
are e nj oyed b e c a u s e

sees

satisfaction

in the

conquest of s om e e l e m e n t of the n a t u r a l

environment,

or over

9 2 I b i d . , pp.
9 3 I b i d . , p.

the

individual

those activities which

126-127.
127.

54
some situation in life.
are legion,

Ex a mp l es of such games and s ports

a n d the m o s t o b vi o u s

skiing, w a t e r skiing,

surfing,

i n clude m o u n t a i n e e r i n g ,

a q u a - l u n g diving,

and e ve n

recreational s w im m in g if the i nd i vi d u a l has a low level of
skill and pe r ce i ve s such an a ct iv i ty as a c o n q u e s t of fear
or flotation.

"For m o s t of those wh o take up c o n q u e s t sports

the appeal is just the im p er s o n a l n a t u r e of the c h a l l e n g e . "
The fourth and final c a t e g o r y

94

in the M c I n t o s h m o d e l

provided re c og n it i on for those a c ti v i t i e s w h i c h

a l l o w the

participant an o p p o r t u n i t y , not to d e m o n s t r a t e a m e a s u r e of
superiority, b u t to show his
human movement.

a b ility to e xpress b e a u t y in

The ai m in such a c t i v i t i e s

is "to e x p r e s s

or communicate ideas a n d feelings u s i n g a n d e n j o y i n g the
95
movements and s en s at i on s of the body in the p r o c e s s ."
Activities such as dance,

gy mn astics,

would provide such s a t i s f a c t i o n s

and figure s k a t i n g

for t heir p a rt i ci p an t s.

In view of the i n te n t i o n of M c I n t o s h to d e v e l o p a
system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b a s e d u po n the sources of s a t i s f a c ­
tion and m o ti v at i on s

for i nd i vi d ua l p a r t i ci p at i on ,

appear to be a w e a k n e s s

it w o u l d

in his scheme to o m i t the co m m o n

desires of man to a chieve s a t i s f a c t i o n in social interaction,
in the p ur suit of h ealth t h r o u g h p h y s i c a l

activity,

and for

the generation of a fe e l i n g of fun and e x c i t e m e n t in games

9 4I b i d . , p.

127.

95I b i d . , p.

128.

55
and sports.

T h e m o t i v e s p e o p l e e x p r e s s as b e i n g b e h i n d t h ei r

selection of p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s
although t h e y p r o v i d e
play, ga m es and

sport,

and

a more

a d e q u a t e m e a n s of c l a s s i f y i n g

more

th a n t h os e r a t h e r l i m i t e d c a t e ­

gories p r o v i d e d by M c I n t o s h w o u l d

The K enyon M o d e l

are legion,

a p p e a r to be n e c e ss a ry .

for the C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t y

Kenyon built upon

the M c I n t o s h b e l i e f

th a t t he c h a r a c ­

terization of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y w a s p o s s i b l e o n l y t h r o u g h
considering

the s o u r c e s of s a t i s f a c t i o n p r o v i d e d b y g a m e s

sports for the p a r t i c i p a n t s .

In his

an d

st u di e s

it w a s
a s s u m e d t h a t 'p h ys i c a l activity*
can b e
r e d u c e d to m o r e s pe cific, or
m e a n i n g f u l c o m p o n e n t s ; i.e., a set of
all p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s can be r e d u c e d
to l o g i c a l subsets, and th at a m e a n i n g ­
ful b a s i s for d o i n g so w a s the ' p e r c e i v e d
i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y * of e a c h c l as s o f p h y s i ­
cal a c t i v i t y " . 96
In this way,

it was p o s s i b l e

for several d i m e n s i o n s of p h y s i c a l
to d if f ering

to p r o v i d e d e f i n i t i o n s
activity which referred

as p e c t s of the m o t i v a t i o n a l

s y s t e m le a d i n g

to

participation.
T he d e v e l o p m e n t of the m o d e l p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h r e e
stages,

e ac h b e i n g

tested empirically.

The first attempt

involved the d e v e l o p m e n t of an i n v e n t o r y to test a six
component m o d e l of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
96

The

G e r a l d S. Kenyon,
V a l u e s h e l d for p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y
by s el ected u r b a n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t u d e n t s in Can ada,
Australia, E n g l a n d a n5 the U n i t e d S t a t e s , pi 5”!

56
sub-domains u t i l i z e d in this
cal health,

the P l a t o n i c m i n d - b o d y d i c h o t o m y ,

competition, mental health,
as m o t i v a t i o n a l f a c t o r s
activity.

study were concerned with physi­

The

cooperation-

social intercourse,

and patr i o t i s m

l e a d i n g to p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l

i n v e n t o r y w a s s u b m i t t e d to t wo g r o u p s and

found to b e i n adequate.

T h e r e a s o n s for this

failure were

believed to b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l i t y of
the sub-domains,
domain,

the low n u m b e r of items r e f l e c t i n g e a c h su b-

and the p o s s i b l e

between the s u b - d o m a i n s

lack of a u n i t a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p
a nd the m o d e l

itself.

9 7

T h e se c o n d s t a g e i n v o l v e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of a n o t h e r
set of six s u b - d o m a i n s a n d the t e s t of this m o d e l u s i n g a
Likert scale.
specified as;

9 8

T he six s u b - d o m a i n s

in this

c a se w e r e

p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a so c i a l e x p e r i e n c e ,

cal activi t y for h e a l t h an d fitness,
pursuit of vertigo,

physical

p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as the

a c t i v i t y as an a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i ­

ence, p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y as a r e c r e a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e ,
physical a c t i v i t y as a c o m p e t i t i v e e xp e r i e n c e .
admini stration of the s c al e

physi­

and

F o l l o w i n g the

to a s a m p l e of c o l l e g e students,

it was found th a t the o p e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of the s u b - d o m a i n s
concerned w i t h c o m p e t i t i o n a n d r e c r e a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s w a s

9 7

G e r a l d S. K enyon, "A c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l for c h a r a c t e r ­
izing ph y s i c a l ac t iv i t y" , pp. 3-4.
9 8

Rens is L i k e r t , "The m e t h o d of c o n s t r u c t i o n an a t t i ­
tude s c a l e " , in R e a d i n g s in A t t i t u d e T h e o r y an d M e a s u r e m e n t ,
e d . by M a r t i n F i s h b e i n (New York: J o h n W i l e y a n d So n s I n c .,
1 9 6 7 ) ,

p p .

9 0 - 9 5 .

57
not satisfactory.

It w a s p r o p o s e d th a t t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s

were pr o ba b l y due to d e f i n i t i o n a l
The

imprecision. 9 9

final s ta g e c o n c e r n e d the e m p l o y m e n t o f a s e ries

of scales d e v e l o p e d u s i n g the s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l t e c h n i q u e
100
of Osgood, Suci a nd T a n n e n b a u m
for t e s t i n g the s t r u c t u r e
of the re f i n e d model.
of physical

In this case,

activity were

seven characterizations

d e v e l o p e d as s u b - d o ma i ns .

These

were :
1.

P h ys i c a l

ch aracterized as

activity

as a s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e ,

"those p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w h o s e p r i m a r y

purpose is to p r o v i d e a m e d i u m for s o c i a l
to meet n e w p eople
ships . "
2.

and to p e r p e t u a t e

i n t e r c o u r s e , i.e.,

existing relation­

J.
P hy s i c a l a c t i v i t y

desire to p a r t i c i p a t e
in terms o f its
3.

which was

P h ysical

for h e a l t h and fitness,

where

the

in a p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y w a s e v a l u a t e d

" c a p a c i t y to e n h a n c e p e r s o n a l h e a l t h . " 10 2
activity

as the p u r s u i t of ve r t i g o ,

which

considered "those p h y s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s p r o v i d i n g , at some

QQ

G e r a l d S. Kenyon, "A c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l f o r c h a r a c t e r ­
izing p h ys i c a l a c ti v it y ", p. 4.
^ ° C h a r l e s E. Osgood, G e o r g e J. Su c i and P e r c y H.
Tannenbaum, The M e a s u r e m e n t o f M e a n i n g (Urbana, 111.:
University of I l li n o i s Press, 1967).
^ ■^ G erald S. Keny on, V a l u e s h e l d for p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y
by selected u r ba n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t u d e n t s in C a n a d a ,
Australia, En g l a n d a n d the U n i t e d S t a t e s , p. 31.
10 2 -I,.,b i. d
.
., p . 31.

58

risk to the p a r t i c i p a n t / an e l e m e n t o f t h r i l l t h r o u g h the
medium of speed,

a c c e l e r a t i o n , sudden change of d i r e c t i o n ,

or exp osure to d a n g e r o u s

situations, with

usually r e m a i n i n g in c o n t r o l " .

103

Th i s

the p a r t i c i p a n t

sub-domain was

only one w h i c h d r e w d i r e c t l y on the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of Caillois,

and t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n

the

scheme

and c r i t i c i s m p r o v i d e d by

McIntosh 4. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as an a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e w h e r e
the p h ys i ca l a c t i v i t y w a s p e r c e i v e d

"as h a v i n g

value for the i n d i v i d u a l - t h a t is a c t i v i t i e s

aesthetic
are c o n c e i v e d

of as p o s s e s s i n g b e a u t y o r c e r t a i n a r t i s t i c q u a l i t i e s 11 .
5. P h y s i c a l

a c t i v i t y as c a t h a r s i s w h e r e

the p h y s i c a l

activity is "p e r c e i v e d as p r o v i d i n g

a r e l e a s e of t e n s i o n

precipitated b y f r u s t r a t i o n t h r o u g h

some v i c a r i o u s m e a n s " .

A l t h o u g h this d i m e n s i o n a p p e a r e d
frustration as a p r e c o n d i t i o n

problems of m o d e r n

living"

more general,

10 3 T, , _
I b i d . , P*
1 0 4 T, .
I b i d ., P*
10 5 T, . ,
I b i d . , P1 0 6 TV^
I b i d . , P*

32.
33 .
33 .
189

to p r e - s u p p o s e

to the e n j o y m e n t of a c t i v i t i e s

in order to a c h i e v e a c a t h a r t i c effect,
tion of this c o n c e p t for u s e

105

the o p e r a t i o n a l i z a ­

in the s c a l e r e f e r r e d

and " p e n t - u p e m o t i o n s "

to "the
which were

6

. P h ys i ca l a c t i v i t y as a as cetic experience,

activity for the i n d i v i d u a l

where

the

"be comes l o n g , s t r e n u o u s and

often pa inful t r a i n i n g and stiff c o m p e t i t i o n d e m a n d i n g ja
deferment of m a n y g r a t i f i c a t i o n s " .

It is w i t h this

dimension that m u c h of the d i f f i c u l t y lies w i t h the K e n y o n
model for,

a l t h o u g h all other d i m e n s i o n s can be u t i l i z e d w i t h

equal e f fe c ti v en e ss w i t h the ov erall p op u la t io n ,

this

sub-

domain p r ov i de s a s t rong m e a s u r e of r e s t r i c t i o n b y r e f e r r i n g
only to activity p a r t i c i p a t i o n at a level w h e r e
pant sacrifices time,

ef f or t and a l t e r n a t i v e

order to d ev e l o p a h i g h de g re e of skill.
domains,

the p a r t i c i ­

activities

in

In all o t h e r sub-

it is p o s s i b l e that the i n d i v i d u a l can s e l e c t an

activity to s a tisfy a p a r t i c u l a r c on s cious or s u b - c o n s c i o u s
need and p a r t i c i p a t e
and ability.

at a low, m e d i u m or h i g h level of skill

In this

case,

however,

the casual p a r t i c i p a n t

is automatically e x c l u d e d as i n v o l v e m e n t p r e — s u p p o s e s

a

period of strenuous t r ai n in g and a h i g h level of co mpetition.
7. Phy sical a c t i v i t y as chance,

w h i c h i n c l u d e d all those

activities w h i c h a l l o w the p a r t i c i p a n t s o p p o r t u n i t i e s to
court the laws of p r o b a b i l i t y in o rd e r to secure some gain.
This last d i m e n s i o n wa s i n cluded in vi e w of the

s t ro n g s u p ­

port provided for it in the li t er a tu r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h g a m e s
] go

and sports,

1 0 7 T, .j

a l t h o u g h it had b ee n o mi t t e d in the ea r l y

_

I b r d ., p . 33.

60
studies u s e d to v a l i d a t e
■Kenyon b e l i e v e d
efficacy o f the m odel,

the model.

t h a t in o r d e r to d e m o n s t r a t e
each

s u b - d o m a i n w o u l d h a v e to be

to be i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t a n d i n d e p e n d e n t ,
so, of the o t h e r

sub-domains.

a sample of c o l l e g e
Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t i e s
conditions
cluded,

fr e sh m e n ,

The

inventory was

s u b m i t t e d to

an d a n a l y s i s o f t h e data,

and Factor Analyses,

t h a t it w as

possible

appropri ate s u b - d o m a i n s h a d b e e n
Cr oss

cultural

comparisons

It w a s

i n c l u d e d at t h a t
between

samples

time.

h e l d by s e c o n d a r y

data we r e c om p i l e d ,

it w a s

attitudes w e r e e x p r e s s e d

10 9

found

for the

10 9

drawn

inventory to d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e s

activity.

con­

t h at n o t all o f the

the

toward physical

using

i n d i c a t e d t h a t the

several c o u n t r i e s w e r e m a d e u s i n g

students

sh o w n

or relatively

for a c c e p t a n c e of the m o d e l w e r e met.

ho w ever,

the

from

fi n al v e r s i o n of th e

' HI/

1 1 2

school

when

these

th a t the m o s t p o s i t i v e
sub-domains

G e r a l d S. Ke n y o n , "A c o n c e p t u a l
terizing p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y , " pp. 9-12.

of physical

model

for c h a r a c ­

^ ■ ^ D a r w i n M. S e m o t i u k , "The a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d and
interests in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y of E d m o n t o n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l
students" ( u n p u b l i s h e d M.A. T h e s i s ( P hy sical E d u c a t i o n ) .
University of A l b e r t a , Ap r il , 1967).
111
K e v i n A. C o l l i n s , "The a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d and i n ­
terests in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y o f W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a n u r b a n
secondary s c h o o l s t u d e n t s " ( u n p u b l i s h e d M.A. T h e s i s (Physi­
cal Education).
U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a , July, 196 7).
112

G e r a l d S. Kenyon.
V a l u e s h e l d for p h y s i c a l a c t i v ­
ity by s e l e c t e d u r b a n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t u d e n t s in C a n a d a ,
Australia, E n g l a n d an d the U n i t e d S t a t e s .

61

activity as a social e x perience,

p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as h e a l t h

and f i t n e s s , p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as an a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e ,
and physical a c t i v i t y as catharsis.

The s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d for

physical a c t i v i t y c h a r a c t e r i z e d as p u r s u i t of ve rtigo,
ascetic experience,

and as chance,

as an

w a s less p o s i t i v e or

i 113
marginal.
Female r e s p o n d e n t s p r o v i d e d

stronger

s u p p o r t for the

sub-domains of p h y s i c a l ac t i v i t y c h a r a c t e r i z e d as s ocial
experience,

as h e a l t h and fitness,

and as c a t h a r s i s .

The m a l e s

as a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e

sa m p l e d ga v e s t r o n g e r s u p p o r t

than the females for the p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s

characterized

as the p u r s u i t of v e r t i g o , a s cetic e x p e r i e n c e , and as
V,
1 1 4
chance.

Among a d u l t s , K e n y o n d e t e r m i n e d that there w e r e no
great diff erences in the d e g r e e of m al e and fema le p a r t i c i p a ­
tion in sports

and that a ct i ve p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l

activities t ended to v ar y d i r e c t l y w i t h the level of i n d i ­
vidual ed ucational attainment.

He also found that

no clear r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n
activity and o c c u p a t i o n a l

status

there w as

in p h y s i c a l

(although it w a s

found that

low occupational status groups did n o t a tt e n d sp o rt i ng
as frequently), and the

fr e qu e nc y of p a r t i c i p a t o r y

spectator i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p h y s i c a l
113
114

I b i d . , p.
I b i d ., pp.

170.
170-171.

events

and

a c t i v i t i e s and spor ts was

62
positively r el a t e d to gross family income.

115

In a no t he r study, he r elated the r e s p o n s e s

to the

sub-domains of the p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y model to the e d u c a ti o na l
level and o c c u p a t i o n a l status of the parent.

A m o n g secondary

school students in the U n i t e d States g r o u p sampled,

the only

relevant a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n p a r e n t a l ed u ca t i o n and the subdomains was

the w e a k e r s up p o r t g i v e n the value of p hy sical

activity as an aesthetic e x p e r i e n c e
(or family heads)

h a d m o re

among girls w h o s e fathers

than one y e ar of co llege education.

It was found that boys from w h i t e - c o l l a r family b a c k g r o u n d s
gave less su pport for p h y s i c a l ac t iv i ty as a m e a n s of se c uring
health and fitness.

Girls from b l u e - c o l l a r f amily b a c k g r o u n d s

gave stronger s up p o r t for the va l ue s of ph y si c al a ct i vi t y as
a social ex perience,

as the p u r s u i t of vertigo,

and as

,,
. 116
ca tharsis.

I ntegration of the C l a s s i f i c a t o r y T h eo r ie s
N ei t h e r C a il l oi s n o r M c I n t o s h s u bm i tt e d t h ei r systems
of classification of play,

games and sport to e m p i r i c a l test,

115

G e r a l d S. Kenyon, "The signifi c an c e of adult p h y s i ­
cal activity as a fu nction of age, sex, ed ucation, and s o c i o ­
economic status" (paper p r e s e n t e d at the M i d w e s t C o n v e n t i o n
of A . A . H , P , E .R. , Detroit, Michigan, A p r i l 11, 1964), pp. 7-8.
(Mimeographed.)
116

G er a l d S. Kenyon, J o hn W. hoy Jr. and B a r b a r a S.
Isaacman, "Values held for p h ys i c a l ac t ivity as a f un ction
of social class ba c kg r ou n d" (paper p r e s e n t e d at the A.A.H.P.
E.R. National Convention, Chicago, 111., M a r c h 20, 1966),
pp. 6-7.
(Mimeographed.)

63
and for this reason,
able face v a l i d i t y ,
the Kenyon m od e l ,

t h e i r t h e o r i es ,

though having consider­

a re o p e n to q u e s t i o n .

In the c as e of

considerable work had been done with adult

and s e co n da r y s c h o o l a d o l e s c e n t s a m p l e s
efficacy of the m o d e l

in o r d e r t h a t the

could be demonstrated.

A p a r t f r o m the l o g i c a l d i f f i c u l t y in the K e n y o n m o d e l
through the i n c l u s i o n of the a s c e t i c i s m m o t i v a t i o n a m o n g
other, m o re r e c r e a t i o n a l ,

d i m e n s i o n s of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y

participation,

t h e r e wa s

though Osgood,

117
et a l .
i n d i c a t e d t h a t the use of p a r a m e t r i c

statistical p r o c e d u r e s ,

a ls o a m e a s u r e m e n t d i f f i c u l t y .

including Factor Analysis,

missible w i t h t h e s c o r e s d e r i v e d
scale,

Al-

was p e r ­

from a semantic differential

there is r e a s o n to d o u b t w h e t h e r the u s e o f such

statistics is a p p r o p r i a t e .

HQ

F o r all i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s ,

the seman ti c d i f f e r e n t i a l t e c h n i q u e y i e l d s
belong at no m o r e
Clearly,

then,

than the o r d i n a l

scores which

level of m e a s u r e m e n t .

the i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n

involved with

the use

o£ Pearson c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s a n d F a c t o r A n a l y s i s ;
that of i n t e r v a l level of m e a s u r e m e n t ,

precludes

the u s e of

such st a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s w i t h t h e s e scales.
A l t h o u g h it is p o s s i b l e

t h a t the v a l i d i t y o f the

Kenyon mo d el w a s u n a f f e c t e d b y the i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e s e

117

C h a r l e s E. O s good, G e o r g e J. Sucx
Tannenbaum, T he M e a s u r e m e n t o f M e a n i n g .
118

an d P e r c y H.

B r i a n M. Pe t ri e , " S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of a t t i ­
tude scale s c ores."
R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y , vol. 49, no, 2
(May, 1969), 434-436.

64

measurement biases,

it was b e l i e v e d that its e x p l a n a t o r y

capacity should be tested along w i t h those of C a il l oi s and
McIntosh-

Unfortunately,

the st a ti s ti c al t re a tm e nt s a p p r o ­

priate to the ordinal level of m e a s u r e m e n t are n o t as u seful
for the testing of models.
The ra nking scale e m p l o y e d as a s ur v ey i n s t r u m e n t in
the present study wa s d e v e l o p e d b y combining the var ious
sub-domains of the Caillois,
classification.

Accordingly,

M c I n t o s h and K e ny o n s y stems of
the following set of ten items

was developed;
1. Ph ysical activ it y as a w a y of pu r su i ng p e r s o n a l risk,
thrills and danger.

This i t e m in cluded the c o ntent of the

factor of phy sical activity as the p u r s u i t of v e r t i g o w h i c h
was common to bo t h the Ca i ll o is and Keny on theories.
2. Physical activity as a w a y of me e t i n g p e o p l e in
social situations.

This

factor ap p ea re d only in the K e n y o n

model although the s o ci a l i z a t i o n

function of games has f r e ­

quently been r ecognized in the past.
3. Physical a c tivity that m a tches skill in the use of a
weapon against a t arget or quarry.

Although McIntosh recog­

nized such activities as b e l o n g i n g p r e d o m i n a n t l y to the area
119
of competitive games i nv o lving the d e m o n s t r a t i o n of skill,
it was felt that th ere m a y be some social class a s s o c i a t i o n
with these activities w h i c h could b es t be i n v e s t i g a t e d if the

119

Peter C. McIntosh,

Sport in S o c i e t y , pp.

126-127.

65
item was g i v e n a s e p a r a t e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
4. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of i m p r o v i n g the h e a l t h
and fitness

of the b o d y .

T hi s m o t i v a t i o n a l f a c t o r w a s

found to b e

a unitary

cluded as a

separate component

Caillois or

M c In t o s h .

sub-domain by Kenyon, but was not i n ­
in e i t h e r o f t he

systems of

5. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of i n v o l v i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l
against "chance"
money.

Games

or

"luck"

of c h a n c e o c c u p i e d m u c h of the s y s t e m o f c l a s s i ­

fication of C a i l l o i s ,
works of Kenyon.

an d h a s b e e n

In his

activities c h a r a c t e r i z e d

included

l a t e r wo r k s ,

however,

120

'

Th i s p a r t i c u l a r

of the catharsis,

the p h y s i c a l

121

. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of h a v i n g

enjoyment.

in m o s t of the

as g a m e s of c h a n c e h a v e b e e n o m i t t e d

from his t h e o r e t i c a l model.
6

in an a t t e m p t to w i n a n o b j e c t or

f u n an d fo r p u r e

i t e m r e f l e c t s m u c h o f the c o n t e n t

recreation,

and relaxation

t he o ri e s,

but

was included o n l y in the K e n y o n m odel.
7. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g
feelings in m o v e m e n t .

This statement would be

the concept of m i m i c r y in th e C a i l l o i s

system,

of the a e st h e t i c m o t i v a t i o n of Ke n y o n .

It was

the system of M c I n t o s h

as the m o t i v e

i de a s

an d

i n c l u d e d in
a nd as p a r t
e x p r e s s e d in

for c o m m u n i c a t i o n of

12 0

G e r a l d S. Ke n y o n , "A c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l fo r c h a r a c ­
terizing p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y . "
R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y , vol. 39,
no, 1 {March, 1968), pp. 96-105.
121

G e r a l d S. Kenyon, "Six s c a l e s for a s s e s s i n g a t t i ­
tude toward p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y . "
R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y , vol.
39, no. 3 (October, 1968), pp. 5 66-574.

66

ideas and feelings though

the use of the body,

description a pp e ar e d to be m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e
survey
8

i n st r u m e n t of the p r e s e n t study.

. P h y s i c a l ac t i v i t y

i n v o l v in g S KILL as

the p r e d o m i na n t p ar t of the perfo rm a nc e .

T h is

statement,

wa s drawn d i r e c t l y f r om the

McIntosh c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of p l a y and games.
petition m o t i v a t i o n s

for use in the

122

as c o m p e t i t i o n

as well as the two w h i c h follow,

and this

A l l three c o m ­

are s u b s e r v e d un d e r the ca t eg o ry of

agon in the C a il l oi s plan,

w h i l e the e l e m e n t of ascetic

experience in the K e n y o n m o d e l ap p ea r s to convey o n l y p a r t
of the content.
9. Ph y si c a l activ it y

as c o m p e t i t i o n

the p r edominant pa rt of the

performance.

i nv o l v i n g C O M B A T as
This

is the s e co n d

of the three di v is i o n s of the c o m p e t i t i o n m o t i v a t i o n i d e n t i ­
fied in the w o r k of McIntosh.
10. Phy sical ac t ivity as c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t p a r t of the
natural environment.

This

final s t a t e m e n t was

the schemes of all three authors

i n cl u de d in

to v a r y i n g d eg r ee s and

given considerable stress as a se parate s u b - d o m a i n by
McIntosh.
It was b e l i e v e d that the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y st e m p r e ­
sented here w o u l d also h av e e x p e r i m e n t a l u ti l i t y in the
evaluation of s pe c tator i n v o l v e m e n t in p h y s i c a l ac t iv i t i e s
of all kinds.
122

Accordingly,

Peter C. McIntosh,

a s e parate s ca l e wa s i n cl u d e d

S p o r t in Society,

pp.

127-128.

67

referring to such i n v o l v e m e n t and o n l y m i n o r ch anges w e r e
necessary to the ten statem en t s d i s c u s s e d a bo v e to m a k e
such a s p e c t a t o r s c a l e an a p p a r e n t l y s a t i s f a c t o r y r e f l e c ­
tion of the three models.

C H A P T E R III
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
In o r d e r to i n v e s t i g a t e

the problem,

the su r ve y r e ­

search t e c h n i q u e wa s e m p l o y e d and da t a wa s c o l l e c t e d from a
random sample d r aw n f r o m the u n d e r g r a d u a t e p o p u l a t i o n of
Michigan St a te U n i v e r s i t y in the S pr i ng Te r m of 1969.

All

statistical a n al y se s w e r e p e r f o r m e d u sing the c o m p u t e r
facilities a va i l a b l e at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y and at
the U n iv e rs i ty of W e s t e r n Ontario.

The D e v e l o p m e n t of the Survey Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
In o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e

the s u i t a b i l i t y of the topic

for analysis u s i n g the s u r v e y t ec h n i q u e i n v o l v i n g a m a i l e d
questionnaire,

a series of i n te r v i e w s wa s c o n d u c t e d w i t h

members of the U n i v e r s i t y u n d e r g r ad u at e ,
academic c o m m u n i t y .

These

g r a d u a t e and

i n te r v i e w s w e r e s t r u c t u r e d in

such a w ay that p r e l i m i n a r y q u e s t i o n s for i nc l us i on in the
survey were e v a l u a t e d in terms of their c a p a c i t y to i n v e s t i ­
gate the problem,

and to p r o v i d e an i n d i c a t i o n of the a b il i ty

of the q ue s ti o ns to e l i c i t u n i d i m e n s i o n a l
from the r e s p o n d e n t s .

r e sp o ns e patter n s

Th e p u r p o s e of the i n t e rv i ew s wa s also

to seek an e v a l u a t i o n of the ca p a c i t y of the p h y s i c a l a c tivity
model to be fully i n c l u s i v e of the m o t i v a t i o n s

h e ld towards

participation and s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p h y s i c a l activity.

69
F o l l o w i n g the in t e r v i e w s ,

the q u e s t i o n n a i r e

fo r m a t w a s

refined in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h s u g g e s t i o n s m a d e by the r e s p o n ­
dents and p r e p a r e d
of

1 0 0

for p r e s e n t a t i o n to a n o n - r a n d o m s a m p l e

undergraduate

students

r e g i s t e r e d in r e q u i r e d - p r o g r a m

classes of P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n at M i c h i g a n

S t a t e U n i v e r si t y.

In a d d i t i o n to the n o r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n s
the c o m p l e t i o n o f the q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
asked to m a k e

the r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e

suggestions which would

of the p h y s i c a l

a c t i v i t y model,

involved with

l e ad to the e x p a n s i o n

or to the c o r r e c t i o n of any

statements or r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h a p p e a r e d to p r o v i d e
for ambiguity.
F o l l o w i n g the a n a l y s i s of t h e s e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ,
survey i n s t r u m e n t w a s

again refined and submitted

various m e m b e r s of the a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e

the

to the

for e v a l u a t i o n .

The final v e r s i o n of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e w a s

th en

printed and p r e p a r e d fo r s u b m i s s i o n to the m e m b e r s of the
sample

(Appendix A ) .

The

S e l e c t i o n of the S a m p l e

A f t e r w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n w a s s e c u r e d f r o m the R e g i ­
strar's O f f i c e and

f r o m the D e p a r t m e n t of I n s t i t u t i o n a l

Research of M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
Admissions O f f i c e w e r e m a d e a v a i l a b l e

the files o f the
for the

selection of

the sample.
An a r b i t r a r y s a m p l e s i z e of 1,000 w a s s e l e c t e d and
the following c o n d i t i o n s w e r e m a d e

for i n c l u s i o n in the sa mple:

70
1. A l l me mbers of the samp le w e r e to be re g is t er e d
under-graduate students of M i c h i g a n State University.
2. All those se lected w e r e to be A m e r i c a n citizens
(foreign students to be o m itted from the l i s t i n g ) .
3. All those students above the age of 2 3 years w e r e
to be eliminated fr om c o ns i d e r a t i o n as m em b e r s of the sample.
At the b e gi n n i n g of the Spr ing Term of 1969,

the

enrollment in u n de r gr a du a te p r og r am s at M i c h i g a n State U n i ­
versity comprised the f ol l owing numbers of students:
Men:

16,086 students
enrollment).

(55.12% of u n d e r g r a d u a t e

Women:

13,096 students
enrollment).

(44.8% of u n d e r g r a d u a t e

Total:

29,182 students.

Fo llowing e l i m i n at i on of the pr e vi o u s l y m e n t i o n e d
students from the file,

a total of

2 0 , 0 0 0

students r e mained

as the popula ti o n from w h i c h the sample was to be drawn.
The sample w a s s e le c te d by p r o g r a m m i n g the c o mputer
to select every tw entieth s t u d e n t n um b er from the file of
the Admissions Of f ic e w i t h the entry point into the file
being det ermined at random.
The sample se l ected m a y be defined as a s ys t em a t i c
sample with known and equal p r ob a b i l i t i e s of s e l e c t i o n .
In addition to the s e le ction of the s a m p l e , A v er y
Labels were p ri nted of the Ea s t Lansing addresses of those
selected and a com puter p r i n t - o u t wa s pr o vi d ed

showing the

following details for each m e m b e r of the sample:

71
1. S t u d e n t number.
2. F u l l name.
3. L o c a l address.
4. Ho m e address.
5. Cla ss
6

at M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

. Program

level at M i c h i g a n

State University.

7. C u r r i c u l u m of study.
8

. D o r m i t o r y Code.
F ro m this

in f o r m a t i o n ,

sample w as d e duced,

a l t h o u g h in two c a s e s

of the g i v e n n a m e s w e r e
This

there we r e d i f f e r e n c e s

willingness

o n ly the i n i t i a l s

listed.

information was

variables b e l i e v e d

the sex of ea c h m e m b e r o f t h e

later u t i l i z e d

to d e t e r m i n e

in the r e s p o n s e r a te s

if

o n any of t h o s e

to be s i g n i f i c a n t d e t e r m i n a n t s

of the

to r e p l y to a survey.

T w e l v e m e m b e r s of the s a m p l e h a d to be
from c o n s i d e r a t i o n for v a r i o u s re a sons.
liminary s i f t i n g of the p o p u l a t i o n
the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m p u t i n g

eliminated

Despite

the p r e ­

list b y t h e m e m b e r s of

staff,

six m e m b e r s o f the s a m p l e

were d e t e r m i n e d to be c i t i z e n s of o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .
two were m a l e and four w e r e

female.

One

O f these,

f emale s t u d e n t

telephoned to r e p o r t t h a t she h a d p r e v i o u s l y

completed her

undergraduate r e q u i r e m e n t s and w a s a f u l l y r e g i s t e r e d g r a d u ­
ate student for the S p r i n g Term.

No a d d r e s s w a s

determined for one m a l e m e m b e r of the sample,
male student had b e e n i n d u c t e d i n t o U.S.

able

to be

while another

Service.

Two women

72
students had d r o p p e d out of college, w h i l e a no t h e r had w i t h ­
drawn from classes in o r d e r to travel to E n g l a n d .
As three sets of A v e r y L ab el s w e r e p r i n t e d w i t h the
local addresses of ea ch m e m b e r of the sample,

the opportunity

was p r es ented for the se nding of two f o l l o w - u p or r e m i n d e r
cards to r e q u e s t c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h the aims of the study.

T he

fact that the su rv ey ha d b e e n a pp roved by the o ff i ce of I n s t i ­
tutional R e search and was ca r ried out u nd e r the au s pi c es of
the College of E d u c a t i o n w a s e x p e c t e d to secure the m a x i m a l
degree of c o o p e r a t i o n .
The c o m p o s i t i o n of the sample w a s c o m p a r e d to that of
the over-all u n d e r g r a d u a t e p o p u l a t i o n on the b a s i s

of sex

(Table 1).
Table 1.

Sex c om p o s i t i o n of the sample c o m p a r e d to
th at of the o ve r -a l l u n d e r g r a d u a t e p o p u ­
l ation of M i c h i g a n State U n iversity, Sp ring
Term, 1969.
O ve r - a l l
p op u la t io n

Sample
drawn

Corrected
sa mp le

No. of Men

16,086

531

527

Proportion of
Total

55.12%

53 .10%

53.34%

No. of Women

13,096

467

459

Proportion of
Total

44.8

46.70%

46.46%

8

%

Sex Unknown

2

0 .2 0 %

Proportion of T otal
TOTAL

29,182

1 , 000

2
0 .2 0 %
988

73
The D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
All q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

a d d r e s s e d to st udents

livi ng in

University d o r m i t o r i e s w e r e sent t hrough the C a mpus Mail
Service.

Questionnaires

a d d r e s s e d to st u de n ts

living off -

campus were se nt t hr o u g h nor mal po s t a l channels.
dents were r e q u e s t e d to r e pl a ce
own address w i t h another,

The r e s p o n ­

the A v e r y Label s h o w i n g their

w h i c h was enclosed,

s h o w i n g the

address on Campus w h i c h was us e d as a c e nt r al re t u r n point
for all q ue s tionnaires.

The r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e r eq u e s t e d to

then return the q u e s t i o n n a i r e s u s i n g the Campus Mail Service.

Rem i nd e r N ot i ce s
As the q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w er e numbered,

and the r e s p o n ­

dents could be i d e n t i f i e d by nam e from this information,

it

was possible to check off the names as the q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
were returned.
Two cards w e r e sent f o l l o w i n g the o r i g i n a l d i s t r i b u ­
tion of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e to r e mi n d those who ha d not
responded of the i m p o r t a n c e o f the study and r e q u e s t i n g

that

they complete the survey a nd return it t h r o u g h the mail
(Appendix B ) .
The first card was sent to all w h o had not r e pl i ed
by the seventh and ei g ht h day f o l l o w i n g the date of the
original mailing.

The second card was sent to those w ho had

not responded by the fourtee n th and fifteenth days
the original mailing.

following

74
S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s of the Data
All the d a t a w e r e a n a l y z e d using c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s
developed at M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y a nd the U n i v e r s i t y of
Western Ontario.

Th e C o m p u t e r I n s t i tu t e of S o ci a l Sc ie nce

Research d e v e l o p e d the N o n p a r a m e t r i c S t a t i s t i c s P a c k a g e
NPSTAT,

the M u l t i p l e F r e q u e n c y C o u n t p r o g r a m P E R C O U N T , and

the Four W a y C r o s s - C l a s s i f i c a t i o n p r o g r a m N U C R O S .

These pro­

grams were u s e d w i t h the C o n t r o l Data C o r p o r a t i o n CDC

3600

computer a v a i l a b l e at M i c h i g a n St a te U n i v e r s i t y .
The X T A B — 5 G e n e r a l i z e d C r o s s - T a b u l a t i o n p r o g r a m was
used at the U n i v e r s i t y of W e s t e r n O nt a r i o
sis of the data.

T he

SDL Company of Ottawa,

for f u rt h e r a n a l y ­

IBM 360/85 c o m p u t e r o p e r a t e d by the
m a d e a v a i l a b l e by t e le p h o n e

the University of W e s t e r n O n t a r i o C o m p u t e r Center,

line from
w a s us ed

for these analyses.
The f i r s t a n al y se s p e r f o r m e d on the surv ey d at a e n ­
abled response f r e q u e n c y
response cell.

counts to be d e t e r m i n e d for each

F o l l o w i n g this procedure,

the K r u s k a l - W a l l i s

Analysis of V a r i a n c e b y R a n k s ^ ^ w as u se d as a s i fting device
to determine w h i c h of the i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w o u l d be
utilized in later analyses.

Thi s later p r o c e d u r e i nv o l v e d

the use of t w o — and t h r e e - wa y cross c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s u t i l i z i n g
the chi square test of s i g n i f i c a n c e b e t w e e n i n d e p e n d e n t
g roups.

"^Sidney S i e g e l , N o n p a r a m e t r i c S t a t i s t i c s for the
Behavioral S c ie n ce s (New York: M c G r a w - H i l l B o ok Company,
1956) , p p . 184-193.
^"2

•*~^4Ibid . , pp . 175-17 9 .

75
The C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Me m b e r s of the S a mple and
Res p o n d e n t s

to the Survey

Information c o n c e r n i n g m em b er s of the sample
Of a total of 9 8 8
bers of the sample,
clusion a total of

6

24 r e sp on d ed
This

and was

of the diffic u lt i es

s el e ct e d as m e m ­

a n d s a t i s fi e d the r e q u i r e m e n t s

their q u es t ionnaires.
cent return rate,

students wh o w e r e

for i n ­

to the s u rv e y and r e turned

re s po n se r e p r e s e n t e d a 63.16 p e r

r e g a r d e d as s a t i s f a c t o r y in view

i n h e r e n t in m a i l e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e designs.

Because of the fact that a less than total return had
occurred,

it w a s b e l i e v e d that the r e s p o n d e n t g ro u p no l onger

mirrored the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the o r i g i n a l sample.

To

provide a check of this b e l i e f , the re s po n d e n t group was
compared to the sample group on k n ow n criteria.
The c o m p u t e r l i s t i n g of the sample group i nc l ud e d data
on several v a ri a b l e s w h i c h m a de such c o m p a r i s o n s

feasible.

This i n f o r m a t i o n i n d i c a t e d the class of the st ud ent
(freshman,

sophomore,

junior,

or s e n i o r ) , the p r o g r a m level

attained by the s t u d e n t

(University College,

or Residential College,

Ho n or s College,

of study,

the sex of the student,

the member of the sample

U p pe r Division

etc.),

the c u r r i c u l u m

and the local ad dress of

(classified for an a ly t ic purposes

as on-, or off-campus).
This i n f o r ma t io n w as

then a n a l y s e d to d et e rm i ne

whether d ifferences e x i s t e d be t w e e n
respondents on any of these

factors.

the r es p o n d e n t s and nonDue to the fact that

there w e r e

low c e ll

frequencies

for m a n y of the s e p a r a t e

branches of c u r r i c u l a a v a i l a b l e for study,
to be o m i t t e d f r o m chi s q u a r e an a lysis.

this v a r i a b l e h a d

The practical

difficulties of the n u m b e r of s e p a r a t e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of
curricula,

and the

l i m i t a t i o n of the n o n - a v a i l a b i l i t y of a

computer p r o g r a m w h i c h w o u l d c o n s i d e r m o r e t h an

2 1

for any one va r iable,

in the

were

elimination of a n a l y s i s

contributing

fa c t o r s

columns

of the v a r i a b i l i t y of r e s p o n s e rates

by curriculum.
T h e r e s p o n s e rat e

for s t u d e n t s of e a c h u n d e r g r a d u a t e

class is s h o w n in T a b l e 2.

Table

2.

Questionnaire return by undergraduate
cl a s s (N=9 8 8 ) .

Questionnaire
Return

Freshman

Junior

Sophomore

Senior

Total

Yes

(N=624)

7.1

32. 4

28.

8

31. 7

1 0 0

No

(N=364)

5.2

28 . 8

29.9

36 .0

1 0 0

X

2

= 3.476,

n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

F r o m the i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d
would appear that the m e m b e r s

of the

.05.

in the above

table,

it

freshman group were

strongly u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d in the samp le.

However,

as the

survey was m a d e d u r i n g the t h i r d t e rm of the a c a d e m i c year,
many of the e n t e r i n g

freshmen would probably have already

earned the 40 c r e d i t s n e e d e d to q u a l i f y t h em for the st a t u s

77
of so phomore b y

the time the s a m p l e w a s drawn.

representation b e y o n d

Any under

this c a u s e w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y h a v e

occurred t h r o u g h the o p e r a t i o n of c h a n c e

f actors

in the

selection of the sample.
The a n al y s i s of the r e s p o n s e ra t e
each p ro g ra m level

Tab l e

Questionnaire
Return

3.

is s h o w n in T a b l e

Questionnaire
(N=9 8 8 ) .

2

3.

r e t u r n by p r o g r a m

Program
^

for s t u d e n t s at

level*

Level

3

4

5

6

7

Total

Yes

(N=624)

27.9

36. 4

1.4

4.6

9 .8

17 .3

2 . 6

1 0 0

No

(N=364)

26.1

42 .3

1 . 1

2

.2

6.9

2 0 . 1

1.4

1 0 0

X 2 = 10.968,

not significant at p

.05.

‘Program Levels.
1
2
3
4
5

6

7

= U n i v e r s i t y College.
= U p p e r D i v i s i o n or R e s i d e n t i a l Co llege.
= H o n o r s C ol lege, U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e (Lower
D i v i s i o n or R e s i d e n t i a l C o l l e g e ) .
= Ho n o r s C o l l e g e (Upper D i v i s i o n ) .
= G e n e r a l A g r i c u l t u r e , A g r i c u l t u r e T ec h n o l o g y ;
U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e (two y e a r t e r m i n a l ) ;
U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e C a n d i d a t e for P r o f e s s i o n a l
Teaching Certificate.
= U p p e r D i v i s i o n or R e s i d e n t i a l College.
Candi­
date for P r o f e s s i o n a l T e a c h i n g C e r t i f i c a t e .
Dual e n r o l l m e n t w i t h C o l l e g e of E du c at i o n .
= H o n o r s College; U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e c a n d i d a t e
for P r o f e s s i o n a l T e a c h i n g C e r t i f i c a t e ; U p p e r
D i v i s i o n or R e s i d e n t i a l C o l l e g e c a n d i d a t e for
Professional Teaching Certificate.
Du al
e n r o l l m e n t w i t h C o l l e g e of Educat i on .

78
W h e n the r e s p o n s e r a te w a s
cant d i f fe r en c es w e r e

T ab l e

4.

f ound

a n a l y s e d by sex,

signifi­

(Table 4).

Questionnaire

return by sex

(N=9

8 6

).

Questionnaire
Return

Male

Female

Total

Yes

(N= 6 2 4)

48.9

51.1

1 0 0

No

(N=36 2)

61.3

38. 7

1 0 0

= 14.267,

p

A dd i t i o n a l l y ,

less t h a n

.001.

significant differences were

f o u n d to

exist w he n the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e s p o n s e to the s u r v e y
and local r e s i d e n c e w a s
tendency for s t u d e n t s

c on s id e re d .

