71-23,183 FOLSOM, Michael MacKay, 1941GLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE HASTINGS QUADRANGLE, MICHIGAN. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1971 Geography U niversity M icrofilm s, A XEROX C o m p a n y , A n n A rbor, M ich ig an GLACIAL GEOPORPHOLOGY OP THE HASTINGS QUADRANGLE, MICHIGAN By ,\ „> ■ i Michael M.w Folsom A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Geography 1971 ABSTRACT CLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOCY OF THE HASTINGS QUADRANGLE, MICHIGAN By Michael M. Folsom The glacial geomorphology of the area of a southwestern Michigan fifteenminute topographic quadrangle was investigated. The regional geomorphic character was examined along with the more specific questions of inter— lobate landforms and ice-marginal stagnation landforms. Both qualitative and quantitative techniques of investigation were used and were applied to the sediments of the region as well as to the land surface itself. Comparison with descriptions in existing literature, stereoscopic analysis of air photos, interpretation of the pertinent U. S. G. S. topographic map, development of a physiographic diagram of the study area, and the measurement of topographic complexity using a variation of Zakrzewska's (lb63) method all provided topographic data from the study area and are presented cartographically. The sediments of the study area were examined for their lithology as derived from pebble counts, but the results were too ambiguous to be of great value. The sedimentB were also examined for their texture as measured by mechanical size analysis and the resulting data were also somewhat ambiguous but did provide a few discrete categories which could be related to regions within the study area. Curficial stratig­ raphies within the Hastings quadrangle were investigated and proved to fall naturally into several unlike classes each located in a reasonably discrete area. The interpretations of the surface morphology of the 2 study area were integrated with the conclusions about the sediments and the several stratigraphies. Prom this synthesized information, six landscape types (surface formations) were recognized within the study area: Stagnation Moraine, Primary Drainage Channel, Interlobate Moraine, Kame Topography, Outwash Plain, and Ground Moraine (or till plain). The subglacial geology of the study area was outlined using pub­ lished literature sources and well logs on file with the Michigan Geological Survey. The pattern of lineations shown by large bedrock topographic features seems to show some general agreement with the gross topographic features of the overlying glacial materials, but the smaller details of the bedrock and the glacial topographies apparently show no such similarity. In the study area, abundant field evidence is available which is here interpreted as indicating the previous existence of relatively large areaB of marginal ice stagnation. Conditions of ice—marginal stagnation are sufficiently unlike those of the better known or "clas­ sical" state of a coherently retreating ice margin, and the associated landforms and sediments are also sufficiently unlike, so that a supple­ mentary model of explanation was developed. Both the classical model of explanation and the stagnation model of explanation are used in the interpretation of glacial landscapes in the Hastings quadrangle. The stagnation moraine has a rolling terrain scored relatively deeply by subparallel esker troughs. The stratigraphy of at least the southern portion of the stagnation moraine is quite complex but regularly recurrent. A deep basal zone of "underwesh" sand and gravel is overlain by either a poorly-bedded or non-bedded coarser sand and gravel unit here called the "jumbled zone" or by a gravelly, faulted lacustrine unit, 3 or by both. till. Above this, at the surface, i3 found loose, sandy ablation The stagnation rnoraine probably developed as shear planes between moving proximal ice and the stagnated marginal ice cav .ed basal debris to move upward and eventually extrude or melt onto the glacial surface as ablation progressed. The rate of surface melting was retarded and eubglacial drainage developed causing'first subglacial erosion, then deposition. Pinal melting of the stagnant ice deposited ablation till on the irregularly hilly surface of the subglacially lodged sand and gravel. Small lakes developed locally in the stagnant io*-: surface and the associated lacustrine sediments were also let down onto the under­ wash sediments. Tertiary erosional channels developed as the waning fragments of the stagnant ice mass blocked the deeper secondary eBker channels but still provided meltwater in erosive quantities. Acceptance of this interpretation requires some adjustments in the existing glacial map of Michigan. Some accommodation will probably need to be made for other stagnation landscapes as well in some future revised map. The primary drainage channel is a broad lowland trending generally east and west across the northern half of the study area and currently occupied by the Thornapple River. Broad tabular terraces of well- bedded sand have displaced the Thornapple River toward the southern edge of the primary drainage channel. The interpretation of this land­ scape type is related to the stagnation moraine. As surface ablation on the stagnated glacier margin was retarded by a covering of ablation till, the proximal zone of cleaner ice continued to melt at an undimin— ished rate and a depression, or "ablation fosse" was formed which acted as a gathering place for meltwater. Some of this ponded meltwater 4 drained away under the distal stagnant ice, hut eventually the majority of drainage was along the trend of the fosse and then away from the glacier hy extraglacial routes. Large volumes of meltwater kept the primary drainage channel from aggrading for a period, hut eventually streams built large terrace— like accumulations of sediments from the north, apparently into ponded-water conditions. The interlohate moraine has a rough and complex topography of two sets of peripheral hills composed of glaciofluvial sand and gravel and pitted with deep kettle depressions, and a medial lowland in similar poorly bedded sand and gravel but with an irregular covering of ablation till. This landscape feature is interpreted as having been formed between the ice of the Michigan lobe and the Saginaw lobe when huge subglacial or ice-limited meltwater streams laid down thick deposits of sand and gravel, burying massive blocks of ice in the process. A thicker ridge or welt of ice apparently inhibited or prevented deposition in the center of the interlohate contact, and when all the ice finally melted, a medial lowland there was preserved. This interpretation of the inter— lobate moraine indicates that the existing concepts of regional correlation of morainic systems and major glacial lobes in some of the southwestern parts of the state may have to be altered. The apparent interlohate character of this feature strongly suggests that the Tekonsha moraine, lying to the south and east, could not have been formed in part by Michigan lobe ice. The kame topography exists between the stagnation moraine and the interlohate moraine and was probably formed when meltwater from the latter spilled over onto part of the former, melted passages down along patterned fracture weaknesses, and later deposited sand and gravel into those same ice— limited channels. The steep conical hills of the kame topography have an irregular covering of ablation till. Outwash plain areas are found in two portions of the Hastings quadrangle and appear to fit within the classical explanatory model for such landscapes. Ground moraine is also found in two separate parts of the study area and similarly can be explained using the nonstagnation or classical model. CONTENTS Page Introduction .............................................. Statement of the Problem; Justification 1 Chapter I 4 Review of Pertinent Literature ................ Chapter II Methodology.......... Methods Applicable to Landforms; Methods Applicable to Sediments 9 Chapter III Bedrock G e o l o g y ............................ 23 Regional Bedrock Type; Regional Bedrock Structure and Topography Chapter IV Explanatory Models of Olacial Landscapes — A Discussion . . ............ . . . . . . . . . 3 6 Introduction; Ice-Marginal Environment — Classical Model; Ice-Marginal Environment — Stagnation Model; Landscape Criteria Used in the Hastings Quadrangle Chapter V Explanation of Landscape Types ................. $0 Introduction; The Stagnation Moraine; The Primary Drainage Channel; The Interlohate Moraine; the Kame Topography; Outwash Plains; Till Plains Chapter VI The Delegation Sequenoe .................. 124 Summary and Conclusion .................................. 144 // LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES I. II. (Folded in Pocket) Hastings Quadrangle Topographio Hap (U.S.G.S.) Landscape Types of the Hastings Quadrangle FIGURES Page 1. Hastings Quadrangle Location in Southern Michigan . 2 2. Topographio Pattern ............................... 12 3. Physiographic D i a g r a m ............................. 13 4. Topographic Texture ............................... 15 5. Sediment Lithology 6. Sediment Texture 7* Bedrock T y p e s ...................................• -25 3. Topography on the Bedrock Surface . . . . . . . . . 2 9 9. Establishment of Ablation Till over a Stagnant Ice Z o n e ..........................................43 of of of of ........... 19 .......... . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 Stagnation Moraine Topography Secondary Channel Underwash Sediments Jumbled Sediment Zone . . .5 2 10.A B C D Photograph Photograph Photograph Photograph 11.A B C Photograph of Sandy Jumbled Zone Sediments . . . .5 6 Photograph of Lacustrine Sediments Photograph of Faulted Lacustrine Sediments 12.A B C Photograph of Ablation T i l l .................... 59 Photograph of Contact at the Base ofAblation Till Photograph of the Stagnation MoraineStratigraphic Sequence of Sediments 13.A B C Photograph of Till Ball - Side V i e w ........... 63 Photograph of Till Ball — End View Photograph of "Tropfenboden” 14.A Photograph of C r a g .............................. 67 BPhotograph of Tertiary Channel C Photograph of the Tabular Terrace Surface in the Primary Drainage Channel D Photograph of an Eroded Terrace Scarp in the Primary Drainage Channel 15* Explanatory Diagrams for the Stagnation Moraine ......... JO 16. Explanatory Diagrams for the Primary Drainage Channel . . 86 1 7 .A B C 18. Explanatory Diagrams for the Interlohate Moraine 19. A B C D 20. Photograph of Hills in the Southern Portion of the Interlohate Moraine ............... . . . . . . . . . . Photograph of Hills in the Northern Portion of the Interlohate Moraine Photograph of Sediments in the Interlohate Moraine Photograph Photograph Photograph Faulting Photograph ... 94 .103 of Karne Topography ..................113 of OutwaBh Topography of Outwash Sediments Showing Collapse of Ground Moraine or Till Plain Topography Explanatory Diagrams for the Deglaciation Sequence . . .127 129 132 135 137 140 141 21. Hydrographic Features IV .143 LIST OF TABLES Table I INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem This research problem iB concerned with the glacial landforms and sediments of the Hastings quadrangle area in lower southern Michigan (Figure 1). In this study area of about 216 square miles the deposition— al evidence from ice-marginal environments was investigated. general questions were considered: Two what are the topographio and Btratigraphic characteristics of a landscape marking a zone of con­ fluence between two major lobes of ice, what prooeBnes and geomorphio events were involved in the development of such a zone, and what 1 b its areal extent; and what was the nature of the ice—marginal environment during deglaciation of this specific region, was marginal stagnation a common or significant condition of the ice, and what processes and events are associated with the development of any ice-stagnation landforms existing in the Hastings quadrangle? Justification The assemblage of landforms and sediments associated with inter— lobate landscape appears in general to be poorly understood. Further­ more, a considerable part of southern Michigan consists of interlobate landforms and their associated sediments. No detailed investigations of such landscapes in Michigan have been published, and the topic iB worthy of investigation. The general problem of ice-marginal disinte­ gration is justified because there are extensive portions of southern Michigan that do not fit well into the pre-existing classical scheme of JL 20 40 eo MILES UJ flO o o X o LOCATION OF TH E HASTINGS 15* QUADRANGLE, MICHIGAN | STUDY AREA INTERLOBATE CONTACT GENERAL ICE MOVEMENT FIGURE I 3 the evolution of glacial landscapes. Within the Hastings quadrangle there are areas of hummocky and subdued topography associated with loose, non-compacted, sandy till— like sediments for which the concept of icemarginal stagnation during deglaciation offers a reasonable alternative to the notion of'a continual tendency toward an orderly retreat of the ice margin. CHAPTER I REVIEW OP PERTINENT LITERATURE Much literature bearing on the glacial geomorphology and sediments of southern Michigan is available. presented here chronologically. Part of this published record is The nature of the literature shifts through time from the early statements about general regional character— isticB to more recent work on more carefully limited topics pertinent to the study area. Before 1900 only a few items concerning the glacial landforms and sediments of Michigan had been published. Douglass Houghton, the first state geologist of Michigan, recognized the linear topographic patterns in southern Michigan but did not suggest that the pattern waB morainic in origin (Houghton, 1939)* Winchell commented on the strong diagonal nature of drainage and topographic features in southern Michigan and proposed that the directional movement of the Saginaw and Erie ice lobes could account for it (Winchell, 1873* P* 40). In an introductory section of a longer article on Michigan geology, Roraiger outlined the then current level of knowledge of glacial sediments and landforms (Romiger, 1 8 7 6 , pp. 1-22). Wright mentioned chips of wood brought up from deep well borings into the drift in southwestern Michigan but commented that it is impossible to tell if more than one glaciation were responsible for the sediments (Wright, 1895* P* 13). After 1900 the pace of investigation quickened and more information became available in published form, with Frank Leverett responsible for 4 5 much of it. Leverett suggested that pre-Wisconsinan glaciations may be responsible for some of the topographic features of the state and mentioned Saginaw lobe eskers commonly found in shallow troughs inciBed into the underlying "till” (Leverett, 1903A, pp. 117-118). A very similar abstract was published in a different place in the same year (Leverett, 1903B, p. 224). In 1904 Leverett reviewed the glacial geology of southern Michigan and commented on the lobate form of the glaciers in this region and the resulting concentration of "glaoial drainage,” which accounts for the abundance of sand, gravel, and "loose textured till" in Michigan's drift (Leverett, 1904, p. 106). In 1915 Leverett discussed the location, drift composition and thickness, and topographic characteristics of the Michigan Kalamazoo system (pp. 175— 1 8 4 )t the Michigan—Saginaw interlobate tract (pp. 185— 188), the Saginaw Kalamazoo system (pp. 198—201), the Saginaw Charlotte system (pp. 204— 209), and the Michigan Valparaiso system (p. 220), as they exist in or influence the landforms of Barry County and the Hastings quadrangle map area (Leverett and Taylor, 1915 1 PP* 175—220). In 1917 Leverett published another and more general discussion of Michigan geology, which added little new information but did tabulate the 576 survey sections of Barry County as 58 "Swamp and Lake” sections, 142 "Clayey Till” sections, 254 "Sandy Till” sections, 6 4 "Sandy" sections, and 58 "Gravelly" sections (Leverett, 1917* PP* 116— 118 and 153). The next year Leverett described the landscape of the Camp Custer military reservation just south of the study area. He mentioned the large outwash plain associated with the Kalamazoo moraine, the many kettle lakes in the outwash, and a till plain proximal to the Kalamazoo moraine just north of Bellevue (Leverett, I9 18 A, no pages). That same 6 year Leverett published a similar abstract in which he discussed the persistence of ice blocks well distal of the retreating ice margin in Barry County, as well as the drainage connection from the Cun Plains south to Lake Dowagiac at the time the ice margin held a position marked by the Valparaiso and Charlotte moraines (Leverett, 1918B, pp. 53-54)* In another abstract Leverett commented on the ponding of water in the Gun Lake area by Valparaiso ice and the water's subsequent dis­ charge south into Lake Dowagiac and the Kankakee Hiver in Indiana (Leverett, 1919» PP» 90-91)* Other authors also produced publications which are pertinent to the Hastings quadrangle. In a Michigan Geological Survey Annual Report Scott discussed the larger lakes of Michigan. Gun Lake, Gull Lake, and Wall Lake in the vicinity of the study area are all identified as ice-block pits (Scott, 1920, pp. 195—200 and 330—333)* In 1924 the Michigan Geological Survey published Leverett's 1:750,000 map of the Burface formations of southern Michigan. Because of the small scale of the map only a very generalized version of the glacial character istics of the Hastings Quadrangle map area is shown, but the Inner and Outer Kalamazoo moraines and their associated lakes and outwash plains can be seen (Leverett, 1924 )- The 1928 Soil Survey of Barry County provided a fairly detailed map at the scale of one inch to one mile showing the distribution of twenty—two soil types in fifteen soil series (Deeter and Trull, 1928). Strong bedrock control of patterns of glacial deposition was a concept supported by Newcombe, Burgoyne, and Lindberg in 1935* They pointed out the coincidence of "exceptional numbers" of pit lakes over high bedrock areas of Marshall sandstone and suggested that in these areas the ice was thinner and more likely to stagnate. 7 They also observed a rectangularity of drainage and attributed it to "the positions of structural axes" associated with ouesta scarps in the bedrock (Newcombs, Burgoyne and Lindbergt 1935» PP» 117— ^181)* In an introductory section of his 1936 paper considering a part of the Northern Peninsula, Bergquist commented on the relatively early retreat of the Saginaw lobe in southern Michigan compared with the adjacent Michigan and Erie lobes. He believed that the Saginaw ice was thinner and carried less drift and that after the Saginaw ice margin had re­ treated, the impinging lobeB advanced by lateral extension into the vacated area and modified pre—existing Saginaw lobe moraineB or built new ones (Bergquist, 1936, pp. 23-26). Martin wrote a brief popular account of the glacial history of the Yankee Springs area (Martin, 1943)* Stewart (1948) presented a study of the glacial geomorphology of Wexford County, Michigan. As part of his 1954 study Terwilliger de­ scribed the Michigan Kalamazoo morainic system in Van Bm-en County and suggested a sequence of glacial retreat of the Michigan lobe from the Kalamazoo position (Terwilliger, 1954)* Wilson investigated the pebble lithology of the Michigan and Saginaw lobes, partly in the Hastings quadrangle, and recorded what he felt to be a distinctively different mix of clastic and nonclastic sedimentary rocks associated with each lobe (Wilson, 1955)* In an important map of the surface formations of southern Michigan at a scale of 1:500,000 Martin elaborated on Leverett*s earlier map. She compiled her information on the Hastings quadrangle area from Leverett*s original manuscript maps on U.S. Geological Survey topo­ graphic quadrangles and from her own manuscript maps and field notes. She Bhowed the Inner and Outer Kalamazoo moraineB, the broad trend of 8 the Saginaw Kalamazoo moraine, and the related spillways and patches of ground moraine. On her published map she showed no eskers in the study area, but on her unpublished iranuscribt map of the Hastings quadrangle dated April 1953* she showed an esker west of Larabee and Cox Lakes (sec. 14* T. 2 N . , R. 9 W.). Anderson studied the pebble and sand lithology of the major Wisconsinan lobes of the Midwest (Anderson, 1^57, P* 1419)- A brief discussion of the glacial drift of part of adjacent Kalamazoo County was published in i9 6 0 aB part of a water supply paper, but the glacial geology was based almost entirely on Leverett*s manuscript maps on U.S. Geological Survey topographic quadrangle maps (Deutsch, Vanlier and Giroux, 1960, pp. 25— 34). Wayne and Zuirberge coauthored a review article on the Pleistocene of Indiana and Michigan (Wayne and Zumberge, 1 9 6 5 , pp. 167— 179)* Vanlier described the glacial sediments of a small portion of adjacent Calhoun County at the site of the city of Battle Creek (Vanlier, 1966, pp. 30-33). Vingard investigated the lithology of gravels from actively worked pits across much of southern Michigan. He suggested that because of varying environments of deposition there was more variation of lithology within each of the major lobes than there was between any two lobes in general (Wingard, 1 9 6 9 ). Much work of a general nature has been done, but few detailed accounts are available for southwestern Michigan and none for the Hastings study area. Using the background of the interesting regional and topical investigations already accomplished, this study proposes to develop the detailed and intensive qualitative and quantitative de­ scription and explanation of landforms and sediments within a district of glacial interlohate landscape in southwestern Michigan. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Methods Applicable to Landforms Because glacial landscapes may have aspects involving both land— forms and sediments, analysis in thiB Btudy deals basically with two sets of complimentary methods; those methods applicable to landforms and those methods applicable to sediments. Techniques of landform analysis may themselves be dichotomized into quantitative methods and into qualitative methods. Quantitative landform analysis in this study is approached by the method of topographic texture. Qualitative methods of topographic analysis used in this study include map interpretation, stereoscopic air photo interpretation, and comparison of the topography of the Hastings quadrangle with published descriptions of other glaciat­ ed localities. Interlohate landforms have been described from the area of the Kettle moraine in Wisconsin (Chamberlin, 1887} Alden, 1918} Whitbeck, 1921; and Black, 1 9 69 )* Topographic criteria identified in these publications are applied to the interlohate tract in the Hastings quadrangle. General linear form, morphological complexity of slope, ridged or knob-and-kettle topography, and two subparallel crest lines of hills higher than and peripheral to the main interlohate moraine are all characteristic of the Kettle moraine interlohate feature in Wisconsin. Landscapes which originated in association with stagnant ice 9 10 conditions are described in the Kalaspina area in Alaska (Russell, 1891—2; Tarr, 1909; Cook, 1946B; Hartshorn, 1952), and from other North American placeB by, among others, Leverett, 1903 A and B; Fuller, 1904; Leverett and Taylor, 1915, VerWeibe, 1926; Flint, 1929, Newcombe and others, 1935; Rich, 1943; Cook, 1946A; Holmes, 1947; Spurr and Zumberge, 1956; Gravenor and Kupsch, 1959; Leighton, 1959; Stalker, I960; and Winters, 1961 and 1963> Stagnation landscapes from northern Europe were con­ sidered by many including Cook, 1924, Flint, 1930; Anderson, 1931; Priehausser, 1938; Carruthers, 1939 and 1953; Mannerfelt, 1945; Hoppe, 1952, 1957, 1959, and 1963; Sissons, 1958A, 1958B, 1961, 1 9 6 3 , and 1967; Johnsson, 1959 and 1962; frfstrem, 1959 and 1 9 6 4 ; Gjessing, I96 O; Price, i9 6 0 , 1963, 1965 and 196 6 ; and Holmssen, 1963* Topographio character^- istics of stagnation landscapes described by this body of literature include many closed depressions, steep and complex slopes, and linear subglacial channels which may contain eskers or fragments of eskers. This set of traits of surface form may not always be present in any given example of ice-stagnation topography, but they are mentioned frequently enough in the published record to indicate that they may be considered typical. Stereoscopic interpretation of overlapping panchromatio air photographs can provide excellent images of, among other things, the surface morphology of a region (Tator, i9 6 0 , pp. 172, 188— 192). Air photos of the Hastings quadrangle area are available in the nine-inch square contact print format from U.S. Department of Agriculture sources. They are usually printed at a scale of 1:20,000. For this study Production Marketing Administration photographs taken during July and September, 1950 were used. This set of photographs is on file in the air 11 photo library in the Geography Department of Michigan State University. For stereoscopic analysis in this study each pair of photos was placed in position for stereoscopic viewing, and the lineations and patterns of the surface relief which are apparent in the three-dimensional stereo­ scopic image were transferred to a transparent Acetate overlay which had been prepared with survey— section corner— reference marks. The resulting square-mile overlays were then fitted together into a mosaic illustrating the arrangement of topographio pattern in the study area. reduced to convenient map scale for drafting (Figure 2). The mosaic was Such a procedure may produce a valuable cartographic model or abstraction of the landscape surface which, although qualitative in nature, may contain sufficient internal homogeneity to provide a reliable piece of evidenoe of the areal pattern or arrangement as well as a source of theoretical generalisation. A second qualitative method available for committing map interpretive concepts to graphic form is the physiographic diagram. The physiographic diagram prepared for this dissertation was composed by placing on its correct planimetric position within the Hastings quadrangle a stylized drawing of each visually and areally important landform feature (Figure 3)* The individual stylized drawings have a vertical exaggeration of thirteen and are correct to the respective vertical and horizontal scales. Each individual drawing in the diagram is not intended to be a realistic representation of some landscape feature, but is meant simply to illus­ trate the relative size of the landforms as well as their planimetric arrangement and pattern. Landscapes may alBO be interpreted quantitatively. Topographic surfaces as a class of information are, however, because of their very 42*45' N ,JP' ' * !