7 1 -3 1 ,3 1 6 STOOPS, L o re n a V i r g i n i a , 1 9 3 9 A STUDY OF TRACKING AS A MULTIPLE OPTION APPROACH IN THE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY. M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , P h . D . , 1971 E d u c a tio n , s c i e n t i f i c University Microfilms, A XEROX C om p any, Ann Arbor, Michigan A STUDY OF TRACKING AS A MULTIPLE OPTION APPROACH IN THE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY By L o re n a V i r g i n i a S to o p s A THESIS S u b m itte d to M ichig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e d e g re e o f DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY D e p artm en t o f C u rric u lu m 1971 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF TRACKING AS A MULTIPLE OPTION APPROACH IN THE DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY By L orena V i r g i n i a Stoops S ta te m e n t of t h e Problem The two p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y w ere 1. to t r a c e h i s t o r i c a l l y th e g e n e s i s and s u b s e q u e n t m o d i f i c a ­ t i o n s o f th e g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n program a t M ic h ig a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y w hich h av e u l t i m a t e l y l e d to t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t r a c k i n g a s a m u l t i p l e o p t i o n a p p ro a ch i n t h e D ep artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e , and 2. to o b t a i n d a t a from th e s t u d e n t s i n v o lv e d i n t h e s e t r a c k s w ith r e s p e c t to t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s : A. t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b e ­ tween th e sam p les o f s t u d e n t s re m a in in g w i t h e ac h o f t h e f o u r t r a c k s s t u d i e d f o r t h e t h r e e te rm s o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e w i t h r e g a r d t o c e r t a i n s c h o l a s t i c and demo­ g ra p h ic v a r ia b le s . B. t o c o l l e c t i n f o r m a t i o n a s to why s t u d e n t s c h o se a p a r ­ t i c u l a r t r a c k and rem ain ed w ith i t d u r i n g t h e t h r e e term s composing th e f u l l N a t u r a l S c ie n c e s e q u e n c e , and L orena V i r g i n i a S to op s C. to d e te r m in e s t u d e n t s ' r e a c t i o n to w ard t h e p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k e a c h fo llo w e d . D e sig n o f t h e Study The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s s tu d y c o n s i s t e d o f th o s e fresh m a n s t u d e n t s who e n t e r e d M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e f a l l te rm o f 1969 and who rem ained w i t h a g iv e n t r a c k o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e f o r t h e t h r e e term s o f th e c o u r s e . From t h i s p o p u l a t i o n a random sam ple from e ach o f t h e f o u r t r a c k g ro u p s (A, B, C, and D) was s u rv e y e d th ro u g h t h e u s e o f an a t t i t u d e q u e stio n n a ire . The f o u r sam ples o f s t u d e n t s who r e s p o n d e d w e re compared on t h e b a s i s o f 1) s c h o l a s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c l u d i n g h i g h s c h o o l g r a d e p o i n t ' a v e r a g e , M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y R eading T e s t s c o r e s and S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e T e s t v e r b a l and m a th e m a tic s raw s c o r e s , 2) dem ographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c l u d i n g s e x , r a c e , and c o l l e g e m a jo r , and 3) q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s as to when and why th e y c h o se a p a r ­ t i c u l a r t r a c k and rem ain ed w ith t h a t t r a c k f o r t h e t h r e e te rm s o f t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e and t h e i r r e a c t i o n s to w a rd t h a t tra c k . F in d i n g s The f i n d i n g s w ere t h a t (1) no s i g n i f i c a n t s c h o l a s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s and no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in c o l l e g e m a jo r ( d e t e r m i n e d - u n d e t e r m i n e d ) r a t i o a c r o s s th e f o u r t r a c k s w ere found t o e x i s t . S ig n ific a n t d if ­ f e r e n c e s d id a p p e a r i n sex r a t i o and r a c e r a t i o , (2) a l l t r a c k g ro u p s l e a r n e d o f th e t r a c k s a f t e r r e g i s t r a t i o n and re m a in ed w ith t h e same tr a c k p rim a rily because of th e i n s t r u c t o r , v e n i e n c e o f s c h e d u l i n g , in t h a t o r d e r , t r a c k c o n t e n t , a n d con­ (3) s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s d id L o re n a V i r g i n i a S to o p s occur in s tu d e n t r e a c tio n a c ro ss th e fo u r tr a c k s w ith r e s p e c t to q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g to c o u r s e and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s and tra c k a c c e p ta b ility . To Dad and Mama ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The a u t h o r s i n c e r e l y w is h e s to th a n k t h e members o f h e r com m ittee, Dr. D ale Alam, Dr. M arvin G r a n d s t a f f , Dr. Troy S t e a m s , and Dr. H a ro ld S to n e h o u s e , f o r b e in g a v a i l a b l e f o r h e l p and s u p p o r t th r o u g h o u t th e w ritin g of th is p ap er. S p e c i a l th a n k s m ust go to t h e chairm an o f t h e c o m m itte e , Dr. S t e a r n s , whose c r i t i c i s m was a lw ay s c o n s t r u c t i v e and whose tim e b e lo n g e d f i r s t t o h i s s t u d e n t s . S e v e r a l members o f th e D epartm ent o f E v a l u a t i o n S e r v i c e s w ere v e r y h e l p f u l i n p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and a n sw e rin g numerous q u e s t i o n s ; th e y i n c l u d e Mrs. Opal Young, D r. Arvo J u o l a , D r. Floyd Monaghan, Dr. Leroy O lsen , Dr. W i l l a r d W a rrin g to n and e s p e c i a l l y Dr. C h a r le s E b e rly and Dr. C la r e n c e N e ls o n . Dr. N e l s o n 's i d e a s s t i m u l a t e d th e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e p a p e r w h i l e Dr. E b e r l y ' s s u g g e s t i o n s and c r i t i c i s m s w ere i n v a l u a b l e i n t h e a n a l y z a t i o n of th e d a t a . R ic h a rd S t i g g i n s , t h e a u t h o r ' s com puter programmer i s due s p e c i a l c r e d i t as he gave f r e e l y of h i s tim e and e n e r g i e s t o s e e t h a t com puter d a t a w ere p ro m p tly av ailab le . Thanks i s due a l s o t o t h e s t u d e n t s whose i n t e r e s t and r e s p o n s e made t h e s tu d y p o s s i b l e . iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................. vi LIST OF APPENDICES..................................................................................................... v ii C h ap ter I. II. PROBLEM AND ORGANIZATION OF THE S T U D Y ..................................... 1 B ackground o f t h e S t u d y ................................................................ S t a t e m e n t o f t h e P r o b l e m ................................................................. Im p o r ta n c e o f t h e S t u d y ................................................................ ............................................................................................ D e fin itio n s L i s t of C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s I n v e s t i g a t e d ..................................... H y p o t h e s e s ................................................................................................. A ssum ption s ............................................................................................ L i m i t a t i o n s ......................................... O r g a n i z a t i o n of the T h e s i s ............................................................ 1 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 THE GENESIS AND SUBSEQUENT MODIFICATIONS OF GENERAL EDUCATION AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY WHICH HAVE LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRACKING IN THE NATURAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT.............................................. 9 H i s t o r i c a l D evelopm ents L eading t o th e E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e B asic C o l l e g e .......................................... The G e n esis and Development o f th e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D epartment ........................... Tracks ................................ T r a c k A D e s c r i p t i o n andR a t i o n a l e ............................................ T r a c k B D e s c r i p t i o n andR a t i o n a l e ............................................ T r a c k C D e s c r i p t i o n andR a t i o n a l e ............................................ T r a c k D D e s c r i p t i o n andR a t i o n a l e ............................................ III. METHODOLOGY 9 20 27 31 33 35 37 ............................................................................................. 40 In tro d u c tio n ....................................................................................... H y p o t h e s e s ................................................................................................. P o p u la tio n ....................................................................................... • Samples from t h e P o p u l a t i o n ....................................................... R e s e a r c h D e s i g n ................................................................................... 40 40 40 43 45 iv Page C hapter IV. D ata P r e p a r a t i o n ................................................................................... S t a t i s t i c a l Methods Employed ........................................................ S u m m a r y ...................................................................................................... 48 49 54 ANALYSIS OF DATA........................................................................................ 55 In tro d u c tio n H y p o th e s is I H y p o th e s is I H y p o th e s is I ............................................................................................ ............................................................................................ I ........................................................................................ I I ........................................................................................ 55 55 57 60 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..................................................................... 64 I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................................ P u rp o s e and P r o c e d u r e ..................................................................... F i n d i n g s ..................................................................................................... C o n c l u s i o n s ............................................................................................ Recommendations and S u g g e s tio n s f o r F u tu r e R e s e a rc h ................................................................................... 64 64 65 66 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 73 APPENDICES........................................................................................................................ 76 V. v 70 LIST OF TABLES T a b le Page 3 .1 P r o c e d u r e s I n v o lv e d i n D e te rm in in g T ra c k Samples . . . . 44 3 .2 P o s s i b l e and A c t u a l Numbers o f R esp o n d e n ts ............................ 49 4 .1 M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a ria n c e o f D i f f e r e n c e s A c ro ss t h e Fo ur T ra c k s Based on S e l e c t e d S c h o la stic V a ria b les .......................................................................... 56 P e r c e n t s o f S t u d e n t s i n t h e Four T ra c k Samples by R ace, Sex, and C o lle g e M a j o r .................................................... 57 P e r c e n t s o f R e sp o n ses t o Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Ite m #1: When S t u d e n t s L e a rn e d o f T r a c k s , by T rack ............................ 58 The R e l a t i v e Im p o rta n c e o f E i g h t F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g S t u d e n t s ' C hoice o f T rac k i n t h e W in te r a nd S p r in g Terms, by T r a c k ..................................... 59 M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r ia n c e : Main E f f e c t s a r e T r a c k , Sex, and S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e ; D ependent V a r i a b l e s a r e How S u b j e c t s P e r c e i v e d T rack A c c e p t a b i l i t y , T r a c k ' s M eeting o f C ourse and G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n O b j e c t i v e s , and W hether They Found F a l l , W in te r , and S p r in g C ou rses I n t e r e s t i n g , W orth w hile and R e l e v a n t .............................................. 60 4 .2 4 .3 4 .4 4 .5 4 .6 4 .7 4 .8 M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f I n d i v i d u a l S c a le D i f f e r e n c e s A c ro ss th e Four T r a c k s .............................................................. . 61 L e a s t S qu are E s t i m a t e s o f T re a tm e n t E f f e c t s on th e B a s is o f M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e . . . . Rank O rd e r o f T rac k H ig h e s t t o Lowest P e r c e p t i o n s o f D ep en den t V a r i a b l e s on B a s is o f M u l t i ­ v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s ............................................................................ vi 62 62 LIST OF APPENDICES A ppendix A. B. Page D e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e B i o l o g i c a l and P h y s i c a l S c ie n c e C o u rs e s .................................................................................... 76 G u i d e l i n e s f o r T ra c k D evelopm ent i n t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D ep artm en t ........................................................ 77 S tu d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Cover L e t t e r ........................................... 80 S tu d e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e .......................................................................... 81 v ii CHAPTER I PROBLEM AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY Background o f th e Study M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y h a s p la c e d a m a jo r em phasis on a b ro a d g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n f o r a l l i t s s t u d e n t s from i t s i n c e p t i o n i n 1855. The M ichigan L e g i s l a t u r e o f 1863 h a d , i n a s s i g n i n g t h e M o r r i l l l a n d s , s p e c i f i e d t h a t i t s " l e a d i n g o b j e c t s h a l l be . . . t o t e a c h such b r a n c h e s o f l e a r n i n g a s a r e r e l a t e d t o a g r i c u l t u r e and th e m e c h a n ic a l a rts, i n o r d e r t o prom ote t h e l i b e r a l and p r a c t i c a l e d u c a t i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l c l a s s e s i n t h e s e v e r a l p u r s u i t s and p r o f e s s i o n s i n l i f e . " The g ro w th o f know ledge th ro u g h t h e y e a r s , t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f c o u r s e s a v a i l a b l e , and t h e d evelo pm en t o f t h e e l e c t i v e sy ste m had by t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y made i t p o s s i b l e f o r s t u d e n t s t o evad e t h o s e c o u r s e s w hich many f a c u l t y members f e l t w ere n e c e s s a r y f o r a firm fo u n d a tio n in g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n . A c o n c e rn f o r t h i s l a c k o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n i n 1937 r e s u l t e d i n th e d ev elop m ent o f s u rv e y c o u r s e s f o r s t u d e n t s i n t h e C o l l e g e ' s L i b e r a l A r t s c u r r ic u lu m . The i n c r e a s e i n s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n e x p e c te d w ith th e c l o s e o f World War I I , a lo n g w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f s t u d e n t s who f a i l e d to m eet e n t r a n c e r e q u ir e m e n ts and w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n o b t a i n i n g a c e r t i f i c a t e th ro u g h a two y e a r t e r m i n a l ty p e c u r r i c u l u m , r e s u l t e d i n an a t t e m p t t o r e o r g a n i z e t h e f i r s t two c o l l e g e y e a r s . 