71 23,239
-

SAKAMOTO, Paul Shigeichi, 1934A STUDY OF DRUG ABUSE EDUCATION PROGRAMS
OF SELECTED PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS IN MICHIGAN.
Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1971
Education, administration

University Microfilms, A XEROX Company , Ann Arbor, M ichigan

A STUDY OF D RUG A B U S E E D U C A T I O N P ROGRAMS
OF SELECTED P U B L I C H I G H SCHOOLS
IN M I C H I G A N
By
Paul S . ^Sakamoto

A THESIS
S u b m i t t e d to
M i c h i g a n State Un i v e r s i t y
in partial f u l f i l l m e n t of the requir e m e n t s
for the d e g r e e of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Department of A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and Hig h e r E d u c a t i o n
1971

ABSTRACT
A STUDY OP DRUG ABUSE EDUCATION PROGRAMS
OF SELECTED PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS
IN MICHIGAN
By
Paul S. Sakamoto

The drug use and abuse problem, especially among
teenagers, is considered by some to be one of the most
serious ever faced by our society.

Some state that a

whole generation of young people will be lost unless
measures are taken to solve the problem.

This alarm has

caused citizens to respond by placing the responsibility
for solutions on certain individuals, agencies, and
organizations,

The school is one of the public agencies

which has been asked to react.
In view of the outcry by the public for the
schools to do something, this study was made to gather
pertinent information on current drug abuse education
programs in an attempt to discover what the response of
some of the schools has been to this point.

The population

of this study consists of selected large public high
schools in the State of Michigan.

A large high school is

defined by the author as one which has a student

Paul S . Sakamoto
enrollment of 2,000 or more and which is administratively
organized on a ten through twelve grade level.
The survey focused on several aspects of the drug
abuse education program including the description of the
type of program,

the determination of need, school policy

related to student drug users,
for teachers,

in-service training programs

school-community cooperative programs,

and

evaluation techniques.
Because of the size of the population of the study,
it was possible for the investigator to personally inter­
view each principal, or his designate, whose school met
the criteria mentioned above.

An interview questionnaire

guide was used so each interviewee was asked the same
question and in the same manner by the interviewer.
The findings of the status of drug abuse education
in the large public high schools of this study are as
follows:
1.

One-third of the large public high schools in this
study reported not having a drug abuse education
program as part of their curriculum.

2.

Drug abuse education programs of the large public
high schools of this study have the following
ch aracteristics:
a.

most programs are required of all students
some time during their matriculation through
high school

Paul S. Sakamoto
b.

the programs are most commonly placed at the
tenth grade level

c.

most high school programs are not articulated
with their respective junior high school
programs

d.

most high

school programs are not coordinated

in such a way that the programs avoid repeti­
tion
e.

most programs are conducted in the
studies d e p a r t m e n t s , or the health

social
and

physical education departments
f.

most teachers w h o teach in the drug abuse
education programs are not required to have
special training in the field before teaching
the subject

g.

the most common length of the drug education
programs is two to three weeks

h.

teachers and administrators (local
district)

and/or

are the personnel most commonly

involved in the planning of the drug education
programs
M ost principals interviewed,

for a variety of

reasons, would not venture to make a guess as to
the percentage of students in their school who
have experimented with drugs.

Paul S . Sakamoto
4.

Principals interviewed will not make a survey of
students to discover how widespread drug use is
in their schools because most think that the data
gathered is not reliable or the information may
cause community reaction.

5.

Slightly over half of the principals interviewed
thought that drug abuse was a major student
behavior problem.

6.

Most schools do not have a district board of
education policy pertaining to student drug users.

7.

When a student drug user is discovered, most
school officials would notify parents and/or
police.

8.

The most common in-service training program on
drug abuse consists of one faculty meeting
devoted to the subject.

9.

Most schools do not have a cooperative schoolcommunity drug abuse program though many make
referrals to agencies in the communities.

10.

Very few of the schools attempt to evaluate their
drug abuse education programs to discover their
effectiveness.
The findings of this study have many implications

for changes and improvements needed in current drug abuse
education programs.

The areas of weakness seem to be

Paul S. Sakamoto
in-service training for school personnel, evaluation of
current educational programs, cooperative programs between
school and community, involvement of representatives from
the total school community in program planning, and a well
defined school drug policy which does not focus only on
the punitive aspect.
The author recommends that similar studies be
undertaken so that comparisons might be made in schools of
different size and grade levels.

This study should also

be replicated in another state to compare the status of
drug abuse education between states.

A sound evaluation

of current practices in drug abuse education is needed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to the many people who gave
him encouragement and guidance during the various stages
of the doctoral program.

A heartfelt expression of

gratitude is extended to:
A supportive committee:

Dr. Richard Featherstone,

Chairman, whose personal qualities made Michigan a
warm place to be even during its coldest winters,
his sensitivity, concern for others, and profes­
sional competence make him a model for school
administrators; Dr. Howard Hickey, whose assistance
from the beginning of the program to the very end
was immeasurable; Dr. Vandel Johnson, whose
humanism gave depth and meaning to the study; and
Dr. John Useem, whose willingness, despite his busy
schedule, to serve on the committee was appreci­
ated .
The principals of the large public high schools in
the state whose participation made this study
possible.

ii

Dean Donald Leu, School of Education, San Jose
State College, whose dynamism and educational
leadership inspired the author to pursue the
doctoral degree.
Dr. Edward Lynn, Assistant Professor of Psychiatry,
whose generosity in lending his expertise and his
library on drugs made the research more relevant.
Dr. Allen Enelow, Chairman, Department of
Psychiatry, whose assistance made it financially
possible to complete the degree.
Dean, Fred Vescolani, College of Education,
University of Arkansas, whose guidance in the
early stages of the program was greatly
appreciated.
Dr. Donald Tatroe, whose interest and support as
an original member of the committee was invaluable.
His sudden death was a great loss to education.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF T A B L E S ........................................

vii

CHAPTER
I.

II.

III.

IV.

INTRODUCTION ..................................

1

A General Overview .........................
Statement of Purpose ......................
Definition of Terms
......................
Limitation of The S t u d y ..................
M e t h o d o l o g y ...............................
Organization of Subsequent Chapters
...

1
6
6
9
10
10

RELATED LITERATURE

...........................

12

F o r e w a r d ...............................
H i s t o r y ....................................
About D r u g s ...............................
M a r i j u a n a ...............................
Hallucinogens
...........................
N a r c o t i c s ...............................
Barbiturates .............................
A m p h e t a m i n e s .............................
Volatile Chemicals ......................
The Drug A b u s e r ...........................
Drugs and T r e a t m e n t ......................
Drugs and The L a w .........................
Why D r u g s ? ..................................
Drug Abuse E d u c a t i o n ......................

12
12
16
16
21
27
31
33
36
37
40
45
50
55

PLANNING AND CONDUCTING STUDY

.............

62

Introduction ...............................
P r o c e d u r e ..................................
Method of Reporting Findings .............

62
64
72

FINDINGS OF S T U D Y ...........................

73

Introduction

...............................

iv

73

CHAPTER

Page
PART I
Drug Abuse Education Programs ...........

74

PART II
Determination of N e e d ...................

81

PART III
Drug P o l i c i e s ............................

83

PART IV
In-Service Training Programs

...........

84

School-Community Programs ...............

85

PART V

PART VI
E v a l u a t i o n .............................

86

PART VII

V.

Open Ended Q u e s t i o n s ...................

87

CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
AND S U M M A R Y ..............................

89

C o n c l u s i o n s ..............................
Implications
...........................
Recommendations .........................
Part I--School-Community Programs . . .
Part II— School Drug P o l i c y ...........
Part III--Drug Abuse Education
P r o g r a m ..............................
P h i l o s o p h y .........................
Determination of N e e d ...............
Instructional Approach
.............
C u r r i c u l u m .........................
E v a l u a t i o n .........................
Part IV— In-Service Training Program .
A p p r o a c h ...........................
C o n c e p t s ...........................
O b j e c t i v e s .........................

v

89
93
97
97
104
108
108
109
110
112
118
119
120
120
122

CHAPTER

Page
E v a l u a t i o n .............................
P l a n n i n g ...............................
P r o g r a m ...............................
Part V — P e r s o n n e l ......................
Part VI— Further S t u d y ..................
S u m m a r y ...................................

123
124
125
126
127
129

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..........................................

131

vi

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
3-1.

Page
High Schools Selected for Study, Their
Enrollments, Cities in Which the School
is Located and Names of P r i n c i p a l s .........

65

Grade Level Placement of Drug Abuse
E d u c a t i o n ....................................

75

Some Characteristics of the Fifteen (15)
Existing Drug Abuse Education Programs

...

76

Placement of Drug Abuse Education in the
...........................
Curriculum

78

Number of Years Drug Abuse Education Has Been
O f f e r e d ......................................

79

School Community Members Involved in Planning
the Drug Abuse. Education P r o g r a m s .........

80

4-6.

Estimates by Principals of Student Drug Use

82

4-7.

Reasons Given by Principals for Not C o n ­
ducting a Student Survey on Drug Use . . . .

82

Type and Frequency of In-Service Training
Programs on Drug A b u s e ......................

85

Principals' Opinions on Best Approaches to
Solving Drug P r o b l e m .........................

88

4-1.
4-2.
4-3.
4-4.
4-5.

4-8.
4-9.

.

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A General Overview
The problem of drug abuse, can be traced back to
our earliest civilizations.

From the herbs and other

botanicals of early times to the present day barbiturates
and amphetamines, man has discovered substances which
would help to ease his tensions.

But as the world became

more complex and change took place at a more rapid r a t e ,
the tensions and anxieties increased.

With this increase,

came the increase in self-medication to relieve one
temporarily of the responsibilities and harsh realities
with which one was faced.
Such mind relieving drugs were widely used by
people who lived in the slums of our large cities for
many years.

Heroin was a way of forgetting the daily

poverty and the hopelessness, but not many people became
too excited about drug use and abuse until it became
common among the youngsters of the white middle class.
Today neither small rural towns nor large suburban
communities are immune to the drug problem.

1

2
A pamphlet published by Kiwanis International
describes the situation as follows:
The problem of drug abuse is not new, but in our
nation it is becoming more and more widespread.
It occurs in the large city, in the small town,
and even in rural areas.
It is not limited to
people of any particular area, age group,
environment, or level of income.1
Though drug abuse is not a new phenomenon, the
substantial number of young people currently involved is
without precedent.

The full dimension of the teenage drug

problem is difficult to assess because of the illegal
aspect.

Statistics published on the number of drug users

and abusers can only be estimates.
Newsweek magazine, on February 16, 1970, reported:
"The use of drugs, particularly marihuana,

is now an

accepted fact of life for anywhere from 30 to 50 percent
of all U.S.

secondary school students."

Ochberg states,
the

2

"estimates of marihuana usage in

United States run as high as 20 million— on the other

hand estimates of heroin use in the U.S. are between

^"Kiwanis International, Deciding About D r u g s ,
Chicago, Illinois, 1969, p. 1.
2

Staff Reporter, "The Drug Scene:
High Schools
are Higher Now," Newsweek, Vol. LXXV No. 7, February 16,
1970, p. 67.

3
40 and 100 thousand, with a large concentration in
New York City slums and other low income areas."3
People compiling drug use and abuse data tend to
lump all drug users, from the first time experimenter to
the person who is dependent, into one category.

This

tends to make the information less useful to those
attempting to study the degree of seriousness of the
problem.

Though the data may not define the drug problem

well, one only needs to select teenagers at random in most
any community today and talk with them about drugs to get
some notion of the extent of drug use and abuse.
The problem, however, is not one which is charac­
teristic of certain local communities or states, but one
of national scope.

In March, 1970, President Nixon,

concerned over reports of growing drug use among the
nation's youth, announced a $12.4 million drive to educate
students and teachers about the dangers of drug abuse.
As with many of our social problems, people turn
to the schools for a partial solution.

Barrins states.

The facts speak for themselves and for an obliga­
tion on the part of schools to arm youngsters
early in life with knowledge of drugs. Although
the federal government is considering a new bill
to control drugs, only education will save the
3Frank M. Ochberg, "Drug Problems and the High
School Principal," The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, Vol. 54 N o . 34 £ ,
Hay 1S76, p. SS.
----------- ---

4
life or the healthy brain of a child tempted
to experiment.
If properly educated in drug
dangers most youngsters will react with reason
when the temptation arises.4
Most writers in the field agree with Barrins that
schools have an obligation to offer drug education.

The

federal, state, and local governments are allocating money
for such programs in the schools.

Administrators are

suddenly challenged to design an effective drug education
program.
What has happened all over the country is the
generation of crash and piece-meal programs.

To para­

phrase Halleck, many programs consist of assembling all
the students in the school auditorium to show them a film
which was designed to scare students and which many times
gives them inaccurate information.

Others consist of

having police officers come into the classrooms to tell
the students what would happen to them if they were caught
using drugs illegally.5
In a highly departmentalized secondary school,
there is a struggle to determine where drug education
should be taught.
4

Since most teachers know little about

Phyllis C. Barrins, "Drug Abuse:
New Problem
for Boards," The American School Board Journal, Vol. 157
No. 4, October 1969, p. 15.
5
Seymour Halleck, "The Great Drug Education Hoax,"
The Progressive, The Progressive, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin,
Vol. 34 No. 7, 1970, p. 30.

the subject, departments are reluctant to accept it as
part of its curriculum though most would agree that it
should be taught.

Some schools may include a unit on

drugs in the homemaking department, others may place it
in science, and still others may find it best suited for
physical education.

If none of these departments are

appropriate, it might be placed in a course where all
subjects which do not easily fit into any one department
could be lumped, e.g.
use and abuse.

first aid, driver education, drug

Therefore, the problem of the placement of

drug abuse education in the curriculum must be considered.
The shortage of qualified teachers to teach drug
abuse education is another problem.

School districts

mandated to teach drug education and given money to do so
are floundering because drug education calls for some
expertise of which there is a limited supply.

Usually

one of the first things educators think about when a new
course or subject is proposed is a curriculum guide.

But

such a guide presupposes some knowledge of the subject
matter.

There have been many drug education classes where

the students sit back and snicker at the teacher because
they know more about the subject from first hand experience
than the teacher.

This calls for more and better in-

service training programs for teachers concerning d r u g s ,
their use and abuse.

6
The tasks that face school administrators today
are to (1) become more knowledgeable about drugs them­
selves,

(2) assess the drug use and abuse problem in their

schools,

(3) provide in-service training for teachers so

they will become more informed and more aware, and
(4) initiate a drug education program based on identified
needs.
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this study is to gather current
information and data concerning drug education programs,
in-service training programs on drug abuse for school
personnel, and school-community cooperative programs on
drug use and abuse so that results of this investigation
will:

(1) enlighten readers on the current status of

drug abuse education in the large high schools of this
study,

(2) give educators information which might be of

value in bringing about changes in current practices of
drug education, and (3) help others who may wish to
institute drug abuse programs in their schools and
communities.
Definition of Terms
In order for the reader to better understand this
study, it is necessary for him to know the way in which

7
the author will use certain terms.

The definition of

these terms are as follows:
comprehensive high school--a school which provides
(1) a general education for all the future
citizens,

(2) elective programs for those who

wish to use their acquired skills immediately
after graduation and

(3) programs for those

whose vocations will depend on their subse­
quent education in a college or university.^
drug— any substance which by its chemical nature
affects the structure or function of the
...
. 7
living
organism.
drug abuse— use of a non-medically approved drug
or of a medically approved drug for nonmedically approved purposes.8
drug abuse education— an educational program which
gives students reasonably accurate information
Dn abused or illegal drugs and which is
offered in the curriculum as a separate course
or as part of other existing courses during
the regularly scheduled school day.
g
James B. Conant, The American High School Today
(McGraw-Hill Book Company, I n c . , New York, 1959), p^ 17.
7
Helen H. Nowlis, "Student Drug Use," Paper
presented at the American Psychological Association
Convention, Washington, D . C . , September 7, 1969.
8Ibid.

8
drug dependence— a state arising from repeated
administration of a drug on a periodic or
continuous basis.^
large high school— a public high school with an
enrollment of 2,000 or more students, which
is administratively organized on a ten through
twelve grade b a s i s . ^
narcotic— a drug which produces lethargy or stupor,
and relief of pain.

This family of drugs

includes opium derivatives and synthetic
o p i a4t e s .
■

-

physical dependence— a reliance on a substance to
a point that progressively larger doses are
required for the desired effect and, if the
substance is withheld, a painful withdrawal
12
illness will occur.
9

James B. Landis and Donald K. Fletcher, Drug
Abuse, A Manual for Law Enforcement Officers, S m i t h ,
Kline and French Laboratories, 1966, p^ 15.
"^Jack K. Mawdsley, "A Study of the Delegation of
Administrative Tasks by Principals of the Large High
Schools in Michigan as Related to Selected Variables"
(unpublished Doctor's dissertation, College of Education,
Michigan State University, 1968), p. 11.
11 Angela Kitzinger and Patricia J. Hill, Drug
Abuse (California State Department of Education,
Sacramento, California, 1967), p. 4.
12

Norman W. Houser, Drugs (Scott, Foresman and
Company, Glenview, Illinois^ 1969), p. 46.