In v i e w of t h e g e n e r a l

living o f f - c a m p u s at M i c h i g a n S t a t e

University to share a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h

several

was expected t h at the c o m b i n a t i o n of i n c r e a s e d
demands,

a r e d u c e d level of time

of non-e ss e nt i al tasks,
would me d i a t e
of the sample.

available

and the c o m p e t i t i o n

ag a i n s t a h i g h

friends,

it

so c i a l

for the c o m p l e t i o n
for attention,

r e t u r n ra t e among

these m e m b e r s

T h e r e s u l t s of the a n a l y s i s of these d a t a

are shown in T a b l e

5.

It w o u l d appear,

then,

members of the s a m p l e w e r e

t h at the w o m e n s e l e c t e d as

somewhat more compliant

men with regard to the r e t u r n of the q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
students living in u n i v e r s i t y r e s i d e n c e s w e r e

than the
and the

also m o r e

79

Table

5.

Questionnaire
(N=98 8 ) .

r e t u r n by

Local

Questionnaire
Return

l oca l r e s i d e n c e

residence
Total

On-campus

Off-campus

Yes

(N-624)

58.0

42 .0

1 0 0

No

(N=364)

37 .9

62.

1 0 0

X2

= 37.160,

p

less

likely to c o o p er a te .

than

.0

0 1

T o the e x t e n t

1

.

t h a t these r e s u l t s

pro­

duced a r e s p o n d e n t g r o u p w h i c h d i d n o t m i r r o r the c h a r a c t e r ­
istics of the
introduced.

sample,

s om e d e g r e e o f b i a s m a y h a v e b e e n

Additionally,

than total r e s p o n s e

the

fa c t t h a t

there w a s

i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e r e s p o n d e n t s

be regarded as b e i n g

a less
could not

a r a n d o m s a m p l e of u n d e r g r a d u a t e

dents at M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
and because of the l i m i t a t i o n s

It w a s

for th e se r ea s on s ,

i m p o s e d b y the

measurement o b t a i n e d in the d a t a

stu­

level of

(being p r e d o m i n a n t l y at the

ordinal l e v e l ) , t h a t all a n a l y s e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d u s i n g no nparametric statis ti c s.

12 5

B a c k g r ou n d I n f o r m a t i o n C o n c e r n i n g
Specific questions were
questionnaire s e e k i n g

asked

th e R e s p o n d e n t s
in the b o d y of the

information concerning

1 25 -,.. . .
I b x d ., p . 30.

the r e s p o n d e n t ' s

80
age, sex, m a r i t a l status,
brothers,

c itizenship,

the n u m b e r of living

the n u m b e r of living sisters,

siblings in the family,
family religion,

the n u m b e r of o l d e r

s t r e n g t h of r e li g i o u s conviction,

the type of hi g h s c ho o l attended,

and major at M i c h i g a n State Univer s it y ,
income, pa rental o c c u p a t i o n a l

status,

attained by the h e a d of the h ou s eh o ld ,

g r os s

College

a nnual

fami ly

level of e d u c a t i o n
home

town size and

occupational a s p i r a t i o n s of the respondent.
These v a r i a b l e s w e r e expected,
associated w i t h

in m a n y cases,

to be

the at t it u d e s e x p r e s s e d t o w a r d p h y s i c a l

activity and to b e i m p o r t a n t d e t e r m i n a n t s

for m o t i v a t i o n s

for partic ip a t io n and s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t
types of activities.

T h is

in p a r t i c u l a r

s e c t i o n of the a n al y si s p r e s e n t s

the data o b ta i ne d from the b a c k g r o u n d quest ions,
variables w h i c h w e re used as checks

while

(citizenship,

those

College

and major) w e r e e l i m i n a t e d fr om conside r at i on .
The s el e c t i o n of the a r b i t r a r y age l imit of 23 y e a r s
as the upper limit for i n c l u s i o n in the s a m p l e a ppears to
have provided little d i s t o r t i o n w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g

the age

composition of the u n d e r g r a d u a t e p o p u l a t i o n of the u n i v e r s i t y
as a whole.

Table

6

shows the age d i s t r i b u t i o n

found to

exist among the r e s p o n d e n t s .
Althou gh s u p p o r t was g i v e n for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of
the age of 23 years as the u pper limit for i n c l u s i o n , it w a s
possible that there wa s a lower r e s p o n s e

rate among the

older members of the sample and th at this factor g a v e the

81
Table

6

.

Age d i s t r i b u t i o n of the r e s p o n d e n t s
(N= 6 25) .

Age in Years

N

P r o p o r t i o n of T ot a l*

17

2

0.32

18

24

3. 84

19

132

2 1

20

205

32. 80

21

166

26.56

2 2

91

14 .56

1

0.16

23

*No response:

.1 2

a c c o u n t e d for 0.64 p e r cent of the total,
N=4 .

appearance of a t a i l i n g - o f f of the age d i st ribution.
The r e sp o ns e d i s t r i b u t i o n b a s e d u p o n the sex of the
respondents is s h o w n in T a b l e

Table 7.

7.

Sex d i s t r i b u t i o n of the re s p o n d e n t s
(N= 6 2 5) .

Sex

N

P r o p o r t i o n of To t al *

Male

306

48.96

Female

318

50.88

*No response:

accounted
N=l.

for 0.16 per c e nt o f the total,

82

It w a s

shown in the d i s c u s s i o n of the r e s p o n s e rates

for p a r t i c u l a r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of the m e m b e r s of the sample,
that the

fe male m e m b e r s

of the s a m p l e d r a w n w e r e m o r e

to return the m a i l e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e
over-all u n d e r g r a d u a t e p o p u l a t i o n
(including

foreign students

years) w as

co n si d er e d,

th a n the males-

the

and s t u d e n t s o v e r the age of 23

it wa s

fo u nd t h a t m e n c o n s t i t u t e d

made up 44.88 p er c e n t of the p o p u l a t i o n .
then,

When

at M i c h i g a n S ta t e U n i v e r s i t y

55.12 per cent of the S p r i n g T e r m e nr ol m en t ,

group,

likely

while w o m e n

T he

respondent

wa s n o t a true r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the sex d i s t r i ­

bution of the p o p u l a t i o n
A n a l y s i s of

f ro m w h i c h

the s a m p l e w a s drawn.

the d a t a on the m a r i t a l

s t a t u s of

the

respondents s h o w e d th at t h e r e w a s o n l y a s m a l l g r o u p of
married s tu d e n t s

and this

f a ct m a d e c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

between this v a r i a b l e and the d e p e n d e n t or s c o r e v a r i a b l e s
difficult.

In v i r t u a l l y al l cases,

control using marital

status as an i n t e r v e n i n g v a r i a b l e wa s n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t
collapsing cells

in the chi s q u a r e

was p os s ib l e to f u lf i l

the a s s u m p t i o n s w i t h

distrib ution and m a g n i t u d e
Table

8

illustrates

In this m a n n e r

178.

it

r e l a t i o n to the

12 6
of the e x p e c t e d c el l f r e q u en c ie s .

the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the r e s p o n d e n t s o n

marital s t a t u s .

1 2 6 I b i d . , p.

table.

83
Table

8

.

Marital
(N=625)

s t a t u s of the r e s p o n d e n t s
. 1 2 7

N

Status
Single

(never married)

Single

(divorced)

Married

579

92 .64

1

0.16

42

6.72

(once only)
*No r es p onse:

P r o p o r t i o n of To t a l *

accounted
total,

The q u e s t i o n

for 0.4

8

N=3.

c o n c e r n i n g c i t i z e n s h i p wa s i n c l u d e d as a

check of the s c r e e n i n g p r o c e s s w h i c h w a s
students fr o m the sample.
sample list itself,
consideration.

p e r c e n t of the

to e l i m i n a t e

S om e e r r o r s w e r e

foreign

l o c a t e d o n the

and t h es e s t u d e n t s w e r e o m i t t e d f r o m

One respondent

indicated that he did not hold

American c i t i z e n s h i p so he w a s e x c l u d e d .

Another respondent

did not check any of the r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s b u t w rote,
black" b e s i d e the q u e s t i o n .

"I'm

T h i s r e s p o n d e n t w a s i n c l u d e d in

the study.
The n u m b e r of b r o t h e r s

in the r e s p o n d e n t ' s

family was

expected to a c c o u n t for so m e of the a c t i v i t y p r e f e r e n c e s
reasons for p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

T he g r e a t e r the n u m b e r of b r o t h e r s

in the fami ly of a f e m a l e r e s p o n d e n t ,
127

and

for e x ample,

the g r e a t e r

Clark K e r r a n d L o g a n W i l s o n , N a t i o n a l S u r v e y of
Higher E d u c a t io n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( M in n ea p ol i s , M i n n .: N .C .S .
Processing c e n t e r 1 9 t>87”! Q u e s t i o n 85, p. 12.

84
would be the e x p e c t a t i o n
of the m a le

students.

numbers of b r o t h e r s

T a bl e 9.

for h er c h o i c e s

Table

in the

to t e nd t o w a r d t h o s e

9 shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the

f a m i l i e s of the r e s p o n de n ts .

N u m b e r o f b r o t h e r s in the f a m i l i e s of
the r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Number of B r o t h e r s

N

None

P r o p o r t i o n of T o t a l *

182

29 .12

1

245

39 .20

2

123

19 . 6 8

3

41

6

4 or m o r e

30

4 .80

*No response:

accounted

.56

for 0.64 p e r c e n t of the total

N=4 .

The v ar i able,

n u m b e r of si s t e r s

in the family,

was

also expected to e x p l a i n so m e of the v a r i a b i l i t y in the
response p a t t e r n s

in r e l a t i o n

to a c t i v i t y m o t i v a t i o n s .

The

distribution of the n u m b e r of s i s t e r s of the r e s p o n d e n t s w a s
similar to t ha t g i v e n for the n u m b e r of b r o t h e r s
Some a tt i t u d e s

and reasons

(Table 10).

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in

particular types of a c t i v i t i e s w o u l d be e x p e c t e d to v a r y w i t h
the position of the i n d i v i d u a l in the b i r t h o r d e r of the
family.

Respondents

from larger

fa mi l i e s w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d

to develop the h a b i t s of c o o p e r a t i o n ,

companionship,

and

85
Table

10.

N u m b e r s o f s i s t e r s in the f a m i l i e s
of r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

N

Number of S i s t e r s

P r o p o r t i o n of T o t a l *

190

30.40

1

239

38. 24

2

134

21.44

3

39

6.24

4 or m o r e

2 1

3 .36

No ne

*No response:

accounted

for 0.32 p e r c en t of the total,

N=2 .

joint ef f or t to a t t a i n go al s,

and a c c o r d i n g l y t he s e

viduals w o u l d g r a v i t a t e t o w a r d t e a m a c t i v i t i e s ,
sports w h e r e the e x p r e s s i o n of t he s e a t t i t u d e s
for success.

It ma y al s o be e xp e c t e d ,

how ever,

indi­

games,

and

is e s s e n t i a l
t h a t the

individual fr o m a la rge f a m i l y w o u l d r e c e i v e the f u l f i l l m e n t
of the needs
associations,

for c o l l e c t i v e c o m p e t i t i o n t h r o u g h his

family

and w o u l d p r e f e r to e n g a g e in i n d i v i d u a l

activities o u t s i d e the f a m i l y unit.

128

The n u m b e r of o l d e r

siblings in the f am i l i e s of the r e s p o n d e n t s

is s h o w n in

Table 11.

12 8

letes",

H ar r y Webb,
pp. 18-19.

"Social backgrounds

of M.S.U.

ath­

86
Table 11.

N u m b e r of older siblings in the
families of the r e s p o n d e n t s (N= 625 ).

Number of older si blings

P r o p o r t i o n of total*

N
287

45.92

1

224

35. 84

2

70

3

2 2

3.52

4

12

1.92

None

1 1 . 2 0

5

5

0

6

1

0.16

*No response:

. 80

a c c o u n t e d for 0.6 4 pe r cent of total,
N=4 .

From the d at a o b t a i n e d f r om the thr ee sets of q u e s ­
tions concerning the n u m b e r of b r ot hers,
siblings, it w as p o s s i b l e

sisters,

and ol d e r

to d e t e r m i n e the actual nu m be r of

children in the family of each respondent.

This d at a is

presented in Table 12.
This table does i n clude the a c c u m u l a t i o n of the n o n ­
responses of a m a x i m u m of e i g h t r e s p o n d e n t s b u t w a s b e l i e v e d
to be sa tisfactory for use in the study.

The variab le,

ber in family, was u s e d as an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e
ses dealing w i t h a t ti t u d e s

num­

in a n a l y ­

toward acti vity.

The item d e a l i n g w i t h the st r en g th of r e l i g i o u s

con­

viction was used in a m a i l e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n c e r n e d w it h

87
Table 12.

N u m b e r of c h i l d r e n in the f ami lie s
of r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Number of children
in family

N

P r o p o r t i o n of total*

1

41

2

171

27. 36

3

182

29 .12

4

116

18.56

5

53

8

6

33

5.28

7

2 0

3 .20

6

.56

.48

8

4

0 .64

9

4

0.64

*No response:

a c c o u n t e d for 0.16 p er c e n t of total,
N=1.

university s tu d e n t a tt i t u d e s t oward h i g h e r education.
was included in this study as a means of c o n t r o l l i n g
variability in the re l ig i o u s
social behaviour.
is shown in T able

12 9

It

for the

fact or as a d e t e r m i n a n t of

T he r e sp o ns e d i s t r i b u t i o n of this q u e s t i o n
13.

An i nd i vi d ua l 's r e l i g i o n is a p r i v a t e matter,

and,

anticipating that some r e s p o n d en t s m i g h t p r e f e r n o t to re p ly

129

Clark K e rr and Logan Wilson, N a t i o n a l S u r v e y of
Higher Education Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Q u e s t i o n 77, p . 12.

88

Table

13.

S t r e n g t h of religious
a mong the re s p o n d e n t s

Religious c o n v i c t i o n

N

Deeply religious

50

c o n v i c ti o n
(N= 6 2 5 ) .

P r o p o r t i o n of total*
8

.0 0

Moderately r e li g io u s

360

57. 60

Indifferent to r el i g i o n

173

27.68

35

5.60

Opposed to re l i g i o n
*No response:

accounted

for 0.64 p er cen t of total,

N=4 .

with details of their r e l i g i o u s belief,
gory,

"No answer" w as

the r e s p o n s e c a t e ­

The v a r i a t i o n in the fam ily

added.

religion of the r e s p on d en t s w a s no t p a r t i c u l a r l y great,
most respondents b eing P r o t e s t a n t

Table 14.

Religion
Protestant
Catholic
Jewish

(Table 14).

F a m i l y re li g i o n among the respond e nt s
(N=625) .

N

P r o p o r t i o n of total*

384

61.44

166

26.56

27

4.32

Other

16

2.56

None

25

4.00

2

0 .32

No answer

with

*No response: a c c o u n t e d for 0.4 8 p er cent of the total
N=3.
Tw o r e s p o n d e n t s filled in two categories,
P ro t es t a n t - C a t h o l i c , and a c c o u n t e d for 0.32 per
cent of the total.

89
It was b e l i e v e d that there m ay be some influ e nc e on
attitudes t o w a r d a c t i v i t y a n d on the reasons for p a r t i c i p a ­
tion that d e v e l o p e d due to the s o c i a l i z a t i o n pr ocess in the
school.

A t t e n d a n c e at p a r o c h i a l s chools c ould d e v e l o p a

degree of m i n o r i t y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n that w o u l d lead the
graduates to b e co m e more in v ol ve d in team activit i es
stress the u n itary s o l u t i o n to a p r o b l e m by a group.

that
Gradu­

ates of the public schools w o u l d be e x p e c t e d to be d i s t r i ­
buted relatively e v e n l y in t e am and indivi dual activities.
Tabulation of the data r e v e a l e d that there w e re an o v e r ­
whelming n u m b e r of g r a d u a t e s fr om p u b l i c schools a m o n g the
respondents,

thus m a k i n g the v al u e of this v a r i a b l e as an

intervening va r ia b le r ather r e s t r i c t e d

Table 15.

{Table 15).

Type of h i g h school a t t e n d e d by
the r es p o n d e n t s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Type of school

N

Public high school

534

Parochial high school

7 3

1 1 . 6 8

14

2.24

Private high school

P r o p o r t i o n of total*
85.44

*No res ponse and dual response: a c c o u n t e d for 0.64
per cent of the total, N=4 .

Analys is of the g ro u p e d data for gross f amily income
indicated that the re s po n de n ts w e r e la rg ely r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of families w hose incomes p l a c e d t h em in the top Census

90

fifth.

A l t h o u g h it is a d m i t t e d t ha t the e s t i m a t e s

adolescents o f their p a r e n t ' s

i n c o m e s ar e u s u a l l y un r e l i a b l e ,

the great e m p h a s i s g i v e n r e s p o n s e s
levels w o u l d at l e a s t be
of the m i d d l e -

g i v e n by

fo r the u p p e r i n c o m e

i n d i c a t i v e o f an o v e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

a nd u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s

in the r e s p o n d e n t g r o u p

(Table 16) .

Table 16.

G r o s s f a m i l y i n c o m e of the f a m i l i e s
o f the r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Income level
$

2 ,790

6

0 .96

2,791 - $
4,791 - $

4 , 790

14

2 .24

2 1

3 .36

6,491 - $
9,000 - $

8,999

i
o

$
$
$
$
$

P r o p o r t i o n of t o t a l *

N

6

,490

1 2 , 0 0 0

- $ 15,0 00
$ 15,001 - $ 2 0 , 0 0 0

71

11.36

117

18. 72

73

1 2 , 0 0 1

More than

$

.6 8

103

16 .48

91

14 . 56

116

18 .56

2 0 , 0 0 0

Not known

1 1

*No r e s p o n s e : a c c o u n t e d for 2.08 p e r c e n t of the
total, N=13.

The large n u m b e r of

"Not k n ow n "

of this v a r i a b l e r a t h e r u n c e r t a i n
Ma-st r e s p o n d e n t s c am e

r e s p o n s e s m a d e the use

for a n a l y t i c a l pu r poses.

f r o m ho m es w h e r e the m a j o r

financial p r o v i d e r w a s the father.

In t h o s e c a s e s w h e r e

neither the f a t h e r n o r the m o t h e r w as

the m a j o r p r o v id e r,

respondents i n d i c a t e d t h a t

a guardian,

"welfare",

the

or insurance

91

benefits f o l l o w i n g a p a r e n t a l d e a t h p r o v i d e d

for the m a i n ­

tenance of the f am i l y w h i l e he wa s e n r o l l e d in h i g h s c h o o l
(Table 17).

Table 17.

M a j o r f i n a n c i a l p r o v i d e r for the
h o u s e h o l d w h i l e the r e s p o n d e n t
w as a t t e n d i n g h i g h sc h o o l ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

N

Provider

P r o p o r t i o n of total*

Father

574

91. 84

Mother

37

5.92

Other

1 2

1.92

*No response:

a c c o u n t e d for 0.32 p e r c e n t of the
total, N = 2 .

Socio-economic status

is f r e q u e n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h

many forms of so c i a l b e h a v i o u r ,

and in this

Census c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of o c c u p a t i o n a l
the measure of s o cial

status.

study,

r a n k i n g s w a s u s e d as

In v i e w of the s k e w e d d i s t r i ­

bution of the d at a c o n c e r n i n g g r o s s

f a m i l y income,

felt that there w o u l d be an o v e r — r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
higher p ar e n t a l o c c u p a t i o n a l
indicates,

the

levels.

Indeed,

it was

at the

as T a b l e 18

the h eads o f the p a r e n t a l h o u s e h o l d s g e n e r a l l y

occupied p o s i t i o n s

t ha t w e r e c l a s s i f i e d a m o n g the p r o f e s ­

sional,

managerial,

technical,

occupations.

cl e ri c a l ,

sales,

and kindred

92
T a b l e 18.

C e n s u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of the
o c c u p a t i o n l eve ls of the h e a d s of
the r es p o n d e n t s ' h o u s e h o l d s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Occupational c a t e g o r y

N

P r o p o r t i o n of total

Professional, t e c h n i c a l and
kindred w o r k e r s

126

20 .16

Managers, o f f i c i a l s and
proprietors (excl. farm)

154

24 .64

Clerical, sales and
kindred w o r k e r s

107

17.12

Farmers and f a r m m a n a g e r s

29

4.64

Craftsmen, f o r e m e n an d
kindred w o r k e r s

66

10 .56

6

0 .96

Private h o u s e h o l d and
service w o r k e r s

31

4 .96

Operatives and k i n d r e d
workers

83

13 .28

Labourers, farm f or e m e n
and farm l a b o u r e r s

10

1.60

Mo response,

13

2 .08

Military

unclassified

The s t r o n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the h e a d s of the r e s p o n ­
dents' h o u s e h o l d s i n the w h i t e c o l l a r o c c u p a t i o n a l

le vels,

and in the b l u e - c o l l a r o c c u p a t i o n s w h e r e c o n s i d e r a b l e o v e r ­
time benefits are a v a i l a b l e for s k i l l e d p e r s o n n e l

(in the

Michigan area)

p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r the g r o s s

distribution.

T hi s m e a s u r e of s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d w a s

preferred o ve r gross

family income

f am i ly in c o m e in l a t e r a n a l y s e s b e c a u s e

93
it was thought to p r o v i d e a mo r e r e l i a b l e e s t i m a t e of the
social b a c k g r o u n d of the individual.

It was b e l i e v e d that

the capacity of the i n d i v i d u a l to recall the gross
income of his p a r e n t a l h o u s e h o l d was

family

s u b j e c t to exagg er a ti o n,

or that this i n f o r m a t i o n m i g h t not be p a r t of the r e s p o n d e n t 's
knowledge.
The e d u c a t i o n

level of the h e a d of the h o u s e h o l d was

believed to be an important,

t h o u g h not as accurate,

of the social b a c k g r o u n d s of the r e spondents.

measure

It is p o s s i b l e

that such i n f o r m a t i o n m i g h t no t have b ee n k n o w n to the
respondent,

or,

that there wa s

the education level attained,
parent.

little r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
and the o c c u p a t i o n he l d by the

N e v e r t h e l e s s it w a s felt th at this v a r i a b l e c o u l d

be used as an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e in i n v e s t i g a t i n g d e t e r ­
minants of the a tt i tudes t ow a r d p a r t i c i p a t i o n and s p e c t a t o r
involvement in sports and games.

Table 19 shows the e d u c a ­

tion levels a t ta i ne d by the p r o v i d e r s of the respondents'
families.
The q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r an in d i v i d u a l ' s r e s i d e n c e in
a rural or u rb a n area a ffects his a t t i t u d e s

to w a r d p h y s i c a l

activity and his p a r t i c i p a t o r y i n v o l v e m e n t p a t t e r n is one
which has received some d e g r e e of s u p p o r t . ’'-^ '

^^^Harry Webb,
pp. 21-27.

131

"Social b a c k g r o u n d s of M.S.U.

T h es e

Athletes,"

^■^Drian M. Petrie, "Social b a c k g r o u n d s of athl etes
awarded gr a n t s - i n - a i d at B i g T e n U n i v e r s i t i e s fr om 1960-1963"
(unpublished M. A. T h es i s (Sociology) M i c h i g a n S ta t e U n iv e rs i ty ,
1968), p p . 42-47.

94
Table 19.

E d u c a t i o n level of the h e a d o f the
respondents' h o u s e h o l d s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Education level

N

Graduate school

90

14 .40

College degree

97

15 .52

Attended college

129

20 .64

High school graduate
Attended high school

196
38

31. 36
6 .08

26
18

4 .16
1.44

Attended e l em e n t a r y school

9
9

Not known

5

0

Grade 9
Attended Ju n io r high school
Grade

6

*No response:

P r o p o r t i o n of total*

2 . 8 8

1. 44
.80

a c c o u n t e d for 1.28 p e r cent of the
total, N = 8 .

previous studies c o n c e r n e d the s ocial b a c k g r o u n d s of coll ege
athletes on s c h o l a r s h i p and sh o we d that t e a m athletes ten d
to come from the s ma l l e r towns and cities.

It w as p o s t u l a t e d

that such d i f f e r en c es we r e due to the g re a t e r d eg r e e of m e d i a
exposure received by suc h athletes.

The

factor of m ed i a

exposure is not re l ev a n t to the p r es e n t sample,

bu t it was

believed that those l i vi n g in the sm a l l e r cities m i g h t have
better access to r e c r e a t i o n a l

facilit i es than r e s i de n ts

the major cities s u p p l y i n g stude n ts

in

to M i c h i g a n State U n i ­

versity, and as a re s ul t w o u l d p r e f e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
activities i n vo l v i n g c o m p e t i t i o n a ga i n s t the na t ur a l e n v i r o n ­
ment or activities

in w h i c h skill w i t h a w e a p o n was important.

95
Table 20 shows

the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the r e s p o n d e n t s

population s iz e o f t h e i r h o m e

T ab l e

20.

to w ns

a n d cities.

P o p u l a t i o n s i ze o f the h o m e
of the r e s p o n d e n t s (N=625).

N

Home town size

towns

P r o p o r t i o n o f t ot a l*

5,000

127

20. 32

5,001 - 10,000

56

8.96

10,001 - 25,000

70

25,001 - 10 0 ,0 0 0

186

29 .76

100,001 - 5 00 , 00 0

92

14 .72

500,001 -1 m i l l i o n

18

2 . 8 8

Over 1 m i l l i o n

62

9 .92

Less than

*No r e sp o n s e a n d d u a l re s ponse:
p er c e n t of the total,

1 1

accounted
N= 1 4 .

The f a c t o r of the o c c u p a t i o n a l
respondent w a s
of the e mp hasis

found to h a v e

on the

.2 0

for 2.24

a s p i r a t i o n o f the

little analytic

utility

in v i e w

g i v e n to the u p p e r e c h e l o n s of the p r o f e s ­

sional and w h i t e - c o l l a r o c c u p a t i o n s

(Table 21).

It had b e e n e x p e c t e d t h a t the m o r e c o m p e t i t i v e l y
oriented w o u l d be p r o c e e d i n g i nt o m a n a g e r i a l
positions,

b u t the g r e a t l y

an d e x e c u t i v e

skewed distribution precluded

further use of this v ar i ab l e.

96
Table

21.

O c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s of the
respondents (N=625).

Occupational c a t e g o r y

P r o p o r t i o n of t o t a l

N

Professional, t e c h n i c a l
kindred w o r k e r s

and
464

74.24

40

6.40

31

4 .96

Farmers and f a r m m a n a g e r s

4

0.64

Craftsmen, foremen,
kindred w o r k e r s

0

0 . 0 0

Military p e r s o n n e l

6

0.96

Private h o u s e h o l d and
service w o r k e r s

5

0.80

Operatives and k i n d r e d
workers

0

0 . 0 0

Labourers, f ar m foremen,
and farm l a b o u r e r s

0

0 . 0 0

75

1 2 . 0 0

Managers, o f f i c i a l s ,
proprietors (excl.

and
farm)

Clerical, sales, and
kindred w o r k e r s

No response,

and

unclassified

C H A P T E R IV
EVALUATION OF TH E T H E O R E T I C A L M O D E L S U S E D T O E X P L A I N
PARTICIPATION

IN P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T Y

The t h e o r i e s o f C a i l l o i s ,
used as the b a s e s

g u i d i n g t hi s

senting t h ei r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s
were su b mi t t e d

study.

an d K e n y o n w e r e

Statements repre­

of play,

games,

a n d sports

to an i n t e r v i e w a nd p r e - t e s t group,

and refined at each step,

corrected

a nd s u b m i t t e d to the c o l l e g e sample.

It w a s n o t p o s s i b l e
Factor A n a l y s i s

McIntosh,

to s u b m i t these r e s u l t s

to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h of the

to a

t h e o r e t i c a l sy s te m s

was the m o r e i n c l u s i v e a n d c o m p l e t e m o d e l w i t h thi s group,
view of the m e a s u r e m e n t l i m i t a t i o n s

in

i m p o s e d b y the data.

However, e v a l u a t i o n of the e x p l a n a t o r y p o w e r of the t h e o r i e s
in relation to the p r e s e n t m o d e l w a s p o s s i b l e by d e t e r m i n i n g
what p r o p o r t i o n of the t o t a l n u m b e r of e n d o r s e m e n t s w a s e n ­
compassed by e a c h of the

three s ys tems.

Th i s m e t h o d

is crude,

but in order to a v o i d the d e l i b e r a t e i n t r o d u c t i o n of b ia s by
the m i s a p p l i c a t i o n of s t a t i s t i c a l

tools,

it w a s

t h o u g h t to be

appropriate to the level of m e a s u r e m e n t of the data.
A t a b u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the v a r i o u s m o t i v a t i o n s
for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a ct i vi t y,
tive terms us e d to c l a s s i f y p h y s i c a l
97

showing

activity

the c o m p a r a ­

in the v a r i o u s

98

models, was u se d as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t for this

analysis

(Table

22 ) .

T able

22.

C o m p a r i s o n of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t erms
u s e d in the m o d e l s o f C a i l l o i s , M c I n t o s h ,
and Kenyon, w i t h t hose o f the p r e s e n t
study.

Motivational terms
of present study.
(3102 po s itive
endorsements).
Risk, thrills and
danger (153
endorsements)

Classifications
Caillois
term

1

of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y

M c I n t o s h 's
term

K e n y o n ’s
factor

Vertigo

*

Vertigo

Social i n t e r a c t i o n
(433 endo rsements)

*

*

Social

Skill with w e a p o n
(75 endorsements)

★

Health and fi tness
(569 endorsements)
Chance and luck
(79 endorsements)

'k

Competition
in skill
*

&
Health a m
f it n e s s

Alea

*

Pun and e n j o y m e n t
(602 endorsements)

*

*

Catharsis

Aesthetic
(309 endorsements)

Mimicry

Ideas and
feelings

Aesthetic

Competition in skill
(495 endorsem ents)

Ag6 n

Competition
in s k i l l

Ascetic

Competition in c o m b a t
(6 2
endorsements)

Agon

Competition
in c o m b a t

Ascetic

Competition a g a i n s t
environment
(325 endorsements)

A

Agon

* = N o t i n c l u d e d in m o d e l .

Competition
against
environment

*

Ascetic

99
Usi n g the t o ta l n u m b e r of p o s i t i v e e n d o r s e m e n t s

pro­

vided by the r e s p o n d e n t s o f the p r e s e n t s t u d y as a m ax i mu m ,
and p r o v i d i n g e a c h e q u i v a l e n t t e r m w i t h
endorsements,

the same n u m b e r o f

the three m o d e l s w e r e c o m p a r e d in t e r m s of

their c a pa c i t y

to f ul l y a c c o u n t f or the M i c h i g a n

State data

(Table 23).

Table

23.

P r o p o r t i o n of the r e s p o n s e s p r o v i d e d
in the p r e s e n t s tu d y e x p l a i n e d b y the
C ai l lo i s, M c I n t o s h , and K e n y o n mo d el s .

Proportion
explained

N u m b e r of e n d o r s e m e n t s
explained

Model
Cailloi s

1423

45.87

McIntosh

1266

40 .81

Kenyon

2948

95.04

TOTAL

3102

10 0 . 0 0

It w o u l d i n i t i a l l y a p p e a r t h at the K e n y o n m o d e l w a s
the more i n cl u s i v e of the
power.

However,

three

in terms of its e x p l a n a t o r y

thi s e v a l u a t i o n d e p e n d s

of the three c o m p e t i t i o n factors;
of skill,

c o m p e t i t i o n on the b a s i s

c o m p e t i t i o n on the b a s i s of c o m b a t

against the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t ;
Kenyon.

u po n the a s s i g n m e n t

The s t im u l u s

to the

and c o m p e t i t i o n

" as c e t i c "

fa c t o r of

in the K e n y o n s t u d y t ha t p r o v i d e d

the basis for the r e s p o n s e s

r e g a r d e d as s h o w i n g p r e f e r e n c e

100
for the as cetic factor stated:
P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T Y AS P R O L O N G E D A N D
S TR E N U O U S T R AI N IN G .
P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h require long
p e r i o d s of s t r e n u o u s and of t e n p a i n f u l
t r a i n i n g ; w h i c h i n v o l v e stiff c o m p e t i t i o n
and d e ma n d s that the i n d i v i d u a l give up
a n u m b e r of p l e a s u r e s for a p e r i o d of
t i m e . 1 3 2

Thus, w h i l e
do not presu pp o se

all of the ot h e r factors

in this s c h e m a

a hi g h level of skill a t t a i n m e n t s u ch as

that de sired by the h i g h l y t r a i n e d elite at hlete,

this

factor introd u ce d a n e w d i m e n s i o n that w as e s s e n t i a l l y
foreign to the o t he r s

in w h i c h it w as placed.

While

McIntosh 13 3 s p e c i f i e d that the e x p r e s s i o n of s u p e r i.o r i t y
should be c o n s i d e r e d in an y mo d e l of p l a y , g a m e s , and s p o r t ,
he did not state that such s u p e r i o r i t y h a d , n e c e s s a r i l y , to
be achieved at a h i g h s t a n d a r d of e x c e l l e n c e in p er f o r m a n c e .
The drive for s u p e r i o r i t y m a y be e qu a l l y

s t ro n g in a p l a y e r

v/ho has little skill bu t s ti l l p e r c e i v e s

a sense of s a t i s ­

faction in d e m o n s t r a t i n g the a bi l i t y to w i n a ga me ov e r a
particular op ponent.

Such a f e eling is n o t d e p e n d e n t up o n

long and ard uous t r a i n i n g , d e l a y e d g r a t i f i c a t i o n , or an
aspiration for excellence.

132

.
G e r a l d S . Kenyon,
V a l u e s h e ld for p h y s i c a l a c t i v ­
ity by selected u r b a n s e c o n d a r y school s t u d e n t s in Canada,
Australia, En g l a n d and the U n i t e d S t a t e s , p . 189.
'*'^Peter C. McIntosh,

Sport in S o c i e t y , p.

126.

101

R at h er than a ss i gn the three c o m p e t i t i o n s t a t e m e n t s
to e q u i v a le n ce w i t h the

"ascetic"

factor,

it w o u l d be e q u a l l y

feasible to state that this e l e m e n t , r e f e r r i n g as it d id to
the highly sk illed o r m o t i v a t e d athlete,
the other s t at e me n ts
athletic g r o u p .

di d no t b e l o n g a mo n g

r e f e r r i n g to a p r e d o m i n a n t l y non-

In this c a s e , the K en y on model w o u l d o nl y

explain 2,066 e n dorsements,

or 66.60 per cent of the total.

This p r op o rt i on w o u l d still be c o n s i d e r a b l y hi g he r th a n that
explained by the o t h e r m o d e l s .
In terms of f i r s t - r a n k su p port for the p a r t i c u l a r
motivational statements,

the Keny on model was c l e a r l y

su p er i o r

altho ug h , a g a i n , the st a te m e n t c o n c e r n i n g c o m p e t i t i o n on the
basis of -skill was r e g a r d e d as e q u i v a l e n t to the

"asc etic

134
fa ctor".
Of the four s t a t e m e n t s
the first— rank e nd o rs e me n ts ,
accounted only for one:
the basis of skill.

to r ec eive o ve r 5 p e r c e n t of
the C a i l l o i s

and M c I n t o s h mo d e l s

the m o t i v a t i o n for c o m p e t i t i o n on

All four w er e a c c o u n t e d for in the

Kenyon model as s i g n i f i c a n t d e t e r m i n a n t s of i n v o l v e m e n t
physical activities

{Table 24).

It was not the p ur p o s e of this st u dy

to p ro v i d e

fully inclusive m o d e l e x p l a i n i n g man's p a r t i c i p a t i o n
cal a c t i v i t i e s .
134

in

a

in p h y s i ­

The o n ly cl a i m that may be ma d e f r om these

G e r a l d S. Kenyon,
Va l ue s h e ld for p h y s i c a l a c t i v ­
ity by selected urban se c on d ar y school stu dents in Canada,
Australia, En g l a n d a nd the Un i te d S t a t e s , p. 33.

102
Table 24.

C o m p a r i s o n of the theories of Cail lois,
M c I n t o s h and Kenyon, w i t h the state m en t s
r e c e i v i n g f i r s t- r an k e n d o r s e m e n t by o ve r
5 pe r c e n t of the r e s p o n d e n t s in the
p r e s e n t study.

N u m b e r of
f ir s t- r a n k
endorse­
ments

Motivational
statement in
the present
study

Accounted

for in model

Cai l l o i s

McIntosh

K enyon

Fun and
enjoyment

329

No

No

Yes

Health and
fitne ss

117

No

No

Yes

Competition
in skill

70

Yes

Yes

Yes

Social
interaction

41

No

No

Yes

data is that,

among the m e m b e r s of the u n d e r g r a d u a t e p o p u l a ­

tion of M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y w h o were sampled,
responded to the q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,

and

there w a s v a r i a b l e a g re e m e n t

concerning the c e n t r a l i t y of p a r t i c u l a r s t at e me n ts of m o t i v ­
ations for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l activities.

Pre­

testing in dicated that ten s t a t e m e n t s a c c o u n t e d for all of
the motivations

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n ,

and the i n v e s t i g a t i o n

revealed that there w a s c o n s i d e r a b l e s u p p o r t for most of
them by the respondents.

It is b e l i e v e d that a s imilar set

of motivational statements,
sample, would pr o v i d e

p r e t e s t e d be f o r e use w i th a no t he r

a basis

the reasons for h u m a n play.

for f u rther i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on

CHAPTER V
MOTIVATIONS FOR PARTICIPATION

IN P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T I E S

In a s e r i e s of i n t e r v i e w s ,

a nd in a p r e - t e s t ,

dents w e r e a s k e d to p r o p o s e m o t i v a t i o n s
physical a c t i v i t i e s ,
of m o t i v a t i o n a l

a n d to a s s e s s

this p r o c e d u r e ,

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

the r e l e v a n c e

game s,

in

of a g r o u p

s t a t e m e n t s d r a w n f r o m the e x i s t i n g

and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s of play,

respon­

an d sports.

theories

Following

a li s t of t en s t a t e m e n t s w a s d r a w n up r e p r e ­

senting the m o t i v a t i o n s

d e e m e d to be r e l e v a n t to the u n d e r ­

graduate p o p u l a t i o n of M i c h i g a n

State U n i v e r s i t y .

These

statements were;
1. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of p u r s u i n g p e r s o n a l risk,
thrills,

a n d da nger.

2. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of m e e t i n g p e o p l e

in social

situations .
3. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y t h a t m a t c h e s y o u r s ki l l

in the use

of a w e a p o n a g a i n s t a t a r g e t o r quarry.
4. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y o f i m p r o v i n g

the h e a l t h and

fitness of the body.
5. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of i n v o l v i n g
against

"chance" or

"luck" in an a t t e m p t to w i n

money.
103

the i n d i v i d u a l
an o b j e c t o r

104
6 . Physical

a c t i v i t y as a w a y of h a v i n g fun a n d for pu r e

enjoyment.
7. P h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g i d ea s and
feelings in m ov e m e n t .
8 . Physical
the

p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of the
9. P h y s i c a l

the

a c t i v i t y as c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g skill as

a c t i v i t y as c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g c o m b a t as

p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of the
10. P h y s i c a l

performance.

performance.

a c t i v i t y as c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t p a r t of

natural e n v i r o n m e n t

(water,

mountain,

The o r d e r of p l a c e m e n t of these

snow,

the

etc.).

s t a t e m e n t s on the page

of the s urvey d e v o t e d to this q u e s t i o n w a s d e t e r m i n e d r a n ­
domly, e x c e p t th a t the th r ee c o m p e t i t i o n s t a t e m e n t s w e r e
thought to be b e s t g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r and o n ly one b a l l o t was
drawn to p l a c e

these

items

in a p o s i t i o n on the list.

It m a y be n o t e d that
wording of the s t a t e m e n t s

there w as a d e v i a t i o n

u s e d in the study

in the

f r o m that

employed by the a u t h o r s of the c l a s s s i f i c a t i o n

s y st e m s

and

theories c o n c e r n i n g the m o t i v a t i o n s for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
play, games,

and sports.

Su ch c h a n g e s

that w e r e m a d e r e f l e c ­

ted the o p i n i o n s of the m e m b e r s of the i n t e r v i e w and p r e ­
test groups.

Accordingly,

the s t a t e m e n t s

r e f l e c t the m a n n e r

of p r e s e n t a t i o n t h o u g h t to be b e s t for the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of
involvement in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s

a m o n g the m e m b e r s of the

population sampled.
Ea ch r e s p o n d e n t wa s a s k e d to s e l e c t f r o m the 10 i t e m

105

list the fiv e s t a t e m e n t s

r e g a r d e d as the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t

m ot i va t o r s

for his p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y a n d to

rank these

in o r d e r of p r e f e r e n c e .

Thus,

the i m p o r t a n c e of

each s t a t e m e n t to the to tal

g r o u p of r e s p o n d e n t s c o u l d be

eva l uated in two ways.

first-rank

The

i m p o r t a n c e wa s d e t e r ­

mined by c o u n t i n g the n u m b e r of t im e s e a ch s t a t e m e n t was
given a f i r s t - c h o i c e by a re s p o n d e n t .

The o v e r - a l l

importance

of the i t e m w a s d e t e r m i n e d by c o u n t i n g the n u m b e r of times a
partic ular s t a t e m e n t w a s p o s i t i v e l y e n d o r s e d by r e s p o n d e n t s ,
regardless of rank, w i t h i n
Those s t a t e m e n t s g i v e n
sements w o u l d

the

five s e l e c t i o n s

allowed.

the g r e a t e s t n u m b e r of p o s i t i v e e n d o r ­

then be r e g a r d e d as the m o s t i m p o r t a n t s t a t e ­

ments r e p r e s e n t i n g m o t i v a t i o n s

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l

activities.
F a i l u r e to e n d o r s e

an it e m as one o f the

important to the i n d i v i d u a l 1s m o t i v a t i o n s
was r e ga r d e d as a r e j e c t i o n

of the r easons

tabulation

was

i n f l u e n c e of

u p on such i n v o l v em e nt .

of the data,

was c on s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n

as such,

i m p o r t a n c e in the a n a l y s i s

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n and of the

particular s ocial v a r i a b l e s
Upon

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

of th a t i t e m and,

regarded as b e i n g of c o n s i d e r a b l e

five m o s t

it w a s n o t e d that there

in the d e g r e e o f s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d

for each of the ten items.
The a m o u n t of s u p p o r t g i v e n for ea ch s t a t e m e n t of
motive for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
determined f ro m T a b l e

25.

in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s m a y be

106
Table

25.

M o t i v a t i o n s for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
physical activities (N=625).

N u m b e r giv.ing
po s i t i v e
rankings

Motivation

Proportion responding
in each rank
1

2

3

4

Total

5

Risk, etc.

153

6 .5

10 .5

20. 3

25 . 5

37. 3

100

Social

433

9.5

22.4

22.6

24 . 0

21.5

100

Weapon

75

5 .3

14 .7

20 .0

36 .0

24.0

100

Health

569

2 0 .6

30 .1

25 .7

13 .4

10 .4

100

Chance

79

2.5

6 .3

12. 7

26 .6

51. 9

100

Fun

602

54 . 7

20 .4

14 . 8

6 .0

4.2

100

Ideas &
Feelings

309

7 .8

17.8

19 .7

28 . 8

25.9

100

Competition
in Skill

495

14 .1

17 .4

21.6

25 .5

21. 4

100

Competition
in Combat

62

8 .1

6 .5

22.6

24 . 2

38 .7

100

325

5 .8

16 .3

15 .4

27 .1

35 .4

100

Competition
against
Environment

Taking into c o n s i d e r a t i o n only tho se statem e nt s w h i c h
received f ir s t- r an k su pport by m o r e than 5 per cent of the
respondents

(a m i n i m u m of 31 r e s p o n d e n t s ) , the f ol l ow i ng

rank order was evident.
1. Physical activity as a w a y of h a v i n g fun an d for pure
enjoyment;

329 first-p r ef e re n ce s .