1 Low e n r o l l m e n t 2 and c o n s e q u e n tly more f r e e tim e f o r s t a f f members made t h e s c h o o l y e a r 1943-1944 an o p p o rtu n e tim e f o r t h e r e v i s i o n and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n w hich r e s u l t e d i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f th e B a s ic C o lle g e i n 1944. T h is a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on t h e L i b e r a l A r t s p l a n ( t o be e n l a r g e d upon i n C h a p te r I I ) p r o v id e d a program o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n r e q u i r e d o f a l l s t u d e n t s i n th e U n i v e r s i t y . The o r i g i n a l program con­ s i s t e d o f s e v e n c o u r s e s o f w hich W r i t t e n and Spoken E n g l i s h was r e ­ q u ire d o f a l l e n te r in g s tu d e n ts . The s t u d e n t th e n e l e c t e d one o f each o f th e f o ll o w i n g p a i r s o f c o u r s e s : P h y s i c a l S c ie n c e o r B i o l o g i c a l S c ie n c e ; S o c i a l S c ie n c e o r E f f e c t i v e L i v i n g ; H i s t o r y o f C i v i l i z a t i o n o r L i t e r a t u r e and F in e A r t s . For a f i f t h c o u r s e t h e s t u d e n t to o k one o f th e p a i r e d c o u r s e s he had p r e v i o u s l y o m i t t e d . A lth o u g h many a d v a n ta g e s w ere a p p a r e n t i n th e B a s ic C o l l e g e , a number o f c r i t i c i s m s r e s u l t e d i n a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e C o lle g e i n 1952. T h is change p r o v id e d f o r t h e d ev elo p m en t o f f o u r i n t e g r a t e d co u rses in g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n to be re q u ire d of a l l s tu d e n ts : Communi­ c a t i o n S k i l l s , S o c i a l S c ie n c e , H u m a n itie s , and N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . The d e c i s i o n to f u s e th e b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e s i n t o one s i n g l e c o u r s e o f f e r e d by th e newly c r e a t e d N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D e p artm en t p r e s e n t e d many d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r t h e s t a f f in v o l v e d . T hroughout t h e y e a r s s u c c e e d in g th e i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e , c h a n g in g v iew s r e s u l t i n g i n p a r t from s t a f f t u r n o v e r b r o u g h t a b o u t a lm o s t c o n s t a n t c h an g e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e c o u r s e re m a in ed a s i n g l e , s t a f f - a u t h o r e d o f f e r i n g u n t i l 1968. I n t h a t y e a r v a r i o u s members o f t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D epartm ent b egan d e v e lo p i n g a l t e r n a t e e x p e r i m e n t a l a p p ro a c h e s t o th e t h r e e te rm s e q u e n c e o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e i n an a t t e m p t t o s a t i s f y t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i v e r s i t y o f i n t e r e s t s and p r e p a r a t i o n 3 among b o t h t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l s t a f f and t h e s t u d e n t s . I n t h e f a l l term o f 1969 f o u r t h r e e te rm s e q u e n c e s , o r t r a c k s , w ere a v a i l a b l e a s o p t i o n s w hich w ould s a t i s f y t h e r e q u ir e m e n t o f a c o u r s e i n N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . I t would b e b o t h i n t e r e s t i n g and v a l u a b l e to a n a l y z e d a t a w hich m ig h t a n sw e r s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s : What c a u s e d a s t u d e n t t o cho ose and re m a in w i t h a g iv e n t r a c k a l l t h r e e te rm s? Are t h e s t u d e n t s i n one t r a c k s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e i n a n o t h e r w i t h r e g a r d to c e r t a i n s c h o l a s t i c and dem o g rap hic v a r i a b l e s ? What a r e t h e s t u d e n t s ' r e a c tio n s to th e tra c k o ffe rin g s ? S ta te m e n t o f t h e Problem The two p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e 1. to t r a c e h i s t o r i c a l l y t h e g e n e s i s and s u b s e q u e n t m o d i f i c a ­ t i o n s o f th e g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n program a t M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y w hich have u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o t h e dev elo pm en t o f t r a c k s i n t h e D ep artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e , and 2. t o o b t a i n d a t a from t h e s t u d e n t s i n v o lv e d i n t h e s e t r a c k s w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s : A. to d e te r m in e w h e th e r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t betw een th e p o p u l a t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s re m a in in g w ith e a c h o f t h e f o u r t r a c k s s t u d i e d f o r t h e t h r e e term s o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e w ith r e g a r d to c e r t a i n s c h o l a s t i c and d e m o grap hic v a r i a b l e s . B. t o c o l l e c t i n f o r m a t i o n a s to why s t u d e n t s ch o se a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k and re m a in ed w ith i t d u r in g th e t h r e e te rm s composing t h e f u l l N a t u r a l S c ie n c e s e q u e n c e , and C. t o d e te r m in e s t u d e n t s ' r e a c t i o n tow ard t h e p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k e ach f o ll o w e d . I n t e r a c t i o n betw een s e x and s c h o la s tic a p titu d e a re a lso in v e stig a te d . D a ta w ere a v a i l a b l e from t h e O f f i c e o f E v a l u a t i o n S e r v i c e s , t h e O f f i c e o f t h e R e g i s t r a r , t h e O f f i c e o f E q u a l O p p o r t u n i t i e s , and t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e w hich e n a b le d a s tu d y o f such s t u d e n t s t o be made. I n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s e s to q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e d to t r a c k c h o i c e and a t t i t u d e s w ere o b t a i n e d th r o u g h s u rv e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . Im p o rta n c e o f t h e Study Two u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p tio n s o f t h i s s tu d y a r e f i r s t , th a t tra c k s m atch s t u d e n t and t e a c h e r n e e d s by p r o v i d i n g a l t e r n a t i v e a p p ro a c h e s to t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e , a n d , s e c o n d , t h a t s t u d e n t r e a c t i o n i s one im p o rta n t f a c t o r in e v a lu a tin g a tr a c k . I t i s hoped t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h i s s tu d y may b e o f v a l u e t o t h e f o l l o w i n g : 1. Members o f t h e D e p artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e who a r e in v o lv e d i n d e v e lo p i n g , e v a l u a t i n g , and t e a c h i n g t r a c k s . 2. The Dean of t h e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e inasm uch as i t was he who p ro p o s e d t h e t r a c k i n g a p p ro a c h . 3. S tu d e n ts i n t e r e s t e d i n t a k i n g N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . 4. I n s t i t u t i o n s c o n s i d e r i n g a l t e r n a t i v e a p p ro a c h e s to a g e n eral e d u ca tio n course in s c ie n c e . 5. R e s e a r c h e r s i n o t h e r s c i e n c e c o u r s e s and i n th e f i e l d o f g e n eral e d u c a tio n . D e fin itio n s B ecau se o f t h e u n iq u e n a t u r e o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , th e D ep artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e and t h e m u l t i p l e o p t i o n a p p ro a ch t o a g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n c o u rse in s c ie n c e , th e fo llo w in g d e f i n i t i o n s a re stip u la te d : 5 U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e i s a two y e a r c o l l e g e o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n a t M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , E a s t L a n s in g , M ic h ig a n . O rig in a lly i t was t h e B a s ic C o lle g e e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1944, r e o r g a n i z e d i n 1952, and renamed i n 1960. D ep artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e i s one o f f o u r g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n d e p a r tm e n ts w i t h i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e . T h is d e p a r tm e n t was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1952 f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f o f f e r i n g a combined p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e . N a t u r a l S c ie n c e i s a t h r e e term s e q u e n c e c o u r s e c o n s i s t i n g o f b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e o f f e r e d by t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D e p a r t ­ ment a s a r e q u ir e m e n t o f m ost fresh m an s t u d e n t s . The t h r e e te rm s a r e d e s i g n a t e d a s N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191, 192, and 193. T ra c k s a r e any o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a p p ro a c h e s o f f e r e d on an o p t i o n a l b a s i s , a l l o f w hich m eet t h e c o u r s e o b j e c t i v e s o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191, 192, and 193. su ffix : These t r a c k s a r e d e s i g n a t e d by l e t t e r A, B, C, and D. L i s t of C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s In v e s tig a te d C o g n itiv e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to be i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s s tu d y i n c l u d e th e f o l l o w i n g : s e x , r a c e ( b la c k - n o n b l a c k ) , c o l l e g e m a jo r ( d e t e r m i n e d - u n d e t e r m i n e d ) , h i g h s c h o o l g ra d e p o i n t a v e r a g e , S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e T e s t s c o r e s ( v e r b a l and m a t h e m a t i c s ) , and M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y R eading T e s t s c o r e s . A ffe c tiv e c h a r a c te r is tic s in ­ c lu d e a t t i t u d e s a b o u t N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . P u b l i s h e d i n s t r u m e n t s t o be d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p te r I I I w ere u se d to o b t a i n s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e t e s t s c o r e s and r e a d i n g s c o r e s . 6 A s t u d e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e was c o n s t r u c t e d i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a t t i t u d i n a l i n f o r m a t i o n as t o t r a c k p r e f e r e n c e and a c c e p t a b i l i t y . H y p o th e se s The h y p o th e s e s a r e s t a t e d i n t h e c l a s s i c a l n u l l form a s t h e r e w ere no a p r i o r i r e a s o n s to assum e o r e x p e c t t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s would occur in s tu d e n ts a c ro s s th e fo u r tra c k s . I. Nos i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b etw een t h e f o u r sam ples o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o s e l e c t e d s c h o l a s t i c and demo­ g ra p h ic v a r ia b le s . II. Nos i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b e tw ee n t h e f o u r sam ples o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s w i t h r e s p e c t to why th e y c h o se and re m a in e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k . III. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t betw een t h e r e a c t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s to q u e s t i o n s r e ­ l a t i n g to c o u r s e and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s and t r a c k a c c e p t a b i l i t y a s e x p r e s s e d by t h e i r a t t i t u d e i n ­ v en to ry . A ssu m ption s In c o n d u c ti n g t h i s s tu d y t h e f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p tio n s a r e made: 1. The r a t i o n a l e f o r t r a c k i n g i s t o m atch s t u d e n t and t e a c h e r needs. 2. The t r a c k and t h e t e a c h e r a r e i n s e p a r a b l e u n i t s i n t h a t t e a c h e r s t a k e p a r t i n d e s i g n i n g t h e t r a c k s i n w hich th e y te a c h . 3. S t u d e n t r e a c t i o n i s one i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n e v a l u a t i n g a tra c k . 4. The r e s p o n d e n t s a n sw e re d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e h o n e s t l y . 7 L im ita tio n s The s tu d y i s l i m i t e d i n t h a t 1. t h e p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f o n ly th o s e fresh m an s t u d e n t s e n t e r i n g M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e f a l l te rm o f 1969 who re m a in e d i n a s i n g l e t r a c k th r o u g h t h e e n t i r e t h r e e term s e q u e n c e o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . 2. t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s e n t to s t u d e n t s was l i m i t e d due to i t s n e c e s s a r y b r e v i t y r e s u l t i n g from th e ty p e s o f q u e s t i o n s a s k e d , t h e s m a l l number o f q u e s t i o n s , and t h e r e s t r i c t i v e ­ n e s s o f th e a n s w e rs . O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e T h e s is P r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r w ere th e b a ck g ro u n d o f t h e s t u d y , t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p ro b le m , im p o r ta n c e o f th e s t u d y , d e f i n i t i o n s , l i s t o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n v e s t i g a t e d , h y p o th e s e s , and a s s u m p tio n s and l i m i t a t i o n s of th e stu d y . C h a p te r I I c o n t a i n s a s e l e c t e d re v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e con­ c e r n i n g t h e g e n e s i s and s u b s e q u e n t d evelopm ent o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n a t M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y r e s u l t i n g i n th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e B asic C o lle g e in 1944, t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e B a s ic C o lle g e i n 1952 w hich c r e a t e d t h e D e p artm en t of N a t u r a l S c ie n c e , and th o s e de v elo p m en ts w i t h i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y and w i t h i n t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D ep artm en t which have le d to tr a c k in g . C h a p te r I I I c o n t a i n s m ethodology i n c l u d i n g th e h y p o th e s e s to b e t e s t e d , d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e p o p u l a t i o n and th e s a m p le s , i n s tr u m e n ­ ta tio n , d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and p r e p a r a t i o n , and s t a t i s t i c a l m ethods em ployed. C h a p te r IV i s a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e r e s u l t s and a n a l y s i s o f th e d a t a . 8 C h a p te r V c o n t a i n s c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h e s tu d y and re c o m m e n d a tio n s . CHAPTER I I THE GENESIS AND SUBSEQUENT MODIFICATIONS OF GENERAL EDUCATION AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY WHICH HAVE LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRACKING IN THE NATURAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT H i s t o r i c a l D evelopm ents L e a d in g t o t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e B a s ic C o lle g e I n 1849 w i t h n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p le o f M ich ig an engaged in a g r i c u l t u r e , th e S t a t e A g r i c u l t u r a l S o c i e t y was form ed. A lth o u g h t h e p r im a r y f u n c t i o n o f t h e g ro up was th e p ro m o tio n o f a g r i c u l t u r e , th e y d id r e a l i z e th e im p o r ta n c e o f e d u c a t i o n i n t h a t a r e a and p e t i t i o n e d t h e S t a t e L e g i s l a t u r e o f M ichigan f o r an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e i n 1850. They r e a s o n e d t h a t t h i s e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r im e n t "would p r o v i d e a p a t ­ t e r n f o r a n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n and t h e r e f o r e d e s e r v e d a s s i s t a n c e from t h e f e d e r a l g o v e rn m e n t" .^ A lth o u g h la n d g r a n t s had been g iv e n to e ach s t a t e f o r t h e s u p p o r t o f a u n i v e r s i t y none b e f o r e had been o f f e r e d f o r th e e d u c a t i o n o f f a r m e r s . The p e t i t i o n was a g r e a t s t e p fo rw a rd i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e C o lle g e f o r i t awakened th e p e o p le and th e y , f a m i l i a r w ith t h e f a t e o f so many p e t i t i o n s t o th e g o v e rn m e n t, w ere d e te r m in e d n o t to l e t m a t t e r s w a i t upon governm ent a c t i o n i n W ash ing to n. In 1850 i t was d e c id e d t h a t t h e r e was a ne ed to r e v i s e t h e ^L yle B l a i r and Madison Kuhn, A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f M ich ig an S t a t e , (M ichigan S t a t e C o lle g e P r e s s , 1955) p . 7. 9 10 C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e S t a t e o f M ic h ig a n , and th o s e c h arg ed w ith t h e d raw ing up o f t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n i n c o r p o r a t e d a p r o v i s i o n d i r e c t i n g t h e L e g i s l a t u r e t o e s t a b l i s h an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e . ^ On F e b r u a r y 1 2, 1855, M ic h i g a n 's g o v e rn o r s i g n e d th e law w hich made t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l C o lle g e o f M ichigan a l o n g - a w a i t e d r e a l i t y . P r e s i d e n t J o s e p h R. W illia m s e x p r e s s e d t h e b a s i c e d u c a t i o n a l p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e c o l l e g e i n t h e d e d i c a t i o n a d d r e s s o f May 13, 1857. " F i r s t , we w ould b e g in w i t h th e f a r m e r h i m s e l f . . . M o r a lly , p h y s i c a l l y , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , he m u st b e a man, b e f o r e he can be a f a r m e r . " B ecau se h e i s a l s o a c i t i z e n , he s h o u ld be a b l e t o e x e c u t e " t h e d u t i e s o f even h i g h l y r e s p o n s i b l e s t a t i o n s , w ith s e l f - r e l i a n c e and i n t e l l i g e n c e " . He s h o u ld be q u a l i f i e d t o keep h i s a c c o u n t s , s u r v e y h i s la n d , and s p e a k and w r i t e h i s n a t i v e to n g u e " w ith e a s e and v i g o r " . He s h o u ld b e a c h e m i s t, a s t u d e n t o f p h y s i o l o g y , en to m o lo g y , m e c h a n ic s, e l e c t r i c i t y , and t h e v e te rin a ry a r t . He m ust l e a r n , above a l l , t o " s u b o r d i n a t e him­ s e l f , and a l l a n im a l and v e g e t a b l e l i f e a ro u n d him, to th o s e i n e x o r a b l e la w s , m o ra l and p h y s i c a l , t h e v i o l a t i o n o f w hich m e ets w i t h s w i f t r e t r i b u t i o n " . ^ A lth o u g h many p e o p le f e l t t h a t o n ly a g r i c u l t u r e s h o u ld be t a u g h t a t th e new ly e s t a b l i s h e d c o l l e g e , t h e M ich igan L e g i s l a t u r e had d i r e c t e d t h a t an " E n g lis h and s c i e n t i f i c c o u r s e " be t a u g h t a s w e l l . These much m is u n d e r s t o o d words m e a n t, a c c o r d in g to Kuhn, " t h a t a l l o f t h e l i b e r a l a r t s s h o u ld be t a u g h t w i t h th e e x c e p t i o n o f L a t i n and Greek . . . th e t e a c h i n g o f p h i l o s o p h y , eco n o m ics, g e o g ra p h y , h i s t o r y , lite ra tu re ; and a l l o f th e s c i e n c e s — c h e m i s t r y , b o ta n y , z o o lo g y , p h y s io lo g y , g e o lo g y , p h y s i c s and m e c h a n ic s " .^ Thus i t was i n t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h i l e o t h e r c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s a c r o s s t h e c o u n tr y w ere d e v o tin g th e m s e lv e s t o th e ^ I b i d . , p . 7. M adison Kuhn, M ich ig an S t a t e , t h e F i r s t Hundred Y ears (M ichigan A g r i c u l t u r a l C o lle g e P r e s s , 1955) p . 