9
psychological dependence— a psychic reliance on a
substance which is so persistent it may be
considered compulsion, 13
tolerance— the ability of the body, over a period
of time, to adapt itself to the drug so it
takes a larger and larger amount to obtain
the effects originally produced by its use. 14
Limitation of The Study
This study is a survey of drug use and abuse
education programs currently in operation in the large
high schools of the State of Michigan.

No attempt will be

made to evaluate the effectiveness of the programs.

A

description of the types of programs, drug abuse policies
of the schools, in-service training programs for staff
members, and cooperative school-community drug programs
will be reported.
Though there may be many drug use and abuse
education programs on the junior high school or middle
school levels as well as other size high schools, this
study reports only on large high schools because most
drug education programs to date have been offered at this
level in this state.

This also served to limit the study

to a manageable portion of the educational system.

14 Houser, op. c i t . , p. 47.

10
The reader is cautioned not to make generaliza­
tions about drug education programs in other states based
on the conclusions reached in this study; for it is limited
to the State of Michigan.
Methodology
The population of this study will be defined by
the parameters of a large high school as described by the
author in the definition of terms.

Schools will be

selected which meet the criteria established.
Each school principal will be contacted for a
personal interview and a standard survey verbal question­
naire technique will be used.

The information will then

be summarized and the findings will be reported as a
descriptive study.
A more detailed description of the methodology
will be given in Chapter III.
Organization of Subsequent Chapters
The content of Chapter I has included a general
introduction to the study, a statement of the problem,
the purpose for the study, definition of terms, and the
limitations of the study.
In Chapter II the author presents a review of the
literature related to the study.

It includes a historical

perspective of drug abuse, factual information about drugs,

11
a view of the drug abuser and treatment m o d a l i t i e s , a
report on the reasons for drug abuse in our society, a
review of the laws as they relate to drug abuse, and an
account of current drug education p r o g r a m s .
In Chapter III the author describes the methodology
used in making this study including the approach, p opu l a ­
tion selection, method of investigation, and data
gathering instrument.
In Chapter IV, the author presents the findings
from the study and in Chapter V, he gives his analysis of
the findings in the form of conclusions,
recommendations.

assumptions, and

CHAPTER II
RELATED LITERATURE

Foreward
To better understand the context of the study, it
would help both the reader and the author to review some
of the related literature which is relevant.

This review

will serve to introduce the reader to a background body
of knowledge which will make the study more meaningful.
The literature reported here will deal with the history
of drug abuse, factual information about groups of drugs
which are more commonly abused, a picture of the abuser,
treatment modalities, laws related to drug abuse, the
causes of drug abuse, and drug abuse education programs.
Historically, drugs have been part of every
culture.
History
Drug use dates back to our earliest civilization. 15
The knowledge of marijuana dates back to before 2737 B.C.
15

D. Solomon, The Marihuana Papers
New York, 1966), p. 7.

12

(Bobbs-Merrill,

13
16

when it was mentioned in a Chinese herbal.

Records also

indicate that the substance played an important part in
religious ceremonies of the Hindus, Scythians, Chinese,
17
Iranians, and American Indians.
There is also evidence of fanaticism and evil
misuse of hashish, the concentrated resin from Cannabis,
which took place in the 11th century as told in a story
18
about a group known as "Hashishin."
As Leonard explains:
At the time of the crusades a Mohammedan sect was
organized to terrorize the invading Christian
armies. The young men of this sect were trained
to commit murder while under the influence of
hashish and were therefore called, "Hashishin”
from which the term "assassin” was ultimately
derived.19
Another drug extracted from a plant, the oriental
poppy, is opium which has historically been used to ease
man's pains or as a form of self indulgence as a confec­
tion, or for smoking.
used by Egyptians.

As early as 1500 B.C., opium was

Smoking of opium for pleasure was

introduced to this country by immigrants from China, who
16Thomas N. Burbridge, "Marijuana: An Overview,"
Journal of Secondary Education, Vol. 43 No. 5, May 196 8,
p. “T 9 7 .--------------------------------17
Ara H. Der Marderosian, "Marijuana Madness,"
Journal of Secondary Education, Vol. 43 No. 5, May 1968,
pTTffO.--------

18Ibid.
19

Effects
Journal

B . E. Leonard, "Cannabis:
A Short Review of its
and the Possible Dangers of its Use," British
Addict, Vol. 84, 1969, p. 121.

14
were brought here to work at low wages to build railroads
in the West.

"For many years it was medically considered
20
a panacea for most ills,1' states Lasagna.
Morphine, a natural alkaloid of opium, was d i s­
covered in 1805 and with the subsequent invention of the
hypodermic syringe in the middle of the 19th century it
was used extensively to relieve pain.

During the Civil

War, morphine addiction became so common it was called the
"Army” disease.

Heroin was discovered in 1898 and was

thought to be non-addicting; therefore, a good replacement
for morphine.
Man has recorded other plants such as cacti and
mushrooms which have a historical record in the area of
hallucinogens.

Peyote was used by the Indian tribes of

Central America and Mexico when the white man came to this
continent.

Psilocybin, which is extracted from mushrooms,
21
has been used in Indian religious rites for centuries.
For many y e a r s , drug agents remained limited to
botanicals and their derivatives.

22

But in the 1850*s,

20

Louis Lasagna, "The Many Faces of Drug Abuse,"
Modern Med i c i n e , April 6, 1970, p. 144.
21

Michigan Department of Education, A Teacher
Resource Guide for Drug Use and Abuse for Micfilgan's
Schools, Lansing,"Michigan, 1970, p. 2 1 .
22

Committee on Alcoholism and Addiction, AMA,
"Dependence on Barbiturates and Other Sedative D r u g s ,"
Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 193
No. 3, August 23, 19 (>5, p. 107.

15
modern chemistry introduced a w h ole array of new
substances.

For example,

from the bromides as sedatives

came the innumerable barbiturates whi c h have b een
23
synthesized.
The amphetamines, however, came m u c h later
being first introduced in 1936 as a t r e atment for narco24
lepsy (uncontrolled sleeping s p e l l s ) .
In 1938, Or. Albert Hofmann,
a Swiss pharmaceutical firm,
acid diethylamide

(LSD).

research chemist for

first synthesized lysergic

He later d i s c o v e r e d its effects

when he accidently swallowed s o m e .

He recorded the

results of this experience as follows:
I noted with dismay that m y enviro n m e n t was
undergoing progressive change.
Everyt h i n g
seemed strange and I had the gre a t e s t diffic u l t y
in expressing myself.
My vis u a l fields wav e r e d
and everything appeared deformed as in a faulty
mirror.
I was overcome by a feeling that I was
going crazy, the w orst part of it being that I
was clearly aware of my c o n d i t i o n . 25
Between the botanicals and the synthetic c h e m i c a l s ,
the list of substances of abuse seems to go on endlessly.
The historical perspective indicates the search and d i s ­
covery of new substances will continue.
23

But to quote an

Michigan Department of Education,

op. c i t . ,

p. 31.
24

S. B. Penich, "Amphetamines in Obesity,"
Seminars in P s y c h i a t r y , Vol. 1 No. 2, May 1969, p. 145.
25
Houser, o p . c i t ., p. 15.

16
Intuitive 18th century remark, "the mischief is not really
26
in the drug, but in the people."
About Drugs
In order to present drugs and volatile chemicals
in some organized way, these substances will be catego­
rized into six groups.

This classification is based on

the similarities of the chemical composition of the
substance and the symptomology it causes in the user.
six groups are as follows:

The

marijuana, hallucinogens,

narcotics, barbiturates, amphetamines, and volatile
chemicals.
Marijuana
Though marijuana can be classified as a hallucino­
gen, it will be dealt with separately because it is the
most commonly abused drug and because there is so much
literature on the subject.
The marijuana plant, Cannabis sativa, L . , was
introduced into the United States from Mexico about
sixty years ago.

It grows wild in Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas,
27
Iowa, and Michigan.
The ideal climate for the plant is
26
George B. Griffenhagen, "A Brief History of Drug
Abuse," Teaching About D r u g s , American School Health
Association,
p V "l^SY
27
Michigan Department of Education, op. c i t .,
p. 24.

17
warm and dry, and it will grow in any waste or fertile
area.

The plant is considered an annual and can reach a
28
size of fifteen feet or more.
Factors related to

cultivation seem to have an effect on its psychic potency.
The highest concentration of the active ingredients comes
from the resinous exudate of the tops of the female
29
plant.
Marijuana is used around the world and it has been
estimated by the World Health Organization that the drug
is used in some form or another by at least 200 million
people.

This is probably a conservative figure.30

Burbridge reports,

"In the Middle East, North Africa, and

the Far East,
bagga,

such names as hashish, c h a r a s , blang, ganja,
31
are used as well as marijuana."
Some countries that are less medically advanced

still use marijuana as medicine.

It is used to treat many

maladies such as tetanus, asthma, delirium tremens, c o n ­
vulsions, hydrophobia, and others.

Marijuana is no longer

used in modern medicine and, in this country,
28

it was

Der Marderosian, op. c i t . , p. 202.

29

J. Robertson Unwin, "Non-Medical Use of Drugs,"
The Canadian Medical Association Journal, Vol. 101,
December 27, 1965, p. S12.---------------30Burbridge, op. c i t ., p. 197.

18
deleted from the United States Pharmacopoeia over
32
thirty years ago.
Marijuana may be taken into the body in several
ways— by chewing the leaves, by sniffing it in powder
form, by using it in cooking as seasoning, by mixing it
with honey for drinking, or by making it into candy or
cookies for eating.
smoking.

However, the most common use is by

A special technique of slow, deep inhalation is

used in order to achieve maximum vaporization and absorp33
tion of the resin in the smoke.
Leonard reports that the inhaled smoke from a
marijuana cigarette produces the initial effect within a
few minutes and the maximum effect is produced in 30-60
minutes and persists for three to five hours.

The setting
jk

in which it is taken has much to do with its effects.
Der Marderosian states that the effects of cannabis
intoxication is dependent upon the quality and quantity
of the preparation and even how far to the end the
35
cigarettes are smoked.
Though many and varying effects have been experi­
enced by marijuana users, the most commonly described
32
33
34
35

Der Marderosian, op. c i t ., p. 201.
Kitzinger and Hill, op. c i t ., p. 25.
Leonard, op. c i t ., p. 123.
Der Marderosian, op. cit., p. 203.

19
ones are increased appetite, headache, dizziness, vertigo,
fainting, and perspiration.

Contrary to popular belief,
36
hangover effects have been described.
There is m uch disagreement between authorities
concerning the effects of marijuana.

Burbridge states,

" . . . marijuana appears to be relatively harmless in
most users and creates fewer serious problems than
37
alcohol."
Eddy reports, "For the individual, harm
resulting from abuse of cannabis may include inertia;
lethargy;

self-neglect; feeling of increased capability,

with corresponding failure; and precipitation of psychotic
episodes."
Unwin describes this lack of agreement on the
effects of marijuana this way:
Despite m any studies and reports, reliable facts
are scant and elusive, and there have been
surprisingly few adequately conducted experiments
in man, particularly in North America.
Experts
with impeccable credentials and long experience
give diametrically opposed and mutually contra­
dictory interpretations of available information.
Reviewers of the same reports and literature
markedly disagree in their c o n c l u s i o n s .39
36
Conrad J. Schwarz, "Toward a Medical Under­
standing of Marijuana," Canadian Psychiatric Association
Journal, Vol. 14 No. 6, 1969, p. 593.
37
Burbridge, op. c i t . , p. 198.
38
N. B. Eddy, et a l . , "Drug Dependence:
Its
Significance and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ," World Health O rganiza­
tion, Vol. 32, 1965, p. 721.
39
Unwin, op. c i t . , p. 812.

20
One of the most comprehensive reviews of the
English language medical literature over the past
35 years on marijuana was done by Conrad J. Schwarz.

He

reports the following points relative to the current level
of medical understanding of marijuana:
1.

Marijuana is a poorly defined intoxicant derived
from the Indian Hemp plant (Cannabis sativa).
It is qualitatively similar to, but quantita­
tively weaker than hashish, the other commonly
used natural intoxicant derived from the plant.

2.

The Indian Hemp plant varies widely in its
botanical properties.

3.

Marijuana, hashish and chemical extracts of
cannabis vary widely in potency and deteriorate
with time.

4.

The chemical composition of these substances is
largely unknown at this t ime.

5.

There are wide variations in human response to
these substances, and variations may also occur
in the same individual using the same substance
at different times.

6.

The acute intoxicated state is of variable
duration, and the individual is not necessarily
aware that he is intoxicated.

7.

The acute intoxicated state characteristically
involves a feeling of euphoria, distortions of
the sense of time and space, heightened sensory
perceptions and impairment of complex psycho­
motor activity.
However, fluctuations in mood
and behavior may occur and a state of toxic
psychosis may result, which is not necessarily
related to high dosage.

8.

In order to achieve the state of intoxication,
the individual may have to accept some degree
of unpleasant physical and psychological
experiences.

21
9.

Depending on the complex interaction of a number
of variables of which the drug is only one,
hashish, and to a lesser extant, marijuana, can
be associated with acute psychological distress
requiring medical attention, intoxicated
behaviors dangerous to the individual or to
others, drug dependency, personality d e t eriora­
tion, and chronic physical ill-health.

10.

The incidence of acute side effects is unknown,
but it is generally considered that chronic
side effects are more likely to occur with
hashish when used regularly over a period of
time.

11.

To date, studies of regular users of both
marijuana and hashish tend to show basic defects
in p e r s o nality.40

Hallucinogens
Hallucinogen is any substance which generates or
produces hallucinations when ingested.

Another name given

these substances is psychedelic drugs because it is
believed that the drug improves the psychic power of the
41
mind.
Actually hallucinogen is a poor name for this
group since true hallucinations are infrequent.

Since

almost invariably, distortions of perception from sensory
cues are noted,

"illusinogen" is probably a more appropri­

ate n a m e .^
40
41

Schwarz, op. c i t ., p. 812.
Michigan Department of E d u c a t i o n , op. c i t .,

p . 20.
42

Sidney Cohen and Keith S. Ditman, "Prolonged
Adverse Reactions to Lysergic Acid D i e t h y l a m i d e ," Archives
of General P s y c h i a t r y , Vol. 8, May 1963, p. 71.

22

Hallucinogens include lysergic acid diethylamide
(LSD), marijuana, mescaline (also called peyote), psilocybe
43
mushroom, STP, and dimethyltryptamine (DMT).

Lysergic acid diethylamide is a colorless and
odorless substance which is a derivative of the ergot
fungus of r y e , a black substance that grows on the grain.
LSD is taken orally as a tablet or capsule.

It can be

saturated on a sugar cube, on chewing gum, hard candy,
crackers, vitamin pills, aspirin, even on blotting paper
and postage stamps.

An extremely small amount is needed

for an effect.

As little as 100 micrograms can produce
44
hallucinations which may last for hours.
Masters and
Houston report:
Theoretically, one ounce of the substance could
"turn on" a city of 30,000 inhabitants, though
fears that someone might contaminate the water
supply of cities are groundless, because the
chemical purifiers in the reservoirs would in­
activate the LSD.
All the LSD obtained today is through the black
market since the single legitimate manufacturer of the
drug, Sandoz Laboratories, discontinued production early
43

Michigan Department of Education, op. cit.,

p. 20.
44

Staff Reporter, "A Schoolman's Guide to Illicit
Drugs," School Management, February 1968, p. 57.
45
R. E. Masters and J. Houston, The Varieties of
Psychedelic Experience (Rinehart and Winston Inc.,

New York, 1966) .

23
in 1966.^**

One dose of LSD costs about two cents to make
47
and sells for from $3.00 to $8.00 on the illegal market.
LSD seems to effect each individual in a different
way and predictions cannot be made by personality types.

Ungerleider states:
It is known that there are both acute and chronic
side effects, and that their occurrence cannot be
predicted.
Psychiatric interviews and psychological
testing do not screen out adverse reactors.
Some of
the worst reactions have been in persons, often
physicians and other professionals, who appeared
stable by every indicator.48
Four major types of acute symptoms of LSD ingestion
identified by Kitzinger and Hill are:
1.

illusion and hallucinations

2.

anxiety, often to the point of panic

3.

severe depression with suicidal thoughts and
attempts

4.

confusion, often to the point of not knowing
where one 1s self is

The occurrence of these symptoms is totally
49
unpredictable.
a

a

J. Thomas Ungerleider and Duke D. Fisher,
Today," Medical D i g e s t , July 1967, p. 33.
47

"LSD

Michigan Department of Education, op. cit.,

p. 21.
^®J. Thomas Ungerleider, "A Medical Look at the
Facts and Fantasies," The San Francisco Examiner,
April 23, 1967.
49
Kitzinger and Hill, op. c i t ., p. 38.

24
To paraphrase Houser, LSD affects the central
nervous system and results in physical symptoms such as
these:

dilated pupils, lowered temperature, chills with

"goose bumps," increased blood sugar, rapid heartbeat,
50
increased pulse rate, nausea, loss of appetite.
An unusual characteristic of LSD is that a user
can experience a recurrence of symptoms, as intense as the
original intoxication, many months after taking it, without
having taken another dose during that period of t i m e . ^
Some LSD users report sensory perceptions such as
tasting color and seeing and feeling sound.