> * » / - / ^ / / • ' 4'x: V' ■ f J X * f' / H A '. r r j r , : , 15' cj )-C M Afjr.i.e / >; Mir,Hir-,AM TOPOGRAPHIC PATTERN AS INTERPRETED AREAS FROM AIR PHOTO REPR E6EN T STEREO SCOPIC FIGURE 2 POSITIVE IMAGE TO STEREOSCOPIC RELIEF FEATURES BE LOCALLY IMAGES WHICH APPEAR SIGNIFICANT BLACK IN THE A3 •••••••••*• • • • ••••••#• ••• *• * \>9 0 0 0 mm • • • • o:<••••• • •••• •• ••• 0 0 0 9 «• •••••• ••••• • > ■• • 90000 •• ••• • • • 0 ’* & Si iS •. .••••• «• •• • •• • •• •• #••«•*••• • •• • • »90m 9 9 • « 99 9 ••• •• •••• • • • • »•••••• • ■ 3•A 1 * 0 9 0 4 9 • •• • • • 0•• • ■3 9 04 0 •• • ••••• •••• •• 040 0 0 •* • •• ••••••• •• 9 0 0 •••••••• 999•• 0 0 0 ••• •• • •••<>••• •• A• 00 0 0 0 • ••••••• • • 0 0 •• * . • • • • •• • • •• ••• •••••• •• •••• • •• • ••••••• • •••• ••• •••••••«•• • • • 000000 •••••••• •• • •• »•••••• •••••••• ••••• • •••• ^ • •• • • • • ••• *••••« *••••••• 0040 ••• • • • • • • • • • * • • • • • .*••••••« • » • • • • •• • ••• ••• •••• 99 • • •• • * • • • • • • • • • • • •••• • •• ••••• • *••• <8 i t 0000000 ••••• • • • • • • «>•# • •••••••••• • •»<>••(>••••• • 9 0 0 0 9 0 9 •• •• •••*• •••• 0 9 0 9 0 9 4 0 •• •t • • 42*3O1N •••• •»•«•••<»• • > •• • • • ••••• •• • • 000000900 •• •••••••• •• ••••• >••••• •• • •• • ••• • •• • ••• ••••• •••• ••••• • • •• •••••• • •••••• • ••• • ••• • 0090 909 T** • 1 IN • • •••• » 15' Q U A D R A N G L E , • TEXTURE- • TE X TU R E FIGURE 4 ' M ILES AS DETERMINED FROM TH E NUMBER OF C O N TO U R S IN T E R S E C T E D BY C IRCLES APART C O N T O U R INTERVAL 2 0 FEET. HIGH T E X T U R E M IC H IG A N TOPOGRAPHIC TEXTURE N LO W •• •• • 900009 • •(’>-•••• •••• • ••• • • * • • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • * •• •'>•••••••«>•••• •• • ••• • ••• • ••••••••»• •• •••• • • ••€>•• •••••• • • • • • •••• •••A* • ••••• •••• • ••• •••• •••••§•••••• • •• * » • • • • • • • • • • • •• 909990 ••••• • • •• <>•*••• • • « ••••••• ••••• ••••• • •••••• • 40 •••#• 0909 •• A •• •• •• • •••• H A S T IN G S MEDIUM • •••••••••• • •••••• •• ••••••• • •• •• O I/A MILE IN DIAM ETER MORE THAN 0.9 O' GREATER THAN THE MEAN SPACED I / 3 MEAN : IO WITHIN 0 .9 CT OF THE M E A N MORE THAN 0.9 LESS THAN TH E MILE S MEAN RANGE O - : 6 30 16 great topographic complexity, the gray cirolea show areas of medium complexity, and places without circles are relatively uncomplicated or flat. Methods Applicable to Sediments In order to understand the origin of glacial landforms and to comprehend the pattern and spatial association of these landforms, one should study the associated sediments as well as the topography. It is possible for glacial landform types of unlike sedimentary compositions and diverse environments of deposition to have quite similar surface morphologies. Till plains as contrasted with rolling stagnation moraines are examples of this relationship in the area of the Hastings quadrangle. Careful consideration of the sediments' textures, or array of particle sizes present, and investigation of their stratigraphy, or the sequence of identifiable vertical layers, can result in sound evidence regarding the type of environment in which the sedimentB were deposited. Glacial sediments may be studied and described from both a qualitative and quantitative point of view. This generally involves analysis of litho- logic, textural, and stratigraphic evidence. Lithology of sediments includes a consideration of what kinds of rock types make up a particular sample of sedimentary material. Many workers have used pebble lithology as a tool in drift differentiation. MacClintock and Apfel used it to differentiate and correlate drifts in the Salamanca re-entrant of New York (MacClintock and Apfel, p. 1 1 5 2 ). 1944* Wilson used pebble lithology to differentiate glacial deposits of the Michigan lobe and the Saginaw lobe in the Grand RapidB area. After replacement and replication he observed that tabulation by percent­ age present was more reliable than tabulation by weight because of the 17 variable sizes of the pebbles (Wilson, 1955# P* 73). Horberg and Potter found when working in northeastern Illinois that the size group from one-half to one inch contains the most diverse lithology of any size group extracted from glacial drift (Horberg and Potter, 1955# figure 3)# This was confirmed two years later by Anderson (1957)# who added that sand lithology cannot be determined accurately enough to be reliable and that lOO-pebble samples are sufficiently large to give an accurate count of the relative amounts of the constituent rocks. Anderson also comment­ ed that to determine regional lithological relationships it is accurate enough to group the findings into four lithologies; carbonates, clasticB, chert, and "Precambrian" rocks. He divided the elastics into sandstone, shale, and siltstone; the carbonates into dolomite and limestone; and the Precambrian rocks into igneous and metamorphic types. Wingard investigated the characteristics of sediments from operating gravel pits in southern Michigan and used factor analysis on 45 lithological categories, 5 classes of depositional environments, and 11 other physical and chemical traits in 232 pits. He concluded that it was not efficient to consider more than three variables at once, and he reduced his lithologies to "crystalline," "clastic," and "carbon­ ate" rocks, which in his opinion allowed the clearest interpretation of the "areal distribution of materials in terms of geologic agencies re­ sponsible" (Wingard, 1969# PP* 60-64). Wingard also commented that a scatter diagram plotted for both lobes would show an "indefinite range of overlap" so that any single sample from the Michigan lobe, for ex­ ample, may well fall into the diagram area of the Saginaw lobe. The lithological arrays of the two adjacent lobes are not mutually exclusive, but they may be definitive for larger groups of samples (Wingard, 1969# 18 P- 93). Samples from chosen sites along and to each Bide of the interlobate moraine, as well as the rest of the study area, were quartered to convenient size, sieved to extract the one-half to one inch diameter fraction, and then were reduced to a 100-pebble sample from each site. Each pebble was inspected for lithological category, and a percentage array of constituent rock types was tabulated (Figure 5). The results of this investigation of sedimentary lithologies agree well with the data previously published by Wingard. The texture cf sediments includes the particle sizeB present in a given source horizon. Tills in the Chippewa lobe in northern Wisconsin were divided on the basis of texture into "stoney till” and ”silty till," with a transition zone between (Hole, 1943t P» 5°8)* Tills in norths eastern Ohio were correlated by textures determined by RoTap, wet siev­ ing, and pipette method in a 1953 study by Sbepps. He also mentioned that simply determining the percentage composition by silt, sand, and clay was "sufficiently distinctive to show the correlation" and "that further data obtained by more complete analyses were not s'.ifficiently useful to warrant the time needed" (Shepps, 1953* p. 35). Murray used the Bouyouoos hydrometer method of texture determination on Valders and Cary tills in northeastern Wisconsin. He suggested using unweathered specimens to eliminate the "comminuting effect of post-depoBitional weathering" (Murray, 1953» p. 141). One satisfactory method of expressing textural information is to state percentages of sand, silt, and clay adding to 100 percent. These data are determined by first disaggregating and then sieving the sample to eliminate any particles that do not pass a 2.0mm screen. All sand, 100 % S EDIMENT LITHO LOG Y EACH POINT REPRESENTS 100 PEBBLES 0 MICHIGAN LOBE • SAGINAW LOBE 86 SAMPLES f CRYSTALLINE FIGURE 5 20 silt, and clay percentages in this dissertation refer only to this below— 2mm size fraction. The methods of hydrometer analysis of sedimentary texture used here are standard (American Society of Agronomy, 1965* section 45— 5)* Because of the frequent and abrupt size changes of clastic constituents of Btratified sediments tested in this study, textural analysis of sorted sediments did not yield reliable results unless the trials were replicated many times. Unaltered basal till proved to yield the most reliable data, but was available from only a relatively Bmall part of the area of the Hastings quadrangle. Because of these constraints textural analysis in this study proved to be quite limited for theoretical purposes and most valuable for descriptive uses (Figure 6). Color of sediments can be accurately described by reference to the Munsell color oharts. The color references in this dissertation are based on freshly—broken surfaces of sedimentary samples in a relatively uniform state of moistnesB. The color category of the sedimentary types are incorporated into the text description of the sediments. Depth of leaching in glacial sediments has been used previously as an age measurement and correlation device (Thornbury, 1940 and MacClintock, 1952). The depth below which calcium carbonate reacts visibly to dilute hydrochloric acid was measured in exposures in the study area. There proved to be too great a variability in the data to permit them to be useful. The stratigraphy of depositional glacial sediments, as used in this study, refers to the vertical arrangement, thicknesses, and oontact relationships of identifiable depositional units, as well as to the 100% CLAY SEDIMENT TEXTURES MECHANICAL SIZE ANALYSES BY HYDROMETER METHOD 61 SAMPLES L ■ LACUSTRINE SEDIMENTS F - FLOOD PLAIN SEDIMENTS tt A» ABLATION T IL L T » BASAL TIL L 0 " OUTWASH AA i f 00 0 NO CLAY FIG U R E 6 22 charaoteristics of each individual stratum. The stratigraphy was in­ vestigated in a qualitative manner using quantitative techniques when­ ever practical. At a sedimentary exposure where the stratigraphy is to be investigated, the texture, thickness, color, horizontal continuity, and other aspects of each distinct and identifiable stratum are observed, measured, and recorded. Samples for later lithological as well as more precise laboratory textural measurement may also be taken. This written record of the quantitative aspects of the sediments is later compared and contrasted with similar written descriptions of other sedimentary outcrops in order to discover the areal arrangements of any significantly recurring stratigraphic sequence. Data available from records of wells drilled in the Hastings quadrangle were also investigated and compared with other evidence gathered from exposures of surficial material. However, it was found that in only few cases was there sufficient reliable detail in the driller's log to add useful information. Commonly the driller used terms which were either too obscure in meaning or too generalized and inclusive. Quantitative and qualitative observation of sediments and their associated stratigraphy was based on detailed evidence gathered from over 2^0 specific sites in and adjacent to the area of the Hastings quadrangle. This made it possible to relate certain stratigraphic and lithologic sequences to specific landforms aB well as facilitate the construction of a map of surficial sediment types (Plate II). Detailed lithologic and stratigraphic descriptions are included in the text description of each landform type where appropriate. CHAPTER III BEDROCK GEOLOGY Regional Bedrock Type The Bedrock immediately underlying the glacial drift in the Hastings quadrangle is sedimentary and belongs to the Paleozoic Mississippian system. There are five sedimentary rock formations which exist on the bedrock surface under the drift. The rock types range from clastic sandstones and shales to nonclastic limestones. A strati­ graphic list of the rock units from youngest to oldest and a brief description of each followB (Martin, 1936). The original outline form of the descriptions has been altered here to a more conventional form of text. Bayport Limestone is a white, bluish, and gray foBsiliferous limestone, magnesian limestone and dolomite, is locally cherty and sandy, and has white sandstones which are calcareous and fossiliferoua in places. It is locally brecciated and conglomeratic, is greenish at base, and contains sulphate water. Thickness iB 0 to 220 feet. Michigan Formation includes green and greenish gray or dark gray to black bituminous shales, dark micaceous sandstones, beds of gypsum and anhydrite, breccias, and local red sandstones and shales. Dark green sandy shale and hard brown to buff impure dolomitic limestone mark the base of the formation. Thickness 1b 0 to 5 0 0 feet. Napoleon Sandstone is a white and light gray sandstone. Character­ istically it contains green and red quartz grains, is micaceous and pyritic, and may have gibbsite cement. Greenish gray sand­ stones, localized fragments of coal (carbonized driftwood) or black shale, and coaly plant impressions are also common. Red sandstones are found in the central part of the state. Abundant fresh water is available near the outcrop margin and bromide, magnesium, iodine, calcium chloride brines are found in the center 23 24 of the state. Thickness is 50 to 100 feet. Lower Marshall Sandstone is a white, gray, green, and red sandstone which is locally very micaceous and fossiliferous. In the eastern part of the state is a "peanut conglomerate" with grit and grindstone near the hase. Red and blue shale is found in places and is locally sandy but the red color is entirely absent in places. Streaks and pockets of coal and coaly impressions of vegetation are common. Elsewhere in the state there is red and blue gray sandstone and blue shale which is locally sandy and contains much mica and carbonate of iron (siderite). Generally a red shale or red micaceous sand is found at the top and bottom. Thickness is 180 to 260 feet. Coldwater Shale includes blue, gray, and occasionally red plastic shales with locally an unctuous apple green shale. Lenticular sandstones and blue sandy shales are found in the eastern part of the state with concretions of iron carbonate, red shales and thin oolitic limestone. Thin dolomitic limestones occur principally in the western part of the state and red shaly limestone which in places is fossiliferous is found near the base. Thickness is 500 to 1,000 feet. The pattern of these sedimentary formations on the bedrock surface is shown in Figure 'JA, The sedimentary formations form a roughly concentric pattern of arc— shaped outcrops with the oldest rocks in the southwest and the youngest in the northeast part of the Hastings quad­ rangle. In the northeast corner of the study area the Bayport Limestone is found and is bordered on the southwest by the underlying Michigan Formation. Stratigraphically below the Michigan Formation is the Napoleon Sandstone, which crops out in a wide band extending across the study area from the northwest corner diagonally to the southeast corner. The Lower Marshall Sandstone crops out southwest of the Napoleon Sandstone, and the Coldwater Shale, the oldest formation on the bed­ rock surface of this study area, occupies the southwest corner of the Hastings quadrangle. Other Mississippian bedrock formations which are older than the Coldwater Shale and which do not show in the subglacial surface include 10 to 90 feet of Sunbury Shale, 0 to 210 feet of Berea 25 FIGURE 7 BEDROCK TYPES OF THE HASTINGS QUADRANGLE Figure 7A Outcrop pattern of bedrock formations Bayport limestone Mbp ~r~T Mm Michigan formation Mn Napoleon sandstone * i * »• * . • * * • * , »' * • Mlm Lower Marshall sandstone Coldwater shale Me Source: Martin, 1936 Figure 7B Geologic oross Election of the Hastings quadrangle Vertical scale: Horizontal scale: Qd V i 7 V '». 1** *V/**'*•■* M * .**•■* ♦* : Source: 1 inch - 1,000 feet 1 inch * 8 miles Undifferentiated glacial drift ? v- Martin, 1936 Figure 7C Location of the cross section in the Hastings quadrangle Iv'il']** N FIGURE 7A <27 Mbp *•» v \\v.v r* *•* * * * * .*•*•* •• **• • * *■ • * • * * » * • * FIGURE 7 B FIGURE 7 C 28 Sandstone, 10 to 300 feet of Bedford Limestone, 30 to 400 feet of Ellsworth Shale, and 100 to 45° feet of Antrim Shale. The older Devonian rocks below are mostly limestone or dolomite, and the Silurian formations below that are also primarily calcareous with some intercalat­ ed shale and the Salina halite bed. The underlying Ordovician formations are mostly shale or limestone, but the St. Peter Sandstone lies at the bottom of thiB system just over the "Prairie du Chien" and Hermansville Formations. At about 3»50° feet below the ground surface in the Hasting quadrangle are rocks of Cambrian or pre-Cambrian age (Martin, 1936). Regional Bedrock Structure and Topography The Hastings quadrangle lies on the southwestern flank of the Michigan Basin. The sedimentary units described above all dip at an average of about fifty feet per mile generally north and east toward the center of that structural depression. The slightly inclined and eroded edges of the stronger bedrock surface formations may have re­ sulted in structural cuestas with their "scarp" sides facing toward the Bouthwest on the bedrock surface in the area of the Hastings quadrangle. The cross section from Martin (1936) illustrates this structuretopographic relationship (Figure 7B). These suggested southwest— facing structural cuestas probably have Bome topographic expression on the bedrock surface, but this shows only poorly on maps of the subglacial surface morphology. An old and very generalized manuscript map (Grant and Pringle, 1943) shows contours on the bedrock surface and only indistinct relief on the cuesta scarps (Figure 8A). Since 1943 much new well data have become available and have been incorporated into a revised map for this dissertation (Figure 8B). Even on this newer map based on more data, the relatively 29 FIGURE 8 TOPOGRAPHY ON THE BEDROCK SURFACE, HASTINGS QUADRANCLE Figure 8A Contour Interval fifty feet Source: Grant and Pringle, 1943 Figure SB Contour Interval fifty feet Source: 1C8 bedrock elevation points from well log data on five with the Michigan Geological Survey Figure 8C Detail of the Hope Oil Field area Contour Interval twenty-five feet Source: seventy-nine bedrock elevation points from well log data 30 5oo 31 -N - o I FIGURE 8 B 3X o, 33 few wells which penetrate through the surficial drift permit the pattern of contours on the bedrock surface to be only suggested. It can, however, be seen that the regional slope is down to the west and southwest and the pattern of lineations on the bedrock surface is roughly east—west or somewhat northwest-southeast. According to the newer map (.Figure 7B), there may be a rough coincidence between the subglacial outcrops of the Lower Marshall and the Napoleon sandstones and the trend of a ridge on the bedrock surface running northwestsoutheast across the center of the map area. Differential erosion of the bedrock formations probably influenced the development of topography on the bedrock surface. Moore (1959* P* 2) comments that bedrock valleys below the drift in Livingstone and Shiawasee Counties, Michigan, tend to avoid areas where sandstone cropB out on the bedrock surface. Riggs (1938* P* 2) states that preglacial topography of nearby Allegan County waB controlled by the outcrop pattern of the resistant Marshall Sandstone and by the structure of the bedrock. Another aspect of the subglacial topography is a deep and apparently dendritic valley trend­ ing east—west near the southern edge of the study area (Figure 7C). The great relief and abundant morphological detail of thiB valley suggests that its fluvial erosional pattern was not distinctly altered by the glacial activity of the Pleistocene. The magnitudes of depth and local relief of this bedrock valley agree with those of the bed­ rock topography mapped by Moore (1959) in LivingBtone and Shiawasee Counties, Michigan, and with those of the subglacial surface mapped by Rhodeammel (1951) in a portion of the Saginaw lowland, Michigan. Valleys and ridges on the bedrock surface of the Hastings quad­ rangle undoubtedly influenced the motion of the first glaoiers moving 34 over them and effected the pattern of landforms deposited by those glaciers as well. The resulting glacial topography waB able to exert a similar but probably reduced influence on subsequent glaciers in this area. The present landscape of the Btudy area is probably attributable to the fourth and last major glacial event of the Pleistocene. It may be unreasonable to assumef a priori, that the underlying bedrock topography must have had some causal connection with the activity of this Wisconsinan glacier. There are two scales of evidence which suggest contradictory conclusions about this question. Observing the gross pattern of the bedrock Burface outcrops, particularly the trace of the Bayport, Michigan and Napoleon Formations eastward out of the Hastings quadrangle area (Martin, 1936), it is possible to notice a general concurrence with the trend of the Kalamazoo moraine of the Saginaw Lobe. A 1935 article (Newcombe and others) presents some data and preliminary conclusions supporting this observation. It was suggested that the bedrock highs associated with more resistant rock formations caused a local stagnation of the ice in the Saginaw Lobe. Concerning Allegen County Riggs Btated that "a rough but significant parallelism exists between the present land surface and the pre-glacial land surface,** (Riggs, 1933, p. 2). At this scale of observation and by this line of reasoning it might be concluded that the bedrock topography was at least responsible for part of the pattern and arrangement of the overlying glacial landscape. But on the basis of a more detailed scale of observation of landforms within the study area the opposite conclusion is suggested. The trend of bedrock outcrops is northwest and southeast, and the trend of bedrock topographic features is about the same or somewhat more directly east and west. In contrast the patterns of 35 lineations on the surface of the overlying glacial landscape is distinct­ ly northeast and southwest (Figures 2, 3» and 4)* The exception to this is the Hastings 7alley, whioh is nearly aligned with a significant bedrock valley shown in the northern half of Figure 8B. features may have a causal connection. These two Until more detailed evidence from more areas of Michigan becomes available, it must be tentatively concluded that on a groBS scale the pattern of major bedrock features probably influences the development and pattern of the present-day glacial landscape, but the smaller details of the glacial topography have no distinct causal connection with patterns of the underlying bedrock topography. CHAPTER POUR EXPLANATORY MODELS OP GLACIAL LANDSCAPES - A DISCUSSION Introduction The investigation of glacial landscapes as a science had become reasonably well established in North America by the last deoades of the nineteenth century. Ag&B8izt Chamberlin, Davis, Dawson, Salisbury, and other competent workers had assembled a useful body of empirical knowledge and had created a valuable structure of theoretical general­ ization about Pleistocene glacial events. The explanatory model which these scientists developed for continental glaciation and its associated processes, landforms, and sediments has persisted in time and is still used relatively unchanged by some investigators. An example of a more recent publication based on these well-established classical concepts is Terwilliger's (1954) survey of the glacial landscapes of VanBuren County, Michigan. This scientific approach is in this paper called the “classical model.” Beginning as early as the late nineteenth century, there slowly began to be assembled a much smaller, parallel but unlike body of knowledge and group of explanatory generalizations concerning glacial landscapes. Several workers such as Chamberlin (1895)* Russell (1897)* and Fuller (1904) began to report observations of sediments and land­ forms which were not well explained by the classical model. Gradually more investigators began to encounter similar problems (Flint, 1929 and White, 1931) and a considerable body of literature became available. 