20. N ote: Much o f w hat f o llo w s h ad be en drawn from t h i s work u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e n o t e d , 4 B l a i r and Kuhn, p . 8. 11 i n s t r u c t i o n o f d o c t o r s , la w y e r s , and c le rg y m e n , M ichigan A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e , t h e f i r s t s t a t e a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e i n A m erica, was p ro m is in g a s c i e n t i f i c , p r a c t i c a l and l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n . Nowhere e l s e i n America was s u c h an e d u c a t i o n a v a i l a b l e . But i t was n o t lo n g a f t e r t h e C o l l e g e ' s fo u n d in g t h a t th e S t a t e B oard o f E d u c a tio n , who w ere th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f t h e C o lle g e , s u b ­ s t i t u t e d s o m e th in g o f a two y e a r t r a d e s c h o o l c o u rs e f o r th e l i b e r a l f o u r y e a r pro gram . The S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n and t h e B o a r d 's r e a l e x e c u t i v e , John M. G re g o ry , h a v in g once been th e h ead o f a c l a s s i c a l s c h o o l , f e l t t h a t i n th e a b se n c e o f c l a s s i c a l L a t i n and G reek t h e mind c o u ld b e s t b e d i s c i p l i n e d by p u re and a p p l i e d s c i e n c e . He t h e r e b y removed from t h e c u r r i c u l u m su ch c o u r s e s a s E n g l i s h l i t e r a ­ t u r e , l o g i c , e t h i c s , and p s y c h o lo g y . He f e l t t h a t p r o s p e c t i v e fa rm e rs would be v e r y u n w i l l i n g t o spend f o u r y e a r s i n a t t a i n i n g a d e g r e e . But su c h was n o t t h e c a s e and a t t e n d a n c e dropped t o o n e - h a l f d u r in g 1860. The S t a t e A g r i c u l t u r a l S o c i e t y p e rs u a d e d t h e L e g i s l a t u r e o f 1861 t o r e i n s t a t e th e o r i g i n a l f o u r y e a r program . S o c ie ty 's p r o t e s t, R e a c tin g t o th e th e L e g i s l a t u r e c r e a t e d th e S t a t e Board o f A g r i c u l ­ t u r e w hich was to a d m i n i s t e r t h e C o lle g e . In 1862 th e dream o f a g r a n t o f la n d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n became a r e a l i t y f o r t h e M ichigan L e g i s l a t u r e when P r e s i d e n t Abraham L i n c o ln s ig n e d t h e M o r r i l l Act p r o v i d i n g la n d f o r th e s u p p o r t o f c o l ­ l e g e s "where th e l e a d i n g o b j e c t s h a l l b e , w ith o u t e x c lu d i n g o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c and c l a s s i c a l s t u d i e s and i n c l u d i n g m i l i t a r y t a c t i c s , to t e a c h su c h b r a n c h e s o f l e a r n i n g a s a r e r e l a t e d to a g r i c u l t u r e and th e m ech an ic a r t s i n o r d e r to prom ote th e l i b e r a l and p r a c t i c a l e d u c a t i o n 12 o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l c l a s s e s i n t h e s e v e r a l p u r s u i t s and p r o f e s s i o n s i n lif e " .'* The s t a t e o f M ich ig an r e c e i v e d 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 a c r e s o f l a n d w hich w ere s o l d and th e p r o c e e d s p l a c e d i n a p e r p e t u a l endowment fu n d f o r the s u p p o rt of th e c o lle g e . B ecau se o f i t s w ide v a r i e t y o f c o u r s e o f f e r i n g s and i t s o u t ­ s t a n d i n g t e a c h e r s , t h e C o lle g e a t t r a c t e d many s t u d e n t s i n t e n t on o c c u p a t i o n s o t h e r th e n fa r m in g . Of th o s e s t u d e n t s g r a d u a t i n g i n 1885, o n ly f o r t y p e r c e n t w ere f a r m e r s — o v e r t h i r t y p e r c e n t w ere d o c t o r s , la w y e r s o r b u s in e s s m e n , and t e n p e r c e n t w ere t e a c h e r s . I n k e e p in g w i t h t h e te rm s o f t h e M o r r i l l A c t, to t e a c h "su ch b r a n c h e s o f l e a r n i n g a s a r e r e l a t e d t o . . . th e m echanic a r t s " , M e c h a n ic a l E n g i n e e r in g c u r r i c u l u m was added i n 1885. th e The same p h ilo s o p h y o f s c i e n c e , p r a c t i c e , and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n a p p l i e d h e r e as in th e a g r i c u l t u r a l co u rse. I n 1894 a s i x weeks c o u r s e i n d a i r y m a n u f a c tu r in g was i n t r o ­ d u c e d , i n e s s e n c e t h e b e g in n in g s o f th e C o n tin u in g E d u c a tio n S e r v i c e . Though i t m ig h t a p p e a r t h a t t h e C o lle g e p r o v id e d n o t h i n g o f i n t e r e s t f o r women, who w ere f i r s t a d m i t t e d i n 1870, t h e f o ll o w i n g s t a t e m e n t w r i t t e n by a woman who came a s a widow and c o m p le ted t h e c o u r s e i n 1881 i s o f f e r e d : I to o k v e t e r i n a r y s c i e n c e , and m easured c a t t l e , and d i s s e c t e d c a t s elbow to elbow w ith t h e men, and s t a i d away from c l a s s e s i n p h y s i o l o g y i n o r d e r t h a t men m ig h t be t a u g h t t h a t w hich i t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r women to know, and d id and s u f f e r e d a h u n d re d u n p l e a s a n t t h i n g s to make t h e c o u r s e . . . R e f l e c t i n g upon i t s 5 I b i d . , p . 12. ^ P r i o r t o 1944, M ich ig an A g r i c u l t u r a l C o lle g e was d i v i d e d i n t o d iv isio n s. In e a c h d i v i s i o n w ere d e p a r tm e n ts and i n e ach d e p a rtm e n t w ere o f f e r e d c u r r i c u l a o r c o u r s e s o f s t u d y . These c o n s t i t u t e d w hat may now be c o n s i d e r e d m a jo r s . 13 e x c e l l e n c e s , b la m in g i t f o r none o f my f a i l u r e s , I r e t u r n t o my p o t s and p a n s and my b a b i e s , v e r y g r a t e f u l to any c o u r s e o f s t u d y w hich opened t o me o p p o r t u n i t i e s w hich I c o u ld h a v e i n no o t h e r way e n jo y e d , and w hich h a s made l i f e b e t t e r w o rth l i v i n g , a th o u s a n d t i m e s . 7 A lth o u g h t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c o u r s e was b o th s c i e n t i f i c and l i b e r a l , n o t h i n g was o f f e r e d i n d o m e s tic s c i e n c e and d o m e s tic a r t u n t i l 1896. I n t h a t y e a r a c o u r s e o f s t u d y f o r women was added com­ p o se d o f work i n home e co n o m ic s , n a t u r a l s c i e n c e , and t h e l i b e r a l a rts. A c u r r i c u l u m i n f o r e s t r y was added i n 1902 and a f o u r y e a r v e t e r i n a r y m e d ic in e program i n 1910. S u c c e e d in g y e a r s b r o u g h t i n c r e a s e d e n r o l l m e n t and p r e s s u r e s a c c u m u la te d f o r more c o u r s e s . By 1923 s e v e r a l h u n d re d c o u r s e s w ere d e v o te d t o t h e l i b e r a l a r t s n e c e s s i t a t i n g i n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r th e e sta b lish m e n t of a se p a ra te d iv is io n of L ib e ra l A rts. A lth o u g h t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e l i b e r a l a r t s d i v i s i o n e l i c i t e d some c r i t i c i s m , i t was a l o g i c a l d ev elo p m en t o f t h e l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n s o f t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n , w h ic h , a l t h o u g h fo u n d e d as an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l l e g e , h ad b een g iv e n w id e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s by th e L e g i s l a t u r e o f 1 8 6 3 .8 The p u r p o s e o f t h e new d i v i s i o n was n o t to p r o v i d e a g e n e r a l e d u ca tio n f o r s tu d e n ts in th e te c h n ic a l c u r r ic u la fo r t h i s a lre a d y e x i s t e d , b u t to e d u c a te p e o p le f o r a w id e v a r i e t y o f o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s . With t h e grow th o f know ledge and th e e x p a n s io n o f e a c h d e p a r t ­ m e n t, p ro b le m s o f o v e r l a p p i n g c o u r s e s , t h e e x c e s s i v e number o f c o u r s e s and t h e l i k e r e s u l t e d i n t h e a p p o in tm e n t o f a s p e c i a l co m m itte e o f h o u rs and c o u r s e s . The co m m itte e p r e s e n t e d f o u r t e e n recom m endations ^Kuhn, M ichigan S t a t e , p . 124. 8I b i d . , p . 287. 14 to t h e f a c u l t y a t a m e e tin g on F e b ru a ry 12, 1923. E x c e r p ts from t h a t l i s t p e r t i n e n t t o t h i s s tu d y f o l l o w : 9 The f i r s t two y e a r s o f e ac h c o u rs e s h a l l c o m p rise b a s i c s c ie n c e — in c lu d in g E n g lish — in p r e p a r a tio n fo r s p e c i a l i z a ­ t i o n i n t h e l a s t two y e a r s . 3. 5. C o n t i n u i t y o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n th e c o u r s e s of each o f t h e f i r s t two y e a r s i s d e s i r a b l e . 6. P r o v i s i o n s h o u ld b e made i n th e f i r s t two y e a r s f o r o p t i o n s a s a means o f s e c u r i n g f l e x i b i l i t y . F o r e ig n la n g u a g e s and o t h e r l i b e r a l s u b j e c t s s h a l l occupy a r e a s o n a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e tim e so a l l o t t e d . ^ Each d i v i s i o n re s p o n d e d i n i t s own way t o t h e c o m m itte e ’ s recom­ m e n d a t io n s — some r e q u i r i n g a s e t s e r i e s o f c o u r s e s f o r a l l s t u d e n t s , o t h e r s r e q u i r i n g a s e t number o f c r e d i t h o u r s i n each o f th e s e v e r a l a r e a s o f s t u d y — a p a t t e r n t h a t c o n t i n u e s to d a y . C oncerned o v e r t h e l a c k o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n r e v e a l e d i n s t u d e n t program r e c o r d s i n 1934, t h e Dean o f t h e L i b e r a l A r t s D i v i s i o n , L loyd C. Emmons, e n c o u ra g e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s e v e r a l s u rv e y c o u rs e s .^ These c o u r s e s w ere i n t e n d e d to p r o v i d e a b a s i c , g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n f o r fresh m an s t u d e n t s i n th e L i b e r a l A r t s d i v i s i o n . The f i r s t o f t h e s e c o u r s e s w hich w ere t o i n c l u d e b i o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e , s o c i a l s c i e n c e , and th e a r t s a p p e a re d in th e s c h o o l y e a r 1 9 3 7 -3 8 . 12 9 " C o u rse " h e r e r e f e r s to a p rog ram o f s tu d y or a c u r r i c u l u m . See f o o t n o t e // 6. " ^ F a c u l t y M eetin g M inu tes o f F e b ru a ry 12, 1923. ^ F l o y d V. Monaghan, "B ackgrounds of G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n a t M ich igan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y " (an u n p u b lis h e d p a p e r May, 1955) pp. 7-10. ■ ^ D e s c r ip ti o n s o f th e b i o l o g i c a l and th e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e s a p p e a r i n A ppendix A. 15 In 1931 an e x p e r im e n t i n e d u c a t i o n was a t t e m p t e d . A com m ittee was s e t up to d e te r m in e w hat o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n m ig h t b e a f f o r d e d h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s who d id n o t f u l f i l l t h e e n t r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e C o lle g e and who w ere presumed to be i n c a p a b l e of c o m p le tin g a f o u r y e a r c o u r s e o f s t u d y . The com m ittee p ro p o s e d a G e n e ra l D i v i s i o n f o r t h e c o l l e g e " w ith t h r e e fu n d a m e n ta l i d e a s i n mind— g u i d a n c e , t r a i n i n g and p l a c e m e n t . " 13 But due t o a l a c k o f fu n d s t h i s e x p e r im e n t i n r e q u i r e d g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n d i d n o t m a t e r i a l i z e u n t i l 1942. In t h a t y e a r th e fo llo w in g reco m m end ation s on a d m is s io n s and p o l i c y w ere in c l u d e d i n t h e p r e s e n t a ­ tio n to th e f a c u lty : The Committee recommends: 2. T h a t th e p u r p o s e o f t h e G e n e ra l C u rric u lu m s h a l l b e to l a y a f o u n d a t i o n o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n w ith s u f f i c i e n t v o c a t i o n a l s t u d i e s to e q u ip th o s e s t u d e n t s who can p la n on o n ly two y e a r s o f c o l l e g e work f o r a more u s e f u l and more s a t i s f a c t o r y l i f e and a l s o to s e r v e a s a f o u n d a tio n f o r f u r t h e r a cad em ic s t u d i e s i f th e s t u d e n t d e c i d e s l a t e r t o c o n t i n u e h i s work to w a rd a d e g r e e . ( I t i s u n d e r s to o d t h a t a s t u d e n t who m e ets t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t r a n s f e r t o o t h e r D i v i s i o n s may u s e t h e c r e d i t s e a r n e d i n t h e G e n e ra l C u rric u lu m to w ard t h e c o m p le tio n o f h i s d e g re e up t o t h e l i m i t o f e l e c t i v e s a llo w e d i n e ach s e p a r a t e c u r ­ ricu lu m . 4. T h a t a d m is s io n to t h e G e n e ra l C u rric u lu m be g r a n t e d to any M ich ig an h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e r e g a r d l e s s o f academ ic s t a n d i n g o r p a t t e r n o f s u b j e c t s ta k e n i n h ig h s c h o o l who i s recommended by t h e h i g h s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l a s to m o r a ls , c o n d u c t, and c a p a b i l i t i e s . ^ S tu d e n ts w ere to be e n r o l l e d i n a two y e a r t e r m i n a l program w hich a llo w e d them u n r e s t r i c t e d e l e c t i v e s though th e y had t o ta k e f o u r o f s i x s u rv e y c o u r s e s — th e f o u r m e n tio n e d above a l r e a d y i n e x i s t e n c e " ^ F a c u l t y M eetin g M in u te s , June 9, 1939. 14 F a c u l t y M eetin g M in u te s , J a n u a r y 12, 1942. 16 i n t h e L i b e r a l A r t s C u rric u lu m p l u s two more d e v e lo p e d e s p e c i a l l y f o r them. Each o f t h e two new c o u r s e s was a t h r e e te rm s e q u e n c e . The Survey o f Home Economics s u rv e y e d f a m ily l i f e — c h o ic e o f m a te , home management, c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t, and n u t r i t i o n . The Speech and E n g l i s h L a b o r a t o r y was a c o u r s e i n o r a l and w r i t t e n E n g l i s h . . . . an u n e x p e c te d number o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n t h e G e n e ra l C o lle g e c o m p le te d th e two y e a r s work w i t h s a t i s f a c t o r y r e c o r d s and a s k e d to be a d m i t t e d to one o f t h e d i v i s i o n s w here th e y m ig h t c o n t i n u e tow ard a d e g r e e . A c o m b in a tio n o f s u r v e y c o u r s e s , o f t h e freed om to sam ple s p e c i a l i z e d c u r r i c u l a w i t h o u t becom ing i r r e v o c a b l y com m itted t o one, and o f t h e th o ro u g h p ro g ram o f t e s t i n g and g u id a n c e h ad s a lv a g e d t h e c a r e e r s o f s t u d e n t s whose p r o s p e c t s w ere d u b io u s . What m ig h t su ch a c o m b in a tio n do f o r t h e r e g u l a r s t u d e n t whose h i g h s c h o o l r e c o r d was s u p e r i o r ? ^ A g e n e r a l , l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n was th e n e n s u r e d f o r s t u d e n t s i n t h e L i b e r a l A r t s D i v i s i o n and i n t h e new G e n e ra l C o l l e g e . However, i n t h e o t h e r d i v i s i o n s a t r e n d tow ard more t e c h n i c a l c u r r i c u l a and a grow ing d e s i r e t o t r a i n s t u d e n t s f o r a s w ide a v a r i e t y o f o c c u p a t i o n s a s p o s ­ s i b l e had c a u s e d t h e p r a c t i c a l to d i s p l a c e th e l i b e r a l . What c o u ld be done t o e n s u r e a l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n n o t f o r j u s t a few , b u t f o r a l l stu d en ts? In 1943, c o n c e rn e d w i t h t h i s q u e s t i o n and e x p e c t i n g an enormous i n f l u x o f s t u d e n t s i n th e p o s t - w a r y e a r s , P r e s i d e n t John A. Hannah e n ­ l i s t e d t h e a i d o f D r. F loy d R eeves o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago i n d e v e lo p i n g a program w hich would p r o v i d e t h i s l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n f o r a l l stu d e n ts. D u ring t h i s i n t e r l u d e o f low e n r o l l m e n t and more f r e e tim e f o r t h e s t a f f b e c a u s e o f t h e w ar, i t was P r e s i d e n t H a n n a h 's hope t h a t 15 Kuhn, M ich igan S t a t e , p . 4 1 9 . 17 t h e c o u r s e o f f e r i n g s and t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e of th e C o lle g e c o u ld be re v ie w e d and r e v i s e d . ^ On December 9, 1943, Dr. Reeves a d d r e s s e d th e f a c u l t y on P o s t ­ war t h i n k i n g i n t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n d i s c u s s i n g su ch ite m s as more o b j e c t i v e t e s t i n g , more t e a c h i n g and l e s s r e s e a r c h by th e s t a f f , r i g o r o u s e l i m i n a t i o n o f s t u d e n t s , and l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n . ^ Along t h e l i n e s o f l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n , Dr. R eeves recommended a p rogram o f r e q u i r e d b a s i c g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n f o r a l l fresh m en and sophomores t a u g h t by a d i s t i n c t f a c u l t y , n o t by th o s e in s p e c i a l i z e d d e p a r tm e n t s . He f u r t h e r p ro p o s e d a b o a rd o f e x a m in e rs , s e p a r a t e from t h e f a c u l t y , who would p r e p a r e e x a m in a tio n s w hich w ere co m p re h en siv e i n o r d e r to e n c o u r a g e i n t e g r a t e d l e a r n i n g . " ^ M eanw hile, Dean Emmons, who had be en so i n f l u e n t i a l i n th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e s u r v e y c o u r s e s was a g a i n t u r n i n g h i s t h o u g h ts to th e r e v is io n o f th e L ib e r a l A rts c u rric u lu m . Towards t h i s end h e a p p o i n t e d t h e L i b e r a l A r t s Study and P la n n in g Committee. At th e m e e tin g o f t h e C o lle g e A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Group on March 7, 1944, t h e L i b e r a l A r t s Study and P l a n n in g Committee p r e s e n t e d t h e i r P la n f o r G e n e ra l L i b e r a l A r t s E d u c a tio n . P r e s i d e n t Hannah r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h i s p l a n be t a b l e d " p e n d in g a r e p o r t o f a C o lle g e - w id e com m ittee to be a p p o i n t e d by th e P r e s i d e n t t o c o n s i d e r a g e n e r a l r e v i s i o n o f t h e f i r s t two y e a r s of work f o r s t u d e n t s ■ ^ P e rs o n a l i n t e r v i e w w ith P r o f e s s o r Floyd A. R eeves, Summer, 1970. " ^ F a c u l t y M eetin g M in u te s , December 9, 1943. 