They say they

feel more sensitive, aware and creative; however, tests of
performance while under the influence of the drug show
52
poorer rather than better performance.
Dr. Sidney Cohen
states:
Artistic inspiration can only be executed by one
who has already mastered the technique of the
medium.
The drive to achieve is another requisite
for creative accomplishment.
LSD will reduce
motivation as often as it will intensify it.53
50 Houser, o p . c i t ., p. 16.
^Ki t z i n g e r and Hill, op. c i t ., p. 37.
52
Michigan Department of Education, op. c i t .,
p. 22.
53

J. Thomas Ungerleider and Duke D. Fisher, "LSD:
Fact and Fantasy," Arts and Architecture, Vol. 83 No. 11,
December 1966, p. 27T,

25
Many users state that LSD enables them to be more
loving individuals and aids them in developing warm inter­
personal relationships.
these claims.

Ungerleider, however, refutes

He states:

The ability to love, to have psychic intimacy with
other persons, seems also to be decreased by LSD.
In contradiction to the claims that the drug helps
one to get closer to other people, we have noticed
that users become more introspective and invested
in themselves.54
LSD does not produce a physical dependence;
therefore, cannot be considered an addictive drug, but
continued use requires a larger and larger dose to obtain
the same sensation.55
Mescaline is the active hallucinatory substance
which is found in the peyote cactus.

It is a small dome

shaped cactus that grows in northern Mexico and the
southwestern part of the United States.

Indians in North

and Central America have used peyote for hundreds of years
for ceremonial purposes.

When the chopped cactus buttons

are digested, hallucinations characterized by the presence
of brilliant colors occur.56
Dr. Albert Hofmann, the discoverer of LSD, first
isolated psilocybin and psilocin, the two active
54 Ungerleider (San Francisco Examiner ) , op. cit.
55 Michigan Department of Education, op. cit.,
p. 22.
56Ibid., p. 27.

26
hallucinogens in the psilocybe mushroom.

These drugs have

also long been used by Indians in religious rites.

They

have been said to produce brilliant visual hallucinations
which are generally followed by a period of emotional
disturbance.57
DMT, dimethyltryptamine, is also a product of a
mushroom.

The effects are relatively short in duration

lasting about 45 minutes to an hour.
substituting DMT for LSD.

Some drug users are

58

Users state that STP stands for serenity,
tranquility, and peace; but it was more likely named
after the oil additive.

STP was first discovered by

Dow Chemical Company in their research for drugs to treat
mental illness.

The company called it DOM (4-methyl-2,

5-dimethoxy-a-methylphenethylamine).
have not yet been determined. 59

Its full effects

Other substances which produce hallucinogenic or
psychodelic effects are nutmeg and morning glory seeds.
Nutmeg has long been popular with sailors and prisoners.
It is sniffed or mixed in juice and swallowed.

The active

substance, myristicin, produces a visual phenomena similar
57 Houser, op. c i t ., p. 19.
58
Michigan Department of Education, op. cit.,
p. 28.
59 Houser, op. c i t ., p. 19.

27
to LSD, although less marked, and is accompanied by
malaise.60

Morning glory seeds are crushed, prepared

into a potion, and swallowed to produce these effects.
The active ingredients are alkaloids of lysergic acid.6'*'
Narcotics
Pain-killing drugs which are made from opium or
opium derivatives are called narcotics.

They are also

called "hard drugs" and produce a state of euphoria,
tranquility, drowsiness, unconsciousness, or sleep.
Narcotics are particularly useful in medicine to relieve
or modify almost any type of pain and have aided patients
suffering from acute short-term pain, e.g. accident
victims, as well as long-term pain, e.g. cancer patients.
Though narcotics are effective pain-killers they have the
potential of causing both psychological and physical
dependence.
The raw material of opium is the juice extracted
from the immature flower pod of the opium poppy, Papaver
somniferum.

This brown poppy-gum collected from the fruit

is then refined into opium and its derivatives, morphine,
fi0
Unwin, op. cit., p. 811.
6^J. S. Pollard, L. Uhr and E. Stern, Drugs and
Phantasy: Effects of LSD, Psilocybin and Sernyl on College
Students (Little, Brown and Company Inc., Boston, 1965).
62

Michigan Department of Education, op. cit.,

p. 17.

28
heroin and codeine.

Most of the world supply, both licit
63
and illicit, comes from India, Turkey, and Iran.
Of the narcotics, heroin is the most potent and
the most abused.

It has been estimated that of all

addicts of hard drugs, 92% are on heroin and most of them
call within the twenty one to twenty seven year old age
64
group.
Heroin, or diacetylmorphine, is a white crystalline
powder which is odorless and has a bitter taste.

It is

usually sniffed or injected in the vein with a hypodermic
syringe.

The injection method is especially hazardous,

because if the needle is not sterilized, it may spread
hepatitis and tetanus and may cause blood poisoning.
Also, repeated injections may cause the walls of the veins
to deteriorate.

Another danger is the fact that the

strength of the dose purchased illegally is not known;
therefore, the user may have a severe reaction or may even
die from an o v e r d o s e . ^
Heroin produces the same general effect as the
other narcotics.

The immediate effects are a dulling of

the sense, a depressing of the central nervous system,
grogginess, a sense of well-being, lack of coordination,
63

64

Kitzinger and Hill, o p . c i t ., p. 47.
Houser, op. c i t ., p. 27.

^5Kitzinger and Hill, op. c i t ., p. 49.

29
impaired thinking, a drop in blood pressure, slowing of
respiration and circulation, stupor, or coma.

Continued

use of heroin will cause loss of appetite, malnutrition,
serious loss of weight, and constipation.

66

Because narcotics can cause physical dependence if
the user becomes addicted, he will suffer withdrawal ill­
ness unless he continues to use the drug.

This withdrawal

symptom usually appears about eighteen hours after the
discontinuance of the drug.

Dr. Paul Zimmering states

that the intensity of withdrawal symptoms depends on these
four factors:

the daily amounts of heroin taken, the

length of time of addiction, the possible constitutional
67
factors, and the degree of psychological dependency.
Kitzinger and Hill describe the symptoms of withdrawal as
follows:
Several hours after the last dose, the addict feels
his habit coming on and begins to yawn, to sweat,
and to suffer running of the eyes and nose as
though he had an acute head cold. These symptoms
increase in severity and are followed, after about
24 hours, by violent muscle spasms and waves of
gooseflesh; dilation of the pupils, vomiting, and
diarrhea; functions which have been depressed are
now hyperactive. The respiration rate is elevated,
blood pressure and temperature are heightened, and
basal metabolism is accelerated.
The flow of body
fluids is overabundant. These symptoms may last
66
Houser, op. c i t ., p. 28.
67

Committee on Public Health Relations of the
New York Academy of Medicine, Drug Addiction Among
Adolescents (The Blakiston Company, New York, 1953) ,
W T T T . -------

30
for two or three days and then diminish gradually
over a period of a week or m o r e . The addict may
suffer a general feeling of discomfort for several
months.68
A synthetic narcotic, methadone, is currently
being used to treat heroin addicts.

Dr. Marie E.

Nyswander, Program Director of the Methadone Maintenance
Research Project, Beth Israel Medical Center in New York,
has pioneered a program in which she has successfully
rehabilitated, in a three year period, more than three
hundred heroin addicts and transformed them into socially
useful human beings.

Dr. Nyswander states, "Under proper

medical supervision, a single daily dose of methadone
achieves a blockade of the narcotic effects of heroin
without producing euphoria in the addict and without
escalation of dosage.
Morphine is medically the most valuable of the
narcotics in relieving severe pain.

When a patient

becomes dependent upon morphine through medical treatment,
it is usually more curable since psychological dependence
is not ordinarily experienced.

Morphine is a powerful

drug and must be used in small controlled dosages because
an overdose may result in unconsciousness and even death.
68

Kitzinger and Hill, op. c i t ., pp. 51-52.

6 9Marie E. Nyswander, "The Methadone Treatment of
Heroin Addiction," Hospital Practice, April 1967,
pp. 27-3 3.

31
Morphine was named after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus,
70
since it makes the user sleepy.
Codeine is one of the oldest drugs to be abused
since it is found in most cough syrups and can be purchased
over the counter without prescription.

It is similar to

morphine in its analgesic and addictive properties but is
much milder in its effects.

Because it does not produce

euphoria as effectively as morphine or heroin, it is not
as popular among drug abusers.^
Pharmaceutical companies in their search for a
narcotic which is not addicting have discovered several
*

synthetic products such as meperidine, methadone, oxy­
codone, and pethidine which are known by commercial names
such as Demeral, Dolophine, Percodan, and Methadon.

How­

ever, none of the synthetic substances are addiction
72
free. *
Barbi turates
Barbiturates affect the central nervous system as
depressants and are used medically for the relief of
nervousness, tension and anxiety, or to produce sleep.
They are often referred to as sedatives or hypnotics.
70 Houser, o p . cit., p. 27.
71 Kitzinger and Hill, o p . cit., p. 52.
72 Michigan Department of Education, op. cit.,
p . 16.

32
Because of their sedative but non-analgesic effects,
barbiturates are used in treating both physical and mental
illnesses.

Barbiturates usually have names that end in

the letters a l ; pentobarbital, phenobarbital, amobarbital,
secobarbital, and are commonly called "sleeping pills,"
"barbs," "goofballs," "downs," " r e d s . T h o u g h

there are

some fifty commercial brands of barbiturates on the market,
the American Medical Association states that five or six
types are sufficient for most clinical purposes. 7 4
Continued use of barbiturates result in the
following symptoms:

1slurred speech, loss of coordination,

staggering walk, sluggishness, emotional instability,
quarrelsomeness, depression, and coma. 75
Unlike stimulants, depressants may produce both
physical and psychological dependence.

Harold S. Feldman

warns physicians that, though barbiturates are useful
drugs in the practice of medicine, they must be aware of
the potential addicting dangers of barbiturates and must
regulate their therapeutic use.

He states:

Every medical practioner must be able to recognize
the four types of barbiturate-drug abusers, namely:
persons seeking sedative or hypnotic effects,
individuals that develop excitation from
73 Houser, o p . c i t ., p. 13.
74
Richard R. Lingeman, Drugs from A to Z: A
Dictionary (McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 19(59) ,
pT 15.
75 Houser, op. c i t ., p. 13.

barbiturates to counteract amphetamines, and lastly,
persons who use combinations of barbiturates with
alcohol and opiates.
Unwin states that physicians and pharmacists must
exercise caution when repeating or refilling prescriptions
because barbiturates are common vehicles for suicide. 77
The Committee on Alcoholism and Addiction of the American
Medical Society reports:
Barbiturates are high on the list of suicidal
poisons. These suicides may be either intentional
or unintentional. Most depressed patients,
particularly those with psychoneurotic depressions,
know that barbiturates are an effective suicidal
means. Patients often accumulate large amounts
of drugs by hoarding.?8
Amphetamines
Amphetamines stimulate the nervous system and
produce a feeling of general well-being, energy, alert­
ness, and endurance.

Since amphetamines keep the user

alert, awake, and active, they are often called "pep
pills."

Conam Kornetsky states, "In man an effective dose

produces wakefulness, decreased feelings of fatigue,
alertness, and an increase in mood often accompanied by
^ H a r o l d S. Feldman, "The Pill Head Menace,"
Psychosomatics, Vol. 11 No. 2, March-April 1970, p. 100.
77 Unwin, op. cit., p. 8 08.
78
Committee on Alcoholism and Addiction, AMA,
op. cit., p. 109.

loquaciousness and euphoria." 79

Amphetamines are commonly

used by students who are cramming for examinations and by
truck drivers who have long distances to travel and want
to make sure they stay awake.80
The American Medical Association reports that over
100,000 pounds of amphetamines and methamphetamines are
produced in the United States each year.

This is enough

to provide every man, woman, and child with from 25 to
50 doses.8^
The slang names for amphetamines are "speed,"
"dexies," "ups," "bennies," and "drivers" and are sold
under the trade names, Benzedrine, Dexedrine, Methedrine,
Desoxephedrine, Dexamyl, and Desyphed.

82

'

83

The symptoms from amphetamine abuse are as follows
dryness of mouth, loss of appetite, heavy perspiration,
enlarged pupils, talkativeness, nervousness, restlessness,
79

Conam Kornetsky, "The Pharmacology of the
Amphetamines," Seminars in Psychiatry, Vol. 1 No. 2,
May 1969, p. 223"!
8 0TT

■,

,

Houser, op. cit., p. 11.

81
Committee on Alcoholism and Addiction, AMA,
"Dependence on Amphetamines and Other Stimulants," Journal
of the American Medical Association, September 19, 19’<if(f,
p. 1024.
82

Staff Reporter

(School Management), o p . cit.,

p. 58.
83
Michigan Department of Education, op. cit.,
p. 28.

35
excitability, aggressive behavior, tension and anxiety,
and inability to sleep.
Physicians prescribe amphetamines to obese
patients for weight-reduction programs.

However, the use

of amphetamines as an appetite-depressant affects only
food intake and not basal metabolism, digestive processes,
85
or water balance.
S. B. Penich states:
It is clear that over a short period of time,
amphetamine administration is associated with
decreased food intake and weight loss.
It is
equally clear that this effect diminishes rapidly
in 4 to 8 weeks in individuals who regularly
ingest amphetamines.
It is quite clear that
amphetamines do not provide the "answer" to the
clinical problem of chronic obesity.86
Thomas A. Ban makes this statement concerning the
use of amphetamines, "Even in obesity and depression, it
is the reviewer's opinion that better therapeutic methods
exist and that the use of amphetamines is not generally
87
justifiable in either condition."
84 Houser, op. cit., p. 11.
85
M. H. Nathanson, "The Central Action of BetaAminopropylbenzine (Benzedrine): Clinical Observations,"
Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 108,
1^39, p. 528.
86

Penick, o p . cit., pp. 158-159.

87 Thomas A. Ban, "The Use of the Amphetamines in
Adult Psychiatry," Seminars in Psychiatry, Vol. 1 No. 2,
May 1969, p. 129.

36
Volatile Chemicals
Glue, containing toluol, is the volatile chemical
which is most commonly abused.

This glue is the plastic

cement which is often used to build models and comes in
tubes.

The fumes from the glue are inhaled by placing

the substance in a plastic or paper bag and placing the
bag over the face.®8
The sensation from glue sniffing resembles a state
similar to that of an alcoholic intoxication.
and mental effects are as follows:
tion,

The physical

(a) a tingling sensa­

(b) intoxication with slurred speech, dizziness and

unsteady gait,

(c) irritability,

(d) irresponsible,

foolish, and sometimes homicidal actions,
loss of consciousness and coma,

(e) possible

(f) inflamed eyes and

swollen nose, throat, and lung tissue, and
vomiting, appetite and weight loss. 8 9

(g) nausea,

Continued sniffing of glue may result in damage
to the brain, liver, and kidney and may interfere with the
blood-forming function of the bone marrow.
Massengale report that,

Glaser and

"In some instances glue sniffing

88

Michigan Department of Education, o p . c i t .,

p. 34.
89
H o u s e r , o p . c i t ,, p. 33.

37
has led to mental deterioration, acute liver damage, and
on
death."yu
Lingeman reports that a form of psychological
dependence can develop from continued glue sniffing.

Some

users also need increasingly larger amounts to intensify
their experience.

He also states that, in most instances,

the user eventually discontinues the practice since glue
sniffing is regarded as "kid stuff" by many older
adolescents.91
Other volatile chemicals which are inhaled a r e :
gasoline, alcohol, lighter fluid, paint thinner, carbon
tetrachloride, and chloroform. 92
The Drug Abuser
There have been some recent studies to determine
whether drug abusers are of a certain personality type;
therefore, become dependent upon drugs or whether drug
abuse is a sociocultural problem which has no relationship
to personality types.

Research can be found to support

both positions.
90 Helen H. Glaser and Oliver N. Massengale, "Glue
Sniffing in Children:
Deliberate Inhalation of Vaporized
Plastic Cement," Journal of the American Medical Associa­
tion, Vol. CLXXXI, July 1962 , pp. 360-363.
91 .
Lingeman, o p . c i t ., p. 85.
92
Leland M. Corliss, "A Review of the Evidence on
Glue Sniffing: A Persistent Problem," Journal of School
Health, October 1967, pp. 442-449.

38
It has been stated that drug addiction is related
to age group, ethnic background, socioeconomic level,
education, and vocational skills.

Brotman and Freedman

point out:
These characteristics of some of the addicted
population are certainly important to the con­
sideration of the problem as a whole, but they
are not characteristic of the whole population,
and drug use does not seem to be one of cause
and effect.93
Kenneth Keniston, who has studied drug use among
college students, found that though the population of
users is very heterogeneous, a common quality which it
seems to possess is the lack of personal values.