2. Physical a ct i vi t y as a w a y of i m p r o v i n g the he a lt h and
fitness of the body;

117 f ir s t- p re f er e nc e s.

107

3, P h ys i c al a c ti v it y as c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g skill as
the p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of the p e r f o r ma n ce ;

70 f i r s t — p r e f e r e n c e s .

4. Physical a c ti v it y as a w a y of m e e t i n g p e o p l e in social
situations;

41 first- p re f er e nc e s.

No o t he r m o t i v a t i o n a l

statements

received first-rank

support by more th an 5 p er cent of the respondents.
Whe n the st a te m e nt s w e r e ra n ke d in order of the g r e a t ­
est to the least number of total p o s i t i v e en d or s e m e n t s ,

the

following o r d e r was apparent;
1. Physical a ct i vi t y as a w a y of h a v i n g fun or for pure
enjoyment

(602 e n d o r s e m e n t s ) .

2. P hy s ic a l ac t iv i ty as a w a y of i m p r o v i n g the h e a l t h
and fitness of the body

(N=569).

3. P hy s ic a l activity as c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g skill as
the p r e d o m in a nt p a r t of the p e r f o r m a n c e

(N=495).

4. Ph ysical ac t iv i ty as a w a y of m e e t i n g p e o p l e in social
situations

(N=433).

5. Ph ysical ac t iv i ty as c o m p e t i t i o n
natural e n v i r o n m e n t

ag a i n s t p a rt of the

(N=325).

6 . Ph ysical a ct i vi t y as a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g ideas and
feelings in m o v e m e n t

(N=30 9) .

7. Ph ysical a ct i vi t y as a w a y of p u r s u i n g r i s k , thrills
and danger

(N=153).

8 . Physical a c ti v it y as a w a y of i n v o l v in g the i n d i v i d u a l
against "chance" or
money

(N=79) .

"luck"

in an a t t e m p t to w i n an o b j e c t or

108
9.

P h y s i c a l ac t iv i ty that m a t c h e s skill in the use of a

weapon ag a i n s t a t a r g e t or q u a r r y
10.

(N=75).

P h ys i ca l a c t i v i t y as c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g c o m b a t as

the p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of the p e r f o r m a n c e

(N=6 2 ) .

All the s t a t e m en t s r e c e i v e d some d eg r ee of s u pp o r t by
at least 5 pe r c e nt of the respondents.
The lack of favour

for a c t i v i t i e s

and chance w o u l d be e x p e c t e d

i n v o l v i n g c ombat

in this p r e d o m i n a n t l y middle

class group as there is some s u p p o r t for the a c c e p t a n c e of
13 5 1
these types of a c t i v i t i e s as lower class games and sports.
'
The s t r o n g su pport given to a c t i v i t i e s e n j o y e d b e c a u s e
of the fun they p r o v i d e w o u l d i n di c at e a g r e a t w e a k n e s s
the c l a s s i f i c a t o r y schemes of C a i l l o i s
did not in clude this concept.

The

and McIntosh,

in

which

factor of c a t h a r s i s

in the

Kenyon model w o u l d a pp e ar to c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t e this area of
motivational

interest.

While it is a d m i t t e d
enjoyment"

that the w o r d s

may be d e f i n e d in many ways,

"fun"

and

and m a y hav e b e en

identified in a n u m b e r of w a y s by the r e sp o nd e nt s ,
thread of a b r e a k w i t h the serious,

"pure

the boring,

the c ommon

or the

135 Gregory P. Stone, "Some M e a n i n g s of A m e r i c a n sport,"
is College Ph y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n 60th A n n u a l P r o ­
ceedings . ed. by C-P.E.A. (Washington, D.C.:
C.P.E.A. 1957),
p. 19.
136 J o h n W. L o y , "Game forms, soci al structure, and
anomie," in N e w P e r s p e c t i v e s of M a n in A c t i o n , ed. by Roscoe
C. Brown J r . and B ry a nt J . C r a t t y (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall Inc., 1969), pp. 188-189.

109

o cc u p a t i o n a l c o nc e r n s ,
r espondents

m u s t h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d by

in a n s w e r i n g

Participation
tain and i m p r o v e

this q u e s t i o n .

in p h y s i c a l

the h e a l t h

stressed for m a n y y e a r s

the

activity

an d f i t n e s s

following

in o r d e r

to m a i n ­

of the b o d y has b e e n

the c o n c e r n g i v e n

to the

subject by P r e s i d e n t E i s e n h o w e r a n d P r e s i d e n t K en nedy,
it was not c o n s i d e r e d s u r p r i s i n g
considerable

support

The d e s i r e

to this

t h at

the r e s p o n d e n t s gave

r e a s o n fo r p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

for i n v o l v e m e n t in a c t i v i t i e s

for c o m p e t i t i o n on the ba s i s o f skill w a s
al s o

endorsement.

that individuals

particular age g r o u p w o u l d

t h i r d in o r d e r o f t o t a l
in this

st i ll be e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h the

body's c a p a c i t y to p e r f o r m p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l s ,
such p e r f o r m a n c e

providing

t h i r d in the o r d e r

of f i r s t - p r e f e r e n c e s , a n d w a s
It w as b e l i e v e d

and

a nd e v a l u a t i n g

in c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t o t h e r s

so as to

build up a c o n c e p t i o n of the b o d y i m a g e a n d an i d ea of the
capacity for f u l f i l l m e n t o f the se l f
ity.

through physical

The p e r c e i v e d o r c o m p e t i t i v e l y d e t e r m i n e d

activ­

l i mi t s

to an

individual's c a p a c i t y at s p e c i f i c o r g e n e r a l i z e d a t h l e t i c
skills p r o v i d e an i m p o r t a n t d e t e r m i n a n t

for p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y

selection p a t t e r n s

t h is ag e level,

throughout

life.

At

was b e l i e v e d that s u ch e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w a s
and that the d e s i r e
be quite strong.

still

it

in p r o g r e s s ,

for c o m p e t i t i o n on this b a s i s w o u l d s t i l l

The support given

statement p r o v i d e d s om e
The m o t i v a t i o n

to thi s m o t i v a t i o n a l

justification

for t h e s e c o n t e n t i o n s .

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in o r d e r

to m e e t n e w

11 0
friends a n d to e n j o y s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e s w as
f or mulations of C a i l l o i s

and M c I n t o s h ,

a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r by Kenyon.

i g n o r e d in the

but was

f o u n d to be

In the p r e s e n t study,

the

degree of s u p p o r t g i v e n to the so c ia l e x p e r i e n c e m o t i v e may
be due to the g r e a t e m p h a s i s
gram at M i c h i g a n

g i v e n to the i n t r a - m u r a l p r o ­

State U n i v e r s i t y a n d to the p r o v i s i o n of

many o p p o r t u n i t i e s

for d i v e r s e r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s *

Such s u p p o r t m a y al so be due

to the e m p h a s i s o n s o c i a l c o n ­

tact and b r e a k i n g d ow n the i m p e r s o n a l i t y
universities,

i n h e r e n t at large

a n d to the p a r t i c u l a r s ta g e of s o c i a l d e v e l o p ­

ment a t t a i n e d b y m e m b e r s of this age group.
The low l e ve l of e m p h a s i s g i v e n to c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t
the n atural e n v i r o n m e n t wa s
as M i ch i g a n

is p u b l i c i z e d as a S t a t e w i t h

tunities for o u t d o o r

re c r e a t i o n ,

given to this m o t i v a t i o n
however,

s ur p ri s in g .

It w a s e x p e c t e d

excellent oppor­

t h e r e w o u l d be more

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

that such a c t i v i t i e s

as skiing,

that

support

It is p o ss i bl e ,

sailing,

ska ting,

water sk i in g and c a n o e i n g are p e r c e i v e d as p r o v i d i n g o p p o r ­
tunities for social

interaction,

fun and ex c i t e m e n t ,

r a t h e r t h an as c o m p e t i t i o n

natural e nv i r o n m e n t .

skilful competition,

Nevertheless,

o r for

a g a i n s t the

this p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a ­

tion was r a n k e d s i x t h in f ir s t p r e f e r e n c e
in order of total e n d o r s e m e n t s received.

support,

an d f i f t h

Ill
Social F a c t o r s

Related

to the M o t i v a t i o n s

for Porti cjpa Li mi

in P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t i e s
V ar i o u s

social

f a ct or s v/oro h y p o t h e s i z e d

ciated w it h p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n s
but only the

In all analyses/

in the

it was

as w e ll

as the

rankings.

h op e d

levels of p o s i t i v e e n d o r s e m e n t of

rejection of

for such pa r t J oipn tion ,

fact or of the sex of the respondent, p r o v i d e d

for c o ns i st e n t d i f f e r e n c e s

statements/

to ho a s s o ­

tion of the responses

the

cases,

the

(that

five most:

however,

five

rno 1 1 vn t ionn I

level of n o n - r e s p o n s e

In some
led

include

the v a ri o u s

the s t a t e m e n t as one of

to the i n d i v i d u a l ) .

to

is,,

important

the d i s t r i b u ­

to the n e c e s s i t y of eo i ]ups inq

categories of p o s i t i v e e n d o r s e m e n t c o m p l e t e l y ,

or

Into

dichotomies

of

the o-h i

square test.

ir. o r d e r

to

fulfil,

the a s s u m p t i o n s

fh<>

11 2

competition on the b a s i s of combat,
the n atural e n v i r o n m e n t .

and competition against

No d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t in the

endorsements g i v e n to the m o t i v a t i o n s
health an d fitness,

of p a r t i c i p a t i o n

for

a n d for i n v o l v e m e n t a g a i n s t c h a n c e

(Table 26) .

T ab l e

Motivation

26.

S u m m a r y table of s e x d i f f e r e n c e s in the
r a n k i n g s of m o t i v a t i o n s for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s . *
Unranked
N

High
Group

df

Chi
Square

p

Risk

472

M

1

3 0.3263

.001

Social
interaction

192

F

5

5 6. 3848

.001

Skill with
weapon

550

M

1

4 .6740

.05

Health

56

M

5

5 .5922

NS

Chance

546

M

1

1.3480

NS

23

F

5

31 .5237

.001

Aesthetic

316

F

2

56 .4999

.001

Competition
in skill

130

M

5

35 .6225

.001

Competition
in combat

563

M

1

2 3. 5 90 2

. 001

Competition
against
envi ronment

300

M

2

14.4341

.001

Fun

*Complete chi s quare t a b l e s
are included in A p p e n d i x C .

for each of these a n a l y s e s

113
I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s e x a n d the
motivat i on

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

pursuit of

risk,

thril ls ,

in p h y s i c a l

an d p e r s o n a l

sults w h i c h w e r e in the e x p e c t e d

activities

f o r the

danger provided r e ­

direction.

Activities

of

this type are a c o m p o n e n t p a r t of the s o c i e t a l c o n c e p t i o n of
appropriate m a s c u l i n e b e h a v i o u r ,

while

they are n o t r e g a r d e d

as p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s of the

f emale

It w a s b e l i e v e d t ha t the p r e f e r e n c e

i d en t it y .

for s u c h a c t i v i ­

ties w o u l d ch a n g e u p o n the m a r r i a g e

of ma l e

pressures of the n e e d fo r s e c u r i t y ,

a nd the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

to w if e and

f a m i l y m ou n t e d .

this oc c urred,

sex wa s

In o r d e r

ferences w e r e

ficant at p

found between

.05),

married f emales
cant at p

to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r

status

In s e p a r a t e a n a l y s e s ,

and u n m a r r i e d m a l e s

as the

i n t r o d u c e d as a c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e

the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a r i t a l
for risk taking.

students

in

and the m o t i v a t i o n
no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­

the r a n k i n g s m a d e b y the m a r r i e d

(chi s q u a r e = 0.1845,

or b e t w e e n

df = 1, n o t s i g n i ­

those of the m a r r i e d

(chi s q u a r e = 0.5581,

and u n ­

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i ­

.05).

In an a t t e m p t to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d
in the p r e f e r e n c e s

for a c t i v i t i e s

this m o t i v a t i o n a m o n g m e m b e r s

of

introduced as a c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e

a l l o w i n g the e x p r e s s i o n of
s o c i a l c l a s s gr o ups,

in the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

soc i o-economic s t atus

a nd the p r e f e r e n c e

differences,

were

h o we v e r ,

patterns of m a l e s

determined

from white-,

se x w a s

for r i s k - t a k i n g .

in the e n d o r s e m e n t

or blue-collar backgrounds

No

114
(chi s quare = 0.0106,

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

in those of fe m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s
b ackgrounds

.05),

or

f r o m s uc h s o c i o - e c o n o m i c

(chi sq u a r e = 1.0972,

df = 1,

no t s i g n i f i c a n t at

p .05 ) .
The

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r a p p r o v a l of the s o c i a l

action m o t i v a t i o n a m o n g the f e m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s w a s
It had b e e n h y p o t h e s i z e d

unexpected.

t ha t the s o c i a l n e e d s of b o t h

of this p a r t i c u l a r age g r o u p w o u l d be high,

inter­

sexes

and t h a t b o t h

groups w o u l d p r o v i d e h i g h a n d e q u i v a l e n t d e g r e s s of e n d o r s e ­
ment for this

item.

The

differences

in the r a n k i n g s a p p e a r e d

in the g r e a t e r e n d o r s e m e n t by the w o m e n in the
levels of a pp r o v a l ,

a n d the g r e a t e r d e g r e e of r e j e c t i o n of

the item by the males.

No differences were

e v i d e n t in the

rankings of the m a r r i e d an d u n m a r r i e d m a l e s
0.5055,

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

the females of d i f f e r i n g m a r i t a l
df = 1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

.05),

status

.05).

a n d of the

social class b a c k g r o u n d s ,

o r a m o n g t h o s e of

(chi sq u a r e = 0.0233,
controlling

socio-economic background

interaction motivation

rankings of the m ales,

(chi sq u a r e =

Similarly,

for sex in the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
and the s ocial

th r ee u p p e r

indicated

female s ,

t h a t the

from differing

d id n ot d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

It wa s n o t d e t e r m i n e d by this
higher s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d b y the w o m e n
action m o t i v e w a s d u e to the b e l i e f

study whether
f o r the

so c i a l

sport

inter­

that there was a better

op portunity to m e e t m e n in a s p o r t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t ,
cause w o m e n p r e f e r to p l a y

the

or b e ­

t o g e t h e r o n an inf ormal

115

basis.

Regar dl e ss of this diff iculty,

there is an ethic in

the North A m e r i c a n c ul t u r e that w o m e n should n ot be p a r t i ­
cularly competitive in sports and games,

a n d this stereotype,

anti-feminist as it may be, was b o r n e o u t by the re sponses
of the w o m e n to this survey.
The m o t i v a t i o n

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i ­

ties involving the d e m o n s t r a t i o n of skill w it h a w e a p o n was
poorly su pported by the r e s p o n d en t s and there was c o n s i d e r ­
ably greater r e j e c t io n by the females.

O n l y 9.09 per cent

of the women p r o v i d e d p o s i t i v e s up p o r t at any p r e f e r e n c e
level.

In view of the p r e d o m i n a n t l y m i d d l e class b a c k g r o u n d s

of the male respondents,

the low d e g r e e of their a c c e p t a n c e

of this item wa s s u r p r i s i n g e s p e c i a l l y as Stone h a d i d e n t i ­
fied hunting,

an a ct i vi t y that w o u l d s ur e l y be i nc l ud e d un d er

this category in the minds of m o s t students,
] 37
class sport. '

as a m iddle

The si g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the male

and female rankings was ex pected,
are several sports,

however,

even th o ug h there

t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h female

participation, w h i c h w o u l d ap p ea r to s at i sf y this m o t i v a t i o n
for pa r ticipation in p h y s i c a l activities.
No differe n ce s w e re e v i d e n t in the r a nk i ng s w h e n sex
was introduced as a c on trol v a r i a b l e in the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between marital status and the m o t i v a t i o n
in order to de m on s tr a te

137
sport", p.

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

skill w i t h a w e a p o n .

G r e g o r y P. Stone,
19.

The d eg r ee of

"Some m e a n i n g s of A m e r i c a n

116
association w as e x t r e m e l y low in r e l a t i o n to the r es p on s es
of the m a r r i e d and u n m a r r i e d males

(chi square = 0.0249,

df = 1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

and a m on g the si m il a rl y

classified females
ficant at p

.05),

(chi squa re = 0.8327,

df = 1, not s i g n i ­

.05).

Similarly,

c o n t r o l l i n g for sex in the r e l a t i o n s h i p

between s o c i o -e c on o mi c b a c k g r o u n d and this m o t i v a t i o n a l
statement i n d i c a t e d that there w e r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­
ences in the re s po n s e s of the ma l es
df = 1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

.05),

(chi square = 0.0605,
or a m o n g those of the

females from v ar y i n g social class b a c k g r o u n d s
0.4193, df = 1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

(chi s quare =

.05).

C o n s i d e r a b l e su p p o r t was p r o v i d e d by the respon d en t s
for the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l activit i es
in order to improve the h e a l t h and fitness of the body.

It

was second o ve r -a l l in terms of the n u m b e r of first-r a nk
endorsements received,

and also in terms of the total n u m b e r

of positive e n d o r se m en t s pr ovided.

The d i f f e r e n c e s be t we e n

the male and female rankings w e r e not s i g n i f i c a n t with bo th
groups giving si m i l a r levels of s up port in the top three
ranks.

Very few men and w o m e n r e je c te d this s ta t e m e n t as an

important m o t i v a t o r for their p a r t i c i p a t i o n in physic a l
activities.
There was no s tr o ng l ik e li h o o d for re sponses to d iffer
among the single and m a r r i e d students.

The ran kings p r o v i d e d

by the males did not di f fe r w h en sex was c o n t r o l l e d in the

117
r elationship b e t w e e n m a r i t a l s t a t u s a nd the h e a l t h m o t i v a ­
tion

(chi s q u a r e = 0.0008,

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

.05), and a s i m i l a r r e s u l t w a s e v i d e n t in the r e s p o n s e s
the m a r r i e d and u n m a r r i e d w o m e n
(chi square = 0.0217,

of

in the r e s p o n d e n t g r o u p

d f = 1, no t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

.05).

No d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t in the r a n k i n g p a t t e r n s
when s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
variable,

was

status,

with sex introduced

r e l a t e d to the m o t i v a t i o n

achieve h e a l t h a n d

fitness.

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

endorsement p r o v i d e d by the m e n

0.2743,

df = 1,

.05),

consistently h i g h
volvement t h at w as

or b y the w o m e n

from th e se

df =

(chi s q u a r e =

.05).

results

t h at t h e r e w a s

level o f s u p p o r t for this

re a s o n

a

for i n ­

s t a b l e r e g a r d l e s s o f the i n f l u e n c e of

the social v a r i a b l e s o f sex,
occupational

in the d e g r e e o f

(chi s q u a r e = 0.1524,

n ot s i g n i f i c a n t at p

It w a s a p p a r e n t

to

B l u e — and w h i t e - c o l l a r b a c k ­

ground e f f e c t s d i d n o t le ad to v a r i a t i o n s

1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

as a c o n t r o l

marital

status,

and parental

status.

P a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s
individual a g a i n s t c h a n c e or luck

to in v o l v e

the

in o r d e r to a t t e m p t to

win an o b j e c t or m o n e y is g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d to be a s s o c i ­
ated with m e m b e r s h i p in the l o w e r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c

l evels of

society.^-3**'
138
J o h n W. hoy,
anomie," pp. 189-196.

"Game

forms,

s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and

I OQ

i J ? R og e r C a i l l o is ,
games," D i o g e n e s , vol. 19

"Unity of play:
(1957), 92-121,

D i v e r s i t y of
113.

118
Certainly,

the p o p u l a r i t y of the n u m b e r s

games of chance,

game,

and similar

a m on g the r e s i d e n t s of the i n n e r c i t y w o u l d

appear to p r o v i d e am p le t e s t i m o n y of

the p r o p e n s i t y

activities w h i c h p r o v i d e an o p p o r t u n i t y
In v i e w of these c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,

for

for s u d d e n w e a l t h .
it w a s n o t s u r p r i s i n g

that there was a r e j e c t i o n of this i t e m by m o r e t h an

87 p e r

cent of the p r e d o m i n a n t l y m i d d l e — a n d u p p e r —m i d d l e — c l a s s
respondents .
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t
provided by the m a l e an d f e male r e s p o n d e n t s .

in the r a n k i n g s
Similarly,

there

were no d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g the m a r r i e d a n d u n m a r r i e d m al e s
(chi square = 0.0040,

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

among the females of d i f f e r i n g m a r i t a l s t a t u s
0.0899, df = 1, n ot s i g n i f i c a n t a t p

,05),

.05),

or

(chi s q u a r e =

in t h e i r level of

endorsement for the m o t i v a t i o n of p a r t i c i p a t i o n

as an e x e r ­

cise against chance.
Of p a r t i c u l a r interest,

h o we v er ,

was

the a n a l y s i s of

the r el a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p a r e n t a l o c c u p a t i o n a l

s ta t u s and the

gambling m o t i v a t i o n w h e n sex w a s u s e d as a c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e .
If the p r o p e n s i t y for g a m b l i n g w a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y
social class activity,
expected,

then s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w o u l d be

especially between

the r a n k i n g s p r o v i d e d by the

blue- and w h i t e - c o l l a r males.
the respondents

in this study.

T h i s wa s no t the case a m o n g
No d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t

between the levels of e n d o r s e m e n t of the m a l e s
socio-economic

levels

a lower

(chi s q u a r e = 0.0761,

from these

df = 1, not

119
sign ificant at p

.05);

nor were

t h e r e any d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n

ths ra n kings p r o v i d e d by the w o m e n
collar b a c k g r o u n d s
cant at p

.05).

that c h i l d r e n

(chi s q u a r e = 1.0916,

This

levels of e d u c a t i o n a l

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i ­

r e s u l t m a y ha v e b e e n due

from blue-collar

sity ent rance,

f r o m w h i t e - a nd b l u e -

to the

fact

f a m i l i e s w h o a s p i r e to hi g h

a c h i e v e m e n t in s c h o o l

and for u n i v e r ­

w o u l d be e x p e c t e d to b e s o c i a l i z e d into the

acceptance of w h i t e - c o l l a r v a l u e s and m o t i v a t i o n a l p a tt e rn s .
The r e s p o n d e n t s
study,

then,

from blue-collar backgrounds

could have

lost

to their so cial b a c k g r o u n d s ,
the values d e v e l o p e d

t ouch w i t h v a l u e s
and r e s p o n d e d

through differential

anticipatory s o c i a l i z a t i o n

in the p r e s e n t

in k e e p i n g w i t h
a s s o c i a t i o n s a nd

in school.

In the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of this m o t i v a t i o n
of a more d i v e r s e p o p u l a t i o n ,
adequately d e s c r i b e the

among members

the a d d i t i o n of d e f i n i t i o n s

c o n t e x t of the s t a t e m e n t

the type of g a m b l i n g a nd r e s o r t to c h a n c e
would ap p e a r to be n e c e s s a r y .

The

to be

low su p port,

minimal d i f f i c u l t y e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n i n g this
pre-testing,

appropriate

to

and s p e c i f y
studied,
a n d the

s t a t e m e n t in

i n d i c a t e d t h at s u ch s p e c i f i c a t i o n w a s no t n e c e s ­

sary wi th this r e s p o n d e n t group.
The m o t i v a t i o n

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

ties for fun and for p u r e e n j o y m e n t
14 0

in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i ­

received considerable
.

R i c h a r d L. Simpson, " P a r e n ta l in f l u e n c e , a n t i c i ­
patory s o c i a l i z a t i o n , a n d s o ci a l m o b i l i t y , "
American
Sociological R e v i e w , vol. 27 (1962), 5 1 7 — 522.

120
support by the re spondents wi th
602 positive en dorse ments.

329 f i r s t - p r e f e r e n c e s

and

A l t h o u g h it w a s h y p o t h e s i z e d

that men and w o m e n w o u l d be s i mi l a r l y a t t r a c t e d to a c t i v i ­
ties allowing the e x p r e s s i o n of this motivation,

significant

differences w e r e e v ident in the levels of endorsement, w i t h
the women p r o v i d i n g g r e a t e r support.
cent of the w o m e n gave this

Indeed,

o v e r 61 pe r

item their first p r e f e r e n c e s

and

less than 2 per cent r e je c t e d the i t em completely.
When ma r ital status w as considered, wi t h sex c o n t r o l ­
led, no s ignificant d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t in the e n d o r s e ­
ment patterns of the sin gle and m a r r i e d males
0.0005, df = 1, not s i gn i fi c an t at p .05),
the females of d i f f e r i n g m a r i t a l
df = 1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

status

(chi square =

or of those of

(chi square = 0.4066,

.05).

When sex wa s i nt r od u c e d as a c ontrol v a ri a b l e

in the

relationship be t w e e n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d and the fun
motivation, m in i m a l

levels of a s s o c ia t io n w e re d e t e r m i n e d

in the rankings of the w h i t e - and b l u e - c o l l a r males

(chi

square = 0.9726,

and

females

df = 1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

(chi square = 0.7112,

.05),

df = 1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

.05) .
The high level of e n d o r s e m e n t w h i c h was given to this
item provided support for the b e l i e f that bot h sexes w er e
strongly c o mm itted to the i n tr insic s at i sf a ct i on s to be d e ­
rived from p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l activities.
ences between the rankings of the men and women,

The d i f f e r ­
however,

121
indicated a m u c h s t r o n g e r c o m m i t m e n t to such s a t i s f a c t i o n s
among the w o m e n .
The s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in the r a n k i n g s of the
men and w o m e n for the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
physical a c t i v it i es

as a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g ideas and f e e l ­

ings in m o v e m e n t was expected.

Th e re is a c u l t u r a l s t e r e o ­

type which defines d a n c i n g and o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h enable
the individual

to e x p r e s s

ideas and fe e l i n g s in m o v e m e n t as

being more a p p r o p r i a t e for w o m e n th an for men.

There

belief that males wh o p a r t i c i p a t e in such a c t i v i t i e s
somewhat effemi n at e ,

is a
are

and a l t h o u g h this a t t i t u d e i.s r e s t r i c ­

tive of male a tt e mp t s at s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n t h r o u g h m o v e ­
ment,

the a t t i t u d e has c o n s i d e r a b l e strength.
The mal es w e r e

this item

far more l ikely to c o m p l e t e l y r e j e c t

(65.69 p er cent ag a i n s t

rate by the women)

36.05 p e r c e n t r e j e c t i o n

and gave very little s u p p o r t to this

motivation as one of the first three p r e f e r e n c e s .
prising feature,

however,

was

The s u r ­

that there w a s s t r o n g r e j e c ­

tion by the w o m e n of an i t e m w h i c h s e e m e d c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to
the stereotype of female p a r t i c i p a t i o n patterns.
The i n t r o d u c t i o n of m a ri t a l

status as an i n d e p e n d e n t

variable in re l at i on to the ae s th et i c m o t i v a t i o n , w i t h sex
as a control variable,

i n d i c a t e d a h i g h e r le vel of r e j e c t i o n

among the m a r r i e d males,
nificant
.05).

b u t the d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e not s i g ­

(chi sq ua re = 3.2549,

df = 1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

The ra nking p a t t e r n s w e re v i r t u a l l y e q u i v a l e n t a m on g

12 2
the single and m a r r i e d w o m e n
not s i g n i f ic a nt at p

(chi square = 0.5188,

df = 1,

.05).

No d i f f e r e n c e s were d e t e r m i n e d in the r an k in g s p r o ­
vided by males

fr o m w h i t e - and b l u e - c o l l a r b a c k g r o u n d s

square = 0.7169,

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

(chi

.05), b u t

significant d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d in the levels of
endorsement p r o v i d e d by the w o m e n
class b a c k g r o u n d s

Table 27.

from d i f f e r e n t social

(Table 27).

S o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d among females,
and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g
ideas and f e el i ng s in m o v e m e n t ( N = 3 1 2 ) .

Parental o c c u p a t i o n a l
backgro u nd

D id n ot rank
item

Ranked
ite m

T OT A L

White collar

(N=212)

32 .55

67.45

100

Blue collar

(N=100)

45.00

55 .00

100

X 2 = 4.0230,

p less than

The lower r e j e c t i o n rate,

.05.

and the c o n c o m i t a n t l y h i g h e r

level of p o si t iv e e n d o r s e m e n t a m on g the w o m e n f r o m w h i t e collar backgrounds,

i n di cates that the a es t h e t i c m o t i v a t i o n

for expression in m o v e m e n t is a p r e d o m i n a n t l y m i d d l e class
feature, m a i n l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w o m e n .

The s t r e n g h of the

stereotype m e d i a t i n g a g a i n s t m a s c u l i n e p a r t i c i p a t i o n appears
to remain at a high level b u t the r e j e c t i o n by w o m e n fro m
blue-collar b a c k g r o u n d s w o u l d a p p e a r to r e su l t f r om a r e d u c e d

123
level of d i s p o s a b l e
respondent's

in c o m e

childhood,

in the f a m i l y at th e ti me of the

r a t h e r t h an f r o m the e x i s t e n c e of a

negative s t e r e o ty p e.
It w a s h y p o t h e s i z e d

t ha t t h e r e w o u l d b e s i g n i f i c a n t

d ifferences b e t w e e n the r a n k i n g s of the m a l e a nd f e m a l e
respondents on the m o t i v a t i o n
activities f or c o m p e t i t i o n
ant element.

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in w h i c h

skill was

The m a l e s w e r e e x p e c t e d to be

reject the item,

the p r e d o m i n ­

less l i k e l y to

a n d m o r e l i k e l y to p r o v i d e h i g h e r

of su pport in the u p p e r t h re e r a nk
was c o n f i r m e d in the data.
favours m a s c u l i n e

in p h y s i c a l

Th e

levels,

s ex role

le ve ls

a n d this b e l i e f

identification

i n v o l v e m e n t in c o m p e t i t i v e a c t i v i t i e s a n d

regards h i g h l y c o m p e t i t i v e b e h a v i o u r a m o n g w o m e n as b e i n g
somewhat c o n t r a r y to sex a p p r o p r i a t e s t a n d a r d s .

Indeed,

highly c o m p e t i t i v e b e h a v i o u r a m o n g w o m e n is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h
a lack of f e m i n i n i t y a nd the d e v e l o p m e n t of m a s c u l i n e

traits.

Even though this c o n c e p t i o n

stereo­

type that l im i ts

constitutes

f emale c a p a c i t i e s

for e n j o y m e n t

activities t h at are o b v i o u s l y s u i t a b l e
the a tt itude

is strong.

response t o w a r d f emale

a restrictive

in su ch

in o t h e r r es p e c t s ,

To a la r g e e x t e n t the n e g a t i v e m a l e
competitiveness

self l i m i t a t i o n a m o n g women.

l eads

to a d e g r e e of

T h is w a s e v i d e n c e d

in the d a t a

by a g r ea t e r t e n d e n c y for w o m e n to r e j e c t the item,
provide p a r t i c u l a r l y

and to

lo w s u p p o r t for the u p p e r two ra nk

l ev e ls .
It was

not e x p e c t e d

that m a r i t a l s t a t u s w o u l d h a v e

124
any i n f l u e n c e u p o n the r a n k i n g s a m o n g the m e n or the w omen,
and this w a s b o r n e o u t in the data.

T h e r e w e r e no d i f f e r ­

ences a m on g the r a n k i n g s of the s i n g l e a nd m a r r i e d m a l e s
(chi s q ua r e = 2.3508,

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

among the f e m a l e s o f d i f f e r i n g m a r i t a l
0.1339,

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p
When

st a tu s

.05),

or

(chi s q u a r e =

.05).

socio-economic background,

with

sex c o n t r o l l e d ,

was related to the s k i l f u l c o m p e t i t i o n m o t i v a t i o n no d i f f e r ­
ences w er e e v i d e n t

in the r a n k i n g s of the m e n

2.1504, df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p
square = 0.0026,

.05)

o r the w o m e n

d f = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

The m o t i v a t i o n

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

ties in o r d e r to e n j o y

competition

(chi s q u a r e =

.05).

in p h y s i c a l

in w h i c h

(chi

activi­

co m b a t w a s

the

predominant e l e m e n t w a s h y p o t h e s i z e d to be a p r e d o m i n a n t l y
masculine s t i m u l u s

fo r i n v o l v e m e n t .

T h e i te m d i d p r o v i d e a

significant s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n the r e s p o n s e s of the m e n and
women w i th a g r e a t e r d e g r e e of
Very little su p p o r t ,
the men as w e l l

h ow e v e r ,

as the w o m e n

s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d by the m a l e s .
w a s p r o v i d e d for the i t e m b y

in the r e s p o n d e n t group.

It

was r ej ected c o m p l e t e l y f ro m the r a n k i n g s y s t e m s of all b u t
62 of the r es p o n d e n t s .
The fa c t t h a t s o me of the w o m e n e n d o r s e d the i t e m is
interesting in i t s e l f as it w a s e x p e c t e d t h a t there w o u l d be
total rejection,
activities

b u t it w a s

n o t p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h

they h a d in m i n d w h e n th e y i n c l u d e d this

statement

in their s e l e c t i o n s .
An i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e

in the d a t a w a s

the f a ct that

125
married me n p r o v i d e d

significantly greater support

item than si n g l e men.

The substantive

for this

s i g n i f i c a n c e of this

result is n o t c l e a r a nd m a y h a v e b e e n due to a r a n d o m f l u c ­
tuation in the d a t a but,
present

nevertheless,

(chi s q u a r e = 3.912,

the r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s

df = 1, p less t ha n

.05).

Between the r e s p o n s e s of the s i n g l e and m a r r i e d w o m e n ,
ever, no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t
0.0614, df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p
D es pite

the fa c t t h a t s ports

how­

(chi s q u a r e =

.05).
an d g a m e s w h i c h w o u l d

normally s a t i s f y the c o m b a t i v e c o m p e t i t i o n m o t i v e are g e n ­
erally b e l i e v e d to be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h
classes/^

from white-

endorse this i t e m
.05).

an d b l u e - c o l l a r b a c k g r o u n d s

(chi s q u a r e = 0.1178,
Similarly,

to

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i ­

t h er e w e r e no d i f f e r e n c e s

rankings p r o v i d e d by the w o m e n
backgrounds

a nd l o we r -

no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r r e d in the l i k e ­

lihood of m a l e s

cant at p

the w o r k i n g -

in the

f r o m su c h s o c i o - e c o n o m i c

(chi s q u a r e = 2.0066,

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at

P .05) .
A l t h o u g h it w as h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t m e n w o u l d p r o v i d e
consistent a n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a n k i n g s
stressing c om p e t i t i o n ,

some b l u r r i n g of the d i f f e r e n c e s was

expected in r e l a t i o n to c o m p e t i t i o n
environment.

f r o m the items

In this case,

a g a i n s t the n a t u r a l

c o m p e t i t i o n is n o t so m u c h a g a i n s t

other people, b u t a c o n q u e s t of an i n a n i m a t e p a r t o f the
141
G r e g o r y P. Stone,
sport", p. 19.

"Some m e a n i n g s of A m e r i c a n

126
en v ir o n me n ta l

s e t t i n g a nd of on e self.

could s a t i s f y su c h m o t i v a t i o n s w o u l d
water skiing,

s w i m m i n g a nd sailing;

considerable s u p p o r t
lated, h ow e ve r ,

f r o m women.

Activities which
l i k e l y i n c l u d e skiing,

all of w h i c h r e c e i v e

W h e n the d a t a w e r e

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e ev i dent,

tabu­
with

the men p r o v i d i n g the g r e a t e s t support.
T hi s u n e x p e c t e d
tion", w h a t e v e r

f in d i n g ma y i n d i c a t e t h at

its co ntext,

particular r e s p o n s e s

"competi­

is a k e y w o r d w h i c h e l i c i t s

from men and women.

It m a y a ls o be a

m a ni f es t at i on of the a n t i - c o m p e t i t i o n s t e r e o t y p e

that

appears to a f f e c t w o m e n in t h e i r a c t i v i t y p r e f e r e n c e s

and

behaviour.
A m o n g the

s i n g l e and m a r r i e d men,

differences w e r e p r e s e n t
= 0.1557,

in the r a n k i n g

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

rankings of the w o m e n w e r e
taken into c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,
women w e re m u c h m or e
for the i t e m

T able

no s i g n i f i c a n t
s ys t e m s

.05),

b u t w h e n the

analyzed with marital
it w as

(chi s q u a r e

st a t u s

f o u n d that the m a r r i e d

l i k e l y to p r o v i d e p o s i t i v e e n d o r s e m e n t

(Table 28).

28.

M a r i t a l s tatus a m o n g females, a n d the
m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y for c o m p e t i t i o n
a g a i n s t the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t ( N = 3 1 7 ) .
D i d n ot rank
item

Status

Ranked
item

TOTAL

Single

(N=300)

51. 33

4 8.67

100

Married

(N= 17)

17.65

82 . 35

100

X 2 = 6.0178,

p less than

.02.

127
The r e l a t i o n s h i p w o u l d m e r i t f u r t h e r study,
this time,

as,

at

it was not p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the

result was due to the e x i s t e n c e of a s e l e c t i o n f a ct o r am ong
the small n u m b e r of m a r r i e d w o m e n in the r e s p o n d e n t group,
to a ra n do m f l u c t u a t i o n in the d a t a , or due to a d e f i n i t e
change in the value and m o t i v a t i o n a l
to physical a c t i v i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n

systems w i t h

follo wi n g m a r r i a g e .

W he n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c background,
vari able, was

r egard

w i t h sex as a co n tr o l

r e lated to the m o t i v a t i o n

for c o m p e t i t i o n

against the e n v i r o n m e n t , no di f f e r e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d in
the rankings of e i t h e r the males
not significant at p .05),
social b ac k gr o un d s

(chi s quare = 0.0,

or among the females

(chi s quare = 1.2130,

df = 1,

fro m v ar y in g

df = 1, not s i g n i f i ­

cant at p .05).
Webb i n di cated that so c i a l i z a t i o n pa tterns

in the

United States d i c t a t e that the male m us t d ev e l o p a level of
submission to e v a l u a t i o n through the use of a c h i e v e m e n t
criteria in his pa s s a g e t h r o u g h school,

and that these

emphases tend to be a p p l i e d in the play s i t u a t i o n .
females,

For

less s u b m i ss i on to a c h i e v e m e n t cr it e ri a is e x p e c t e d

and their m a j o r e v a l u a t i o n s

in ad ult life, w hich to a

large extent involve s el e c t i o n of a husband,
basis of as c ri p ti v e c r i t e r i a .1^2
142

are ma d e on the

G i v e n these i n f l u e n c e s , it

Harry Webb, " P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of attitudes
toward play among a d ol e sc e nt s ," in A spects of C o n t e m p o r a ry
Sport S o c i o l o g y , e d . by G e r a l d S. Kenyon (Chicago:
The
Athletic Institute, 1969), p. 168.

128
was not s u r p r i s i n g that the m a j o r and m o s t c o n s i s t e n t r e ­
sults .in this s ection of the s t u d y

i n d i c a t e d t h a t the m a l e

motivations for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l

a c t i v i t y d ur i ng

adolescence we r e those w h i c h p r o v i d e d for a r e a d y e v a l u a t i o n
of o n e 's p e r f o r m a n c e on an a c h i e v e m e n t b a s i s .

W h e r e their

responses d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t ho s e of the women,
the males gave their s u p p o r t to the m o t i v a t i o n s w h i c h p r o ­
vided for e xt r insic s a t i s f a c t i o n s
evaluated by achievement.

The

r i s k and d a n g e r m o t i v a t i o n

was an e x ce p t io n to this b elief,
respondents' endorsements were

in p l a y w h i c h co u l d be

b u t e v e n here,

in k e e p i n g w i t h

behaviour ex p ec t e d in the o c c u p a t i o n a l

the m a le
the types of

s p h e r e of the ad u lt

male role .
The w o m e n t ended to p r o v i d e
support for a c ti v it y m o t i v a t i o n s
satisfactions to be d e r i v e d
ties themselves.

t h e i r g r e a t e s t l evels of

e x p r e s s i v e of the i n t r i n s i c

f r o m p e r f o r m a n c e of the a c t i v i ­

In the m i l i e u of games and sports,

achieve­

ment and ascriptive c r i t e r i a d i d n o t a p p e a r to i n f l u e n c e
their s el e ction of p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n s
the factors intrinsic to the a c t i v i t i e s ,
tionships,

the a e s t h e t i c c o m p o n e n t s ,

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n :
the s oc i al

a n d the fun to be

derived d u r i n g play w e r e s u f f i c i e n t l y p o w e r f u l
tiate their ra nkings of su ch e l e m e n t s

to d i f f e r e n ­

f r o m t h os e of the men.

In both the m al e an d f e m a l e groups,
attitudes of most v a l u e

rela­

it a p p e a r e d that

to the f u l f i l l m e n t of the p r e d o m i n ­

ant adult roles we re e x p r e s s e d in t h e i r s e l e c t i o n of m o t i v a ­

129

tions for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in ph y si c al

activities.

It w a s not

possible in the p re s e n t study to d e te r m i n e w h e t h e r e l em e n t s
in the p l a y - g a m e s i t u a t i o n socia l iz e the indivi d ua l
acceptance of these charac te ri s ti c s,

into

or w h e t h e r a g e n e r a l ­

ized e x p e c t a t i o n of ap p r o p r i a t e adult b e h a v i o u r b e c o m e s
reflected in that m i l i e u and receives
2.

M a r i t a l Status D i f f e r e n c e s .

analyzed by the m ar i t a l

r e i n f o r c e m e n t f r o m it.
Wh en the data w e re

status of the r espondents,

only one

significant d i f f e r e n c e was r ev e al e d in the rankings made by
the single and m a r r i e d students for p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n s
for p ar t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l activities.

In this case,

unmarried students gave much g reater support for the a e s t h e t i c
motivation than w as p r o v i d e d by the m a r r i e d s t udents

(Table

29) .

Table

29.

M a r i t a l status and the m o t i v a t i o n for
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in ph y si c al a c t i v i t y as
a w a y of e x pr e s s i n g ideas and feelings
in m o v e m e n t (N=622).

Did not rank
item

Status

Ran k ed item
1,2,3,

4,5

T OT A L

Single

(N=5 8 0)

49 .14

22.59

28.28

100

Married

(N= 42)

69 .05

21.43

9.52

100

= 8.1973,

p less than

.02.

The lower level of s up p o r t p r o v i d e d by the m a r r i e d

130
students w a s b e l i e v e d to h a v e b e e n d u e to a l o w e r c a p a c i t y
for i n v o l v e m e n t in s u ch a c t i v i t i e s
As was

a m o n g the m a r r i e d w omen.

s hown in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the d a t a a n a l y z e d b y sex,

women w er e m u c h m o r e
Therefore,

li k e l y to e n d o r s e this

any d i m i n i s h m e n t

i t e m t h a n men.

in the e n d o r s e m e n t

levels upon

marriage w o u l d p r o b a b l y be l o c a t e d a m o n g the e n d o r s e m e n t s
of the women.
It wa s p r e v i o u s l y

re corded,

however,

t h at no s i g n i f i ­

cant d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t in th e r a n k i n g s m a d e b y the
single and m a r r i e d w o m e n
square = 0.5188,

for the a e s t h e t i c m o t i v a t i o n

df = 1, n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

marital status w a s

u s e d as a c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e

tionship b e t w e e n s ex an d the r a n k i n g s
motivation,

th e re w a s

.001),

the m a r r i e d m e n a nd w o m e n
less than

.05).

When

in the r e l a ­

for the a e s t h e t i c

a g r e a t e r s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n the

rankings of the s i n g l e m e n a nd w o m e n
df = 1, p less t h an

.05).