1 Q Kuhn, M ich iga n S t a t e , p . 420. 18 i n a l l d i v i s i o n s o f th e C o l l e g e " . 19 P r o f e s s o r Reeves p r e s e n t e d h i s p ro p o sa l: . . . F i r s t , t h e p r o p o s a l f o r two y e a r s o f b a s i c g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n , s e c o n d , a Board o f E xam iners t h i r d , t h e c o n t e n t o f c o m p re h e n s iv e c o u r s e s , f o u r t h , t h e b e s t t e a c h e r s a r e n e e d e d f o r such c o u r s e s , f i f t h , t h e im p o r ta n c e o f th e two y e a r s t u d e n t t o M ich ig an S t a t e C o lle g e , s i x t h , t h e i n d u s t r i o u s and a b l e s t u d e n t n o t h e l d b ack .^ O F o llo w in g t h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n t h e f a c u l t y i n d i c a t e d i t s in te re st and e n t h u s i a s m and p r o v id e d f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n of a co m m itte e t o work o u t t h e new p l a n w hich was t o b e i n i t i a t e d i n S ep tem b er, 1944. d i v i s i o n met and n o m in a te d t h r e e p e o p le f o r t h e c o m m itte e . Each From t h e s e t h e p r e s i d e n t s e l e c t e d e i g h t w i t h Mr. H. G. R a t h e r s e r v i n g a s c h airm an . The c o m m ittee members, r e l e a s e d from t e a c h i n g d u t i e s f o r th e te rm , met d a i l y and drew h e a v i l y from t h e p r e v i o u s l y t a b l e d L i b e r a l A r t s P la n and t h e G e n e r a l C o lle g e p l a n . They c o n s u l t e d e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h P r o f e s s o r Reeves and d e l i b e r a t e d w i t h d i v i s i o n a l f a c u l t i e s on p ro p o s e d c o u r s e s . A f t e r 33 m e e tin g s a p l a n f o r b a s i c e d u c a t i o n o f f e r e d i n a s e p a r a t e c o l l e g e had d e v e lo p e d . P o r t i o n s o f th e c o m m ittee r e p o r t a r e q u o te d h e r e : The F u n c tio n s o f B a s ic E d u c a tio n B a s ic E d u c a tio n , a s p ro p o s e d f o r M ichigan S t a t e C o l l e g e , i s d e s ig n e d to p r o v i d e s t u d e n t s a sound f o u n d a t i o n on w hich t o b u i l d i n t e l l i g e n t i n t e r e s t i n p e r s o n a l , f a m ily , v o c a t i o n a l , s o c i a l , and c i v i c p ro b le m s , a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s e p ro b le m s , and a g r e a t e r a b i l i t y to cope w ith them. I t i n ­ c l u d e s t h e s tu d y o f m a n 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to p h y s i c a l , b i o l o g i c a l , and s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , an i n c r e a s e d know ledge o f th e h i s t o r i c a l b a ck g ro u n d o f p r e s e n t - d a y c i v i l i z a t i o n s , and an en hanced a p p r e c i a t i o n o f c u l t u r e s , p a s t and p r e s e n t , t h a t h ave been e x p r e s s e d i n l i t e r a t u r e , m u s ic , and a r t . 19 20 A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Group M eetin g M in utes o f March 7, 1944. F a c u l t y M eeting M in u te s o f March 9, 1944. 19 B a s ic E d u c a tio n s h o u ld g i v e s t u d e n t s an o p p o r t u n i t y to e x p l o r e b ro a d a r e a s , s h o u ld a i d them i n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s and a p t i t u d e s , and s h o u ld e q u ip them b e t t e r t o assum e t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a s i n d i v i d u a l s and a s c i t i z e n s o f a d e m o c r a c y .21 The c h i e f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r o f t h e new ly e s t a b l i s h e d B a s ic C o lle g e was t o be a d e a n , d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e t o t h e p r e s i d e n t . A ll s t u d e n t s a t M ich ig an S t a t e C o lle g e would be e n r o l l e d i n t h i s new c o l ­ le g e d u r i n g t h e i r fresh m an and sophomore y e a r s . The c u r r i c u l a would i n c l u d e s e v e n c o m p re h e n siv e c o r e c o u r s e s c o n s t i t u t i n g sev e n d e p a r tm e n ts i n t h e B a s ic C o lle g e . The minimum r e q u i r e m e n t s would be f i v e c o u r s e s ch o se n from t h e s e v e n on t h e f o l l o w i n g b a s i s : 1) 2) 3) 4) W r i t t e n and O ra l C om m unication— r e q u i r e d o f a l l s t u d e n t s . E i t h e r B i o l o g i c a l S c ie n c e o r P h y s i c a l S c ie n c e . E i t h e r S o c i a l S c ie n c e o r E f f e c t i v e L i v i n g . E i t h e r O r i g i n s and D evelopm ent o f C i v i l i z a t i o n o r L i t e r a t u r e and F in e A r t s . 5) Any o f t h e c o m p re h en siv e c o u r s e s n o t a l r e a d y ta k e n . A B oard o f E xam iners was t o be e s t a b l i s h e d f o r th e p u rp o s e o f c o n s t r u c t i n g c o m p re h e n siv e e x a m i n a t i o n s . G rades and c r e d i t s i n th e c o m p re h e n s iv e c o r e c o u r s e s would depend e n t i r e l y on t h e s e e x a m i n a tio n s . S t u d e n t s who had n o t t a k e n a p a r t i c u l a r c o u r s e c o u ld o b t a i n c r e d i t f o r t h a t c o u r s e th ro u g h e x a m in a tio n i f th e y w ere recommended by t h e i r c o u n se lo r. The r e p o r t was a d o p te d w i t h o u t a d i s s e n t i n g v o t e , and t h e B a s ic C o lle g e was e s t a b l i s h e d e f f e c t i v e J u l y 1, 1944, by a c t i o n o f t h e S t a t e Board o f A g r i c u l t u r e . 22 21 R e p o r t o f Committee a p p o i n t e d "F o r Study and Recommendation" C o n c e rn in g B a s ic E d u c a tio n a t M ichigan S t a t e C o lle g e , May 22, 1944. 22 E i g h t y - f o u r t h Annual R e p o rt o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f th e S t a t e Board o f A g r i c u l t u r e o f th e S t a t e o f M ichigan and F i f t y - e i g h t h Annual R e p o rt o f t h e E x p e rim e n t S t a t i o n from J u l y 1, 1944 to Ju n e 30, 1945. A B u l l e t i n o f M ich ig an S t a t e C o l l e g e . Volume 40, A p r i l 1946, #10, p. 117. 20 The G e n e s is and D evelopm ent o f t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D ep artm en t A number o f c r i t i c i s m s w ere v o i c e d by t h e p u b l i c and t h e f a c u l t y i n t h e y e a r s f o ll o w i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e B a s ic C o l l e g e . "One o f t h e o b j e c t i o n s m o st commonly r a i s e d was th e s u r v i v a l o f t h e e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e i n r e l a t i o n to t h e b a s i c c o u r s e s : i f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n was t r y i n g to d e v e lo p c o m p re h en siv e c o u r s e s w hich p r o v id e d e d u c a t i o n a l outcom es d e s i r a b l e f o r a l l s t u d e n t s , t h e n i t was i n c o n s i s t e n t t o p e r m i t t h e s t u d e n t to e l e c t n o t t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n some o f t h e s e c o u r s e s . " 23 T h is a p p a r e n t l y was t h e m ost c o g e n t argum ent f o r t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n w hich was to o c c u r . I n a l e t t e r from C l i f f o r d E r ic k s o n , th e n Dean o f t h e B a s ic C o l l e g e , to P r e s i d e n t J . A. Hannah on J a n u a r y 31, 1952, was th e s ta te m e n t t h a t "our p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e i s n o t d e f e n s ib le . We s h o u ld h av e c e r t a i n a r e a s w hich a r e r e q u i r e d o f a l l s t u d e n t s , w hich a r e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , w hich a r e d e f i n i t e l y a p a r t o f t h e eq uipm en t o f a l l c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s and w hich can be d e f e n d e d " . 2A R e s e a rc h r e v e a l e d t h a t p a t t e r n s w ere d e v e lo p i n g a s to w hich c o u r s e s s t u d e n t s would o m it: o n ly a b o u t o n e - f o u r t h o f them w ere e l e c t i n g to t a k e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e , and some o f t h e s e o n ly b e c a u s e i t was a r e q u ir e m e n t i n t h e d e p a r tm e n t i n w hich th e y w ere m a jo r in g . 25 T h is program o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n t h a t a llo w e d a s t u d e n t t o d e te r m in e 23 Thomas H am ilto n and Edward Blackman, The B a s ic C o lle g e o f M ichig an S t a t e , The M ichigan S t a t e C o lle g e P r e s s , E a s t L a n s in g , M ic h ig a n , 1955, p . 12. 24 Edward A. C a r l i n and Edward B. Blackman, C u rric u lu m B u i l d i n g i n G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n , Wm. C. Brown Co. P u b l i s h e r s , Dubuque, Iowa, p p. 4 - 5 . 25 H am ilton and Blackman, p . 1 2 . 21 h i s own course-w orlc r e s u l t e d i n g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e l a t i n g g e n e r a l and more a d v an ced c o u r s e s . The a s p e c t o f t h e c o m p re h e n s iv e e x a m i n a tio n s t h a t b a s e d a y e a r ' s g ra d e on one d a y 's p e rfo rm a n c e was r e p o r t e d by P r o f e s s o r R eeves i n 1948 to be th e m o st c r i t i c i z e d e le m e n t i n t h e B a s ic C o l l e g e . 26 Under t h a t program th e i n s t r u c t o r awarded a te m p o ra ry g r a d e f o r e a c h o f th e t h r e e term s o f t h e c o u r s e . in a A f i n a l c o m p re h e n s iv e e x a m in a tio n r e s u l t e d s i n g l e g ra d e f o r t h e e n t i r e c o u r s e . t h e B a s ic C o lle g e An o p in io n w id e ly h e l d by s t a f f was t h a t t h e s i n g l e e x a m in a tio n l e d s t u d e n t s t o n e g l e c t t h e B a s ic C o l l e g e c o u r s e s i n f a v o r o f t h e i r o t h e r s t u d i e s . The in d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e Board o f E xam in ers a l s o r e c e i v e d c r i t i c i s m . 27 These c r i t i c i s m s i n d i c a t e d t h a t some m a jo r change was n e c e s s a r y . Given th e o p p o r t u n i t y i n F e b r u a r y , 1952, to e x p r e s s an o p i n i o n on an im m ediate p l a n t o r e o r g a n i z e , b o th t h e B i o l o g i c a l S c ie n c e and t h e P h y s i c a l S c ie n c e s t a f f s v o t e d a g a i n s t t h e p l a n . much d i s c u s s i o n , 28 N o n e th ele ss, a f t e r t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e e n t i r e U n i v e r s i t y a p p ro v e d a s e r i e s o f p r o p o s a l s f o r a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e B a s ic C o lle g e on March 4 , 1952. T h is a c t i o n p r o v id e d f o r (1) t h e d ev elo p m en t o f f o u r i n t e g r a t e d c o u r s e s i n g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n to be r e q u i r e d o f a l l s t u d e n t s : Communication S k i l l s , N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , S o c i a l S c ie n c e and H u m a n itie s . The p l a n p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e s e f o u r new c o u r s e s combine th e b e s t f e a t u r e s o f t h e s e v e n b a s i c c o u r s e s f o r m e r ly o f f e r e d so t h a t s t u d e n t s w ould a c q u i r e a common b a c k ­ grou nd i n b a s i c e d u c a t i o n and t h e u p p e r s c h o o ls would th u s h ave a u n if o r m f o u n d a t i o n upon w hich to b u i l d t h e i r p ro g r a m s . 26 Kuhn, M ich ig an S t a t e , p . 424. 27 P a u l L. D r e s s e l , E v a l u a t i o n i n t h e B a s ic C o lle g e a t M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , H a rp e r and B r o s . , New Y ork. pp . 7 -8 . 28 John N. Moore as c o n t a in e d i n C a r li n and Blackman, pp. 4 3 - 4 4 . 22 (2) t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o m p re h e n s iv e e x a m i n a tio n s y ste m so t h a t g r a d e s i n B a s ic C o lle g e c o u r s e s would be b a s e d p a r t i a l l y (50 p e r c e n t ) on t h e c o m p re h e n s iv e e x a m in a tio n a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e Board o f E xam iners a t t h e end o f t h e term and t h e r e m a in in g 50 p e r c e n t on t h e i n s t r u c t o r ' s e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s p e rfo rm a n c e a t t h e end o f e ac h te rm . T h is p l a n d id n o t a l t e r i n any s i g n i f i c a n t way th e o r i g i n a l m ethod o f a c c e l e r a t i o n . . . (3) t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n and f u r t h e r d ev elo p m en t o f tw o -y e a r t e r m i n a l c u r r i c u l a i n w hich a p p r o p r i a t e c e r t i f i c a t i o n was to b e g iv e n f o r th e s a t i s f a c t o r y c o m p le tio n o f 92 c r e d i t s , i n c l u d i n g Communication S k i l l s and a t l e a s t two o f t h e re m a in in g t h r e e b a s i c c o u r s e s . 29 The f i r s t o f t h e s e p r o p o s a l s demanded one c o u r s e i n general e d u c a t i o n s c i e n c e w here f o r m e r l y t h e r e had b e en two. The c o u r s e i n B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e , j u s t p r i o r t o t h e r e o r ­ g a n i z a t i o n o f 1952, was d e s ig n e d t o h e l p s t u d e n t s i n t e r p r e t man i n l i g h t o f h i s b i o l o g i c a l n a t u r e . . . . Work was o r g a n i z e d under s ix to p ic s : (1) K inds o f L i v in g T h in g s , (2) C h a r a c t e r ­ i s t i c s Common t o A l l L i v in g T h in g s , (3) M a in te n a n c e o f th e I n d i v i d u a l , (4) M a in te n a n c e o f t h e S p e c i e s , (5) I n t e r r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p s , and (6) B i o l o g i c a l E v o l u t i o n . The l a b o r a t o r y program was d e v e lo p e d w i t h one o b j e c t i v e — t e a c h t h e s t u d e n t t o t h i n k sc ie n tific a lly . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n was to g iv e him a method o f t h i n k i n g and an a t t i t u d e u s e f u l i n h i s d a i l y life . P r i o r to 1952, t h e o t h e r g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n s c i e n c e c o u r s e , P h y s i c a l S c ie n c e , i n t e g r a t e d v a r i o u s f a c t s o f a stro n o m y , c h e m i s t r y , g e o lo g y , and p h y s i c s i n t o a t e x t u r e w i t h t h r e a d s o f p h i l o s o p h i c and h i s t o r i c a l a s p e c t s o f s c i e n c e . The c o u r s e was c o n c e rn e d w ith t h r e e m a jo r a r e a s : (1) The gro w th o f m a n 's i d e a s a b o u t th e o r i g i n and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e and th e s o l a r sy ste m ; t h e p u r p o s e was to h e l p s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e th e f u n c t i o n o f o b s e r v a t i o n , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i n th e d ev elo p m en t o f n a t u r a l la w s . (2) M an's o b s e r v a t i o n s o f th e a tm o s p h e re and th e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e e a r t h ; t h e g o a l was t o e x p l a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s among p h y s i c a l f a c t o r s i n m a n 's e n v i r o n ­ m ent. (3) An a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f m a t t e r ; t o p i c s i n ­ c lu d e d th e s tu d y o f h e a t , m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e o f m a t t e r , and v a r i o u s form s o f e n e r g y . 29 H am ilto n and B lackm an, p p . 1 3 -1 4 . N ote: For p r e s e n t r e ­ q u ire m e n ts t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e 1970 M ichigan S t a t e U n iv e r ­ s i t y c a t a l o g , p . 13. 30 Moore a s c o n t a in e d i n C a r li n and Blackman, p . 41. 23 The d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n te r e d i n com bining two su ch d i v e r s e c o u r s e s w ere e x p r e s s e d by C h e s t e r A. Lawson, th e n chairm an o f th e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D e p a rtm e n t, when he w r o te : To m ost s c i e n t i s t s and t e a c h e r s o f s c i e n c e , n a t u r a l s c i e n c e does n o t e x i s t a s an e n t i t y ; i n s t e a d , t h e r e a r e b o ta n y , z o o lo g y , c h em istry , p h y s ic s , e t c . Each i n d i v i d u a l s c i e n t i s t was t r a i n e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d o f s c i e n c e and became, n o t a n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t , b u t a p h y s i c i s t , c h e m i s t, z o o l o g i s t , o r b o t a n i s t . Thus f o r a c o u r s e i n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e t o be d e v e lo p e d , t h e h i s t o r i c a l t r e n d o f s e p a r a t i o n among t h e v a r i o u s s c i e n c e s m ust b e r e v e r s e d , and some s o r t o f s y n t h e s i s m ust be made w hich w i l l e s t a b l i s h n a t u r a l s c i e n c e a s a u n i f i e d and i n t e g r a t e d d i s c i p l i n e . 31 The p ro b le m s w rou g ht by such a c o m b in a tio n w ere a r e a l c h a l l e n g e to t h e s t a f f members. "T here w ere s e v e r a l who r e s o l v e d t o have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h th e p r o j e c t and th e y s o u g h t employment a t o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s ." 32 C o n fro n te d w i t h t h e r e a l i t y o f t h e new c o u r s e and t h e b r i e f span o f tim e i n w hich to d e v e lo p m a t e r i a l s , v a r i o u s s t a f f members s e t about th e ta s k of p re p a rin g la b o ra to ry s tu d ie s . The em p hasis o f th e c o u r s e was t o be upon th e l a b o r a t o r y w ork, l e c t u r e s f u n c t i o n i n g to e l a b o r a t e upon i d e a s f i r s t d e v e lo p e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y . 33 In S ep tem ber, 1952, t h e Guide f o r L a b o r a to r y S t u d i e s : S c ie n c e 34 was p u b l i s h e d . N a tu ra l T h is was u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w ith a s y l l a b u s C h e s te r A. Lawson a s c o n t a i n e d i n H am ilto n and Blackman, p . 50. 32 Moore a s c o n t a i n e d i n C a r l i n and Blackman, p. 48. 33 I b i d . , p p . 4 9 -5 0 . N o te: D evelopm ents i n th e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D epartm ent from 1952-1960 c o n t a i n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g pages a r e a c o n d e n s a tio n o f th e more c o m p le te work by John N. Moore as c o n ta i n e d in C a r l i n and Blackman, pp. 4 0 -7 2 . 