36 37 In Europe the progress was particularly rapid. Papers by Anderson (1931), PriehMusser (1936), Carruthere (1938), and Mannerfelt (1Q45) were some of the most important earlier contributions. This supple­ mentary, or nonclaesical, approach recognized the existence of ice— marginal areas where the ice was 00 thin that it was no longer able to flow and was not displaced by pressure from thicker proximal ice. this paper it is known as the "stagnation model." In Several workers have very recently been active in the investigation of the landscapes attrib­ uted to stagnant-ice environments. Hoppe (1952, 1957, 1959, and 1963) and Johnsson (1959 and 1962) in Sweden; Gjessing (i960), Holmssen (1963), and ^strem (1959 and 1 9 6 4 ) in Norway; and Sissons (1958A, 1950B, 1961, 1963, and 1967) and Price (1960, 1963, 1965, and 1966) from Scotland have been active in northern Europe, while in North America Gravenor (1955)» Gravenor and Kupech (1959) and Stalker (1960) in Canada and Leighton (1959), Winters (1961 and 1963), Clayton (1963 and 1964) and Clayton and Freers (1967) in the United States are examples of persons actively contributing to the formulation of the stagnation explanatory model. Ice-Marginal Environment; Classical Model The standard or classical explanatory model of the margin of a waning mass of ice incorporates as an almost a priori concept the idea of the ice front retreating in an orderly and coherent manner. Because of the idealized existence of this ice front, it wap possible or even neceesary to postulate a separate and unlike set of processes on each side of the ice margin. Bistally from the ice, the primary agent was considered to be water and was associated with sorted and stratified sediments composing outwash landforms. Proximaliy from the margin, the 38 most important agent was thought to be ice and was associated with heterogeneous, nonsorted till sediments making up moraine or till—plain landforms. Intermediate conditions are not satisfactorily provided for by this explanatory scheme. The sediments associated with this classical explanatory model directly reflect the two supposed environments of deposition. The proximal ice environment and the depositional processes and sediments associated with it are separate from and unlike the distal fluvial environment and its concomitant processes and sediments. The sets of depositional processes responsible for outwash materials and those responsible for undisturbed till are both accounted for, but there is little room in this generalized explanation for sediments showing a gradation of sorting and a variety or mixture of stratification and nonstratification. Because many outcrops of glacial sedimentB in the Hastings quadrangle reveal these transitional characteristics, as well as being associated with landform assemblages which are not readily satisfied by the classical explanatory model, it is necessary to re­ place or augment this classical pattern of description and explanation and to provide an alternative or supplementary model. The classical conceptual model of ice-marginal environments was the basis for the standard till plain—moraine—outwash plain landform sequence which was generally mapped so extensively in glaciated land­ scapes. Leverett and Taylor (1915) worked almost exclusively within the philosophy of the classical model when they researched and wrote the most important early document of the Pleistocene in Michigan. Only a few later papers have departed from this pattern (Spurr and Zumberge, 1956; and VerKeibe, 19 26), and there has been no comprehensive published statement addressed to this problem in Michigan. 39 Ice-Marginal Environment; Stagnation Model Ice is a solid which, under long enduring pressure, flows by viscous movement. This apparent inconsistency of a solid being viscous over time has been considered by Carey (1962) in an article proposing the term rheid for this state. Ice may be considered a rheid whenever it accumulates in a mass great enough to apply pressure sufficient to overcome the elastic nature of the substance (Thwaites, 1963t p* 2). The depth of ice required to initiate movement is variable and related to the density of the ice itself, the ratio of ice to air-filled inter­ stitial pore spaces, and the amount of heavier debris incorporated within and on top of the ioe. Flint (1942, p. 126) suggested that because kettles are no more than 150 feet deep the zone of plastic transition might be at about that depth in the glacier. His suggestion is based on the reasoning that ice substantially thicker than 150 feet would still be motile and would not become buried. Later he suggests that 165 to 336 feet is about the depth range for flow of temperate glaciers (Flint, 1957» P* 19). Thwaites (1963, p. 2) reports viscous flow under 150 feet of ice in the Rocky Mountains. Von Engeln (1942, p. 4 4 0 ) comments that "200 feet is perhaps the minimal thickness" for an ice mass to begin to move. Bnbleton and King ( 1 9 6 8 , chapter 3) present a comprehensive chapter on ice motion and offer evidence gathered by Sharp (1993) from the Malaspina Glacier in Alaska that, one year after drilling, a vertical borehole in the ice was not significantly distorted above a depth of 495 feet below the surface of the ice. Goldthwaite (1951* P* 571) reported that elastic-ice fractures in a Baffin Island glacier did not reach the basal zone of the glacier until it was less than 280 feet thiok. Stenberg (1968, p. 52) asserts that supraglacial meltwater oan only penetrate the ice along zones of weakness or fractures in the zone of elastic ice above the rheid layer, although Clapperton ( 1 9 6 8 , p. 210) comments that the tendency of plastic flow to close meltwater passages is somewhat balanced, at least in the upper portions of the rheid layer, by the ability of meltwater to keep the passages open by melting the surrounding ice* Sissons (1963, P* 110) says that there is evidence from Scotland of many subglacial meltwater channels carved in bedrock up to 300 feet below the surface of the ice. He also comments that there is no known record of meltwater penetration deeper than 400 feet. The rheid nature of a glacial mass is shown by this evidence to be capped by a surficial zone of about 2 5 0 to 300 feet thickness where the ice is not tinder sufficient pressure to overcome its elastic character. In this relatively thin upper zone the ice is relatively brittle and will fracture and crack. Thwaites ( 1 9 6 3 , pp. 3— 4) illustrates this in his figures 3—6. When the margin of a waning glacier thins to equal the depth of the elastic surficial ice, the rheid zone in this part of the ice is eliminated, and elastic ice, which will fracture before it will flow, then encounters resistance with the ground surface. The continuing pressure of plastic flow distally from the more central portion of the glacier causes a series of thrust faults, or shears, in the margin of the ice (Thwaites, 1963, p. 3). The elastic surficial ice is at this stage resting on the ground, not on flowing plastic ice, and has become immotile. At thiB stage the ice may be considered as stagnant. Goldthwaite (195** P* 569) reports that shear planes in the margin of a Baffin Island glacier incorporate basal debris and transport it 41 high into the ice planes. ab there is continuing Blippage along the shear Eventually, through processes of upward shear-plane transport and downward ablation of the top of the ice, the surface of the melting ice may become loaded with rock debris. In an abstract Elson (1957* p. 1721) comments that 6hear planes may be related to the origin of certain patterned moraines. Clayton (1964* P* 1C8) states that a three- meter—thick layer of debris on the surface of the Martin River glacier in Alaska was transported upward through the ice by imbricate shear planes where active ice overrides les3 active or immotile ice. Evidence from Antarctica is presented by Souchez ( 1 9 6 7 , p. 8 4 2 ) of shear planes which incorporate basal debris and transport it upward into the ice. Boulton (1968, p. 391) comments that shear—plane debris bands up to five meters thick are found in some glaciers of Vestspitsbergen. A brief description and diagram of "thrust surfaces" between flowing and stagnant ice are provided by Flint (1957* PP. 73—75)* Shear—plane transport may result in an upward movement of what was subglacial debris. If the shear zones remain active long enough and the surface of the ice is melting down rapidly enough (Flint, 1942, p. 113), the englacial shear—plane debris becomes exposed on the surface of the ice (Coldthwaite, 1°51* P* 570) . A thin debris skin on the ice surface, because of its relatively darker color, accepts more solar insolation than clean ice does. This rapidly increases the rate of ice— surface ablation (0strem, 195 °, p. 228). Tfhen the covering of glacial debris becomes thicker than about two centimeters (Loomis, 1970j p. 90), or about half of a centimeter (^strem, 1959* P. 229), the rate of melting is markedly decreased because of the insulating character of the debris. As more debris is exposed at the ice surface, either by 42 continued shear-plane transport or by continued but retarded surface ablationt the rocky material slideB and slips down ice slopes and is in this manner distributed over the surface of the ice (Goldthwaite, 1^51* P* 571). Figure 9 illustrates this development. Russell (1891— 2, p. 70) comments on surficial drift in an Alaskan coastal glacier, and Tarr (1909* PP» 46—49) reports in some detail the processes on a debriscovered surface of glacial ice in the Yakutat Bay area, Alaska. Tarr describes how the surface drift lies in varying depths and slides or flows down ice Blopes to accumulate in depressions. The thickening insulating cover there then inhibits melting in the depressions and the adjacent cleaner ice melts more rapidly. This process of topo­ graphic reversal is continuous and complex, and the superabundance of water provided by the melting ice effects a crude sorting of the supraglacial drift. The finer clastic particles tend to be removed. Because this drift has been altered from its original basal condition and is now coarser, more loosely textured, and somewhat sorted, it is called ablation till. Chamberlin (1R94| p. 527) mentions an "upper till’' which was "let down from ice which is stagnant." A "modified drift" associated with ice— stagnation landforms is described by Cook (1924» p. 166). Flint (1957 1 P* 120) says that ablation till is the drift that is let down on to the ground as the thin enclosing ice melts inward from terminus, top, and base, and hence is loose, noncompact, and nonfissile, and probably lacks a fabric. In places fine-grained particles may be absent, having been washed away by trickling ireltwater during the settling process. He also provides a series of diagrams illustrating the origin of ablation till. Clayton ( 1 9 6 4 , p. 108) details the morphologic processes on an E S T A B L IS H M E N T T IL L ABLATION T IL L "A" FIXED "B " MOBILE FIGURE 9 ICE MASS ICE MASS A B L A T IO N OVER A S TA G N A N T IC E ffl BASAL TILL OF ZONE ice surface covered with ablation till, and Hartshorn (1952, p. 1259) describes the zone of supraglacial debris on the Malaspina glacier in Alaska and mentions the frequent ice topographic reversals and the chaotic, saturated, and flowing condition of the ablation till. A detailed explanatory sequence of stagnant ice melting out under an ablation till cover is offered by Mannerfelt (1945, P« 223). The "Kalix till” described by Hoppe (1959, p. 200) may be an ablation till deposit. Other articles considering aspects of this problem are Cook (1946), Boulton (1963), Elson (1957), Flint (1929), Rich (1943), and Sharp (1949)» Perhaps the most detailed and useful statement on ablation till is that of Sissons (1967, P» 6 7 ), in which he states that ablation till contains particles of all sizes, although clay and silt are "much less common” than in basal till. He continues that ablation till is not as compact as basal till, and that it may be separated from the underlying sediments by a thin band of sand and gravel in which the beds are distorted. The fact that clearer, less debris-laden ice melts more rapidly than ice blanketed with a covering of ablation till has already been noted and supported by several references. This observation, usually framed in reference to the marginal ice— stagnation region of a waning glacier, is also true in a larger scale up the proximal slope of the ice. Where the ice was thick enough that whatever surficial shear planes which may have existed did not pick up and transport sufficient basal till to provide an insulating debris cover for the ice surface, the rate of surface melting continued unabated. In time this process may reverse the original consequent regional ice slope and a depression may form proximal from the stagnant ice margin. Goldthwaite (1951, P* 574) 45 diagrams the development of this ablation depression parallel to the edge of the ice margin. He comments that meltwater oollects in this depression and can contribute to its development. A process of density- thermal overturning which transports denser but wanner water to the base of an ice depression and accelerates its deepening is outlined by Cook (1946, p. 575)* The possible formation of thiB ice-marginal trough and the resulting separation of the stagnant— ice mass from the active— ice body is commented on by Rich (1943* P* 99)* The possibility that such a stagnant-ice block may have extended as much as fifty miles from the limit of active ice in Denmark is suggested by Anderson Prom his expedition to the Yakutat Bay area in Alaska Tarr (193If (1 90 9 * P* P* 61 2 ). 50) presents a detailed description of a fosse—like depression, parallel to the margin of the glacier, which melted in relatively clean ice proximal from an ice—cored stagnant moraine. This second explanatory model of glacial deposition apparently applies to some portions of the Hastings quadrangle. When each of the landscape types recognized by this study in the Hastings quadrangle is subsequently presented, the suggested environment of deposition will be discussed. Landscape Criteria Used in the Hastings Quadrangle This dissertation presents a scheme of landscape differentiation in which the area of the Hastings quadrangle is divided into six different landscape types. Within the study area the sediments of each mapped unit are distinctive in the stratigraphic expression of their textures, bedding traits, contact relationships, vertical thicknesses, and horizontal continuity. The assemblage of landforms of each mapped 46 unit is unlike that of any other unit in terns of its morphological complexity, local relief, and slope length and declivity. The set of physical characteristics of any one mapped landscape type is directly attributable to a specific balance among a suite of processes which were active during the waning of the ice in the Hastings quadrangle. Many processes were commonly active throughout the areas of all six landscape typeB, but the specific combination of processes, time, and energy conditions making up the specific environment of deposition was unique to each area. The landscape types recognized in Plate II of the Hastings quadrangle are 1. Stagnation Moraine 2. Primary Drainage Channel 3. Interlobate Moraine 4* Kame Topography 5- Outwash Topography 6. Till Plain As information sources used to derive a system of landscape region­ alization, methods of landform and sediment analysis both proved to be valuable. The physiographic diagram shows in a qualitative way the vary­ ing textures, masses, and arrangements of landformB across the study area (Figure 3)* From this source it was possible to discern the unique surface characteristics of the interlobate moraine, the kame topography, the stagnation moraine, and the primary drainage channel (Plate II). It was possible to draw preliminary boundaries around part of the area of each of these landscape types, as well and till plain regions. sb around some of the outwash The map of positive topographic features which 47 was compiled from air photographs (Figure 2) is another source of infor­ mation concerning the regional differentiation of land-surface pattern in the Hastings quadrangle. The unlike character of the kame topography and the interlobate moraine may be readily seen. The concept of the interlobate moraine continuing on north of the Hastings Valley is supported by this map. The different characters of the surfaces of the kame topography and of the stagnation moraine area are apparent. The lack of many significant topographic highs in the outwash and till plains is also well illustrated by Figure 2. Topographic texture as shown quantitatively by Figure 4 is another data source for this scheme of regionalization of the landscape types of the study area. The Hastings Valley primary drainage channel is clearly delineated and the outwash plain and till plain areas show up by their lack of topographic complexity. By the use of a unified field theory approach a set of unlike areas was derived and the general core area for each postulated landscape region was identified. It was also possible to draw a boundary around each of these topographically defined regions. Consideration of the regional arrangement of surface sediments and of surface stratigraphic patterns provides the second type of information upon which the landscape types of the Hastings quadrangle were recognized and mapped. Turing the course of field investigation in the study area the sediments were empirically classified in the field and assigned to a class based on degree of sorting and state of strati­ fication. Basal till, nonsorted and nonstratified, is one primary class, and outwash sediments, sorted and stratified, is the other. So long as the material fell with some certainty into one of these discrete groups there was no problem, but the majority of field investigation 48 sites exhibited at least some sediments which did not fit into either. Initially these were recorded simply by the descriptive term "clay-insand." As the implications of landform characteristics and regional stratigraphic pattern became apparent, it was possible to refer to these sediments as "ablation till." Ablation till exists as a class discrete from either basal till or from outwash. ed and basal till is not. sediments are. Ablation till is sort­ Ablation till is not stratified and outwash These three classes of sediments, with the addition of lacustrine sediments, formed the basis for mapping surficial glacial materials in the Hastings quadrangle. Boundaries were drawn around areas of relatively homogeneous sedimentary arrays. These boundaries were integrated with those derived from topographic considerations. The resulting map is shown on Plate II. The classification of sediments strictly by quantitative measure­ ment of constituent particle size, or texture, is an alternative or supplementary approach. Basal till may be considered as having a great number of fine particles, with outwash being considerably coarser. Ablation till, because of the partial nature of its sorting, is in an intermediate class. The qualitative application of these approximate standards in the field is satisfactory and formed a part of the sediment­ ary mapping proceedure described above. But when sediment samples are subjected to a more rigorous laboratory size analysis, the concept of discrete textural classes withers. Figure 6 shows that the mixtures of sediment sizes form a relatively smooth gradient across the chart and that no unequivocal breaks in the pattern exist. WeBt (1968, p. 1 9 ) has commented that basal till and outwash are simply two end members of a continuum of sedimentary types. On the basis of experience gained 49 in research for this report, it is suggested that the concept of a continuum of sedimentary textural types is probably nearer to reality than the concept of discrete textural classes. However, for practioal field mapping of sediments, a combination of degree of sorting and state of stratification can be used to place sediment samples into convenient categories such as basal till, outwash material, and some intermediate type such as ablation till and is perhapB the most useful and the most realistic approach. CHAPTER FIVE EXPLANATION OF LANDSCAPE TYPES Introduction With the framework of two alternative modelB of explanation of ice—marginal environments now established, and with the techniques and criteria for landscape differentiation now outlined, it is possible to present a description and explanation of each of the landscape types recognized in this study. The landscape types are presented in an interpretive sequence so that the explanation and interpretation of each one usually contribute to the subsequent text sections on other landscape types. In this way much possible repetition is avoided. The location in the Hastings quadrangle of each region on Plate II is given along with the approcimate area and the range of altitude. A description of the topography is then offered, followed by comments on the surficial Bediments and their stratigraphy. briefly discussed. Well—log data are then After these descriptive paragraphs a possible en­ vironment of deposition for the landscape type is presented. This suggested, environment of deposition is considered to be the most probable according to the evidence of landforms and sediments within the landscape type under discussion. A typical example of the topo­ graphy and sediments of the area is then located, and the log of a nearby well is presented in as much detail as is available. 50 51 The Stagnation Moraine Location and altitude The stagnation moraine (Plate II) ie located roughly in the eastern third of the quadrangle and occupies almost eighty square miles, or more than one-third of the study area. type recognized in the Hastings quadrangle. This is the largest landscape There are two discontiguous areas of stagnation moraine separated by the valley of the Thornapple River. The general elevation of the topographic highs increases from about 940 feet just south of the Thornapple River to just over 10C0 feet north of Shallow Lake in section twenty— seven of Hope Township. Topography The topography of both sections of the stagnation moraine is very complex but may generally be described as an undulating, knobby surface showing about fifty feet of local relief (Figure 10A). Leverett de­ scribed it as "knob and basin topography" (Leverett and Taylor, 1915* p. 1 9 0 )» For the most part the hummocks and swales are not arranged in any recognizeable pattern and do not occur in any typical size or t assemblage. The land surface is a confused disarray of hills and hollows of many sizes, of infinite complexities, and of surpassing variety. In some places, however, this hummocky terrain is marked by linear subparallel depressions which drop 60 to 100 feet below the general surface of the landscape (Figure 10B). Leverett observed these features in 1915 (Leverett and Taylor, 1915* P* 205). The depressions trend northeast and southwest and are as wide as 6000 feet and as narrow as several hundred. In some places they branch or abruptly terminate. They are commonly occupied by lakes or swamps, but infrequently may contain fluvial drainage systems. In many places south of the Thornapple FIGURE 10 Figure 10A — Photograph of Stagnation Moraine Topography. The location of this photograph in SW^-SBf sec. 10, T. 4 N., R. 9 V. and the view is to the north. Figure 10B— Photograph of Secondary Channel. The location of thie photograph is in SE^-SEs8ec, 7, T. 2 N«, R. 8 W. and the view is to the north. Figure 10C— Photograph of Underwash Sediments. This sand and gravel is exposed in a gravel pit in sec. 18, T. 2 N., R. 8 E. and the twenty-five cent piece gives a a scale of slightly less than one inch. Figure 10D — Photograph of Jumbled Sediment Zone. This exposure is in a gravel pit in the stagnation moraine in NE$SW|SVjsec. 2, T. 2 N., R* 9 w* the large segments on the scale rod are six inches. SOLUM JUMBLED SEDIMENTS UNDERWASH FIGURE IOA FIGURE IOC 'o- FIGURE IOB FIGURE IOD 54 River, eskers and fragments of eskers exist in the bottom or toward one side of the depressions. The eskers are parallel with the depressions and are not found anywhere outside of them, this area are mentioned by Leverett in 19^5* A few esker-like ridges in H® comments that suoh landforms are "striking features" of the proximal portion of the Saginaw Kalamazoo moraine (p. 192). The eskers are as long as one and a half miles and exist in intermittent sinuous arrangements as much as six miles in length. The depressions are here considered to be fluvial in origin and in this report are called the secondary channels. That portion of the stagnation moraine north of the Thornapple River is topographically slightly rougher and shows somewhat greater local relief than the area to the south. Sediments — the basal underwash sand and gravel The sediments of the stagnation moraine are as complex as the topography and Leverett oalled them "exceedingly variable" (Leverett and Taylor, 1915, p. 206). The base of the known stratigraphic sequence of surficial sediments may conveniently be established in a deep layer of well— bedded sand and gravel which is nearly ubiquitous through the southern portion of the stagnation moraine (Figure 10C). Rata from well logs indicate that this stratum of sand and gravel varies from about twelve feet to more than forty— five feet in thickness. These sediments are well stratified, and the bedding is not disturbed from its original depositional condition. Sand is abundant with most ex­ posures showing relatively few larger clastic particles. ParticleB smaller than sand usually comprise less than ten percent of the fine fraction of the BedimentB. The individual stones are almost always well rounded and show no grooves or striations of glacial origin. 55 Because of the nature of the environment of deposition of this strati— graphic unit which is suggested in this report, this sand and gravel layer is called "underwash.” Sediments — the .jumbled zone Ahove this base unit one or a combination of two unlike strata are found. One of these is a zone of coarser sand and gravel which is very crudely bedded or not Btratified at all (Figure 10D). The stones of this unit are, on the average, somewhat larger and more angular than those of the subjacent underwash strata. Striations are apparent on a few stones in this zone of apparently jumbled sediments. The contact between these two units is usually abrupt and rather smooth or wavy. Standard soil science terminology for boundary descriptions and criteria are adopted here (Soil Survey Manual, 1951» P* 187)* These sediments are usually about four feet thick, but change in thickness rapidly and may be miBsing from the section in some exposures. A variation of this jumbled unit which recurs in several exposures, usually adjacent to a secondary channel depression, iB that consisting of fine sand and coarse silt bands showing intense and complex convolutions (Figure 11A). Theakstone (19&5, P* 41) has observed that coarBe silt shows contortions better and more commonly than any other glacial sediment. Sediments — lacustrine beds The other unit which can be found, although less frequently, above the underwash sand and gravel is a stratum of lacustrine d a y (Figure 11B). This clay is massive, non-laminated, and marked by a scattering of small stones. The stones do not lie in zones or lenses but have an apparently uniform horizontal distribution and decrease slightly in number toward the base of the clay unit. The clay is 56 FIGURE 11 Figure 11A — Photograph of Sandy Jumbled Zone Sediments. This Bandy variation of jumbled zone Bediments shows convolutions and is located in NW^-NW^-SW.V sec. 1, T. 1 N . , R. 9 W. The small graduations on the scale rod are one inch. The overlying ablation till sediments can be seen. Figure 11B — Photograph of Lacustrine Sedi­ ments. Lacustrine sediments show near the top of this ex­ posure in NW£NW;VSW£- sec. 18, T. 2 N . f R. 8 W. Scale refer­ ence is provided by the thirtyinch shovel handel. 