He

states it as follows:
I doubt that it is possible to present an exact
portrait of the type of student who is likely to
use and abuse d r ugs. My own experience with
student drug-users convinces me that there are
many different motives for drug use and abuse,
and there are many different factors--psychological, sociological, cultural, and situa­
tional— that determine whether one student will
use drugs while another will not.
But despite the
diversity of student types who may become involved
in drug use, there is, I believe, one type that is
particularly prone to drug abuse.
Students of this
type have, I think, particularly few values that
militate against drug use and particularly strong
motivations that incline them toward drugs,
especially the hallucinogens.
93 Richard Brotman and Alfred Freedman, A Community
Mental Health Approach to Drug Addiction, U.S. Department
of Health, Education and Welfare, 1 9 6 8 , p . 8.
94 Kenneth Keniston, "Drug Use and Student Values,"
Paper presented at National Association of Student
Personnel Administrators Drug Education Conference,
Washington, D . C . , November 7-8, 1966.

39
John W: Rawlin identified twelve personality
characteristics found among people who take drugs.
characteristics are:

These

passive dependence, withdrawn, rigid

compulsive, anxious-insecure, depressed, distrustful,
aggressive, emotionally unstable, antisocial, hypochon­
driacal, attention seeking, and symptoms of psychosomatic
95
illness.
Gendreau and Gendreau in a recent study examined
the evidence supporting the "addiction prone" personality
theory.

They conducted a study involving an addict group

and a non-addict control sample and incorporated several
of the parameters which were found to be lacking in the
previous studies.

The results of their study showed that,

contrary to the "addiction prone" theory, the addict and
non-addict groups were not reliably different. 96
These findings indicate that the relationship
between drug abusers and a particular personality type
are inconclusive.

Further research and study is needed.

95

John W. Rawlin, "A Review of Sociologically
Relevant Literature on Drug Abuse," Southern Illinois
University, E d w a r d s v i l l e , Illinois, 1967, p. 15.
^^Paul Gendreau and L. P. Gendreau, "The 'Addic­
tion Prone' Personality:
A Study of Canadian Heroin
A d d i c t s ," Canadian Journal of Behavioral S c i e n c e ,
Vol. 2 No. 1, 1970, p. 18.

40
Drugs and Treatment
As one studies the person who abuses drugs, one
finds the necessity to study the basic socio-cultural
issues, which may give some explanation for the large
number of young people involved.

As Unwin states:

Just as individual drug misuse if heavy and sus­
tained, reflects an underlying personality
disturbance, so widespread misuse of intoxicants
by a significant segment of our youth reflects
deep-seated problems within the whole society.97
This has implications for communities in the ways
they might approach the drug problem.

There is no one

single community drug program model to be followed.

A

program which is found to be effective in one setting may
not be in another.

But before a community plans a program,

it must make some type of assessment of the problem.
Rothman states that "Every community is different and its
peculiarities have to be weighed in designing an appropriate action program." 9 8 One community may have to focus
its attention on the hard core heroin addict, while another
may discover that marijuana is its most serious problem.
Once the problem has been identified, a multi­
phased and inter-agency approach needs to be considered.
That is, there must be a coordination of schools,
97 Unwin, op. c i t ., p. 817.
98
Jack Rothman, "How to Organize a Community Action
Plan," The Next S t e p , Governor's Office of Drug Abuse,
Lansing^ Michigan, p. 14.

41
hospitals, universities, courts, and other such agencies
and the resources they represent.

These agencies must not

focus their attention on a single plan but must develop
multi-phased programs so as to open more avenues of
assistance to which the drug abuser may turn.
The Laguna Beach Experiment which was a community
approach to family counselling for drug abuse problems
in youth is an example of inter-agency cooperation.

In

this experiment, the school district, community hospital,
assistance league, and department of psychiatry of a local
university, jointly sponsored a drug abuse center for
young people.

The center was an evening clinic where

students could go, with or without their parents, and
where parents could go, with or without their sons or
daughters.

Louis A. Gottschalk and his associates

describe the center as follows:
The center has served as a problem-clarification
and communication-facilitating occasion between
children and parents and has not functioned
primarily for the purpose of individual problem
solving. We are attempting to encourage both the
young people and their parents to view and discuss
their similar and different views about the usual
problems of adolescence and parenthood. We also
aim to provide informal scientific information
about drugs, their pharmacology, their uses, and
adverse side-ef fects, and d a n g e r s . 5*9
99
Louis A. Gottschalk, Gilbert C. Morrison,
Robert B. Drury and Allen C. Barnes, "The Laguna Beach
Experiment as a .Community Approach to Family Counselling
for Drug Abuse Problems in Youth," Comprehensive
Psychiatry, Vol. 11 No. 3, May 1970, p . 232.

42
Jerome Jaffe believes that the establishment of
communities which are run entirely by addicts is one of
the best approaches to producing a drug free, productive
person who does not need continued psychological treatment
or medical care.

By communities, he speaks of organiza­

tions such as Synanon, Daytop Village, Phoenix House,
Odyssey House, and Gateway House to name a few.

These

organizations are complex social systems to which the
addict voluntarily resides with the agreement that he will
conform to all the rules established by the members of the
community.

If he does not follow the community rules, he

is asked to leave.

Jaffe states:

Many former compulsive drug users are able to remain
drug-free and function productively while they are
in such communities but how they do after leaving
is not certain.
Some critics feel that this
approach falls short of returning ex-users to their
homes sound in mind and body.
But even if this is
so, providing a voluntary, specialized community in
which addicts can live a useful life is still a
worthy enterprise.100
B. M. Garvey states that many times courts decide
on a prison sentence, fines, or probation as punishment
for a drug abuser, without obtaining medical reports, or
without making psychiatric treatment a part of his
rehabilitation program.

He advocates a clinic which is

jointly operated by the law enforcement agency and the
^ ^ J e r o m e Jaffe, "Whatever Turns You Off,"
Psychology Today, Comm/Research/Machine/Inc., Vol. 3
No. 12, May “19*70, p., 42.

43
medical services.

Garvey administered such a clinic

called the Kilburn Square Drug Abuse Centre in England.
He says this about the clinic:
A clinic run cooperatively between the probation
department and the psychiatric services can offer,
for very modest expenditure:
(a) a diagnostic
service for the courts (b) a treatment/supportive/
referral service for non-narcotic addicts (c) an
advisory centre for other probation officers,
youth club leaders and parents of addicted children
(d) a useful listening post in which to learn the
"trends in fashion" of the ever changing drug
"scene."101
Recent methadone treatment programs for heroin
addicts have gained much attention.

The criticism of this

treatment model is the fact that a synthetic narcotic drug
is used as a substitution for the one upon which the addict
is dependent.

Despite this criticism, the medical research

done in this area reports very favorable results.

Hugh R.

Williams reports:
Through chemotherapy, we are able to move the
patient far enough away from the use of illicit
drugs so that our treatment staff of counselors
and nurses are able to work on the social and
personal problems that face the addict. We feel
that this approach is only realistic and feasible
in a natural setting where the addict must face up
to and resolve the difficulties that arise each day
in a normal setting.
Incarceration for the treat­
ment of chronic drug dependent person appears to
offer little solution. This is apparent since
most addicts have spent on an average of seven to
10^B. M. Garvey, "The Kilburn Square Drug Abuse
Centre," British Journal Addict, Vol. 64, 1970, p. 393.

44
eight months of every addiction year in jail prior
to these various treatment p r o g r a m s . 102
Jerome H. Jaffe et a l . reported in a recent study
of sixty patient addicts who were selected at random and
who had volunteered for methadone treatment.
were not rejected because of previous history.

Patients
Patients

were given daily doses of methadone dissolved in fruit
juice.

Seven months after initiating the study seventy

five percent who started were still in treatment making
^
103
satisfactory progress.
One of the longest range studies on addict
recidivism rates was carried on at Lexington Hospital in
Lexington, Kentucky.

The study covered a 32 year period

and studies the readmission rates for all addicts dis­
charged from Public Health Service Hospital since 1935.
From this study John C. Ball et a l . concluded,

"a positive

association exists between relapse to drug abuse and both
the youthfulness of addicts and the inadequacy of brief
104
periods of voluntary hospital treatment.”
10 2

Hugh R. Williams, "Using Methadone to Treat the
Heroin Addict," Canada's Mental Health, Vol. XVIII,
March-April 1970.
103
Jerome H. Jaffe, Misha S. Zaks, and Edward N.
Washington, "Experience with the Use of Methadone in
Multi-Modality Program for the Treatment of Narcotic
Users," The International Journal of Addiction, Vol. 4
No. 3, September 1§69, p^ 490 .
104
John C. Ball, William O. Thompson and David M.
Allen, "Readmission Rates at Lexington Hospital for 43,215
Narcotic Drug Addicts," Public Health Report, Vol. 8 5
No. 7, July 1970, p. 616.

45
Drugs and The Law
In the past half-century, several laws were
enacted by the federal government in an effort to place
legislative
Below is

controls on narcotics and dangerous

drugs.

achronicle of these laws:

1914

Harrison Narcotic Act
a tax measure designed to control the
importation, manufacture, production,
preparation, purchase, sale, distribution,
or gift of opium and its derivatives

1922

Narcotic Drugs Import and Export Act
limits the importation of crude opium and
coca leaves to amounts deemed necessary for
medical and scientific needs and specifi­
cally prohibits the importation of opium
for smoking or for the manufacture of heroin

1937

Marijuana Tax Act
suppresses the use of marijuana in this
country

3942

Opium Poppy Control Act
prohibits the growing and production of the
opium poppy in this country

1951

Boggs Act
provides severe penalties for the illegal
possession or sale of narcotic drugs

1956

Narcotic Control Act
provides penalties for the unlawful sale of
narcotics or marijuana between adults and
between adults and minors

1965

Drug Abuse Control Amendments
adopts controls over depressants, stimulants,
LSD and similar substances with provisions
to add new substances as the need arises.
^^Kitzinger and Hill, op. cit. , pp. 57-59.

46
1966

Narcotic Addict Rehabilitation Act
established new policy for treatment of
narcotic addict as emotionally ill

1968

Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs
bureau which is under the jurisdictionof
the U.S. Department of Justice was developed
to eliminate duplication, reduce confusion
and improve law enforcement.
Laws relating to illegal drug activities are in a

period of flux at both the state and federal levels.

The

reason for this is that current laws are so harsh most
judges are not imposing the penalty prescribed by law.
There is a trend to make these laws more lenient for
individual users, and those involved in illegal sales for
no profit, so they can be realistically enforced.
Under the federal law the penalties for illegal
sale, transfer, delivery, or possession are as follows:
Offenses

Federal Penalties

Illegal possession of
depressants, stimulants
and hallucinogens {e.g.
barbiturates, amphetamines,
LSD) for purpose of sale or
delivery

A felony, first conviction
maximum 5 years imprisonment
and/or $10,000 fine

Illegal possession of
depressants, stimulants,
and hallucinogens other
than for purposes of sale
or delivery

A misdemeanor, first and
second offense maximum 1 year
imprisonment and/or $1,000
fine; subsequent offenses
maximum penalty 3 years
imprisonment and/or $10,000
fine

^"^Michigan Department of Education, op. cit. ,
p. 45.

47
Illegal possession of
narcotics (e.g. heroin,
opium, morphine, cocaine)

first offense 5 to 20 years
imprisonment and fine up to
$20,000; subsequent offenses
10 to 40 years imprisonment
and fine up to $20,000

Illegal transfer (sale,
gift, barter, or exchange)
of narcotics

same as for possession
except where transfer is
made between different age
groups i.e. a person over age
18 makes transfer to one
under 18, 10 to 40 years and
fine up to $20,000; heroin
transfer made by a person
over age 18 to one under age
18, fine up to $20,000 and
10 years to life imprison­
ment, death penalty may be
imposed

Illegal transfer of
marijuana or hashish

first offense, 5 to 20 years
in prison, fine up to
$20,000; subsequent offenses
10 to 40 years, fine up to
$20,000107

State laws on illegal drug activities differ
greatly from federal laws and many times are more strin­
gent.

For example, under federal law marijuana is not

considered a narcotic drug but it is under state laws.
Each state has its own regulations; therefore, drug
related laws differ from state to state.
The primary enforcement statute in Michigan is the
1952 amended form of the Uniform Narcotic Act of 1932.
Under Michigan law, a narcotic drug is defined as opium
107

Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, Legal
Division, "Narcotic and Dangerous Drug Laws: Penalties
for Illegal Possession and Sales of Depressant and Stimu­
lant Drugs, Narcotics and Marijuana," Teaching About Drugs,
American School Health Association, Kent, Ohio, 1970,
pp. 174-175.

48
and its derivative, cocaine; marijuana; and any synthetic
drug designated by the U.S. Justice Department as narcotic
In 1961, a dangerous drug law was passed to control
amphetamines, barbiturates, and their derivatives.

The

Michigan statutes are as follows:
State Penalties

Offenses
Sale and/or possession of
dangerous drugs (barbitu­
rates, amphetamines, and
derivatives)

high misdemeanor, 1 year
imprisonment

Sale and/or possession of
hallucinogenic drugs (LSD,
mescaline, psilocybin, DMT,
etc.)

felony, 4 years imprisonment

Sale of narcotic drugs

felony, mandatory 20 years
to life imprisonment

Possession of narcotic
drugs

felony, (first offense)
maximum 10 years imprisonment
and fine up to $5,000; (second
offense) maximum 20 years
imprisonment and fine up to
$5,000; (subsequent offenses)
20-40 years imprisonment and
fine up to $5,000108

In 1969 the Michigan Department of Public Health
conducted an extensive study entitled, Drugs and Michigan
High School Students.

One of the questions on the survey

attempted to measure student attitudes toward current
state and federal drug-control laws relating to marijuana.
Despite the fact that Michigan laws are as severe as the
federal constitution allows, the survey showed:
108 Michigan Department of Education, op. c i t .,
45.

49
While about one-third of the students supported
current laws or suggested that the laws be made
more lenient, another third indicated unfamiliarity
with relevant laws while a final third checked what
we feel is a somewhat unrealistic statement, "The
laws are too lenient and need to be stronger for
better control."109
Even though we now have strict laws relating to
drugs it is obvious that they have not been effective in
controlling illegal drug traffic.

The number of marijuana

arrests are increasing each year at an unbelievable rate.
Though there are very harsh laws concerning narcotics such
as heroin, its use in the white middle class suburbs is
alarming.

Seventy five percent of all heroin addicts

under twenty one years of age are white. 110
A great error we seem to be making in our attempt
'to control illegal drug use is to concentrate our efforts
on harsh penalties and vigorous police surveillance.

More

money and effort should be placed on the causal factors.
We need to look at the reasons young people turn to d r u g s .
As Halleck states:
Many of our laws are based on unrealistic fears and
misinformation.
If we approached the drug problem
by recognizing man's need to seek relief and release
from a world he never made; by being realistic as
to the physical and psychological dangers of drugs;
109 Michigan House of Representative, Special House
Committee on Narcotics, Drug Dependence in Michigan,
Lansing, Michigan, April 1969, p. 2'6,
^ ^ E d w a r d r . Cass, "Marihuana— Look Before You
Leap," Catholic Psychological Record, Vol. 6, Fall 1968
p. 140.

50
and by considering the extent to which society has
the right to control the use of agents that inter­
fere with social progress, we could at least
develop a rational basis for recommending legal
reform. H I
Why Drugs?
Thoreau once said, "There are a thousand people
hacking away at the branches of evil for every one striking
at the roots."

This quotation aptly describes the drug

abuse scene today.

Most of the drug abuse programs are

designed to cope with the problem as it exists rather than
to focus on the causes or the reasons young people turn
to drugs.
One of the reasons drug abuse is so difficult to
define is the fact that we are a drug taking society.

We

have a pill of a prescribed color, size, and shape for
every malady, mental or physical, that man may face and
taking it is an acceptable mode of treatment.

"We take

vitamin pills, reducing pills, sleeping pills, pills to
stay awake, headache pills, cold pills, pain pills,
tranquilizer pills, and birth control pills.

You name it.

We are a pill-conscious society.", states Peter J.
Pitchess, Sheriff of Los Angeles County.

112

^^Halleck, op. c i t ., p. 4.
112

Peter J. Pitchess, "Dangerous Drugs and Your
Child," California Parent-Teacher, August 1967, p. 16.

51
Recently the Stanford Research Institute studied
86 households in California and found a total of 2,539
medications, an average of approximately 30 medications
per household.

Approximately one-fifth of these medica­

tions were prescription drugs given under medical aegis.
Louria points out, this data indicates the general public,
not the medical profession, is to blame for most of the
indiscriminate drug use.1^3
There probably is no single, definitive reason for
drug abuse among teenagers due to the complexity of
adolescents and the social milieu in which they live.
However, some of the contributing factors seem to be as
follows:
1.

The isolation, alienation, and segregation of

youth from adults.

Adolescents are left to develop their

own philosophies and behavior patterns within their own
peer culture.

They have no meaningful long term relation­

ship with adults.

They grow up with a series of hired

supervisors, e.g. babysitters, teachers, and agency
i
^
H 4
leaders.

113

Donald B. Louria, The Drug Scene
Book Company, New York, 1968), p. 2.

(McGraw-Hill

3-3‘4San Francisco Unified School District, Drugs
and Hazardous Substances— Grades K - 1 2 , San Francisco,
California, October 1969, p. T~.