34 A Guide f o r L a b o r a to r y S t u d i e s i n N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , M ichigan S t a t e C o lle g e P r e s s , 1952. 24 p r e p a r e d f o r u s e as a l e c t u r e g u i d e . But even b e f o r e t h e f i r s t c l a s s con ven ed , th e s t a f f a p p ro v e d a p r o j e c t e d c o u r s e r e v i s i o n b a s e d on t h e d e v elo p m en t o f s c i e n c e and i t s r e l a t i o n to s o c i e t y . P r im a rily because o f i n c r e a s e i n s t a f f s i z e a c u r r ic u lu m com m ittee was a p p o in te d by t h e d e p a r tm e n t ch airm an t o d i r e c t th e f i r s t r e v i s i o n . In 1953 t h e new ly r e v i s e d l a b o r a t o r y e x e r c i s e s w ere p u b l i s h e d i n t h r e e volumes c a l l e d S t u d i e s i n N a t u r a l S c i e n c e . books w ere u s e d a s s u p p l e m e n t a l t e x t s . 35 S everal o th e r D e f i c i e n c i e s i n th e l a b o r a t o r y program d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e f a l l term o f 1953 prom pted th e d e p a rtm e n t head to a p p o i n t a new c u r r i c u l u m com m ittee r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o l l e c t i n g c r i t i c i s m s and p la n n in g a s e c o n d c o u r s e r e v i s i o n . I n 1954 t h e s t a f f u n a n im o u sly a p p ro v e d a c o m m ittee recommenda­ t i o n t h a t a c o m b in a tio n o f t e x t u a l m a t e r i a l and l a b o r a t o r y e x e r c i s e s s h o u ld be p r e p a r e d b y t h e s t a f f a s a 1955-56 r e v i s i o n t h e r e b y s t r e n g t h ­ e n in g t h e t e a c h i n g o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . With th e end o f t h e s c h o o l y e a r c l o s e a t hand and no d e f i n i t e r e v i s i o n y e t d e v e lo p e d , t h e d e p a r t ­ ment c h airm an s u g g e s te d an o u t l i n e w hich would p e r m i t v a r i a t i o n . . . . The c e l l i s t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t i n t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r , u n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m and e v o l u t i o n i n t h e seco nd q u a r t e r , and th e p a r t i c l e and a to m ic - m o le c u l a r th e o r y i n th e t h i r d q u a r t e r . The c o r e theme s h o u ld b e : u n d e r s t a n d i n g s c i e n c e i n term s o f what i t can c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s t u d e n t i n s o l v i n g human p ro b lem s o f u n i v e r s e and man. D i f f e r e n t a p p ro a c h e s may b e u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t q u a r t e r s o r more th a n one a p p ro a c h i n any one q u a r t e r . 36 S t a f f members unanim ously a p p ro v e d t h e s e i d e a s , d i v i d e d th e t e n t a t i v e o u t l i n e i n t o t e n a r e a s and began t h e i r w ork. D uring t h a t 35 S t u d i e s in N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , V o l. I , I I , I I I , Ed. C h e s te r A. Lawson and A l f r e d Novak, M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953. 36 p. 61. C h e ste r A. Lawson as q u o ted by Moore, C a r li n and Blackman, 25 y e a r w h i l e s t a f f members w ere i n v o lv e d i n p r e p a r i n g m a n u s c r i p t s f o r th e s e c o n d r e v i s i o n , Dr. Lawson was s e r i o u s l y in v o lv e d i n h i s own r e s e a r c h o f t h e ways i n which s c i e n t i s t s do t h e i r work. He c o n tin u e d t h i s r e s e a r c h th r o u g h th e y e a r 1 9 5 5 -5 6 , and i n t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h a t y e a r i n v i t e d a group o f s t a f f members t o m eet f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g a new " ta x o n o m ic , l o g i c a l - l i k e fram ew ork" w hich p r o v id e d a d i f f e r e n t way o f d i s c u s s i n g m eth od olo g y i n s c i e n c e . In h i s w ords: . . . W hile s c i e n c e c o n s i s t s o f s y s t e m a t i z e d know ledge o f f a c t s , h y p o t h e s e s , and t h e o r i e s . . . s c i e n c e a l s o i n c l u d e s an i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s w ith s p e c i f i c g o a l s , s p e c i f i c p r o c e d u r e s , and s p e c i f i c r e s u l t s . . . . T h is common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , w hich i d e n t i f i e s s c i e n t i f i c a c t i v i t y o f a l l t y p e s , can become th e i n t e g r a t i n g theme o f a c o u r s e i n N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . I t i s t h i s theme w hich h a s g iv e n us o u r m a jo r o b j e c t i v e : t o g i v e t h e s t u d e n t an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s c i e n c e a s a p a r t i c u l a r a d a p t a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l b e h a v i o r . 37 B asin g t h e i r work on t h i s new fram ew ork, t h e s t a f f b egan t h e i r t h i r d c o u r s e r e v i s i o n even b e f o r e th e se c o n d r e v i s i o n was i n th e s t u d e n t s ' hands. But d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h an a t t e m p t a t programming t h e new m a t e r i a l r e s u l t e d i n a d e l a y o f t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e l a s t o f t h r e e volum es e n t i t l e d , N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 38 u n t i l 1964. When Dr. Lawson l e f t th e d e p a r tm e n t i n 1963 to become a D i s t i n ­ g u is h e d R e s e a rc h P r o f e s s o r , Dr. Emanuel H a c k e l was a p p o in te d Chairman o f t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D e p a rtm e n t. D uring t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f h i s c h a ir m a n s h ip t h e e n t i r e c o u r s e — o b j e c t i v e s , c o n t e n t , method o f i n ­ s t r u c t i o n —w ere s u b j e c t e d to an i n t e n s i v e r e e x a m in a tio n by th e s t a f f . The c h a irm a n r e q u e s t e d from t h e s t a f f a s e t o f p o s i t i o n p a p e r s w hich 37 C h e s te r A. Lawson as c o n t a i n e d i n H am ilton and Blackman, p . 51. ^ N a t u r a l S c ie n c e Vol. I , Ed. C h e s t e r A. Lawson, (MSU P r e s s ) 1961; V ol. I I , Ed. Emanuel H a ck e l, R alph W. Lew is, C la re n c e L. S chlo em er, D ennis W. S tr a w b r id g e (MSU P r e s s ) 1964; V ol. I l l , Ed. C h e s te r A. Lawson (MSU P r e s s ) , 1963. 26 w ere d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c u l t y on May 2 3, 1963, w i t h t h e c h a r g e t h a t t h e p a p e r s would form t h e b a s i s f o r d i s c u s s i o n s t o b e g in e a r l y i n t h e f a l l on t h e D e p a r t m e n t 's f u t u r e d e v e lo p m e n t. In t h e f a l l o f t h a t y e a r a tw o-day s e s s i o n was h e l d a t G u ll Lake, M ic h ig a n , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f o p e n in g t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f c u r r i c u l u m r e ­ v isio n . At t h i s tim e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a d o u b le t r a c k p ro g ram , one t r a c k o f b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e , one t r a c k o f p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e was sug ­ g e s t e d , d e b a te d and ab an d o n e d . I t m ust be n o te d t h a t a t th e tim e o f t h i s s u g g e s t e d r e v i s i o n t h e p e r s o n n e l o f t h e d e p a r tm e n t w ere p r e ­ d o m in a n tly (more th a n t w o - t h i r d s ) b i o l o g i s t s , o n ly f i v e o f t h e s t a f f b e in g p h y s i c a l s c i e n t i s t s . The p r e f e r e n c e by s t u d e n t s f o r t h e b i o ­ l o g i c a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e a s op p osed to t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e o f some y e a r s p r i o r was s t i l l r a t h e r f r e s h i n t h e m inds o f t h e b i o l o g i s t s . B i o l o g i s t s s t i l l f e l t i n a d e q u a t e i n t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e a r e a , and p h y s i c a l s c i e n t i s t s f e l t in a d e q u a t e i n t h e a r e a o f b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e . Then t o o , t h e r e was th e f e e l i n g t h a t i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e two s u b j e c t m a t t e r a r e a s had r e a l l y n o t be en s u c c e s s f u l . 39 D u rin g t h e a cadem ic y e a r s 1 9 6 3 -6 4 , and 1 9 6 4 -6 5 , many p la n n i n g s e s s i o n s w e re h e l d . I n t h e s e a v a r i e t y o f p r o p o s a l s w ere a d v an c e d , d i s c u s s e d and v o te d upon. F i n a l l y one p r o p o s a l was a c c e p te d w hich was to r e s u l t in a f o u r th co u rse r e v is io n e n t i t l e d , 39 S e a rc h f o r E x p l a n a t i o n : P e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s w ith i n d i v i d u a l N a t u r a l S c ie n c e s t a f f members, 1 96 9-70. 27 S tu d ie s in N a tu ra l S c ie n ce , 40 t o c o n s i s t o f t h r e e h a rd b o u n d t e x t volumes p l u s t h r e e l a b o r a t o r y m a n u a ls. At t h e tim e o f t h i s w r i t i n g t h e f i r s t and t h i r d volum es o f r e v i s i o n h a v e b een p u b l i s h e d i n t h e h a r d b i n d i n g . A s o f tb o u n d th is e d itio n o f Volume I I i s a l s o i n c la s s r o o m u s e , b u t p l a n s a r e now t o make a n o t h e r r e v i s i o n d e l e t i n g a g r e a t d e a l o f t h e m a t e r i a l and u s e a le ss c o s t l y s o f t b i n d i n g f o r a l l t h r e e vo lum es. W hile r e v i s i o n s w ere b e in g w r i t t e n i n t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e , o t h e r c h an g e s w ere b e in g d i s c u s s e d on a m a s s iv e s c a l e . T rac k s P r e s i d e n t John A. Hannah a p p o i n t e d a Com m ittee on U n d e r g r a d u a te E d u c a tio n (CUE) on F e b ru a ry 8, 1967. s e t fo rth , in p a rt, The r e a s o n s f o r h i s a c t i o n a r e i n t h e CUE r e p o r t . H e re in he c i t e d c h an g e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n s o c i e t y and em ph asized th e n eed t o re e x am in e and r e v i s e th e u n d e r g r a d u a t e program i n l i g h t o f t h e s e c h a n g e s . He c h a rg e d t h e com­ m i t t e e to "make s p e c i f i c recom m endations t o s t r e n g t h e n , t o d i s c a r d , t o r e o r g a n i z e , to e m p h a siz e , to l i m i t , to e x te n d , o r t o t a k e any o t h e r a c t i o n th e y t h i n k a p p r o p r i a t e " . ^ In a sp e e c h d e l i v e r e d t o th e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e f a c u l t y on F e b ru a ry 22 , 1967, even b e f o r e th e Committee on U n d e r g r a d u a te E d u c a tio n 40 The S e a rc h f o r E x p l a n a t i o n ; S tu d ie s in N a tu ra l S c ie n ce , V ol. I , Ed. James L. G o a tle y (MSU P r e s s ) , 1967; V ol. I I , Ed. C h a r le s S. S t . C l a i r (MSU P r e s s ) , 1969; V ol. I l l , Ed. W a lt e r C. B lin n (MSU P r e s s ) , 1968. L a b o r a to r y Manual f o r N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , E d i t o r s and P u b l i s h e r s a s a b o v e, Vol. I , 1967; V ol. I I , 1968; V ol. I l l , 1968. T t e p o r t o f th e Committee on U n d e rg ra d u a te E d u c a tio n , "Im p rov in g U n d e rg ra d u a te E d u c a t i o n , " M ich igan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1967, pp. 1 -2 . 28 had c o m p le ted i t s d e l i b e r a t i o n s , Dean C a r l i n c a l l e d on t h e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e t o p r e p a r e t o m eet t h e c h a l l e n g e s i n c u r r e d by t h e i n c r e a s i n g d i v e r s i t y o f s o c i e t y , o f t h e s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n , and o f t h e f a c u l t y itse lf. He p ro p o s e d t h a t i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f p r o v i d i n g a means o f a d e q u a te r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y v a r i e d n e e d s and d e s i r e s o f s t u d e n t s and f a c u l t y a l i k e , t h e f a c u l t y s h o u ld c o n s i d e r o f f e r i n g m u l t i p l e t r a c k s o f t h e f o u r U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e c o u r s e s th e n b e in g ta u g h t. The r e p o r t o f th e CUE r e f l e c t s t h e i r e n d o rs e m e n t o f h i s id e a s .^ The r e p o r t o f t h e CUE was p u b l i s h e d i n 1967. I t is of in te r e s t to n o t e t h e C o m m itte e 's u s e o f t h e te rm s " l i b e r a l " and " g e n e r a l " e d u ca tio n : . . . They a r e i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d , f o r b o t h im p ly a s e e k in g a f t e r know ledge f o r i t s own s a k e a l o n e —w hich i s t o s a y , f o r t h e s a k e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g more a b o u t human n a t u r e and s o c i e t y and t h e w o rld i n w hich we l i v e . T h is i s t h e g r e a t and v i n d i c a t i n g end a f t e r w hich l i b e r a l and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n s t r i v e . They s h a r e . . . t h e i n t e n t i o n o f f r e e i n g t h e s t u d e n t from t h e bondage o f custom and th e c o n s t r i c t i o n s o f h i s own tim e and p l a c e . They would b r i n g him t o some c o m p re h e n s io n o f how w h a t h a s hap pened i n t h e p a s t can c o n t i n u e t o s h a p e e v e n t s i n t h e p r e s e n t and t h e f u t u r e ; th e y would s u p p ly him w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l and a n a l y t i c a l s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y t o make i n t e l l i g e n t c h o i c e s , t h e s k i l l s n e ed e d t o s o r t o u t t h e t r u e from t h e f a l s e , t h e b e a u t i f u l from th e m e re ly p r e t t y ; th e y w o uld , i n b r i e f , p e r m i t him t o g i v e humane d i r e c t i o n t o h i s l i f e by a c q u a i n t i n g him w i t h t h a t c l u s t e r o f i n f i n i t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s we c a l l " t h e human con­ d itio n ". These a r e t h e en ds o f l i b e r a l and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n and th e y a r e , n o t c o i n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e p r im a r y ends o f t h e Uni­ v e r s ity as w e l l . C e r t a i n p o r t i o n s o f t h e c o m m i t t e e 's r e p o r t a r e q u i t e p e r t i n e n t to t h i s s t u d y and a r e r e p r o d u c e d , i n p a r t , below : ^ Ib id ., 43 pp. 6 8 -6 9 . lb i d . , pp. 5 9 -6 0 . 29 . . . F o r t y - f i v e h o u r s , o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s t o t a l p ro g ram , r e p r e s e n t t h e p r e s e n t r e q u i r e m e n t and t h e Committee c a n n o t b u t su p p o se t h i s to b e m in im a l. At l e a s t one y e a r ' s work i n t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s and t h e h u m a n i t i e s , w ith a l i k e commitment to t h e de v elo p m en t o f s k i l l i n th e u s e o f t h e E n g l i s h la n g u a g e , s h o u ld c o n t i n u e to r e p r e s e n t , i n t h e C o m m itte e 's v ie w , t h e U n i v e r s i t y ' s s t a t e d e x p e c ta tio n f o r every g r a d u a te . However, t h e Committee would u r g e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a l a r g e r d e g r e e o f f l e x i b i l i t y i n m e e tin g g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s th a n i s now p o s s i b l e . The d i v e r s i t y o f s t u d e n t p r e p a r a t i o n and i n t e r e s t a lo n e a r g u e s f o r more f l e x i b i l i t y and i t s h o u ld be p r o ­ v id e d so lo n g a s t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y ’s g e n e r a l e d u c a ­ t i o n p rogram can be m a i n t a i n e d . ^ The p ro b le m o f r e c o n c i l i n g i n t e g r i t y and f l e x i b i l i t y i s commented upon l a t e r i n t h e C o m m itte e 's r e p o r t : . . . I t i s t h e C o m m itte e 's v ie w t h a t t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e p ro gram does n o t r e q u i r e p r e c i s e l y s i m i l a r e x p e r i e n c e s f o r a l l s t u d e n t s i n th e U n i v e r s i t y so lo n g a s t h a t common fram ew ork i s p r e s e r v e d . . . .45 The Committee n o te d s p e c i a l s e c t i o n s a l r e a d y i n e x i s t e n c e f o r h o n o rs s t u d e n t s and f o r s t u d e n t s i n t h e r e s i d e n t i a l c o l l e g e s and i n d i ­ c a t e d t h a t t h e s e s e c t i o n s " f a l l c l e a r l y w i t h i n t h e c o u r s e o u t l i n e and o b j e c t i v e s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e d e p a r tm e n t" y e t s t i l l a llo w f o r f l e x i ­ b ility . N e a rly a y e a r l a t e r , i n J a n u a r y , 1968, Dean C a r l i n r e a f f i r m e d h i s e a r l i e r p r o p o s a l o f o f f e r i n g m u l t i p l e t r a c k s i n a l e t t e r to t h e f a c u l t y o f th e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e . He n o te d t h e r e i n t h a t "The D e p a r t­ ment o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e i s b e g in n in g t o t u r n i t s a t t e n t i o n t o th e m a t t e r i n s p i t e o f t h e s e r i o u s i n r o a d s on i t s e n e r g i e s t h a t t h e s t i l l u n c o m p le te d r e v i s i o n o f t h a t p rogram h a s e n t a i l e d . 44 I b i d . , p . 62. 45I b i d . , p . 