(chi

T hi s

(chi s q u a r e = 46.2463,

t h a n there w a s b e t w e e n
(chi s q u a r e = 4.8484,

those of

df = 1, p

s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e ma y h a v e b e e n s u f ­

ficient to a c c o u n t for the s i g n i f i c a n c e
between m a r i t a l s t a t u s

of the r e l a t i o n s h i p

and the a e s t h e t i c m o t i v a t i o n ,

without the s u p p o r t of a s i g n i f i c a n t

but

level o f s e p a r a t i o n

between the e n d o r s e m e n t s of the s i n g l e an d m a r r i e d w omen,
the re a so n for this d i f f e r e n c e
considered po s si b l e ,

h ow ever,

r e m a i n s un c lear.

It w a s

th a t d i c h o t o m i z a t i o n of the

data w h i c h wa s m a d e n e c e s s a r y by

the l o w e x p e c t e d

frequen­

cies in an e x c e s s i v e n u m b e r o f ce ll s m a y h a v e m a s k e d some

131
of the d i f f e r e n c e s
appear to be

in this

case,

and f u r t h e r s t u d y w o u l d

justified.

In all o t h e r a n a l y s e s of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s
marital s tatus
in physical

and p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n s

a c t i v i t i e s , low levels

between

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

of a s s o c i a t i o n w e r e

found w h ic h w e r e d e t e r m i n e d to be non s i g n i f i c a n t at the
criterion le vel of p
3.

Religious

.05.
Differences.

Greeley demonstrated

that

there has be e n a d i m i n i s h i n g i m p o r t a n c e of the r e l i g i o u s
factor as a d e t e r m i n a n t

for s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r

students ov er the y e a r s

since World War

in view of the e a r l y P u r i t a n
sports as sinful,

among college

2.*^^

Nevertheless,

l a b e l l i n g of play,

games,

and

it wa s b e l i e v e d t ha t som e d i f f e r e n c e s

the levels of s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d

for v a r i o u s m o t i v a t i o n s

in
for

part icipation in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s m ay be e v i d e n t a m o n g
members of the P r o t e s t a n t and R o m a n C a t h o l i c

faiths.

It wa s e x p e c t e d t h a t such d i f f e r e n c e s w o u l d o c c u r
with regard to the r a n k i n g s

g i v e n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

more g e n e r a l i z e d forms of p h y s i c a l ac t i v i t i e s ;
activity p a r t i c i p a t i o n

for so c i a l reasons,

in the

physical

for fun and

enjoyment,

a nd for the e x p r e s s i o n of ideas

a n d f e el i n g s

movement.

Suc h a c t i v i t i e s m i g h t be e x p e c t e d

in

to be mo re

strongly s u p p o r t e d by m e m b e r s of the Ro m an C a t h o l i c

religion

^ - ^ A n d re w M. Greel e y, " I n f l u e n c e of the 'religious
factor' on c o l l e g e p la n s a nd o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s o f c o l l e g e
graduates."
A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l of So c io l o g y , vol. 68 (1963),
658-671.

132
as there is less of a l i n k a g e b e t w e e n

these a c t i v i t i e s

and

ideologies

i n h e r e n t in

the o c c u p a t i o n a l mi lieu.

activities

t h at a p p e a r

to be c l o s e l y l i n k e d w i t h the o c c u ­

pational go a ls a nd a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s
the P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c w o u l d be
tions

The

associated with

those s a t i s f y i n g the m o t i v a ­

i n v o l v i n g c o m p e t i t i o n of all types.

It w a s e x p e c t e d

that these m o t i v a t i o n s

w o u l d be s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d b y m e m ­

bers of the P r o t e s t a n t

r el i gi o ns .

Des p i t e

the s t r o n g n e g a t i v e

s a n c t i o n fo r p l a y and

all of its forms by the e a r l y P u r i t a n s

a nd m e m b e r s of the

more f u n d a m e n t a l i s t P r o t e s t a n t

play continued,

within these s o c i a l groups.
that the p e o p l e a t t e m p t e d

faiths,

In such cas es,

to r a t i o n a l i z e

in play by c a l l i n g u p o n the b e l i e f

even

it wa s b e l i e v e d

their involvement

tha t it p r o v i d e d

a

recreational e f f e c t w h i c h e n a b l e d me n to w o r k h a r d e r a n d
more e fficiently.

Another

f o r m of j u s t i f i c a t i o n w o u l d be

to link the i d e o l o g i c a l e l e m e n t s

i n v o l v e d in the w o r k e t h i c

with the p r e d o m i n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of some games.

Thus,

such games w o u l d be e x p e c t e d to be e x c u s e d w i t h m i l d c r i t i ­
cism by early r e l i g i o u s
These h y p o t h e s e s ,
the rationale

leaders.
c o n j e c t u r a l as they were,

provided

for the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the levels of s u p ­

port p ro v i d e d for v a r i o u s m o t i v a t i o n s

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in

physical a c t i v i t i e s as f u n c t i o n s of r e l i g i o u s be li ef.
P r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s of the d a t a u s i n g a f r e q u e n c y
count program,

i n d i c a t e d th a t v i r t u a l l y all s t u d e n t s

st a t e d

133
that they h a d b e e n s o c i a l i z e d in e i t h e r the P r o t e s t a n t o r
Roman C a t h o l i c r e l i g i o u s b elief.
respondents

Insufficient numbers

i n d i c a t e d s u p p o r t of o t h e r r e l i g i o n s

factory a na l y s e s

that r e l i g i o n w o u l d be a s t r o n g

d eterminant o f the m o t i v a t i o n s
in o n l y o n e case;

tion in o r d e r to p u r s u e

risk,

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l
the m o t i v a t i o n

30.

for p a r t i c i p a ­

t h r i l l s a n d danger,

a si g n i f i c a n t s e p a r a t i o n o f the r a n k i n g s

Table

for s a t i s ­

to be p e r f o r m e d u s i n g the chi s q u a r e test.

D e s p i t e the b e l i e f

activities,

of

(Table

was

t here

30).

R e l i g i o n and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a ­
t io n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of
p u r s u i n g p e r s o n a l risk, t hr ills, and d a n g e r
(N=5 5 0) .

Religion

Did no t ra nk
item

Ranked
i tern

TOTAL

Protestant

(N= 3 8 4)

78.91

21. 09

100

Catholic

(N=166)

69 .28

30 .72

100

X

2

= 5.3754,

p less th a n

.05.

The gr eater s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d by the C a t h o l i c
a motivation w h i c h a p p e a r e d to be
the work et h i c

(risk-taking)

respondents

for

r e l a t e d to a c o m p o n e n t of

d id n ot s e e m to be a s s o c i a t e d

with any p a r t i c u l a r e l e m e n t of the b e l i e f

s t r u c t u r e of t h a t

religion.
In all o t h e r a n a l y s e s
religion and the m o t i v a t i o n s

t e s t i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
for p h y s i c a l

activity partici­

134

pation, m inimal
data.

levels of a s s o c i a t i o n w e r e p r e s e n t in the

W he n re l ig i on was e m p l o y e d as a c o nt r o l v a r i a b l e

the r e la t io n sh i p b e t w e e n the s t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s
tion and eac h of the m o t i v a t i o n a l
differences we re d e t e r m i n e d

s tatements,

in

convic­

no s i g n i f i c a n t

in a n y of the r a n k i n g systems.

The st rength of r e l i g i o u s

c o n v i c t i o n s h e l d by the

respondents was e x p e c t e d to be a v a r i a b l e w h i c h w o u l d p r o ­
vide some cont rol over the v a r i a b i l i t y in the f a c t o r of
rel igion, and be a s u i t a b l e v a r i a b l e to be e m p l o y e d in the
analysis of degree of s u p p o r t g i v e n

to m o t i v a t i o n s

participation in p h ys i ca l a c t i v i t i e s .
there was a s i g n i f ic a nt d i f f e r e n c e

It was

for

found that

in the ra nk i ng s p r o v i d e d

for the m o t i v a t i o n for i n v o l v e m e n t on the basis of risk and
d anger.

The lower the level or r e l i g i o u s

c o n v i c t i o n , the

higher was the s up p o r t p r o v i d e d for the risk m o t i v a t i o n
(Table 31).
The r educed level of s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d as the r e s p o n ­
dents indicated h ig h er levels of r e l i g i o u s

c o n v i c t i o n may

be partly e xp l a i n e d in terms of the r e l i g i o u s
stressing the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the i n d i v i d u a l

teachings
to a v oi d

placing himself in s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e his life m a y be in
danger or where the c o u r t i n g of risk m i g h t be r e g a r d e d as
suicidal.

The strong s u p p o r t g i v e n by i n d i v i d u a l s o p p o s e d

to religion cannot be e x p l a i n e d in terms o f a r e j e c t i o n of
such se l f- p re servatory va l ue s and s ho u ld be s u b j e c t to
further investigation.

135
Table

31.

S t r e n g t h of r el i gi o us c o n v i c t i o n and the
m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l
a c t i v i t y as a w a y of p u r s u i n g p e r s o n a l
risk, thrills, an d d a n g e r ( N = 6 1 8 ) .

Strength of
conviction

D id n o t rank
it em

Deeply
religious

(N=50)

Moderately
religious

(N= 36 0)

Ranked
item

TOTAL

82. 00

18.00

100

76 .94

23. 06

100

Indifferent to
religion
(N=173)

75 .72

24.28

100

Opposed to
religion

48 .57

51.43

100

(N= 35)

x 2 = 1 5.2305 , p less tha n

.01.

A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e wa s d e t e r m i n e d in the a s s o ­
ciation b e t w e e n the s t r e n g t h of re l ig i o u s

c o n v i c t i o n and

the m o ti v at i on for c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n ­
ment.

This r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s not c l e a r cut, however,

and it

was assumed that the d i f f e r e n c e wa s due to a r a n d o m f l u c t u ­
ation in the da t a

(chi s qu a r e = 12.7266,

df = 6 ,

p less

than

.05) .
When r e l i g i o u s

c o n v i c t i o n was e m p l o y e d as a co ntrol

variable in the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e l i g i o n and each of
the motivations for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l
it was found that only w i t h

activities,

the g a m b l i n g m o t i v e wa s a s i g n i ­

ficant differe n ce p r e s e n t in the rankings.

He re it was

found that r e s p o nd e nt s of the R o m a n C a th o l i c r e l i g i o n w h o

136

Had strong re l igious c o n v i c t i o n s p r o v i d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
greater s u p p o r t for the i t e m

Table

32.

(Table 32).

R e l i g i o n and s tr o ng r e l i g io u s c o n v i c ­
tions , and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i ­
p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y
of i n v o l v i n g the i nd i vi d u a l ag a in s t
c ha n ce or luck in an e f f o r t to w i n an
object or money (N=378).

Did n ot rank
item

Religion

R anked
item

T OT A L

Protestant

(N=26 3)

91.25

8 .75

100

Catholic

(N=115)

82.61

17. 39

100

x 2 = 5 .1063, p less than

In this analysis,
for the deep and m o d e r a t e

.05.

r e s p o n d e n t s w h o e x p r e s s e d support
levels of c o n v i c t i o n we r e g r ou p ed

together as strongly r el i gi o us

individuals.

The hi g h e r

level of s u pport p r o v i d e d by the Roman C a t h o l i c r e s p o n de n ts
of such c o n v i c t i o n levels m ay be e x p l a i n e d in terms of the
higher level of t o l e r a n c e

for g a m b l i n g and games of chance

that exists among the p r i e s t s an d me m b e r s of that r el i gi o us
group.

A m o n g the P r o t e s t a n t religions,

has continued to be r e g a r d e d as sinful,
tively v alued behaviour.

A c c o r d in g ly ,

however,

gambling

or at least,

nega­

it w o u l d be e xp e c t e d

that these g e n e r a l i z e d b e l i e f s t r u c t u r e s w o u l d be appl ied
to the ph y sical a c t i v i t y milieu.

137
B e c a u s e of the

fact t ha t a large n u m b e r o f R o m a n

Catholic s t u d e n t s a t t e n d s e p a r a t e r e l i g i o u s s c ho o l s , w h i l e
the

g re a t m a j o r i t y of P r o t e s t a n t s a t t e n d p u b l i c s c hools,

was

h y p o t h e s i z e d t h at r e s p o n d e n t s w h o a t t e n d e d p a r o c h i a l

it

high s ch ools w o u l d r e s p o n d d i f f e r e n t l y to the m o t i v a t i o n a l
statements t h an w o u l d
social v a r i a b l e ,

th o se

however,

of the ra n k i n g s y s t e m s

This

d i d n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n any

for the v a r i o u s m o t i v a t i o n s

pa rticipation in p h y s i c a l
4.

from public high s c h o o l s .

for

activities.

O t h e r S o c i a l F a c t o r s C o n t r i b u t i n g to D i f f e r e n c e s
in R a n k i n g s
The so c i a l v a r i a b l e s of n u m b e r of b r o t h e r s ,

of sisters,

n u m b e r of o l d e r s ib li n g s ,

father's o c c u p a t i o n a l

status,

and home town size w e r e

cies for any of these

level,

i n t r o d u c e d as i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s

som e b a s i s

to pa r ti c ul a r items,

f a m i l y income,

father's educational

in relation to e a c h m o t i v a t i o n a l
believed to p r o v i d e

gross

number

s t at e me n t.

E a c h was

for the p r o v i s i o n of s u p p o r t

b u t there w e r e no c o n s i s t e n t t e n d e n ­
factors

to p r o v i d e

for s i g n i f i c a n t

separations of the r a nk i ng s .
(a) F a c t o r s

r e l a t e d to the size a n d c o m p o s i t i o n

of the f a m i l y
It was h y p o t h e s i z e d t ha t the l a r g e r the n u m b e r of
brothers in the family,

the g r e a t e r w o u l d be the p r e f e r e n c e

for the r o u g h e r an d c o m p e t i t i v e a ct i v i t i e s ,
pectation h o l d i n g r e g a r d l e s s o f sex.

w i t h this e x ­

It w a s a l so h y p o t h e -

sized t ha t the l a r g e r the n u m b e r of s i s t e r s
the g r e a t e r w o u l d be

the s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d

tions for p a r t i c i p a t i o n p r o v i d i n g
such as fun a n d e n j o y m e n t ,

in the family,

for the m o t i v a ­

for i n t r i n s i c

aesthetic expression,

satisfactions
a n d so c i a l

interaction.
N e i t h e r the n u m b e r of s i s t e r s
total n u m b e r of o l d e r s i b l i n g s

in the

in the family,

n o r the

fa m i l y had a n y s i g n i f i ­

cant i n f l u en c e u p on the r a n k i n g s y s t e m s of any o f the
motivational

ten

statements.

The n u m b e r of b r o t h e r s

in the f a m i l y w a s

f o u n d to be

a variable w h i c h ha d an i n f l u e n c e u p o n p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a ­
tions .

In the cas e of the m o t i v a t i o n

risky and d a n g e r o u s

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

activi t i e s , respondents

in

f r o m f a mi l i e s

which in c l u d e d t h r e e or m o r e b r o t h e r s p r o v i d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
greater s u p p o r t

T ab l e

(Table

33.

N u m b e r of b r o t h e r s a n d the m o t i v a t i o n for
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a
w a y of p u r s u i n g p e r s o n a l risk, t h r i l l s
and danger (N=621).

Number of
brothers
None

D i d n o t rank
item

(N=l82)

One or two

33).

(N=36 8)

Three or more

(N=71)

Ranked
item

TOTAL

78.02

21.98

100

76 .63

2 3.37

100

63. 38

36 .62

100

139
T hi s

r e s u l t w o u l d a p p e a r to h av e

view of the fact th a t the
family w o u l d p r o v i d e the
encourage all m e m b e r s

face v a l i d i t y ,

l a r g e r n u m b e r of b o y s

in

in the

l e a d e r s h i p and g r o u p p r e s s u r e

to r e s p o n d to c h a l l e n g e s

to

a n d dares.

This w o u l d lead to an i n c r e a s e d a w a r e n e s s a nd a p p r e c i a t i o n
of the e x c i t e m e n t th at is i n v o l v e d in su c h r i s k - t a k i n g
behaviour,

and p r o b a b l y

f o s t e r its c o n t i n u a n c e t h r o u g h

adolescence.
T h o s e r e s p o n d e n t s w h o ca m e
were no b r o t h e r s p r o v i d e d
p ar ticipation

f ro m f a milies w h e r e

there

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s u p p o r t for

for fun an d e n j o y m e n t .

There did not appear

to be any s u b s t a n t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e in this res ult,

especi­

ally as the b i - m o d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the d a ta i n d i c a t e d a
lack of c l a r i t y in the r e l a t i o n s h i p
df = 10, p less t h a n
(b) F a c t o r s

.05).

r e l a t e d to p a r e n t a l s o c i o - e c o n o m i c

The v a r i a b l e s of g ro s s
occupational status,
the father

(chi s q u a r e = 18. 7565,

fa m i l y income,

a nd the e d u c a t i o n

(or h e a d of the househo l d)

dependent v a r i a b l e s w h i c h w o u l d

level

parental

level a t t a i n e d by
w e r e r e g a r d e d as i n ­

l ea d to the d i f f e r e n t i a l

ranking of the v a r i o u s m o t i v a t i o n s

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in

physical a c t i v i t i e s .
W h e n gross

f a m i l y i nc o me w a s r e l a t e d to e a c h of the

motivational s t a t e m e n t s

in turn,

it w a s

f o u n d t h a t no s i g ­

nificant d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t in any of the

ra n ki n gs

provided by the i n c o m e g r o u p s d i c h o t o m i z e d at the
l ev e l.

$8,999

140
Similar l y,
in the r a n k i n g s

no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e l o c a t e d

for the v a r i o u s m o t i v a t i o n a l

p rovided by r e s p o n d e n t s
pational b a c k g r o u n d s .

f r om w h i t e T h e r e was,

statements

a nd b l u e - c o l l a r o c c u ­

as d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y ,

a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r level o f s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d f o r the
aesthetic m o t i v a t i o n w h e n s ex w a s
variable

i n t r o d u c e d as a c o n t r o l

in the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

ground and t h at st a te m e n t .

socio-economic back­

Th e w o m e n

from w h i t e - c o l l a r

ba ckgrounds g a ve s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r s u p p o r t th an th at
provided by the w o m e n
square = 4.0230,

from blue-collar backgrounds

df = 1, p less t h an

(chi

.05).

F a t h e r ' s e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t w a s e m p l o y e d as an
independent s o c i a l v a r i a b l e ,
one m o t i v a t i o n a l

s ta t em e n t ,

a nd it w a s

fo u nd t h a t in o n l y

the d e m o n s t r a t i o n of s k il l w i t h

a weapon, wa s th e re a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n
groups.

In this case,

attained by the

father,

the l o w e r the e d u c a t i o n
the g r e a t e r w a s

proval p r o v i d e d for the it e m
Admittedly,
of over-all

support

(Table

the level of a p ­

34).

this i t e m r e c e i v e d o n l y a m a r g i n a l
(74 p o s i t i v e e n d o r s e m e n t s )

relationship w a s c l e a r and linear.
a minor level of c o n f i r m a t i o n
activities are m o r e

level

This

level

b u t the

finding provided

for the h y p o t h e s i s

t h a t such

s u i t e d to the needs of m e m b e r s o f the

lower s o c i o - e c o n o m i c groups.

But,

in the a b s e n c e of s u p ­

port for this s t a t e m e n t by r e s p o n d e n t s
backgrounds and l o w e r i nc o me

l e ve l

from blue-collar

families,

s u ch a h y p o ­

141
thesis w o u l d r equire fu r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n be f or e it could
be accepted or rejected.

Table

34.

Fa t he r 's e d u c a t i o n a l status and the
m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y that m a t c h e s skill
w i t h w e a p o n a ga i n s t a ta r ge t or
q u ar r y ( N = 6 1 2 ) .

Educational
level

Did not rank
item

Ra n k e d
item

TOT AL

Graduate school
or college
degree (N=187)

93.58

6 .42

100

Attended c ollege
or high school
(N= 36 3)

85 .95

14 .05

100

Grade 9 or less
(N=6 2)

82 . 26

17 .74

100

= 8.8362,

p less than

.02.

(c) The i nf l ue n ce of re s id e n c e upon the m o t i v a t i o n s
for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l

activity.

It was h y p o t h e s i z e d that r e s p o n d e n t s

f ro m the s m a l l e r

towns w ould p r ovide gr e a t e r levels of s u p p o r t for s ta t em e nt s
indicative of the m o t i v a t i o n s
weapon,

social interaction,

natural en vironment.

c o n c e r n e d w i t h the use of a

and c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t the

R es i de n ts of the l ar g er u r ba n ce nters

were expected to r e g a r d c o m p e t i t i v e c o m b a t , c h a n c e , h e a l t h
and fitness,

and fun as s i g n i f i c a n t m o t i v a t o r s

active participation.

for their

142
Only one of these h y p o t h e s e s was f o un d to be j u s t i ­
fied fo l lowing analysis of the d a t a .

In the case of the

motivation for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p hy s ic a l a ct i vi t y as a w a y
of involv ing the i n d i v i d u a l a ga i n s t chance or luck in o r d e r
to win an o b j e c t or money,

it was f ound that the gr e at e r

the size of the r e s p o nd e nt ' s home town,
level of s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d

Table

35.

the gr e a t e r was

the

(Table 35).

Hom e town size and the m o t i v a t i o n for
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as
a w a y of i nv o l v i n g the indivi d ua l
a ga i n s t c h an c e or luck in an effort
to w i n an o b j e c t or m o n e y ( N = 6 1 1 ) .

Home town
size

Did n o t rank
ite m

R anked
item

T OT A L

Up to 25,000
residents
(N=2 5 3)

90.91

9. 09

100

2 5,001 to
500,000
residents
(N=2 7 8)

87.41

12 .59

100

Over 5 00,0 00
residents
(N=80)

77.50

22. 50

100

X

2

= 10.0448,

p less than

.01.

Despite the low level of po s it i ve
this item
validity.

su p p o r t p r o v i d e d for

(76 e n d o r s e m e n t s ) , the r es u lt a p p e a r e d to have face
Gambling,

both at the p a r t i c i p a n t and s p e c t a t o r

level, has always a p p e a r e d to have g reater s up p o r t in the

143
larger u r b a n ar e as
villages.

There

t h a n in the s m a l l e r c it ies,

is m o r e o p p o r t u n i t y

and this g r e a t e r c o m m u n i t y t o l e r a n c e

for r e g u l a r g a m b l i n g
for ga m e s o f c h a n c e

would be e x p e c t e d to c a r r y o v e r i n t o p h y s i c a l
where the i n d i v i d u a l w o u l d m a t c h his

towns and

activities

s k i l l in s om e

f o r m of

game a g a i n s t an o p p o n e n t w i t h a w a g e r o n the re s ul t .
R e v i e w i n g all o f

these results,

the social v a r i a b l e p r o v i d i n g
separation b e t w e e n g r o u p s
pation in v a r i o u s
sex.

it w a s

apparent

for the g r e a t e r d e g r e e

in their m o t i v a t i o n s

levels of s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d

of

for p a r t i c i ­

t yp e s of p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w a s

In v i r t u a l l y e v e r y case,

t h a t of

the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n

for the

th a t

the

s t a t e m e n t s b y the m a l e

and fema le r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e

s i g n i f i c a n t at h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y

levels.

that the m a l e s

It w a s n o t e d

also,

vide t h ei r s u p p o r t for the m o t i v a t i o n s
ex trinsic s a t i s f a c t i o n s
o cc u pa t io n al

i d eo l o g y ,

c o n n e c t e d to v a l u e s
while

to p r o ­

expressive

of the

i n h e r e n t in the

the f e m a l e s g a v e

greater s u p p o r t for m o t i v a t i o n s e x p r e s s i v e
s at isfactions

tended

significantly

of the

to b e s e c u r e d in p a r t i c i p a t i o n

intrinsic

in p h y s i c a l

activities.
U t i l i z a t i o n of the o t h e r s o c i a l v a r i a b l e s
tion to the r a n k i n g s p r o v i d e d

in r e l a ­

for the m o t i v a t i o n a l

state­

ments r e v e a l e d few s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s
of r e s p o n d e n t s .

C H A P T E R VI
motivations

for

spectator

involvement

with

physical

activities

The ten statem en t s given as choices to a c c o u n t for
spectator i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p h y s i c a l a ct i vi t i e s w e r e similar
to those p r o v i d e d as m o t i v a t i o n s

for partici p at i on ,

e xc e pt

that they w e r e w r i t t e n to be c o n s is t en t w i t h the topic
"Watching people i n v o l v e d in dangerous,
risky activities").

thrilling,

(i.e.

and

The s t at e me n ts r e f e r r i n g to s p e c t a t o r

involvement were p l a c e d in the same o r d e r as that of the
participation s t a t e m e n t s .
As before,

the r e s p o n d e n t was asked to choose the

five statements w h i c h p r o v i d e d the re asons

for s pe c ta t or

involvement w h i c h w e r e mo s t import ant to him.

These five

were then ranked in d e c r e a s i n g o r de r of p e r s o n a l i m p o r t a n c e .
The remaining five s t at e me n ts w e re r eg a rd e d as unran k ed
motivations, bu t w e r e i n c l u d e d in all analyses.
The amou nt of s up p o r t given to each of the m o t i v a ­
tional statements r ef e r r i n g to s p ec tator in v o l v e m e n t is
illustrated in Table

36.

The m e th o d of a s s i g n i n g a rank o r d e r of impor ta n ce
to these data was the same as that e m p l o y e d w i t h the p a r t i c i ­
pation motivations.

O m i t t i n g those stateme n ts w h i c h r e ce i v e d
144

145
Table

36.

M o t i v a t i o n s for s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s (N=625).

P r o p o r t i o n r e s p o n d i n g in e a c h
ra nk

Motivation

Number
giving
positive
rankings

Risk, etc.

368

10 .1

21. 5

24.2

26 .4

17 .9

100

Social

195

7. 2

8 .7

24 .1

28.7

31.3

100

Weapon

118

4 .2

7 .6

16.1

34 .7

37.3

100

Health

187

7.0

8 .6

16 .6

25 .7

42 .2

100

Chance

188

3.7

10.6

18.6

22.9

44 .1

100

Excitement

580

41.9

25.9

14 .1

12.1

6.0

100

Ideas &
feelings

292

11.6

23 .6

19 .2

24 .7

20 .9

100

Competition
in skill

586

38. 7

29 .2

18.9

8.4

4 .8

100

Competition
in combat

178

9 .6

19 .1

25.8

17. 4

28 .1

100

Competition
against
environment

385

5 .2

13 .5

26 .0

28. 3

27 .0

100

the first-rank s u p p o r t o f less
dents
1.

TOTAL

th a n 5 p e r c en t o f the r e s p o n ­

(N = 31 ) , the f o l l o w i n g h i e r a r c h y wa s d e t e r m i n e d ;
Watching physical

activities

that g iv e y o u a f e e l i n g

of e x c i t e m e n t ; 243 f i r s t - p r e f e r e n c e s .
2.

W a t c h i n g c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g s ki l l as the p r e d o m i n ­

ant part of the p e r f o r m a n c e ;

227 f i r s t —p r e f e r e n c e s .

146
3,

Watching people

i n v o l v e d in da n ge r ou s ,

thrilling,

and

risky a c t i v i t i e s ; 37 f i r s t - p r e f e r e n c e s .
4.

W a t c h i n g the e x p r e s s i o n of i d ea s and f e e l i n g s

in

physical m o v e m e n t ; 34 f i r s t - p r e f e r e n c e s .
No o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s

r e c e i v e d the f i r s t - r a n k s u p p o r t

of more than 5 p e r c e n t of the r e s p o n d e n t s .
W he n the s t a t e m e n t s w e r e r a n k e d in o r d e r of the
greatest to the l ea s t n u m b e r of e n d o r s e m e n t s ,
rank,
1.

the f o l l o w i n g o r d e r wa s
Watching competition

Watching people

(N=385).
and

and f e e l i n g s

in

(N=292).

Watching people

i n v o l v e d in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h
(N=195).

Watching people involved against

in an a ttempt to w i n an o b j e c t or m o n e y
8.

th r il l in g ,

(N=36 8 ) .

are enjoyed for p u r e l y s oc i a l r e a s o n s
7.

a g a i n s t p a r t of the

W a t c h i n g the e x p r e s s i o n of ideas

physical m o v e m e n t
6.

in c o m p e t i t i o n

W a t c h i n g p e o p l e i n v o l v e d in d an g er o u s ,

risky a ctivities
5.

th a t give y o u a f e e l i n g

(N=580).

natural e n v i r o n m e n t
4.

(586 e n d o r s e m e n t s ) .

Watching physical activities

of excitement
3.

apparent;

i n v o l v i n g s ki l l as the p r e d o m i n ­

ant part of the p e r f o r m a n c e
2.

r e g a r d l e s s of

Watching people

"c h a n c e " or
(N=188).

i n v o l v e d in a c t i v i t i e s

the health and fi t ne s s of the b o d y

"luck"

(N=187).

that improve

147
9.

W a t c h i n g c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g c o m b a t as the p r e d o m ­

inant p a rt of the p e r f o r m a n c e
10.

(N=178).

W a t c h i n g a p e r s o n m a t c h his

weapon a g a i n s t a t a r g e t or q u a r r y
All the s t a t e m e n t s

s k i l l in the us e of a
(N=118).

r e c e i v e d s om e d e g r e e of s u p p o r t

by at least 5 pe r c e n t of the r e s p o n d e n t s .
In c o m p a r i n g the r a nk o r d e r s d e t e r m i n e d
concerning the m o t i v a t i o n s
involvement w i t h p h y s i c a l
evident.

for p a r t i c i p a n t
activities,

in f i r s t - p r e f e r e n c e

38, showing the d i f f e r e n c e s
tions for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

Table

37,

Motivation

and s p e c t a t o r

so me v a r i a b i l i t y wa s

This v a r i a b i l i t y is i l l u s t r a t e d

ing the d i f f e r e n c e s

f r o m d a ta

in T a b l e

s up port,

37,

show­

a nd T a b l e

in the r a n k i n g s of the m o t i v a ­

and s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t .

D i f f e r e n c e s in f i r s t - p r e f e r e n c e r a n k i n g s
o f the m o t i v a t i o n s for p a r t i c i p a n t and
s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t in p h y s i c a l a c t i v ­
i ti e s .

R a n k i n g for
participation

N

R a n k i n g for
spectator
involvement

N

243

117

1
*

..
J

70

2

227

Social

4

41

★

14

Risk and d a n g e r

*

10

3

37

Ideas and feelings

*

24

4

34

Fun and e x c i t e m e n t

1

329

Health and f i tness

2

Competition o n
skill

13

*

First - p r e f e r e n c e e n d o r s e m e n t by less
c en t of the r e s p o n d e n t s .

than 5 per

148
Table

38.

C o m p a r i s o n of ra nkings of total e n d o r s e ­
m e n t su p p o r t for the m o t i v a t i o n s for
p a r t i c i p a n t and s p e c t a t o r i nv o l v e m e n t in
physical activities (N=625).

Ra n k i n g for
spectator
involvement

R a n k i n g for
participation

Motivation

Risk and d anger

7

4

Social

4

6

Weapon

9

10

2

8

Chance and luck

R

7

Fun and e x c i t e m e n t

1

2

Ideas and feelings

6

5

Competition on skill

3

1

10

9

5

3

Health and

fitness

Competition on c ombat
Competition a ga i ns t
environment

The shift in the r es p on s e p a t t e r n s
motivations

c o n c e r n i n g the

for i n v o l v e m e n t in p h y s i c a l acti vities,

indi­

cated that there wa s a g r e a t e r d e s i r e to view activi t ie s
presenting d a ng e r o u s

s i t u a ti o ns

and co m p e t i t i v e a c t i v it i es

where skill and the na tural e n v i r o n m e n t w e r e the p r e d o m i n a n t
elements,

than there was to a c t u a l l y p a r t i c i p a t e in such

activities.

Of p a r t i c u l a r in t er e st was the chan ge in the

rankings for the risk and d an g er motiva t io n .
tion motive,

this factor r e c e i v e d little

or total e n d o r s e m e n t support.

As a p a r t i c i p a ­

first-preference

As a s p ec t at o r motive,

however.

149
this factor was r a n k e d t h i r d in f i r s t - p r e f e r e n c e s up p o r t and
fourth in terms of the total n u m b e r of e nd o r s e m e n t s

re c ei v ed

regardless of rank.
The d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s of ra n k i n g o f the m o t i v a t i o n a l
statements for s p e c t a t o r and p a r t i c i p a n t i n v o l v e me n t i n d i ­
cated that this p a r t i c u l a r

form of s ur v ey

to pretesting w i t h d i f f e r e n t samples,

instrument,

subject

had u t i l i t y for further

investigation of this problem.

Social Factors R e l a t e d to the M o t i v a t i o n s

for S p e c t a t o r

Involvement with Physical Activities
Very few s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e fou nd to exist
between the r a n k i n g

sy s t e m s of p a r t i c u l a r social grou ps

the various m o t i v a t i o n s
physical activities.
cipation,

sex w a s

differences

for s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h

As w a s

i n d i c a t e d in the da ta on p a r t i ­

the on l y v a r i a b l e w h i c h p r o v i d e d c o n s i s t e n t

in the rankings.

In all the analyses,
for the various s t at e me n ts ,
response

for

the levels of s u pport p r o v i d e d
as w e l l as the

level of n o n ­

(rejection o f the i te m as not p e r s o n a l l y important)

were included,

a l t h o u g h in some cases it was n e c e s s a r y to

collapse the p o s i t i v e

levels compl etely,

or into dicho to m ie s

in order to fulfil the a s s u m p t i o n s of the chi square test.
1•

Sex D i f f e r e n c e s .

A n a l y s i s of the da ta by sex re v ea l e d

that there w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
the male and female

in the r e sp onses of

st u de n ts on the s p e c t a t o r m o t i v a t i o n

statements of risk and danger,

s o cial interac tion,

health

150
and fitness,

a e s t h e t i c expression,

basis of combat.
cantly h ig h er

and c o m p e t i t i o n on the

The female r e s p o n d e n t s

gave s i g n i f i ­

levels of e n d o r s e m e n t for s pe c t a t o r i n v o l v em e nt

at events b a s e d on social int eraction,
and aesthe tic e x p r e s s i o n .

he a lt h a nd fitness,

The m al e s gave g r e a t e r s u pp o rt

than the females for the m o t i v a t i o n s or risk and d a ng e r and
competition on the basis of c o mb a t as d e t e r m i n a n t s of their
spectator involvement.

No d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d in

the levels of e n d o r s e m e n t p r o v i d e d for the s p e c t a t o r m o t i v ­
ations of skilful weaponry,

c h an c e and luck,

ment, c o m p e t i t i o n on the basis of skill,
against the na t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t

fun and e n j o y ­

and c o m p e t i t i o n

{Table 39) .

A n a l y s i s of the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n sex and the
spectator m o t i v a t i o n of risk and d a ng e r i n di c a t e d results
in the h y p o t h e s i z e d direction.

Me n are e x p e c t e d to be the

risk takers in N o r t h A m e r i c a n so ciety as w el l as b eing the
ones who are s u p p o s e d to e n jo y danger,

and,

accordingly,

they would also be e x p e c t e d to be i n t e r e s t e d in similar
activities as spectators.
were, as indicated,

The d i f f e r e n c e s

significant,

in the rankings

b u t the degree of su p po r t

given to this m o t i v a t i o n by the female r e s p o n d e n t s was also
seen to be h i g h .

This s up p or t c o ul d be i n t e r p r e t e d as

female interest in the ex e rc i se of m a s c u l i n i t y

in a s p o r t ­

ing situation.
No s i g n i f i ca n t di f fe r en c es we r e o b s e r v e d wh en sex
was used as a control v a r i a b l e in the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

151
Table

39.

Motivation

S u m m a r y ta b l e of s e x d i f f e r e n c e s in the
r a n k i n g s of m o t i v a t i o n s for s p e c t a t o r
involvement with physical activities.*

Unranked
N

High group

df

Chi
Square

P

Risk

257

M

2

42.1850

.001

Social
interaction

430

F

1

11.8978

.001

Skill with
weapon

507

M

1

2 .4962

Health

4 38

F

1

1 9. 1 6 9 4

Chance

437

M

1

1 .6 9 2 0

NS

45

F

5

3 .0223

NS

333

F

2

5 5. 8 6 6 0

Competition in
skill

39

M

5

5. 0 1 8 1

Competition in
combat

447

M

1

9 2. 8 5 7 9

Competition
against
environment

240

F

5

5 .6342

Excitement
Aesthetic

NS
.001

.001
NS
. 001

NS

*Co m plete chi s q u a r e t ables for e a c h of these
analyses are i n c l u d e d in A p p e n d i x C.

marital status a n d the r is k m o t i v a t i o n .

N or w e r e

differences in the r a n k i n g s m a d e by mal es,

there any

a n d females,

from

white- and b l u e - c o l l a r b a c k g r o u n d s .
The m o t i v a t i o n

to w a t c h p e o p l e

activities w h i c h are e n j o y e d

i n v o l v e d in p h y s i c a l

for p u r e l y s oc i a l r e a s o n s w a s

given strong s u p p o r t by the w o m e n ,

b u t r e j e c t e d b y o v e r 75

152
per cent o f the men.
such d e si r es

The a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h w o u l d s a t i s f y

for s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y be

those w h i c h the fe m al e r e s p o n d e n t s h a d in m i n d w h e n th ey
endorsed this m o t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t to p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
pa rticipation is e n j o y e d
while w a i t i n g o ne ' s
spectator motive.
was tennis,

for s o cial r e asons,

tu r n to p la y w o u l d

then watching

satisfy

T h is w o u l d be true w h e t h e r

bo w l i n g ,

or r e c r e a t i o n a l

If the

the si m il a r
the a c t i v i t y

swimming.

No d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d in the r a n k i n g s of
the single and m a r r i e d w o m e n on this m o t i v a t i o n a l
nor were there any d i f f e r e n c e s
males of d i f f e r i n g m a r i t a l

st a te m en t ,

in the r a n k i n g s m a d e by the

status.

The i n t r o d u c t i o n of sex as a c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e
relationship b e t w e e n s o c i a l
motivation did not p r o v i d e

in the

cl a ss b a c k g r o u n d a n d the social
for a n y s t a t i s t i c a l l y

significant

separations of the r a n k i n g s .
The d e s i r e

to w a t c h a c t i v i t i e s

involving

stration of skill w i t h a w e a p o n w a s e x p e c t e d
strongly s u p p o r t e d by the males.

the d e m o n ­

to be m o r e

Most marksmanship activi­

ties have m a le and f em a le p a r t i c i p a n t s ,

b u t the s p o r t s are

more strongly s u p p o r t e d at the p a r t i c i p a n t an d s p e c t a t o r
levels by males.

W h e n the d a t a w e r e a n al y z e d ,

h o we v e r ,

significant d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d in the ra n ki n gs .
Indeed, the i t e m wa s p o o r l y s u p p o r t e d by b o t h m a l e s an d
females; bo th g r o u p s h a d a r e j e c t i o n ra te o f this
which was g r e a t e r th an 78 p e r cent.

item

no

153
C o n t r o l l i n g for sex in t e s t i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between m a r i t a l s t a t u s and the s k i l l w i t h a w e a p o n m o t i v a ­
tion;

and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d a n d the s a me m o t i v a ­

tion, did no t p r o v i d e

for any s i g n i f i c a n t s e p a r a t i o n s of

the rankings b e t w e e n groups.
The f emale

r e s p o n d e n t s gave

levels of s u p p o r t for the d e s i r e
physical a c t i v i t i e s
ness of the body.

as w a y s

significantly higher

to w a t c h p e o p l e e n g a g e d in

to i m p r o v e

T h is does

the h e a l t h a n d f i t ­

not n e c e s s a r i l y

im p ly t ha t the

women were c o n s i d e r i n g m a s c u l i n e b o d y d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s
when they e n d o r s e d

this item.

this sp ectator m o t i v a t i o n

It is p r o b a b l e

is r e l a t e d to the p r e v i o u s

of support p r o v i d e d for the s oc i al m o t i v a t i o n
and p a rt i ci p an t in v o l v e m e n t .
expected to p a r t i c i p a t e
tion)

In this case,

for the h e a l t h

and so c ia l reasons,

in stead,

level

for s p e c t a t o r

w o m e n w o u l d be

(or f i gure s t a b i l i z a ­

a nd e n j o y the s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t

as they wa t c h t h e i r fr i e n d s p l a y

for the same reason s.

No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d w h e n
was utilized as a c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e
between ma r i t a l s tatus
However, it w as

endorsement for this

relationship

students

from b l u e - c o l l a r

l i k e l y to p r o v i d e h ig h levels of
item

In this instance,
male respondents

in the

sex

and the h e a l t h m o t i v e re s po n se s .

f o un d t ha t male

backgrounds w e r e m o r e

that

(Table 40).
it w o u l d a p p e a r li k e l y t h at the

from blue-collar backgrounds would

body building an d s i m i l a r h e a l t h and f it n es s

support

activities

as

154
T ab l e

40.

S o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d a m o n g males,
a nd the m o t i v a t i o n to w a t c h p e o p l e
i n v o l v e d in a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h i m p r o v e
the h e a l t h a n d f i t n e s s of the b o d y
(N=30 0) .

Did not rank
item

Parental o c c u p a t i o n a l
b ac k gr o un d

Ranked
item

TOTAL

White-collar

(N=175)

83.43

16 .57

100

Blue-collar

(N=125)

72.00

28 .00

100

X 2 = 5.0144,

spectator s p o r t s .

p less

Their

than

support

statement adds a m e a s u r e of
tion.

.05.

for this m o t i v a t i o n a l

f a ce v a l i d i t y

to this c o n t e n ­

No d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t in the r a n k i n g s m a d e by

women from w h i t e - a nd b l u e - c o l l a r b a c k g r o u n d s

for this

item.

When the r a n k i n g s p r o v i d e d for the g a m b l i n g m o t i v a ­
tion were analyzed,

no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e

fo u nd

between the levels of s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d b y the m e n a n d w o m e n
of the r e s p o n d e n t group.
by only 188 r es p o n d e n t s ,

Th e i t e m w a s e n d o r s e d p o s i t i v e l y
and w i t h

into one s u p p o r t c a t e g o r y ,
rejecting the i t e m w e r e

th e s e r a n k i n g s

the p r o p o r c i o n s

endorsing or

almost equivalent.

M ar i t a l s t at u s m a d e no d i f f e r e n c e

in the r a n k i n g s

when it was u s ed as an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e w i t h
control v ar i a b l e

in the r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

for w at ching p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s
It was

found,

collapsed

however,

sex as

a

the m o t i v a t i o n

i n v o l v i n g ch an ce.

t h a t the f e m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s

155
from w h i t e - c o l l a r b a c k g r o u n d s

gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r

support for this m o t i v a t i o n .

There would appear

to be

little su b s t a n t i v e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n m e m b e r s h i p of the
middle c l a s s , w h i t e - c o l l a r b a c k g r o u n d g r o u p and e n d o r s e m e n t
of the g a m b l i n g m o t i v e a m o n g
statistically signif ic a nt ,
fluctuations
less than

in the da t a

females.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p was

b u t m a y h av e b e e n due to r a n d o m

(chi s qu a re = 4.7933,

df = 1, p

.05).

The e x c i t e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n

for s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t

was strongly s u p p o r t e d by the r e s p o nd e nt s ,

r e c e i v i n g the

greatest n u m b e r of f i r s t - p r e f e r e n c e e n d o r s e m e n t s , and b e i n g
ranked second in te rms of the total n u m b e r of e n d o r s e m e n t s
received.

T he r e w e r e no d i f f e r e n c e s

by the men and w o m e n

in the study,

in the ra n k i n g s m a de

b o th g ro u ps p r o v i d i n g

strong support in the u p p e r three rank levels.
It was

found that the u n m a r r i e d w o m e n ga ve p a r t i c u ­

larly strong su p p o r t for s p e c t a t o r
enjoy a feeling of e x c i t e m e n t

Table 41.

i n v o l v e m e n t in o r d e r to

(Table 41).