52
Cohen states:
From childhood through adolescence we are failing
(1) to provide goals appropriate to our times
(2) to train the emotions and the senses, and
(3) to set limits.
Therefore, goallessness, and
inability to enjoy, and an attenuated sense of
social responsibility predispose to chemical
escape, chemical hedonism, and the search for
chemical enlightenment.U S
Another factor which contributes to this feeling
of alienation is the length of time it takes an adoles­
cent to become a part of the decision-making process
today, even though they are more mature and knowledgeable.
Unwin puts it this way:
The increasingly earlier onset of puberty (by
four to six months per decade) and a longer
period of training and education before employ­
ment in a technological society have increased
the length of adolescence— ("becoming adult").
Youth is thus asked to contain its biological
urges, idealism, frustrations, and desire to
take part in the decision-making modalities of
society, for longer than any previous genera­
tion .116
»
2.

Youth's perception of adult hypocrisy.

Adults who

use and abuse alcohol and tobacco,

which are socially and

legally sanctioned, are alarmed at
117
teenagers.

the drug abuse among

Sidney Cohen, "The Drug Dilemma:
A Partial
Solution," Resource Book for Drug Abuse Education,
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
October 1969, p. 15.
^ ^ Unwin, op. c i t . , p. 818.
117 San Francisco Unified School District, op. c it.

53
Harrison states:
One reason students resent the preaching of their
frightened elders is because they resent their
elders' hypocrisy.
The kids shouldn't smoke grass,
but it's okay for Mother and Dad to consume several
packs of mentolated filter tips every day; . . .
the kids are supposed to steer clear of the up-anddown pills, although Mother takes something to
control her weight, something else for a nervous
stomach and a pill to put her to sleep at night. H 8
The Urban Studies Center at the University of
Louisville, Kentucky conducted a rather extensive study of
the so-called generation gap.

The findings revealed a

rejection of adult life patterns by the young as being
shallow, hypocritical,

and irrelevant to truly basic

,
119
values.
3.

Pressures to use drugs:

advertising, peer fads,

and patterns of seeking immediate relief from normal
^

tensions and stresses.

120

There is no doubt that drug commercials have
painted a very tempting picture.

As Unwin describes it:

Television advertising daily reminds all our people,
continuously and unremittingly, of the rich variety
of "chemical comfort" freely available without
medical prescription— a pill for every problem, a
scent for every smell, a liquid for every
liability.121
118

Charles H. Harrison, "The Drug Epidemic— What's
a Teacher to Do?" Scholastic T e a c h e r , May 4, 1970, p. 4.
119 Joseph F. Maloney, "Communication With Youth,"
Resource Book for Drug Abuse E d u c a t i o n , U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, October 1969, p. 11.
120

San Francisco Unified School District, op. c i t .

121 Unwin, op. c i t . , p. 818.

v

54
Drugs also p r o v i d e a t e m p o r a r y r e l i e f f r o m our

d a i l y p r o b l e m s and e n a b l e us to a v o i d the p a i n f u l
r eali ties of our lives.

W h e n m a j o r w o r l d crises

u n r e s o l v a b l e or w h e n m i n o r p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s
great, drugs p e r m i t us to forget,

seem

s e e m too

at l e ast for a while.

H a l l e c k states:
In our frustration, our anxiety, our fear, our
b o r e d o m and our p u r p o s e l e s s n e s s , we all u s e too
m a n y drugs.
O u r a f f luence and lei s u r e do not
b r i n g us happiness.
Our f ailure to deal w i t h
u r g e n t p r o b l e m s such as the r a p i d rate of
t e c h n o l o g i c a l change, o v e r - p o p u l a t i o n , p o l l u t i o n ,
or the w a r in V i e t n a m leaves us f e e l i n g f r u s t r a t e d
and impotent.
The y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n seems
e s p e c i a l l y desperate.
T h e y fear the future, d i s ­
trust the p a s t as a guide to the f u t u r e , and are
r e l e n t l e s s l y trying to live in the m o m e n t . 122
Whe n y o u n g people are a s k e d w h y t h e y use u n ­
prescribed drugs
follows:

the m o s t com m o n r e a s o n s g i v e n are as

escape,

curiosity,

r e b e l l i o n aga i n s t authority,
N owl i s

desire

for p l e a s u r e ,

and c o n f o rmity.

123

states that the r e a s o n s y o u n g p e o p l e use

drugs are the same as the reasons adul t s give:
to facilitate

social

interaction,

for fun,

to feel better,

and to

r e 1ieve b o r e d o m .^ ^ ^
122
123

Halleck,

op.

c i t . , p.

K i w a n i s International,

124M
Nowlis,

op.

cit.

4.
op.

c i t . , pp.

1-4.

55
Drug Abuse Education
Current literature is full of discussions con­
cerning the role of the schools in the present drug abuse
problem.

As with any of our social ills, education is

seen as the answer by some.

Some communities object to

the inclusion of drug abuse education in the curriculum
because it is thought that such programs would only make
youth curious about drugs.

However,
125
be waning in most communities.

resistance seems to

Barrins states that a drug education program in
the schools is an obligation.

She believes that youngsters

need to be armed early in life with knowledge of drugs so
they will be in a better position to make a decision if
they are tempted to experiment. 126
The role of the school in drug abuse education can
be found in the following beliefs:

(a) the traditional

pledge of schools to meet the needs of youth,

(b) the

school is the agency created by society for education of
all of the young, and

(c) education should play a preventa127
tive role by disseminating accurate information.
Before we commence to design a drug program, we
must weigh some considerations.
125
12 6
127

Nowlis states that it

Unwin, o p . c i t ., p. 817.
Barrins, o p . c i t ., pp. 15-18.
Michigan Department of Education, o p . c i t .,

56
is most important for the communicator of drug education
to either present the best and most objective information
as frankly as he can and then trust the student to make
his own decision, or make his position known at the onset,
if he feels that the risks in letting the student make his
128
own decision are too great.
In addition to making one's biases known, the
communicator must have a firm command of his subject
matter.

As Halleck explains:

Once a speaker1s biases and ignorance have been
exposed, the younger people in the audience seem
to give up. They may continue to confront the
speaker but as the meeting goes on it is evident
that some are snickering, that others are giving
one another knowing glances, and that most are
responding to the meeting with an attitude of
supercilious resignation.129
Levy believes:
The best deterrent to drug abuse is the individual's
value system and his assessment of the consequences
associated with drug involvement.
Decision making
can be aided when sensitive teacher-pupil relation­
ships based upon mutual understanding, integrity,
and honesty are established.
Exaggeration, distor­
tion, and sensationalism are propaganda, not
education, and have no place in the schools. . . .
128 Helen H. Nowlis, "Communicating About Drugs,"
Resource Book for Drug Abuse Education, U.S. Department
of Health, Education and Welfare, October 1969, p. 9.
129
Halleck, o p . cit., p. 32.
130 Marvin R. Levy, "Background Considerations for
Drug Programs," Resource Book for Drug Abuse Education,
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
October 1969, p. 3.

57
In dealing with the drug problem in the schools
Ochberg states there are three things that are needed:
(a) Administrative Policy:

a written administrative policy

regarding school administration responses to the detection
of student usage of harmful or illicit drugs,
Drug Information:
parents,

the principal,

(b) Accurate

the student body,

teachers, and other interested community members

need facts about drugs and drug use,

(c) Perspective and

Context:

the symptom of a rapidly changing society should
131
be the context in which drug abuse is studied.
Lewis gives ten practical guidelines in building a
curriculum in drug abuse education.
as follows:

These guidelines are

assess the level of your students'

tion about drugs,

involve students in planning,

sophistica­
include

alcohol and tobacco in your discussion of drug abuse,
compare drug use and abuse, do not sensationalize, make
drug education part of an ongoing classroom experience,
include experimental data in the drug curriculum, emphasize
the motivational factors that effect a student's decision
to use drugs, don't forget to discuss factors that inhibit
the use of drugs,

include the comments of drug experienced
132
young people in the educational process.
131
132

Ochberg, op. c i t . , pp.

52-57.

David C. Lewis, "How the Schools Can Prevent
Drug A b u s e ," Bulletin of the National Association of
Secondary School Principals, Vol~I 53 N o . 346, May 197 0,
--------- --pp.' 45-46.---

58
Too often the assembly type approach to drug
education is used.

In this approach, students are

assembled in the school auditorium and a program designed
to "scare the hell out of them" is presented.
These
133
programs are prevalent and least effective.
Weinswig et a l . suggest several excellent
approaches.

One is to have well qualified college students

lead small group discussions in the high schools.

Another

suggestion is to have an ongoing in-service program
designed to educate the educators as well as precipitate
attitudinal and behavioral changes with respect to the
mis-use of drugs.
experts

Another approach is to invite local

(e.g. physicians, pharmacists, etc.), who have

credibility, and who can make an interesting presentation,
to speak to classes.
Professionals are very cooperative when asked to
*
participate in school drug programs because most are aware
of the problem which faces our society.

Dr. Feldman

writing to his fellow physicians states:
To descrease and prevent the pill-head menace, all
practitioners of medicine must be careful in the
prescribing of sedatives and minor tranquilizers.
They must also participate in educational programs
that will stress prevention techniques amongst the
133

Halleck, op. cit., p. 31.

1 ’I A

M. H. Weinswig, D. W. Doerr and S. E. Weinswig,
"Drug Abuse Education," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. L No. 4,
December 1968, p. 222.

59
community that will inform young people and their
parents of the horrendous dangers which may befall
individuals who may experience and abuse potent
d r u g s .135
It should be stressed that drug education instruc­
tion should include the beneficial aspects, as well as the
harmful, and the curriculum should have a logical integra­
tion of related topics.

For example, the physiology and

psychology of pain should be included in the study of the
opiates, and sleep and insomnia should be discussed in the
lesson on barbiturates.

A good drug education program

should also examine the societal conditions that promote
drug use and abuse.

As Levy states,

"Drugs per se are

not the issue; rather, the issue is why people use
them."137
The drug education curriculum should also include
the study of human reactions to situations which cause
emotional stress.

Halleck, in addressing himself to drug

use, states:
The problem here is that a certain degree of stimula­
tion or tranquility obviously benefits many people,
but too much alteration of consciousness does not
bring out the best in man.
People need a certain
amount of anxiety and frustration to be creative,
to make decisions and even to confront oppressive
135 Feldman, op. e x t ., p. 103.
1
North Central High School, "Narcotics," course
syllabus (mimeographed) Indianapolis, Indiana.
137 L e v y , op. c i t . , p . 3.

60
institutions within our society.
If they become
too euphoric or too tranquil, they do nothing.I 3 8
The teacher in drug abuse education program is
probably the most important factor in its success.

As

Cohen points out, "When parents are lacking or have failed
to accept their role, the teacher may be the first to
learn of, or notice, aberrant behavior due to drugs."

139

Peterson has four suggestions for educators:
(1) they shouldn't panic when students bring drug problems
to their attention,

(2) they should keep lines of commu­

nication open with students so that students will turn to
them for information and guidance,

(3) they should use

facts, and not fear, to convince students that drugs are a
bad scene,

(4) they should avoid jumping to wrong con­

clusions such as "kids with long hair take drugs" and "all
drugs are alike.nl^°
Many educators ask what they can do in the drug
abuse problem.
tions:

Demos makes eight excellent recommenda­

(1) become more familiar with the subject matter,

(2) provide avenues for drug users and potential users to
level with you with impunity,

(3) strive to be a better

138 Halleck, o p . cit., p. 3.
139 Cohen, op. c i t ., p. 15.
140
Robert C. Peterson, "Suggestions for Educators,"
Resource Book for Drug Abuse Education, U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, October 1969, p. 4.

61
model,

(4) listen to the young,

outlets,

(5) provide constructive

(6) expand counseling for young people,

youth accurate information, and

(7) offer

(8) bring together a

variety of disciplines e.g. psychology, law, medicine.

141

Though an examplary drug abuse education program
is developed, schools alone cannot combat the problem.
"At best, drug education can be a band-aid measure which
may prevent the spread of drug abuse.

It may be an anti­

dote for the chemical cop-out of a whole generation,"
14 2
states Todd.
The drug problem must be approached from all
fronts.

Through more effective law enforcement and massive

public education there may be a change.

An example of such

an effort which was strikingly successful was reported in
Japan in its methamphetamine epidemic.

Prom 1945 to 1955

Japan experienced a wave of methamphetamine abuse which was
estimated to involve some 2,000,0 00 people at its peak.
Through a massive public education campaign and improvement
in law enforcement a rapid decline was reported.

In 1958
only 271 methamphetamine abuse arrests were made. 14 3
141 George D. Demos, "Drug Abuse and the New
Generation," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. L No. 4, December
1968, pp. 215-217'
142
San Francisco Unified School District, o p . c i t .,
p. 4.
143
Henry Brill and Tetsuya Hirose, "The Rise and
Fall of a Methamphetamine Epidemic:
Japan 1945-55,"
Seminar in Psychiatry, Vol. 1 No. 2, May 1969, pp. 179-181.

CHAPTER III
PLANNING AND CONDUCTING STUDY

Introduction
The research technique used for this study was
the normative survey.

An interview questionnaire was

designed in order that certain information about drug
education programs could be gathered through personal
interviews with the schools' principals.

Six main areas

of concern in drug abuse education have been selected for
this study.

They are as follows:

program and program

planning, determination of needs, school policies related
to drug use and abuse, in-service training program for
staff members, school-community cooperative drug abuse
programs, and the schools1 evaluation of current drug
abuse programs.

At the end of the interview, two open

ended questions were asked.

The questions were:

"What

is your reaction to the teenage drug abuse problem?" and
"In your opinion what is the best approach to solving the
drug problem?".

These open ended questions were added to

the interview because it was thought that some interesting

62

63
information might be collected from responses to such
broad, unstructured questions.
The selection of the population for this study
was originally described by Mawdsley in his dissertation. 144 Mawdsley's study involved large high schools
and his rationale for selecting this population was the
evidence that conclusively points to larger, more complex
high schools in the years ahead.

In his methodology he

was able to select a population which was of a manageable
size.
The population for this study was the selected
large public high schools in the State of Michigan which
are considered comprehensive, which have a student
enrollment of 2,000 or more, and which include grades
ten, eleven and twelve only.

These criteria were used,

not only to limit the population, but also to select
high schools where drug abuse program information might
be most available.

That is, many of the drug abuse educa­

tion programs have been initiated at the high school level
and large high schools have greater flexibility in person­
nel assignments; therefore, more opportunity to institute
programs.

Large high schools are also located in the

larger cities where drug use and abuse tends to be more
prevalent.
144 Mawdsley, op. cit., p. 71.

64
The Michigan Education Directory and B u y e r 1s
Guide was used to identify the public schools which met
145
the criteria mentioned above.
From this reference
twenty five schools were identified.

Of these schools

one has since been changed to a nine through twelve grade
level high school and one did not respond to repeated
requests for permission to conduct the study; therefore,
was not included.

Twenty three schools responded and

they are identified below in alphabetical order.

Addi­

tional items of information included in the table are the
student enrollments, the cities where the schools are
located, and the names of the principals.
The subject of drug use and abuse in some commu­
nities is a very sensitive topic; therefore, some school
superintendents had a great deal of reservation in per­
mitting such a study to take place in their districts.
Only after assurance was given that the individual schools
would not be identified with the information collected was
permission granted to conduct the study in some schools.
Procedure
Once the population was identified, letters were
sent to the superintendents of each public school district,
14 5
Michigan Education Directory, Michigan Education
Directory and B u yer's Guide, 1969-70, Lansing, Michigan.

65
TABLE 3-1.

High Schools Selected for Study, Their
Enrollments, Cities in Which the School
is Located and Names of Principals

Names of
High Schools
Arthur Hill
Benton Harbor
Berkley
Central
Central
Cody
Cooley
East Detroit
Everett
Ford
Fordson
Groves
Lincoln
Murray
Northern
Northwestern
Redford
Saginaw
Seaholm
Sexton
Southfield
Southwestern
Thurston

Enrollment
2545
2723
2071
2200
2000
3516
3000
3275
2200
3100
2250
2103
2930
2087
2100
2510
2400
2254
2213
2151
2545
2264
2126

Cities
Saginaw
Benton Harbor
Berkley
Kalamazoo
Pontiac
Detroit
Detroit
East Detroit
Lansing
Detroit
Dearborn
Birmingham
Lincoln Park
Detroit
Pontiac
Flint
Detroit
Saginaw
Birmingham
Lansing
Southfield
Flint
Detroit

Principals
Harold Giesecke
David Hartenback
Loren Disbrow
L . Henry Goodwyn
Donald McMillan
George Donaldson
Leonard Minkwic
John Sanders
Calvin Anderson
Samuel Milan
Harvey Failor
Ronald Rolph
Thomas Cuozzo
Robert Boyce
Philip Wargelin
Kenneth Fish
William Kleming
Duane Maas
Ross Wagner
Dale Metts
Robert Hall
Garret Ebmeyer
Jack Harms

66
selected for the study, describing the nature of the
study, indicating the time it would take to conduct the
investigation, and requesting permission to interview the
principals of the high schools identified.