69. . . . " 30 At t h e r e q u e s t o f Dean C a r l i n t h e C o lle g e C u rric u lu m Committee i s s u e d a s t a t e m e n t o f c e r t a i n g u i d e l i n e s i n t h e hope t h a t i t would be o f some h e l p i n d e v i s i n g t r a c k s w hich would c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e accomp lish m e n t of th e C o lle g e 's p u rp o se s. 46 On J a n u a r y 29, 1968, t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e ap p ro v ed th e g u i d e l i n e s and p r o c e d u r e s f o r t r a c k develop m ent p ro p o s e d by t h e A d v is o ry Committee o f t h a t d e p a r tm e n t. 47 By March 27, 1968, t h e U n i v e r s i t y C u rric u lu m Committee and t h e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e C u rric u lu m Committee had been in fo rm e d o f s e v e r a l new N a t u r a l S c ie n c e t r a c k p r o p o s a l s . I n t h e f a l l o f t h a t same y e a r e x p e r i m e n t a l s e c t i o n s o f some new t r a c k s w ere i n a u g u r a t e d . p r o p o s a l s m u l t i p l i e d d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r te rm o f 1969. T rack On F e b ru a ry 20, 1969, t h e e n t i r e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e f a c u l t y m e e tin g was d e v o te d t o th e d iscu ssio n of th e se p ro p o sa ls. By A p r i l i t was d e c id e d t h a t t h e f i r s t c o u r s e (191) i n th e t h r e e te rm se q u e n c e o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e would be o f f e r e d th ro u g h f i v e t r a c k s —A, B, C, D, and E i n th e f a l l te rm o f 1969. T rac k E was d i s c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e w i n t e r term l e a v i n g f o u r a v a i l a b l e o p t i o n s f o r s t u d e n t s r e g i s t e r i n g i n 193 s p r i n g term . By May 4, 1970, t h e s e f o u r t r a c k s w ere a p p ro v e d by t h e s t a f f a s N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e o p t i o n s . The r a t i o n a l e f o r e ach t r a c k t o ­ g e t h e r w i t h a t h r e e te rm d e s c r i p t i o n and te x tb o o k s u s e d a r e d e s c r i b e d in th e fo llo w in g pages. I t i s on t h e s e f o u r t r a c k s t h a t t h i s s tu d y is based. 46 S ta te m e n t from th e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e C u rric u lu m Committee to t h e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e F a c u l t y on th e S u b je c t o f P ro p o se d M u l t i p l e T rac k s in th e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e D e p a rtm e n ts . For a c o m p le te s e t o f g u i d e l i n e s , s e e Appendix A. 31 T ra c k A D e s c r i p t i o n and R a t i o n a l e T h is N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e i s p a r t o f t h e G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n r e q u ir e m e n t a t M ich igan S t a t e . I t is not a tr a d itio n a l su b jec t m a t t e r c o u r s e t h a t s u r v e y s w hat i s known i n t h e d i s p a r a t e s c i e n c e s . I n s t e a d , i t i s a c o u r s e t h a t d e a l s w ith t h e h i s t o r y and p h ilo s o p h y of s c i e n c e and w ith s e l e c t e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r a r e a s t h a t i l l u s t r a t e th e n a t u r e o f s c i e n t i f i c know ledge, t h e way t h i s know ledge i s m o d if ie d and ch an g ed , and t h e im p a c t o f t h i s know ledge on o u r c u l t u r e . We a c h i e v e t h e s e g o a l s by e m p h a s iz in g t h e m ethodology of s c i e n c e i n a d d i t i o n t o s u b j e c t m a t t e r p e r s e , and by empha­ s i z i n g t h e m u tu a l and c o n t i n u a l i n t e r a c t i o n betw een s c i e n c e and th e c u l t u r e o f w hich i t i s a p a r t . The f o l l o w i n g b r i e f d e s c r i p ­ t i o n s o f e ach t e r m ' s w ork i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s a p p r o a c h . 48 191 T h is p o r t i o n o f th e c o u r s e i s an a c c o u n t o f m a n 's a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d th e s t r u c t u r e and b e h a v i o r o f m a t t e r . I t d e sc rib e s t h e r i s e and f a l l o f t h e m e c h a n ic a l v ie w o f n a t u r e . The c o u r s e b e g i n s w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e n a t u r e o f s c i e n t i f i c know ledge. I t e x p lo re s th e r o l e of o b s e rv a tio n s in s c i e n c e and t h e k in d s o f i d e a s c r e a t e d t o e x p l a i n t h e o b s e r v a ­ t i o n s — t h e s t r u c t u r e and m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o r i e s a l s o r e c e i v e a tte n tio n . The d ev elop m ent o f t h e m e c h a n ic a l view o f n a t u r e b e g i n s w ith a c o n t r o v e r s y — P t o l e m y 's g e o c e n t r i c th e o r y v e r s u s t h e C o p ern ica n h e l i o c e n t r i c th e o ry . The r e s o l u t i o n of t h i s c o n t r o v e r s y t o g e t h e r w ith th e work o f G a l i l e o , K e p le r , and Newton l e a d to th e a c c e p ­ ta n c e of a m e c h a n ic a l w o r ld - v ie w . The s p r e a d of mechanism i s th e n t r a c e d th r o u g h D a l t o n 's th e o r y o f t h e atom and s u b s e q u e n t t h e o r i e s on t h e d i v i s i b i l i t y o f th e atom. Through th e d e v e lo p ­ ment o f more modern c o n c e p ts l i k e th e e l e c t r o n , th e n u c l e a r atom, quantum th e o r y and r e l a t i v i t y t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f th e m e c h a n ic a l view o f n a t u r e i s r e a p p r a i s e d . 192 T h is c o u r s e i s c o n c e rn e d w i t h t h e d evelo p m ent and m o d i f i c a ­ t i o n s o f t h e o r i e s o f r e p r o d u c t i o n and h e r e d i t y . I t b e g in s w ith some e a r l y G reek t h e o r i e s o f h e r e d i t y and th e n t r a c e s t h e main s t e p s t h a t l e a d to modern v ie w s . An h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t o f th e grow th and m o d i f i c a t i o n o f c e l l th e o r y i s p r e s e n t e d t o g e t h e r w ith T ra c k A i s th e o r i g i n a l N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e . The o b j e c t i v e s s t a t e d h e r e a r e th e o b j e c t i v e s o f a l l N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e s . The r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d to th e M ich igan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y C a ta lo g f o r 1969. 32 i t s b e a r i n g on t h e o r i e s o f h e r e d i t y . The b l i n d a l l e y s , th e b o ld new i d e a s , and c o n t r o v e r s i e s l i k e V i t a l i s m v s . Mechanism t h a t f i n a l l y l e d t o modern v iew s o f t h e c e l l and r e p r o d u c t i o n a r e a l l e x p lo re d . From t h i s b a c k g ro u n d , M e n d e l's th e o r y o f t h e gene i s stu d ie d . The m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f h i s th e o r y t h a t l e d to th e chromo­ some th e o r y o f h e r e d i t y and t o modern b io c h e m ic a l s t u d i e s o f t h e g ene a r e d e s c r i b e d . F i n a l l y , th e im p a c t o f o u r p r e s e n t know ledge o f h e r e d i t y on s o c i e t y i s d i s c u s s e d . 193 T h is c o u r s e i s c o n c e rn e d w i t h t h e o r i e s t h a t t r e a t o f p a s t e v e n ts. I t p r e s e n t s t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e f o r m a ti o n o f th e e a r t h ' s c r u s t and t h e o r i e s o f o r g a n i c e v o l u t i o n . The c o u r s e b e g i n s w i t h t h e c l a s s i c c o n t r o v e r s i e s o f N eptunism v s . P l u t o n i s m and C a t a s tr o p h is m v s . U n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m . The im p a c t o f r e l i g i o u s i d e a s on t h e a c c e p t a n c e o r r e j e c t i o n o f t h e s e g e o lo g ic a l th e o r ie s i s c o n sid e re d . These i d e a s f u r n i s h t h e b a ck g ro u n d f o r a re v ie w o f t h e o r i e s o f o r g a n i c e v o l u t i o n . D a r w in 's th e o r y i s p r e s e n t e d t o g e t h e r w ith t h e p h i l o s o p h i c c o n t r o v e r s i e s s p a r k e d by t h i s new i d e a . F in a lly , t h e modern th e o r y o f m i c r o e v o l u t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d a lo n g w ith some o f t h e e v id e n c e s w hich s u p p o r t t h i s v iew . I t i s our b e l i e f t h a t t h i s sequence o f th re e c o u rses le a d s a s t u d e n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t (1) know ledge i s c r e a t e d by im a g in a ­ t i v e p e o p l e , (2) know ledge i s c h a n g e a b le , (3) a l l i d e a s have c o n s e q u e n c e s , and (4) an e d u c a te d p e r s o n must u n d e r s t a n d th e n a t u r e o f know ledge i f he would make w is e d e c i s i o n s . We view o u r c o u r s e a s an " i n v i t a t i o n to i n q u i r e " r a t h e r th a n a " r h e t o r i c o f c o n c l u s i o n s . " We t h i n k o f o u r c o u r s e and o u r c o l l e g e , a s M e ik e ljo h n h a s e x p r e s s e d i t , " a s a d e s ig n to h e lp s t u d e n t s t h i n k th ro u g h human kno w led ge, u n i f y i t , make s e n s e of i t , and a s s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e p e r s o n s to u t i l i z e i t . " We do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t know ledge i s u n i f i e d and i n t e g r a t e d by (1) mere e x p o s u r e to a v a r i e t y o f d i s c i p l i n e s o r (2) f o c u s i n g a t t e n t i o n on s u b j e c t m a t t e r c o n c e p ts common t o s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e s . We do b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s a u n i t y o f knowledge and t h a t t h e u n i t y o f s c i e n t i f i c know ledge i s b e s t e x p r e s s e d by the. s tu d y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e and m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o r i e s . We b e l i e v e such s t u d i e s o f f e r th e s t u d e n t th e o p p o r t u n i t y to expand h i s p e r s o n a l p h ilo so p h y . ^ 49 Course d e s c r i p t i o n p r o v id e d by t h e D ep artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . T extb o ok s and l a b o r a t o r y m an uals f o r t h i s t r a c k a r e as d e s c r i b e d i n Ch. I l l , p . 21. 33 T rac k B D e s c r i p t i o n and R a t i o n a l e 191 The b a s i c theme o f 191 i s m an’s c o n c e p tio n o f h i s u n i v e r s e . The te x tb o o k s f o r th e c o u r s e a r e E x p l o r in g t h e U n i v e r s e , e d i t e d by L o u is e B. Young (M cG raw -H ill, 1963) and The B la c k Cloud by F red H o y le , ( S i g n e t , 1 9 6 9 ). The m a jo r t o p i c s t o be t r e a t e d a r e : t h e n a t u r e , v a l u e s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f s c i e n c e and t h e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod; t h e P t o l e m a i c and C o p e rn ic a n v iew s o f th e u n i v e r s e ; th e im p a c t o f B ra h e , K e p le r , G a l i l e o and Newton; t h e w a v e - p a r t i c l e d u a l i t y o f l i g h t ; and c o n te m p o ra ry arg u m en ts a b o u t t h e f o r m a ti o n of th e u n iv e rs e . T h is a p p ro a c h t o p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e c o n c e n t r a t e s on a s m a l l e r number o f t o p i c s th a n t h e o r i g i n a l N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191 c o u r s e , and w i l l t h e r e f o r e be a b l e t o t r e a t them i n g r e a t e r d e p t h . More m a t e r i a l i s p r e s e n t e d t h a t r e l a t e s t h e s c i e n t i s t s and t h e s c i ­ e n t i f i c i d e a s t o t h e g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e s o f t h e tim e s . G a l i l e o ’s c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith h is s o c ie ty i s t r e a t e d e x te n s iv e ly , and K e p le r , B rahe and Newton a r e d i s c u s s e d n o t o n ly i n te rm s o f t h e i r e f f e c t on s c i e n t i f i c t h o u g h t , b u t a l s o a s exam ples o f t h r e e w id e ly d i f f e r i n g a p p ro a c h e s to t h e p r a c t i c e o f s c i e n c e . A p a r ­ t i c u l a r s tr e n g th of th e te x t is th a t th e p rim a rily s c i e n t i f i c d i s c u s s i o n s a r e f o llo w e d by s h o r t e r s e l e c t i o n s by m a jo r p h i l o s o ­ p h e r s , s c i e n t i s t s and h i s t o r i a n s i n w hich t h e more s u b t l e i m p l i ­ c a t i o n s o f t h e t o p i c s a r e c o n s i d e r e d ; t h e i n t e n t i s t h a t many o f th e se w i l l p ro v id e th e b a s is f o r i n t e l l i g e n t c la s s d is c u s s io n s . 192 In t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191 c o u r s e , em ph asis was p l a c e d n o t o n ly on t h e d e v elo p m en t o f man’ s t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e and o r i g i n o f t h e u n i v e r s e , b u t a l s o on h i s c h an g in g view s o f th e m ethods by w hich su c h know ledge may b e o b t a i n e d , and th e i m p l i ­ c a t i o n s f o r man o f t h e s e new p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h is a p p ro a c h i s e x te n d e d i n 192 w hich f o c u s e s on m a n 's c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e phenomenon of lif e . T h ree t e x t s a r e u s e d : The Language o f L i f e by George and M u r ie l B ea d le (D oubleday & C o .) ; The Double H e lix by James D. Watson ( S i g n e t ) ; and Of M o le c u le s and Men by F r a n c i s C ric k (U niv. o f W ashington P r e s s ) . The Language o f L i f e p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i c fram ew ork f o r th e c o u r s e . T h is book t r e a t s th e h e r e d i t a r y p r o c e s s i n d e p th and s e r v e s a s a model f o r th e s c i e n t i f i c a p p ro a c h t o t h e phenomenon of l i f e . The Double H e lix p r o v i d e s an u n u s u a l o p p o r t u n i t y t o hum anize a s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r y . A f t e r t h e s t u d e n t h a s g a in e d an 34 u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y im p a c t o f t h e DNA c o n c e p t upon t h e s c i e n t i f i c v ie w o f l i f e , h e w i l l be a b l e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e immense c r e a t i v i t y i n h e r e n t i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f s c i e n c e , so c o n v i n c i n g l y documented by W atson. The image o f t h e s c i e n t i s t a s an im p e r s o n a l c a l c u l a t i n g m achine w i l l n o t s u r v i v e a r e a d i n g o f t h i s book. The p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e m o l e c u l a r view o f b i o l o g y a r e d i s c u s s e d by C r ic k i n Of M o le c u le s and Men. T h is book c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e l e c t u r e s w hich C r ic k d e l i v e r e d t o a g e n e r a l a u d ie n c e on t h e r o l e o f v i t a l i s m i n c o n te m p o ra ry b i o l ­ ogy; i n p a r t i c u l a r , w h e th e r t h e c o n c e p ts o f p h y s i c s and c h e m i s tr y a re s u f f i c i e n t to e x p la in th e fu n c tio n in g of a c e l l , th e o r ig i n o f l i f e , and t h e n a t u r e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . The m e c h a n i s t i c v ie w ­ p o i n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f much o f r e c e n t b i o l o g i c a l th o u g h t i s g iv e n a p r o v o c a t i v e and a r g u m e n t a t i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; t h i s m a t e r i a l i s e x p e c te d t o p r o v i d e a s t i m u l a t i n g b a s i s f o r c l a s s d i s c u s s i o n . 193 The b a s i c a p p ro a c h to N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 193 i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t employed i n 191 and 1 92. The f o c u s f o r t h i s q u a r t e r i s on man’ s c o n c e p t i o n o f h i s own n a t u r e and h i s o r i g i n s . The t e x t f o r 192, E v o l u t i o n o f Man, E d i t e d by L o u is e B. Young, (O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 ), p r o v i d e s f i r s t o f a l l a d e s c r i p ­ t i o n and c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e th e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n a s p r o ­ pounded by Darwin and m o d if ie d t o th e p r e s e n t . T h is d e s c r i p t i o n and a n a l y s i s i s a c c o m p lis h e d by u s i n g s e l e c t i o n s from renowned s c i e n t i s t s who b o th s u p p o r t and a r e c r i t i c a l o f o u r p r e s e n t view s o f th e g e n e r a l th e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n . T h is p r o v i d e s t h e framework f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s o f t h e book w hich d e a l w i t h th e main t o p i c o f t h e c o u r s e , t h e o r i g i n o f man. In t h e s e s e c t i o n s , m a n 's o r i g i n s a r e t r e a t e d from two v i e w p o i n t s ; one h i s b i o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n and th e o t h e r h i s c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n . A gain c o n t r a s t i n g view s a r e p r e s e n t e d th r o u g h a v a r i e t y o f s e l e c t i o n s . F i n a l l y , th e t e x t p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t s i n t o o u r p r e s e n t i d e a s o f w hat m a n 's f u t u r e e v o l u t i o n m ig h t be and how we m ig h t a f f e c t t h i s th ro u g h p u r p o s e f u l and in fo rm e d a c t i o n . To complement t h e b a la n c e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f o u r p r e s e n t know ledge o f th e e f f e c t s o f b o th b i o l o g y and c u l t u r e on m a n 's e v o l u t i o n , e a c h i n s t r u c t o r c h o o se s one o r more a d d i t i o n a l t e x t s w hich p r o ­ v i d e d e t a i l e d and e l o q u e n t a c c o u n ts o f one i n d i v i d u a l s c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t m a n 's o r i g i n s . These a d d i t i o n a l t e x t s a r e c h o se n from su ch books a s A f r i c a n G e n e s i s , by R o b e rt A rd re y , ( D e l l , 1 9 6 1 ), The Naked Ape by Desmond M o r r i s , ( D e l l , 1 9 6 7 ), and On A g g r e s s io n by Konrad L o re n z , ( H a r c o u r t , B ra ce and W orld, 1 9 6 6 ). These books a r e in te n d e d t o s t i m u l a t e d i s c u s s i o n and a llo w e a c h s t u d e n t t o r e a c h h i s own c o n c l u s i o n s a s to w h e th e r man i s b o rn w i t h many u n c h a n g e a b le c h a r a c t e r t r a i t s due t o h i s b i o l o g i c a l i n h e r i t a n c e 35 o r a " b la n k s l a t e " whose c h a r a c t e r i s d e te r m in e d s o l e l y by h i s c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t . 50 T ra c k C D e s c r i p t i o n and R a t i o n a l e T ra c k C c o n s i d e r s t h e same g r e a t t h e o r i e s o f p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e a s do t h e o t h e r t r a c k s . T hese t h e o r i e s a r e s t u d i e d w i t h f o u r t h i n g s i n mind: 1. H i s t o r y and D evelopment o f I d e a s : How m an' s know ledge h a s grown and u n d e rg o n e e v o l u t i o n . 2. O b s e r v a tio n and E x p l a n a t i o n : The r e l a t i o n b etw een t h e two p h a s e s o f s c i e n c e , t h e e m p i r i c a l and t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and how t h e s e p h a s e s i n t e r a c t i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e s s . 