M a r i t a l stat us a m o n g females, and the
m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g p h y s i c a l
a c t i v i t i e s that give a f e e l i n g of
excitement (N=317).

Marital status

D i d n o t ran k
item

Ranked
item

TOT AL

Single

(N= 300)

5.00

95 .00

100

Married

(N= 17)

23.53

76.47

100

= 6.7907,

p less than

.01.

156

The lower level of s u p p o r t among the m a r r i e d fe ma les
for spectator a t t e n d a n c e at e x c i t i n g a c t i v i t i e s

c o u l d be

attributed to the o p e r a t i o n of a s e l e c t i o n f a ct o r a m o n g the
small number of w o m e n in this r e s p o n d e n t g r o u p .
believed possible,

however,

It w a s

that a t t e n d a n c e at a c t i v i t i e s

perceived by the r e s p o n d e n t s

to b e l o n g in this c l a s s i f i c a ­

tion, would c o n s t i t u t e pa r t of the d a t i n g b e h a v i o u r of the
college women at M i c h i g a n State Un i ve r si t y.

Up o n m a r r i a g e

attendance at such ac t i v i t i e s w o u l d n o t be so desir able.
For this r e a s o n , f ur t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p
would appear to be warranted.
The i n t r o d u c t i o n of sex as a c on t r o l v a r i a b l e

in the

relationship b e t w e e n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d and the
excitement m o t i v a t i o n did n o t p r o v i d e for a ny s i g n i f i c a n t
separations of the e n d o r s e m e n t levels b e t w e e n groups.
The strong fema le s u p p o r t of the a e s t h e t i c m o t i v a ­
tion for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w as al so
present in the rankings

for the m o t i v a t i o n

for w a t c h i n g the

expression of ideas and feelings in m o v e m e n t as a spectator.
This level of su p p o r t p r o v i d e d by the female r e s p o n d e n t s
was significantly h i g h e r than th at p r o v i d e d by the males.
It was ev i d e n t that the m a l e r e j e c t i o n of e x p r e s s i v e
movement was strong, w h e t h e r the i n v o l v e m e n t wa s at the
participant or the s p e c t a t o r level.
sex appropriate b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s

The c o n c e p t i o n of the
for m a le s a p p a r e n t l y

excludes a strong level of i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p h y s i c a l

157
activity p e r f o r m e d for e x pr es s i v e appreciation.
With sex u se d as a co ntrol v a r i a b l e

in the r e l a t i o n ­

ship between m a r i t a l status and the ae s th e t i c mo tivation,
no statistically s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

in the rankings

were d e t e r m i n e d .
A similar r e s u l t w a s found w h e n sex was e m p l o y e d as
a control va r ia b l e in the r e l a t i o n s h i p b et w e e n s o c i o ­
economic b a c k g r o u n d a n d the ae s th e t i c motivation.
S pectator i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h ph y si c a l ac t iv i ti e s w h e r e
competition on the basis of skill was p r edominant,
considerable s upport fr o m the respondents.

re c ei v e d

The m o t i v a t i o n a l

statement re c ei v ed the g r e a t e s t n u m b e r of total e n d o r s e ­
ments,

and w a s second in the r an king of items w h i c h received

strong f i r s t - p re f er e nc e support.

No d i ff e re n ce s we r e e v i ­

dent in the levels of e n d o r s e m e n t p r o v i d e d by the men and
women of the r e s p o n d e n t group,

nor w e r e any s i g n if i ca n t

differences d e t e r m i n e d w h e n sex w a s used as a control v a r i ­
able with the i n d e p e n d e n t v ar i a b l e s of ma r i t a l status and
socio-economic bac kground.
C ompetition w h e r e co m ba t p r e d o m i n a t e s was s tr o ng l y
supported by the male respondents,

and no d i f f e r e n c e s w er e

found in the r an k i ng s of the m a r r i e d or u n m a r r i e d men,

or

of the men from d i f f e r i n g s o c i o - e c o n o m i c ba ck grounds.

The

item was suppo r te d by al m os t half the male respondents,
was rejected by ov er

8 8

but

p e r cent of the w o m e n .

C ombative c o m p e t i t i o n gains c o n s id e ra b le

sp e ct a to r

158

attention f r o m m e m b e r s
of society

an d this

of the l o w e r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c g r o u p s

s u p p o r t is n o t r e s t r i c t e d

The f in d i n g t h a t t h e r e w e r e no d i f f e r e n c e s
provided for t h is

i t e m by men,

to m ales.

in the r a n k i n g s

and w o m e n , f r o m white-

and

b lue-collar b a c k g r o u n d s m a y be i n d i c a t i v e of the o p e r a t i o n
of a n t i c i p a t o r y s o c i a l i z a t i o n u p o n s t u d e n t s
economic b a c k g r o u n d s w h o

from lower socio­

are c o l l e g e b o u n d in h i g h s c h o o l

and a c t u a l l y e n t e r u n i v e r s i t y T h e s e

s t u d e n t s w o u l d be

expected to c o n f o r m to the c o n c e p t i o n s o f a p p r o p r i a t e b e ­
haviour of t h e m i d d l e

c la s s

students

so t ha t b y the time

they e n te r c o l l e g e the e x p e c t e d s u p p o r t for s p e c t a t o r
attendance

at c o m b a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s w o u l d di minish.

No d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t in the
ment g iv e n to the

s p e c t a t o r m o t i v e r e l a t e d to c o m p e t i t i o n

against the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t
respondents.

The

i t e m wa s

a m o n g m a l e a nd f e m a l e

s t r o n g l y f a v o u r e d by b o t h groups.

With sex e m p l o y e d as a c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e ,
mained e q u i v a l e n t a m o n g the male,
regardless of m a r i t a l
2.

analyzed w i t h m a r i t a l

an d female,

re­

respondents

Differences.

W h e n the d a t a w e r e

s t a t u s e m p l o y e d as an i n d e p e n d e n t

in r e l a t i o n to the m o t i v a t i o n s

involvement w i t h p h y s i c a l

14 4

the r a n k i n g s

status or socio—economic background.

Marital Status

social v a r i a b l e

level of e n d o r s e ­

for s p e c t a t o r

a c t i v i t i e s , only one significant

R i c h a r d L. Simpson,
" Pa r e n t a l i n f l u e n c e ,
patory s o c i a l i z a t i o n , a n d so c i a l m o b i l i t y " .

antici­

159
difference w as d e t e r m i n e d in the le v el s of e n d o r s e m e n t
given to the items by the m a r r i e d a n d u n m a r r i e d s t ud ents.
Unmarried students were more

l i k e l y to p r o v i d e

positive e n d o r s e m e n t for w a t c h i n g p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s
provide a f e e l i n g o f e x c i t e m e n t

for the i n d i v i d u a l

that

(Table

42) .

T ab l e

42.

M a r i t a l s t a t u s a nd the m o t i v a t i o n for
w a t c h i n g p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s that
p r o v i d e a f e e l i n g of e x c i t e m e n t (N= 6 2 2 )

D id n o t rank
item

Marital status
Single

(N=580>

Married

(N= 42)
X

2

= 4.8373,

TOTAL

. 38

93.62

1 0 0

16. 67

83.33

1 0 0

6

p less t h an

.05.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a r i t a l
citement motive, w i t h

Ranked
item

s tatus an d the e x ­

sex e m p l o y e d as a c o n t r o l v a ri a bl e ,

was discussed pr e v i o u s l y .

It w a s

f o u n d t h a t no d i f f e r e n c e s

were ev ident in the le v e l s of e n d o r s e m e n t p r o v i d e d b y the
single and m a r r i e d males,

b u t a m o n g the

females,

significant

differences w e r e apparent.
The s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m a r i t a l

status

and the e x c i t e m e n t m o t i v e w o u l d a p p e a r to be due to the
response p a tt e r n s p r o v i d e d b y the u n m a r r i e d w omen.

It w as

believed to be p o s s i b l e that the h i g h e r l e v e l s o f e n d o r s e m e n t

160
of the i t em a m o n g t h e s e w o m e n c o u l d be r e l a t e d to d a t i n g
behaviour.

As B r o o k o v e r i n d i c a t e d ,

a t t e n d a n c e at m a n y of

the i n t e r c o l l e g i a t e a t h l e t i c e v e n t s w a s p o p u l a r a m o n g the
women st u dents

at M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,

was the on l y s p e c t a t o r s p o r t w h e r e
dent of the d a t i n g s it u at i o n .
domestic concerns,

but

football

attendance was
It is p o s s i b l e

indepen­
th at

and the e l i m i n a t i o n of the d a t i n g

lead to a d i m i n i s h e d s u p p o r t

factor

for s p e c t a t o r a t t e n d a n c e

at

exciting e v e n t s by m a r r i e d women.
3.

Re l ig i ou s D i f f e r e n c e s .

attributable to r e l i g i o u s
ment for the v a r i o u s

T h e r e w e r e no d i f f e r e n c e s

ideology

in the

items e x p r e s s i n g m o t i v a t i o n s

spectator i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p h y s i c a l
when the s t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s
control v ar i a b l e in the v a r i o u s
gion and each o f the items,

activities.

for

Similarly,

c o n v i c t i o n w a s e m p l o y e d as a
relationships

and w h e n

control va r iable b e t w e e n r e l i g i o u s
statement,

l evels of e n d o r s e ­

between reli­

r e l i g i o n w a s u s e d as a

conviction and each

no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d .

When the s t r e n g t h o f r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n w a s e m p l o y e d
as an i nd e pe n de n t v a r i a b l e w i t h e a c h o f the m o t i v a t i o n a l
statements,

o n l y one s e t of e n d o r s e m e n t s w a s

include s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t

145

determined

le v e l s o f support.

The

W i l b u r B. B r o o k o v e r ,
J o e l S m i t h and D o n a l d
Conrad, "Student a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t i e s at M i c h i g a n S t a t e
University."
Social R e s e a r c h B u re a u.
Michigan State
University, 1956, pp. 15-17, 31.
(Mimeographed.)

to

161
greater the st r en g th of re ligious convic ti o n,

the g r e a t e r

was the support p r o v i d e d for the he a l t h and fitness
This r e lationship was

Table

43.

li n e a r

item.

(Table 43).

S t r e n g t h of r e li g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n and
the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g pe o p l e
involved in a ct i vi t i e s w h i c h im pr ove
the he a lt h and fitness of the body
(N=618).

Strength of
conviction

Did not rank
ite m

Ranked
item

TOTAL

Deeply
religious

(N= 50)

56 .00

44 .00

1 0 0

Moderately
religious

(N= 3 6 0)

68.33

31.67

1 0 0

Indifferent to
religion
(N=17 3)

75. 72

24.28

1 0 0

Opposed to
religion

(N= 35)

77.14

2 2

= 8.6722,

p less than

.8 6

1 0 0

.05.

Despite the c l arity and l i n e a r i t y of the result,

there

would appear to be little in the e l e m e n t s of re l ig i o u s c o n ­
viction which could ac c o u n t for this

finding.

The r e l a t i o n ­

ship would merit fu r ther i n v e s t i g a t i o n to d e t e r m i n e the

fac­

tors which account for such differences.
The social v a ri a bl e of type o f hig h school a tt e n d e d
is related to religion,

and this

account for some di f fe r en c es

factor w as e x p e c t e d to

in the rankings.

No s i g n i f i c a n t

162
differences,

h o w e v e r , w e r e d e t e r m i n e d to e x i s t b e t w e e n t he

responses of s t u d e n t s w h o a t t e n d e d p u b l i c o r p a r o c h i a l
schools on any of the m o t i v a t i o n a l

4.

statements.

O t h e r So cial F a c t o r s C o n t r i b u t i n g to D i f f e r e n c e s
in R a n k i n g s
D es p i t e the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a c o n s i d e r a b l e

social f actors as

independent variables

of the m o t i v a t i o n a l

statements,

very

n u m b e r of

in r e l a t i o n

to e a c h

few significant d i f ­

ferences b e c a m e a pp a re n t.
(a)

Factors related

to the si z e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f

the f a m i l y
W h e n n u m b e r of b r o t h e r s
sisters in the

family,

in the

and number of older

utilized as i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s
the items,

fa mily,

siblings were

in r e l a t i o n

no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e

n u m b e r of

to e a c h of

determined.

Ordinality a nd s e x c o m p o s i t i o n o f the f amily,

could t h e r e ­

fore be e x c l u d e d as s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g
the m o t i v a t i o n s

factors

in

for s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p h y s i c a l

activities .
(b)

F a c t o r s r e l a t e d to p a r e n t a l

socio-economic

level
The v a r i a b l e s g r o s s
tional status,

f a m i l y income,

and f a t h e r ' s e d u c a t i o n a l

parental

attainment,

social factors e m p l o y e d as i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s
section of the study.

occupa­
were

in th is

No d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d

to

t he

163
exist in any of the levels of e n d o r s e m e n t p r o v i d e d by groups
differentiated on the basis of p a r e n t a l g ro s s f amily income.
R es p on d en t s f r o m w h i t e - c o l l a r b a c k g r o u n d s w e r e
to provide s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r ra n ki n gs

found

for the e x c i t e m e n t

motivation, b ut the r e l a t i o n s h i p w as not clear cut

(Table

44) .

Table 44.

Parental
occupational
background

S o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d and the
m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g ph y si c a l
ac t i v i t i e s that give a f e eling of
e x c i t e m e n t (N=612) .

Ra nk o r d e r gi v en
by r e s p o n d e n t s

Did not
rank it e m

2

1

White-collar
(N= 38 7)

5.94

41.

Blue-collar
(N=225>

8.44

35 .11 24.00

X 2 = 13.0369,

8 6

p less than

23.26

3

TOT AL
5

4

11.63 13.18

4 .13

1 0 0

16.00

8

.44

1 0 0

8.00

.05.

Analysis of the e x p e c t e d and o b s e r v e d f r eq u en c ie s

in

the various cells i nd i c a t e d that the r e l a t i o n s h i p was bimodal, and although the w h i t e - c o l l a r st udents ga ve g re a te r
support in the first rank level,

it was d i f f i c u l t to a ss i gn

clear support to ei t he r social b a c k g r o u n d group.
The spectator m o t i v a t i o n s
skill with a weapon,

re l a t e d to a c t i v i t i e s w h er e

and h e a l t h and fitness w e r e p a r a m o u n t ,

were supported at a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r level by students

164

whose fathers h a d low levels of e d u c a t i o n a l attainment.

In

the case of skill w i t h a w e a p o n as an a t t r a c t i o n for s p e c ­
tator interest,

the r e s p o n d e n t s w h o s e

fa thers w e r e h ig h l y

educated gave c o n s i d e r a b l y less than the e x p e c t e d level of
endorsement, w h i l e mu ch g r e a t e r s u pp o r t w a s p r o v i d e d by those
whose fathers w e r e p oo r l y e d u c a t e d

Table 45.

(Table 45}.

F a t he r 's e d u c a t i o n status and the
m o t i v a t i o n to w a t c h a p e rs o n m a t c h
his skill in the use of a w e a p o n
a ga i n s t a t a rg e t or q u a r r y ( N = 6 1 2 ) .

Educational
level

Did not rank
item

R an k e d
item

T OT A L

Graduate school
or college
degree (N=187)

85. 56

14 .44

1 0 0

Attended college
or high school
(N=36 3}

80 .99

19 .01

1 0 0

Grade 9 or less
(N= 6 2 )

69 . 35

30 .65

1 0 0

X

2

= 8.0420,

p less th an

.02.

This result was c o n s i s t e n t w i t h that found in c o n n e c ­
tion with p a r t i c i p a n t involvement.

A l t h o u g h it w o u l d ap p ea r

that such ac tivities c o u l d be r e g a r d e d as b e i n g f a v o u r e d by
predominantly lower social class groups,

there w a s no s u p ­

port for this belief in the analysis of the d i f f e r e n c e s
the rankings for this m o t i v a t i o n w h e n e it h er gross

in

income or

165
father's o c c u p a t i o n a l
variable.

st a tu s w a s

e m p l o y e d as an i n d e p e n d e n t

It w as b e l i e v e d p o s s i b l e

t h at the

l o w e r level of

support p r o v i d e d by s t u d e n t s w h o s e p a r e n t s h a d h i g h e r e d u ­
cational a t t a i n m e n t s w as

due,

the h u m a n i s t i c and p a c i f i s t

in part,

to the

i n f l u e n c e of

i d e o l o g i e s h y p o t h e s i z e d to be

present am o ng c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s

at this time.

hypothesis m u s t r e m a i n c o n j e c t u r a l

until

Howev e r,

this

a relationship between

parental e d u c a t i o n a l le v el and s t u d e n t a t t i t u d e

toward p ac ­

ifism and h u m a n i s m is d e t e r m i n e d .
R es p o n d e n t s w h o s e

fathers had

l ow e r e d u c a t i o n a l

attainments also gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s u p p o r t
tator attendance at a c t i v i t i e s w h e r e

individuals

improve the he a l t h and f i t n e s s of t h e body.

for s p e c ­

a t t e m p t to

In this

a n al y si s ,

the greater d e g r e e of a c c e p t a n c e of this i t e m by the r e s p o n ­
dents whose f athers w e r e p o o r l y e d u c a t e d w a s m a t c h e d by
greater than e x p e c t e d level of r e j e c t i o n
fathers were m o d e r a t e l y w e l l

educated

a m on g t h o s e w h o s e

(Table 46).

In c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the r e s u l t w h i c h

showed that blue-

collar males p r o v i d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y

greater

for this i t e m

df = 1, p les s

(chi s q u a r e = 5.0144,

it would s ee m to be a p p r o p r i a t e

levels of s u p p o r t
than

to a c c e p t the b e l i e f

prove the he a lt h and f itness of the b o d y

.05),

t ha t the

motivation to w a t c h p e o p l e i n v o l v e d in a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h

at least among males,

a

im­

s h o u l d b e r e ga r de d ,

as a lower s o ci a l c lass

attitude.

166
T ab l e

46.

F a t h e r ' s e d u c a t i o n a l s t at u s a nd the
m o t i v a t i o n to w a t c h p e o p l e i n v o l v e d
in a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h i m p r o v e the
h e a l t h a n d f i t n e s s of the b o d y ( N = 6 1 2 ) .

Educational
level

D id n o t rank
item

Ranked
item

TOTAL

Graduate school
or college
degree (N=187)

70 .05

29 .95

1 0 0

Attended co l le g e
or high school
(N= 36 3)

71.90

28

1 0 0

Grade 9 or less
(N= 6 2)

56 .45

43. 55

= 6.0029,

(c)

p less

than

. 1 0

1 0 0

.05.

The i n f l u e n c e o f r e s i d e n c e up o n

the m o t i v a t i o n s

for s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p h y s i c a l

activities

The use of r e s i d e n c e as an i n d e p e n d e n t so c i a l v a r i a b l e
in relation to ea c h of the m o t i v a t i o n a l

statements

that s i g n i f ic a nt d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t
provided for s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t w h e r e

indicated

in the r a n k i n g s
skill with a weapon

and c o mpetition a g a i n s t the e n v i r o n m e n t w e r e the p r e d o m i n a n t
characteristics of the a c t i v i t i e s .
the size of the r e s p o n d e n t ' s h o m e

In e a c h case,
town,

the s m a l l e r

the g r e a t e r w a s the

level of s u p p o r t provided.
Table 47 i l l u s t r a t e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e s i d e n c e
and the skill w i t h a w e a p o n m o t i v a t i o n .

167
Ta ble

47.

R e s i d e n c e and the m o t i v a t i o n to w a t c h
a p e r s o n m a t c h his sk i ll in the u se of
a w e a p o n a g a i n s t a t a r g e t or q u a r r y
(N=611).

Home town
size

D i d n o t ra nk
item

Ranked
item

TOTAL

Up to 2 5,000
residents
(N=2 5 3)

75.89

24 .11

1 0 0

25,001 to
500,000
residents
(N=27 8 )

83.45

16 . 55

1 0 0

Over 500,000
residents
(N=80)

87 .50

12 . 50

1 0 0

X2

= 7.5233,

p less

This r e s u l t a p p e a r e d

th an

.05.

to h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e

face v a l i d ­

ity in view of the a v a i l a b i l i t y of a c c e s s of r e s p o n d e n t s
the smaller c e n t e r s

to l o c a t i o n s w h e r e

from

su c h a c t i v i t i e s c o u l d

be performed.
It w o u l d a p p e a r l o g i c a l

that the same r e a s o n s a p p l y to

the greater d e g r e e of s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d by the r e s p o n d e n t s
from smaller towns

a nd v i l l a g e s

for w a t c h i n g a c t i v i t i e s w h e r e

the individual c o m p e t e s a g a i n s t the e n v i r o n m e n t
With all o f the d a ta on p r e f e r e n c e s
types o f ' s p e c t a t o r s p o r t s and p h y s i c a l
est tendency,

{Table 48).

for p a r t i c u l a r

activities,

a p a r t f r o m the sex d i f f e r e n c e s ,

was

the c l e a r ­
s e e n for

homogeniety in the r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n s r e g a r d l e s s o f s o c i a l

168
Table 48.

Home town
size

R e s i d e n c e and the m o t i v a t i o n to w a t c h
p e o p l e in c o m p e t i t i o n against p a r t of
the na t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t ( N = 6 1 1 ) .

Rank o r d e r given by
respo nd e nt s

Did not
rank item

TOTAL
2

1

3

4

Up to 25,00 0
residents
(N=2 5 3)

35. 57

5.93 10.67 18.58 13.44

25,001 to
500,000
residents
(N=2 7 8 )

37.77

1.44

7.55

Over 500,000
residents
(N= 8 0)

46.25

0 . 0 0

5.00 16.25

X 2 = 22.9341,

background va riables.

p less than

This

14.03 21.22

17.50

5

15 .81

1 0 0

17. 99

1 0 0

15 .00

1 0 0

.02.

level of h om o g e n i e t y may have

been due to the strong s o c i a l i z i n g effe ct of sc hools and
universities upon t he i r p o p u l a t io n s

to the e xt e nt that

common values and a t ti t u de s come to be a s s o c i a t e d with the
majority of students.
Co leman showed the i n fl uence of the school p e e r - g r o u p
socialization w h i c h de f i n e d the p o s s e s s i o n of at h le t ic skill
as a key c h a r a c t er i st i c of the leading c r ow d and d e m o n s t r a t e d
the way in w hi c h this as s ig n m e n t o f status
features of high s chool life.^^^
James S. Coleman,
The Free Press, 1961).

influe nc e d other

B r o o k ov e r et: al., sh o we d how

The A d o l e s c e n t S o ciety

(New York:

169
rapidly social s tan d a r d s of a c c e p t a b l e s p e c t a t o r i nte res ts
could be f os t e r e d at a m a j o r u n i v e r s i t y re g a r d l e s s of the
147
interests of the students p r i o r to e n t e r i n g college.
This
socializing e ff e ct of u n i v e r s i t y life could be e x p e c t e d to
provide for a h o m o g e n i e t y of v al u es
behaviour,

and in the p r e s e n t study,

to w ar d sp e ci f ic

forms of

was b e l i e v e d to e r a d i ­

cate many of the i n fl u e n c e s of soci al b a c k g r o u n d f actors that
would be ex p ec t ed to p ro v i d e
pre ferences.

for d i f f e r e n c e s

It is also p o s s i b l e

that ma ss

are capable of b r i d g i n g social d i f f e r e n c e s

in s p e c t a t o r
s p e c t a t o r sports

and p r o v i d e

for a

genuine m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the mass c u l t u r e .

147

W i l b u r B. Brookover, Joel Smith and D o n a l d Conrad,
"Student athletic a c ti v it i es at M i c h i g a n State Un i ve r si t y,
P ■ 37.

C H A P T E R VII
SOCIAL FA C T O R S R E LA T E D T O P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T Y P R E F E R E N C E S
A number of q u e s t i o n s we r e p o s e d to the r e s p o n d e n t s
which attempted to pr o v i d e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the v ar i ou s
dimensions of the a t ti tudes t ow a rd p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y p a r t i c i ­
pation.

These q u e s t i o n s c on c e r n e d p re f e r e n c e s

categories of p h y s i c a l activities;

the types of needs s a t i s ­

fied by invo lvement in such a ct i vi t ie s
spectator;

for p a r t i c u l a r

as a p a r t i c i p a n t or

and the d e gr e e of p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of a tt i tudes

held toward play.

14

p

Social factors r e l a t e d to p r e f e r e n c e s

for w or k

and l e isure a ct i vi t ie s
Although mo s t human b e h a v i o u r c an n ot be re duced to a
simple choice be t w e e n two al t ernatives,

it was b e l i e v e d that

this question wo u l d d r a w ou t the a d h e re n ts of the P r o t e s t a n t
work ethic so that analysis of their social b ac k g r o u n d s w o u l d
be possible.

The q u e s t i o n w as also used as a l ead-in q u e s ­

tion to set the tone for later,

m o r e specific qu e stionning.

Table 49 shows the r e sp o n s e p at t e r n

for the item.

14 8 Harry Webb, " P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of at t it u de s
toward play among a do l es c en t s. "
170

171

Ta ble 49.

R es p o n s e p a tt e r n to the question, "In
w h i c h kinds of a c ti v it i es w o u l d y o u
r ather spend y ou r time; le i sure a c t i v i ­
ties or w o r k a c t i vi t ie s ?"
(N=619)

Response
Leisure
Work

N

Pe r c e n t of
total

531

85.78
14 .22

8 8

A l t h o u g h it w o u l d be e x p e c t e d that the m a l e s , b e i n g
the members of so ciety m o st s tr o ng l y s o c i a l i z e d for i n v o l v e ­
ment in the w o r k milieu, w o u l d be m o r e likely to e nd o rs e
this item, no such t e nd e nc y w a s e v i d e n c e d in the data
square = 1.602,

df = 1, not s ig n i f i c a n t at p

(chi

.05) .

The re l ig i on of the r e s p o n d e n t was also e x p e c t e d to
be an important d e t e r m i n a n t of his p r e f e r e n c e for w o r k - or
leisure-oriented a c ti v it i es

in view of the b e li e f that

acceptance of the p h i l o s o p h i c a l b el i ef s of the P r o t e s t a n t
religions w o u l d still lead the indivi dual to a n e g a t i o n of
his leisure opport u ni t ie s .
was not sustained.
of religion,

Again,

the p r e d i c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p

T he i n t r o d u c t i o n of the social v a r i a b l e

o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d here into the e n d o r s e m e n t of

either the P r ot e s t a n t or C a t h o l i c faiths,

did n o t se p ar a te

the respondents into s i gn i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t r e sp o n s e gro ups
(chi square = 3.64

8

, df = 1, not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

.05).

fact that no di f fe r en c es w e r e o b s e r v e d in the da ta that
could be attrib ut e d to the influ en c e of r el i gious

b elief

The

172
provided s u p p o r t for Gr e el e y / w h o

i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e re h a d

been a d i m i n i s h m e n t of the e f f e c t of r e l i g i o n on f a c t o r s
relevant to e d u c a t i o n a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l values.
T h e s o c i a l v a r i a b l e s of m a r i t a l status,
composition of the family,

size an d s ex

s t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n ,

type of hi g h s c h o o l at tended,

g ro s s

occupational status,

educational

dence,

149

father's

f am i l y income,
level,

f a t h e r ’s

an d r e s i ­

i n t r o d u c e d no s i g n i f i c a n t g r o u p e f f e c t s u p o n the

preferences for w o r k and l e i s u r e activi te s .

Soc i al

f a c t o r s r e l a t e d to p r e f e r e n c e s

for

cultural, s o c i a l , or p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g l e i s u r e
In this q u e s t i o n ,
the three c h o i c e s

the r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e a s k e d to ran k

in terms of t h e i r p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s .

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of th e se p r e f e r e n c e s is i l l u s t r a t e d in
Table 50.
Table

Activity
preference

50.

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n to the q u e s t i o n , "In
w h i c h type of a c t i v i t y w o u l d y o u p r e f e r
to s p e n d y o u r l e i s u r e time?"
(N=625).

No response

R a n k o r d e r g i v e n by
respondents
1

2

TOTAL

3

Cultural

3.36

14 .72

27 .20

54.72

1 0 0

Social

2.24

52. 00

30 .24

15.52

1 0 0

Physical

2 .40

32 .16

39 .36

26 .08

1 0 0

149

A n d r e w M. G r ee l e y , " I n f l u e n c e of the 'religious
factor' on c o l l e g e p l a n s and o c c u p a t i o n a l v a l u e s of c o l l e g e
g ra d u a t e s ."

173
A fo r c e d ch o i c e b e t w e e n
may not be u n i d i m e n s i o n a l ,

three

leisure activities

and in w h i c h v a r i o u s p r o p o r t i o n s

of the o t h e r two e l e m e n t s m a y be p r e s e n t in each,
appear to ha v e

little experimental

believed that l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s
a way,

that

u ti lity.

might

H ow ever,

c o u l d be c l a s s i f i e d

it was
in such

and th a t r e s p o n s e s w o u l d be m a d e in te r ms of e a c h

item's c a p a c i t y to p r o v i d e
individual.

for the s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n of the

The fa c t t h a t so few of the r e s p o n d e n t s h a d

difficulty w i t h this q u e s t i o n

i n d i c a t e d th a t this

supposition

had some ju s ti f i c a t i o n .
W he n the
dent v ar iable

f a c t o r o f se x w a s i n t r o d u c e d as an i n d e p e n ­

significant differences were

exist in the r a n k i n g systems.

determined

It w as p o s t u l a t e d that the

female r e s p o n d e n t s w o u l d ra n k the c u l t u r a l
than the males,

to

interests higher

w o u l d p r o v i d e e q u i v a l e n t l evels of e n d o r s e ­

ment for the s ocial

i n t e r es t s,

for the p h y s i c a l a ct i v i t i e s .

an d w o u l d give

These hypotheses were believed

to reflect the c u r r e n t e m p h a s e s p l a c e d upon
tion of the sexes

lower rankings

to h o l d s e x - a p p r o p r i a t e

the s o c i a l i z a ­

attitudes

toward

leisure.
With one e x c e p t i o n ,
by the data.

these h y p o t h e s e s w e r e s u p p o r t e d

The w o m e n g av e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a n k i n g s

for cultural a ct i vi t ie s ,

as w e l l as for so c i a l

as preferred l e i s u r e pursu it s .

As p r e d i c t e d ,

a ct i v i t i e s ,
the m e n ga ve

higher support for p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s t h a n w a s
the rankings p r o v i d e d by the w o m e n

(Table

51) .

f o u n d in

Table 51.

Sex and the rankings for cultural, social, and physical
activities as preferred leisure pursuits.

Social

Cultural

Physical

Rank
Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

1

13.5

16.9

41.9

63.9

46.0

20.3

2

19.3

36.7

43.0

19.5

37.3

43.2

3

67.2

46.4

15.1

16.6

16.7

36.5

X2
p

100

100

100

100

100

296

308

298

313

300

310

28.955
.001
1

41.221

54.153

.001

.001

174

Total N

100

175
The gr e a t e r level of s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d by the w o m e n for
social a c ti v it i es i nd i c a t e d that there w as

a d eg r ee of c o n ­

sistency in the r e sp o ns e p at t e r n s of the r e s p o n d e n t s as a
similar result was d e t e r m i n e d

in the ran kings of the v a r i o u s

motivations for p a r t i c i p a n t an d s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t

(albeit

with reference to p hy s ic a l a c t i v i t y ) .
Sig n if i ca n t d i f f e r e n c e s we r e also found in the rankin g s
made by the single a n d m a r r i e d r e s p o n d e n t s .

The u n m a r r i e d

students gave s t r o n g e r s up p o r t for the social interests,
the married students gave h i g h e r r a n k i n g s
activities.

wh i le

for the p h y s i c a l

No s i g n i f i c a n t di f f e r e n c e s w e r e e v i d e n t in the

rankings p r o v i d e d for c ul t ur a l interests

(Table 52).

The

strong su pport given to the soci al a c t i v i t i e s by the single
students would be e x p e c t e d to be a c o m p o n e n t of the d a t i n g
situation,

and the m e n and w o m e n at this

ization process are st r on g ly

stage of the s o c i a l ­

i n v o l v e d in d e v e l o p i n g a t t a c h ­

ments to members of the o pp o s i t e

sex.

The c o n s i d e r a b l e

of support pr o vi d ed by the m a r r i e d re s p o n d e n t s
physical activities was unexpected,

level

for the

but m ay be due to an

emphasis placed upon the m a i n t e n a n c e of h e a l t h a nd fitness
and figure s t a b i l i z a t i o n among m a r r i e d students.
ation did not receive support,

however,

the married studen ts for the m o t i v a t i o n

This e x p l a n ­

f r o m the ra n ki n gs of
for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in

healthful physical a c t i v i t i e s .
The negation of the b o d y w as a s trong e l e m e n t in the
philosophic traditions of the P r o t e s t a n t faiths,

bu t the use

Table 52.

Marital status and the rankings for cultural, social and
physical activities as preferred leisure pursuits.

Physical

Social

Cultural
Rank
Married

Single

Married

Married

Single

1

15.15

17.07

55.11

26.83

31.10

57.14

2

28.34

26.83

29.58

48.78

41.52

23. 81

3

56.51

56.10

15. 32

24.39

27.39

19.05

Total N

X2
p

Single

100

100

100

100

100

100

561

41

568

41

566

42

0 . 1244

12.2913

12. 1213

NS

.01

• 01

177
of r e l i g i o n as a g r o u p v a r i a b l e
effect u p on the r a n k i n g s .

di d n o t h a v e

the a n t i c i p a t e d

No significant differences were

evident in the r a n k i n g s p r o v i d e d for p h y s i c a l
preferred l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s
not s i g n i f i c a n t at p

.05).

prove s i g n i f i c a n t w a s the

activities

(chi s qu a r e = 0.885,

as

df = 2,

T h e o n l y c o m p a r i s o n w h i c h did
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the r a n k i n g s of

the p r e f e r e n c e for c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s .

In this

Protestant r e s p o n d e n t s g av e g r e a t e r

support

(chi square = 6.498,

than

df = 2, p less

tionship d i d n o t a p p e a r to h a v e

the

for the item,

.05)

substantive

case,

b u t the r e l a ­

significance.

The other r e l i g i o n — o r i e n t e d v a r i a b l e s , s t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s
conviction,

a nd

the t yp e of h i g h s c h o o l a t t e n d e d ,

provide for s i g n i f i c a n t

s e p a r a t i o n s o f the r a n k i n g s y s t e m s

when i n t r o d u c e d as i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w i t h
The on l y

father's e d u c a t i o n a l

attainment.

greater the l ev e l of e d u c a t i o n

ests

these

items.

socio-economic variable which provided for a

significant s e p a r a t i o n in the r a n k i n g s w a s

the greater w as

di d n o t

t h a t of the

In this a n a l y s i s ,

of the h e a d of

the

the h o u s e h o l d ,

the l e ve l o f s u p p o r t for the c u l t u r a l

(chi s q u a r e = 1 4. 1245,

result has c o n s i d e r a b l e

df = 4, p less

face v a l i d i t y

than

.01).

inter­
This

in v i e w o f the g r e a t e r

level of s u p p o r t

for s u ch a c t i v i t i e s

a m o n g the p r o f e s s i o n a l

and w h i t e - c o l l a r

l evels of s oc iety.

However,

cant d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s

the no n s i g n i f i ­

in the r a n k i n g s d e t e r m i n e d w h e n

economic b a c k g r o u n d a nd g r o s s
independent v a r i a b l e s w i t h

socio­

f a m i l y in c o m e w e r e u s e d as

the p r e f e r e n c e

for c u l t u r a l a c t i v i -

178
ties r e d u c e d

the s t r e n g t h of this

A m o n g the v a r i a b l e s
sex c om p o s i t i o n ,
were evi dent.

explanation.

associated with

f a m i l y si z e a nd

v a r i o u s p a t t e r n s of d i f f e r e n t i a l

Although

made no d i f f e r e n c e

the n u m b e r of s i s t e r s

preference

in the f a m i l y

in the r a n k i n g s , the n u m b e r of b r o t h e r s

was found to p r o v i d e

for s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h e a c h

of the a c t i v i t y choi ces.

R e s p o n d e n t s w h o h a d no b r o t h e r s

gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s u p p o r t for the c u l t u r a l
those w i t h one or two b r o t h e r s
activities, w h i l e

those w i t h

(Table

g a ve h i g h e r r a n k i n g s

t h re e o r m o r e b r o t h e r s

the p hy s i c a l a c t i v i t y c h o i c e
tent

activities,

to a s i g n i f i c a n t l y

for s o c i a l
supported

greater ex­

53).

The r e ad y a v a i l a b i l i t y o f p l a y p a r t n e r s
cal ac t iv i ti e s w o u l d p r o b a b l y a c c o u n t

for the p h y s i ­

for the g r e a t e r p r e ­

ference of r e s p o n d e n t s w i t h

several brothers

ties.

t h at the l a r g e r the n u m b e r of

It w o u l d be e x p e c t e d

brothers,

the g r e a t e r w o u l d be

games d u ri n g c h i l d h o o d and

the e m p h a s i s

this w a s

for risky and d a n g e r o u s a c t i v i t i e s
the in d iv i du a ls w i t h

The g r e a t e r p r e f e r e n c e
those wi t h no b r o t h e r s ,

upon masculine

s e en in the p r e f e r e n c e
a m o n g the r e s p o n s e s of

several brothers

statements for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

for s uc h a c t i v i ­

to the m o t i v a t i o n a l

in p h y s i c a l

activities.

f or c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s

among

and for social activities among

those w i th one o r two b r o t h e r s w o u l d a p p e a r to be r e l a t e d to
the p r ef e re n ce p a t t e r n s

i n d i c a t e d by f e m a l e s

forms as w el l as to a r e d u c e d p r e s s

to t he s e

toward masculine

leisure
acti—

Table 5 3.

Number of brothers and the rankings for cultural, social
and physical activities as preferred leisure pursuits.

Social

Cultural

Physical

Rank
None

3,4

None

1,2

3,4

None

1,2

3,4

16.B5

15.25

11.59

52.78

55.71

42.03

30.90

30.73

47.89

2

32.58

28.81

14.49

30.00

27.86

47.86

37.64

42.46

36.62

3

50.56

55.93

73.91

17.22

16,43

10.14

31.46

26.82

15.49

X2

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

178

354

69

180

359

69

178

358

71

11.5798

11.2911

11.3777

.05

.05

.05

179

1

Total N

p

1,2

180
vities a m o n g such m a l e s

an d f e m a l e s d u r i n g c hi l dh o od .

L o o k i n g at the to t al n u m b e r of c h i l d r e n in the
it was f ou n d that the same p a t t e r n s
in the data.

Although

of r e s p o n s e w e r e e v i d e n t

the d a t a in this

ca s e w e r e

dichoto­

mized w i t h the c u t t i n g p o i n t a b o v e t hr e e c h il d re n ,
determined th a t t h os e

f r o m the s m a l l e r f a m i l i e s

cantly h i g h e r r a n k i n g s

fa mi l i e s

gave

it was

ga v e

for the s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l

while those f r o m the l a r g e r

family,

signifi­

activities,

significantly

greater su p p o r t for the p h y s i c a l a c t i v it i es .
The s u p p o r t of the r e s p o n d e n t s
lies for c u l t u r a l

activities would

fr om the s m a l l e r f a m i ­

a p p e a r to b e r e l a t e d to

the d e v e l o p m e n t of p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n a l i t y
only c h il d r e n and c h i l d r e n w i t h

structures

few siblings.

among

No d a t a was

available f r om this s t u d y to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r this b e l i e f
had merit but the d i m i n i s h e d c h a n c e of i n t e r r u p t i o n
increased o p p o r t u n i t y

for i n t r o s p e c t i o n w o u l d

provide a g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t y

and the

a p p e a r to

for d e v e l o p m e n t o f the c u l t u r a l

and aesthetic c a p a b i l i t i e s .
A d d i t i on a ll y ,

it w a s b e l i e v e d t h at t hose

families w o u l d h av e g r e a t e r s o c i a l ne ed s,
to provide s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r

thus

from smaller
leading them

s u p p o r t for t h es e a c t i v i t i e s .

Among those f r o m the l a r g e r fa milies,

the s oc i a l n e e d s w o u l d

appear to be r e d u c e d in terms of a c t i v i t y c h o i c e s o u t s i d e
family.

15 0

Certainly,

^ ^ H a r r y Webb,
pp. 18-19.

the

the a v a i l a b i l i t y of p l a y p a r t n e r s

"Social b a c k g r o u n d s of M.S.U.

athletes,"

181
in the larger family w o u l d lead to an i nc r ea s ed p r e f e r e n c e
for ph ysical ac t iv i ti e s am o ng the r e s p o n d e n t s w i t h more
than 3 s i b l i n g s .
The va rious r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n family size and
leisure ac tivity p r e f e r e n c e s are i l l u s t r a t e d in Table

54.

The da ta a n a l y z e d for or d i n a l p o s i t i o n in the family
revealed s u bs t a n t i a l l y si m i l a r r e s u l t s , a l t h o u g h there w er e
non-significant d if f er e nc e s w i t h r e g a r d to the social a c t i ­
vity selection.

Th o se r e s p o n d e n t s w h o were

f i r s t - b o r n we r e

more likely to e ndorse the cultural ac t iv i ty
square = 11.1166,

df = 4, p less

than

.05),

se l ec t io n
while

(chi

those

with three or m o re older s i bl i ng s gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r
rankings for the ph y si c al a c t i v i t y se l ection
11.6568,

df = 4, p less than

(chi squa re =

.05).

W it h all of the family size and c o m p o s i t i o n variables,
a degree of response c o n s i s t e n c y wa s present.
dents who came

from families w h e r e

whose families we r e small;

T h os e r e s p o n ­

they w e r e the first born;

or w h o h a d no brothers;

significantly h i g h e r ra nkings

gave

for the c u lt u ra l a c tivity

selection as their p r e f e r r e d leisure pursuit.

The social

activity was su p ported at a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r level by
respondents from small families,
only one or two brothers.

and by r e s p o n d en t s w i t h

The p h y s i c a l

a c ti v it y s e l e c t i o n

as the preferred leisure p u r s u i t was given s i g n i f i c a n t l y
higher rankings by respon d en t s

f r o m large fa milies

more c h i l d r e n ) ; who w er e low in the birth order
or later); or who had 3 or m or e brothers.

(four or

(third b o r n

Table 54.

Total number of children in the family and the rankings for
cultural, social, and physical activities as preferred leisure
pursuits.

Cultural

Social

Physical

Rank
4+

1-3

1-3

4+

1-3

4+

1

17.0

12.2

56.0

48.2

28.1

41.2

2

30.6

23.9

27.2

37.4

41.7

38.1

3

52.4

64.0

16.7

14.4

30.2

20.8

100

100

100

100

100

382

222

389

222

384

226

x2
p
i
i

7.788

6.800

.05

.05

12.502
.01

|

I

182

Total N

100

183
Social

factors r e l a t e d to p r e f e r e n c e s

pas s i v e

for active or

i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h le i s u r e a c ti v i t i e s

The r e s p o n se s

to this q u e s t i o n we r e so s t r o n g l y in

favour of p a r t i c i p a t i o n th a t there w a s

li ttle j u s t i f i c a t i o n

for the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the r e s p o n s e s

in r e la t io n to social

background v ariables.

O v e r 93 p e r c en t of the r es p o n d e n t s

endorsed acti ve p a r t i c i p a t i o n

for t h e i r f a v o u r e d leisure

pursuits .
D espite the l o w n u m b e r of e n d o r s e m e n t s
involvement,
analysis,

for pa s si v e

and the lo w lev el of j u s t i f i c a t i o n

each of the social v a r i a b l e s w as

association w i t h the r e s p o n s e modes.
found to p ro v i d e

for fu rther

i n t r o d u c e d in

No social factor was

for a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i gh

level of d i f f e r e n ­

tiation b et w e e n the r e s p o n s e s of p a r t i c u l a r groups.