1. ABLATION TILL 2. LACUSTRINE SEDIMENTS 3. UNDERWASH Figure 11C — Photograph of Faulted Lacustrine Sediments. This illustrates collapse faulting of lacustrine sediments in NW^NWj-SW^Bee. 18, T. 2 N., R. 8 W. The fault displacement is approximately seventeen inches. LACUSTRINE SEDIMENTS STRATIFIED SEDIMENTS 37 FIGURE IIA F IGU R E II B FIGURE l i e 58 commonly two to four feet thick and extends for no more than 120 feet horizontally in any one exposure. In two exposures which are somewhat anomalous these lacustrine sediments crop out more than thirty—five feet in thickness. The thinner exposures of the clay almost without exception show faults and collapse fractures resulting from the removal of support from below (Figure 11C). The contact between the clay and the underlying sands and gravels is almost always clear or abrupt and its form varies from wavy to irregular. The deeper exposures of the clay show blook—like fractures perhaps of desiccation origin. These fracture zones are marked by infiltrated silty material and in many places small calcareous concretions as well. identified in the lacustrine clay. No organic remains were Sedimentary particles smaller than sand may make up as much as ninety—eight percent of the fine fraction of this sediment. Sediments — ablation till The topmost unit of the recurring stratigraphic sequence of surficial glacial sediments within the zone of stagnation is a layer of ablation till (Figure 12A). The ablation till overlies the jumbled zone of silt or Band and gravel as well as the lacuBtrine sediments when they are present. The ablation till is a loose-textured clayey sand material with some gravel and oobbles. The coarse fraction of this unit tends to contain larger individual Btones than the underlying units. Striations may be more commonly Been on stones of the ablation till than on stones of other units. Sedimentary particles smaller than sand may comprise as much as seventy percent of the fine fraction. The contact at the base of this upper stratigraphic unit is complex (Figure 12B). Usually it is marked by an indurated zone of iron cement with a sinuous 59 FIGURE 12 Figure 12A — Photograph of Ablation Till. This is sandy, loosetextured ablation till in NW^SE^SE^ sec. 31« T. 2 N., R. 8 W. The small graduations on the scale rod are one inch. Figure 12B — Photograph of Contact at Base of Ablation Till. These sediments are ex­ posed in SW^NE^SEj- Bee. 27, T. 4 N . t R. 10 W. in an area of outwash topography which has a surficial covering of ablation till. The appearance and configur­ ation of this contact is typical of ablation till contacts in other land­ scape types. The small segments on the scale rod are one inch. ABLATION Figure 12C —- Photograph of the Stagnation Moraine Stratigraphic Sequence of Sediments. ThiB exposure shows a typical surficial stratigraphic sequence of sediments of the stagnation moraine and is in NW^NW^SEjsec. 1, T. 1 N . , R. 9 W. The large graduations on the scale rod are six inches. The lacustrine sediments are missing from this exposure. TILL ZONE JUMBLEO SEDIMENTS x^ LxfJuf ABLATION TILL JUMBLED ZONE UNDERWASH 60 FIGURE 12 A FIGURE 12 B FIGURE 12 C 61 ♦ and contorted surface. The red-staining iron in places has illuviated into the underlying sands and gravels. wavy and nay be irregular or broken. The contact iB usually clear or The ablation till cover is almost alwayB present on the surface of the southern portion of the stagnation moraine where it is commonly at least four feet thick. Thickness tends to increase down slopes, and the ablation till is known to be as thick as twenty— six feet at the base of several longer hillsides. In that portion of the stagnation moraine north of the Thornapple River this stratigraphic sequence is less common. The surficial cover of ablation till is less continuous and where it exists is usually thinner than to the south. Considerable areas of well—bedded sand and gravel, of unaltered basal till, and of post-depositional eolian sand as well as the ablation till are found in this northerly area of the stagnation moraine. Leverett commented that the drift in this area is "of rather sandy texture" (Leverett and Taylor, 19 15» P* 190) and con­ tinued that a bouldery surface layer w&b "underlain to a considerable depth by Band" (p. 191)Figure 12C illustrates the stratigraphic sequence typical of the stagnation landscape. Secondary features of the sediments — till balls An interesting feature of the sorted sediments in the stagnation moraine is the inclusion of rounded or elliptical balls of baBal till (Figures 13A and 13B). These balls are usually less than three inches in diameter but have been found several places in the Hastings quadrangle sb large as twenty-three inches across. They are composed of hard basal till which still shows a fissile fracture. The till balls are found buried in both the bedded sands and gravels of the underwash stratigraphic FIGURE 13 Figure 13A — Photograph of Till Ball - Side View. This large till ball was found along with many smaller examples in well-bedded sand and gravel exposed in a pit less than two miles west of the study area in sec. 7, T. 3 H., R. 10 W. The small segments on the scale rod are one inch. A portion of one end of the till ball was removed with a pick. Figure 13B — Photograph of Till Ball - End View. This shows another aspect of the till ball depicted in Figure 13A. A portion of the till ball was removed with a pick. The small graduations on the scale rod are one inch. Figure 13C — Photograph of "Tropfenboden." This secondary feature of the sediments is exposed in a sand and gravel pit less than two miles west of the study area in N§NE|-NWj- Bee. 7. T. 3 N., R. 10 W. The small graduations on the soale rod are one inoh. ABLATION TILL o\ ro FIGURE 13 A FIGURE I3C FIGURE 13 B 64 unit and in the jumbled sediments above it. The larger balls usually have a coating of pebbles armoring their outer surface. Similar clay balls in a fluvial environment were described by Gardiner (1908, p. 454), who attributed them to accretion of clay particles in a supersaturated fluid. Patton ( 1 9 2 2 ) commented on cylinders and balls of clay in an Oklahoma river and supported Gardiner's theory of origin. This explanation was refuted when Haas (1927* P* 157) described several examples of clay balls from fluvial and surf environ­ ments and presented evidence gathered by Ellis (1927) to show that the balls originated when stifft tenacious clay slumped into moving water. Haas suggests that clay balls found in glacial drift in Illinois and Wisconsin were formed when meltwater streams undercut banks of clay till and induced a fluvial roundness to the debris. Cartwright (1921, p. 2 5 4 ) describes pebble-armored clay balls formed during fluvial dissection of a Pleistocene clay formation. Wentworth (1935) supports the origin of clay ballB from the rounding of detrital clay masseB. In a longer and significant paper on the topic of armored mud balls Bell (1940) gives an account of research in a California barranca. He describes how masses of undercut clay slide into the water and how chunks of the clay are well rounded after traveling one-half mile down­ stream. He also states that the large balls, sb big as twenty inches in diameter, do not survive very long in a fluvial environment. Twenhofel (1950, p. 593) summarizes the clay-ball controversy and supports an origin by fluvial rounding of mass-wasted debris. Michigan clay balls of glacial till are described by Leney and Leney (I957t p. 103) from the area of the Defiance moraine. The till balls found in the Hastings quadrangle are here interpreted 65 as having been formed when meltwater streams were eroding dense masses of basal till. The till fragments were rounded by the flowing water as they were transported a short distance and deposited. They are found scattered through both of the lower sand and gravel stratigraphic units and, except for the very largest examples over eighteen inches across, do not occur in lenses or clusters. Secondary features of the sediments — "Tropfenboden" Another interesting feature of the sediments in the stagnation moraine is certain ropelike accumulations of clay—rich ablation till material which penetrate downward into the underlying jumbled sand and gravel (Figure 13C). These features are usually rounded in cross section, are roughly vertical in orientation, and are from two to fourteen inches in diameter. They descend from the base of the ablation till irregular­ ly and sinuously for as much as twelve feet, but usually for only two or three feet. They narrow in a downward direction and always have a blunt lower termination. The poor state of stratification in the surrounding sediments makes it difficult to determine whether or not the stratifications are distorted downward adjacent to these features. Similar examples from southern Sweden reported by Johnsson (1962, P* 384) are included under the name "Tropfenboden,” and he states that they are not periglacial in origin, but that no origin for them is known. These features are here interpreted as bodies of material which have migrated down from the overlying clayey ablation till, first by gravitation with later enrichment by illuviation, into spaces opened in the substratum by the growth and decay or tearing up of tree roots. 66 Secondary features of the sediments — crag A third interesting characteristic of the sediments of the stag­ nation moraine is their state of carbonate cementation (Figure 14A). There is such a great abundance of carbonate rockB — as much as sixty- four percent are limestone and/or dolomite —— that large amounts of dissolved materials are available in the groundvrater. Evaporating in the interstitial pore spaces of the coarse— textured sand and gravel, the water leaves behind its impurities which then bind the sediments together. This process can result in large masses of conglomerate (often referred to as crag) so well indurated that gravel-pit operators cannot profitably break them up. Because of the differing water-holding cap­ acity of adjacent lenses of Band and gravel, the original depositional bedding induces a differential cementation. When cemented masses of underwash are exposed to surface weathering, the stratified character of the conglomerate is accentuated. Plant roots in these calcareous sediments can act as wicks for the ground water and provide nuclei for cementation. The resulting long, cylindrical bodies of conglomerate have been termed rhizocretionB (Kindle, 1923, p. 662). Data from well logs Data from well logs from the area of the stagnation moraine are not detailed enough to show the Burficial stratigraphic column already described. But they do indicate a widespread upper layer of sands and gravels underlain mostly by olay materials of varying textures. The northern portion of this landscape type shows a more complex deep stratigraphy with clay materials alternating downward several times with sand and gravel unite. North of the Thomapple River in northern Hastings Township and southern Carlton Township are several wells which FIGURE 14 Figure 14A — Photograph of Crag Crag or calcium carbonate-cemented sand and gravel in an abandoned gravel pit in SVf^NE^SWj- sec, 15* T. 2 N., R. 10 W. is shown in this photograph. This gravel pit is in the interlobate moraine but crag is also found in the underwash sediments of the stagnation moraine. Figure 14B — Photograph of Tertiary Channel This tertiary channel is in view is to the south. sec. 29, T. 2 N.( R. 8 W. The photographic Figure 14c — Photograph of the Tabular Terrace Surface in the Primary Drainage Channel This area is on the north side of the Hastings Valley in SEfcflW^ sec. 34, T. 4 N., R. 9 W. The view is to the west. Figure 14D — Photograph of an Eroded Terrace Scarp in the Primary Drainage Channel There are several areas of these eroded terrace scarps on the north side of the Hastings Valley. This one is in SWj-SEj- sec. 34, T. 4 H., R. 9 W. The photographic view iB to the southwest* FIGURE 14 A FIGURE I4 C FIGURE I4D 69 are drilled through a compact blue clay starting at six to fourteen feet below the surface. This clay is not known to crop out in the Hastings quadrangle and so could not be examined, but clays with similar descriptions from other Michigan areas have been considered to be pre— Wisconsinan by other investigators (Stewart, 1948 t P* 3). Environment of deposition The stagnation moraine landscape originated in an environment of immotile ice at the margin of the glacier. The formation of this stagnant ice block and its insulating cover of ablation till have been described in chapter Pour. Figure 15 shows the development of the ice ^ stagnation landscape as the mass of ice melts. Figure 15A is a hypo­ thetical cross section through the ice of the southern portion of the stagnation moraine. At this stage the ice is covered by a thickening cover of ablation till which irregularly blankets the unstable surface. The till slides and flows down the wet ice surface and covers low places with thicker debris mantles and permits higher places which are relatively free of drift to melt at a more rapid rate. The process is repeated as melting continues and results in repeated local reversals of the ice topography. It is a very changeable and unstable environment on the surface of the ice. At the base of the ice subglacial channels may conduct meltwater through the stagnant ice mass. Englacial tunnels by this stage may be abandoned because meltwater can penetrate to the base of the elastic ice layer, and ice has thinned enough to eliminate the plastic ice of the rheid layer. Because meltwater can penetrate deeper than the top of the rheid layer in active ice (Chapter Four), it is possible that many of these tunnels in the ice were in existence as the ice—marginal stagnation block was forming. The meltwater in these 70 FIGURE 15 EXPLANATORY DIAGRAMS FOR THE STAGNATION MORAINE - a b l a t io n LACUSTRINE SEDIMENTS — IC E — BASAL E: ICE t il l VOIDS IN AND UNDER THE ICE T IL L -g ^ ^ ^ S ^ y — UNDERWASH ESKER T 1 TERTIARY CHANNEL Location of Cross Sections and Profile in the Hastings Quadrangle Thrust fractures and their associated dehriB are not shown in the interest of graphic clarity. Figure 15A Hypothetical cross section through a portion of stagnant ioe zone illustrating ablation till cover, possible basal till layer, and subglacial meltwater passages. voids under the ice. Underwash begins to accumulate in 71 Figure 15B Surface melting continues slowly and ablation till cover thickens. Subglacial room—and—pillar cavities develop and the ice becomes thinner. Subglacial sediments are attacked by meltwater and underwash continues to accumulate below the ice. Figure 15C Thin ice over the most active channels collapses creating valleys on the ice surface. Ablation till flows into these valleys, insulates the collapsed ice, and retards its melting. Figure 15D Ice topography is reversed as cleaner noncollapsed ice melts more rapidly. Apparently the broken and irregular surface of the collapsed ioe prevents the ablation till cover from sliding off. Thin ablation till and localized lacustrine sediments are let down onto the underlying underwash as the ice melts from the areas between the channels. Figure 15E Ioe remains only in the secondary channels while meltwater cuts smaller tertiary channels alongside. Figure 15F Profile across present landscape Burface. Vertical scale is about eleven times larger than the horizontal scale. FIGURE 15 B FIGURE 15 C FIGURE 15 D FIGURE IS E 7 r 4 0 0 FEET FIGURE 15 F -300 200 r 0 T T T------- 2 3 4 100 MILES L0 75 tunnels might have scoured away portions of the debris being transported upward through the ice in shear planes. Stenberg (1968, p. 5 1 ) has demonstrated that water flowing through ice will follow structural weaknesses. The meltwater flowing through the stagnant ioe may have selectively mined the shear zones and removed much of the transported till before it became exposed at the ice surface as ablation till. Those streams which flowed along the contact between the ice and the subjacent sediments would have attacked the basal till layer and dimin­ ished its volume as subglacial drainage channels were formed. Figure 15B shows the continued but retarded lowering of the surface of the ice. The subglacial streams melted larger and larger tunnels and caverns out of the base of the ice. As melting increased, more water was available and more of the basal till layer was destroyed. Basal till might have been squeezed (Gravenor and Kupsch, 1959} Hoppe, 1952; and Stalker i9 6 0 ) into the tunnel and cavern voids below the ice and would have been carried away by meltwater streams flowing there. Four mutually reinforcing processes may have contributed to the de­ struction of whatever subglacial basal till layer may have existed. (1) Material may have been carried away by shear-plane transport. (2 ) Englacial and subglacial streams may have been able to selectively attack the weak shear zones and erode the sediments in them. (3 ) Because of the almost continuous deposition of underwash sediments below the ice in the stagnation moraine area, it can be suggested that the subglacial streams were able to erode laterally as well as vertically and provide voids into which the sands and gravels were deposited. Assuming that meltwater flowing subglacially was able to erode horizontally as well as vertically, it would have attacked or undermined the subglacial 76 sediments and helped to eliminate any basal till layer. (4) Some of the basal till could have been squeezed out from its sanctuary under the ice into the eroding mechanism of the subglacial streams. No un­ altered basal till was observed in exposures of sediments in the southern portion of the stagnation moraine, but considerable areas of such till are exposed in the northern stagnation moraine. Because of the abundant till north of the Thornapple River it must be suggested that the area of the stagnation moraine to the south at one time also carried a layer of such material. The till balls preserved in the basal sand and gravel also strengthen this suggestion. The till balls cannot have survived fluvial transport from another distant area so must have been formed locally. The till under discussion may be an older drift, but some set of processes must still be provided to explain itB destruction under the ice of the stagnation area. The location of the till balls deep in the surficial stratigraphic sequence and the fact that they are not found in lenses indicate that they were manufactured erosionally in a depositional environment. The same system which created the fluvially rounded clay balls also buried them. There was no period of climatic or glacial adjustment between the two events. The sedimentb in which the till balls are buried show delicate and very well-preserved strati­ fications. The till balls were not put down in an ice-limited environ­ ment or these fine depositional traits of the surrounding sediments would not have been preserved undisturbed. The subglacial streams were numerous enough, large enough, and long enough lived for them to have laid thiB underwash unit almost ubiquitously under the stagnant ice. Figure 15C illustrates the oollapse of the ice as continued subglacial melting as well as surface ablation thinned the ice so that 77 it was unable any longer to span the subglacial voids. Those channels which were the most active and were covered by the weakest ice at this time became choked with masses of fallen ice. This ice prevented addi­ tional deposition in the channels and preserved them as secondary channels in the present landscape. The ice apparently collapsed in sections and caused constrictions in only parts of individual channels at any one time. The higher water velocities in these constricted reaches caused parts of them to be sluiced fairly clean of bed load sedimentB. The channel segments downstream were then filled with aug­ mented bedloads. landscape. These areas are preserved as eskers in the present The low areas on the surface of the ice which were caused by tunnel collapse received a heavy cover of ablation till from surround­ ing higher ice surfaces. This till cover acted to greatly retard melting of the collapsed ice masses. Figure 15D shows a large-scale reversal of the topography on the waning mass of stagnant ice. The ablation till moved downslope into the ice-collapse low areas and left behind relatively uninsulated ice which melted comparatively rapidly. The collapsed ice masses in the subglacial channels persisted longer than the adjacent non-collapsed masses. Pockets and depressions on the downwasting ice surface in places acted as catchment basins. Lacustrine Bediments were deposited into these basins, and ablation till or flow till material moved into them by masB wasting. These materials falling, rolling, and sliding into the basin; the unstable nature of the confining ice; and a probable annual density— thermal overturn of the water all collaborated to elimin­ ate laminations in these lacustrine sediments. Figure 15E depicts the final Btage of ice melting. The ice in 78 this stage persists only in the channel areas. Most of the insulating cover of ablation till apparently is prevented from sliding off this positive ice feature by the fissured and pocketed surface of the ice. Ablation till fills the voids and openings in the relict ice masses and effectively prevents penetration of significant amounts of meltwater. As the ice mass continued to slowly melt, the water from it flowed on the ground surface parallel to and beside the ice. This water carved a system of small tertiary channels, roughly parallel to and high on the shoulders of the secondary channels (Figure 14B). The tertiary channels occur in irregular fragments leading to and from the secondary channels and are very cleanly and sharply etched in the present land­ scape. Usually about 200 to 350 feet across, these channels were carved by streams which in most cases were incompetent to move sediments larger than fine sand and coarse silt for any great distances. Deltas of these fine particles are found dipping into the larger secondary channels. The sediments of these deltas show distortion by collapse and by super­ jacent weight applied when they were still in a relatively plastic state. As the ice melts, it deposits its burden of ablation till and lacustrine clays onto the ground surface. Below the ablation till any englacially deposited stratified sands and gravels are also deposited. As they are let down, they lose their stratification. Figure 15F is a cross section of the present landscape. It has a vertical scale eleven times the horizontal scale. The topography of the stagnation moraine becomes gradually rougher from south to north. The sediments also show this south— to-north grada­ tion by having more exposures which do not show the stratigraphic se­ quence previously described, more outcrops of basal till and sand and 79 gravel, and leas ablation till on the landscape surface. It is suggest­ ed that that area of the stagnation moraine north of the Thornapple River is transitional to a classical end moraine region which was de­ posited under plastic ice conditions. The existence of fluvially formed secondary channels north of the Thornapple Valley indicates that subglacial streams may have been active there as well as to the south. On the baBis of the relatively smooth gradient of topographic, sedimentary, and stratigraphic change between the two areas of stagnation moraine, they are considered to be of contemporaneous origin. Apparently the ice in thiB northern area was so effectively held in check by the more distal and relatively immobile ice mass that it stagnated and began to develop typical stagnation features such as subglacial meltwater channels even though it was too thick to have become thoroughly charged with Bhear transport debris. It had not become thin enough to allow the shear fractures to incorporate much or any basal till. This would diminish the amount of ablation till available and increase the amount of un­ altered basal till preserved in the resulting landscape. The area of the stagnation moraine was in 1915 mapped as a portion of the Charlotte and Kalamazoo end moraine of the Saginaw lobe (Leverett and Taylor, 1915» P» 189 a-nd 204). According to the interpretation of this area presented in this paper, the "Kalamazoo" moraine nomenclature can still be considered valid, but the special notation of Kalamazoo " stagnation" moraine might be considered more complete. In this study the term "moraine" is applied to this area in a strictly topographic sense. The stagnation area is a positive topographic feature and is part of a linear-dimensioned set of landforms extending eastward out of the Hastings quadrangle. For this study the term "moraine" is 80 used consistently only as a topographic appellation and is meant to signify nothing ahout the geomorphic origin of an area. Typical location A gravel pit at NW^NW^-SW-f- sec. 18, T. 2 N . , R. 8 W, 0.1 mile weBt of Henry Road and 0,4 mile north of Pritchardville Road in Baltimore Township is the location of a typical example and exposure of this landscape type. The section visible in the surface exposure is 0 to 2 feet — ablation till, red (7-5YR 5/6), gravelly, sandy, loose—textured till; stones in this unit occasionally show striations; there is considerable clay (sand 38 percent, silt 28 percent, clay 34 percent); 2 to 3 feet — sand and gravel, nonbedded, with occasional balls of basal till (10 YR 5/4) and some striated stones; 3 to 5 foot — lacustrine sediments, clay, nonlaminated and maBsive, with Bome scattered gravel (sand 4 percent, silt 26 percent, clay 70 percent); tension faults are common; 5 to 7 feet — sand and gravel, very poorly bedded; 7 to more than 35 feet — sand with some gravel, well—bedded, calcareous; balls of basal till are not uncommon; striations on individual Btones could not be found (sand 93 percent, silt 4 percent, clay 3 percent). The section from the log of a nearby well (SEVSE^-SW.V sec, 29, T. 2 N . , R. 8 W.) is 0 to 34 feet — red clay, 34 to 86 feet — sand and gravel, 86 to 95 feet — sand with some clay balls, 95 to more than 120 feet — sand, 81 bedrock at about 240 to 2 9 0 feet depth. The topography in this vicinity iB a complex mosaic of underwash hills with mild slopes, ice contact kame delta features, and subglacial channels with eBker fragments. The local relief in the stagnation moraine area is generally between 5 0 to 100 feet per mile. Because of the complexity of this landscape type two additional examples of typical locations are given. One is a roadcut (SE^SW^SW^ sec. 24, T. 4 N . , R. 9 W . ) on Hammond Road 0.3 miles north of Ryan Road in Irving Township. The section visible in the surface exposure is a complex of intercalated sand layers and till layers for at least eight feet of depth. The section from the log of a nearby well NE£*IE£SW£ sec. 23, T. 4 N . , R. 9 W.) is 0 to 80 feet — till, 80 to 161 feet — sand and gravel, 161 to 191 feet — 191 feet — gravel, shale. The other example is a roadout located at SW.VSW.