A self-

addressed postcard was included in each letter for the
superintendent's convenience.
After permission was granted, a telephone ca.].l
was made to the principal of the high school and an
appointment was made for a personal interview.

The inter­

view technique of gathering information was used for the
following reasons:
1.

The number and locations of the high schools
selected for this study made it possible to
visit each one.

2.

This technique produces greater results in
gathering information than survey question­
naires by mail.

3.

The investigator is able to explain the study
and discuss it with the participants.

4.

Terms or questions which are not clear to the
participants could be explained in greater
detail to clarify semantic difficulties.

5.

This method forces the interviewee to concen­
trate on the question at hand and the
questions can be asked at a pace appropriate
to each situation.146
Though the interview technique of gathering

information has many advantages it is not without fault.
During the course of the interview it is very easy for
146

Mawdsley, op. c i t ., pp. 76-77.

67
the investigator to project his own thoughts or to become
side tracked by the remarks of the interviewee and become
involved in a discussion.

To avoid these pitfalls an

interview guide was followed and the responses recorded
on a form.
This particular interview questionnaire was
designed to:

(1) gather specific information about school

drug policies#

school-community programs and drug abuse

education programs, e.g. type, determination of need,
in-service training, evaluation;
form to the interview process;

(2) give direction and

(3) structure the possible

responses for categorization yet allow for responses not
anticipated; and

(4) focus on special areas of concern

in drug abuse education.
The limitations of the interview guide form are
as follows:

(1) the interviewee may tend to give informa­

tion as it comes to mind; therefore, making it difficult
to record the data on a form, and

(2) the recording of

the information during the interview may tend to distract
from the discussion.

68
The format of this guide is as follows
DRUG ABUSE EDUCATION PROGRAM
Interview Guide
High School:____________________

Enrollment:

Principal:______________________

Date :_________

School District:

Program
A.

Does your school have a drug education program?
yes
no___
1.

if "yes" what type?
a.

required

elective___

(1) if elective what is the percentage
of students who are enrolled?
ten___ eleven___ twelve___

b.

grade level:

c.

articulated with "feeder" schools?
yes
no___
(1) if "yes" in what way?
joint planning

teacher exchange__

others________________________________
d.

is the program sequential (coordinated
with other subjects and grade levels of
the high school)? yes
no___
(1) if "yes" in what way?
joint planning___
coordinated teaching___
others

69
e.

is the program an assembly type of
approach?
yes
no___
(1) is "yes" do the students get an
opportunity for small group
discussion?
yes
no___
(2) if "yes" was an outside speaker
invited?
yes
no___
(a) if "yes" what type of speaker?
former addict
physician

policeman___
pharmacist___

others___
f.

in what department is drug education
taught?

g.

by whom
taught?

(school personnel)

is the course

(1) what special training have these
teachers had to teach this course?

h.

B.

how long have you had such a program?

Who was involved in the planning of this drug
education program?
parents

students

administrators
II.

teachers

counselors

community resource people__

Determination of Need:
A.

do you have any idea what percentage of your
students have experimented with drugs?
yes
no___

70
1.

if "yes" what percent?___

2.

how did you arrive at this figure?
random sample
informal

B.

all students surveyed___

guess

others___

3.

if "no" have you made an attempt to discover
how widespread drug use is in your school?
yes
no___

4.

do you consider drug use and abuse a major
problem* in your school? y e s
no
(•defined as one of the top five student
behavior problems in the school)

Have you taken a survey of the parents to
discover what their opinions and attitudes are
on drug education? yes
no___
1.

if "yes" how was this survey taken?
random sample
parents

questionnaire to all

informal

parent organiza­

tions___
2.

III.
<

Drug Policies
A.

Does the school have a policy for drug users,
possessers or peddlers? yes
no___
1.

IV.

if "yes" what were the results?

if "yes" what is it?
available)

(attach copy if

In-Service Training
A.

Does the school have an in-service training
program for staff members? yes
no___
1.

if "yes" what type?
one session

2.

institute

was attendance mandatory?

long term___
yes

no___

71
V.

School-Coiranunity Programs
A.

Do you have a cooperative drug program with the
community? yes
no___
1.

if "yes" what type of arrangement?
drug education center
center

VI.

crisis intervention

drug abuse symposium

others___

Evaluation
A.

Have you attempted in any way to evaluate your
present drug education program? yes
no___
1.

if "yes" how?
questionnaire

interview

teacher

r e ac t ion___
2.
VII.

what were the results?
available)

(attach copy if

Open Ended Questions
A.

What is your reaction to the teenage drug abuse
problem?

B.

In your opinion what is the best approach to
solving the drug problem?

72
Method of Reporting Findings
The information recorded on each interview guide
form was reviewed and the responses for each* question
were then summarized so the findings could be reported
in a clear and understandable fashion.

The summary will

be in the form of a simple arithmetic treatment reporting
numbers and percentages of similar responses.

CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS OF STUDY

Introduction
The findings from the study will be reported in
seven parts.
Part I.

They will be as follows:
The first part will consist of a report of
the types of drug abuse education programs
currently being offered in the selected
large public high schools of Michigan of
this study.

Descriptions of the programs

will include grade level placement, length
of unit, requirement or elective course,
articulation of subject, course sequence,
departmental placement, training of instruc
tional personnel, number of years unit has
been offered, and personnel involved in the
planning stages.
Part II.

This portion will include a report on the
method by which the need for a drug abuse
education program in that particular school

73

74
was determined.

It focuses on the survey of

students and parents.
Part III.

In this part, the policy of the school as it
relates to student drug users will be
reported.

Part IV.

Data concerning the number of schools that
provide in-service training on drug use and

i•

abuse for faculty members will be reported
here.
Part

V. Findings of cooperative school-community
programs on drug abuse will be presented in
this part.

Part VI.

This portion will give information concerning
the schools' evaluation of current drug abuse
education programs.

Part VII.

The answers to the two open ended questions
will be summarized in this section of the
report.
PART I
Drug Abuse Education Programs

This portion of the study reports the findings
about the drug abuse education programs which are offered
in the selected large public high schools of Michigan.
The findings are as follows:

75
1.

To the question,

"Does your school have a drug

education program?",

fifteen

(15) or 65.2% of

the principals or their designates responded
"yes" and eight
2.

Of the fifteen
twelve

(8) or 34.8% responded "no."
(15) schools with a program

(12) or 80.0% made it a requirement some

time during the student's matriculation through
school and three
subject.
3.

(3) or 20.0% made it an elective

(See Table 4-2.)

Of the fifteen

(15) schools with a program

(required and elective)

thirteen

(13) or 86.7%

offered the program at the tenth grade level.
Several schools reported the grade level place­
ment at other levels.

This information is

summarized below in Table 4-1.
TABLE 4-1.

Grade Level Placement of Drug Abuse Education
Program Elective

Program Required
Grade Level
Placement
10
11
10, 11
10, 11, 12

No. O f
Schools
7
1
2
2

Grade Level
Placement
10, 11
10, 11, 12
11, 12

, N o . of
Schools
1
1
1

76
TABLE 4-2.

Charac­
teristic

Some Characteristics of the Fifteen (15)
Existing Drug Abuse Education Programs

No. of Schools

Percent

Program Required

No. of Schools

Percent

Program Elective

1
12

80%

Program Articulated

3

20%

Program Not Articulated

2
3

20%

Program Sequential

12

80%

Program Non-Sequential

3
3

20%

Training for Program
Teachers Required

12

80%

Training for Program
Teachers Not Required

4
2
Drug Unit:

13.3%
1 to 2 Weeks

13
Drug Unit:

86 .7%
3 Weeks

5
10

66.7%

5

33%

77
4.

Of the fifteen
three

(15) schools with a program

(3) or 20.0% reported that the program was

articulated with the "feeder" schools

(junior

high schools which send their students to that
particular high school) and twelve

(12) or 80.0%

of the schools reported that the program was not
articulated with the "feeder" schools.
three

Of the

(3) schools with an articulated program all

three reported joint planning as the method of
articulation employed.
5.

Of the fifteen
three

(See Table 4-2.)

(15) schools with a program

(3) or 20.0% reported that the program was

sequential.

(Sequential was defined as a program

coordination with other grade levels of the high
school to avoid redundancy.)

Twelve

(12) or 8 0.0%

of the schools indicated that the program was not
sequential.

Of the three

(3) schools with a

sequential program all three reported teacher
meetings to determine subject matter coverage as
the means of making the program sequential.
(See Table 4-2.)
6.

Of the fifteen

(15) schools with a program the

major emphasis was placed in subject area
departments as follows in Table 4-3.

78
TABLE 4-3.

Placement of Drug Abuse Education in the
Curriculum
No. of Schools

Department

Percent

Social Studies

7

46.7

Health and
Physical Education

4

26.7

Science

2

13.3

Guidance

2

13.3

7.

Of the fifteen (15) schools with a program two (2)
or 13.3%

of the schools required the teachers

teaching

in the drug abuse education programs

to

take some training before beginning to teach the
unit.

One of these schools conducted a local

in-service training session for the teachers
involved in the program at the high school and the
other school held a district wide workshop for
teachers

teaching the drug abuse unit.

Thirteen

or 86.7%

of the schools did not require the

teachers to obtain special training though it was
reported that many teachers did receive training
on a voluntary basis.
8.

(See Table 4-2.)

Of the fifteen (15) schools with a program,
four (4) or 26.7% spend one week on drug abuse,
six (6) or 40.0% spend two weeks, and five

(5)

79
or 33.3% spend three weeks.

These time periods

are approximations made by the person interviewed
and does not necessarily represent a block of time
since some teachers integrate drug education with
other topics.
9.

The fifteen

(See Table 4-2.)

(15) schools with a program reported

that they have had the programs in their schools
for the number of years reported below in
Table 4-4.
TABLE 4-4.

Number of Years Drug Abuse Education Has
Been Offered

No. of Years
Drug Education

N o . of
Schools

Percent

2

3

20.0

3

4

26 .7

4

2

13 .3

5

2

13.3

more

2

13.3

not known

2

13.3

10.

Of the fifteen

(15) schools with a program, the

various segments of the school community involved
in the planning of the drug abuse program were
reported as follows in Table 4-5.

TABLE 4-5.

High
School
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
0
No. of
Schools
Percent

School Community Members Involved in Planning the Drug Abuse
Education Programs

Student

Parent

Teacher

Dept.
Head

Counselor

X
X
X
X

X

X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

4
26.7

1

13

6.8

86.7

X
X

Administrator
(local/district)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X

X
X

4
26.7

X

4
26.7

11
73.3

81
PART II
Determination of Need
This portion of the study reports the manner in
which the schools determined their need for a drug abuse
education program.

Techniques such as questionnaires and

surveys will be the major focus.

The findings are as

follows:
1.

One of the questions asked in this part of the
interview w a s , "Do you have any idea what per­
centage of your students have experimented with
drugs?".

Of the twenty three

(23) school princi­

pals or their designates interviewed, fourteen
(14) or 6 0.9% did not know and did not venture to
give an approximation.

The remaining nine

(9) or

39.1% also said they did not know but did make the
following estimates as shown in Table 4.6.
2.

When asked if any attempt had been or will be
made to discover how widespread drug use was in
their schools, of the twenty three
represented, six

(6) of 26.1% indicated that an

anonymous student survey was taken.
seventeen

(23) schools

The remaining

(17) or 73.9% of the principals stated

that no student survey had been or will be taken
in their schools.

Reasons given were as

described in Table 4-7.

TABLE 4-6.

Estimates by Principals of Student Drug Use

Percentage of Students
Experimented with Drugs

No. of Schools

20 - 29

2

30 - 39

3

40 - 49
50 - 59
3

60 - 69
70 - 79
80 - 89

TABLE 4-7,

Reasons Given by Principals for Not Conducting
a Student Survey on Drug Use

Reasons

N o . of
Schools

Percent

data unreliable

7

41.2

community reaction

4

23.5

suggestive (may suggest
experimentation)

2

11.7

not useful

2

11.7

waiting for direction

1

5.9

no reason

1

5.9

83
3.

To the question,

"Have you taken a survey of the

parents of your students to discover what their
opinions and attitudes are on drug education?",
all twenty three

(23) principals or their desig­

nates replied that no formal survey had been made,
though parent organizations, e.g. parent teacher
association, parent-facuity clubs, were approached
for their reaction.
4.

Each principal or his designate was asked if he
considered drug use and abuse a major problem in
his school.

Major was defined as one of the top

five student behavior problems.
three

Of the twenty

(23) schools represented in the study,

thirteen

(13) or 56.5% of the principals responded

"yes" and ten (10) or 43.5% said "no."
PART III
Drug Policies
This portion of the study reports findings dealing
with school policies related to student drug users.

The

findings are as follows:
1.

Of the twenty three

(23) schools in the study,

six (6) or 26.1% had a district board of education
policy pertaining to student drug users and
seventeen

(17) or 7 3.9% did not.

Though the

84
school district did not have a board policy, each
principal gave an account of what would happen
to a student drug user in his school.
2.

Of the twenty three (23) schools in the study,
twelve (12) or 52.2% of the principals stated
that both the. parent and police would be notified
in the case of a student drug user.

Nine (9) or

39.1% said the parent would be notified and would
be counseled as to what steps might be taken.
Two (2) or 8.7% stated that the student is referred
to the counselor who, along with the student, makes
the determination if parents should be notified.
PART IV
In-Service Training Programs
Part IV reports findings of the drug abuse educa­
tion in-service training program for teachers which
currently exist.
Of the twenty three (23) schools in the study,
fourteen (14) or 60.9% indicated that they had an inservice training program and nine (9) or 39.1% reported
that they did not.
Of the fourteen schools reporting that they had
an in-service training program, they were of the types
and frequencies reported in Table 4-8.

85
TABLE 4-8.

Type and Frequency of In-Service Training
Programs on Drug Abuse
N o . of
Schools

Type of In-Service
Drug Abuse Program

Percent

one faculty meeting

6

42.8

two or three faculty
meetings

2

14 .3

workshop (long term,
voluntary)

2

14.3

workshop (short term,
mandatory)

4

28.6

PART V
School-Community Programs
The findings reported in this part of the study
will be related to cooperative school-community drug abuse
programs.
In this part of the interview the principal or his
designate was asked if a cooperative drug program existed
between the school and community.
schools in the study, seven

Of the twenty three

(23)

(7) or 3 0.4% reported that

they did have a cooperative drug program and sixteen (16)
or 6 9.9% indicated that they did not.
Those schools with a cooperative program reported
the following arrangements:

(a) school counselors par­

ticipating in crisis intervention centers on a released

86
time basis,

(b) a social worker hired jointly by the

school district and community e.g. city council or civic
groups, to work with students and parents who need help
with drug problems,

(c) a school-community task force

designed to attack the drug abuse problem at all levels
and in all phases of the total community (the task force
consists of people representing a cross section of the
community), and (d) a drop-in center manned partially by
school personnel.
Most of the principals stated that there were
referral agencies e.g. clinics, drug centers, guidance
services, in the communities that were used frequently
but no cooperative arrangement was made with them other
than on a referral basis.
PART VI
Evaluation
In this portion of the study, the interviewee was
asked if any attempt had been made to evaluate the present
drug education program.
Of the twenty three (23) schools in the study,
twenty one (21) or 91.3% of the principals or designates
said "no.”

Two or 8.7% said an evaluation had been made.

One of the two stated that evaluation data was not yet
available.

The other school reported an anonymous survey

87
evaluating the drug education program was conducted by
the students.

From this survey, this school discovered

that 39% of the students did not think the program was
worthwhile and that 83% of the students recommended the
program for the lower grades.
PART VII
Open Ended Questions
In this portion of the interview, two open ended
questions were asked.

They were very broad, unstructured

questions designed to discover what the immediate response
to such a question might be.
The first open ended question was, "What is your
reaction to the teenage drug abuse problem?".

The

responses to this question were quite varied and the
answers were very dissimilar.

The manner in which the

interviewee answered, however, had something in common.
That is, the answer would usually consist of an affect,
e.g.

"frightening," "frustrating," "concerned," or "scares

me" which was then followed by a short discourse on the
interviewee's impression of the cause of drug abuse,
e.g.

"generation gap," "affluent society," "drug taking

society," "escape device," "breakdown in family unit," or
"value conflict."

88
The second open ended question was, "In your
opinion what is the best approach to solving the drug
problem?".

The answers given to this question had some

similarities.

Most responded that education was one of

the best approaches.

The responses seemed to cluster as

shown in Table 4-9.
TABLE 4-9.

Principals' Opinions on Best Approaches to
Solving Drug Problem

Approach to Solving
Drug Problem

No. of
Responses

Percent

14

60.9

work on social ills

3

13.0

total community effort

2

8.7

mass media

2

8.7

change laws

1

4.4

by not presenting so
much drug information

1

4.4

education

CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
AND SUMMARY

Conclusions
The findings from this study enables the author
to conclude the following about the status of drug abuse
education programs in the selected large public high
schools of Michigan:
1.

Despite the drug use and abuse crisis which exists
today in our society among the adolescent popula­
tion, one-third of the large public high schools
in this study reported not having a drug abuse
education program as part of their curriculum.