Social factors

r e l a t e d to the s o urces of s a t i s f a c t i o n
in p l a y i n g games

Tumin h y p o t h e s i z e d

that:

all h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e s can be c l a s s i f i e d
into three c a te g or i es , so far as the
source of h u m a n s a t i s f a c t i o n is concerned:
(1)
those in w h i c h the locus of s a t i s ­
faction is in the e x t r i n s i c rewards
received for p e r f o r m a n c e ;
(2) those in
w hi c h the locus of s a t i s f a c t i o n resides
in the s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s
w h i l e in the p e r f or m an c e;
and (3) those
in w h i c h the locus of s a t i s f a c t i o n is in
the very ac t i o n s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e the
p e r f o r m a n c e .151
ISlweivin Tumin, " O bs t ac le s to c re a t i v i t y , " E T C ;
Review of General S e m a n t i c s , vol. 11 (Summer, 1954),
261-271, 261.

184
With this q u e s ti o nn a ir e ,

these s o urces of s a t i s f a c t i o n

were defined in terras of games as being,
companionship,

and

(1) winning,

(3) the d e m o n s t r a t i o n of skill.

(2)

No a t t e m p t

was made to test w h e t h e r all h u m a n a ct i o n s could be r e d u c e d to
these three sources of satisfaction,

rather,

it w as b e l i e v e d

that re p re s entatives of d i f f e r e n t social groups w o u l d rank
them in terms of v a r y i n g d egrees of p e r s o n a l

importance.

response pa t terns to this i t e m are shown in Table

Table 55,

Satisfaction
preference

The

55.

R es p on s e p a t t e r n to the qu es tion, "When
y ou p a r t i c i p a t e in g a m e s , w h a t gives y o u
the m o s t s a t i s f a c t i o n ? " ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Rank o r d e r g i v e n by
respondents

No
r es ponse
1

2

3

TOTAL

Winning

0.16

21.92

37. 44

40 .48

100

Companionship

0.48

45.44

25.28

28 .80

100

Demonstrating
your skill

0.48

32 .48

36 .80

30 .24

100

The only social factor that led to a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
between the respon ses w a s sex.
for the sa ti sfaction of winning,

The m a l e s ga ve s t r o n g s u p p o r t
and for the d e m o n s t r a t i o n

of skill, while the females gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a n k i n g s
for companionship.

The levels of s i g n i f i c a n c e of the d i f f e r ­

ences between the rankings w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y high,

providing

support for the co n te n t i o n that an a t t i t u d i n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n

185
pattern e x i s t e d a nd i n c u l c a t e d d i f f e r e n t i a l b e l i e f s c o n c e r n ­
ing sex a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o u r
consistent w i t h

for play.

The

re s u l t s

t ho s e of C o l e m a n w h o d e t e r m i n e d

were d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s

vicarious e n j o y m e n t

t h at t h e r e

toward leisure activities

male and f e male a d o l e s c e n t s ,

which

the

appear

among

f em a l e s p r e f e r r i n g

an d c o m p a n i o n s h i p a n d the b o ys p r e f e r —
15 2

ring active o u t d o o r p u r s u i t s .
The sex d i f f e r e n c e s
satisfaction in g a me s

in e v a l u a t i n g the t hree

are s h ow n

in T a b l e

56.

C o n s i d e r i n g o n l y the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the
preferences,

the m a le

respondents placed

loci

first-

the t h r e e c h o i c e s

in the rank o r d e r of s k i l l — c o m p a n i o n s h i p —w i n n i n g , w h i l e

the

females gave t h e i r r a n k i n g in the o r d e r o f c o m p a n i o n s h i p skill-winning.

T h e p l a c e m e n t of t he s uc c e s s

in third p l a c e by the m a l e a nd
confused d i s t r i b u t i o n of the

female

r e s p o n d e n t s , a n d the

ranks g i v e n

the second a n d t h i r d p r e f e r e n c e s

related choice

to the items

i n d i c a t e d that

for

the m a l e s

were not n early as o r i e n t e d t o w a r d g e n e r a l i z e d e v a l u a t i o n
using a c h i e v e m e n t c r i t e r i a as h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n h y p o t h e ­
sized .

152

J am e s S. C o leman, " A c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t and the
structure of c o m p e t i t i o n , " H a r v a r d E d u c a t i o n a l Re view, vol.
29, no. 4 (1959), 332-333.

Table 56.

Sex and the rankings for winning, companionship and skill
as major loci for satisfaction in games.

Companionship

Winning

Skill

Rank
Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

1

30.1

14.2

31.9

58.8

38.5

27.0

2

37.6

37.4

28.0

23.0

34.2

39.6

3

32.4

48.4

40.1

18.2

27.3

33.3

Total N

X2
P

100

100

100

100

100

100

306

318

304

318

304

318

27.929
.001

51. 899
•

001

9.327
.01

186

Male

187
Social

f a ctors

r e l a t e d to the e x p l a n a t i o n s

for

p a r t i c i p a t i o n in games
The r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e p r o v i d e d w i t h a l is t o f s i x w o r d s
which are f r e q u e n t l y u s e d to e x p l a i n w h y p e o p l e p l a y games.
These w or d s were;
prestige,

competition,

s el f s a t i s f a c t i o n ,

to rank t h es e w o r d s

companionship,

and re l ax a ti o n.

excitement,
E ac h w a s

asked

in o r d e r of i m p o r t a n c e to his o w n p l a y ­

ing needs.
The q u e s t i o n w as d r a w n f r o m a q u e s t i o n n a i r e s u b m i t t e d
15 3
by Webb
to s t u d e n t s in the B a t t l e Creek, M i c h i g a n school
system.

It was h o p e d to i d en t if y ,

hierarchy of va l u e s p e r c e i v e d
the respondents
ponse patte rn s

t h r o u g h this item,

to be i n h e r e n t in g a me s by

from particular social
found

the

groups.

in the d a t a are i l l u s t r a t e d

The r e s ­
in T a b l e

In terms of the ch o i c e s p r o v i d e d by the q u e s t i o n ,
most important r e a s o n
relaxation and

fun.

Se l f s a t i s f a c t i o n w a s

and c o m p a n i o n s h i p w as
competition r e c e i v e d
dents,

that reason,

for p l a y i n g a game w a s

the

for s e c u r i n g

the n e x t

t h i r d in the rank order.
f i r s t - r a n k s u p p o r t by o v e r

together with excitement

57.

favo ured,

Although
fi f ty r e s p o n ­

and pr e stige,

was clearly of m i n o r import an c e.
When sex wa s

i n t r o d u c e d as an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e

with each of these r a n k i n g systems,

it wa s

fo u nd tha t the

15 3Harry Webb, " P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of a t t i t u d e s
ward play among a d o l e s c e n t s . "

to-

Table 57.

Reasons for
participation

Response patterns to the question concerning the ranking of six reasons
for participation in games (N=625).

Rank order given by respondents
No response

TOTAL
1

2

3

4

5

6

0.48

9.12

12.16

16.80

17.60

35.04

8.80

100

Companionship

0.64

12.64

25.44

17.92

18.08

15.68

9,60

100

Excitement

0.64

6.08

15.84

30.56

29.60

13.76

3.52

100

Prestige

0.32

1.12

2.24

3.20

5.12

14.88

73.12

100

Self
satisfaction

0.48

21.44

22.56

17.76

21.60

14.40

1.76

100

Relaxation and
fun

0.48

49.44

21.28

12.96

7.20

5.76

2.88

100

188

Competition

189
male r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e
in t he i r r a n k i n g s

significantly higher

of the r e as o n s ;

self s a t i s f a c t i o n .

prestige,

for c o m p a n i o n s h i p a n d r e l a x a t i o n

important

higher r a n k i n g by

competition,

and

The female respondents provided sig ni fi ­

cantly h i g h e r r a n k i n g s
fun as the m o r e

t h a n the f e m a l e s

reasons

the w o m e n

f or p l a y i n g g a m e s .

and

The

for c o m p a n i o n s h i p i n d i c a t e d

that

there was r e s p o n s e c o n s i s t e n c y in t h e i r e n d o r s e m e n t s

as

had p r o v i d e d s i m i l a r r e s p o n s e s

concern­

ing the loci of s a t i s f a c t i o n

in p r e v i o u s q u e s t i o n s

in games,

th ey

a n d the m o t i v a t i o n s

for p a r t i c i p a n t a n d s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p h y s i c a l
activi t i e s .
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d
rankings of t h e m a l e

and female

as a r ea s o n for p l a y i n g

respondents

fo r e x c i t e m e n t

games.

Of the si x c h o i c e s , f ou r w e r e
intrinsic to p a r t i c i p a t i o n ,
extrinsic as w e l l

while

indicative

two w e r e

as a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t e d

secured t h r o u g h p l a y i n g .

In terms

of

satisfactions

f i r s t r a n k s up p o r t ,

relaxation-self

r a n k i n g of the

satisfaction-

competition-companionship-excitement—p r e s t i g e .
gave t he i r f i r s t rank s u p p o r t

of r e a s o n s

expressive of

the male r e s p o n d e n t s p r o v i d e d a h i e r a r c h i c a l
choices in the o r d e r of;

in the

in the o r d e r of;

The

females

relaxation-

companionship-self satisfaction-excitemen t-competitionprestige.

These results

are shown

F r o m t hese r e sults,

it w a s

respondents ga v e t h e i r s t r o n g e s t

in T a b l e

58.

c l e a r t h a t the f e m a l e
s u p p o r t for it e m s e x p r e s s i v e

Table 58.

Sex and the rankings for reasons for playing games.

......

Competition

Companion­
ship

Excitement

Male Female

Male Female

Male Female

Prestige

“ ""T

Self
satisfaction

Relaxation
and fun

Male Female

Male Female

Rank

16.1

2.5

7.9

17.4

6.9

5.4

2.0

0.3

28.2

15.1

39.7

59.3

2

18.7

6.0

18.4

32.5

15.5

16.4

3.6

0.9

24.6

20.8

19.3

23.3

3

17.7

16.1

16.8

19.2

29.9

31.5

5.6

0.9

15.1

20.5

14.4

11.7

4

17.4

18.0

21.1

15.5

27.3

32.2

7.5

2.8

14.8

28.4

11.5

3.2

5

21.0

48.9

19.4

12.3

15.1

12.6

20.7

9.4

13.8

15.1

10.2

1.6

6

9.2

8.5

16.4

3.2

5.3

1.9

60.7

85.5

3.6

0.0

4.9

0.9

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

305

317

304

317

304

317

305

318

305

317

305

317

X2

]

86.354

59.444

.001

.001

7.744
!
J

NS

l
i

52.091

40.787

57.281

.001

.001

.001

190

1

N

P

Male Female

191
of the i n t r i n s i c

satisfactions

to b e e n j o y e d

provided a d e f i n i t e r e j e c t i o n of
oriented r e s p o n s e s .

The

female

oriented c h o i c e s w a s m o r e

in p l a y i n g ,

the e x t r i n s i c - a c h i e v e m e n t
r e j e c t i o n of the a c h i e v e m e n t

definite,

however,

than

dicted a c c e p t a n c e of s u c h c h o i c e s by the males.
was given m i n i m a l
groups,

s u p p o r t a t the

a result that may be

this wo r d as b e i n g
tions.

f i r s t r an k

in the

higher ra n ki n g of c o m p e t i t i o n by
O nl y t h r e e o t h e r
ferentiate the r a n k i n g

level b y b o t h

cultural

sy s t e m s .

some of the p r e c i s i o n w a s
collapsed into a d i c h o t o m y

a far

f o u n d to d i f ­

Th e u n m a r r i e d

df = 1,
l o s t as

students

for the r e l a x a t i o n

p less

than

.02),

the r e s p o n s e s

but

h a d to be

in v i e w of d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h

expected cell f r e q u e n c i e s .
siderably g r e a t e r s u p p o r t

connota­

the men.

social variables were

(chi s q ua r e = 6. 3887,

Prestige

rankings was

provided s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a n k i n g s
item

the p r e ­

i n d i c a t i v e o f the a c c e p t a n c e of

" lo aded" w i t h n e g a t i v e

The m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e

an d

The

single

for this

students

the

gave c o n ­

s e l e c t i o n in t h e i r top

three pr e fe r en c es .
It w as

found t h a t the c o m p e t i t i o n

item was provided

with s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a n k i n g s b y t h o s e w i t h on e o r two
sisters

(chi sq u a r e = 1 9 .3 1 2 8 ,

df = 10,

The reason for su c h a d i f f e r e n c e w a s
clarity,

as those w i t h no s i s t e r s

little su pport for the item.
may be a fu n c t i o n o f s i b l i n g

p l es s

somewhat

t h an

l a c k i n g in

a t al l a p p e a r e d

The ranking

.05).

to give

for c o m p e t i t i o n

rivalry between

the sexes

in

192
smaller families,

b u t this h y p o t h e s i s m u s t r e m a i n c o n j e c t u r a l

s ub j ec t to f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
Students whose
attainment w e r e

f o u n d to p r o v i d e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a n k ­

ings for the p r e s t i g e
games

f a t h e r s h a d lower l ev e ls o f e d u c a t i o n a l

selection

(chi s q u a r e = 7.9669,

responses also w e r e
the third rank.
lieved to be

as a r e a s o n

for p l a y i n g

df = 2, p less tha n

dichotomized with

The strong

support

.02).

which the fa t he r

Social f actors

These

the c u t t i n g p o i n t a b o v e
for this i t e m w a s b e ­

i n d i c a t i v e of the a t t i t u d e s t r u c t u r e

in upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y

in

among respondents

inherent

f r om f a m i l i e s

had little education.

r e l a t e d to

p r e f e r e n c e s for i n d i v i d u a l

or t e a m sports

as a p a r t i c i p a n t

U po n t a b u l a t i o n of the results,
there was a l mo s t e q u i v a l e n t s u p p o r t
the individual sp o rt s

it was

fo und t h a t

for each choice,

although

r e c e i v e d s l i g h t l y mo re e n d o r s e m e n t s

(Table 59) .

T ab l e 59.

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n to the q u e s t i o n ,
"When
y ou p a r t i c i p a t e in s p o r t s , w h i c h type do
you prefer, individual or team sports?"
(N=617).

N

P e r c e n t of
total

Individual spo rts

313

50. 7

Team sports

304

49 . 3

Preference

in

193
No d e f i n i t i o n w as p r o v i d e d

for the r e s p o n d e n t s

enable t he m to a s s o c i a t e p a r t i c u l a r sp o rt s
This d i c h o t o m i z a t i o n ,
the p o p u l a r p r e s s

howev er ,

to ea c h category.

is r e l a t i v e l y p r e v a l e n t

and o t h e r media,

expected w i t h the q u e s t i o n n o r w as
difficulty

to

in

and l i t t l e t r o u b l e was
any e v i d e n c e of such

fo u nd in the data.

The m a j o r s o c i a l v a r i a b l e s w h i c h w e r e
vide s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
were religion,

in the r e s p o n s e s e l e c t i o n s

s o c i o - e c o n o m i c ba c k g r o u n d ,

educational a tt a i n m e n t .

f o un d to p r o ­

and

fa t he r 's

Non significant differences were

evident w h e n all o t h e r s o c i a l v a r i a b l e s u t i l i z e d in this
study w er e

i n t r o d u c e d as

It w as

found

that

i n d e p e n d e n t variab l es .
there w a s

members of the P r o t e s t a n t

f ai t hs

a strong tendency

for

to f a v o u r the i n d i v i d u a l

types of p a r t i c i p a t i v e s p o r t i n g a c ti v it i es .

Th i s

r es u lt

was c on s is t en t w i t h the r e l i g i o u s p h i l o s o p h y

a d v a n c e d by

Calvin wh i c h W e b e r e x p r e s s e d as:
In p r a c t i c e this m e an s t ha t G o d helps those
w ho h e l p t h em s el v es .
T hu s the Calvini s t,
as it is s o m e t i m e s put, h i m s e l f cr e a t e s his
o wn salvat i on , or, as w o u l d be m o r e correct,
the c o n v i c t i o n of i t . 154
This d o c t r i n e led to the g r e a t st r e s s u p o n i n d i v i d u ­
alism in the e a r l y P r o t e s t a n t faiths,
tion of a s ur v i v a l of thi s
154

and it wa s a m a n i f e s t a ­

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h i c h a p p e a r e d to

M ax Weber, The P r o t e s t a n t E t h i c and the S p i r i t o f
C a p i t a l i s m , t r a n s . by T a l c o t t Pa r s o n s (New York:
Cha rles
Scribner's Sons, 1958), p. 115.

194
be b e h i n d the g r e a t e r P r o t e s t a n t s u p p o r t for i n d i v i d u a l
sports.

The r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n m a y

appear tenuous,

bu t the s t a t i s t i c a l

relationship between

religious b e l i e f and s p or t type w a s

Table 60.

strong

(Table 60).

R e l i g i o n and the p r e f e r e n c e for i n d i v i d u a l
or t e a m sp or t s as a p a r t i c i p a n t ( N = 5 4 3 ) .

Individual sport
preference

Religion

TOTAL

1 0 0

53 .0

47.0

Catholic

(N=l62)

41. 4

X

2

= 6.182,

p less th a n

.02.

The r e is some j u s t i f i c a t i o n
bers of the h i g h e r

socio-economic

stronger p r e f e r e n c e s
and Pet rie 15 6

for the b e l i e f
l e vels of

for i n d i v i d u a l s p o r t s .

sh o w e d that a t h l e t e s

at M i d - W e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t i e s
parental s o c i o - e c o n o m i c

Bo th W e b b

155

Harry Webb,
letes", pp. 14-16.

15 5

receiving grants-in-aid

c o u l d be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d on

status.

st a tu s

th a t m e m ­

s o c i e t y ha v e

The i n d i v i d u a l s p o r t

athletes we r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e l i k e l y to c om e
to up p er - o c c u p a t i o n a l

1 0 0

.

(N = 3 8 1 )

00

Protestant

in

Team sport
preference

fa milies,

while

from middle-

the t e a m s p o r t

"Social b a c k g r o u n d s of M . S . U .

ath­

'*'5 ^B rian M. Petrie,
"Social b a c k g r o u n d s of a t h l e t e s
awarded g r a n t s - i n — aid at Big T e n U n i v e r s i t i e s f r o m 19601963", p p . 34-37.

195
athletes came
status

from predominantly middle-

families.

These relationships were

data d r aw n fr o m the no r m a l
University

to l o w e r - o c c u p a t i o n a l
s u p p o r t e d b y the

s t u d e n t b o d y of M i c h i g a n S ta t e

(Table 61).

Table

61.

P a r e n t a l o c c u p a t i o n a l status a n d the
p r e f e r e n c e for i n d i v i d u a l or t e a m
s po r t s as a p a r t i c i p a n t (N=606).

Parental
occupational
status

Individual sport
preference

T e a m sport
preference

TOTAL

White-collar
(N=383)

55.1

44.9

1 0 0

Blue-collar
(N= 2 2 3)

43 .5

56 .5

1 0 0

X 2 = 7.580 , p less than

.0

1

.

A d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t wa s p r o v i d e d w h e n f a t h e r ' s e d u c a ­
tional a t t a i n m e n t w a s e m p l o y e d as an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e
relation to the s p o r t type p r e f e r e n c e .
found that the r e s p o n d e n t s w h o s e

In this case,

in

it w a s

fa t h e r s h a d h i g h e r e d u c a ­

tional a t t a i nm e nt s ga v e g r e a t e r s u p p o r t for i n d i v i d u a l

sports

(chi square = 9.2247,

two

df = 2 ,

p less t h a n

findings s u p p o r t e d the h y p o t h e s i s

.01).

that the h i g h e r

of the p arent in the o c c u p a t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y ,
be the r es p o n d e n t ' s p r e f e r e n c e
s p or t s.

These

the level

the g r e a t e r w o u l d

for p a r t i c i p a t i n g in i n d i v i d u a l

196
Social fact ors r e l a t e d to the p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of
157
a tt i tu d es t o w a r d pl a y
The q u es tion,
playing a game;
your opponent;

"What do y o u t h i n k is mo s t i m p o r t a n t in

to p l a y it as we l l

as y o u are able;

to be at

or to p l a y it fair ly?", w as d r a w n f ro m a

questionnaire d e v e l o p e d by W e b b to d e t e r m i n e the a t ti t ud e s
held by school st u de n ts

t o wa r d s games

and sports.

158

Webb

utilized this i t em as a m e a n s of d e t e r m i n i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between a tt i tudes h e l d t o w a r d p l a y and a t ti t ud e s
to later p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a d u l t o c c u p a t i o n a l
posed that the three v al u es of skill,
exist as factual co m po n e n t s
appearing as i d e o l o g y

appropriate

roles.

success,

and fa i rness

in s p o r t i n g si tu ations,

in the e c o n o m y .

Be c a u s e

He p r o ­

while

s uc c e s s and

skill are e m p h a s i z e d in the e c o n o m i c p r a c t i c e to the e x pe n se
of equity,

the d e v e l o p m e n t of a s i m i l a r h i e r a r c h y of va l ue s

in sports situations w o u l d

i n d i c a t e that the i n d i v i d u a l h a d

developed an a t t i t u d i n a l p a t t e r n which,
the game situation,

if c a r r i e d o v e r f r o m

w o u l d p r o v i d e h i m w i t h a go o d p r e p a r a t i o n

for his adult role in the e c o n o m i c situation.
ment would,

however,

Such a d e v e l o p ­

be c o n t r a r y to the ideals of play.

Webb

termed this d e v e l o p i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n p l a y and o c c u ­
pational values

the p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of a t t i t u d e s t ow a rd

157 Ha rry Webb, " P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of a t t i t u d e s
toward play among a d o l e s c e n t s . "
158i b i d .

197
159
play.
Webb found that among students
the public a nd p a r o c h i a l
there was an age
ness,

school

level of s u p p o r t

He d e v e l o p e d

permutations of the r a n k i n g s of the
these p e r m u t a t i o n s o n a c o n t i n u u m

city,

in the r a n k i n g of f a i r ­

for s k i l f u l play,

for w i n n i n g .

3 to 12 in

s y s t e m s of a m i d - w e s t e r n

related diminishment

an i n c r e a s e d r a n k i n g

from Grades

th r ee

a n d an i n c r e a s i n g
an i n d e x f r o m the

it e m s

a nd p l a c e d

from a play orientation

to

a pr ofessionalt o r i.e .
n t.a t.i o n . 160
The i n d e x is

T ab l e 62.

s h o w n in T a b l e

62 .

Professionalization
W e b b .161

Professional orientation

Play o r i e n t a t i o n
1

Fa ir
Beat
Play

4

3

2

Fair
Play
Beat

i n d e x d e v e l o p e d by

Play
Fair
Beat

Whe n the r a n k i n g s

for

to an index score a n d r e l a t e d

Play
Beat
Fair

5

6

Beat
Pl ay
Fair

Beat
Fair
Play

the t h r e e i t e m s w e r e
to v a r i o u s

social

converted

factors, Webb

found that there w a s an i n c r e a s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r o f e s s i o n -

159
160
161

I b i d ., pp.

161-16 5.

Ibid.
I b i d ., p . 166.

198
alization w i t h
than females;

age;

that m a l e s

that Catholics

s c o r e d h i g h e r on the s c a l e

scored higher than Protestants;

and that t h e r e w a s a t e n d e n c y for t ho s e w h o s e p a r e n t s w e r e
in the upper o c c u p a t i o n a l
with lower o c c u p a t i o n a l

l evels

status backgrounds.

In the p r e s e n t study,
versity group,
de sirability

and a l t h o u g h

t ha n t h o s e

16 2

the q u e s t i o n w a s p u t to a u n i ­
some d e g r e e of the

s oc i al

f a c t o r m a y h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d to be p r e s e n t

the responses,

in

it w a s b e l i e v e d t h a t the t r e n d s o b s e r v e d by

Webb w o u l d be c o n t i n u e d

in the o l d e r group.

The r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n s
the p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n

T ab l e 63.

I tem

to s c o r e h i g h e r

No
response

for the th r ee i t e m s m a k i n g up

i n d e x are

sh o wn in T a b l e

63.

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n to the q u e s t i o n , "What
do y o u th i nk is m o s t i m p o r t a n t in p l a y i n g
a game?" (N=625).

Ra nk o r d e r g i v e n by r e s p o n d e n t s
1

2

3

64.48

33 . 76

1 . 1 2

Play

0 .64

Beat

1 . 1 2

3.04

4 .48

Fair

1 . 1 2

32 .16

60 .48

TOTAL

1 0 0

91. 36

1 0 0

. 24

1 0 0

6

Wh en the t h r e e c h o i c e s w e r e c o l l a t e d a n d p l a c e d o n the
p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n scale,

1 6 2 I b i d . , pp.

the r e s u l t s

167-178.

i n d i c a t e d t ha t t h e r e

199
was m a j o r c l u s t e r i n g on the t h i r d level,
for the items

Table

r a n k e d in o r d e r of;

64.

with endorsements

play-fair-beat

(Table 64).

R e s p o n s e s e x p r e s s e d on the p r o f e s s i o n ­
a l i z a t i o n scale (N=625).*

P er c e n t of
t otal

Index level

N

1

196

31. 36

2

4

0 .64

3

375

60.00

4

24

3. 84

5

3

0.48

15

2. 40

6

*No r e s p o n s e =

In the W e b b

(1.28 p e r c e n t ) .

8

study,

and 12 we r e sampled.

s c h o o l c h i l d r e n in Gr a d e s

Webb

r e p o r t e d the m e a n

ranks

study was

some degree of c o m p a r a b i l i t y
item there w a s a t e n d e n c y

converted

the bea t item,

while for the fa i r n e s s
higher mean r an k i n g s
16 3I b i d . , p.

item,

the

college

th a n the G r a d e
167.

i n d e x and

O n the p l a y

for the c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s

the c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s g a v e

, 8,10

in o r d e r that

c o u l d be a c h i e v e d .

vide a higher m e a n r a n k i n g t h a n the G r a d e

6

for ea ch

of the three c o m p o n e n t s of the p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n
the data for the p r e s e n t

3,

to p r o ­

12 st u de n t s .

For

l o w e r m e a n rankings,
students

12 students.

gave

16 3

200
Various

re a s o n s ma y be a d v a n c e d to a c c o u n t for the

fact that t h er e w e r e r e v e r s a l s

in the t r ends

among scho ol children.

it is p o s s i b l e

First,

entirely d i f f e r e n t n o r m a t i v e

s y s t e m w as

s ee n by W e b b
th a t an

in o p e r a t i o n at the

university lev el w h i c h led to a g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s
ness and p l a y i n g
is possible

to the level of o n e' s

that the school re s u l t s

that was unique

to th a t city.

skill.

up o n

fair­

Second,

it

reflected a situation

Third,

it is p o s s i b l e

that

the M i ch i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y g r o u p d i d n o t h a v e as g r e a t a
level of c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y as the sc h o o l
certainly,

the u n i v e r s i t y g r o u p w o u l d ha ve a h i g h e r m e d i a n

intelligence level as w el l

as a h i g h e r l evel o f a c a d e m i c

potential than the h e t e r o g e n i o u s
is possible

s y s t e m studied;

school group.

Finally,

it

that the u n i v e r s i t y g r o u p p r o v i d e d s o c i a l l y

desirable r an k i n g s

to the i t e m s .

W he n the r a n k i n g s y s t e m s

for ea c h

item were analyzed

in relation to p a r t i c u l a r s oc i a l v a r i a b l e s , the o n l y f a c t o r s
which were

found to d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n g r o u p s w e r e sex

and strength of r e li g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n .
was found that the r a nk i n g s

In t h es e a na l ys e s,

for the p l a y and b e a t items w e r e

distributed in such a w a y t ha t d i c h o t o m i z a t i o n w as
necessary.

W h e r e d i c h o t o m i z a t i o n w as used,

frequently

the s e c o n d and

third ranks w e r e g r o u p e d in t o o ne category.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s e x and e ac h of the items
regarded as i m p o r t a n t in p l a y i n g a ga me are
65.

it

s h o w n in T a b l e

Table 65.

Sex and the rankings of the responses to the question; "What
do you think is most important in playing a game?"

1
1

Beat

Play

Fair

Rank
Male
1

71.80

2

(
(28.20
(

3

Male

58.23

5.6

)
41.77)
)

Female

Male

Female

0.6

23.1

41.6

7.9

1.3

65.7

56.8

86.5

98.1

11.2

1.6

100

100

100

100

100

100

305

316

304

314

303

315

11.9664

X2

.001

p
t

29.520

40.917

.001

.001

201

Total N

Female

202
The s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r m a l e su pport for
well as you are able"

and

"playing as

"to b e at yo u r o p p o n e n t " w e r e in

agreement with o t h e r r es ults

that showed a m a s c u l i n e p r e f e r ­

ence for skill- and s u c c e s s - r e l a t e d i t e m s .

Th e female s up p or t

for the item "to p l a y it f a i r l y " adds a fu r t h e r d i m e n s i o n to
the sex d if fe r e nc e s

in a tt i tu de s t o wa r d play,

a l t h o u g h it

would appear to be r e l a t e d to the valu es of c o m p a n i o n s h i p and
social i n teraction w h i c h w e r e p r o v i d e d w i t h h i g h e r rankings
by the w omen w ho r e s p o n d e d to the q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
These results w e r e also ev i d e n t w h e n sex wa s a n al y ze d
in relation to the scor es on the P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n Index.
In this analysis,

the scores we r e d i c h o t o m i z e d w i t h the first,

second, and third levels
grouped together,
orientations)

a nd the o t h e r three levels

(the p r o f e s s i o n a l

c o m b i n e d to f o r m the se co nd category.

females had s i g n i f i c a n t l y
ization Index,

(indicative of pl a y o r i e n t a t i o n s )

lower scores on the P r o f e s s i o n a l ­

a fi n d i n g w h i c h was

by Webb in his school

The

similar to that d e t e r m i n e d

study for Grade 12 children.

164

The

results of this test of a s s o c i a t i o n are p r e s e n t e d in T ab l e
Despite the em p ha s is

6 6

p r o v i d e d by the m al e and female

respondents at the lo w er levels of p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n ,
was still a h ig h er le vel of s up p o r t by the m a l e s

there

for a c h i e v e ­

ment criteria as m a j o r e l e m e n t s in e v a l u a t i n g the importance
of particular va lu es in games.

16 4

I b r d . , p.

__
169.

This s u pport was

seen in the

.

203
Table

6 6

.

S e x a n d s c o r e s on the P r o f e s s i o n a l i z ­
ation Index (N=617).

Level

Sex

1

,

2

on P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n

, 3

Male

(N= 30 3)

87 . 8

Female

(N=314)

98 . 4

= 27 .409,

Index

4 , 5,
1 2

TOTAL

6

.2

1 0 0

1 . 6

p

less

higher p r o p o r t i o n of m a l e s

than

1 0 0

.001.

s c o r i n g at the m i d d l e

levels of p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n ,

to u p p e r

a nd the a l m o s t t o t a l

rejection

of such r e s p o n s e c o m b i n a t i o n s b y the w o me n .
The p r o p o r t i o n o f m a l e s e v a l u a t i n g g a m e s

in t e r m s of

a p r of e s s i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n wa s m u c h l o w e r t h an wa s e x p e c t e d .
This was s u r p r i s i n g

as the r e s p o n d e n t g r o u p w a s

cess of be i n g p r e p a r e d

for p o s i t i o n s

the o c c u p a t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y w h e r e
values is g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d

differences

to be high.

female respondents,
lay

in the u p p e r

le v e l s o f

the a c c e p t a n c e o f s u c h

there w e re s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
the male and

in the p r o ­

between

Nevertheless,
the r a n k i n g s

a n d the s o u r c e of

of

t he s e

in the g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s o n the a c h i e v e m e n t

criteria i n h e r e n t in the p r o f e s s i o n a l

o r i e n t a t i o n a m o n g the

males.
When the s t r e n g t h o f r e l i g i o u s
as an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e
of the q u e s t i o n

conviction was

in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h

responses and with

employed

the r a n k i n g s

the P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n

204
Index,

it w a s

found

tions w e r e m o r e

th a t t h o s e w i t h

l i k e l y to e n d o r s e

the game s i t u a t i o n .

strong positive

the e t h i c a l c o m p o n e n t

Those respondents with lower

religious c o n v i c t i o n p r o v i d e d
for the s u c c e s s - r e l a t e d

the game s i t u a t i o n ,

significantly higher rankings

component

conviction

it w a s

(Table 67).

necessary

It w a s

as o n e

category with

collapsing of c a t e g o r i e s w as

of

to d i c h o t o m i z e c o n v i c ­
the r a n k i n g s

al s o n e c e s s a r y ,

the p o l a r i z a t i o n of the r e s p o n s e s ,
third ranks

the

a nd the v a l u e c o m p o n e n t s

tion into s t r o n g a nd w e a k c a t e g o r i e s w i t h
the play and b e a t items.

in

l e ve l s of

In the a n a l y s i s of the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
strength of r e l i g i o u s

convic­

to g r o u p the

the sam e

two

for

in v i e w of
second and

items.

No

fo u nd to be n e c e s s a r y w i t h the

fairness item.
F r o m the r e s u l t s ,

it w a s o b v i o u s

strong r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s p r o v i d e d

t h at p o s s e s s i o n of

for a d i m i n i s h e d

emphasis u p on the a c h i e v e m e n t o r i e n t e d v a l u e c o m p o n e n t s of
the game situation.

The

religious

i de a l of r e s p e c t

and the a c c e n t upon p e r f o r m i n g o n e ’s d u t i e s
did not o p e r a t e

in a w a y w h i c h

to t he d e t r i m e n t of o t h e r s w o u l d

reinforce the v a l u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
more sp e cific m i l i e u o f games.

for m a n

a p p e a r to

sportsmanship

in the

T hi s p a t t e r n of r e s p o n s e

was also r e s p o n s i b l e for the g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s p r o v i d e d b y
the strongly r e l i g i o u s

for the p l a y o r i e n t a t i o n s

Professionalization Index

(Table

No o t h e r s o c i a l v a r i a b l e s

6 8

o f th e

).

led to d i f f e r e n c e s

in rank-

Table 67.

Strength of religious conviction and the rankings of the
responses to the question;
"What do you think is most
important in playing a game?"

Play

Beat

Fair

Rank
Weak

1

64.46

66.18

1.97

2

(
(35.54
(

33.82

98.03

3

Total N

x2
P

Strong Weak
5.34

Deep

Moderate

Indifferent

Opposed

42.86

32.68

30.99

20.59

) 57.14
94.66}
) 0.00

62.29

59.06

67,65

5.03

9.94

11.76

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

408

207

406

206

49

358

171

34

0.1115

[
<

4.0982

12.9012

NS

I

.05

.05

\

205

Strong

206
ings or in s c o r e s on

Table

6 8

.

the P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n

S t r e n g t h of r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n a n d
Professionalization Index (N=611).

L e v e l on P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n I n d e x
4, 5, 6
1, 2, 3

Strength of
conviction
Strong

(N=406)

95.32

Weak

(N=2 0 5)

8 8

= 8.1078,

Social

. 78

p less th a n

factors

TOTAL

4.68

1 0 0

.2 2

1 0 0

1 1

.01.

r e l a t e d to the e x p l a n a t i o n of

spectator involvement with
W it h this q u e s t i o n ,

given for w a t c h i n g s p o r t i n g ev ents.
companionship;

skilful p e r f o r m a n c e s .

The

sports

the r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e asked

in terms of t h e i r p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s ,

excitement;

Index.

escape

to rank

fo ur c o m m o n r e a s o n s

These

r e a s o n s were;

f r o m routine;

a nd to see

resultant ranking scheme

is s h o w n

in Table 69.
The g r e a t e s t d e g r e e of s u p p o r t w a s p r o v i d e d
reasons a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

the d e s i r e f o r e x c i t e m e n t and the

viewing of the m a n i f e s t a t i o n of h u m a n skill.
the normal r o u t i n e s of

for the

life,

Escape

from

a nd a t t e n d a n c e at s p e c t a t o r

events as a w ay of a c h i e v i n g e n j o y m e n t t h r o u g h a s s o c i a t i o n
with others wa s g i v e n c o n s i d e r a b l y
pondents .

less s u p p o r t by the r e s ­

207

T a bl e

69.

Spectator
preference

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n to the reque st , "P eople
w a t c h s po rt s f o r m a n y re a so n s; ra n k the
r e a s o n s of e x c i t e m e n t ; c o m p a n i o n s h i p ;
e s c a p e f r o m ro utine; and to see s k il f ul
performances" (N=625).

Ra n k o r d e r g i v e n b y
respondents

NO
response

TOTAL

1

2

3

4

Excitement

0

.16

43. 36

35. 04

16 .16

5.28

1 0 0

Co mpanionship

0 .32

9 .28

14.72

31. 84

43. 84

1 0 0

Escape fr om
routine

0

.16

16. 96

18.56

30 .40

33.92

1 0 0

To see s ki l f u l
p erformance

0

.32

30 .24

31. 36

21 .44

16 .64

1 0 0

I n v e s t i g a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h es e r a n k ­
ing systems a n d p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l v a r i a b l e s

i n d i c a t e d th at

there was a d e g r e e of h o m o g e n i e t y in the d a t a r e g a r d l e s s of
the i nt r o d u c t i o n of m o s t g r o u p
size p r o v i d e d

factors.

Se x and h om e

for so me d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n

of groups, w h i l e the n u m b e r of s i b l i n g s

town

the r a n k i n g s

in the f a m i l y and

father's e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t s p r o v i d e d

for i s o l a t e d

differences .
The i n t r o d u c t i o n of s e x as an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e
had no s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e u p o n the r a n k i n g s
ment, and e s c a p e
interest.

f r o m r o u t i n e as r e a s o n s

for e x c i t e ­

for s p e c t a t o r

Significantly higher rankings were provided by

the women for c o m p a n i o n s h i p as a r e a s o n for s p e c t a t o r

208
i nvolvement w h i l e

the m e n g a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r

for the w a t c h i n g of s k i l f u l p e r f o r m a n c e s
It w a s of i n t e r e s t to n o te

support

(Table 70) .

t h a t the s t r o n g s u p p o r t

provided by the f e m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s

for s oc ia l r e a s o n s

for

partic i pa t io n in s p o r t s c a r r i e d o v e r as a s t r o n g r e a s o n
for s pe c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t .

The

s u p p o r t by the m a l e

respon­

dents for sk i l f u l p e r f o r m a n c e s w a s al s o c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the
previously d e t e r m i n e d r a n k i n g s

for s u ch p a r t i c i p a n t a c t i v i ­

ties .
It w as o b v i o u s

th a t the c a t h a r t i c e x p e r i e n c e of

excitement as a p a r t o f the s p e c t a t o r s i t u a t i o n w a s
in view of the s u p p o r t p r o v i d e d by b o t h s e xe s

central,

in the u p p e r

rank levels.
The size of the h o m e to w n of the r e s p o n d e n t p r o v i d e d
for a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

in the r a n k i n g s

citement and the w a t c h i n g o f s k i l f u l p e r f o r m a n c e s .
it was a p p a r e n t that r e s p o n d e n t s

for e x ­
Although

f r o m la r g e r c i t i e s p r o ­

vided the g r e a t e s t s u p p o r t for the d e s i r e

for e x c i t e m e n t

(chi square = 14.356,

.05),

df =

6

, p le ss

th an

a nd t h a t the

residents in small t ow n s g a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r s u p p o r t
for w a t c h i n g s k i l f u l p e r f o r m a n c e s ,
df =

6

, p less t ha n

.0

2

(chi s q u a r e = 16.356,

) the r e s u l t s a p p e a r e d to ha ve

little

theoretical s i g n i f i c a n c e b e c a u s e o f the c u r v i l i n e a r i t y of
the d i s t r i b u t i o n s .
The n u m b e r of o l d e r s i b l i n g s
father's e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t b o t h

a n d the level of the
accounted

for d i f f e r -

Table 70.

Sex and the rankings for particular reasons for spectator
involvement with sports.

Companionship

Excitement
Rank

[
i
! Male
i

1
7
!

Total N

X
P

2

Male

To see skil­
ful performances

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

42.8

44.0

5.2

13.2

16.3

17.6

35.6

25.2

35.0

35.2

12.1

17.4

18.6

18.6

34.3

28.7

17.0

15.4

31.4

32.5

34.0

27.0

17.6

25.2

5.2

5.3

51.3

36.9

31.0

36.8

12.4

20.8

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

306

318

306

317

306

318

306

317

0. 302
NS

21. 075
1

001

4.133
NS

17. 844
«

001

209

3

Female

Escape from
routine

210
ences in the r a n k i n g s
Respondents w h o w e r e

for the e s c a p e

f i r s t in the b i r t h o r d e r w e r e m o r e

likely to p r o v i d e h i g h r a n k i n g s
13.3265,

df =

6

p less

t h an

and e x p e c t e d f r e q u e n c i e s ,
tionship wa s
When

from routine response.

for the

.05).

h ow ever,

father's educational

routine re s po n se ,

r e v e a l e d t h a t the

attainment was

it w a s d e t e r m i n e d

least educational

the st r on g es t s u p p o r t

for this

sible,

though,

th o se

as an
from

students

experience provided

i t e m at e a c h of the t h r e e

(chi s q u a r e = 18.4037,

would a p pear to r e q u i r e

used

the e s c a p e

th a t

whose fathers h a d the

rela­

r a n k levels.

in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h

The d e t e r m i n a n t s o f this

(chi s q u a r e =

A n a l y s i s o f the o b s e r v e d

i n c o n s i s t e n t at e a c h of the

independent v a r i a b l e

upper levels

item

df =

6

association were

, p less t h a n

n ot a p p a r e n t and

further investigation.

t h a t the r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s

.01).

It is p o s ­

d u e to a r a n d o m

fluctuation in the data.
No o t h e r s o c i a l v a r i a b l e s

m a de

introduced as i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s

any d i f f e r e n c e w h e n

in r e l a t i o n

to eac h o f

the ranking systems.

Social factors

r e l a t e d to p r e f e r e n c e s

or team sports
In this q u e s t i o n ,
direct choice b e t w e e n

as a s p e c t a t o r

the r e s p o n d e n t w a s

individual

ferred s p ec t a t o r in terest.
71.

for i n d i v i d u a l

The

a s k e d to m a k e a

or t e a m s p o r t s
results

are

as the p r e ­

shown

in T a b l e

211
Table

71.

R e s p o n s e p a t t e r n to the q u e s t i o n , " W h e n
y o u w a t c h s p o r t s , w h i c h t yp e do y o u
p r e f e r ? 11
{N=619)

Preference
Individual

sp o r t s

Team sports

103

16 .6

516

83.4

Despite expectations
on the ba s is of
the family,

the

th a t t here w o u l d be d i f f e r e n c e s

relative masculinity

an d

a n d the t otal n u m b e r of s i b l i n g s

sex was the o n l y
the p r e f e r e n c e s

factor that provided
t h a t was

male r es p o n d e n t s ,
team sports

P e r c e n t of
total

N

f e m i n i n i t y of
in the

family,

for a s e p a r a t i o n in

statistically significant.

The

h a v i n g a m u c h w i d e r r a n g e o f s e l e c t i o n of

available

to them,

peer s up p o r t f o r i n v o l v e m e n t

and

a s t r o n g e r d e g r e e of

in su c h a c t i v i t i e s ,

nificantly g r e a t e r e n d o r s e m e n t

to t e a m s p o r t s

g av e

sig­

as p r e f e r r e d
1 r r

spectator a c t i v i t i e s .