^NE-J- sec. 8, T. 3 N . f R. 8 W . , on Bachmen Road 0.1 mile north of Woodlawn Road in Hastings Township. The section visible in the Burface exposure is 0 to 7 feet — basal till (10YR 5/4) (sand 36 percent, silt 18 percent, clay 4 6 percent); 7 to more than 9 feet — sand with very little gravel, well bedded. The section from the log of a nearby well (SE^-NW^-NWj- sec. 17, T. 3 N . , R. 8 W . ) is 0 to 25 feet — basal till, 25 to 30 feet — sand, 30 to 36 feet — sand and gravel, 82 36 to 42 feet — olayf 42 to 5 7 feet — 57 to 123 feet — 123 to 196 feet — 196 feet — sand, gravel, and boulders, clay and sand, basal till with gravel and stones, sandstone. The Primary Drainage Channel Location and altitude The Thornapple River flows westward across part of the northern half of the study area and is slightly entrenched in a broad lowland. The broad valley has for this study been named the Hastings Valley and comprises the landscape type designated as a "primary drainage channel" (Plate II). The Hastings Valley is located in the northern half of the quadrangle and extends generally east and west across the area. There is a short northerly— trending extension of this landscape type which conducts the modern Thornapple River through the village of Middleville and out the northern edge of the study area in Thornapple Township. There is another branch of this landscape type which extends south south­ west through Rutland and Hope Townships and is partly occupied by Otis Lake in sections 30 and 3 1 1 T. 3 N., R. 9 W. This landscape type occupie about forty— six square miles in the Hastings quadrangle. The Thornapple River enters the study area at slightly less than 800 feet altitude and leaves it after dropping slightly more than 100 feet as it traverses the quadrangle. The upper limits of the walls of the Hastings Valley rise in altitude from about 760 feet north of Middleville in Thornapple Township to about 820 feet one mile east of the city of Hastings, but the central portion of the valley in Irving and Rutland Townships is 83 much wider than the upper and lower portions of the Hastings Valley, and here the valley sides may rise to as high as 860 feet. Leverett comments that the valley is "fully 100 feet below the hording moraines'* and observes the average width to be about a mile (Leverett and Taylor, 1915. P. 205). Topography The gross topographic character of the Hastings Valley is that of a broad shallow trough. The trough is up to four miles wide in places and approaches a maximum total topographic depth of 160 feet. Broad and generally flat— topped valley side terraces characterize the central portion of the Hastings Valley in Irving and Rutland Townships (Figures 14C and 14D). The terraces north of the Thornapple River Blope to the south and extend down to the river in a step-like sequence, each successive step narrower than the adjacent higher one. In some places the terraces are pitted (sec. 35 * T. 4 N., R. 9 W.)„ of the river are less well expressed and do not slope as distinctly down to the river. The terraces south In the western portion of the Hastings Valley in Yankee Springs Township there are no well— expressed terraces. Instead, the topographic surface is marked by a great variety of undulating and rounded forms of no particular pattern or arrangement and of low local relief. There are not many abrupt topographic gradients on the valley floor in this area, and relatively few closed depressions are found. Abandoned proglacial or subglacial channel fragments are found in only a small number of locations but are well expressed in the landscape. The greatest amount, of local relief within the valley itself is located immediately adjacent to the Thornapple Fiver and is associated with erosional entrenchment into the valley fill sediments composing the 84 terraces. Sediments Most of the sediments of the terraces are well-bedded sands and gravels and are presently being mined for construction materials in several places. These actively worked pits reveal broad exposures of relatively flat-lying strata which show torrential cross bedding in places, can be traced horizontally for as much as 600 feet, and dip slightly to the south parallel with the topographic surface. The sedi­ ments are very sandy and contain relatively little gravel with almost no cobbles or boulders. Sedimentary particles smaller than sand common­ ly comprise less than three percent of the material. On the topographic surface and directly overlying these sands and gravels is a thin horizon of finer textured sandy sediments. This surficial horizon usually meets the subjacent stratum with a smooth and abrupt contact and occasionally shows stratifications. Data from well logs The stratigraphic information available from well logs is sparse and without a clear pattern. In the western portion of the valley, in Yankee Springs Township, and in the northern extension of the valley near Middleville, the well records show Bands and gravels almost without interruption. Toward the eastern part of the valley, however, the well logs show an increasing amount of clay-constituent material below a surficial cover of sand and gravel which is almost always at least thirty-five feet thick. The information from well logs is not detailed enough to show the thin zone of silty sand of the upper surface of the valley fill terraces, nor is it abundant enough to allow any point-topoint correlation to be attempted. 85 Environment of Deposition The Hastings Valley probably had its origin between a detached zone of stagnant ice to the south and a mass of possibly still active ice to the north* It has already been suggested that both the northern and southern portions of the stagnation moraine area probably were occupied b y stagnant ice at the same time. The Hastings Valley could have been developed transversely within this stagnant ice margin and perpendicular to the regional ioe slope. The depression possibly was melted in the relatively debris— free ice parallel to and proximal to the stagnant ice margin. Figure 16 illustrates this sequence. Figure 16A shows the initial condition of a zone of debris— laden ice at the margin of a glacier of relatively cleaner ice, and Figure 16B shows the lowland resulting from increased ice melting proximal from the blanket of insulating ablation till. accelerates its deepening. Meltwater gathers in the depression and Figure 16C illustrates the severing of ice connection between these two masses and drainage of this lowland by tunnel channels melted through and under the stagnant ice. These sub- glacial tunnels may have been already carved out b y meltwater coming down the consequent slope of the glacial mass. marginal process are given in Chapter Four. References for this ice Figure 16D shows the accumulation of valley fill deposits which make up the present terraces of the Hastings Valley. There are few exposures of these sediments where their stratification can be clearly studied, but a tentative conclusion based on the available evidence can be made. Because of the smoothly sloping surface and southward— dipping, possibly deltaic character of the sediments of the terraces, it is suggested that they were formed of materials deposited by streams 86 FIGURE 16 EXPLANATORY DIAGRAMS FOR THE PRIMARY DRAINAGE CHANNEL Three hypothetical cross sections up and down the slope of the ice. ABLATION TILL VOIDS IN AND UNDER THE ICE SEOIMENTS IN PLACE BEFORE THIS GLACIATION DELTAIC OR GLACIOFLUVIAL SEDIMENTS Location of CrosB Sections and Profile in the Hastings Quadrangle Thrust fractures and their associated debriB are not shown in the interest of graphic clarity. Figure 16A The ablation till—covered marginal stagnation area is shown to the left, and the deeper relatively debris— free ice to the right. Figure 16B The fosse-like depression caused by more rapid melting of the cleaner ice proximal from the stagnant ioe is shown. Figure 16C The fosse-like depression has enlarged enough to sever connection between the stagnant ice block and the thicker proximal ice. Outwash fans or deltas accumulate in the low area between the ioe masses. Figure 16D A profile across the present-day landscape of the primary drainage channel. The valley fill material has been notched into terraces by a large proglacial meltwater river. The vertical scale is about eleven times the horizontal scale. E* _ _ _ _ _ _ _ P* i ^he limits of the primary drainage channel. FIGURE 16 A ICE °<3 FIGURE 16 B ICE ICE FIGURE 16 C T^rnwF1' FIGURE r 3 0 0 FEET 16 D -200 -100 0 2 3 r 4 MILES 90 flowing south and southwest from the ice into the fosse-like ablation depression. The sediments may have been deposited into standing water. At some later time when the Hastings Valley became integrated into a large meltwater drainage system and carried large volumes of water, the valley fill materials were carved into the terrace remnants of today's landscape. Leverett was apparently somewhat puzzled by this valley, because in 1915 he observed that, for so large a lowland, the valley of the Thornapple seems to be marked by relatively little erosion. He calls it "merely a large depression left by the ice" (Leverett and Taylor, 1915» p. 205). Typical location A gravel pit at SW^NW^NH^- sec. 12, T. 4 N., R. 9 w «» 0.2 mile north of State Road and 0.8 mile west of Bolton Road in Rutland Township is the location of a typical example and exposure of this landscape type. The section visible in the surface exposure is 0 to 2 feet — sandy stratified sediments with some silt and clay (sand $6 percent, silt 26 percent, and clay 18 percent); 2 to more than 120 feet — sand with Borne gravel, cobbles and boulders. The section from the log of a nearby well (SW^NE^SWj- sec. 2, T. 3 N., R. 9 W.) is 1 to 35 f««t — * Band and gravel, 35 to 80 feet — clay and gravel, 80 to 180 feet — - clay, 180 feet — shale. The topography in this vicinity is primarily tabular and gently inclined. The surface is cut by channels of various sizes which trend generally 91 north and south or northeast and southwest. The local relief on the terrace surface is as little aB six feet per mile, but from the terrace surface down into the channels as much as thirty— five feet per mile and as much as fifty feet per mile down to the surface of the Thornapple River. The Interlobate Moraine Location and altitude The interlobate moraine landscape is located in the western half of the quadrangle, extending about four miles east of the lower western edge of the study area and trending slightly east of north as far as the Hastings Valley, where it iB about five miles wide. North of the Hastings Valley proper and east of the Middleville extension of that primary drainage channel, the interlobate moraine continues north. This, the second largest landscape type recognized, covers about fiftytwo square miles of the study area. The interlobate moraine can in general be considered to be bound on the west by the 800 foot contour. Also the northern edge of that portion of the interlobate moraine lying south of the Hastings Valley is roughly terminated by the 800 foot contour. The maximum altitude of the highest portion of the area is 1138 feet in section 25 of Yankee Springs Township. The upper surfaces of the interlobate moraine generally decrease in altitude toward the southern edge of the study area. is about 1080 feet. At that border the altitude Leverett commented in 1915 that this area near Prairieville was about 1050 feet above sea level (Leverett and Taylor, 1915* P* 175)* The upper surfaces of that portion of the interlobate moraine which lies north of the Hastings Valley are somewhat lower in 92 altitude, reaching generally to about 9<>0 feet with 992 feet being the highest. The eastern edge of this landscape type is higher than the western side and lies about at 850 to 860 feet* Topography The topography of both sections of the interlobate moraine is hilly and contains many closed depressions, some quite large (Figure 17A). Leverett stated that this area has "a pronounced knob-and-basin type of topography" (Leverett and Taylor, 1915* P* 55)* The hills are arranged in two parallel linear sets trending the length of the moraine in the Hastings quadrangle. in the northern. This is better seen in the southern portion than Individual hills of these assemblages are usually steep—sided and have complex slope shapes (Figure 17B). It is not un­ common for local group b of hills to exhibit an asymmetrical character because their summits rise generally to the north for up to one mile and then drop relatively steeply as much as 80 or 100 feet. Kany closed depressions of considerable size may be found among the knolls and slopes of this topography. Leverett noted that the western line of hills con­ tains more and larger closed depressions than the eastern (Leverett and Taylor, 1915* p. 176). The western line of hills of the interlobate moraine is not as wide or as high as is the eastern set.Between the high topography forming each side of this landscape typethere is a medial lowland running parallel to the hills and extending from the Hastings Valley south and west out of the western edge of the quadrangle. This medial valley is not as well expressed north of the Hastings Valley aB it is to the south. This medial lowland was observed by Leverett to be not more than about one mile wide (Leverett and Taylor, 1915» P* 181). Beep Lake in section 26 of Yankee Springs Township, SnowLake in section FIGURE 17 Figure 17A — Photograph of Hills in the Southern Portion of the Interlobate Moraine This photograph illustrates the topographic character of a relatively subdued portion of the interlobate moraine in StfJSWj- seo. 14» T. 2 N,, R. 10 W. The view is to the southeast. Figure 17B — Photograph of Hills in the Northern Portion of the Interlobate Moraine The hills of the interlobate moraine seen in the background are in sec. 36t T. 4 N*» R. 10 V. and are observed across the terrace flats of the Hastings Valley from NW^NE|NWj- sec. 32, T. 4 N., R. 9 W. The view of the photograph is to the southwest. State Road is in the foreground. Figure 17C — Photograph of Sediments in the Interlobate Moraine This ablation till overlying disturbed glaciofluvial sediments is located near the western margin of the medial lowland in NW^NN^SEjJ- sec. 4, T. 2 N., R. 10 W. The large graduations on the scale rod are six inches. VO u> ABLATION TILL DISTURBED GLACIOFLUVIAL SEDIMENTS FIGURE 17A FIGURE FIGURE I7B 17 C 95 34 of the same townshipt and Fish Lake in sections 16 and 21 of Orangeville Township occupy portions of this medial lowland. The local relief is as much as 150 feet per mile within the tractB of morainic hills and may be as great as 325 feet per mile from these hills to the adjacent lower topography. Sediments The great bulk of the sediments associated with this landscape are partially sortedf poorly bedded glaciofluvial sand and gravelB. sites expose Borne well— stratified sediments. A few Leverett reported in 1915 that the drift in this area is "mainly assorted material of various grades of coarseness" (Leverett and Taylor, 191 5» P* 177)« iments are quite variable in texture and degree of sorting. These sed­ In some places large boulders, cobbleB, gravel, and Band are irregularly mixed with small amounts of silt or clay in a loose-textured manner. Some exposures reveal very well—bedded sediments, usually in some degree of post—depositional disturbance. A notable exception to the widespread existence of glaciofluvial sediments is found in association with the slopes that extend from the adjacent uplands downward into the medial lowland. Here a thin and intermittent surficial layer of ablation till exists which usually increases in thickness downslope (Figure 17C). Leverett and Taylor (19“*5» P* 187) also report a brown stoney clay at the surface and observed "the greatest thickness being in basins" (p. 177 )* Ablation till is found in few other places in the interlobate moraine. Lithology of sediments The lithology of pebble samples from one side of the interlobate moraine was compared with that of samples from the other side (Figure 5). About half of the sediment samples were taken from locations in 96 both hill zones of the interlobate moraine and in the medial lowland between. The other half of the sediment samples analyzed for litho— logical content were taken from locations in other landscape types on either side of the interlobate moraine. Of these data gathered outside of the area of the interlobate moraine about sixty percent were from the Saginaw lobe side to the east, and the rest were from the Michigan lobe side to the west. Some of this latter set of Michigan lobe samples were gathered outside the Hastings quadrangle in the adjacent Wayland quadrangle. In the interest of clarity the possibly ambiguous samples from the medial lowland and the adjacent morainal slopes were eliminated from the analytical array shown in Figure 5» Lithological analysis was used to determine the location of a trappable border between sediments of Michigan lobe provenance and those of Saginaw lobe provenance. Although as a group the data from one lobe was generally unlike the data from the other, there was sufficient overlap in the lithological character of both sets of samples that this method could not be diagnostic. Table I shows the range of percentage constituents of sedimentary clastic, sedi­ mentary nonclastic, and crystalline rocks in the samples grouped by glacial provenance. are also shown. The rounded averages for each lithological category All three categories show great overlap of percentage range, and the computed averages are no more than five percent different for groups of samples from the two glacial lobes. No line between sedi­ ments from the two lobes could be drawn on the map using these data. Data from well logs Logs from wells drilled in the area of the interlobate moraine usually show a surface zone of sand and gravel generally about 120 feet in thickness but in several places as deep as 260 feet. A few wells TABLE I LITHOLOGY OP SEDIMENTS IN THE AREA OF THE HASTINGS QUADRANGLE Michigan Lobe Sediments Sedimentary clastic Range of Percentages Average 7-24 17 Sedimentary nonclaetic 37 - 58 49 Crystalline 21-41 34 7 - 32 20 Sedimentary nonclastic 24 - 65 51 Crystalline 15 - 48 29 Saginaw Lobe Sediments Sedimentary clastic 98 in the medial lowland were drilled through a eurficial oover of ablation till. p. 177)* This is also reported in Leverett and Taylor (1915* Below th is sorted u n it a few w ells were d r ille d in to sandy and gravelly clay. There are not sufficient data to suggest a trend of changing depth to the base of these sediments, but that they are distinctly deeper than the surficial sorted Bediments of the stagnation moraine to the east may be noted. Leverett and Taylor (1975* P* 177) also report deep wells in this area which "reached depths of over 200 feet without penetrating muoh till." Comparison with the Kettle moraine The Kettle moraine in Wisconsin is perhaps the closest and best— known analogue to the interlobate moraine of the Hastings quadrangle. There is some literature on the Kettle moraine available. Chamberlin suggested the term "interlobate" for the Kettle moraine and described interlobate moraines as ones which lie along the face of two approaching ice sheets, which may have met and antagonized each other to some extent, but did not coalesce, and furthermore lie transverse to the glacial motion and are strictly marginal and are in real nature terminal moraines (Chamberlin, 1977# P* 2 7 6 ).. Alden (1918, p. 2 6 9 ) described the topography of the Kettle moraine as "marked by knob-and—kettle topography which varied greatly in detail from place to place" and then continued, At one place a series of gravel ridges not unlike railroad embankments may lie nearly parallel to each other and to the trend of the moraine. Traced for a short distance these ridges may become winding, inclosing deep irregular depressions with side slopes in places as steep as 30° to 35°» <>r they may break into more or less distinct conical knobs, irregularly distributed and interest with equally abrupt round or irregular depressions. Differences in altitude of 20 to 100 feet occur within the span of a few rods. The close and irregular distribution of these features and the abrupt changes in height of the knobs and ridges and the depths of 99 the hollowB form a labyrinth. He added that there are two crest lines, one on each side of the moraine and associated with each of the contributing lobes of ice (Alden, 1918* p. 237)- Whitbeck (1921, p. 15) described parts of the Kettle moraine as several miles wide and two hundred or more feet high. It may be said that these comments could well be made about the interlobate moraine in the Hastings quadrangle. The intermittent cover of ablation till also was observed by Alden (1918, p. 2 8 9 ) 1 commented that there is generally a surface covering of "greater or less thickness of "stoney clay.” Environment of deposition The environment of deposition of the interlobate landforms and sediments was one of abundant running water on, in, and under ice in a fractured, shattered zone between the impinging Saginaw and Michigan lobes of ice. Figure 18 illustrates in a series of cross-sectional diagrams the inferred deposition sequenoe. Figure 18A shows the conditions along the interlobate contact when the ice was still deep enough to be plastic. The hypothetical profile of the Saginaw lobe ice to the right is shown much lower than that of the Michigan lobe ice to the left because it is assumed (Leverett and Taylor, 19^5» P* ^23 and Berquist, 1936, p. 23) that the Saginaw lobe was thinner because its ice supply had to traverse a relatively high and difficult path up the Saginaw Lowland and across the center of lower Michigan, while the Michigan lobe ice was supplied by the lower and relatively easier path of the depression now occupied by Lake Michigan. Keltwater coming down the consequent topographic gradient of both lobes gathered in the lower area along the interlobate contact. Probably this water flowed 100 FIGURE 18 EXPLANATORY DIAGRAMS FOR THE INTERLOBATE MORAINE ABLATION TILL ICE VOIDS IN AND UNDER THE ICE GLACIOFLUVIAL SEDIMENTS Location of Croas Sections and Profile in the Hastings Quadrangle Thrust fractures and their associated debris are not shown in the interest of graphic clarity. Figure 18A Hypothetical cross section of an interlobate contact in ice with deep, active rheid layer. Surficial thrust fractures do not penetrate to the base of the ice. flow in englacial tunnels. Large amounts of meltwater 101 Figure 18B Interlobate contact in shallow ice with tho rheid layer eliminated. Ablation till cover develops in the center of the contact, and most meltwater flows in subglacial tunnels. Figure 18C Concentration of meltwater below the ice surface on each side of the ablation till-covered center causes collapse, and two roughly parallel linear depressions are formed in the ice. The collapsed ice impedes water flow in this area and sediments begin to aggrade and bury the collapsed ice masses. Figure l8D Deep layers of fluvial Bediments accumulate and bury chunks of detached stagnant ice. The ice at the center of the interlobate contact is still covered by ablation till and its melting is retarded. Some meltwater is diverted from the deeply aggraded intex^- lobate areas to the lowered ice surface nearby — notably toward the weaker Saginaw lobe. Figure 18E The meltwater has all been diverted away from the interlobate area to lower routes and deposition in the interlobate area stops. As the buried ice masses melt, the relatively flat glaciofluvial surface becomes marked by deep kettleB. keltwater from the dis­ integrating ice lobes flows along the margin of the interlobate hills and carves erosional channels. 