2.

The drug abuse education programs of the large
public high schools of this study have the
following characteristics:
a.

most programs are required of all students
some time during their matriculation through
high school

b.

the programs are most commonly placed at the
tenth grade level

89

i

90
c.

most high school programs are not articulated
with their respective junior high school
programs

d.

most high school programs are not coordinated
in such a way that the programs avoid repeti­
tion

e.

most programs are conducted in the social
studies departments, or the health and
physical education departments

f.

most teachers who teach in the drug abuse
education programs are not required to have
special training in the field before teaching
the subject

g.

the most common length of the drug education
programs is two to three weeks

h.

most of the programs have been offered for
the last two to five years

i.

teachers and administrators (local and/or
district) are the personnel most commonly
involved in the planning of the drug education
programs

3.

Most principals interviewed, for a variety of
reasons, would not venture to make a guess as to
the percentage of students in their schools who
have experimented with drugs.

91
4.

Principals interviewed will not make a survey of
students to discover how widespread drug use is
in their schools because most think that the data
gathered is not reliable or the information may
cause community reaction.

5.

The large public high schools have made no formal
survey of parents to discover their attitudes and
opinions concerning drug abuse education.

6.

Slightly over half of the principals interviewed
thought that drug abuse was a major student
behavior problem.

7.

Most schools do not have a district board of
education policy pertaining to student drug users.

8.

When a student drug user is discovered, most school
officials would notify parents and/or police.

9.

The most common in-service training program on
drug abuse consists of one faculty meeting devoted
to the subject.

10.

Most schools do not have a cooperative schoolcommunity drug abuse program though many make
referrals to agencies in the communities.

11.

Very few of the schools attempt to evaluate their
drug abuse education programs to discover their
effectiveness.

92
12.

Most principals interviewed are very concerned
about drug abuse among teenagers and think that
education has a role to play in attacking the
problem.

93
Implications
From the conclusions, the author believes certain
implications can be made concerning drug abuse education
programs in the large public high schools of this study.
These implications are as follows:
1.

Though drug abuse is a major social problem,
not all of the large public high schools have a
drug abuse education program.

This makes one

question the flexibility of school personnel in
bringing about curriculum changes to meet current
n eeds.
2.

The fact that four-fifths of the drug abuse educa­
tion programs are not articulated with "feeder"
schools, and are not in sequence with other courses
and grade levels of the same high school, has
tremendous implications for the need for more
coordination in education to avoid redundancy.

As

one principal stated in his description of the
drug abuse program in his school,
are doing some things."

"Some teachers

His comment summarizes

well the status of many programs.
3.

A problem that arises due to our highly depart­
mentalized high schools is one related to an inter­
disciplinary approach to any subject.

For example,

drug abuse is touched upon in social studies,

94
science, homemaking, health, physical education,
and other subjects.

The coordination of "who will

teach what?" is a difficult task because of
existing domains.
4.

Many of the principals indicated that a student
survey has not and would not be made to discover
just how widespread drug use was, or is, in their
schools.

This may have some ramification for the

sensitivity of administrators to potentially
controversial issues.
5.

The findings of the participation of persons in
the planning stages of the drug abuse programs
certainly has a great deal of implication for
education.

Most school people complain that

students know more about drugs than they do.

Yet

few schools involve students in the planning of a
drug abuse program.
6.

The fact that only slightly over half of the
principals interviewed stated that drug abuse was
a major student behavior problem in their schools
may imply that student behavior problems are seen
as overt acts rather than passive withdrawn ones,
symptoms most common to drug users.

As one

principal stated, "It does not interfere with my
running of this school."

95
7.

School policies related to student drug users are
seen as punitive by students when parents and/or
police are notified.

Since drug use is usually a

symptom of a greater problem which motivates the
student to use drugs, a counseling approach is
needed.

Students must feel free to go to school

personnel for help with personal problems without
fear of punishment.
8.

The whole notion of in-service training for staff
members must be studied very closely.

What is

happening in the way of drug use and abuse inservice training in the schools gives evidence
for this.

In-service is probably the most viable

approach to improving instruction yet most inservice programs are too short, with too many
people, and do not usually lead to behavioral
changes.
9.

The fact that there are few cooperative schoolcommunity drug abuse programs demonstrates the
fragmented approach taken in attacking a social
problem in our communities.

Each agency "does

their own thing" with little or no coordination
or cooperation.

Since education is mandatory for

most teenagers and since that is the segment of
the population where drug abuse is most prevalent,

96
one would think that schools should play a key
role in developing agencies which deal with drug
problems.
10.

One of the mo3t inadequate phases of educational
programs is evaluation and this holds true with
drug abuse education programs.

Schools that offer

drug programs are not sure of their effectiveness.
When a program is designed, little thought is
given to the measurement aspect of its success or
failure.
11.

Most principals showed concern over the drug abuse
problem, but the number and type of drug abuse
education programs which exists makes one wonder
where drug use and abuse among students happens
to be on administrators' lists of priorities.

97
Recommendations
In view of the conclusions and implications made
from the findings of this study, the author makes the
following recommendations.
in six parts.

The recommendations will be

These six parts are as follows:

Part I— School-Community Programs, Part II— School Drug
Policies, Part III— Drug Abuse Education Program,
Part IV— In-Service Training Program, Part V — Personnel,
and Part VI— Further Study.
Part I— School-Community Programs
Too often, social issues are attacked by several
agencies in the community resulting in a fragmented and
duplicated effort.

Each agency develops its own program

unaware that the same or similar services are offered
elsewhere in the community.

The drug abuse problem is a

gigantic one and calls for total community effort and
cooperation.

Agencies designed to serve the needs of the

community must be held accountable for their share in
solving the problem.

Since so many of our young people

are involved in drug use and abuse, the public school is
one of the community agencies which should be called upon
heavily to participate.

Public schools should be repre­

sented in all programs in the community designed to combat
the drug problem.

Too often, however, school officials

98
see the drug problem as a temporary one.

As one veteran

principal interviewed by the author on drug abuse stated,
"We have faced many so-called critical issues in education
and I imagine this too will pass."
will not pass.

The fact is that it

All indications point to drug abuse

getting worse, especially among the young.
alone cannot solve the problem.

But schools

It calls for a well

planned and well organized community effort.

Just as

there is no one personality type among drug abusers, there
is no one approach or model that should be employed to
resolve the drug problem.

All must be considered.

A

multifaceted plan which calls upon community leaders,
agencies, and organizations to work cooperatively and with
commitment is needed.
Community action plans have been implemented in
some communities.

The plan currently in progress in

Dearborn, Michigan appears to be especially promising.
Since this community action plan was instituted on
October 20, 1970, it is too early to evaluate the program.
However a research and evaluation procedure has been
designed as part of the plan to measure the effectiveness
of the total program.

This plan calls for a community

task force composed of all segments of the community to
insure that a cross section of the population is repre­
sented.

It also involves representatives from organized

99
groups and agencies, e.g. police, health, service clubs,
city council, courts, schools, pharmacists and physicians,
clergy, youth groups.

The task force is divided into

several working committees with young people well repre147
sented on each committee.
The author recommends a task force type of commu­
nity action plan with the following committees, their
functions, and suggested activities as mentioned in the
Dearborn Plan:
Committee on Community Information
Functions.

Disseminate drug information through

the use of mass media.

Prepare printed factual informa­

tion on drugs for distribution to various community
agencies.
groups.

Provide a speakers bureau for various community
Offer seminars and study sessions for those who

might be interested.
Suggested Activities.

Distribute literature door

to door, business locations, and public offices.

Prepare

releases for newspapers, radio stations, and television
stations.

Prepare newspaper series on drug abuse for

local newspapers.
147
Dearborn Community, "Community Task Force to
Combat Drug Abuse in Dearborn," Dearborn, Michigan,
October 20, 1970.

100
Committee on Curriculum Development
Functions.

Review drug abuse education programs

of the other school districts.

Study the components of

an effective drug education curriculum.

Determine the

appropriateness of subject m a t t e r , learning activities,
and grade placement.

Consider an articulated and sequen­

tial kindergarten through twelfth grade curriculum.
Suggested Activities.

Arrange for supplementary

activities and programs on drug abuse for students, e.g.
assemblies, student seminars, field trips, and guest
speakers.

Observe current practices in drug education by

visiting classrooms in and out of the school district.
Plan summer workshop programs for teachers, parents and
students.
Committee on Research and Evaluation
Functions.
in the community.

Study the extent of drug use and abuse
Research factors in the community which

may contribute to drug use and abuse.

Attempt to determine

what the sources of drugs are and how they are distributed
in the community.

Design an evaluation of the total commu­

nity drug use and abuse education program.
Suggested Activities.

Collect data on effective­

ness of action plan as the program evolves.

Search out

I

101
latest: research on drugs in medical, psychiatric and
sociological journals.

Study "personality types" related

to drug abusers in the community.
Committee on School Professional
Staff Development
Functions.

Determine the professional staff needs

of a model school drug education program.

Plan and imple­

ment in-service training sessions for school staff members.
Recommend procedures for teachers to follow when confronted
with a student drug user.
Suggested Activities.

Prepare training films and

other audio and/or visual aids for staff.

Arrange for

staff members to visit community agencies involved in drug
abuse.
Committee on Parent Relationship
Functions.

Design and implement programs to

educate parents on the various aspects of drugs and their
use.

Establish family counseling services on drug abuse

problems.
Suggested Activities.

Arrange study sessions on

drug use and abuse in parents' homes.

Establish telephone

"dial access" system for drug information.
discussion groups with parents and students.

Conduct small

102
Committee on Multi-Media Materials
Functions.

Preview and evaluate multi-media

materials on drug use and abuse.

Collect materials that

would be useful as audio-visual aids in drug education
programs.

Prepare an annotated bibliography of drug

information materials.
Suggested Activities.

Establish a drug library.

Have students in the school construct visual aids on drug
abuse.

Provide other committees with multi-media materials

which are related to their functions.
Committee on Community Service
Centers
Functions.

Investigate the possibility of

establishing drug clinics, crisis intervention centers,
drug education centers and half-way houses in the commu­
nity.

Determine the role of these centers in the total

community drug abuse program.
needs of these centers.

Prepare an analysis of the

Recommend possible funding for

such centers.
Suggested Activities.
in the community.
support clinics.
in the community.

Visit existing drug clinics

Sponsor fund raising functions to
Speak to groups about clinical needs

103
Committee on Police and Court
Relationships
Functions.

Evaluate current legal and enforcement

situations of drug abuse.

Form a liaison with all agencies

so they are aware of the legal ramification of drug use
and abuse.

Inform the public so they will be aware of

and understand the role of law enforcement in drug u s e .
Suggested Activities.

Recruit police and court

officials to participate in action plan.

Gather data on

drug abuse investigations, arrests, and convictions in the
community.

Institute a work experience program for

students interested in penology.
Committee on Legislation
Functions.
area of drug abuse.

Study the current legislation in the
Recommend change where change is

needed in legislation related to drugs.

Make others aware

of the channels to bring about needed change.

Support

legislation pertaining to a better understanding of drug
use and abuse.

Screen local and state politicians in an

attempt to discover where they stand on drug issues.
Suggested Activities.

Gather supportive data for

suggestions for legislative changes on drugs.

Send a

delegation from the community to visit legislators in
their offices to discuss laws related to drugs.

104
Part II— School Drug Policy
The findings from this study show that there must
be greater enlightenment on the part of most of the
administrators who were interviewed in establishing
administrative policies related to the student drug user.
A different perspective is needed.

Those responsible for

policy formation need to view the student drug user from
a helping or therapeutic position rather than a punitive
one.

Though the welfare of all students must be con­

sidered, school officials must learn to use the resources
available in attempting to assist students who may be in
need of help.

With this perspective in mind, the author

recommends the following:
1.

Each school should have an administrative policy
related to the student drug user which clearly
defines the position of the school, the procedure
which will be followed, and the role of each
person in fulfilling this procedure.

This policy

should be reviewed and adopted by the board of
education so all people involved, e.g. parent,
student, teacher, counselor, and administrator,
are well aware of the steps to be taken.

Such a

policy is important so that a student in need of
medical attention is able to get it quickly w ith­
out confusion as to what steps should be followed.

105
Also, a clearly defined policy enables the student
to determine if he can go to a school official for
help with a drug problem without being reported to
the policy.

Haphazard, well-intentioned procedures

kept in the heads of administrators may do more
harm than good, though administrators may think
this approach is more flexible.

Such policies

create a great deal of anxiety among those
148
involved.
2.

The drug policy should be stated in such a manner
that the administrator or counselor has some
latitude in making a decision about notifying
parents and police about the matter.

For example,

part of the policy could be stated as follows:
"A student drug user who comes to the attention
of the administration will be referred to his
counselor for an assessment of his particular
situation.
ally.

Each case will be dealt with individu­

The school administration shall be respon­

sible for using its judgement, taking into
consideration the individual involved and the
setting, in deciding what steps should be taken.”
If a drug user knows his parents or the police
will be notified if he talks to his counselor or
148

Ochberg, o p . c i t ., p. 54.

106
an administrator about his drug problem, he will
not turn to these individuals for help.

Since

public school officials can be criticized by
parents for not notifying them when the problem
arose, the policy must clearly define the fact
that the administration will use its discretion.
The reasons for not notifying parents immediately
in certain cases must be explained.
3.

The school district should employ a

social worker

or psychologist who can work with student drug
users either on an individual basis or in groups
or both.

These persons can handle information

about drugs from a student as privileged communica
tion.
4.

School drug policies should include

referral

agencies in the community which are available to
students and parents who are in need of help with
drug problems.
5.

Counselors should play a key role in the establish
ment of school policies related to student drug
use.

Counselors should also have special in-

service training in dealing with student drug
problems.

If the school counselor has frequent

personal contact with students, he should be
prepared to discuss drug use and abuse with some

107
degree of competency.

In a survey of high school

students of Michigan on drug use, conducted by the
Department of Public Health, students were asked
in a questionnaire to rank in order of preference
nine sources of advice on drug use and abuse to
whom they would turn.

The high school counselor

was ranked the lowest of the nine sources of
advice.

This data should cause some concern for

administrators as to the effectiveness of student
149
counseling services.
6.

School policies related to student drug use should
be so stated that it promotes trust between
students and school personnel.

A student should

be able to approach a teacher as a friend to dis­
cuss his drug problem without fear of being
suspended, and without causing guilt feelings in
the teacher because he did not notify school
authorities.

The teacher should be able to listen

to the student's problem without disclosing this
information to others and should be able to listen
to the student's problem without disclosing this
information to others and should be able to make a
149

Michigan House of Representatives, Special
House Committee on Narcotics, o p . cit., p. 33.

108
referral if he thinks the student needs special­
ized attention which he is not able to give."^0
Part III— Drug Abuse Education
Program
In describing the components of a model drug abuse
education program, the author will restrict the scope of
his recommendations to the high school level, though many
of the points discussed are applicable to other grade
levels.

The components will be as follows:

the philoso­

phy, determination of need, instructional approach,
curriculum, and evaluation.
1.

Philosophy:

The philosophy of a drug abuse educa­

tion program should be a broad statement which
encompasses the notion that each student is a
unique person with certain abilities and poten­
tials.

The individual's talents are to be

developed in a humanizing educational milieu
through warm and meaningful interpersonal inter­
actions with students and adults.

Such a notion

indicates to the student that he has self-worth
and that he can discuss issues and feelings openly
and his comments will be received with respect.
When drug education is viewed in this context,
150 Cohen, op. c r t ., p. 16.

109
rather than as a factual presentation on drugs,
the program is more likely to get at human needs.
An orientation such as this will come closer to
approaching the causal factors of drug use and
abuse than will the symptomatic.
2.

Determination of Need:

An attempt must be made

to assess the level of sophistication of the
students so the drug education program can be
tailored to the specific needs of the population.
As Feinglass states, "Young people, in relation
to drugs, can be categorized as (1) those who
will not abuse drugs or can easily be prevented
from doing so,

(2) experimenters, and (3) abusers.

Just where the emphasis in education about drugs
should be, depends on the age of the students
and the situation in a particular school." 151
One of the difficulties in making such an
assessment of needs is the fact that many school
officials are fearful of what the assessment would
reveal and who might have access to this informa­
tion.

Some administrators think that if the

board of trustees, the newspaper, or the community
151
Sanford J. Feinglass, "How To Plan A Drug Abuse
Education Workshop," Resource Book for Drug Abuse Educa­
tion, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
October 1969, p. 100.

110
were to discover the results of the assessment,
the findings would be a reflection upon their
152
reputation as competent administrators.
The author recommends a more open approach
in determining the need for a drug education
program.

The findings should be discussed openly

and rationally with the members of the school
community so all are aware of the magnitude of the
drug use and abuse situation.

In this way, each

segment of the school community will see the need
and become involved in assisting the development
of an effective drug education program.
3.

Instructional Approach:

Just as there is no

single therapeutic modality for the treatment of
drug abusers, there is no single instructional
approach which educators should depend upon.
Most authorities state that approaches which
should not be used are the scare techniques, and
the sensationalism of drug use and abuse, conveyed
in the typical school assembly•drug programs.
Such methods are ineffective and detrimental in
conveying accurate and factual information and can
152 Richard H. Blum, "Nature and Extent of the
Problem," Drug Abuse Information— Teacher Resource
Material, Santa Clara County Office of Education,
San Jose, California, p. 178.