T he

f i n d i n g of B r o o k o v e r e t a l .,

that a n o r m e x i s t e d at M j c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
attendance at f o o t b a l l g a me s

a required social

attendance at all o t h e r c a m p u s

that made

activity

and

sporting events optional,

was b e li e ve d to p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n

the h i g h

for team s p or t s by b o t h m a l e an d fe m a l e

level of support

respondents even

16 5
ti
W i l b u r B. B r o o k o v e r , J o e l S m i t h and D o n a l d C o n r a d ,
"Student a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t i e s at M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , "
pp. 30-33.

212
though there w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
levels of s u p p o r t

Table

72.

(Table

72) .

S e x a n d the p r e f e r e n c e for i n d i v i d u a l
o r t e a m sp o r t s as a s p e c t a t o r ( N = 6 1 9 ) .

Team support
preference

Individual sport
preference

Sex

their

TOTAL

Male

(N= 3 06)

10.5

89 .5

100

Female

(N= 313)

22 .7

77 .3

100

X 2 = 16.674,

p less

t h an

.001.

No o t h e r g r o u p v a r i a b l e s p r o v i d e d for a s i g n i f i c a n t
separation b e t w e e n the c h o i c e s of th e se

items.

CHAPTER VIII
SOCIAL CLASS

IDENTIFICATIONS WITH

SPORTS

S p o r t P r e f e r e n c e s o f the R e s p o n d e n t s
In the b o d y o f the s e c t i o n o f the q u e s t i o n n a i r e
dealing w i t h

attitudinal

involvement,

two q u e s t i o n s w e r e a s k e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e s p e c ­

ific sports w h i c h

components of physical

the r e s p o n d e n t s m o s t e n j o y e d p l a y i n g and

those they m o s t e n j o y e d w a t c h i n g .
for p a r t i c i p a t i o n are s hown

T ab l e

7 3.

activity

Th e m o s t p o p u l a r s p o r t s

in T a b l e

73.

The most p o p u l a r p a r t i cipant sports
(N=625) .

Number of
endorsements

P er c e n t of
total

Tennis

95

15.20

Swimming a nd w a t e r s p or t s

74

11. 84

Baseball

57

9.12

Basketball

53

8.48

Football

49

7. 84

Golf

38

6.08

Bowling

34

5.44

Sport

The sp o rt s
fied w it h males,

l i s t e d a p p e a r e d to b e m o r e r e a d i l y
so the d a t a w e r e
213

identi­

s e p a r a t e d on the b a s i s of

214
sex.

The m o s t p r e f e r r e d p a r t i c i p a n t s ports e n d o r s e d by the

male and fem ale r e s p o n d e n t s are s h o w n in T a b l e s

Table

74.

74 a n d

75.

The m o s t p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a n t s ports
l i s t e d by the m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s {N=306).

N u m b e r of
endorsements

P e r c e n t of
t ot a l

Fo ot bal1

43

14.05

Tennis

41

13.40

Basketball

37

12 .09

Baseball

33

10 .78

Golf

27

8.82

Sport

Table

75.

T he m o s t p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a n t sp o rt s
l i s t e d by the f e ma l e r e s p o n d e n t s
(N=319).

N u m b e r of
endorsements

Per c e n t of
to tal

Swimming

60

1 8.81

Tennis

54

16 .93

Bowling

26

8.15

Baseball

24

7.52

Badminton

19

5.96

Volleyball
Softball

19

5.96

17

5.33

Basketball

16

5 .02

Sport

215

The m a j o r s p e c t a t o r s p o r t p r e f e r e n c e s w e r e
d et e rm i n e d a n d listed,

f i r s t as an o v e r a l l

then

summation,

and

secondly as a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n the l i s t i n g s m a d e
by the m a l e and female r e s p o n d e n t s

Table

76.

(Tables

Most popular spectator

76,

sports

N u m b e r of
endorsements

Sport

77 an d 78).

(N=625).

P e r c e n t of
t ot a l

318

50. 88

Basketball

64

10 .24

Baseball

55

8 . 80

Ice h ockey

45

7. 20

Football

Table

Sport

77.

M o s t p o p u l a r s p e c t a t o r s po r ts
by m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s ( N = 3 0 6 ) .

N u m b e r of
endorsements

listed

P e r c e n t of
total

189

61. 76

Ice hockey

27

8 .82

Basketball

27

8 .82

Baseball

19

6 .21

Football

216
Table

78.

Most popular spectator sports listed
by f e m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s (N=319).

N u mber of
endorsements

Sport

P e r c e n t of
total

129

40.44

Basketball

37

11.60

Baseball

36

11.29

Swimming

19

5.96

Ice hock ey

18

5-64

Football

It wa s of i n t e r e s t to n o t e
the number of sp o r t s

e n j o y e d as a p a r t i c i p a n t

number e n j o y e d as a sp e c ta t o r .
listed as

favorite participant

In c on t r a s t ,

only

activities;

and 28 by the

females.

22 by the m a l e

a p p e a r e d to be c l o s e l y

amount of a ctual

spectator

an d 3 5 by

identified

as

respondents,

T h e d e g r e e of s u p p o r t

spectator sports

g i v e n to

related

to the

s u p p o r t in t h e s p o r t i n g e v e n t s

held at M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,

although

were not r e s t r i c t e d to s u ch a c t i v i t i e s

Social Class

th e

listings

alone.

a nd S p o r t

In a t t e m p t i n g to d e t e r m i n e
members of the s a m p l e

37 d i f f e r e n t

respondents,

32 s p o r t s w e r e

favourite s p e c t a t o r sports;

a g a i n s t the

A t o t a l of 49 s p o r t s w e r e

sports b e i n g e n d o r s e d by the m a l e
females.

the d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n

regarding

the p e r c e p t i o n s

of the

the

relationships between

social class and p a r t i c u l a r sp orts,

the p r o b l e m w a s d e a l t

217
with in three ways.

First,

requested to identify,

the me m b e r s of the sample w er e

u s i n g an o p e n - e n d e d r e sp o ns e mode,

the particular p a r t i c i p a n t s p o r t

they m o st a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

members of the f o l l o w i n g groups:
1.

U p p e r class

2.

M i d d l e class

3.

W o r k i n g class

4.

L o w e r class

It has been s t a t e d by O s s o w s k i
"working class"

16 6

that the te r m

is g e n e r a l l y u se d in the U ni t ed States as

a means of a vo i di n g the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of a s ec t i o n of the
population as b e l o n g i n g to a "lower"
grouping.

The two te rms w e r e e m p l o y e d in this study in

order to attempt to s e p a r a t e
of the sample from a unitary,
with sport.

s o c i o - e c o n o m i c class

the c o n c e p t i o n s of the mem bers
middle

class

i d en t i f i c a t i o n

No a t t e m p t was made to p r o v i d e a de f in i t i o n

of each of these terms

for the respondents.

that the terms are r e l a t i v e l y

It was be l ie v ed

c o m m o n l y u s e d and t h a t , a l ­

though each i n d i v i d u a l ' s d e f i n i t i o n may be s o m e w h a t variable,
a group consensus c o u l d be expected.
Second,

the r e s p o n d e n t s w e re

r e q u e s t e d to identify,

once again through the o p e n - e n d e d r e s p o n s e technique,

the

particular spectator sport they m o s t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
16 6

Stanis law O s s o w s k i , Class S tr u c t u r e in the Social
Cons ciousness, t r a n s . by S h e i l a P a t t e r s o n (New York:
The
Free Press of Glencoe, 1963), p. 46.

218
same four social class groups.
Third,

a list of t we nt y - o n e common sports w e r e

listed vertically,

and the r e s p on d en t s w e r e r e q u e s t e d to

identify the social class g ro u p to w h i c h the p l a y e r s m a i n l y
belonged by p l a c i n g a check ma r k in one of the f o l l o w i n g
response c a t e g o r i e s :
1.

U pp e r class

2.

Mi d d l e class

3.

W o r k i n g class

4.

L o w e r class

5.

Ca n *t d ec id e

These response catego ri e s w e r e s paced h o r i z o n t a l l y across
the page of the survey.

1.

Social Class

Id e nt i f i c a t i o n s w i t h P a r t i c i p a n t S p or t s

The stimul us e m p l o y e d to d e t e r m i n e the social class
identifications held by the r es p on d en t s ab out p a r t i c i p a n t
sports v/as ph r a s e d

in the f o l l ow i ng manner;

"In yo ur opinion,

w h a t p a r t i c i p a n t sport do you m o s t

identify with each of the f o l l o w i n g groups?"
The names of the four social class groups we r e l isted
vertically b e l o w this st imulus question,

and the r e s p o n d en t s

were asked to w r i t e the name of the sport on the space p r o v i ­
ded beside the name of the group.

Th e in s tr u ct i on s

i nc l ud e d

in the stimulus st a te d that the r e sp o nd e nt could write the name
of the sport beside the name of two social class groups

if

219
he wished.

This was done

not se p arate

to a l l o w i n d i v i d u a l s ,

the s o c i a l cl a ss

sport into o n e c a t e g o r y ,
that there w a s

could

identification of a particular

to i n d i c a t e

an o v e r l a p p i n g c l a s s

The s p o r t s m o s t

who

frequently

t h at t h e y b e l i e v e d
association.

identified by

the r e s p o n ­

dents as u p p e r c l as s p a r t i c i p a n t a c t i v i t i e s a r e s h o w n in
Table 79.

Table

79.

U p p e r c l as s p a r t i c i p a n t s p o r t s i d e n t i f i e d
u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e m o d e
( N = 6 1 0 ).

P r o p o r t i o n of r e s p o n d e n t s
i d e n t i f y i n g this s p o r t w i t h
the u p p e r class

Sport

N

Golf

33.60%

210

Tennis

20.64%

129

Polo

11 . 8 4 %

74

Sailing

8 .16%

51

Horse Riding

5 .60%

35

In all,

30 sp o r t s w e r e

i d e n t i f i e d as b e i n g a s s o c i ­

ated wi t h u pper c l a s s p a r t i c i p a n t s by th e
only the five s p o r t s

r e s p o n d e n t s , but

listed were endorsed by more

than

5

per cent of the group.
Where the r e s p o n d e n t w r o t e

in m o r e

for this or any of the o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s
class i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s w i t h sport,

only

t h an o n e

concerning
the

sport
social

first mentioned

220
sport wa s coded.

T he r a t i o n a l e h e r e wa s

m e n t i o n e d s po r t w o u l d be the one

t h at

and c o u l d be e x p e c t e d to be the on e
associated w i t h the s ocial
The s p o r t s

class

l i s t e d by mo r e

t h a t the

f i r s t c a m e to mind,

that w a s m o r e

g r o u p t h an
than

first

strongly

the othe rs.

5 p e r c e n t o f the

respondents as b e i n g i d e n t i f i e d w i t h m i d d l e c l a s s p a r t i c i ­
pants are s h ow n

Table

in T a b l e

80.

80.

M i d d l e class p a r t i c i p a n t s p o r t s i d enti
fied u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e
m od e ( N = 6 0 5 ) .

P r o p o r t i o n of r e s p o n d e n t s
i d e n t i f y i n g this s p o r t w i t h
the m i d d l e class

Sport

N

Golf

4 4. 6 4%

279

Baseball

1 0.08%

63

Tennis

10 .08%

63

Football

8.96%

56

Skiing

6 .24%

39

Bowling

5.12%

32

A t o ta l of 21 sp o rt s w e r e
dents for this

i d e n t i f i e d b y the r e s p o n ­

s o cial cl a ss g r o u p i n g .

the sports of golf,

a n d tennis w e r e

with both the upper-,

It m a y be n o t e d that

frequently

and m i d d l e - c l a s s

g ro u p s .

sports a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a c h of the

f o ur s o c i a l

participant a c t i v i t i e s ,

w h i c h wa s

o n l y polo,

identified
Of all the
c l a s s e s as

identified

221
with the u p p e r class,

was

g i v e n c o n s i d e r a b l e s u p p o r t in o n l y

one categ ory.
T ab l e

81 s h ow s

the p a r t i c i p a n t s p o r t s a s s o c i a t e d b y

the r e s p o n d e n t s w i t h the w o r k i n g class.

T ab l e

81.

Working class participant sports identi­
fie d u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e
m od e ( N = 6 0 3 ) .

P r o p o r t i o n of r e s p o n d e n t s
i d e n t i f y i n g this s p o r t w i t h
the w o r k i n g class

Sport

N

Bowling

41.44%

259

Baseball

2 3.52%

147

F oo t b a l 1

12 . 3 2 %

77

A total of 27 d i f f e r e n t

sp o rt s w e r e

s e l e c t e d as b e i n g

associated by the r e s p o n d e n t s w i t h w o r k i n g c l a s s p a r t i c i ­
pants, bu t o n l y the three
endorsements

listed were

(5 pe r c e n t ) .

bowling w a s m o s t

g i v e n mo r e

th an

It ma y be n o t e d that,

30

although

f r e q u e n t l y e n d o r s e d as a w o r k i n g class

p articipant sport,

the p r o p o r t i o n of r e s p o n d e n t s w h o i n d i ­

cated b a s e b a l l or f o o t b a l l as t h e i r c h o i c e a c t u a l l y i n ­
creased o v e r the m i d d l e cl a ss
P a r t i c i p a n t sp o rt s
economic class g r o u p are

selections.

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
l i s t e d in T a b l e

l o we r s o c i o ­

82.

A total o f t h i r t y - o n e s e l e c t i o n s w e r e m a d e of s ports
associated by the r e s p o n d e n t s w i t h p a r t i c i p a n t s

f ro m the

222
T able

82.

L o w e r c l a s s p a r t i c i p a n t sports i d e n t i ­
f ie d u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e
m o d e ( N = 5 8 8 ).

P r o p o r t i o n of r e s p o n d e n t s
i d e n t i f y i n g this s p o r t w i t h
the l o w e r cl a ss

Sport

N

25.1 2%

157

1.3- 92%

87

11.0 4%

69

Boxing

7.84%

49

Basketball

7.52%

47

Football

5 .60%

35

Baseball
Billiards,

pool

Bowling

lower class.

It is of i n t e r e s t to n ot e

respondents i n d i c a t e d tha t
of the lower c la s s
organization

games,

the p a r t i c i p a n t

i n c l u d e d s t r e e t g a me s

( k i c k - t h e - c a n , st i ck b al l ,

non-sporting a c t i v i t i e s
etc.);

(drinking,

rough sports,

etc.);

or, w r o t e

were

s ports

42

activities

and ga m es o f low

t o s s i n g p en n i e s ,

rio ting,

general non-specific activities

association";

that a t o t a l of

etc.);

street watching,

(hardly any,

"u n decided",

or h a d

simple
"no

th a t they c o u l d a s s o c i a t e no s ports

with this s o c i o - e c o n o m i c group.

A l t h o u g h som e o f these

responses may h a ve b e e n m a d e w i t h g e n u i n e
play and s p o r t i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f this
that some of the r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e

i g n o r a n c e o f the

group,

it w o u l d

ap p e a r

indicating their acceptance

of a negative s t e r e o t y p e of the lo we r class.

223
2.

So c ia l Class

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n s wi t h S p ec t a t o r Sports

In o r d e r to i d e n t i f y the p e r c e p t i o n s held by mem bers
of the u n i v e r s i t y u n d e r g r a d u a t e c om m u n i t y c o n c e r n i n g their
i dentifications of p a r t i c u l a r social class groups w i t h p a r ­
ticular s p e c t a t o r sports,

the fo l lo w in g o p e n - e n d e d q u e s t i o n

was asked;
"In y o u r opinion,

w h a t s p e c t a t o r sport do y ou m os t

identify w i t h each of the f ol l o w i n g groups?"
mode c on s i s t e d of li s t i n g the
groups vertically,

The response

four s o c i o - e c o n o m i c class

and space was

to allow the r e s p o n d e n t to w r i t e

left b e si d e each listing
in the na me of the sport.

It was s p e c i f i c a l l y s ta t ed that if the r e s p o n d e n t i de n ti f ie d
the same sport as b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h two social class
groups,

he c o u l d w r i t e
The s ports

class spectators

i d e n t i f i e d by the r es p on d en t s with upper
are shown in Table

endorsed by 30 or m o r e

Table

Sport

Football
Tennis
Horse Racing
Golf
Polo

83.

the name of that sport in each place.

r e sp on d en t s

83.

On ly those sports

(5 per cent)

are listed.

U p p e r class s p ec t at o r sports i d e n t if i ed
u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e re sponse mode
(N= 5 9 4)

P r o p o r t i o n of re s po n de n ts
i d e n t i f y i n g this sport w i t h the
u p p e r class
17.92%
14.56%
13.76%
13.12%
12.64%

N

112
91
86
82
79

224
A total of 27 d i f f e r e n t s po r t s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
upper class s p ectators,
racing,

of w h i c h

football,

tennis,

h or s e

golf and polo w e r e g i v e n the mo s t support.

assumed that the up p er class s p e c t a t o r

It was

involvement with

horse racing w o u l d be m o s t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h w a t c h i n g the
performance of the ho r se s o w n e d by the m em b e r s of the upper
class and th e ir f r i e n d s , w i t h w i n n i n g m o n e y t h r o u g h c ha n ce
as a secondary interest.

The d i f f e r e n c e a s s u m e d h er e was

not one c o n c e r n e d w i t h the d e s i r e
primary d e gr e e of

in volvement:

to gamble,

with

b u t w i t h the

the upper class,

considerations w e r e e x p e c t e d to be p r e d o m in a nt .
respondents i n c l u d e d mo r e

social

W h e r e the

than one sport in any category,

only the first sport na m e d w as c o d e d for use in the study.
This p ro c edure was the same as w a s d i s c u s s e d in r e l a t i o n to
the partic ip a nt sports,

and the r a t i o n a l e for m a k i n g

this

decision was the same as before.
When the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s of social class

to p a r t i c u ­

lar spectator sports of the m i d d l e class w e r e analy zed,
different sports w e r e
respondents.

16

found to h a ve b ee n l is t ed by the

The m o s t f r e q u e n t l y e n d o r s e d of these are

listed in T a b l e 84.
It w a s seen that h or s e racing,
though s tr o ng l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t ennis an d polo,

the u p p e r class,

received

little support as m i d d l e class sports.
There we r e 15 sports

i d e n t i f i e d by the r e s p o n d e n t s

as being a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w o r k i n g c lass s p e c t a t o r s .

These

225
sports given

Table

30 or m o r e e n d o r s e m e n t s

84.

are shown in T a b l e

85.

M i d d l e class s p e c t a t o r sports i d e n t i f i e d
u si n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e m o d e
(N=6 0 5)

P r o p o r t i o n of re s p o n d e n t s
i d e n t i f y i n g this sport with
the m i d d l e class

Sport

N

Football

60 .16%

376

Baseball

21.60%

135

5 .60%

35

Golf

W o r k i n g class s p e c t a t o r sports i d e n t i f i e d
u si n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e re s po n se m o d e
<N=603).

Table 85.

P r o p o r t i o n of r es p o n d e n t s
i d e n t i f y i n g this sport wi th
the w o r k i n g class

Sport

N

Baseball

53 .60%

335

Football

29 .44%

184

Golf,

then,

tor sport, w h i l e

r e m a i n e d a mi d d l e an d upper class s p e c t a ­

ice h o c k e y was st ro n g l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the

middle class alone.

B a s k e t b a l l was not e n d o r s e d to a m a j o r

degree by the r e s p o n d e n t s

as a w o r k i n g c lass s p e c t a t o r

sport, but ho rse r a c i n g a ga i n came into c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

Here,

22 6
it was e x p e c t e d that the p r i m a r y

i n v o l v e m e n t w as w i t h the

gambling d i m e n s i o n of the s p o r t of h o r s e racing.
propo rt i on of r e s p o n s e s

for b o w l i n g as a s p e c t a t o r sport

was t h ought to be s u rp r is i ng ,
bowling was

in v i e w of the f ac t th at

the s p o r t m o s t i d e n t i f i e d w i t h w o r k i n g

participants.

Also,

T h e low

bowling

is a p r o f e s s i o n a l

class

sport,

and

would be e x p e c t e d to d r a w the m a j o r i t y of its s u p p o r t f r o m
among those m o s t s t r o n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
The sports
are shown in T a b l e

Table

86.

identified with

the sport.

lower c l as s

spectators

86.

L o w e r class s p e c t a t o r s p o r t s i d e n t i f i e d
u s i n g the n o n - d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e m o d e
{N= 592) .

P r o p o r t i o n of the r e s p o n d e n t s
i d e n t i f y i n g this s p o r t w i t h
the l ow e r class

Sport

N

Baseball

36 .64%

229

Boxing

18 .56%

116

Football

13.44

Wrestling,
Professional

84
58

9 .28%

T w e n t y d i f f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d by the
respondents as l o w e r cl a ss

s p e c t a t o r sports.

O n l y 19

respondents a s s o c i a t e d games of low o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
specific ac t iv i ti e s,

or no sports at all,

non­

w i t h m e m b e r s of

227
the lo w er class
The

s p e c t a t o r group.

selection of baseball,

bo x i n g ,

footb a ll ,

and

p ro f e s s i o n a l w r e s t l i n g as m a j o r s p e c t a t o r sp o r t s of the
lower class does

s e e m to h av e

face v a li d i t y ,

are those m o s t f r e q u e n t l y m e n t i o n e d
upward so c ia l m ob i li t y.
would be n o r m a l

as t he s e

as o p p o r t u n i t i e s

sports
for

If such a s s e r t i o n s are c o r r e c t , it

for the m e m b e r s of

this s o c i a l

to wat ch the s p o r t s

th a t g i ve m e m b e r s

chance for success,

o r to w a t c h

cl a ss

to w i s h

of t h e i r g r o u p a

the p e r f o r m a n c e s of s p o r t i n g

heroes d r a w n f r o m a m o n g their o w n ranks.
3.

Social C l a s s

Identifications with

Particular

P a r t i c i p a n t Sports
In this q u e s t i o n ,
"With w h i c h

the r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e asked;

s oc i a l class

g r o u p w o u l d y ou m a i n l y a s s o ­

ciate the p l a y e r s of the f o l l o w i n g

sports?"

mode a l l o w e d a c h o i c e to be m a d e b e t w e e n
class g ro u pi n gs p r e v i o u s l y e m p l o y e d ,
through the use o f a

"Can't D e c i d e "

The r e s p o n s e

the fou r s oc i al

an d p r o v i s i o n w as made,
r e s p o n s e categ o ry ,

those wh o c o u l d n o t s e l e c t on e c a t e g o r y a l on e

for

for a p a r t i ­

cular sport.
The p a r t i c u l a r s p o r t s

c h o s e n for i n c l u s i o n in this

question w e r e s e l e c t e d on the b a s i s of the p e r c e i v e d i m p o r ­
tance of each in the U n i t e d St ates, w i t h t h is p e r c e p t i o n
corrected d u r i n g the i n t e r v i e w a n d p r e - t e s t p h a s e s of the
s tu d y.
Where a r e s p o n d e n t p l a c e d m o r e t ha n o n e c h e c k m a r k

228
for a p a r t i c u l a r
categories,

his

sport,

or p l a c e d his c h e c k m a r k b e t w e e n two

r e s p o n s e w as

c o d e d as

"Can't de c i d e " .

results of the q u e s t i o n a r e s h o w n in T a b l e

87,

The

indicating

the degree o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f e a c h sport w i t h e a c h

so c i a l

group.
Thi s p a r t i c u l a r m e t h o d of

structuring

pattern and i n d i c a t i n g the s p o r t s w h i c h
to consider,

was more successful

social cl ass

identifications

the r e s p o n s e

the r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e

in d i s c r i m i n a t i n g b e t w e e n

than the o p e n - e n d e d ,

or no n ­

directive mode.
in i d e n t i f y i n g o n l y

th o se

sp o rt s w h i c h w e r e c h e c k e d

by over 50 p e r c e n t o f the r e s p o n d e n t s

in an y o n e c a t e g o r y ,

the fo l lo w in g g r o u p i n g s w e r e ob s er v ed ;
U pper c l a s s p a r t i c i p a n t
Polo

sports:

(91.5% e n d o r s e m e n t

Sailing

(78.4%)

Fencing

(77.3%)

Horse

riding

in this ca t eg o ry )

(76.7%).

M i d d l e c l a s s p a r t i c i p a n t sports:
Figure

skating

Skiing

(70.7%)

Basketball
Football
Tennis

(59.7%)

(56.7%)

(52.9%)

Baseball
Track

(71.1%)

(51.6%)

(50.7%).

229

Table

87.

P r o p o r t i o n s of r e s p o n s e s for e a c h
in e a c h so c i a l c l as s grouping.

Social
Sport

N

sp o r t

class group

C a n 't
Upper Middle Working Lower Decide

Total

Baseball

611

2. 9

51. 7

34.4

4 .1

6 .9

100

Basketball
Bowling
Boxing

610
610

1. 5
1. 5
0. 7

59 .7
30. 7

22 .0
56 .2
26 .6
1.3

9 .7
7.9

100
100

63 . 4

7.2
3. 8
4 .1

100

0 .2

6 .3

100

Fencing

606
607

77. 3

5 .3
15 .0

Field H o c k e y
(women)

605

9 .8

42.6

22.0

5.5

20.2

100

Figure
Skating

609

2.0
30. 8

5.1

100

607
610

48.4

71.1
56. 7
47.4

0 .2

Football
Golf

21. 7
2 .8

2.6
0 .0

7 .1
3.9

100
100

607
610
603
610

76.7
2 .1

15. 9
45.9

2.1
44.2

91. 5
3. 8

4. 1
18. 4
18 .2

0 .8
34.7
0. 3

0.7
3.0
0.3
35 .2
0.2

4.6
4.8
3.3
8 .0
3.0

100
100
100
100
100

606

49. 2

1 1 .2

0.2

8.6

100

Skiing

611

23. 7

30 .9
70.7

0 .8

0.0

4 .7

100

Soccer

609

13.6

47.5

25.6

2.6

10.7

100

Tennis

611

41.1

52.9

1.1

0.0

4 .9

100

Track
Weight
Lifting
Wrestling
Amateur

608

0.7

50 .7

32.1

7.2

9.4

100

611

0 .2

19.5

48.9

2 0 .6

1 0 .8

100

610

0.2

22.1

39. 2

31. 1

7.4

100

Horse
Riding
Ice Hockey
Polo
Pool
Sailing
Skeet
Shooting

610

78. 4

0.3

230
W or k i n g cl ass p a r t i c i p a n t sports:
B ow l i n g

(56.2%);

this w a s the only s p o r t w h i c h

was id e nt i f ie d by o v e r 50 p er c e nt of the r e s p o n d e n t s

in

this category.
L o w e r class p a r t i c i p a n t sports:
Box i ng

(63.4%);

this wa s the o nl y s p or t to

receive o v er 50 per c e n t s upport for b e l o n g i n g to this
category.
The d e gr e e of d i f f i c u l t y the re s p o n d e n t s h a d in
classifying p a r t i c u l a r sports may be seen in the p r o p o r t i o n
of responses c o n t a i n e d in the

"Can't d e ci d e" ca tegory.

Field hockey for w o m e n r ec e i v e d a p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h r e sponse
frequency in this category,
track,

skeet shooting,

as did w e i g h t lifting,

and pool.

soccer,

To a ce r t a i n extent,

this

confusion w o u l d be due to ig no r a n c e of these s p o r t s , a l th o u g h
a genuine failure to d ec i de on one c a t e g o r y w o u l d have c o n ­
tributed to the size of this response.

C H A P T E R IX
S UM M A R Y A N D C O N C L U S I O N S
Two c entral p u r p o s e s g ui d e d this study.

The

first

problem was to d ev e l o p a s y s t e m of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w h i c h
would p er m it the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the m o t i v a t i o n s

for p a r ­

ticipation and s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t in the p h y s i c a l
activities k n o w n as play,

games,

and sports.

The s econd

problem was to i n v e s t i g a t e the social f a ctors w h i c h w e r e
believed to act as s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g v a r i a b l e s
on each m o t i v a t i o n

for i n v o l v e m e n t w it h p h y s i c a l activity.

The three c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of p h y s i c a l

activity

which were r e g a r d e d as i m p o r t a n t in the d e v e l o p m e n t of the
classification sche me w e re t hose of Cail lois,
and Kenyon.

The

McIntosh,

first two w e r e not s ub m it t ed to e m p i r i c a l

evaluation by their authors,

while

the latter schema was

evaluated c r o s s - c u l t u r a l l y a m o n g se c on d a r y school students
of several m od e r n

i n du s tr i al

instrument u t i l i z e d here,

societies.

The e v a l u a t i v e

e m p l o y e d a c o m b i n a t i o n of the

various su b -d o ma i ns b e l i e v e d to be r e l e v a n t m o t i v a t o r s
for physical r e c r e a t i o n by the a uthors concerned.
The u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n b e h i n d the d e v e l o p m e n t of
this c l a s si f ic a ti o n scheme w a s the b e li e f that the rea sons
for p a rt i ci p at i ng in p h y s i c a l a ct i vi t ie s are i n h e r e n t in
231

2-32
the i n d i v i d u a l ,

an d that s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l

such p r e f e r e n c e s .

It w a s no t b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e w a s

uni v ersal o r c o m m o n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w h i c h
nature of man;
Therefore,

the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
tion studied,
schema,

to c u l t u r e .

f el t t h a t the e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n w a s t h a t
system should be relevant

a n d that,

prior

to a n y

extensive pre-testing

to the p o p u l a ­

f u t u r e use of

the

s h o u l d be e m p l o y e d to i n c o r ­

porate c h a n g e s d e e m e d n e c e s s a r y
that t he r e w a s

a

g r e w o u t of the

t h a t is, w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e

it w as

factors modify

for the n ew group.

The

fact

s u ch a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the p r e f e r e n c e s

the r e s p o n d e n t g r o u p a n d t h o s e
d if f erent s t u d i e s

indicates

of

f o u n d in o t h e r g r o u p s b y

the

i m p o r t a n c e of s u c h a c o u r s e

of a c t i o n .
T he d e v e l o p m e n t of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
es sential p r e - c o n d i t i o n
and c u l t u r a l

to the

i n v e s t i g a t i o n of

factors which were believed

mo difiers of p r e f e r e n c e p a t t e r n s .
h yp o t h e s i z e d to be of p a r t i c u l a r
as there a p p e a r e d

system was
those

an

social

to be i m p o r t a n t

The v a r i a b l e of s e x w a s
significance,

to be c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e n g t h

especially
in the i d e n t i ­

fication of s e x - a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o u r in r e l a t i o n to p h y s i c a l
activities.
itself,

Factors present

in the s t r u c t u r e of the

su c h as the n u m b e r of si b li n gs ,

and sex c o m p o s i t i o n ,

were

of b e h a v i o u r in r e l a t i o n
related r e l i g i o u s

expected

o r d i n a l po s it i o n ,

to be i m p o r t a n t m o d i f i e r s

to a c t i v i t y m o t i v a t i o n s .

f a c t o r s of r e l i g i o u s

religious c o n v i c t i o n ,

f am i ly

faith,

a nd t y pe of h i g h s ch o o l

Th e

inter­

s t r e n g t h of
attended were

233
e xp e ct e d to a l l o w s p e c i f i c a t i o n of
ideological v a r i a b l e s
model.

Such

a n d the p r e f e r e n c e s

f a c t o r s as p a r e n t a l

tional status,

the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

income,

an d p a r e n t a l e d u c a t i o n a l

components of the

socio-economic

believed to a c c o u n t

expressed

parental occupa­
attainment,

s t a t u s of the

the an a l y s i s of m o t i v a t i o n s

all

family,

for som e of the v a r i a b i l i t y

while r e s i d e n c e w a s al s o e x p e c t e d

in the

in re s po n se ,

to be a ke y v a r i a b l e

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n

were

in

in p h y s i c a l

activity .
Sev e r a l

sub-problems were

in or d er that the f ac t o r s

r e l e v a n t to the

tures c o ul d be e v a l u a t e d .
related to p a r t i c i p a t i o n
cal ac t iv i ti e s,

These

The s a m p l e

conceptual

struc­

included attitudinal

an d s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t

social

f ac t or s

in p h y s i ­

comprised

a nd

groups.

a r a n d o m l y s e l e c t e d g r o u p of 98 8

s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d at M i c h i g a n

for the 1 9 6 8 — 1969 a c a d e m i c year.
total of 624

in t o the s t u d y

and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r g a m e s

sports w i t h p a r t i c u l a r

undergr aduate

incorporated

Of t h e s e

r e p l i e d to the q u e s t i o n n a i r e

State University
s t ud ents,

submitted

a
to them.

This re s ponse r e p r e s e n t e d a r e t u r n r a t e of 6 3.16 p e r cent.
Although there w e r e n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
respondents and the m e m b e r s of

the s a m p l e d r a w n o n the v a r i ­

ables of u n d e r g r a d u a t e c la s s and p r o g r a m level,
statist ically s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w h e n

there w e r e

s e x a n d local

residence w e r e c o n s i d e r e d .

There was a much

lihood for women,

students

a nd t h os e

b e t w e e n the

greater like­

l i v i n g in o n - c a m p u s

234
dormitories

to r e s p o n d to the survey.

ficulties , tne less t h an

In v i e w of t h e s e d i f ­

total r e s p o n s e re ce i v e d ,

level of m e a s u r e m e n t o f m u c h of the data,
p er f ormed u s i n g n o n - p a r a m e t r i c
A m o n g t h es e
were fou nd to be
1.

respondents,

all a n a l y s e s w e r e

stati stics.
the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s

justifiable;

The e v a l u a t i o n of the t h e o r e t i c a l mo d el s :

sub-domains

i d e n t i f i e d as m o t i v a t i o n a l

factors

pation in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s by Ca i ll oi s ,
Kenyon w e r e g r o u p e d
found that all
respondents.

W h e n the

for p a r t i c i ­

McIntosh,

and

t o g e t h e r in the same in s t r u m e n t ,

it w a s

r e c e i v e d some d e g r e e of s u p p o r t b y the
These

s u b - d o m a i n s w e r e the m o t i v a t i o n

p a r t i c i pa t io n in p h y s i c a l
risk,

a n d the

thrills,

activities

an d p e r s o n a l d a nger;

people in s o c i a l

si t ua t io n s;

for

as a w a y of p u r s u i n g
as a w a y o f m e e t i n g

as a w a y of m a t c h i n g s ki l l w i t h

a weapon a g a i n s t a t a r g e t o r quar ry;

as a w a y of i m p r o v i n g

the h ealth and f i t n e s s of the body;

as a w a y of i n v o l v i n g

the in d iv i du a l a g a i n s t

" l u c k ” ; as a w a y of

"chance"

having fun and en j o y m e n t ;
feelings in m o ve m en t ;

a nd

as a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g

ideas

an d

as c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g s ki l l as

p redominant p a r t of the p e r f o r m a n c e ;

as c o m p e t i t i o n

combat as the p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of the p e r f o r m a n c e ;

the

involving
and as

competition a g a i n s t the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t .
The r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e a s k e d
ments they m o s t

fa v ou r ed ,

order of pr e f e r e n c e .

to c h o o s e

the

fi ve s t a t e ­

a n d to ra n k t h e m f r o m 1 to 5 in

The m o t i v a t i o n s

concerned with

fun,

the

235
d e v e l o p m e n t of h e a l t h a nd fitness,

competition

skill,

the o n l y o ne s w h i c h

and so c i a l

s it u a t i o n s ,

were

receive d f i r s t - r a n k s u p p o r t b y m o r e t h an
respondents.

A l l the s t a t e m e n t s

positive e v a l u a t i o n w h e n
regardless of ra n king,
with

"chance"

a nd

involving

5 p e r c e n t of the

r e c e i v e d some d e g r e e o f

the e n d o r s e m e n t s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d

b u t t h os e m o t i v a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d

" l u c k ” , skill w i t h a w e a p o n ,

a nd c o m p e ­

tition i n v o l v i n g co m b a t r e c e i v e d the l e a s t support.
The s u b — d o m a i n s

i d e n t i f i e d by K e n y o n r e c e i v e d the

greatest d e g r e e of s u p p o r t as d e t e r m i n i n g

factors

for i n ­

volvement in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s by t he s e r e s p o n d e n t s .
models d e v e l o p e d by C a i l l o i s
too r e s t r i c t i v e and n o t
various f actors
play,

games,

2.

an d M c I n t o s h w e r e

fully c a p a b l e of e n c o m p a s s i n g the

l e a d i n g t he s e

fa ctors

of the m o t i v a t i o n a l

s t u d e n t s to p a r t i c i p a t e

in

l e a d i n g to the d i f f e r e n t i a l e v a l u a t i o n

statements

concerning participation

physical a c t i v i t i e s : In terms of p a r t i c i p a n t
physical ac t i v i t i e s ,

in

i n v o l v e m e n t in

only sex provided a consistent basis

for d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e t w e e n

the r a n k i n g s y s t e m s

statements d e s c r i b i n g e a c h of the m o t i v a t i o n a l
Women gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r r a n k i n g s
involving p a r t i c i p a t i o n

excitement.

f o u n d to be

and sport.

Social

volvement,

The

The m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s

the st atements c o n c e r n e d w i t h

sub-domains.

for the m o t i v a t i o n s

to g r a t i f y a d e s i r e

for a e s t h e t i c e x p r e s s i o n ,

for the

for s o c i a l i n ­

and to h a ve

fun a n d

gave h i g h e r r a n k i n g s

for

the f u l f i l l m e n t of the d e s i r e

236
for c o m p e ti t io n on the b asis of skill,
volving combat,
ment,

for c o m p e t i t i o n i n­

for c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n ­

for the p ur s u i t of risk and danger,

demonstration of skill w i t h a w e a p o n .

There w e r e no o t h e r

significant d i f f e r e n c e s in the r a n k i n g s
motives

and for the

for the various

for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w h e n sex

was e m pl o ye d as an i n d e p e n d e n t variable.
The use of the social variabl e s;
tion,

st rength of relig i ou s co n vi c ti o n,

number of b r o t h e r s
attainment,

in the family,

and ho me town size,

re l ig i ou s d e n o m i n a ­
marital

f at h er ' s e d u c a t i o n a l

led to the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of

several ad d it i o n a l a s s o c i a ti on s b e t w e e n social
the rankings p r o v i d e d for the m o t i v a t i o n a l
3.

Social

status,

factors and

statements.

factors leading to the d i f f e r e n t i a l e v a l u a t i o n

of the m o t i v a t i o n a l statements c o n c e r n e d w it h s p ec t at o r
involvement w i t h ph ysical acti vities:
the ten statements d e s c r i b i n g the

With m i n o r changes,

s u b- d om a in s

for p a r t i c i ­

patory i n vo l ve m en t in p hy s ic a l a c t i v i t y w e r e e m p l o y e d to
investigate the s ocial factors r e l e v a n t to s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e ­
ment.

All of the statem en t s r e c e i v e d s tr o ng s u pp o rt as

determinants of such involvement,
cerned with excitement,
ous activities,

a l t h o u g h o nl y those c o n ­

competition

i n vo l vi n g skill,

danger­

and the e x p r e s s i o n of ideas and feelin gs

in

movement r e c e i v e d fi r st - ra n k s u p p o r t by o ve r 5 p e r ce nt of
the r e s p o n d e n t s .
Again,

sex was the only v a r i a b l e w h i c h c o n s i s t e n t l y

237
a c c o u n t e d for a s i g n i f i c a n t s e p a r a t i o n o f the r a n k i n g
tems.

T h e m e n g a ve h i g h e r l e v e l s o f s u p p o r t for s t a t e m e n t s

concerned with
thrills,

the d e s i r e

to see a c t i v i t i e s

and danger were present,

the b a s i s of c o m b a t wa s

in w h i c h

the p r e d o m i n a n t e l e m e n t .

Th e w o m e n

significantly higher

s upport fo r s u c h m o t i v a t i o n s

fo r s p e c t a t o r a t t e n d a n c e

p hy s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s
and

as s o c i a l

interaction,

the e x p r e s s i o n of i de a s

Although

there w e r e s o m e

health

and feelings

le v el s o f

in m o v e m e n t .

significant differences

for p a r t i c u l a r m o t i v a t i o n a l

ments w h e n v a r i o u s o t h e r

so c i a l

the c l e a r e s t

background variables.

factors were

t e n d e n c y wa s

geniety in the r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n s

se e n

regardless

It w a s b e l i e v e d

that

the u n i v e r s i t y p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h

ication o f m a n y

social differences

state­

i n t r o d u c e d as
for h o m o —

of s o c i a l
t h is h o m o g e n i e t y

was a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a g r o u p n o r m d e v e l o p e d
m embers of

at

a nd f i t ­

r e v e a l e d in the r a n k i n g s

group v a r i a b l e s ,

risk,

a n d w h e r e c o m p e t i t i o n on

in the r e s p o n d e n t g r o u p g a v e

ness,

sys­

a m o n g the

led to the e r a d ­

through peer-group

socialization.
4.

Attitudinal

statements

concerned with participant

and s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t in p h y s i c a l
all q u e s t i o n s ,
sex.

activites:

the c o n s i s t e n t d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g

T h e r e w a s a c o n s i s t e n t r e j e c t i o n by the

dents of a t t i t u d i n a l

In a l m o s t

factor was
female respon­

statements concerned with manif es ta ­

tions of c o m p e t i t i o n ,
e x p l o i t a t i o n of ski ll,

domination

(success an d w i n n i n g ) , the

and s i m i l a r v a l u e s

r e l a t e d to the

238
i deological bases of the e c o n o m i c

sector.

The

female

respo nd e nt s ga v e s i g n i f i c a n t levels of s u p p o r t to the v a l u e s
of compani o ns h ip ,

fairness,

and r e l a x a t i o n and fun as ba s es

for p a r t i c i p a t o r y a nd s p e c t a t o r i n v o l v e m e n t in games and
sports.

They also s h o w e d a g r e a t e r p r e f e r e n c e

for so cial

and c u lt u ra l a c t i v i t i e s in their leisure.
The m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s p r o v i d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r
support for p h y s i c a l

r ecreation,

a nd

for the c o m p e t i t i o n a n d

s u c c e s s -o r ie n te d v a l u e s as m o t i v a t o r s for i n v o l v e m e n t in
games and s p o r t s .
T hese results,

c o m b i n e d w i t h those r e l a t i n g sex to

the m o t i v a t i o n a l s t at e me n ts
models,

d r a w n f ro m the t h e o r e t i c a l

p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e of the e f f e c t of s o c i a l i z a t i o n

pr actices on the i n c u l c a t i o n of s e x - a p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s
later i n v o l v e m e n t in adult society,

for

and the h a l o - e f f e c t

that these p r a c t i c e s ha ve on a c t i v i t i e s

that are no t r e l a t e d

to the e c o n o m i c s e c t o r .
5.

P r e f e r r e d s ports

involvement:

The m a l e r e s p o n d e n t s

support for football,

tennis,

golf as p a r t i c i p a n t sports.
ball,

for p a r t i c i p a t o r y a n d s p e c t a t o r
indicated their greatest

b a s k e t b al l ,
Footb a ll ,

b a se b a l l ,

ice h ockey,

and
basket­

and b a s e b a l l w e r e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y l i st e d as f av o u r i t e

spectator s p o r t s .
The female r e s p o n d e n t s ga ve t h ei r g r e a t e s t s u pp o rt
to the p a r t i c i p a n t sports of swimming,
baseball.

Th ey li s t e d football,

tennis,

basketball,

b ow l in g ,

baseball,

and
and

239
s wi mming as t h e i r f a v o u r i t e s p e c t a t o r sports.
6.