102 Figure 18F Profile across the present landscape of the interlobate moraine. The vertical scale is about eleven times larger than the horizontal scale. FIGURE 18 A ICE ICE ICE FIGURE 18 B ICE ICE CE FIGURE 18 C ICE ICE ICE FIGURE 18 D 18 E 500 FIGURE FEET - 400 18 F -300 _r 3 “I-----4 MILES - 200 - 100 H JOI FIGURE 106 mostly englacially along the top of the rheid layer, but since that surface had to conform to the top of the ice, the water still flowed generally down the topographic gradient of the ice surface. It seems likely that the surface ice of the interlobate contact may have been subject to fracture as the meeting zone adjusted to unequal pressures from the two lobes. The ice in this stage was relatively clean because the cracks and thrusts had not yet reached the base of the ice to incorporate basal debris. Figure 18B shows the interlobate contact after the ice at the margin of both lobes had become thin enough to be elastic. layer was eliminated and the ice could no longer flow. been fractured from top to bottom. The rheid The ice may have The englacial tunnels were by this stage subglacial because they were no longer closed by the plastic flow of the now eliminated rheid layer and were able to erode subglacial sedi­ ments. If this ice carried a layer of basal till, it too could have been attacked by the subglacial streams. These streams were carrying runoff and meltwater from probably thousands of square miles of ice surface. They were very large streams and were able to melt large subglacial voids. Thrust fractures similar to those described in Chapter Four would prob­ ably have formed and could have caused basal sediments to be moved up into the ice by shear-plane transport. Some of this englacial material apparently became deposited on the ice surface and formed an ablation till cover on the ice in the center of the interlobate contact zone. This material acts to retard the rate of melting of the ice in the most fractured and contested zone between the two lobes, and the adjacent cleaner ice on each side begins to melt down more rapidly. Eventually the subglacial channels become too large to be bridged 107 by the fractured and thinning ice and they collapee. Figure 1SC illustrates this stage and the resulting inversion of the ice topography. The ablation till continued to retard melting of the ice in the central portion of the interlobate area. The then constricted and ramified channels peripheral to the central ice mass were unable to accommodate the meltwater flood, and the water table rose englacially. Shear- plane transport active along the length of the interlobate contact pumped debris into this glaciofluvial system between the two ice lobes. This abundance of sediments in the meltwater rivers aggraded in the in­ tricate englacial passages of the collapsed ice. described by Russell (1891-2, p. 77)- This process was Much ice was buried sb the glacio­ fluvial sediments continued to accumulate and form a sort of ice— limited linear outwash plain or valley train. The large meltwater streamB, fluctuating greatly in size with the Beasons, developed large channel bars and islands with typically asymmetrical long profiles — steeper slopes facing upstream. the These fluvially shaped landforms, preserving their erosional asymmetry, account for the present asymmetry of some interlobate hill groups. As both major lobes of ice melted back away from the interlobate contact area, more sediments were deposited. Figure 18E diagrams the deep layers of glaciofluvial materials which by this stage were lying in the interlobate channels. Shortly after this, the major glacial drainage was diverted proximally toward both lobes as the ice surfaces there were lowered by ablation and provided easier passage for the melt— water. moraine. This terminated the constructional stage of the interlobate Figure 18E shows an intermediate condition of topographic development as the buried ice masses melted. The sediments in which the 103 ice blocks were buried lost most or all of their stratification as they collapsed around the melting ice. As the central mass of ice melted out, it let its cover of ablation till down into the developing trough between the two sets of glaciofluvial bed-lcad hills. Figure 1°F is a profile of the present landscape of the interlobate moraine in the Hastings quadrangle. Leverett and Taylor mapped this area as a portion of the Inner and Outer Kalamazoo moraine of the Michigan lobe (Leverett and Taylor 1915* pp. 174-134). Taylor's 1924 map of surficial geology and Martin's 1955 map of surface formations of southern Michigan also show this area as a portion of the Michigan lobe morainic system. However, according to the interpretation presented in this report, this area is truly an interlobate feature, and the sediments associated with it are of both Michigan and Saginaw lobe provenance. It represents consolidated or juxtaposed terminal moraines of the two glacial lobe3. The term "moraine** is used for this landscape type because it is a positive topographic feature, has greater surface complexity than some adjacent landscape types, and has a distinctly linear form. Typical location A sand and gravel pit at sec. 22, T. 3 N., B. 10 V, on Basset Lake Poad 0.2 miles south of Metz Road in Yankee Springs Township is a location of a typical example and exposure of this landscape type. The section visible in the surface exposure is 0 to 5 feet — fine sand with very little gravel or clay (sand 84 percent, silt 11 percent, clay 5 percent); 5 to 30 feet — 30 to 35 feet — sand and gravel, poorly bedded, calcareous; sand and gravel, strongly cemented by calcium 109 carbonate; 33 to more than 38 feet — Band and gravelv some boulders, very poorly bedded. This gravel pit is located on the western flank of the medial lowland and shows a thin surficial layer of what may be ablation till. Below this stratigraphic unit are sand and gravel which have had most or all of any original depositional stratification (which they may have had) destroyed by the melting of underlying buried ice masses and the sub­ sequent loss of support and collapse. The section from the log of a nearby well (NWj-SWjSW}- sec. 19, T. 3 K . t R. 10 W . ) is O to 66 feet — sand, 66 to 131 feet — gravel and mud, 131 to„ 1 5 4 feet — gravel, 1 3 4 to 187 feet — sand and gravel, 187 feet — sandstone. The very ieep layers of sorted material reported here are typical of wells drilled in the interlobate moraine area. It seems very un­ likely that these Bediments are all the product of the Wisconsinan glaciation, but the vertical homogeneiety of texture and sorting is remarkable. In 1915 Leverett commented that at that time there was no way of "determining how much of this great mass of drift iB referable to the Wisconsin(an) and how much to preceding stages of glaciation'* (Leverett and Taylor 1915* P* 187)* What is suggested by this evidence to this investigator is that perhaps a zone of interlobate morainic hills formed in this area during an early glacial advance and resulted in a positive, topographic character on some previous glacial surface in the Hastings quadrangle area. Subsequent glacial advances may have been 110 sufficiently influenced and guided by this topography so that more than one interlobate contact zone could have been located in this part of the Hastings quadrangle. If thie argument is reasonable, it can then be suggested that the deep layers of rudely sorted and stratified sediments underlying the interlobate moraine were deposited by more than one glacial advance. The topography of the landscape surface in this vicinity is a massive linear group of steep-sided asymmetrical hills with complex slopes and many closed depressions. edge of the adjacent Hastings Valley. The local relief is 325 feet to the Leverett also observed about 300 feet of relief in this area (Leverett and Taylor, 1915? P» ^5)- The Kame Topography Location and altitude This landscape type is located in the central portion of the study area. It extends south for about five miles from the area of Podunk and Purdy Lakes in Rutland Township where it is about one-and—a-half miles wide and it gradually narrows to terminate in northwestern Hope Town­ ship. The kame topography covers about seven square miles in the Hastings quadrangle, less than any other landscape type. The altitude of the highest points in this area is just over 1000 feet, but the upper surfaces of the kame topography generally lie about twenty to forty feet lower. Topography The topography of this landscape type is a generally linear complex of steep— sided conical hills and groups of hills (Figure 19A). These have complex and irregular slopes and generally rounded summits. Leverett comments that in thi3 area "knob and basin topography prevails" FIGURE 19 t Figure 19A — Photograph of Fame Topography. These hills of kame topography are in S^SWjsec. 33• T. 3 N*t R* 9 W. The view of the photograph iB north. Figure t9B — Photograph of Outwash Topography* Outwash plain topography in sec. 27, T. 4 N., R. 10 V. is illustrated hy this photograph. Hills of the interlobate moraine in sections 23, 24, 25 and 26, T. 4 N,, R. 10 Vf. show in the background. The view is to the east. Figure 19C— Photograph of Outwash Sediments Showing Collapse Faulting. These tension faults or "horst-and-graben” structures are in ablation till-covered outwash sediments about two mileB west of the study area in sec. 7, T. 3 L , R. 10 The large graduations on the scale rod are six inches. "Tropfenboden" structures can be Been at the top of the illustration. Figure 19D— Photograph of Ground Moraine or Till Plains. This till plain or ground moraine topography is in sec* 13, T. 4 N*» R« 8 W. The view is to the southwest. I I FIGURE 19 C FIGURE I9B FIGURE 19 D T U FIGURE I9A 113 and that there are **sharp knobe rising 5 0 to 100 feet above the surface of the numerous lakes enclosed in basins'* (Leverett and Taylor 19*15* p. 190). There are many closed depressions, but they are not as numer­ ous or as large as those of the interlobate moraine. Local relief averages about eighty feet per mile but in places is as great as 140 feet per mile. Sediments The stratigraphy of sediments in this landscape type is somewhat similar to that of the interlobate moraine. There is a basal unit of sands and gravels overlain by ablation till in places. The bedding of the basal unit is much better preserved than in the interlobate moraine to the west, even though some form of post— depositional disturbance of the stratification is usually apparent. The stratification of the basal kamic sand and gravel sediments is not as well preserved sb the strati­ fication of the stagnation moraine underwash sands and gravels to the east. The ablation till cover is more nearly complete and generally somewhat thicker than in the interlobate moraine, and thinner as well as less continuous than in the stagnation moraine. The ablation till seems to be concentrated on the tops and upper slopes of the hills and contributes somewhat to their topographic expression. Data from well logs The records of some of the wells drilled in this landscape type show a 10 to 25 foot surficlal layer of sandy and gravelly clay overlying sand and gravels to as much as 110 feet of depth. In the northern end of the kame topography several well logs show much greater depth of surficial clayey material. Only eleven well logs from this area are on record at the Michigan Geological Survey, so any conclusions drawn from 114 their data must be treated with caution. Significance of the term kame The term "kame" is applied to these landforms in a somewhat restricted sense. Jamieson (1874, P* 309) used the term to indicate a steep— sided mound of gravel which was of some ice-contact origin. Thwaitea (1926, p. 308), on the other hand, used the term descriptively, referring to a hill of poorly-sorted drift "in terminal and recessional moraines." He added that kame bedding is irregular and disturbed in contrast to the bedding of outwash sediments which is mostly horizontal and usually well preserved. Cook (1946, p. 574) suggested that the word had been used much too imprecisely and offered "kame—complex" as an alternative descriptive term for a type of topography. Holmes (1947» p. 2 4 0 ) defended the use of the term "kime," asserting that it be used only in a descriptive topographic sense and that modifiers such as "delta" kame be added when a specific environment of deposition was indicated (p. 248). "Kame" as applied here to the Hastings quadrangle is meant only to be descriptive of a certain landform and sediment assemblage, and not to imply any particular form of genesis. Environment of deposition The environment of deposition of this landscape type involved abundant water, a significant amount of sediments, and stagnant or nearly stagnant ice. The linear formation of these kamic hills, aligned as they are between and parallel to the interlobate moraine and the stagnation moraine, suggests that the kame topography may have originated in an environment somewhat transitional between the two. The gravel and Band sediments of the hills were probably deposited at the base of moulins or of perforations (Cook 1946, pp. 574—576) in tne ice. The 115 steep-sided character of the hills and the partial state of preservation of the original depositional stratifications suggests that these are not engl&cial or aupraglacial sediments which were subjected to a great deal of disturbance during melting of subjacent ice. The complex slopes may have been formed as a kind of cast or impression of the underside of the moulin caverns in the ice (Andersen 1931, p. 613), and suggest that the subglacial voids in which these hills were constructed were wider at the base and narrowed upward like inverted funnels. The sediments dumped and washed into these subglacial voids were banked up against the sloping roof— sides of the enclosing ice and took a "oast” of the shape of the ice. The ice mass under which this set of komic hills was developed had become stagnant and at least somewhat charged with engla^oial or supraglacial debris. In the waning stages of the ice in this area at least some of the ablation till flowed or slid down into the perforations in the ice and was settled on top of the kamio sands and gravels already there. Russell (1891— 2, p. 73) describes this sequence of events from Malaspina glacier. Bnbleton and King (1968, p. 386) comment that kames are found in areas where there had been stagnant ioe, where "much coarse material was available," and where there was abundant meltwater. Flint (1930, p. 622) comments on an analogous set of land— forms in which sediments were set down below ice and the ice melted in place. In the same paper he describes how kames may have a linear arrangement (p. 6l8). Holmes (1947, P» 246) suggests that kames in a line may be transitional to esker forms, but WeBt (1 9 6 8 , p. 9 ) asserts that linear groupB of kames simply reflect a linear set of crevasses which permitted easy meltwater penetration of the ice. Stenborg ( 1 9 6 8 , pp. 4 5 — 5 2 ) in a significant paper describes how meltwater worked down 116 into the ice where it is most cracked and fractured. Moulins develop in sequence along a set of differential— flow faults in the ice, and deposits are set down below them in a similar linear fashion. An exten­ sive set of fractures must have developed by differential ice flow ina line somewhat proximal from the congested zone of the interlobate con­ tact. These fractures encouraged the development of a linear set of moulins or perforations, and meltwater was able to carry in enough sedimentB to construct the linear group of kamic hills comprising this landscape type. Typical location A treelesB kame hill at sec. 5i T. 2 N., R. 9 W. on Havens Road 0.3 mile northwest of Head Lake Road intersection in Hope Township is a topographic surface typical of this landscape type. A more spec­ tacular example of kame topography, as well as a surficial stratigraphic section, can be seen at a gravel pit and nearby roadcuts at W^SE^-SWjsec. 33, T. 3 N m H. 9 Rutland Township. on Hull Road 0.6 mile north of Anders Road in The section visible in the surface exposure at this latter site is 0 to 7 feet — ablation till, sandy, cobbly, red (7^YR 5/6)* loose-textured (sand 44 percent, silt 31 percent, clay 23 percent); 7 to 10 feet — gravel with some sand, calcareous, very poorly bedded; 10 to more than 23 feet — sand and gravel, well bedded. The section from the log of a nearby well (NEJ^NEiJ-Sl^- sec. 27, T. 3 N. R. 9 W.) is 0 to 5 toet — Band, 117 5 to 60 feet —- clay, 60 to 160 feet — gravel, 160 to 185 feet — eand and gravel, 185 to 202 feet — till, 202 feet — shale. The landscape surface in this latter vicinity is a very large, somewhat isolated cluster of kamic hills with steep and complex slopes and occasional closed depressions. The local relief in this area is 120 to 130 feet per mile. The Outwash Plains Location and altitude This landscape area is found in three separate places in the study area. One is in the vicinity of Vail Lake in southern Rope and ticrthern Barry Townships. The altitude of this topographic area is generally about 940 feet and it slopes slightly to the south. The second is in the vicinity of Prairieville in northern Prairieville and southern Orangeville Townships. The altitude in this area is about 1080 feet. The third area is in the northern portion of the study area, in northern Yankee Springs Township and central Thornapple Township, west of the Thomapple River at Middleville. area. Duncan Creek flows east through this The altitude of the upper surface of this region is about 84 O feet and it slopes generally south and east. The outwash areas take up eighteen square miles of the Hastings quadrangle. The three outwash plain areas together comprise about 14 of the 216 square miles of the study area. Topography The topography of the Wall Lake outwash plain is quite tabular. It 118 is generally unpitted but is divided into two sections by the seventy— foot— deep meltwater channel occupied in part by Holcomb Lake. The topography of the Duncan Creek outwash plain is in some places much rougher and broken up by numerous kettles. stream dissection. Kany areas show considerable An unbroken area of the outwash area in Thornapple Township is shown in Figure 19B. Local relief on the upper surfaces of both outwash areas is almost always less than fifteen feet per mile and sometimes is indicated to be as little as seven feet per mile according to Beetion— corner spot elevations on the U.S. Ceological Survey topo­ graphic map of the Hastings quadrangle (Plate i). Local relief from the upper surface of the Duncan Creek outwash area down to the many kettles and stream dissection features which characterise it is about fortyfive feet per mile in many places. The kettles in the Duncan Creek area are not large, with most smaller than 400 feet across and only two as large as a half mile in diameter. To the west out of the Hastings quadrangle into the area of the Wayland fifteen—minute quadrangle, the kettle depressions become significantly larger. Sediments The sediments of the outwash areas consist for the most part of gravel, usually with well-preserved stratifications. Not many exposures exist in these sediments, but those few near kettle depressions show that the original depositional bedding of the sand and gravel was dis­ turbed by tension and collapse faulting when the buried ice masses melted away (Figure 190). In a few places in the Duncan Creek area there are thin coatings of ablation till on the surface of the outwash. areas are usually in the vicinity of one of the larger kettles. Data from well logs These 119 Data from well records are not abundant from the outwash plain areas. Only six wells are recorded in the eighteen square miles of outwash in the Hastings quadrangle. All of these show surficial sand and gravel deeper than forty feet. Environment of deposition The sediments comprising the outwash landscapes were deposited by proglacial streams carrying abundant debris. unstable, and rapidly aggrading. The streams were shallow, Price (I969t P- 32) interestingly describes a modern example of this environment in Iceland and notes that in much of northern Europe the Scandinavian term "sandur” is used for such a feature. Thwaites (1926, pp. 309-311) discusses types of out- wash landscapes and the origin of kettles in outwash areas. Ice blocks isolated by ablation from the glacier were surrounded by sediments carried from the ice by meltwater streams. Deposition of sediments by those meltwater streams was in many cases able to bury the blocks of ice. After the ice melted, an isolated or closed depression was created in the otherwise smoothly sloping depositional surface. masses were only partly buried. Often the ice This must have happened in northwestern Hastings quadrangle because deposits of supraglacial ablation till are sometimes found on top of the proglacial outwash sediments. Leverett (Leverett and Taylor 1915# PP* 175— 181, 194-195) describes an outwash area lying in southwestern Barry County, Michigan. This large proglacial feature has its northern tip in the Hastings quadrangle study area: The Wall Lake outwash area. Leverett (1918A, 1918b , p. 53) adds some detail in brief descriptions of portions of this outwash plain lying south of the study area. A I960 Michigan Geological Survey Report (Deutsch and others I960, p. 12) mentions this same plain and comments 120 that the area is much dissected by "erosion in glacial and postglacial time." The outwash area near Duncan Creek is probably a portion of that discussed by Taylor (Leverett and Taylor 1915* P* 220) and attributed to the Valparaiso system. Typical location A roadcut at SWj-SY/jNVfJ- sec. 4» T. 1 N . , R. 9 on Orchard Road 1.2 mile west of Kingsbury Road interseotion in Barry Township is a location of a typical example and exposure of this landscape type. The section visible in the surface exposure is 0 to 10 feet — sand, noncalcareous (sand 9 0 percent, silt 6 percent, clay 4 percent); 10 to more than 15 feet — - sand with some gravel increasing with depth. The section from the log of a nearby well (NWj-SWj-SW'fc- sec. 2, T. I N . , R. 9 W.) is 0 to more than 87 feet — sand and gravel, bedrock at about 305 feet in this area. The topography in this vicinity is generally tabular with mild undulo^tions and rare closed kettle depressions. It is inclined slightly to the south and marked by infrequent proglacial meltwater channels. The local relief of the outwash surface is less than fifteen feet per mile. Till Plains Location and altitude The two till plain regions of the Hastings quadrangle are located in the eastern corners of the study area. The northeast till plain, roughly coincident with Carlton Township, covers about twelve square 121 miles in the vicinity of Rogers School, Carlton Center, and Middle Lake. The smaller southeast till plain in Johnstown and Baltimore Townships covers only about five square miles of the Hastings quadrangle in the vicinity of Vickery Landing, Bowling, and Dowling School. The altitude of the northeast till plain varies from just over 9 0 0 feet in several places southeast of Rogers School to somewhat less than 800 feet in the valley of the Coldwater River. The altitude of the southeast till plain rises from about 920 feet south of Mud Lake to just over 1000 feet in section 4 of Johnstown Township. Topography The surfaces of the two till plains are very similar to each other and are characterized by broad, gently rolling areas of low relief (Figure 19D)* Topographic features adjacent to each other within the till plains grade together smoothly with very few abrupt changes in slope angle or orientation. less than Slopes are long, relatively simple, and usually four degrees from horizontal. Meltwater erosional channels are found in a few places in both till plain areas. These channels are usually oriented in a general northeast— southwest direction, are clearly but not strongly expressed in the landscape, and commonly are occupied by lakes, bogs, landed— in—bogs, or streams. Leach Lake and Middle Lake mark one such channel, and another is found northwest of Rogers School in sections 8, 17, IB, and 19 in Carlton Township. Channel width averages between 700 and 1 5 0 0 feet and depth varies from about ten feet to more than fifty feet. In plan the channels are irregular and branch­ ing both up and downstream. This braided, or anastomosing, character­ istic is also typical of many of the meltwater erosional channels of other landscape types in the Hastings quadrangle. 122 The surface morphology of the till plains areas is more similar to that of the stagnation moraine region than any other landscape type in the Hastings quadrangle. There is a similar amount of local relief with that of the stagnation moraine topography being slightly greater. The surface complexity of the two landscape types is perhaps their most unlike morphologic trait. The topography of the stagnation moraine is distinctly the more complex of the two. There the hills are steeper and somewhat more closely spacedt and the closed depressions deeper, more steep— sided, and more numerous. Sediments The surface sediment is till in the majority of exposures. This till is a heavy, clay—matrix basal till with much sand and gravel as well as some boulderB. The till in both areas is generally light brown with some reddish layers and patches. 10YR 5/4. Munsell color notation when wet is Several exposures show nearly agraveliferous till zones intercalated with stratified debris. These may be lake sediments. Uncommonly and irregularly on the surface of the till plains there also are thin layers of ablation till or sand and gravel. Data from well logs Pew well logs from these till plain areas are on record, but those that are available show a surface zone of brown clay till fifteen to forty— five feet thick. This commonly is underlain by looser-textured sandy clay or by blue clay and the wells usually bottom out below the clay in Band or sand and gravel from fifteen to ninety feet below the surface. Environment of deposition The predominance on the surface of dense clay till which was not 123 altered by Tunning water during deposition and the general occurrence of gently rolling, mild topography strongly suggest that these till plain landscapes were deposited under an environment of active ice which was characterized by a relatively orderly and coherent marginal retreat. These, then, are classical till plain areas. The infrequent occurrences of ablation till or of stratified or lacustrine sediments are acceptable and do not threaten this interpretation. Typical location A roadcut at SEJ-SBJ-NBJ- sec. 16, T. 4 N., It. 8 W. on Usborne Road 0.6 mile north of Carlton Center Road in Carlton Township is a location of a typical example and exposure of this landscape type. The section visible in the surface exposure is 0 to 7 feet — basal till, (10YR 5/4) (sand 53 percent, silt 12 percent, clay 35 percent); 7 to more than 9 feet — sand and gravel. The section from the log of a nearby well (NWj-NBrJ-NV/J- sec. B, T. 4 N., R. 8 W.) is 0 to 15 feet — - basal till, 15 to more than 61 feet — sand and gravel. The landscape surface in this area is undulating or gently hilly with a minimum of short, steep slopes. There are few abrupt changes in the character of this surface except where it is cut by meltwater erosion channels. The local relief is about twenty—five feet per mile. CHAPTER SIX THE SEQUENCE OP DEGLACIATION In order to present a more coherent and integrated description of the depositional environments discussed previously, a sequence of degla— ciation events for the Hastings quadrangle is offered. This deglaoiation sequence is based on a careful consideration of the available field and laboratory evidence as well as of the topographic relationships between the landscape types. Many possible combinations and Beries of events accompanying the disintegration and retreat of the ice front in the Hastings quadrangle were considered, but the following hypothetical explanatory description seems to be the most probable. The suggested pattern of deglaciation has been divided for convenience into eight stages and a diagram for each of the last seven BtageB is presented along with a brief explanatory text. The diagrams are prepared on a much reduced version of Plate II at a scale of about 1:190,000. Stage One This initial stage involves deep, plastic ice over all of the study area and meltwater moving along the interlobate ice lowland. Because of the demonstrated capability of meltwater to penetrate deep into ice along structural weaknesses, it is probable that most of the interlobate drainage, at least during this initial stage of deep ice, moved along englacial passages. It is possible that some of the meltwater could have moved in deep open canyon— like channels or even along the surface of the ice for a relatively short distance. The surface of both ice lobes was probably deeply marked by meltwater channels & b well as by 124 125 depressions associated with faults and fractures in the ice. The interlobate margin of each ice lobe was no doubt subject to great stresses and pressures as well as differential flow velocities. It is also possible that one or a system of ice-pressure ridges could have developed in the relatively brittle surficial ice above the deeper rheid layer. If this did happen, the pressure ridge would have reached its greatest development where the antagonism between the two ice masses was the most distinct — that iB t along the trend of the interlobate contact. Stage Two — Figure 20A Figure 20A ehows the early phase of the final deglaciation of the study area. The diagram shows two parallel drainage paths formed and at least partly kept apart by the possible existence of a pressure— ridge welt of broken, fractured, elastic surface ice along the center of the interlobate contact. The interlobate drainage streams, if they onoe tended to be separated by this welt of ice in the center of the interlobate lowland, would probably have maintained their separate and subparallel sharacter as they entrenched themselves into englacial channels. It seems likely, on the basis of this interpretation of the field evidence, that the generally separate sets of meltwater complexes persisted until they became deeply buried with glaciofluvial sediments as the interlobate area became deglaciated. Because of the thicker mass of ice associated with the possible ice—pressure welt and lying in a redial position in the interlobate lowland, the aggrading interlobate meltwater channels were forced to stay in roughly parallel paths. This tended to preserve the ridge of ice between the accumulating lines of 126 FIGURE 20 EXPLANATORY DIAGRAMS POR THE DEGLACIATION SEQUENCE This figure is prepared using a much reduced version of Plate II as a base map. There are seven sections to Figure 20. Explanation of special symbols used in Figure 20. Ice front Ablation till on ice Drainage on, in, and under ice Extraglacial drainage (L7 f'f/'il-., i-* v s * > .'