Ill
create a morbid curiosity which may lead to drug
experimentation. 153 There are several very
promising instructional approaches that have been
instituted in some schools.

The author recommends

the following:
a.

A student research approach which requires a
student to find the needed information himself
and draw his own conclusions.

This approach,

designed to provide drug education, takes into
consideration the differences which exist
among human beings and emphasizes the fact
that answers to the problems are individually
unique.

This method calls for a close,

working-relationship between the student and
the teacher in conducting the research.
b.

A behavioral approach to drug education is
based on the fact that the act of drug abuse
is a behavior.

This approach places emphasis

upon the actions of the individual; therefore,
the focal point is the understanding and
appreciation of the self.

The premise is

that, if an adolescent can answer the ques­
tions, "Who am I?", "What am I?", "Where am I
153 Louria, op. cit., p. 17 5.

112
going?" and "Do I like myself?", he will not
154
turn to drugs.
c.

A student-facuity dialog approach which
abandons the traditional relationship between
the "all-knowing" adult teacher and the igno­
rant young student is needed.

Students who

are well informed about drugs contribute their
expertise to the group.

Each member is on an

equal basis and shares in the leadership of
the group.

Learning is maximized through
155
inquiry, discussion, and confrontation.

4.

Curriculum:

One of the reasons some school

officials give for not initiating a drug education
program in their schools is that this will tend
to sensationalize drugs.

This can be true if the

drug education curriculum is not sequential from
kindergarten through the twelfth grade.

Drug

education topics which are integrated into the
existing school subject structure avoid the sensa­
tionalism which may arise when a program on drugs
is introduced at a certain grade level and as a
separate unit.
154

Stamford Public Schools, The Behavioral Approach
to Drug Education, Stamford, Connecticut, p. I"!!
155

Michigan House of Representatives, Special House
Committee on Narcotics, op. c i t ., p. 35.

113
The author recommends that drug education
at the high school level be integrated in the
appropriate courses of the various subject area
departments.

For example, government classes

could discuss drug laws and the ways and channels
through which they might be revised.

Biology

classes could learn about the physiological effects
of drugs.

Chemistry classes could study the sub­

stances in botanicals which are used as narcotics
and hallucinogens.

Sociology classes could inves­

tigate the reasons we are a drug taking society
and why drug abuse has become so widespread among
youths.

All classes could discuss how we might

relate to one another as human beings.
Current alcohol and tobacco units taught
in schools should be integrated into the drug
education curriculum so as to avoid the hypo­
critical notion that these are acceptable because
they are used and abused by adults.
All segments of the school community,
students, parents, teachers, counselors, and
administrators should be represented in the
planning of a drug education program.

They

should be involved in all phases of the program
from selecting teaching materials to designing

114
appropriate evaluation procedures to measure
program effectiveness.

It is essential that

students be well represented on all committees
and encouraged to become active participants.
Their contributions are extremely valuable.
The drug education curriculum should have
four main parts which are:

concepts, objectives,

activities, and materials.

It is important that

all of these parts are appropriate to the par­
ticular grade level.
sit on teachers'

Too often, curriculum guides

shelves and collect dust because

the ideas set forth in them are not functional.
The author makes the following recommendations
related to the four curriculum segments mentioned
above:1 5 6 ' 1 5 7 ' 1 5 8 ' 159
a.

There are certain concepts which can be
appropriately discussed at the high school
level.

i

Some of these are as follows:

e /r

San Francisco Unified School District, op. c i t .,
pp. 1-12.
157 Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association,
o p . c i t ., pp. 78-97.
15 8

Tacoma Public Schools, Curriculum Guide for
Drug Education— Grades 6-12, Tacoma^ W a s h ington, l9(>8,
pp. 1-7.----------------159
Rhode Island Department of Education, An
Educational Program Dealing With Drug Abuse--Grades
K - 1 2 , Providence, Rhode I s l a n d , September 1969, pp. 17-42.

115
(1) Drugs have been used by man for thousands
of years.
(2) We live in a society where drug and
chemical use is socially acceptable.
(3) Drugs are of value to mankind when
properly used.
(4) People take drugs for a variety of
reasons.
(5) Use of drugs to avoid problems is only a
temporary escape.
(6) Drug abuse causes problems for the
individual, the family, and society.
(7) Factual and accurate information about
drugs is essential to wise decision making.
(8) Some mild discomfort and unhappiness should
be endured without relief from drugs.
(9) Critical attitudes are needed to evaluate
advertising practices which are intended
to increase the sale of alcohol, tobacco,
and drugs.
(10) Personal values directly influence
behavior.
(11) Socio-psychological conditions play a
role in drug abuse.

116
(12) Relief of daily stress and tension through
acceptable activities is important.
(13) Treatment of individuals for drug abuse
is difficult and often ineffective.
(14) Control of drug abuse is difficult.
(15) Drug problems require the cooperation of
many agencies and individuals.
b.

Objectives should be written in behavioral
terms and should describe the level of compe­
tency the student should reach upon completion
of the program.

Each concept should have a

set of objectives which are congruent with
each concept.

These are examples of terminal

behavioral objectives described above:
(1) Differentiate between known and suspected,
short and long range, effects of alcohol,
drugs, and tobacco.
(2) List five community resources and agencies
where a person with a drug problem could
go for help.
(3) Cite seven of the most common reasons
given by teenagers for taking drugs.
(4) Given a list of factual information and
myths about drugs, the student should be
able to discriminate at a 90% level of

117
accuracy which statements are fact and
which are fiction,
c.

It is very important that learning activities
which are appropriate for adolescents be
selected for each objective.

The activities

should be real, informative, and relevant to
the student.

The following are examples of

such learning activities:
(1) Visit a court of law during the trial of
a person accused of drug abuse.

Evaluate

the sentence in terms of fairness to the
accused.
(2) Have the class evaluate audio-visual
materials on drugs and have the class
discuss the strengths and weaknesses of
each.
(3) Analyze the resistance of a community
against the establishment of a rehabilita­
tion center.
(4) Compare the American and British methods
of rehabilitation from drug abuse.
(5) Conduct individual surveys among family
and friends to find the drugs most commonly
used and the reasons for their use.

118
(6) Monitor mass media drug ads.

Critique

the message and quality and keep track of
frequency and quantity,
d.

There have been many teaching materials on the
market in recent years.
racies.

Many have inaccu­

Some are designed to scare students

with emotionalism and dramatics.

The author

recommends the use of students, especially
those knowledgeable about the drug scene, to
help evaluate drug education materials.
5.

Evaluation:

One of the greatest weaknesses of

most educational programs is the evaluation which
usually comes at the end of the program.

An

effective evaluation procedure is designed during
the planning stages when the goals and objectives
for the program are being formulated.

Evaluation

criteria should report the degree of success or
failure in meeting the objectives.

If the objec­

tives for the program are written in terminal
behavioral terms, the evaluative measures are
built into the objective statement.

Evaluation

measurements may take place throughout the program
and/or several years after the completion of the
program.

For example, the effectiveness of a

drug abuse education program to deter drug use may

119
have to be made a year or two after the student
has matriculated through the program.

Such a

follow-up study could result in valuable "feed
back" information which would be useful in program
revisions.
Part IV— In-Service Training
Program
Up to this point, educators have relied heavily on
outside consultants on drugs to teach both students and
teachers.

Experts such as pharmacists, psychiatrists, and

narcotics law enforcement officers have been asked to share
their background and knowledge.

Many times their input

has become the major segment of the total drug education
program.

Though educators must continue to use their

particular expertise, they cannot be as exclusively
dependent upon them.

Educators must give serious con­

sideration to the training of teachers so they will be
comfortable and confident in teaching the subject of drug
use and abuse.

Since the teacher is the key person in an

effective drug abuse education program, and has the
greatest influence on students, educators must focus
their effort on giving classroom teachers the background
and tools to accomplish the task.
The magnitude of drug abuse crisis in our society
today and the number of teachers who are in need of

120
-raining to prepare themselves to teach in a drug educa­
tion program would appear overwhelming to anyone assigned
the responsibility of implementing an in-service training
program for staff members.

But the task must begin.

Educators must approach this task systematically and
realistically.

Below are some recommendations for the

various aspects of a model in-service training program on
drug use and abuse for teachers.

The author will make

recommendations on the following aspects:

approach,

concepts, objectives, evaluation, planning, program
content, participants, and knowledge base.
1.

Approach:

Since there are so many teachers who

need to be trained in drug use and abuse in all
school districts, to assure maximum spread of an
effective in-service training program, the author
recommends a process in which teams composed of
teachers and students from the same school are
trained who will then return to their respective
160
schools and, in turn, train other groups.
2 • Concepts:

When planning an in-service training

program on drug use and abuse, certain concepts
should be considered.

The following are suggested

for consideration:
Wayne County, Intermediate School District,
"Reducing Delinquency and Drug Abuse— A School Program,"
Action Grant Application, Detroit, Michigan, June 1970.

121
a.

We live in a drug-using society where the mass
media have

sold adults and young people alike

the notion

that an acceptable escape from

physical and psychological discomfort is
through drugs.
b.

The motivations
few of the

for drug abuse are varied. A

most common causes seem to b e :

rebellion against adults or authority figures,
peer pressure or influence, boredom, curiosity,
frustration with current problems, escape
from psychological inferiority, and "feels
good."
c.

Schools may contribute to the drug abuse
problem by not offering an educational
program which is designed to meet the needs
of students.

d.

Drug information should be presented factually
without exaggerating, sensationalizing, or
moralizing.

e.

The difference between drug use and abuse is
the behavior of the user.

If drug use results

in a behavior not acceptable to the norms of
the community, it is then considered abuse.
f.

Young people are disenchanted with the values
and goals of our society and feel impotent to
bring about change.

122
g.

Inconsistencies and hypocrisies which exist
in the adult world must be discussed openly.

h.

Many young people are not aware of the dangers
involved in the use of drugs and need factual
information to make a decision to use or not
to use drugs when the temptation arises.

i.

Opportunities for involvement and participa­
tion in school or community activities for
students are basic deterrents to drug use.

3.

Objectives;

Any program should have well defined

objectives.

Representatives of the training

program participants should be involved in the
establishing of objectives and planning stages.
In setting objectives for an in-service training
program the planners should consider the following
points:
a.

The objectives established for the program
should be stated in measureable terms so the
effectiveness of the program can be determined.

b.

Most objectives for an in-service training
program fall into two categories.

One is the

content objectives, which are those dealing
with the subject matter or knowledge base.
The other is the process objectives, which
are related to certain learned skills.

123
(1) The content objectives will generally
include the following topics:

pharma­

cology, physiological reaction, legal
aspects, psychosocial aspects, youth sub­
culture, and history of drugs.
(2) The process objectives will include skills
which will facilitate the student-teacher
relationship, such as, communicative
skills (verbal and nonverbal), empathy
skills, decision making process, and
listening skills.
4.

Evaluation:

If the objectives for the in-service

training program are stated in terminal behavioral
terms, i.e. "by the end of the in-service training
sessions the participant should be able to . . . ,"
the evaluation of its effectiveness is an easier
task.

Pre-post tests to measure progress in

content information and attitudinal change about
drugs and drug users are recommended.

Evaluation

of process objectives can be accomplished by a
qualified observer studying the performance of
the learned skill by the workshop participant.
Evaluation is generally the weakest and most
difficult phase of an in-service plan.

Planning:

As emphasized earlier, representatives

of the participants should be involved in the
planning of the program.

Factors such as the

schedule, time, length, speakers, and facilities
need to be considered.

The author recommends the

following:
a.

The program should be a continuous workshop
rather than one which is offered on a certain
day of the week for several weeks.

In a

continuous workshop situation the participants
get to know each other better, time is more
flexible, and the sessions are used more
efficiently since less time is taken up re­
constructing what happened at the last session.
b.

In order for an attitudinal change to take
place, a continuous program lasting from two
to seven days is recommended.

Participants

are more likely to express their own feelings
and beliefs in this situation.
c.

Facilities away from the daily work routine
environment should be used.

d.

Speakers should be selected after a thorough
investigation.

Speakers who are knowledgeable

and interesting and who are able to move the
group toward its ultimate goal should be asked

125
ho participate.

A few well chosen guest

speakers can contribute greatly to the success
of a workshop.
Program:

Large group in-service training programs

where all teachers in a particular school or school
district are mandated to attend a meeting on drug
abuse are totally ineffective.

Program planners

must carefully consider group size, workshop
participants, and the content.
a.

Groups should be kept small enough for group
process activities to take place such as role
playing, awareness experiences, exercises of
skill in observations, decision making,
empathy training, and communication skills.

b.

Participants should represent the disciplines
involved in drug education.

Those teachers

who are best qualified, and who show concern
for young people, should be invited to attend.
Students should be involved in selecting these
teachers.

Students should also be invited to

participate on an equal basis with teachers.
c.

The content portion of the program will be
dependent upon the length of the workshop.
The following are some of the subjects which
should be part of the knowledge base of the

126
participants:

history of drug and drug u s e ,

pharmacology of drugs including alcohol and
tobacco, psychosocial and legal aspects of
drugs, latest medical and scientific research
on drugs, and the role of education in drug
abuse.161
Part V — Personnel
As stated before, the success of an effective drug
abuse education program is dependent to a large extent
upon the teacher and his ability to create an atmosphere
in the classroom which promotes open discussion and
expression of thoughts and ideas.

In this way, a student

will feel free to talk about his inner conflicts and
problems.

16 2

This means that teachers who have the ability

to create this type of atmosphere must be selected to
participate in the drug education program.

Students are

very skillful and perceptive in identifying these teachers.
As Feinglass states,
The element of over-riding importance in drug
education is the teacher.
His role is not merely
that of a conduit of knowledge.
He must, in addi­
tion, personify an active force in molding student
actions and beliefs.
Honesty and integrity that
will gain student respect, ability to recognize
and respond to student problems, and needs, and to
16iFeinglass, op. c i t ., pp. 102-110.
162
Stamford Public Schools, op. c i t ., p. 1.

127
show care and concern— these are the prerequisites
for a successful mentor in the drug abuse educa­
tion field.163
Teachers who lack these qualities should undergo
intensive in-service training to learn these skills.
Since warm, empathic, and caring kinds of teachers
are needed in all educational programs, not just drug
abuse education, teacher training institutions should
focus their attention on developing these essential skills
as a part of the professional preparation.

School

administrators in charge of personnel must also make a
greater effort to recruit and to employ more candidates
who have these qualities.
Part VI — Further Study
The review of related literature, the scope of the
investigation and the findings of this study on drug abuse
education in the large public high schools of Michigan
leads to the possibility of some interesting further study.
Some of these are as follows:
1,

A similar study might be conducted to assess the
status of drug abuse education in other size high
schools or other school grade levels.

2.

The same study might be replicated in another
state of like size for comparison purposes.
16 3

Feinglass, op. c i t ., p. 99.

128
3.

It has been frequently reported that high school
students know more about drugs than teachers.

A

comparative study, taking a sample from each,
might be conducted.
4.

A statistically sound evaluation needs to be
conducted of current drug abuse education programs.

5.

A study might be conducted to discover how many
young teachers who have recently entered the
teaching profession have experimented with drugs.

6.

A comparative study of effectiveness might be
conducted between drug abuse education programs
which are offered as a separate course and
programs which are integrated into existing
courses at the high school level.

129
Summary
Drug use and abuse has attracted a great deal of
attention in recent years.

The problem is considered by

some to be one of the most serious ever faced by our
society.

Some state that a whole generation of young

people will be lost unless measures are taken to solve
the problem.

This alarm has caused citizens to respond

by placing the responsibility for solutions on certain
individuals, agencies, and organizations.

The school is

one of the public agencies which has been asked to react.
In view of the outcry by the public for schools
to do something, this study was made to gather pertinent
information on current drug abuse education programs in
an attempt to discover what the response of some of the
t

schools has been to this point.

The population of this

study consists of selected large public high schools in
the State of Michigan.

A large high school is defined by

the author as one which has a student enrollment of 2,000
or more and which is administratively organized on a ten
through twelve grade level.
The survey focused on several aspects of the drug
abuse education program including the description of the
type of program, the determination of need, school policy
related to student drug users, in-service training

130
programs for teachers, school-community cooperative
programs, and evaluation techniques.
Because of the size of the population of the
study, it was possible for the investigator to personally
interview each principal, or his designate, whose school
met the criteria mentioned above.

An interview question­

naire guide was used so each interviewee was asked the
same question and in the same manner by the interviewer.
The findings are reported in Chapter IV of this
thesis.

The author cautions the reader not to make

generalizations about the status of drug abuse education
programs in public high schools based on these findings.
The results of the survey describe the drug education
practices of those schools in the population study as
reported by the principals.
It is the.hope of the author that this study will
contribute to the program development in drug abuse educa­
tion which is so sorely needed.

It is also hoped that the

findings and recommendations will assist in the enlighten­
ment and improvement of current drug abuse education
practices at the high school level.

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