Social

o p e n - e n d e d and

class

identifications with

forced-choice

sports:

listings were provided

Although
fo r the

d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n p a r t i c u l a r s p o r t s
and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c status,

the f i x e d - c h o i c e m o d e

greater d e g r e e of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

Majority

prov ided for the a s s e s s m e n t of pol o,

support was

s a iling,

f en cing,

horse r i d i n g as u p p e r c la s s p a r t i c i p a n t s p orts.
skating,

skiing,

track w e r e

basketball,

fo o tb a ll ,

i d e n t i f i e d as m i d d l e c l a s s

the only s p o r t g i v e n m a j o r i t y
with the w o r k i n g clas s,
id entified w i t h

te nn is,
sports.

s u p p o r t as b e i n g

while boxing was

ga v e the

and

Figure
baseball

and

Bowling was
identified

the o n l y s p o r t

the l o w e r c l a s s b y a t l e a s t

50 p e r c e n t of

the respon d en t s.
Play,

games,

a nd sport,

to c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n w i t h
and p e r c e i v e d s o c i a l v a r i a b l e s .
found to be the one s o c i a l

then, w e r e
the

i n t r o d u c t i o n of a c t u a l

Th e s e x role,

however,

was

f a c t o r w h i c h p r o v i d e d for c o n ­

sistent a t t i t u d i n a l a n d m o t i v a t i o n a l
involvement w i t h

f o u n d to be s u b j e c t

s u ch p h y s i c a l

differentiation

activities.

for

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_________ . " A t h l e t i c s in H i gh S c h o o l . "
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A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y of P o l i t i c a l and S o c i a l S c i e n c e ,
vol. 338 (1961), 3 3-4 3.
Collins, K e v i n A.
"The A t t i t u d e s T o w a r d and I n t e r e s t s in
P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t y of W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a n U rb a n
S e c o n d a r y Sc h o o l S t u d e n t s . "
U n p u b l i s h e d M.A. thesis,
U n i v e r s i t y of Alberta, 1967.
Erickson, E r ik H.
" St udies in the I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Play:
C l i n i c a l O b s e r v a t i o n of P l a y D i s r u p t i o n in Y o u n g
Children."
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22 (1940), 557-671.
_________ . C h i l d h o o d and S o c i e t y .
N o r t o n and Comp any, 196 3.

2nd ed.

N e w York:

W.W.

Fishbein, Ma r tin., ed.
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Greeley, A n d r e w M.
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on

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_______ T he P l ay of M a n . T r a n s l a t e d b y E l i z a b e t h L.
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N e w York: D. A p p l e t o n and Company, 1901.
_________ . Das spiel, zwei V o r t r a g e von Ka rl G r o o s .
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Jena:

Hall, G. Stanley.
Youth:
Its Ed u ca t i o n , R e g i m e n and
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London:

Macmillan

Huizinga, Johan.
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Boston:
B e a c o n Press, 1966.

243
Kenyon,

G e r a l d S.
"The S i g n i f i c a n c e o f A d u l t P h y s i c a l
A c t i v i t y as a F u n c t i o n of Age, Sex, E d u c a t i o n and
Socio-Economic Status.”
P a p e r p r e s e n t e d at the
M i d w e s t C o n v e n t i o n o f the A. A. H. P. E. R., De t ro i t,
Mich., A p r i l 11, 1964.
(Mimeographed.)
"The S i g n i f i c a n c e of P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t i y as a
F u n c t i o n of Age, Sex, E d u c a t i o n , and S o c i o - E c o n o m i c
S ta t us o f N o r t h e r n U n i t e d St a t e s A d u l t s . ”
International
R e v i e w of S p o r t S o c i o l o g y , vol. 1 (1966) , 41-57.

_________ .
"A C o n c e p t u a l M o d e l for C h a r a c t e r i z i n g P h y s i c a l
A c t i v i t y . " U n p u b l i s h e d r e s e a r c h p aper, D e p a r t m e n t of
P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n - Men, U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n ,
1966.
(Mimeogr aphed.)
"The A s s e s s m e n t of A t t i t u d e s T o w a r d P h y s i c a l
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196 6.
(Mimeographed.)
_________ . V a l u e s H e l d for P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t y b y S e l e c t e d
U r b a n S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l S t u d e n t s in C a n a d a , A u s t r a l i a ,
E n g l a n d and the U n i t e d S t a t e s . R e p o r t of U.S. O f f i c e
of E d u c a t i o n C o n t r a c t S — 376.
M a d i s o n , W is . :
Univer­
sity of W i s c o n s i n , 1968.
_________ . "A C o n c e p t u a l M o d e l for C h a r a c t e r i z i n g P h y s i c a l
Activity."
R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y ,vol. 39, no. 1 (1968),
96-105.
_________ . "Six S c a l e s for A s s e s s i n g A t t i t u d e T o w a r d P h y s i c a l
Activity."
R e s e a r c h Q u a r t e r l y , vol. 39, no. 3
(1968) ,
566-574.
______ ., ed.
A s p e c t s of C o n t e m p o r a r y S p o r t S o c i o l o g y .
Chicago:
T h e A t h l e t i c I ns t it u t e , 1969.
________ ; Loy, J o h n W. Jr.; and Isaacman, B a r b a r a S.
"Values
H e l d for P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t y as a F u n c t i o n o f S o c i a l
Class B a c k g r o u n d . " P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t the 81 st
Anniversary
N a t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n of the A. A. H. P. E. R . ,
Chicago, 111., M a r c h
20, 1966. (M imeographed.)
Kerr,

Clark, a nd W ilson, Logan.
Education Q u e s t i o nn ai re .
P r o c e s s i n g C e nter, 1^68.

N a t i o n a l S u r v e y on H i g h e r
M i n n e a p o l i s , M i n n . : N.C.S.

Kretchmar, R. Scott, and H a rp e r, W i l l i a m A.
" Mu s t w e h a v e
Ra tional A n s w e r to the Q u e s t i o n W h y Does M a n P l a y ? "
J .O . H . P . E . R . vol. 40, no. 3 (1969), 57-58.

a

244
Lehman,

H a r v e y C . , and Witt y, P au l A.
T h e P s y c h o l o g y of
P la y A c t i v i t i e s .
N e w York:
A.S. B a r n e s a n d Compan y,
1927.

Likert,

Rensis.
"The M e t h o d o f C o n s t r u c t i n g an A t t i t u d e
Scale."
R e a d i n g s in A t t i t u d e T h e o r y and M e a s u r e m e n t .
E d i t e d b y M a r t i n Fishbein.
N e w York:
J o h n W i l e y and
Sons, Inc., 1967.

Loy,

John W.
"Game Forms, S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e an d A no mie."
N ew P e r s p e c t i v e s of M a n in A c t i o n . E d i t e d b y R os c oe
C. B r o w n Jr., an d B r y a n t J. Cratty.
Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.:
P r e n t i c e Hall, Inc., 1969.

McDougall, William.
A n I n t r o d u c t i o n to S oc i al P s y c h o l o g y .
Boston:
J o h n WZ L u ce and Company, 1926.
M c I n t o s h , Peter C .
and Co mpany,

S p o r t in S o c i e t y .
Ltd. , 196'3^

London:

Metheny, Eleanor.
"This 'Thing' C a l l e d Sport."
vol. 40, no. 3 (1969), 59-60.
Nagel,

C .A. Wa t t s
J.O.H.P.E.R.

Ernest.
"The L o g i c of H i s t o r i c a l A n a l y s i s . "
R ea d i n g s in the P h i l o s o p h y of S c i e n c e . E d i t e d b y
H er b e r t Feigl, and M a y B r o d b e c k . Ne w York:
AppletonC e n t u r y - C r o f t s , Inc., 195 3.

N e a l e , Robert Edward.
"Play and the S a c r e d : T o w a r d a
T he o ry of R e l i g i o n as Play."
U n p u b l i s h e d Th.D
d is s e r t a t i o n . U n i o n T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y o f the
City of N e w York, 1964.
Osgood,

C harles E . ; Suci, G e o r g e J.; and T a n n e nb a um , P e r c y H.
The M e a s u r e m e n t of M e a n i n g . Urbana, 1 1 1 . : U n i v e r s i t y
of Il linois Press, 1967.

Ossowski, Stanislaw.
C l a s s S t r u c t u r e in
s c i o u s n e s s . T r a n s l a t e d by S h e i l a
York:
T he F r e e P r e s s of Gl encoe,

the S o ci a l C o n ­
Pa t te r so n . N e w
1963.

Patrick, Ge o rg e T h o m a s White.
The P s y c h o l o g y of R e c r e a t i o n .
Boston:
H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n Company, 1916.
Petrie,

B r i a n M.
"S ocial B a c k g r o u n d s of A t h l e t e s A w a r d e d
G r a n t s - I n - A i d at B i g Ten U n i v e r s i t i e s f r o m 1960-19 6 3. "
U n p u b l i s h e d M.A. thesis, M i c h i g a n State U n iv e rs i ty ,
1968.
" S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s of A t t i t u d e Scale Scores."
R es e ar c h Q u a r t e r l y , vol. 40, no. 2 (1969) , 434-436.

245
Piaget,

Jean.
Play, D r e a m s and I m i t a t i o n in C h i l d h o o d .
T r a n s l a t e d b y C. G a t t e g n o a nd F.M. H od g s o n .
L on d on :
R o u t l e d g e a n d K e g a n Paul, Ltd., 1951.

Robinson, E d w a r d S.
"The C o m p e n s a t o r y F u n c t i o n of M a k e B e l i e v e P lay."
P s y c h o l o g i c a l R ev i e w , vol. 27, no.
(1920), 42 9-439.
Sapora,

A l l e n V., a n d M i t c h e l l ,
and R e c r e a t i o n .
3rd ed.
C om p an y , 1961.

Schiller, J.C. F r i e d r i c h von.
P h i l o s o p h i c a l . London:

6

E l m e r D.
T he T h e o r y of P l a y
N e w York:
T h e R o n a l d Press
E s s a y s A e s t h e t i c a l an d
G e o r g e Be ll a n d Sons,

Seashore, Ca r l E.
P s y c h o l o g y in D a i l y L i f e .
A p p l e t o n and Co m p a n y , 1916.

1884.

N e w York:

D.

S e m o t i u k , D a r w i n M.
"The A t t i t u d e s T o w a r d an d I n t e r e s t s
in P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t y of E d m o n t o n S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l
Students."
U n p u b l i s h e d M.A. th esis. U n i v e r s i t y o f
A lb e r t a , 1967.
Siegel,

Sidney.
N o n p a r a m e t r i c S t a t i s t i c s f or the B e h a v i o r a l
S c i e n c e s . N e w York:
M c G r a w - H i l l B o ok C o m p a n y , 19 56.

Simpson, R i c h a r d L.
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Socialization, and Social Mobility."
American
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Spencer, Herbert.
N e w York:
Stone,

The P r i n c i p l e s of P s y c h o l o g y .
D. A p p l e t o n and C o m p a n y , 1898.

Vol. II-2

G r e g o r y P.
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College Physical Education Association.
60 t h A n n u a l
Proceedings.
C ol u mb us , Ohio.
Oct. 1 9 5 7 .E d i t e d by
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4

"The P l a y of L i t t l e C h i l d r e n . "
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Q u e s t , Monograph

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An Extended
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E d i t e d b y G e r a l d S. Kenyon.
C hi c a g o :
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Sutton— S m i t h , Brian, a nd Roberts, J o h n M.
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Review

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The
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Paper
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_________ " P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of A t t i t u d e s T o w a r d P l a y
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Paul.
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Spo rt:
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Carbondale,

APPENDIX A
T HE Q U E S T I O N N A I R E

248
MICHIGAN

STATE

COLLEGE O F E D U C A T IO N

UNIVERSITY

* E R IC K S O N

cast

l a n s in g

* M

ic h ig a n

ib b is

HALL

May 9, 1969.

Dear Colleague,
T h e School fo r Advanced Studies o f the College o f E d u c atio n , w it h the approval o f the O ffic e
of Institutional Research o f Michigan State U n ive rs ity , is con d u ctin g a study o f the sociological influences
on the use o f leisure tim e.
This study is being made to d e te rm in e the reasons people have fo r taking p art in physical
activity, games and sports during their leisure tim e , and, w i t h the in fo rm a tio n gained, it is hoped th a t
programs can be designed to encourage greater leisure p a rtic ip a tio n b y professional peo p le in th e fu tu re .
The study will be repeated w it h o th e r groups o f people as w e ll; peo p le fro m all w a lk s o f life.
Y o u r name was one o f 1 ,0 0 0 selected at ra n d o m fro m among the undergraduate p o p u la tio n
of

M.S.U. Y o u can provide us w it h the in fo rm a tio n w e need to help plan fo r fu tu re recreation needs.

Enclosed is a short questionnaire. Please answer the questions and return th e questionnaire
within a week - - it should tak e o n ly 2 0 to 3 0 m in u tes t o c o m p lete. W e assure you t h a t the in fo rm a tio n
you give w ill be treated as co n fid en tia l. T h e q u estionnaire is to be retu rn ed through C A M P U S M A I L ,
and no stamp is required if y o u give th e secretary o f y o u r College o r D e p a rtm e n t th e envelope so tha t
it may be forwarded to this O ffic e .

this project.

Y o u r cooperation is n o t o n ly appreciated, it is the necessary ingredient fo r the success of
T h an k you in advance.

Sincerely,

iSKA\U'\q
Dr. W, B. Brookover,
Professor o f Education and Sociology.

M r. B. M . Petrie.
Project C oordin ato r.

TO R E T U R N T H E Q U E S T I O N N A I R E : Replace the questionnaire in its original envelope. Place the
enclosed address label over the tag showing y o u r o w n n am e and address. R e tu rn th rou g h C A M P U S
M A IL , by giving the envelope con tainin g the q u estionnaire to the Secretary o f y o u r College or
Department.

249
Q U E S T I O N N A I R E O N P H Y S I C A L A C T I V I T Y P R E F E R E N C E S IN L E I S U R E

D I R E C T IO N S :

A ll o f the questions can be answered b y circling a number, checking an answer,
w ritin g in a number, o r w riting in a repiy. Please read all o f the instructions given
fo r the various kinds o f questions.
T h e numbers at the right edge o f the paper refer to IB M card colum n numbers,
and m ay be ignored.

S tu d y I D N u m b e r __________________

IB M N o .

Card N u m b e r __________ ]____________

(1-4)
(5)

P a r t i . A t t it u d e Questions
1.

In which kinds of activities w o u ld you rather spend y o u r time; leisure activities or w o rk
activities?
C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E C H O IC E S B E L O W .
Leisure activities
W ork (S tud y) activities

2.

(31)

In which type of activity w o u ld you prefer to spend y o u r leisure time?
RANK THE
C H O IC E S F R O M 1 T O 3. P U T A O N E (1) B E S ID E Y O U R F I R S T P R E F E R E N C E
A T W O (2) B E S ID E Y O U R S E C O N D P R E F E R E N C E . A N D A T H R E E (3) B E S ID E
YO U R T H IR D PR EFERENCE.
Cultural A c tiv ity
Social A c t iv it y
Physical A c tiv ity

3.

( 3 2 -3 4 )

In the activity most preferred in No. 2, do you prefer to watch others o r d o things yourself?
C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E C H O IC E S B E L O W .
__________________

Watch Others
D o Things M yself

(35)

250
-

2

-

IBM No.
4.

Considering the physical activities tha t you do in y o u r leisure tim e , w h a t ty p e o f in v o lv e m e n t
do you prefer? R A N K T H E C H O I C E S F R O M 1 T O 3, P U T A O N E (1 ) N E X T
T O T H E C H O I C E Y O U M O S T P R E F E R , A T W O (2) B E S ID E Y O U R S E C O N D
P R E F E R E N C E . A N D A T H R E E (3) B E S ID E Y O U R T H I R D P R E F E R E N C E .
A s a Particip an t
A s a Sp ectato r
As B o th Participan t and S p e ctato r

5.

(3 6 -3 8)

When y o u p a rtic ip a te in games, w h a t gives you the most satisfaction? R A N K T H E C H O I C E S
F R O M 1 T O 3. P U T A O N E (1 ) B E S I D E T H E C H O I C E T H A T G I V E S T H E
M O S T S A T I S F A C T I O N . A T W O (2) B E S ID E T H E C H O I C E T H A T G I V E S Y O U
T H E S E C O N D M O S T S A T I S F A C T I O N , A N D A T H R E E (3) B E S I D E T H E C H O I C E
T H A T G IV E S Y O U T H E L E A S T S A T IS F A C T IO N .
_____________________ W in ning
C o m p an io n sh ip
D e m o n s tra tin g Y o u r Skill

6.

(3 9 -4 1 )

B elow are some w o rd s tha t are o f t e n used to exp la in w h y a person p la y s a game. R A N K T H E
C H O I C E S F R O M 1 T O 6 . P U T A O N E (1 > B E S I D E T H E C H O I C E Y O U T H I N K
IS M O S T I M P O R T A N T . P U T A T W O (2) B E S ID E Y O U R S E C O N D M O S T
IM P O R T A N T C H O IC E , A N D C O N T IN U E U N T IL Y O U F IN IS H BY P U T T IN G
A S I X (G) B E S I D E T H E C H O I C E T H A T IS L E A S T I M P O R T A N T T O Y O U .
__________________ C o m p e titio n
_______

C o m p an io n sh ip
E x c ite m e n t
Prestige
Self Satisfaction
R e la x a tio n and F u n

7.

(4 2 -4 7 )

When you p a rtic ip a te in sports, w h ic h ty p e d o y o u p refer, individual o r team sports?
C H E C K (X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W IN G C H O IC E S
_____________

In d ivid ual Sports
T e a m Sports

(48)

251
_3IBM No.
8.

W h a t sport d o you m o s t e n jo y playing? W R I T E T H E N A M E O F T H E S P O R T O N T H E
L IN E BELOW .
( 4 9 -5 0 )

9,

H o w did y o u first lo a m to p la y y o u r fav orite sport? Cl I E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E
F O L L O W IN G C H O IC E S .
____________ ____ _
M y parents taught me
__________________ M y brothers or sisters taught m e
__________________ Friends at h o m e tau g h t me
__________________ Friends on campus taught me
__________________
M y physical e d u c atio n instructors o r teachers tau g h t me
________________
N o one taught me

10.

(5 1 )

W h a t do y o u th in k is most im p o r t a n t in p layin g a game? R A N K T H E C H O I C E S F R O M
1 T O 3. P U T A O N E (1) B E S ID E T H E C H O I C E Y O U T H I N K IS M O S T
I M P O R T A N T . P U T A T W O (2) B F S I D E Y O U R S E C O N D M O S T I M P O R T A N T
C H O I C E , A N D P U T A T H R E E (3) B E S ID E T H E C H O I C E Y O U T H I N K IS
L E A S T IM P O R T A NT.
T o play it as well as you are able.
— ■-----------------T o beat y o u r o p p o n e n t.
------------------------------------ T o play it fairly

11.

( 5 2 -5 4 )

People w a tc h sports to r m a n y reasons. F o u r o f these reasons are listed b e lo w . R A N K
T H E M F R O M 1 T O 4. P U T A O N E (1) B E S ID E T H E O N E Y O U T H I N K
IS T H E M O S T I M P O R T A N T R E A S O N F O R Y O U . P U T A T W O (2)
B E S ID E Y O U R S E C O N D M O S T I M P O R T A N T C H O I C E . P U T A T H R E E
(3| B E S ID E Y O U R T H I R D M O S T I M P O R T A N T C H O IC E , A N D P U T A
F O U R ( 4 ) B E S I D E T H E C H O I C E T H A T IS T H E L E A S T I M P O R T A N T
R E A S O N FO R Y O U R W A T C H IN G .
E x c ite m e n t
C o m p an io n sh ip
Escape fro m ro u tin e
T o see skillful performances

12.

When y o u w a tc h sports, w h ic h typ e d o you p refer, individual o r tea m sports? C H E C K ( X )
O N E O F T H E C H O IC E S B E L O W .
__________

T e a m Sports
Individual Sports

13.

( 5 5 -5 8 )

(59)

W h a t sport d o you m o s t e n jo y watching? W R I T E T H E N A M E O F T H E S P O R T O N T H E
L IN E B ELO W .

~

(60-61)

252
~ 4 IBM No.
Card N u m b e r . _________ 2___________

(5)

Part 2.
*" ‘
14.

* R E A P T H IS E N T IR E PAGE B E F O R E A N S W E R IN G .
T e n S ta te m e n ts are given b e lo w os reasons fo r partic ip a tin g in physical activity . C H O O S E
T H E F I V E (5 ) S T A T E M E N T S T H A T A R E M O S T I M P O R T A N T T O Y O U IN
Y O U R S E L E C T IO N O F A C T IV IT IE S T O P L A Y . R A N K T H E S E F IV E S T A T E M E N T S F R O M 1 T O 5. P U T A O N E (1) N E X T T O T H E S T A T E M E N T Y O U
T H I N K IS M O S T I M P O R T A N T F O R Y O U ; A T W O {2 ) N E X T T O T H E
S E C O N D M O S T I M P O R T A N T ; A N D SO O N U N T I L Y O U H A V E P U T A
N U M B E R N E X T T O EA C H OF T H E F IV E S T A T E M E N T S Y O U S E L E C T E D .
T H E N U M B E R F I V E (5 ) S H O U L D BE N E X T T O T H E S T A T E M E N T Y O U
C O N S I D E R T O BE L E A S T I M P O R T A N T O F T H O S E Y O U S E L E C T E D .

Physical a c tiv ity

as

a w a y of

Physical a c tiv ity

as

a

pursuing personal risk, thrills and danger.

w a y o f m e etin g people in social situations.

(31)
(32)

Physical a c tiv ity th a t m atches y o u r skill in th e use o f a w e a p o n against a
target o r q u a rry ,

(33)

Physical a c tiv ity

(34)

as

a

w a y of im p ro vin g the h ealth and fitness o f the body.

Physical a c tiv ity as a
w a y of involving the individual against "c h a n c e ” or
" l u c k " in an a t t e m p t t o w in an o b ject o r m o n e y .

(35)

Physical a c tiv ity

as

a

w a y of having fu n and for pure e n jo y m e n t.

(3 6 )

Physical a c tiv ity

as

a

w a y o f expressing ideas and feelings in m o v e m e n t.

(37)

Physical a c tiv ity as c o m p e t itio n involving S K I L L as the p re d o m in a n t part
o f the p e rfo rm a n c e .

<38)

Physical a c tiv ity as c o m p e t itio n involving C O M B A T as the p re d o m in a n t
p a r t o f the p e r fo rm a n c e ,

(39)

Physical a c tiv ity as c o m p e t itio n against p art o f the natural e n v iro n m e n t
(w ate r, m o u n ta in , snow, e tc .I.

(40)

253
- 5 -

IBM No.
R E A D T H IS E N T IR E P A G E B E F O R E A N S W E R IN G .

15.

T o n sta te m e nts are given b e lo w as reasons fo r being a spectator, view er, o r o n lo o k e r o f
physical activities. C H O O S E T H E F I V E (5) S T A T E M E N T S T H A T A R E
M O S T I M P O R T A N T T O Y O U IN Y O U R S E L E C T I O N O F A C T I V I T I E S
T O W A T C H . R A N K T H E S E F IV E S T A T E M E N T S F R O M 1 T O 5. P U T
A O N E (1} N E X T T O T H E S T A T E M E N T Y O U T H I N K IS M O S T I M P O R T ­
A N T T O Y O U ; P U T A T W O (2) N E X T T O T H E S E C O N D M O S T I M P O R T ­
A N T S T A T E M E N T F O R Y O U ; A N D SO O N U N T I L Y O U H A V E P U T A
N U M B E R N E X T T O EA C H O F T H E F IV E S T A T E M E N T S Y O U S E L E C T E D .
T H E N U M B E R F I V E (5) S H O U L D B E N E X T T O T H E S T A T E M E N T Y O U
C O N S ID E R T O BE T H E L E A S T IM P O R T A N T O F T H O S E Y O U S E L E C T E D .

__________ W a tc h in g p eo p le involved in dangerous, th rillin g and risky activities.

(4 1 )

__________

W a tc h in g peo ple involved in physical activities w h ic h are e njoy e d fo r p u rely
social reasons.

(4 2 )

__________

W a tc h in g a person m a tc h his skill in the use o f a w e a p o n against a target or
q u a rry .

(4 3 )

__________

W a tc h in g peo ple involved in activities tha t im p ro v e the health and fitness
o f the b o d y .

(44)

_______

W atch in g people involved against " c h a n c e " o r " l u c k " in an a t t e m p t to w in an
o b ject o r m o n e y .

(4 5 )

__________

W a tc h in g physical activities

t h a t give y o u a feeling o f e x c ite m e n t.

<4G)

____ _ _

W a tc h in g the expression o f

ideas and feelings in physical m o v e m e n t.

(4 7 )

W a tch in g c o m p e t it i o n involving S K I L L as the p r e d o m in a n t p art o f the
__________ p erfo rm a n ce .

__________

W a tc h in g c o m p e t itio n involving C O M B A T as the p re d o m in a n t p a r t o f the
p erfo rm a n ce .

(48)

(49)

W a tch in g peo p le in c o m p e t itio n against p art o f the natural e n v iro n m e n t
_ _ _ _ _ _

(w a te r, m o u n ta in , snow, etc.).

(50)

254
_ 6IBM No.
T h e fo llo w in g questions are concerned w it h y o u r b ac kg ro u n d , as w e ll as w it h some o f y o u r
fu tu re plans.
Part 3. B ackground Questions.
18.

H o w o ld w e re y o u on y o u r last b irth d ay ? W R I T E IN O N T H E F O L L O W I N G L I N E __________

19.

W h a t is y o u r sex? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G .

(7-8)

M ale
F em ale
2 0.

(9)

W h a t ia y o u r c u rren t m arital status? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G C H O I C E S .
__________________

Single (never m arried )

____________

Single (divorced)

__________________ Single ( w id o w e d )
__________________

Separated

_____________

M arried (once o n ly )
M arried (rem arried)

21.

(1 0 )

A re you an A m e ric a n citizen? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G C H O IC E S .
__________________ Yes
No

22.

(1 1 )

H o w m an y living brothers d o you have? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G
C H O IC E S .
__________________

One
Two

____________

T h re e

_____________________ F o u r o r M o re
None

(1 2 )

255
_ 7 -

IBM No.

23.

H o w m a n y living sisters d o you have? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G C H O I C E S .
__________________

One

__________________

Two

___________ T h re e
__________________ F o u r o r M ore
(13)

_ _ _________ N o n e

24.

H o w m a n y living brothers and sisters are older than you? C I R C L E O N E O F T H E
F O L L O W IN G .
1

25.

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

10+-

N o ne.

(1 4 -1 5 )

W h a t do you consider you rself to be? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G C H O I C E S .
__________________

D e e p ly Religious

__________ M o d e r a te ly Religious
__________ _

In d iffe re n t to Religion

__________________ Opposed to Religion

26.

(1 6 )

In w h a t religion were y o u raised? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G C H O I C E S .
__________________

Protestant

________ C atholic
_________ ________

Jewish

__________________ O t h e r
__________________N o n e
N o A n sw er

27.

W h a t typ e o f high school did you attend? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G
C H O IC E S .
__________________

Public High School

__________________ Parochial High School
__________________ Private High School

(17)

256
-

8

-

IBM No.

28.

In w h a t College are you studying? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G C H O I C E S .
__________________
__________________

A g ric u ltu re and N atu ral Resources
A rt s and Letters

__________________

Business

__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

C o m m u n ic a t io n A rts
E d u c a tio n
Engineering
H o m e Econom ics
H u m a n M edicine

__________________
James Madison
__________________
Justin M o r rill
__________________ L y m a n Briggs
__________________ N atu ral Science
______________
Social Science
__________________ U n iv e rs ity College
__________________
V e te r in a r y M ed ic in e

29.

( 1 9 -2 0 )

In w h a t specific academic area are y o u specin1i2ing? W R I T E T H E T I T L E O F Y O U R
M A J O R O N T H E L IN E BELOW .
(21-22 )

30.

W h at was the total gross in com e o f y o u r parents last year ( fr o m salaries and all o th e r
sources)? C H E C K ( X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W I N G C H O I C E S .
__________________ SO t o $ 2 , 7 9 0
__________________ S 2 ,7 9 1 to 3 4 , 7 9 0
__________________
3 4 ,7 9 1 to 3 0 ,4 9 0
__________________

3 0 , 4 9 1 to 3 8 , 9 9 9
3 9 , 0 0 0 to 3 1 2 , 0 0 0

__________________
3 1 2 , 0 0 1 to 3 1 5 , 0 0 0
__________________
3 1 5 , 0 0 1 to 3 2 0 , 0 0 0
__________________ M o re than 3 2 0 , 0 0 0
N ot Known

31.

(2 3 )

W ho was the m a jo r provider (fin a n cia lly ) fo r th e f a m ily w h e n y o u were in High School?
C H EC K (X ) O N E O F T H E F O L L O W IN G RESPONSES.
F a th e r
M o th e r
Other (ricasc s p e c i f y _______________________ )

32.

(24)

What was the occu p atio n o f the person w h o fin an c ially provided fo r y o u r f a m ily w h ile
y o u w e re in High School? W R I T E T H E T I T L E O F T H E O C C U P A T I O N O N
T H E L IN E BELOW .

(25)

257
„ g „

IBM No.

33.

Describe as accurately as possible w h a t the person m e n tio n e d in N o . 31 and N o . 3 2 did
w h ile engaged in his o ccupation. F o r exam p le; he supervised the w o r k o f
others, he sold d o o r to d o o r, he was a General Practitioner, etc.
W R IT E
Y O U R R ESPO N SE O N T H E L IN E S B ELO W .

(26)

34.

W h a t was the highest level o f education attained by this person? C H E C K ( X ) O N E
O F T H E F O L L O W I N G C H O IC E S .
__________________
G raduate School
____________ :_____
College Degree
_ _ _
A tte n d e d College
„___ _ _
High School G ra d u ate
__________________
A tte n d e d High School
_ _ _________
G ra d e 9
__________________ A tte n d e d J u n io r High School
______
.
G ra d e 6
__________________ A tte n d e d E le m e n ta ry School
__________________ N o t K n o w n

35.

( 2 7 -2 8 )

W h at is the size o f the p o p u la tio n of you r h o m e town? C H E C K f X ) O N E O F T H E
F O L L O W IN G C H O IC E S .
__________________ Less than 5 , 0 0 0 people
_______
5 ,00 1 to 1 0 ,0 0 0 people
______________________1 0,001 to 2 5 , 0 0 0 people
_________
2 5 ,0 0 1 to 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 people
__________________ 1 0 0 ,0 0 1 to 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 people
,
5 0 0 ,0 0 1 to 1 M illio n people
__________________ O ver 1 M illio n people

36.

(29)

What typ e o f jo b d o you plan to take w h en you finish y o u r College education? W R I T E
D O W N A D E S C R I P T I O N O F T H I S JO B O N T H E L I N E S B E L O W .

(30)

258
-

10

-

IB M N o .
Card N u m b e r

3_____________

(5)

Part 4 .
37.

tn y o u r o p in io n , w h a t p a rtic ip a n t sport do you m o s t id e n tify w i t h each o f the fo llo w in g
groups? Y O U M A Y W R I T E IN T H E S A M E S P O R T T W I C E IF Y O U T H I N K
I T IS A P P R O P R I A T E . W R I T E T H E N A M E O F T H E S P O R T B E S I D E T H E
NAM E OF TH E GROUP.
U p p e r Class

_________________________________________________

M id d le Class
W o rk in g Class _________________________________________________
L o w e r Class
38.

( 3 1 -3 8 )

In y o u r o p in io n , w h a t spectator sport do you m o s t id e n t if y w it h each of the fo llo w in g
groups? Y O U M A Y W R I T E IN T H E S A M E S P O R T T W I C E i F Y O U T H I N K
I T IS A P P R O P R I A T E . W R I T E T H E N A M E O F T H E S P O R T B E S I D E T H E
N AM E OF THE GROUP.
U p p e r Class

________________________________________________

M id d le Class
W o rk in g Class
L o w e r Class
39.

( 3 9 -4 6 )

W ith w h ic h social class group w o u ld y o u m a in ly associate th e players o f the fo llo w in g
sports? T O I N D I C A T E Y O U R C H O I C E , P L A C E A N " X " IN T H E
A P P R O P R IA T E C O L U M N . C H E C K O N L Y O N E O N E A C H L IN E .
1
2
3
4
5
Upper
Class

M id d le
W o rk in g
Class________ Class

Lower
C a n 't
Class______ D ecide

------------_
____
.____ .___

-------------

Baseball
Basketball
B o w lin g
B oxing
Fencing
F ie ld H o c k e y (w o m e n )
F ig u re S k a t i n g
F o o tb a ll
G o lf
Horse R id in g
Ice H o c k e y
Polo
Pool
Sailing

(47)
______
_______
_____

-------------

___
____________
.____ ___
_______ ____________ ____________
_______

_ _ ____

_______

_______

.

--------

- ■ ■ -----

S k e e t S h o o tin g
Skiing
Soccer
T en n is
T ra c k

(61)
(62)
(63)
(64)
(65)

W e ig h t L iftin g
_______
_____
Wrestling ( a m a t e u r ) ____________
T H A N K Y O U FO R C O N T R IB U T IN G TO O U R S T U D Y .
COVER LETTER.

(48)
(49)
(50)
(51)
(52)
(53)
(54)
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
(5 9 )
(60 )

_____

(66)
(67)

F O R IN S T R U C T IO N F O R R E T U R N , SEE T H E

APPENDIX B
F O L L O W UP CARDS

260

First F o ll o w - u p Ca rd

201 E r i c k s o n Hall.
M i c h i g a n State Uni versity.
Dear Colleague,
Last week, a q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n c e r n i n g yo u r a tt i tu d es
toward leisure and p hy s ic a l activity, was m a i l e d to you.
This card is to remind you of the i m p o r t a n c e of the
p r o j e c t , and to ask th at y o u co m pl e te and return the
q ue s ti o nn a ir e as soon as possible.
If you have a l ready r e tu r ne d the q u es t i o n n a i r e ,
please accept our thanks for y o ur p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the study.
Sincerely,

y.

fjV'Hi'ivj

D r . W. B . B r o o k o v e r .
P ro f essor of E d u c a t i o n and Sociology.

i

\

\

Mr. B. M. Petrie.
Pr o j e c t Coordinator.

261

Second Follow-up Card

t oward l e isure and p h y s i c a l

activity was mailed

to you.

This c a r d is a f u r t h e r r e m i n d e r of the i m p o r t a n c e of
the study, a n d we ask th a t y o u c o m p l e t e and r e t u r n the
q u e s t i o n n a i r e as so o n as p os s ible.
If y ou h a v e a l r e a d y r e t u r n e d the q u e s t i o n n a i r e , we
thank y o u for y o u r w i l l i n g n e s s to p a r t i c i p a t e in the study.
Sincerely

Dr. W. B. Brookover.
Professor.

Mr. B. M. Petr ie.
Project Coordinator.

APPENDIX C
DETAILED TABLES USED FOR SUMMARIZATION OF RESULTS

263
Table

8 8

.

S ex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of p u r s u i n g
p e r s o n a l risk, thr ills, an d d a n g e r
(N=625) .

Did no t r an k
i te m

Sex

Ranked
item

TOTAL

Male

(M= 306)

65.69

34.31

100

Female

(N - 3 1 D )

84.95

15.05

100

X

2

= 30.32 63,

Table

89 .

p less

.001.

S o x and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of m e e t i n g
p e o p l e in s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Did n o t
rank i t e m

Sex

than

Rank o r d e r g i v e n by r e s ­
pondents
1

2

TOTAL

3

4

5

Male

(N= 3 0 6 )

39 .54

3.92

8.82

10.46

18.63

1 8. 6 3

100

F en a le

(N= 319)

2 2

.26

9.09

21.94

20 .69

14.73

11.29

100

X

2

— 56.3848,

Table

90.

p less

than

.001.

S e x and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y t h a t m a t c h e s s k i l l
in the use of a w e a p o n a g a i n s t a t a r g e t
or q u a r r y ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Did no t rank
item

Sex

Ran k ed
xtem

Male

(N= 30 6 )

84.97

15.03

100

F em a le

(N= 319)

90.91

9.09

100

X

2

= 4.6740,

p less t h an

.05.

264

Table

91.

S ex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of i m p r o v i n g
the h e a l t h an d f it n e s s of the body
(N= 6 2 5) .

Did not
rank i t em

Sex

Rank o r d e r given by res
pondents
2

1

3

4

T OT A L
5

Male

(N-306)

9.80

21. 57 27.45

20.59

1 1 . 1 1

9 . 48 100

Female

(N= 319)

8.15

15. 99

26.02

13.17

9.40 100

X

2

= 5.5922,

T a b l e 92.

27 .27

no t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

.05.

S ex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of i n vo l v i n g
the i n d i v i d u a l a g a i n s t "c h a n c e " or "luck"
in an a t t e m p t to w i n an ob j ec t or money
(N= 6 2 5) .

Did n ot r an k
item

Sex

R anked
item

TO TAL

Male

(N=30 6 )

85.6 2

14.38

1 0 0

Female

(N~ 319)

89.03

10.97

1 0 0

X

2

= 1.3480,

T able 93.

not s i g n i f i c a n t

.05.

S ex and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of ha v in g
fun and p u re e n j o y m e n t < N = 6 2 5 ) .

Ra n k o r d e r given by res
pondents
”
1
2
3
4
5

Did not
rank i tern

Sex

at p

Male

{N= 3 0 6 )

5.

Female

(N= 319)

1

8 8

.57

X 2 = 31.5237,

T OTAL

43.79

1 9 .9 3

16.01

8.17

6 . 2 1

1 0 0

61.13

19.44

12.54

3.45

1 . 8 8

1 0 0

p less

t ha n

.001.

265
Table

94.

S e x and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as a w a y of e x p r e s s i n g
ideas a n d f e e l i n g s in m o v e m e n t ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

„•

Sex

Ranked item

no t
rank r t e m

TOTAL

1

l,

2,

3

4

,

5

Mal e

(N-306)

65.69

13 . 73

20.59

100

Female

(M=319)

36.05

30.72

33. 23

100

X

2

= 56.499,

Table

(N= 30 6 )
(11=319)

16.99
24.45

X^ = 35.6225,
Table

96.

.001.

S e x and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as c o m p e t i t i o n
i n v o l v i n g s k i l l as the p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t
of the p e r f o r m a n c e (N=625) .

Ran k o r d e r g i v e n by respondents

D id n o t
rank i t e m

S ex

Male
Female

95.

p less t h an

TOTAL

1

2

3

4

5

16.99
5.64

17.32
10.34

17.97
16.30

17.97
22.26

12.75
21.00

p less

th a n

100
100

.001.

S e x and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y as c o m p e t i t i o n
i n v o l v i n g c o m b a t as the p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t
of the p e r f o r m a n c e ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

Did not
ra nk i t e m

Sex

Ranked
item

Male

(N= 30 6 )

83.99

1 6. 0 1

Fema le

(N= 319)

95.92

4.08

= 23.5902,

p less

than

.001.

TOTAL

1 0 0

100

in

266
Table

Sex

97.

S e x and the m o t i v a t i o n for p a r t i c i p a t i o n
in p h y s i c a l acti vity as compet i ti o n
a ga inst p a r t of the n a tural e n v i r o n m e n t
(N= 62 5) .

Ranked item

Did not
rank i te m

1,2,3

4,5

TOTAL

Male

(N= 3 0 6 )

46 .08

25.49

28.43

1 0 0

F emale

(N= 319)

49 .84

13.79

36.36

1 0 0

X

2

= 14.4341,

Table

Female

than

(N=3 0 6 )
(N= 319)

Ranked

29.41
52.35

99.

2

3

43.79
22.26

Male

(N-306)

Female

(N=319)

4,

5

46. 80
25. 39

1 0 0
1 0 0

.001.

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g p eople
i nv o lv e d in p hy sical activities w h i c h are
e njoyed for p ur e ly social reasons (N =625).

Did no t rank
item

Sex

item
TOTAL

1

X 2 = 42 .1850, p less than
Table

.001.

Sex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g p eople
i nv o lv e d in dangerous, thrilling, and risky
act i vi t ie s ( N = 6 2 5 ) .

.,
,
Dxd not
rank i t e m

Sex
Male

98 .

p less

Rank ed
it e m
24.51
37 .62

75.49
62. 38

X 2 = 11 .8978, p less

than

.0 01.

TOTAL
1 0 0
1 0 0

267
Table

100.

S e x a n d the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g a
p e r s o n m a t c h his s k i l l in the u s e o f a
w e a p o n a g a i n s t a t a r g e t or q u a r r y
(N = 6 2 5 ).

D id no t ra nk
item

Sex

i tern

total

Male

(N=306)

78.43

21.57

100

Female

(N= 319)

83. 70

16.30

100

X 2 = 2 .4 9 62 , n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

Table

101.

S e x an d the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g
p e o p l e i n v o l v e d in a c t i v i t i e s that
i m p r o v e the h e a l t h and f itness of the
body (N=625).

Ranked
i.,OT„
tem

D id n o t ra nk
item

Sex
Male

(N=30

Female

(N= 3 19)
X

2

6

)

= 19.1 694,

Table

10 2.

TOTAL

78. 43

2 1.57

100

62 .07

37 .93

100

p less t h a n

.001

S e x and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g
p e o p l e i n v o l v e d a g a i n s t "chance" or "lucl
in an a t t e m p t to w i n an o b j e c t or m o n e y
(N=625).

Did n o t rank
item

Sex

.05 .

Ranked
item

TOTAL

Ma l e

(N=306)

67.32

32.68

100

Fe m a l e

(N=319)

72.41

27.59

100

X

2

= 1.6920,

not significant

at p

.05.

268

Table

10 3.

S ex and t h e m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s t h a t g i ve y o u a
f e e l i n g of e x c i t e m e n t (N=625).

Ra n k o r d e r g i v e n by r e s ­
pondents

Did not
rank

Sex

T OT A L
1

2

3

4

5

Male

(N= 30 6 )

8

.17

35.95

25.16

14.05

10.78

5.88

1 0 0

Fe m a l e

(N= 319)

6

.27

41. 69

22.88

12.23

11.60

5.33

1 0 0

X2

= 3 .0223 , n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

Table

104.

S e x a nd the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g the
e x p r e s s i o n o f ideas and f ee l i n g s in
p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t (N= 6 2 5 ) .

,
D i d not
r an k i t e m

Sex

.05.

Ranked

item
TOT AL

3

4,

5

Male

(N=306)

67.97

14.71

17. 32

1 0 0

Fe m a l e

(N= 319)

39.18

35.74

25.08

1 0 0

X

2

= 55.8660,

Table

(N-306)
(N= 319)
X

2

7. 84
4 .70

= 5.0181,

than

.001.

S e x and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g
c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g skill as the
p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of the p e r f o r m a n c e
(N=625).

Did IIv t—■
rank
Uem

Sex

Male
Female

105.

p less

Ran k o r d e r g i v e n by respondents
1

36.93
35.74

2

3

27.78 16.67
26.96 18.81

n o t s i g n i f i c a n t at p

1

T OTAL

4

5

7.52
8.15

3.27
5.64

.05.

1 0 0
1 0 0

269
Table

106 .

S e x and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g
c o m p e t i t i o n i n v o l v i n g co m b a t as the
p r e d o m i n a n t p a r t of the p e r f o r m a n c e
(N= 6 2 5) .

D i d n o t r a nk
■»
item

S ex

Ranked
-,
item

TOiAL

M al e

(N=306)

53.59

46.41

100

Female

(N= 319)

88.71

11.29

100

X

2

= 92.8579,

Table

107.

p less t h a n

.001.

S ex and the m o t i v a t i o n for w a t c h i n g
p e o p l e in c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t p a r t of
the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t ( N = 6 2 5 ) -

Rank o r d e r g i v e n by resDid
rank

Sex

1

P O n d ° n_tS
2
3

.
4

.

total,

5

Male

(N= 3 0 6 )

41 .83

2.94

7.19

13 . 73 18.63

15 .69

100

Fem a le

(N= 319)

35 .11

3.45

9.40

18.18

17 . 55

100

X

2

= 5.6342,

not significant

at p

16.30

.05.