/'/i ; *■.'.V.-,- .'. ■I". *' .''^*-*^■'1 ■ V l'4’* v x / ' ■*'l/V^’ *M ' >' ( . ■ ■ ■>^ 7 7 ^ “ ~ v V ^ W - ■ t _ N j T > ; . , r;;:, «** 50' I H A S T IN G S IS QUADRANGLE LANDSCAPE M IC H IG A N TYPES Qsm | ' !] Stagnation moraine Outwash plain Qpc [ ] Primary drainage channels and Ground moraine or till plain related lowlands Qim [ 3 ; 3 j Interlobate moraine Qkt | j Kame topography Secondary drainage channels and other lowlands of similar size Major esker fragments Contact between landscape types FIGURE 20A 128 glaciofluvial morainal hills. Figure 20A showB this medial ridge of ice persisting as a jiarrow finger in the center of the interlobate moraine in the southwestern portion of the Btudy area. The Saginaw lobe ice to the east of the interlobate contact had a more difficult pathway to approach the Hastings quadrangle area than the ice of the Michigan lobe had; therefore the Saginaw lobe ice flow was inhibited and was not aB rapidly replenished when it melted. Because of this relatively smaller supply of ice, the Saginaw lobe was at this stage thinner than the Michigan lobe ice near its terminus. The margin of the waning Saginaw lobe had by this stage retreated to the southern edge of the study area. Meltwater runoff was still strongly directed along the interlobate ice lowland but by this stage had probably also developed subglacial drainage tunnels. Other meltwater streams flowed from subglacial tunnel valleys along the southern margin of the ice and carried sediments which were deposited proglacially forming outwash plains. The outwash topography near Prairieville in sec. 2, T. 1 N . t R. 10 V. and near Delton in sections 4 and 5, T. 1 N . t R. 9 W. was being constructed at this stage. In the southeastern corner of the study area, relatively orderly and coherent retreat of the ice margin uncovered an area of ground moraine or till plain topography. Thrusting of moving ice against immobile marginal ice caused basal debris to be transported upward in the ice and ablation till developed on the ice along the margin of the Saginaw lobe and in the interlobate lowland. Stage Three - Figure 20B The ice along the interlobate contact had by this stage melted back and exposed a deep and complexly shaped re-entrant in the margin of the glacier. The meltwater streams had by this stage tended to accel- >3-7 *'■■•_r*v.'-.■• 2ra^retV» to**.*:#* I•-*.■wH*\>y *>'•'V - S bA v. • t ; • i yvp:<' :l^y: l: v'.-j 'rv.ts!.:} ,?i*rW ■7 An'.' ;'*v'•> rr_| V4 ?:V-!-. . . vi,r;• > 4•-■ TIN. 4** Stf H H A S T IN G S 15' Q U A D R A N G L E , LA N D S C A P E M IC H IG A N TYPES MI L E S Qsm Qpc Stognation moraine Outwash plain Primary drainage channels ond Ground moraine or till plain related lowlands Secondary droinoge channels and Oim Interlobate moraine other lowlands of similar size Qkt Kame topography Major esker fragments Contact between landscape types FIGURE 20C 133 graphy. Orderly retreat of the ice front in the southeast corner of the study area has this stage apparently ceased, and the ice probably established a relatively stable margin approximately along the present lines of the till plain in Baltimore and Johnstown Townships. A fosse­ like depression proximal from the main body of ablation till-covered stagnant ice has by this stage developed and acted as a gathering area for meltwater. The ablation fosse probably began to develop in previous stages but is fully developed by this step in the deglaciation sequence. Eventually water in this ablation fosse was discharged into the growing network of subglacial tunnel valleys under the stagnant ice. Two major subglacial streams, perhaps not contemporaneously active, flowed in the lowlands now occupied by Wilkinson, Cloverdale and Long Lakes in central Hope Township northeast and southwest through sections 15, 16, 20, 21, 29 and 30, T. 2 N., R. 9 W . , and by Big and Little Cedar Lakes in southeastern Hope Township through sections 26, 34 and 35, T. 2 N . , R. 9 W. Probably some tunnel valleys had been choked by collapsed ice by this time. It is possible that by this stage ablation till had become established on part of the ice surface north of the ablation fosse depression. If this ice was stagnant at this stage, it was thicker than the larger stagnant ice mass south of the ablation fosse. It is uncertain what happened to the Michigan lobe ice front at this stage but apparently it held a fairly stable position along the western edge of the interlobate contact. Masses of meltwater continued to travel along the interlobate lowland as the glaciofluvial sediments accumulated there. The medial ridge of ice apparently persisted between the eastern and western areas of glaciofluvial accumulation. 134 Stage Five - Figure 20D Enlargement of the ablation fosse and continued development of the interlobate glaoiofluvial environment northward have together severed the stagnant ice mass from the main body of the Saginaw lobe glacier to the north* The marginal ice stagnation area north of the ablation fosse probably has enlarged by this stage of deglaciation and ablation till on the ice increased but never achieved the continuity or depth that it did on the ice south of the ablation fosse. Most or all of the sub— glaoial voids in the southern stagnant ioe area have probably been either blocked by ice collapse or been at least partially filled with underwash sediments — or both. The interlobate contact continued to be attacked by meltwater and the meltwater-erosion—glaciofluvial—deposition environ­ ment developed north of the area of the fosse depression. There is no evidence that the Michigan lobe ice front moved significantly by thiB stage,but because the following step in the deglaciation sequence calls for a retreat of the Michigan lobe ice front, it is probably thinning somewhat now and perhaps has developed some marginal stagnation. The separation of the stagnant ice mass, the enlargement of the ablation fosse and the continued melting along the interlobate contact together opened a subaerial route for the meltwater which has previously drained at least in part beneath the stagnant ice mass. The stream conducting this meltwater out of the area is called the Hastings River in this study. The meltwater channel is presently occupied by Stewart Lake in sec. 11, T. 2 N . , R. 10 W., and trends northeast and southwest from there. At this stage of deglaciation the meltwater was ponded at least for a time probably by either stagnant masses of ice or a resistant gravel threshhold at somewhat over 860 feet altitude in the vicinity of iur n H A S T IN G S IS QUADRANGLE, LANDSCAPE Qsm ' 11 '■* Stagnation moraine Qpc ■ . Primary drainage channels and related lowlands Qim TTZTi- Interlobote moraine Qkt Kame topography M IC H IG A N TYPES Oop Outwash ploin Qgm Ground moraine or till plain Secondary drainage channels and other lowlands of similar size Major esker fragments Contact between landscape types F I G UR E 200 136 Stew art Lake. At t h is tim e , streams flo w in g westward from ic e m e ltin g in th e a re a o f kame topography con structed sm all d e lta s in th e drainage channel in sec. 32, T , 3 N . f R, 9 W- and sec. 5* T. 2 N . , R. 9 W. and o th e r la r g e r streams flo w in g out o f th e Saginaw lobe ic e south in to the Hastings V a lle y deposited la rg e volumes o f a p p a re n tly d e lt a ic sediments and formed a smoothly s lo p in g v a lle y —f i l l d e p o s itio n a l s u rfa ce in much o f the Hastings V a lle y . T h is v a l l e y - f i l l m a te ria l d e fle c te d th e H astings R iv e r to th e south s id e o f the H astings V a lle y f o r much o f i t s le n g th in th e study a re a a t t h is stage. Stage Six — Figure 20E At this stage of deglaciation, the Michigan lobe ice had disinte­ grated from a part of the western edge o f the study area and the ioe margin of the Saginaw lobe was probably retreating from the northwest corner of the Hastings quadrangle sb well. Ablation till developed on at least some of this Michigan lobe ice, suggesting marginal stagnation to some degree. The isolated stagnant masses of ioe to the south had probably disintegrated into separate remnants in the major secondary channels. In the interlobate region, it w as v e r y likely that extensive areas o f m e l ting ice were buried by accumulating sediments. Melting Saginaw lobe ice probably uncovered parts of the till plain area in the northeastern c o m e r of the Hastings quadrangle and left smaller blocks of stagnant ioe isolated in the adjacent stagnation moraine topography north of the Hastings Valley. Drainage at this stage was diverted from the Stewart Lake pathway to the lower Gun Lake area when the latter was uncovered b y the disintegrating edge of the Michigan lobe. The Hastings River then flowed westward through the study area through a breach of unknown origin in the interlobate moraine and south along the >37 < 3 M 41- W N H A S T IN G S 15 Q U AD R A N G LE, LANDSCAPE WTT, Q*m Oim Outwash plain Ground moraine or till plain reloted lowlands Secondary drainage channels and -»V,r***L iVht&H Interlobate Qkt TYPES moraine Primary drainage channels and ''' Jj Stagnation Qpc M IC H IG A N moraine Kame topography other lowlands of similar size Major esker fragment* Contact between landscape types FIGURE 20 E 138 margin of the Michigan lobe and out of the study area. This stage marks a transition from f i l i n g of the Hastings Valley to dissection of it as the volume of tributary stream meltwater decreased and the volume of through-flowing meltwater increased. It is probable that the valley*- fill deltaic sediments may have been at least partially terraced as this deglaciation stage progressed. The swollen Hastings Hiver also was able to enlarge the gap through the interlobate moraine and carved steep bluffs in the sandy sediments of the moraine in sections 1 4 * 1 5 t 22 and 23» T. 3 N . , R. 10W. Water draining along the abandoned Stewart Lake channel now reversed its previous direction of flow and moved north into the Hastings River and at least some of the meltwater from the wan­ ing stagnant ice in the secondary channels also flowed north, reversing the previous drainage direction. Masses of melting ice prevented this latter drainage from using the secondary channels themselves so a smaller set of tertiary channels was out on the edges of the ice—blocked tunnel valleys. The water in these tertiary channels banked deltas of sandy and silty sediments against the decreasing ice masses occupying the secondary channels. Drainage from the Saginaw lobe was primarily by subglacial tunnel valleys even across the area of developing till plain in the northeast. One of the larger of these channels is now occupied by Leach and Middle Lake in sections 28, 29» 32 and 33* T. 4 N., R. 8 W. Drainage from the Michigan lobe ice in the northwest, where an outwash plain may have been developing at this stage, was apparently widespread and not concentrated in channels except toward the north in sections 15 and 16, T. 4 M., R. 10 W. where Duncan Creek now flows in an incised channel. 139 Stage Seven — Figure 20F Except for isolated or buried ice blocks, the glaciers have by this stage abandoned the area of the Hastings quadrangle. The Michigan lobe ice front has disintegrated and an area of outwash topography developed in the northwest. Saginaw lobe ice has probably uncovered all of the till plain topography in the northeast as well. Buried ioe blocks in the interlobate moraine and the northwest outwash areas may, however, still remain, as well as scattered disintegrating pieces of ice in secondary-channel depressions. Drainage at this Btage of deglaciation is still primarily westward along the Hastings Valley and south down the Gun Lake lowland. Some interlobate meltwater probably flows south along the lowland through Kiddleville in sections 11, 1 4 , 23, 26 and 35, T. 4 N . , R. 10 W. to join the Hastings River. The stagnation moraine drainage is now almost completely reversed to a northerly direction. Entrenchment of the valley—fill deposits in the Hastings Valley continues into this stage of deglaciation, and the gap in the interlobate moraine in sections 10 and 15, T. 3 N., R. 10 W. might still be undergoing erosional enlargement. Stage Eight: the present land surface — Figure 20G Eventually the Michigan lobe weakened and opened a passage for drain­ age from the study area to flow north toward the valley of the Grand River and then west. The Gun Lake drainage pathway was abandoned and this ended the life of the Hastings River and began the present Thornapple River. I'his event was accompanied by a reversal of flow direction through the Middleville channel. The development of this northward- trending drainage through the Middleville area is puzzling. If the present valley system evolved under glacial and proglacial conditions, f4o 41*48'H WO* : d 41* SO* N. H A S T IN G S IB' QUADRANGLE, LANDSCAPE Qsm 4TO Opc M IC H IG A N TYPES Stagnation moraine Outwash plain Primary drainage channels and Ground moraine or till plain related towlands Secondary drainage channels and ■1 V:v‘*r'Interlobate moraine Qim O f, Qkt Kame topography other lowlands of similar size Major eskar fragments Contact between landscape types F I G UR E 20F /V/ 41* 40 * 6?'0t»M1 •o*"*d?*a ■uU • •■“•.So '•-ay/jC > * /■*.**'cfO?Q,rJPrA 9A:oVa i i t j i i g 'IfioW g:tfp.o.y*^ dcJk"®t <3. ! & O'Y'PA °4°V-gi iO^wf :<•§?&& P7'V* v>. *3$ Vifl-MVr .>v; «««■ 4r*to1N. H A S T IN G S IS' QUADRANGLE, LANDSCAPE Qsm —^ j Stagnation tnorafna Qpc Qim FIGURE TYPES . L',*■ ■ .■ % Outwash plain Primary drolnaga channels and Ground moraine or till plain related lowlands Secondary drainage channels and 7^71, tnterlobate Qkt M IC H IG A N moraine . Kama topogrophy 20G other lowlands of similar size Major esker fragments Contact between landscape types 142 it is difficult to explain how drainage established itself in a direction opposite to the flow of ice. Perhaps the best interpretation which can be offered on the limited evidence available in this study is to suggest that a north— south trending valley in the general area of the present Kiddleville channel existed before the latest glaciation and that it survived the glacial advance and retreat. The general regional slope of the Hastings quadrangle area is down to the north and perhaps all that was necessary was for the Michigan lobe ice to melt enough to per­ mit drainage to be re-established toward the Grand River lowland to the north. This final stage of landscape evolution in the Hastings quadrangle also involves the final disintegration of buried ice blockB. This complex of events was marked by the development of kettle depressions. Another aspect of stage eight is that the ablation till surface on much of the study area lies thin on the orests of hills and deeper down the slopes where thicknesses of more than twenty— two feet may be found. This suggests that the ablation till may at some time have slid or flowed downslope. It seems probable that this suggested mass movement of ablation till happened during very wet soil conditions during or very shortly after the final masses of ice were melting. Possibly the mass movement could have continued for sometime thereafter and char­ acterized this final stage of deglaciation. No landslide features were recognized in the study area. Postglacial streams have had remarkably little effect on that portion of the study area outside of the primary drainage channel. Figure 21 shows the present-day hydrographic features of the Hastings quadrangle and illustrates the large numbers of unintegrated surface water bodies. N T 2N H A S T IN G S 15' Q U A D R A N G LE , M lC H iG A N HYDROGRAPHIC FEATURES fA LA K ES AMD P O N D S PERMANENT EPHEMERAL. S TR EA M S STREAMS SOURCES 1. O E E T E R AMD TRULL I92A S O IL MAP OF BARRY C O U N T Y MICHIGAN I 6 3 ,3 6 0 2. H A S T IN G S 1: 62. 5 0 0 I5 #QUADRANGLE MICHIGAN 144 The generally coarse soil texture of the study area no douht acted to diminish the percentage of total precipitation which was available as runoff* This tended to reduce the erosive ability of the streams of the area. Cedar Creek, where it passes northeast through sec, 9* T. 2 N., R. 8 W . , is perhaps the most important exception. South of M cO m b e r School and west of where Michigan Highway 37 crosses the stream, it apparently cut a channel perhaps sixty— five feet deep into a hilly section of the stagnation moraine lying between two secondary— channel fragments. Most of this downcutting probably happened rather quickly as the secondary channel in which Cedar Creek flows was becoming free of ice and abundant meltwater was still available, but it is possible that active channeling continued into this eighth Btage of deglaciation. In sec. 7» T. 2 N. , R. 9 W. is another example of postglacial stream development. A small unnamed stream flowing northwest into the Otis Lake— Stewart Lake lowland has carved an eighteen foot— deep channel down part of a steep h i 11slope. Another postglacial change in the land­ scape of the Hastings quadrangle was the development of many bogs and the filling of many lakes and closed depressions by organic material. This process did not change the topography of the area, but did alter the hydrographic picture as well sb the visual aspect of the landscape. B o g vegetation continues to fill in the lakes of the Hastings quadrangle today. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The glacial geomorphology of the area of a southwestern Michigan fifteen-minute topographic quadrangle was investigated. The regional geomorphic character was examined along with the more specific questions regarding interlobate landforms and ice-marginal stagnation landforms. Leverett and Taylor reported on the study area in 1915 but offered only generalized comments. No other detailed published information concerned with the study area is available. the area is Martin's 1955 Bap Michigan. The moBt detailed and recent map of "Surface Formations" of southern This map depicts a pattern of end moraine, ground moraine and spillway in the study area, but does not alter the substance of Leverett and Taylor's earlier observations. In this study, the landscape surface of the Hastings quadrangle was examined qualitatively by several methods. Descriptions of other glacial landscapes which were thought to have had analogous or Bimilar origins were collected from the published literature and compared with the landscape of the study area. Air photographs arranged for stereo­ scopic viewing were used as a source of information from which a map showing the Beale, pattern and arrangement of positive topographic features was drawn (Figure 2). A physiographic diagram illustrating the hypothetical visual images, arrangement and relative sizes of all significant topographic features, both positive and negative, was com­ piled from the same source (Figure 3). The landscape surface was also investigated quantitatively using a variation of Zakrzewska's (1963) method of terrain analysis. The results of this method are shown 145 146 c a r t o g r a p h ic a lly i n F ig u r e 4 * The sediments of the study area were examined for their lithology, derived from pebble counts (Figure 5)* and their texture, derived from mechanical size analysis (Figure 6) as well as from more qualitative field techniques. Lithology of sediments proved to be indicative only and not conclusive enough by itself to permit mappable areal differences to be disoerned if they existed. Texture data determined by hydrometer analyses were also somewhat generalized but provided a few discrete categories which were related to identifiable areas within the Hastings quadrangle. These quantitative sediment data were combined with more qualitative observations of sediments in the field to derive several related but unlike sedimentary stratigraphies which also had areal expression. Integration of the landfortn patterns and the sedimentary patterns in the study area permitted several landscape types to be discerned, described and drawn on a map (Plate II). A map of the five sedimentary formations of the subglacial bedrock is given (Figure 7) and each rock unit is briefly described. The topo­ graphy on that bedrock surface is shown in a map compiled from well— log data (Figure 8). The pattern of lineations shown b y large bedrock topographic features seems to show some general agreement with the gross topographic features of the overlying glacial topography, but the smaller details of the bedrock and the glacial topographies apparently show no such similarity. Many, if not most, investigators working with glacial geomorphology have been within the philosophical approach which in this study is called the classical model of explanation. In this classical model, the ice is thought to maintain a relatively orderly and coherent front as it waxes 147 and wanes. Still—stands of the glacier front tend to produce linear hilly complexities composed of unsorted till and called end moraines, * and at the same time produce outwash plains of fluvially transported, sorted and deposited sediments located distally from the ice front. The third landscape type associated with this classical model of explanation is the ground moraine or till plain of unsorted sediments left as the glacier wanes and the ice front regresses. Another approach to the explanation of ice—marginal environments and landforms is in this paper called the stagnation model. This is offered as a supplement to the classical model and not as an outright replacement. The stagnation model of explanation suggests that the margin of a glacier can become covered with ablation till through the process of upward transport of basal sediments in active shear planes or thrust surfaces between moving ice and stagnant marginal ice (Figure 9 ). This ablation till cover acts to retard surface melting and accentuate subglacial processes of erosion of basal sediments, melting of basal ice and depo­ sition of underwash sand and gravel. The ice front under these condi­ tions may become very complex,and some relatively large masses of ice may become isolated from the main glacial body by the process of differential ablation under varying thicknesses of ablation till. The landscape produced under these conditions was unlike that produced in the environment described by the classical model of explanation and the sediments are also dissimilar. The Hastings quadrangle contains areas apparently attributable to an ice-marginal stagnation environment as well aB areas which were probably associated with ice having motion and a relatively coherent front. The study area was differentiated into six landscape types according 148 to the methods already mentioned. The area, altitudes, topography and sediments of each landscape type are described and a possible environ­ ment of deposition outlined. For landscape types which are not entirely within the scope of the classical model of explanation, a sequence of diagrams is offered. The six landscape types are: stagnation moraine, primary drainage channel, interlobate moraine, kame topography, outwash topography and till plain. The stagnation moraine has a rolling and hummocky terrain which is scored relatively deeply by esker troughs of subglacial origin. The esker troughs, or secondary channels, are generally subparallel and trend northeast and southwest. The stratigraphy of at least the southern portion of the stagnation moraine is quite complex but regularly recur­ rent. The base of the stratigraphic sequence of surfioial glacial sed­ iments is arbitrarily established for this study in a deep zone of wellbedded sand and gravel. This unit is in this study named "underwash." Above the underwash is a complex of two units, one a poorly— bedded or non—bedded ooarser sand and gravel unit here called the jumbled zone, and the other an interesting lacustrine horizon which includes scattered stones and commonly shows collapse faulting. Above these two strata and at the top of the stratigraphic sequence is a cover of ablation till. This unit is sandy, clayey, non— bedded but partially sorted and very loose-textured. Secondary features of the sediments include pebble- armored till balls; calcium carbonate-cemented gravel, or crag; and some curious pseudo— frost wedge structures grouped under the term "Tropfen— boden." The environment of deposition of the stagnation moraine is best explained according to the stagnation model. In this paper it is 149 suggested that there was a broad area of ice-marginal stagnation where the ice was at least partly covered with ablation till which retarded surface melting. Meltwater flowed subglacially across this stagnation area and carved out relatively deep subglacial tunnel valleys, or second­ ary channels, by eroding the subglacial sediments and by melting ice at the base of the glacier. Most of any basal till whioh may have existed under the stagnant ice was eliminated, at least in the southern portion of the stagnation moraine, and underwash sediments were deposited sul>> glacially. Eventually the thinning ice collapsed into the tunnel valleys and later the meltwater was diverted from the stagnation area to a less constricted subaerial drainage route. As the stagnant ice melted, its load of englacial and supraglacial sediments was let down on the under­ lying underwash. Lacustrine sediments which accumulated locally on the irregularly waning ice surfaoe were also let down to the ground surface. Tertiary erosional channels were cut near the secondary channels as ice, persisting to the last in these linear lowlands, provided meltwater but prevented it from using the lowest topographic drainage routes. This landsoape type has in the past been mapped as part of an end moraine, but the evidence and interpretation presented in this study indicate that it might more correctly be termed a stagnation moraine or stagnation end moraine. The landscape type of the primary drainage channel, or Hastings Valley, is a broad lowland trending generally east and west across the northern half of the study area. There are two major extensions of this landscape type, one trending north by the village of Middleville and the other extending south or southwest by Otis Lake toward Stewart Lake. the central reach of the Hastings Valley, the present Thornapple River In 150 1 b displaced generally toward the south edge of the lowland away from broad tabular terraces on the northside. The western portion of this landscape type is more irregular and hummocky and doeB not exhibit terraces. The sediments of the terraces are primarily sandy with rela^ tively little amounts of larger-sized olastic particles, and in most exposures undisturbed deltaic or torrential bedding can be seen. Over- lying this sandy unit is a thin and somewhat discontinuous surface horizon of silty and sandy material apparently of flood-plain origin. The depositional environment of this primary drainage channel is directly related to the stagnation explanatory model. The margin of the glacier stagnated and became covered with ablation till which retarded the rate of Burficial melting. Proxitnally, or up the ice slope, the ice was thicker and therefore cleaner and the rate of ablation there was unretarded. Eventually a depression was melted into the cleaner ice and its deepening was accented by meltwater accumulating there. Stagnation moraines developing north and south of the ablation fosse caused, almost by default, a lowland to develop. Meltwater streams flowing south out of part of the stagnation moraine into the incipient primary drainage channel deposited valley-fill sediments, possibly under ponded-water conditions, and probably constructed most of the higher tabular surfaces on the north edge of the valley. Later this valley-fill material was carved into lower terraces by the large proglacial Hastings Kiver flowing westward in the valley. This landscape type was in the past mapped as part of a spillway. Evidence and interpretations presented in this report indicate that the valley at times acted as a meltwater channel, but that the meltwater was not responsible for the development of the valley itself. 151 The interlobate moraine landscape type lies in the western third of the study area and except for the interruption of the Hasting® Valley extends from the northern to the southern edge of the quadrangle. This is the highest landscape type and has the roughest and most complex topography of the study area. A group of hills pitted with kettles is found each edge of the interlobate moraine. These hills are steep( often asymmetrically steeper to the north, and have a local relief as great as 300 or 325 feet per mile. a medial lowland. Between these two sets of peripheral hills is The topographic traits of the southern portion of the interlobate moraine compare very closely with those of Wisconsin's Kettle moraine described in available literature. The topographic hill— lowland-hill pattern is best expressed in that part of the interlobate moraine south of the Hastings Valley. The sediments of the interlobate moraine are glaciofluvial in origin and in most examples have had most or all of their bedding destroyed by poBt—depositional disturbance, usually collapse. Ablation till on the surface of these sands and gravels is not common except in and along the sides of the medial lowland where it is found in a general but irregular distribution. The lithology of sedimentary samples taken from both sides of this landscape type was investigated in an attempt to find some significant difference between sediments of Michigan-lobe provenance and those of Saginaw-lobe origin. As already mentioned, this was not com­ pletely successful. The environment of deposition of the interlobate moraine is best explained by invoking some aspects of the stagnation model. It seems likely that the meltwater flowing along the interlobate contact was forced generally into two roughly parallel streams by a welt or up- 152 thrust ice ridge in the center of the ice lowland. V»hen ice in the area of the interlobate contact became thin enough to have shear fractures reach basal debris,, apparently the central ridge became loaded with meltretarding ablation till. Englacial and subglacial meltwater streams caused accelerated melting on each side of the medial ridge and even­ tually there may have been collapse of ice into the meltwater tunnels. As melting progressed proximally up the interlobate contact, deposition took place in the downstream portions of the ice— limited valleys on each side of the medial ice ridge. This deposition buried large amounts of ice and raised the flowing water level in the interlobate valley. The medial ice ridge was not completely buried because some of its surficial ablation till is preserved intact on the surface of the present land­ scape. Eventually the adjacent Saginaw lobe ice thinned enough so that large amounts of interlobate meltwater were probably diverted out of the interlobate channels and deposition there decreased or stopped. Drain­ age routes which were not ice-limited became available as the glaciers continued to disintegrate and the interlobate tract was left as a positive topographic feature containing masses of buried ice. After this buried ice melted, the present surface of the liilly peripheral tracts was established. Ice of the medial ridge melted and the medial lowland resulted. In the paBt, the area of the interlobate moraine has been mapped as part of the Inner Kalamazoo moraine and part of the Outer Kalamazoo moraine of the Michigan lobe. If the interpretation outlined in this study is accepted, it would require these two moraines to be considered together as one true interlobate moraine; perhaps glaciofluvial inter­ lobate moraine is more correct, and to be ascribed to both Michigan- 153 lobe and Saginaw-lobe provenance. The kame topography is located between the interlobate moraine and the stagnation moraine in the center of the Btudy area. It is a linear group of steep and oonical hills having complexly shaped slopes. The topography of thiB landscape type is transitional between the interlobate moraine and the stagnation moraine. The kame topography is intermediate in local relief, slope complexity and location. sediments are similarly transitional. The kame topography The basal sediments are better bedded than those of the interlobate moraine but more disturbed than the underwash of the stagnation moraine. There is a surficial ablation till unit which is thicker and more continuous than the ablation till of the interlobate moraine but thinner and more intermittent than in the stagnation moraine. In spite of the apparently gradational character of the kame topography landscape type, it shows on the maps of topographic analysis to have quite a distinctive topographic surface, and the sug­ gested method of origin for this area is also unlike either the stagna­ tion moraine of the interlobate moraine. It seems probable that the small area of kame topography originated along a pattern of fracture weaknesses in stagnant and thinning Saginaw-lobe ice when overflow meltwater from the interlobate drainage pathways opened glacial mills and through them deposited glaciofluvial sediments in and under the ice. When the ice in this area eventually melted, an intermittent coating of ablation till was let down onto the ground surface. The kame topography has in previous investigations been considered to be a part of the Kalamazoo moraine of the Saginaw lobe., but it is suggested on the basis of the interpretation contained in this report that this area should be mapped as a separate landscape type. 154 Outwash plains are found in two separate areas and were deposited at different times during the evolution of landforms in the Hastings quadrangle. The southern outwash area, bisected by a large secondary drainage channel, was the first to be formed. The surface of thiB out­ wash area is pitted and broken in the west and more tabular in the east. This portion of the study area was one of the first to be uncovered by the waning Saginaw— lobe ice. The other outwash area is located in the northwest corner of the Btudy area and was perhaps the last section of the study area to be deglaciated. The Michigan— lobe ice front regressed northwestward and proglacial streams associated with it built the out— wash landscape west of Middleville. Host of the surface of this area is fairly tabular, but in the northern end of this area the landforms are rougher and more dissected by erosional activity. Ablation till is not uncommon in the northwestern outwash area, but seems to be somewhat related to kettle depressions. The suggested origin of these outwash areas just described is considered to be within the classical model of explanation. The southern outwash topography has in earlier Btudies been mapped as outwash, but the northwestern section was interpreted (Martin, 1936), as part ground moraine and part end moraine. The till plain or ground moraine landscape type is also divided into two discontiguous segments. The southeastern area was uncovered early in the topographic history of the study area, and the northeastern region was exposed much later. Both areas are classical till plains with rolling Bwell—and— swale topography and unsorted till sediments. Both areas are adjacent to stagnation moraines and show some stagnation influence by having secondary— channel tunnel valleys incised into their 155 surfaces. In the past both areas have been mapped as till plains. A sequence of deglaciation is given which briefly describes a series of stages and events which may have marked the glacial uncovering of the Hastings quadrangle. Diagrams showing the position of ice fronts and isolated stagnant ice masses as well as drainage pathways are offered for seven deglaciation stages. The initial stage, which is unillustrat^d, is that of deep ice and drainage along the interlobate ice valley. The second stage shows the development of marginal stagnation and ablation till cover, outwash areas in the south, till plain in the southeast, and melting along the interlobate contact. The next episode involves a continuation of all the processes working in stage two. Stage four shows the ablation fosse established and growing, as well as subglacial drainage active under the stagnating ice margin. The southern outwash and till plain areas are by this stage essentially formed. Step five involves separation of the stagnant ice mass and development of surface drainage routes for meltwater. Valley-fill sediments are put into the Hastings Valley at this stage. The next illustration depicts the con­ tinued waning of the Saginaw-lobe ice as well as the first significant regression of the Michigan-lobe ice front. Hastings River drainage is diverted from the Stewart Lake route to the Gun Lake lowland. It is probable that the northeast till plain is at leaBt partly uncovered by this stage. Stage seven shows the removal of essentially all large ice masses from the study area and the Hastings Valley drainage still flowing down the Gun Lake lowland. The final stage shows the end of the Hastings River and the beginning of the Thornapple River as drainage is diverted north through the Middleville channel when continued disinte­ gration of the Michigan lobe opens a low level pathway north to the 156 Grand River valley. The interpretation of glacial landforms within the Hastings area presented in this paper, although based on detailed field work, may be considered in part somewhat tentative and additional research in adjacent regions will undoubtedly cast additional light on the regional geomorph— ology. If the conclusion outlined in this report is acceptable, what must at the same time be accepted is a refiguring, at least in part,' of the map of glacial landforms of Michigan and, more importantly, a re­ structuring of the existing scheme of regional correlation of Pleistocene landforms within southwestern Michigan. The existing general concept of glacial landforms in Michigan as typified by Martin's 1955 m a-p will no doubt continue to be re—examined and adjusted as new evidence becomes available. But it might also be suggested that more than mere adjustment is required at this time. The notion of ice stagnation and all of the associated complexities of land— forme and sediments should somehow be incorporated. Ablation— till sedi­ ments and stagnation—moraine landscapes may well be included in some new version of the map of Michigan's surficial features. One salient aspect of this necessary reformation is the fact that the landscape no longer needs to be dismembered into neat linear systems of end moraines genetically tied to supposed ice—marginal positions. Stagnation moraines, although presented in thiB paper as being in a very real sense marginal phenomena, need not have discrete continuous and linear patterns and need not always form at the margin of the glacier (Winters, 1963). Because of variations in underlying topography or perturbations of ice flow, it may be possible that only part of a waning glacier would stagnate. Under such conditions, an amorphous or 157 nonlinear patch of stagnation moraine might well develop. If evidence of stagnation is found in Michigan outside of the Hastings q u a d r a n g l e v the map of the state's surface formations ma y lose at least some of the concentric festooned pattern it presently shows. The map may also need to he adjusted according to how it depicts th< general regional correlation of moraines and major glacial lobes in some of the southern parts of the state. According to the interpretation presented in this report, the Inner Kalamazoo moraine and the O u ter Kalamazoo moraine, instead of being ascribed entirely to the Michigan lobe, must be considered as interlobate features and parts of a coherent system of landforms. This view of the evidence places S aginaw—lobe ice directly on the east side of the Kalamazoo moraines. If this interpreta tion is valid within the Hastings quadrangle, and if it can be extended wit h equal validity south along the trend of the presently mapped Inner and Outer Kalamazoo moraines, this places Saginaw—lobe ice at least fift miles west of the Tekonsha moraine, which has been considered to b e a Michigan-lobe feature (Wayne and Zumberge, 1 9 6 5 * P» 72). The Kalamazoo moraine has an apparent topographic and sedimentary homogeniety a long its length south o f the study area and south into Indiana. Probably this major landscape feature is of generally contemporaneous origin under generally similar conditions over much of its extent. This suggests that Saginaw—lobe ice may have been active for a considerable distance along a Michigan— Saginaw interlobate contact now marked b y the Kalamazoo system. If this is true, the Tekonsha moraine, perhaps the Sturgis moraine, and perhaps even the Lagrange moraine, of which all arc at least in part ascribed to the Michigan lobe (Leverett and Taylor, 191 cannot be exclusively Michigan-lobe features and therefore need to be r« examined. Souroes Consulted BOOKS AND PARTS OP BOOKS American Society of Agronomy. 1 9 6 5 . Methods of Soil Analysis (part 1, section 45-5)* "Hydrometer method of particle— sise analysis." Madison, Wisconsin. Carruthers, R. G. Newcastle: 1953. Glacial Drifts and the Undermelt Theory. printed by the author. Embleton, C. and C. A. M. King. 1969. Glacial and Periglacial Geomor­ phology. New York: St. Martin's Press. Flint, R. P. 1957* Glacial and Pleistocene Geology. John Wiley ; f .'i” PvT" 4W , v ■ i vl” j , . , ^ VfGriUf'fii ' 4729 0M 7*? I' aiy ,728 4?27 [**° I V *1 Irwnjf^ Grirtlftt a gT m ! — a SEV 4726 Hnthauay 1 XBQ 78 * ***\4 I 1.1, ■ m = - -' f iwnett v'* .t^ = 4724 1*769 4723 i-s - 1 .1 ' - irt-A'-N* K ■\X7 % B-* La-k* { %Pf, '- r :v. 4720 X ^ - V y *i/ MICHIGAN S T A T E H IG H W A Y D E P A R T M E N T C H A R L E S M. Z IE G L E R S T A T E H IG H W A Y C O M M IS S IO N E R rERIOR 3969 IV I 632 (LfOVfELL) ■«» IV \y E L L ) I- 636 20' r • * rr Jul V w * ”-4! H W l. I^ O O Q Q FEET -„ ^ 1 ^ ° 1 5 ^ ^ -Sff Jorwjn® 450000 ; Fttl f Wpdfleh S fiM fl Wl. ahc ‘/ S t . &pnn Infog Cemi f i* l i t t l e Brick Sch i cD-iHo-I Holt Laltq J 'T A > 6, f 'T ”» ° AlgonquinL*keSch'^j^81J v ^ * iin' , , Pvik^/} r i i# -f *jv . C*-tS 68 - i - w m ^irtideC8 am ASTI MGS (BM 79*7) > J . \ r Iv o r II » I * T l Purdy ■ lAljt fnpgrouno\i yj ,ifc / O t L t ^ U 'A , (Lake "24 .; b 10. p- 1 wntlcvni 1 *v TP**"1'. ” 23 5' i ■a** "22 .i l-i) R r «i •• u Jt' *1 ^> * > "2 1 j SI 19 23, W'iUiam*; &i Lake ffu n w r <. /L a k e 'Sii* "20 I* \ rs/9 0 26 ' T«- - '.-f *4 B 1Jr BS,C|ft«VrfpN AREA: V 4*3 > • '. . 0T0 ivd t!*Bl8 •/ -\ -A/ Lake "■ ■ A:-./ 'ft- " s "18 i1 T r'""Ar.r £dfe-‘*77*1 "17kr “-T-Jpr -,r-y -k!. r :Rl,y^^ J'7 s . :/’!■ *'/ ,,,'i;' n M ;••, r \ v'-e ' f e U E M i * V ./S 3 ' Vr tfr ttV fe l ^ ; ?0M 90^'i. k 1 * Bn*h iv 1 -'it'" \i Circle Pine Center tJ 7>/*ind 'V Hud •*r- N }A O A M i j. "13 ‘ '^ e 'L . V t M A BOl >/k v i:v i--:;. . . R 48. f-'o * s ;,., 'h ^[, =t»f fS » Pit r / Li h r g/ e *r/.l i L ^ R iv\ ■ i ^ .<;■ Kj1 19 «M 9 / ^»ga :.^l .V ^ , 4 . ■ft— . |(V* r :0 0; "1 0 ■jbn, * IQrtiwlF\i 2fU -2 6 .fi •7R | .*sv(^-'.^\Vi rlj ... .- ■■■ •; "09 9«.S > iJJUke \ * »•-. ?•/■ L«4« 12 11 ■p -a - l J T5 r\'7*' ‘ 24 O , * > is / \\ V I ?.#ti 5IM-3T, v O', ., r. / *:--- j *■ ^ o ,'■ -' *sf 'i s' HjJ^5 \ •- ■ ' I- u ' " i* - 0 0 . I TL - ;A <*» f *1— y I ll ■r- 0\N ! t’urdV I^ake - - p i T" r.f--i I ' !3*7 ±**■[’" ; ' tv p ito* .-. - ' / ?S' ■■ 1 f 1T5& !*'*«*•}-.'* ■ ' I .r '-SSJ Sj.r 1 ?! 2W.,1' y-' | ':r’ . P 'O ’ !..; t f -1 P ' - - - r- : ■ ■',. ;,'?6 P '>T ■ -/7\ ■ T j f '2 V 'ieaot. aw; p - '* • ■ O ' .5 1 .iiV ■G. * A. ;' * ,m , . . , ;i '£,: r \<\ ■ .1 3 J7 ftje* H /') E V rp: \J V o « 1 9 - 6^4 9 l ” 24 /V c .'■ , V * , ft * 4^*. i ;V. as j. 0 n CLP ;a O (J J(N*W | Ji S3 ■3? js-r-V' iiitlU tC * & l .... v5AolMv ^•11 _ „ ;L *O o u d Seb? K?J< ~V’V s K ’ll 19*61 |i'S 6 oL Lak* «r r- W ', V s ' ■:'r' "•»|i # • i: .,' ’\ * . i ' rM&, / ' 1" BMIL -Xa s' izv-4 r u7 • "#•0 &68 . "24 'i ,,-1: i . -Gr.v. - / 14 ■fS>- 16 9*0- iPit nr Is T I ^20■ ■_ _ O xN y ^ I'S “off?' 4. BOUfiPARY" Ijily ^ x ,'| v X " V.B41 • ,r' r«.1v ,i'"» - v.Vf "1’•. "'ao - ■= I : r< &■■: - X i>7 . ti't*x^j9 i^I unVk “V *' -1*,.• i \ M **H• 42 ; ■ ' 'ii! T n » u *c r/ -* ' “A k / *-r I-' <• ■‘vf*-’ t/n 1 4&ibi %'Y Stir Sw Vf), ' -V : !i® ."~ ^ 1 r 'e* ■4":*' 13" ;i"18 -fe 51 ”36 ■ k^ehi i^1 FGregory$teh L ■■ *'■ .i*j ■C - *"'■ y’ iiioktorf «1A/nof-cm | |f* • .,..^ i y ^ r . ^ r 4 = ■ 4?l7 • A -’ P ■ =fV'. i 35' iv?. ■ I f ; BfuiN BiluttE X,olt5*+ T 1H ■io JL •„i-i I■ lUMiiih '"15 **■ /•i1 "14 ■4; f V • d/ r -• tje7 .■W ^ A*J.j*k j;-ix ' v* 38 •^_W83«m >'v 1?-A .l jL r -V -A 6^. ■* r i . • * ■ ... - • i' % AJ L T*i@st J o X W I 21+ing *O ow LaM y 24 • - ’ '■ b “rl UW-C* "ii Dowling 3 ch^ 4 ,:;26 2S :"II I >>f' .. , •K Lata 1 1 9fil X ' ‘'-s’ [ 11a■2*3£ ~ '"' J B ..t , ....A-. |s^ ‘n^Tng*" <*M956)/ "0 qGO I o- 8-:* K. "0 - , AREA % &*»Ch J e e u itc ifn BM 9 a*F- '1 ;.:l^]l' 1 Cirde Pine Center McCAlluiiL^f^ '11 jvrc^// ■ [joomts L&k* N- G c E Y/ Lak* ft 37QOOO *vet>4r rieville :Ao8 5 n3 0 ‘ 0> I ' b ? 0 OOO FEET R fftCHi.Af*r} 9 9 Ml K ALAMJkiOO I#Ml 10 W M a p p e d , e d ite d , an d p u b lis h e d by th e G eo log ical S urvey C ontrol by USGS and USC&G S Topography fro m aerial photographs by Kelsh plotter and by plane-table surveys 1 9 5 0 A erial photographs taken 1947 Field check 1951 * MN i i i j j i Mil Polyconic protection 19 27 N orth A m erican datum 1 0 ,0 0 0 -fo o t grid based on M ichigan coordinate system, central zone lO O O -m e te r U n iv e rs a l T ra n s v e rs e M e rc a to r g r id tic k s , z o n e 1 6 . s h o w n m b lu e R ed t m t in d ic a te s a re a s in w h ic h o n ly la n d m a r k b u ild in g s a re s h o w n i i i i i i r- - -i * 'OH H 1.11 I 1 CONTOL DAT U I UlDMtCG fH lD NK UA1 AE GW NEO TF ICShNH PTIh Lfl ATA iO T9*. CI ENMt FE T H IS MAP C U M P L IfT S W l' FOR SALE BY U. S. GEOL< A F O LD E R D E S C R IB IN G TOPOGRAPfr- ■ .....-.I,,— ■- .' I “*- iV « ,4* c” ■' \ Tj & I 7 I : a. , %x■' i.*; -i> 1} ’ f» \ l,TV^ 1*4?.\ &H ■ • *'>Jb .’{■'?> Vi /?.-, *i n '/A "i"96 '< 155).' E 4 Vt vr-"* FqUchtu La S,0 ' >-.4 m Tttdra£gh J f*tke UctiMum 1 x JjHnd arka Loomta < / ,r 7 J \' ,i |‘ ,ja 11 w noudsrt-t .,'w. l.tttltCuLirJIj Shallow *— At‘22 . * /)^.V : Laka fjppdif C re^K. ■ •Lem *¥dwr ** PICmlANf)9e«f KALAMAZOO SC ALf i ii * MH J t;s i i i 4 i i i idfO (■ - I 1 f - S 0.., ■..V .iC>'r'! ,. • I r » '• • '• 1 f ) ? r )CKJ o i-- i i.-..---I) I I 635 R9 W 3968 IV 16 M i • f ii'XXI i 1 W Xtt i I M i l | | >-t- H 1- • — i 'h*X > f } •? I i i i i r ) 1 CONTOUR D A T IJ M IN T L R V A L IS M l AN -) A 20 i -=h 4 j j. v i - .. ? K jOO f t f T i ‘irU^MfTiB'j v- -r; M ICHIG AN/^ ) M! E I I f VI I . 0 UIDMECL Sf DTI AO NNDAL MINMIAEGH NEO TF ICSH NE OERTTH ItNiA T9C (JU A D R A N G L I T H IS M AP C U M P U frS W IT H N A T IO N A L M A P A ! 1.1l R A C T STANDARDS FOR SALE BY U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, WASHINGTON 25, D, C, A FO LD E R D E S C R IB IN G TO P O G R A P H IC M A P S A N D S V M B O L S IS A V A ILA B L E O N REQ UEST I Q C A T IO N i v<■ i,* r . I T*i / J 1. , 1. m p g ro u n 2Sc J PR -■ /: ’*»i’ f X / ■O U pilR K - ~r. ^ *i f\ rt/ 3 i/*. "iIj^ L”j^' > -.6- .i --•• i ! Biust> 11-L. '^WA^Skh, hL Henderafeott Sch * 1' *■ ZigfrrJ ■r **■ : - r j «<#£ ' >.' ■> : J * ‘* il e V IS 861 f ‘ % F-sAtoM (^GtMrLaX !r\ h V■ v < t f A'J ' ■" -i I V M W M ^ Do*Ungfirm ud LaSe b rn a ^ r )■■*:.; '1*® 21 La** .!1« S9*L t D owling J* 26 I . -ao/^i jf r fi 1 m J I- -Jli ■V *D ^ JrU o w lin g , lp! )l-r ■ 3 # ;$8Uffi3J R 9 w 1*35 I ' #f 2$ 4 MILF . ..J < J0 L-IXX) 1'^XKl 1WW' 1 1 i 1 « i 1 1 v~i i i. t i’ h - r aW^iniyi r M. * ,41)* ^ ''y-■./•■'■;.. — , lJ-' ,,f'.■:'■_■Avi*. ^ vliit^’ * « 7(}7000m N .! & c|h oJdloqical * ljl■ v fr v y A t M i N a r 1^ ^ ^ - SURVEY, W ASH IN G TO N 25, O. C. ■SAND SYMBOLS t$AVAILABLEON REQUEST .n»«< 4 —t^na— plfij.Ifj8 W ywo M-aM „ ct*t ................. f.* /nMi T 42°30 8 5 ° ! 5' ROAD CLASSIFICATION Heavy duty > L A H t . i 6 L A tJ C . Lightduly f EM Medium duty U n im p ro v e d d id S R o u te f ! S ta te R o u te v' M ICHIG AN-;r < 1 Q UApPANrjLi LO C A TIO N (INAL MAL'AffL1tvACV >1ANIJAHOS c 6||000m[ H/4rrLi: ) U. F.RVAL SO H t- f AN ',f A UVII f*H 956) ^3 HASTINGS, MICH. N 4 2 3 0 — W 8 5 1 5 /lti 1951 A M S 1 9 6 9 I I I —S E R IE S V 7 6 2 R.IOW. IR.9W. 42° 45* >7 CD ■'rTJ • °£7Q • •H* <3 o : ^ o D n‘° ■-o o °oC> *cRb*c>^ o o •_ , a . n<> 0 * 5 s>•* Of.Q •OoS> L? • V/1 ^ 0 * 0 ^ c?3°» 0* V ® .,W-^ A’V c2_CJt>» dAS&-'<7 r >'0~• O / % sC? • O « * 1 v ? , b ,oflO o ; °5oO!oCl <7^ m*-m ?.o--on&6 j ;*v-. «>•*. -w <^=5-0 Q 0 O - CT^• 0 ° et0 0 . 0 - U»li¥ljMMH *J>n^ ■ m m m ^ ■*•!>.•*■ v.\ ... ’^ ;.°;.oo^ *y /“,*t<• v- :?i0. i^Sgjggfc >;q >9 . 0 . S ^ r M o O o o f c «...*•/'>;yV\;\*■* r-s?3 v^o-V.*■»:!V^iov »*• .,,,»mr. PLATE s*r-*\v - ■' |W» ■v o ^ 0 -' °?<&, 0.-0M ;oQ •o o ®^V ° 0 ° o ^ 0<2' ^ " n • 0 ° «o**o 0 0 * Y o K•-L\c?oo-o9. n ^O o O - o ^ ? y.o°■ a^ » a . y q %to OS?'?& ° h . ° 0 .•o * m ? * o ^ h ° - (J0Qo’« ova C?.°. •0 o • - ? « DiO.^; __.., r . v •,*,> **.h cvo />£>*?■*-a^ rt ----w ^ o j T ; .„ °° ®O #oa n? -JfcoOjpo^-iO^y 3L*Q> * ^ 0 * 0 4 £ ° o W 'c? <4>: * ? °~°— 3'§/sg}» C*Vt; fpj««V»' e Mo S.o 2 < ,^•0. \oO. Tf©5 o '• » O .o ? ,o q r ■ .0 <2 >0- ,0 - 0. o •Q i 0 M *0 #o ■o. lP ZCo jV»o o .0' ro ;0 • ^ Q 0 0*v -•0 C,- :* V * i^W-P-c■■;■;.-7v & too*»op>* J I“^ 0 0 oQ : p Voj . .v^j -i oU 0O A0 & a r.-PM t fO r. 1 Y °.X ' - U » o V) “ o C»Io'o ■7.:^ i f’ ■* •v.oVe?. r-(lv.'VV',' * PJJ:c>° c?oJ o o w j few ‘0 •0.°-'“ ,°0/ »T/l If.**-1 *0 ;v^v O°°o '0& .O 0 1 q& to.? I*>> •*?r * >1 to a g fc a ► I*-/ ./ 0.*n C? ,C^>c» U L * > V - & & g s ►o» °< •- 7 VQ uiv’ .V. *1 •*7 ; t2L-5£> to Y/?i ^£$5 ‘>V\V ;_yvs-, i *.)•« • •’ 1.1 ,*o ' 10 * ^ ftw -.t; _■*<£>5 O. o I«•M • V;.. l • • ' * V * .«•• ♦j*, »r «• »•* ;:A I '! V ; * :i iSMj D , * ** ** m m / 1 MSB# m m mm "Y:’l A T.3N . m m * / L r *W-iy<*.*"• ■ V.Lv. V ✓ / ea.vj<;«.:>>71’;vy'£.v-.V M m m m w m w & A 1 1 ® O ro e to GO H ASTIN GS 15' LANDS Stagnation moraine Qsm i Primary drainage channels and Qpc related lowlands 0 > ’• Interlobate moraine Kame topography 23 S TIN G S 15' quadrangle; LANDSCAPE TYPES Qop hannels and M IC H I G A N Qgm ■••.‘ AI*1'1 * I*;..:;;.--. Lm* *i * . »*•.. • t' * * * 'j *1 Outwash p Ground rm Secondary other lowl( Major eski Contact b« / m+mi 1■ T.2N TIN. I kteStw * *io )LE. MICHIGAN S) 00 0 i_ 5 MILES Outwash plain Ground moraine or till plain Secondary drainage channels and other lowlands of similar size Major esker fragments Contact between landscape types