3. S t r u c t u r e o f T h e o ry : How t h e o r i e s a r e t e s t e d and a s a r e s u l t d e v e lo p s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a s an o r g a n i z e d s e t o f p o s t u l a t e s . 4. S c ie n c e and S o c i e t y : How s c i e n c e a f f e c t s s o c i e t y and v i c e v e r s a . Meaning f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s , t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n and c o n s e q u e n c e s . T ra c k C i s u n iq u e from o t h e r t r a c k s i n s e v e r a l s a y s . It f o l l o w s t h e grow th o f s c i e n t i f i c m ethods and a t t i t u d e s from one a r e a o f know ledge to a n o t h e r , and how t h i s mode o f a n a l y s i s h a s r e v o l u t i o n i z e d o u r l i v e s and o u r t h i n k i n g . I t n o t o n ly shows how p ro fo u n d p ro b le m s h av e r e s u l t e d from t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f s c i e n c e and te c h n o l o g y , b u t i t s u g g e s t s how s c i e n t i f i c m ethods and a t t i t u d e s can be u s e d t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e s o c i a l c han ges and p ro b le m s . T ra c k C c o n c e iv e s f o u r p r im a r y o b j e c t i v e s f o r stu d y in g th e s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s of s c ie n c e . They a r e a s fo llo w s: A. To u n d e r s t a n d how a d v a n c e s i n s c i e n t i f i c know ledge n e c e s ­ s i t a t e c h an g e s i n o u r view o f t h e w o rld and o f man. B. To u n d e r s t a n d how a p p l i e d s c i e n c e com pels u s to change o u r p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e and p r a c t i c e s . C. To u n d e r s t a n d how c u l t u r a l b e l i e f s e f f e c t t h e s c i e n t i s t and h i s w ork. D. To u n d e r s t a n d how we can a d a p t o u r b e h a v i o r t o t h e law s o f n a t u r e w i t h g r e a t e r s u c c e s s — t h e c o s t s o f f a i l u r e and th e b e n e f i t s o f a c c o m p lis h m e n t. 191 R e a d in g s : E x p l o r in g t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s , Poppy and W ilso n ( P r e n t i c e H a l l ) (About h a l f t h e book i s u s e d ) . Study Guide and S y l l a b u s , c o n t a i n i n g 8 e s s a y s on t h e S o c i a l R e l a t i o n s o f S c i e n c e , B. S t e w a r t . L a b o r a to r y Manual f o r N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , V o l. I , (MSU P ress). " ^ T ra c k B d e s c r i p t i o n and r a t i o n a l e p r o v i d e d by Dr. M ic h a e l Kamrin. 36 C o n c e n t r a t e s on g e o c e n t r i c and h e l i o c e n t r i c t h e o r i e s , p r i n ­ c i p l e s o f m e ch a n ic s e s p e c i a l l y a s a p p l i e d t o c e l e s t i a l m o tio n s , a to m ic th e o r y e s p e c i a l l y a s r e l a t e d t o n u c l e a r e n e rg y and th e e l e c t r o n th e o r y a s i t r e l a t e s to s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y and magne­ ti s m . The e a r l y astro n o m y and m e ch a n ic s p r o v i d e s an e x c e l l e n t c a s e s tu d y o f t h e im p a c t o f s c i e n c e and r e v o l u t i o n a r y e f f e c t on o u r i d e a s a b o u t t h e w o r ld , t h e g r e a t r e s i s t a n c e t o t h i s r e v o l u ­ t i o n , t h e s o c i a l c o s t s and im p a c t on t h e s c i e n t i s t s . The a to m ic th e o r y l e a d s t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e t h r e a t of n u c l e a r w a r, and t h e r e f o r e t o a th e o r y o f war i n g e n e r a l . T h is th e o r y i s t e s t e d by i t s e x p l a n a t o r y and p r e d i c t i v e s u c c e s s . I n b o th c a s e s a b o v e, t h e s p r e a d o f s c i e n t i f i c m ethods and a t t i t u d e s can be i l l u s t r a t e d . 192 R e a d in g s : A C ourse In B i o l o g y , B aker and A lle n (A ddison W esley) (About h a l f th e book i s u s e d . ) The B i o l o g i c a l Time Bomb, G. T a y lo r , (World) L a b o r a to r y Manual f o r N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 192 C, A hl, B a r r e t t , B r a d le y , P e t t i t , and S t e w a r t . F undam ental t h e o r i e s o f b i o l o g y a r e s t u d i e d i n s e q u e n c e w here e ac h i s e s s e n t i a l to t h e co m p re h en sio n of t h o s e w hich f o l l o w . The c e l l th e o r y i s a f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e th e o r y o f s e x u a l r e p r o ­ d u c tio n . T h is i n t u r n i s b a s i c to t h e g ene t h e o r y . The e v o l u ­ t i o n o f t h e gene th e o r y i s f o llo w e d b e g in n in g w i t h M en d e l’s p o s t u l a t e s and t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l e v id e n c e on w hich th e y w ere b a s e d . Main c o n c e p ts s i n c e Mendel a r e re v ie w e d , c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e and b e h a v i o r o f DNA. The B i o l o g i c a l Time Bomb d e s c r i b e s t h e r e v o l u t i o n i n m an’s t h i n k i n g a b o u t to be w ro ug ht by t h e new c o n t r o l o v e r h e r e d i t y , s e x , d e a t h , o rg a n t r a n s ­ p la n ts e tc . Im pact o f s c i e n c e on s o c i e t y and o f s o c i e t y on s c i e n c e a r e w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts . 193 R e a d in g s : " C h e m istry and t h e S o li d E a r t h " , C. and E. N. S p e c i a l R e p o r t, O c to b e r 2, 1967. The Changing E a r t h , J . V i o r e t (Bantam) U n d e rs ta n d in g E v o l u t i o n , P. Volpa (Wm. C. Brown) The P o p u l a t i o n Bomb, P. E h r l i c h ( B a l l a n t y n e ) Summary of U n if o r m ity and S i m p l i c i t y , G .S.A . P a m p h le t. Summary and A n a l y s i s o f On A g g r e s s io n by K. Lorenz The theme o f 193 i s e v o l u t i o n , f i r s t t h e e v o l u t i o n o f th e e a r t h ' s c ru s ta l fe a tu re s. N eptunism , V u lcan ism , U n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m and C a t a s tr o p h is m a r e re v ie w e d a s e a r l y t h e o r i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e o r i g i n and d ev elop m en t o f th e r o c k s t r a t a and t h e i r c o n t e n t s . Modern g e o l o g i c a l te c h n i q u e s and t h e o r i e s a r e a l s o exam ined— c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t , ocean f l o o r s p r e a d i n g , r a d i o a c t i v e d a t i n g , m a g n e tic c h a n g e s , e tc . The th e o r y o f o r g a n i c e v o l u t i o n i s d e v e lo p e d , b e g in n in g w ith th e p o s t u l a t e s o f N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n , and a d d in g r e c e n t th e o r y such 37 as p o p u la tio n g e n e ti c s , m u ta tio n , c a ta c ly sm ic e v o lu tio n , g e n e tic d r if t, e tc . F i n a l l y e v o l u t i o n a r y p r i n c i p l e s a r e a p p l i e d to t h r e e g r e a t s o c i a l p ro b le m s : (1) o v e r p o p u l a t i o n , (2) p o l l u t i o n and (3) a g g r e s s i o n . Not o n ly do e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n c e p ts h e lp i n e x ­ p l a i n i n g t h e s e phenomena, b u t th e y im ply t h e c o u r s e o f a c t i o n w hich w i l l be n e c e s s a r y f o r a s o l u t i o n . 51 T ra c k D D e s c r i p t i o n and R a t i o n a l e D evelopm ent o f T rac k D i n t h e D ep artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e was i n r e s p o n s e to i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s h e l d w i t h s t u d e n t s o v e r s e v e r a l y e a r s tim e . These c o n v e r s a t i o n s g e n e r a l l y began w i t h th e q u e s t i o n , "Why do I h av e t o t a k e N a t. S c i . ? " and w ere p i v o t e d by t h e q u e s t i o n , "What do you t h i n k N at. S c i. s h o u ld do f o r you?" U sing th e i n f o r m a t i o n g a in e d from such d i s c u s s i o n s , th e d e v e l o p e r s a t t e m p t e d to c r e a t e a t h r e e - q u a r t e r s eq u e n c e w hich would a c h i e v e t h e f o l l o w i n g g o a l s : 1. p r o v i d e t h e s t u d e n t w ith some i d e a o f w hat s c i e n c e i s and how i t f u n c t i o n s , 2. o u t l i n e th e way i n w hich s p e c i f i c a r e a s o f s c i e n c e have d e v e lo p e d from " p r e - s c i e n c e " i n r e s p o n s e t o th e r i s e o f c iv iliz a tio n , 3. I l l u s t r a t e how m a n 's s o c i e t i e s h a v e , i n t u r n , been a f f e c t e d by th e r i s e o f s c i e n c e - t e c l m o l o g y , 4. fo c u s on some p ro b le m s o f modern s o c i e t y w hich a r e r e ­ l a t e d to s c i e u c e - t e c h n o l o g y , 5. examine some p ro p o s e d s o l u t i o n s t o modern s c i e n c e - s o c i e t y dilemmas and a t t e m p t t o a p p ly s c i e n t i f i c c r i t e r i a to e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e p ro p o s e d s o l u t i o n s . In p r e p a r i n g t h i s c o u r s e , th e f o l l o w i n g g u i d e l i n e s w ere e s t a b ­ l i s h e d f o r im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e above g o a l s : 1. t h e c o u r s e s h o u ld be ro u g h ly 80% s c i e n c e and 20% " s o c i e t a l in te ra c tio n ". T h is b a la n c e was f e l t n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a d e q u a te know ledge o f b a s i c s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s which c o u ld be e x t r a p o l a t e d to s o c i e t a l p ro b le m s , 2. t h e c o u r s e s y l l a b u s s h o u ld be d e s ig n e d so a s to a llo w 4-6 l e c t u r e s and 2-3 l a b p e r i o d s p e r q u a r t e r t o be u sed as " f r e e tim e " . F re e tim e can be d e f i n e d a s c l a s s tim e each i n s t r u c t o r can u s e to d e v elo p a r e a s o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o h i s own c l a s s e s . The p u rp o s e o f t h e s e two g u i d e l i n e s i s to maximize t h e i n t e r ­ a c t i o n betw een th e s t u d e n t and th e I n s t r u c t o r . The d e v e l o p e r s b e l i e v e t h a t s t u d e n t a t t i t u d e and a c h ie v e m en t are. b a s i c a l l y 5J T ra ck C d e s c r i p t i o n and r a t i o n a l e p r o v i d e d by Dr. Stew art. Bruce C. 38 i n t e r r e l a t e d and t h a t a llo w in g e ach i n s t r u c t o r t h e f l e x i b i l i t y to d e v e lo p t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h i s own c l a s s e s m ax im izes b o t h i n ­ s t r u c t o r com petence and s t u d e n t i n t e r e s t . 191 The s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f 191 i s ta k e n from t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s . The two g e n e r a l a r e a s c o v e re d a r e a to m ic th e o r y and a s tro n o m y . An a t t e m p t i s made t o e s t a b l i s h t h e themes o f t h e c o u r s e u s i n g t h e develop m ent o f astro n o m y from i t s a n c i e n t " p r e - s c i e n c e " o r i g i n s t o t h e modern model o f t h e u n i v e r s e a s t h e v e h i c l e . A b r i e f o u t l i n e o f t h i s segm ent f o l l o w s : 1. f a c t o r s w hich c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a stro n o m y from " p r e - s c i e n c e " t o s c i e n c e 2. d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n , "what i s s c i e n c e ? " 3. d i f f e r e n c e s betw een " p r e - s c i e n t i f i c " and s c i e n t i f i c a p p ro a c h e s to o b t a i n i n g know ledge. 4 . how t h e modern s c i e n c e o f a stro no m y o b t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t th e u n i v e r s e a ro un d u s , a u n i v e r s e we know o n ly from beans o f l i g h t r e c e i v e d from s t a r s . 5 . t h e n a t u r e and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e . The above em phasis was c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f a to m ic t h e o r y . The d e v elo p m en ts o f a to m ic t h e o r y , t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f what modern s c i e n c e c o n c e iv e s o f a s t h e n a t u r e o f p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y , and th e pro b lem s a s s o c i a u e d w i t h "k n o w in g ", o r a c c e p t i n g a s f a c t , o b j e c t s w hich we h ave n e v e r s e e n — t h e a to m s . The s t u d y o f a to m ic th e o r y l e a d s to t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f two c o n te m p o ra ry p ro b le m s grow ing o u t o f s c i e n c e ; one p h i l o s o p h i c a l and one a t o nce s c i e n t i f i c and p o l i t i c a l . The p h i l o s o p h i c a l p ro b le m i s th e s o - c a l l e d H e is e n b e rg U n c e r t a i n t y P r i n c i p l e w h ic h l e a d s to t h e d o u b tin g of c a u s a l i t y and p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y i t s e l f . The s c i e n c e p o l i t i c s problem i s t h a t o f n u c l e a r e n e rg y and i t s many i m p l i c a ­ t i o n s i n co n tem p o rary s o c i e t y . F i n a l l y , th e " f r e e tim e " i s u s e d by i n s t r u c t o r s t o d e v e lo p s t u d e n t i n t e r e s t th ro u g h su ch a p p ro a c h e s a s : 1. gro up r e p o r t s 2. i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t r e p o r t s 3. p a n e l d is c u s s io n s 4. l e c t u r e s on t o p i c s o f i n t e r e s t t o th e s t u d e n t s 5. l e c t u r e s g iv e n by s t u d e n t s on ch osen t o p i c s 6. f i e l d t r i p s , e t c . Books: The I n t e l l i g e n t Man’ s Guide t o t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e s , I s a a c Asimov (W ashington S quare P r e s s ) . Atom, Man and t h e U n i v e r s e , Hannes A lfv e n . L a b o r a to r y Manual f o r N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , V o l. I . 192 The s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f 192 i s ta k e n from t h e b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s . The s p e c i f i c a r e a s c o v e re d a r e c e l l th e o r y and g ene t h e o r y . In 39 192 th e o v e r a l l a p p ro a c h r e f l e c t s t h a t o f 191. However, i n 192, l e s s tim e i s t a k e n on h i s t o r i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t. S in c e t h e s e themes a r e d e v e lo p e d more c a r e f u l l y i n 191, t h e e m p h asis i n 192 s h i f t s more to c o n te m p o ra ry i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n s c i e n c e and so c ie ty . The d i s c u s s i o n of c e l l th e o r y i s u s e d t o a c q u a i n t t h e s t u d e n t w i t h b a s i c b i o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s and i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d e d t o u n d e r s t a n d th e p r o c e s s o f l i f e and t h e c o n c e p t o f h e r e d i t a r y c o n t i n u i t y among l i v i n g o r g a n is m s . As a p a r t o f t h i s d i s c u s ­ s i o n , th e p ro b le m o f d e f i n i n g l i f e i s d i s c u s s e d from b o th p h i l o ­ s o p h i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c p o i n t s o f v ie w . The s tu d y o f g e n e t i c s i n v o l v e s b o th t h e d e v elo p m en t o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f g e n e t i c s and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s t o s i t u a t i o n s o f im p o r ta n c e t o modern man. A re a s su ch as e u g e n i c s , g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g , o rg a n t r a n s p l a n t s , b i r t h d e f e c t s , e t c . p r o v i d e e x c e l l e n t t o p i c s f o r s tu d y and d i s c u s s i o n d u r in g t h i s q u a r t e r ' s w ork, b o th a s a r e g u l a r p a r t o f t h e q u a r t e r ' s work and a s " f r e e tim e " m a t e r i a l . Books: S c ie n c e and S u r v i v a l , B a r ry Commoner (V ik in g P r e s s ) H e r e d i t y and D ev elo p m en t, Moore (O x fo rd ) L a b o r a to r y Manual f o r N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , V o l. I I 193 The s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f 193 i s t a k e n from h i s t o r i c a l g e o lo g y and e v o l u t i o n . T h e m a t i c a l l y , 193 f o l l o w s t h e p a t t e r n o f 191 and 192. The m a t e r i a l s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s q u a r t e r ' s work o f f e r a p a r t i c u l a r l y good exam ple o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c method o p e r a t i n g e x t e n s i v e l y on t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l i n d e v e lo p i n g t h e o r i e s o f p a s t e v e n ts on e a r t h b a se d on c o n te m p o ra ry o b s e r v a t i o n s , p r o c e s s e s , and i n f e r e n c e s . The s tu d y o f g e o lo g y i s u sed t o d e v e lo p a know ledge o f th e e a r t h we l i v e on and a l s o o f how t h e p a s t i s i n t e r p r e t e d . The s e c t i o n on e v o l u t i o n d e v e lo p s p r i n c i p l e s o f l i f e w hich r e l a t e d i r e c t l y t o many c o n tem p o rary p ro b le m s su ch a s s p e c i e s e x t i n c ­ t i o n , e n v ir o n m e n ta l im b a la n c e s , o v e r p o p u l a t i o n , e t c . A g ain , th e " f r e e tim e " i s u s e d t o d e v e lo p t h e s e c o n te m p o ra ry p r o b l e m s . 52 Books: 52 R a c le . Anatomy o f t h e E a r t h , C a i l l e a u x (M cG raw -H ill) P r o c e s s and P a t t e r n i n E v o l u t i o n , H a m ilto n (M cMillan) P o p u l a t i o n , E v o l u t i o n , and B i r t h C o n t r o l , G a r r e t H a rd in (W. H. Freeman) L a b o r a to r y Manual f o r N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , V ol. I l l T rac k D d e s c r i p t i o n and r a t i o n a l e p r o v i d e d by D r. F red A. CHAPTER I I I METHODOLOGY In tro d u c tio n A m a jo r p u r p o s e o f t h i s s tu d y i s t o o b t a i n and a n a ly z e d a t a c o n c e r n in g t h e h y p o t h e s e s s t a t e d i n C h a p te r I from s t u d e n t s i n th e fo u r tra c k s . T h is c h a p t e r r e s t a t e s t h e s e h y p o th e s e s and d e s c r i b e s t h e p o p u l a t i o n and sa m p le s s t u d i e d . The r e s e a r c h d e s ig n i s p r e s e n t e d i n ­ c l u d i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n u s e d , d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and p r e p a r a t i o n and th e s t a t i s t i c a l methods employed t o a n a l y z e th e d a t a . H y p o th e se s I. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b etw een t h e f o u r sam ples o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o s e l e c t e d s c h o l a s t i c and demo­ g ra p h ic v a r ia b le s . II. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b etw een t h e f o u r sam p les o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s w ith r e s p e c t to why th e y c h o se and re m a in e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k . III. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b etw een t h e r e a c t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s t o q u e s t i o n s r e ­ l a t i n g t o t r a c k o b j e c t i v e s and a c c e p t a b i l i t y a s e x p r e s s e d by an a t t i t u d e i n v e n t o r y . P o p u la tio n The p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h i s s t u d y was s e l e c t e d from freshm an s t u d e n t s who e n t e r e d M ichig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y f a l l te rm , 1969, and 40 41 c o m p le ted N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191 i n t h e f a l l te rm , 1969, N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 192 i n t h e w i n t e r te rm , 1970, and N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 193 i n t h e s p r i n g term o f 1970. F o r e ac h o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s te rm -e n d g ra d e c a r d s w ere o b t a i n e d and m a tc h ed t o d e te r m in e w hich s t u d e n t s h ad re m a in ed w i t h t h e same t r a c k (A, B, C, o r D) f o r a l l t h r e e term s o f th e c o u r s e . The t r a c k d e s c r i p t i o n s p r o v i d e d f o r s t u d e n t s by t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D e p a r t­ ment a r e a s f o l l o w s : __ > an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f 'i c a n R e v o l u tio n i s ^ t h e n a t u r e o f knowte ste d . Emphasis i s n s o c i e t y and s c i e n c e . ; i s e x em p lifie d in a b e g in n in g s t o r e l a - T ra c k A: Th na ur 1.. P Tj si tj T ra c k B: ..inception o f h i s u n i v e r s e , T h is .xy upon t h e dev elo p m en t of E m p h asx i\ L'he n a t u r e and o r i g i n o f th e m a n 's th e o u n i v e r s e , b u t a l s o on t h e r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l , and p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s c h an g in g v ie w s. T h re e m a jo r q u e s t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d : I s man t h e c e n t e r o f t h e u n i v e r s e ? Has th e u n i v e r s e alw ays e x is te d ? Is th e re o th e r l i f e in th e u n iv e rse? T ra c k C: T h is o p t i o n d e a l s w i t h t h e m eaning o f s c i e n c e f o r t h e c itiz e n . The s tu d y o f a few m a jo r r e v o l u t i o n s i n p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e i s u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e g row th o f m a jo r c o n c e p t s , and th e m ethods u s e d t o t e s t them. A t t e n t i o n i s g iv e n t o c h an g e s t h e s e r e v o l u t i o n s b r i n g t o o u r v iew s o f t h e w o rld and man; e f f e c t s o f a p p l i e d s c i e n c e on p o l i t i c s and e co n o m ics; and im p a c ts o f s o c i e t y on s c i e n c e and s c i e n t i s t s . T ra c k D: T h is c o u r s e s t u d i e s t h e d e v elo p m en t o f s c i e n c e and so c ie ty . Emphasis i s on t h e r o l e o f s o c i a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e d ev elo p m en t o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n , and on c o n te m p o ra ry and f u t u r e s o c i a l and m o ra l dilemmas c r e a t e d by th e de v elo p m en t o f t h i s s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a ­ tio n . The c o u r s e c o n s i d e r s t h e c r i t e r i a u sed by s c i e n t i s t s i n a t t e m p t s to s o l v e t h e s e p ro b le m s . 42 N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 192 T ra c k A T h is c o u r s e c o v e r s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s c i e n t i f i c know­ le d g e and how i t i s m o d if ie d . C o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n ­ t a t i o n and e m p i r i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n s t u d i e s o f t h e n a t u r e and b e h a v i o r o f l i v i n g c e l l s . Sexual re p ro d u c tio n i s c o n sid e re d a t le n g th , as a re M e n d e lia n gene th e o r y and i t s modern m o d i f i c a t i o n s . C u r r e n t s c i e n c e - r e l a t e d s o c i a l p ro b le m s su c h as e u g e n i c s , g e n e t i c c o u n s e l i n g , b i r t h c o n t r o l , and th e p o p u la tio n e x p lo sio n a re c o n sid e re d . T ra c k B T h is c o u r s e c o v e r s m a n 's c o n c e p t o f th e phenomenon o f life . Emphasis i s p l a c e d on t h e dev elo p m en t o f contem­ p o r a r y t h e o r i e s o f t h e n a t u r e and o r i g i n o f l i f e and on t h e s o c i a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e v ie w s . C o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g iv e n to t h e DNA m o le c u le a s an exam ple o f th e "new b i o l o g y " and i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by t h i s a p p ro a c h : Is s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r y an o r d e r l y and l o g i c a l p r o c e s s ? Is l i f e o n ly a m a t t e r o f p h y s i c s and c h e m is tr y ? T ra c k C T h is c o u r s e i s m a in ly c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e c e l l ; s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n , and t h e gene t h e o r y . These t o p i c s a r e u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e e x p e r i m e n t a l and l o g i c a l p r o c e d u r e s . The g en e th e o r y i s u s e d to p o r t r a y th e s t r u c t u r e and m o d i f i c a t i o n o f a t h e o r y . The p ro fo u n d s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and e t h i c a l c o n se q u e n c e s o f r e c e n t r e s e a r c h in th e se a re a s o f b io lo g y a re s tu d ie d . T ra c k D T h is c o u r s e s t u d i e s th e dev elo p m en t o f t h e c o n c e p t o f l i f e , l e a d i n g to i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f r e p r o d u c t i o n and h e re d ity . I t in c lu d e s e x p lo ra tio n of th e s o c io s c i e n t i f i c problem s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e s e t o p i c s , e . g . , o v e r p o p u l a t i o n and b i r t h c o n t r o l ; e f f e c t s o f m utagens on h e r e d i t y ; p ro b lem s i n human h e r e d i t y . C rite ria used in e v a lu a tin g p o t e n t i a l s o lu tio n s to th e se p ro b le m s a r e exam ined. N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 193 T ra c k A T h is c o u r s e c o n s i d e r s c o n f l i c t i n g s y ste m s o f e x p la n a ­ t i o n r e g a r d i n g th e o r i g i n and s t r u c t u r e o f th e e a r t h ' s c r u s t , i n c l u d i n g s i g n i f i c a n t d e b a t e s and t h e i r r e s o l u ­ tio n . The h i s t o r i c c o n t r o v e r s i e s betw een n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n and o t h e r t h e o r i e s o f o r g a n i c e v o l u t i o n a r e d e a l t w i t h i n a s tu d y of th e d evelopm ent o f modern l i f e fo rm s, i n c l u d i n g man. T ra c k B T h is o p t i o n i s ab o u t m a n 's c o n c e p t of h i s own n a t u r e and o r i g i n s ; b i o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n . The q u e s t i o n , "What i s t h e n a t u r e o f man?" i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f two o p p o s in g v ie w s: man a s t h e studied vi regain nun;be r c : A:? ahdvn . during "iiUird ruotr.c-r s r a i l e r :v. samples Sc i e n c e , .: 41 c o m p le ted N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191 i n t h e f a l l term , 1969, N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 192 i n t h e w i n t e r te rm , 1970, and N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 193 i n t h e s p r i n g term o f 1970. F o r e ac h of t h e s e s t u d e n t s te rm -e n d g ra d e c a r d s w ere o b t a i n e d and m a tc h ed t o d e te r m in e w hich s t u d e n t s h ad re m a in e d w i t h t h e same t r a c k (A, B, C, o r D) f o r a l l t h r e e term s o f t h e c o u r s e . The t r a c k d e s c r i p t i o n s p r o v id e d f o r s t u d e n t s by t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e D e p a r t­ ment a r e a s f o l l o w s : N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191 T ra c k A: The ways i n w hich man comes to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f n a tu re a re stu d ie d . The C o p ern ica n R e v o l u tio n i s u s e d a s an example t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e n a t u r e o f know­ l e d g e and how i t i s d e r i v e d and t e s t e d . Em phasis i s p l a c e d on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een s o c i e t y and s c i e n c e . The c h a n g in g n a t u r e o f know ledge i s e x e m p l i f i e d i n a s t u d y o f a to m ic th e o r y from i t s b e g i n n in g s t o r e l a ­ tiv ity . T ra c k B: T h is c o u r s e s t u d i e s m a n 's c o n c e p tio n o f h i s u n i v e r s e . Em phasis i s p l a c e d n o t o n ly upon t h e d evelo pm ent o f m a n 's t h e o r i e s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e and o r i g i n o f t h e u n i v e r s e , b u t a l s o on t h e r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l , and p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s ch an g in g v ie w s . T h re e m a jo r q u e s t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d : I s man t h e c e n t e r o f t h e u n i v e r s e ? Has th e u n i v e r s e alw ays e x is te d ? I s th e r e o th e r l i f e in th e u n iv e rse? T ra c k G: T h is o p t i o n d e a l s w i t h t h e meaning o f s c i e n c e f o r t h e c itiz e n . The s tu d y o f a few m a jo r r e v o l u t i o n s i n p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e i s u s e d t o i l l u s t r a t e th e g ro w th o f m a jo r c o n c e p t s , and th e methods u s e d to t e s t them. A t t e n t i o n i s g iv e n t o chang es t h e s e r e v o l u t i o n s b r i n g t o o u r v iew s o f t h e w o rld and man; e f f e c t s o f a p p l i e d s c i e n c e on p o l i t i c s and e con om ics; and im p a c ts o f s o c i e t y on s c i e n c e and s c i e n t i s t s . T ra c k D: T h is c o u r s e s t u d i e s t h e d evelo pm en t o f s c i e n c e and s o c i e t y . Emphasis i s on th e r o l e o f s o c i a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e d ev elo p m en t o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a t i o n , and on c o n te m p o ra ry and f u t u r e s o c i a l and m o ra l dilemmas c r e a t e d by t h e d e v elo p m en t o f t h i s s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a ­ tio n . The c o u r s e c o n s i d e r s t h e c r i t e r i a u s e d by s c i e n t i s t s i n a t t e m p t s to s o l v e t h e s e p ro b le m s . 42 N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 192 T ra c k A T h is c o u r s e c o v e r s th e s t r u c t u r e o f s c i e n t i f i c know­ le d g e and how i t i s m o d if ie d . C o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n ­ t a t i o n and e m p i r i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n s t u d i e s o f t h e n a t u r e and b e h a v i o r o f l i v i n g c e l l s . S e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d a t l e n g t h , as a r e M end elian gene th e o r y and i t s modern m o d i f i c a t i o n s . C u r r e n t s c i e n c e - r e l a t e d s o c i a l pro b lem s s u c h as e u g e n i c s , g e n e t i c c o u n s e l i n g , b i r t h c o n t r o l , and t h e p o p u la tio n e x p lo sio n a re c o n sid e re d . T ra c k B T h is c o u r s e c o v e r s m a n 's c o n c e p t o f t h e phenomenon o f life . Emphasis i s p l a c e d on t h e dev elo p m en t o f contem ­ p o r a r y t h e o r i e s o f t h e n a t u r e and o r i g i n o f l i f e and on th e s o c i a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e v ie w s . C o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g iv e n to t h e DNA m o le c u le as an example o f t h e "new b i o l o g y " and i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by t h i s a p p ro a c h : Is s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r y an o r d e r l y and l o g i c a l p r o c e s s ? Is l i f e o n ly a m a t t e r o f p h y s i c s and c h e m is tr y ? T ra c k C T h is c o u r s e i s m a in ly c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e c e l l ; s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n , and t h e gene th e o r y . These t o p i c s a r e u s e d to i l l u s t r a t e e x p e r i m e n t a l and l o g i c a l p r o c e d u r e s . The gene th e o r y i s u s e d to p o r t r a y th e s t r u c t u r e and m o d i f i c a t i o n o f a t h e o r y . The p ro fo u n d s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and e t h i c a l c o n se q u e n c e s o f r e c e n t r e s e a r c h in th e se a re a s o f b io lo g y a re s tu d ie d . T ra c k D T h is c o u r s e s t u d i e s th e d evelo pm en t o f th e c o n c e p t o f l i f e , l e a d i n g t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f r e p r o d u c t i o n and h e re d ity . I t i n c l u d e s e x p l o r a t i o n o f th e s o c i o s c i e n t i f i c p ro b lem s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e t o p i c s , e . g . , o v e r p o p u l a t i o n and b i r t h c o n t r o l ; e f f e c t s o f m utagens on h e r e d i t y ; pro b lem s i n human h e r e d i t y . C rite ria used in e v a lu a tin g p o t e n t i a l s o lu tio n s to th e se p rob lem s a r e exam ined. N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 193 T ra c k A: T his c o u r s e c o n s i d e r s c o n f l i c t i n g sy ste m s o f e x p l a n a ­ t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e o r i g i n and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t , i n c l u d i n g s i g n i f i c a n t d e b a te s and t h e i r r e s o l u ­ tio n . The h i s t o r i c c o n t r o v e r s i e s betw een n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n and o t h e r t h e o r i e s o f o r g a n i c e v o l u t i o n a r e d e a l t w i t h i n a s t u d y o f t h e developm ent o f modern l i f e fo rm s, i n c l u d i n g man. T ra c k B T h is o p t i o n i s ab o u t m a n 's c o n c e p t o f h i s own n a t u r e and o r i g i n s ; b i o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n . The q u e s t i o n , "What i s t h e n a t u r e o f man?" i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f two o p p o s in g v ie w s: man a s th e 43 p r o d u c t o f k i l l e r i n s t i n c t s i n h e r i t e d from a n im a l f o r b e a r s ; o r man as th e p r o d u c t o f h i s n a t u r a l e n v ir o n m e n t. T rac k C: T h is c o u r s e exam ines c u r r e n t t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n in g t h e s t r u c t u r e and c h an g e s i n t h e e a r t h ’ s c r u s t . Drawing on t h e c o n c e p t s o f g e o l o g i c tim e and u n i f o r m i t a r i a n i s m t h a t a r e e s ta b li s h e d in th e se th e o r i e s , th e cou rse d e v e lo p s th e i d e a o f b i o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n . The r e c o r d o f l i f e drawn from t h e s tu d y o f t h e e a r t h b r i n g s i n t o fo c u s c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s i n v o lv e d i n m an’ s s u r v i v a l t o d a y . P o p u l a t i o n , p o l l u t i o n , and a g g r e s s i o n a r e key p ro b le m s a p p ro a c h e d by way o f e v o l u t i o n a r y p r i n c i p l e s . T ra c k D: T h is c o u r s e c o v e r s t h e dev elo p m en t o f t h e c o n c e p t o f e v o lu tio n in scie n c e. The r o l e o f g e o l o g i c s c i e n c e s i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h ' s d e v elo p m en t i s exam ined. Em phasis i s g iv e n t o human e v o l u t i o n and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f e v o l u t i o n a r y p r i n c i p l e s to su ch c o n te m p o ra ry s o c i o - s c i e n t i f i c p ro b le m s a s o v e r ­ p o p u l a t i o n , " g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g , " and t h e p ro b le m o f s p e c i e s o r i g i n and s u r v i v a l . 1 Samples from th e P o p u l a t i o n The number o f s t u d e n t s composing t h e f o u r t r a c k sam p les to be s t u d i e d was d e te r m in e d by t h e s i z e o f t h e s m a l l e s t group found to re m a in w ith t h e same t r a c k f o r a l l t h r e e te rm s . T a b le 3 . 1 shows t h e number o f s t u d e n t s i n v o l v e d i n d e te r m in in g t h e f o u r sam ple g ro u p s . As shown i n t h e t a b l e o n ly 87 fresh m an s t u d e n t s re m a in e d w ith T rac k C d u r in g t h e e n t i r e t h r e e term s e q u e n c e o f th e c o u r s e . T h is number d e t e r ­ mined t h e s i z e o f t h e random sam p les t o be s e l e c t e d from th e t h r e e o th e r tr a c k g ro u p s. In an a t t e m p t t o f o r e s t a l l r e c e i v i n g an even s m a l l e r number o f r e s p o n s e s th a n m ig h t be r e c e i v e d from T rack C, random sam ples o f 112 w ere drawn from th e o t h e r t h r e e g ro u p s . ■^Track d e s c r i p t i o n s p r o v i d e d by th e D e p artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e , 1 96 9 -70 . 44 T a b le 3 . 1 . — P r o c e d u r e s I n v o lv e d i n D e te rm in in g T ra c k Samples (P ercen tag es o f th e t o t a l appear in p a re n th e s e s) T ra c k A T o t a l number o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g N a t u r a l S c ie n c e F a l l te rm , 1969, by T rac k 1810 (100%) T rac k B 1260 (100%) T rac k C 429 (100%) T rac k D 569 (100%) Numbers o f s t u d e n t s r e m a in in g w ith e ach t r a c k th r o u g h W in te r te rm , 1970 980 (54.14%) 592 (46.98%) 185 (43.12%) 326 (57.29%) Numbers o f s t u d e n t s re m a in in g w ith e ach t r a c k th r o u g h S p rin g t e r n , 1970 632 (34.92%) 317 (25.10%) 102 (23.78%) 214 (37.61%) 14 (.77%) 47 (3.73%) 15 (3.50%) 11 (1.93%) N on~freshman s t u d e n t s r e m a in in g i n e a c h t r a c k th r o u g h a l l t h r e e term s ( D e le te d from t h e above p o p u la tio n s) R em aining p o p u l a t i o n Random sam ples t o be s u rv e y e d 618 (34.1%) 112 (6.19%) 270 (21.4%) 112 (8.89%) 87 (20.2%) 203 (35.6%) 87 (20.28%) 112 (19.68%) T ra c k g ro u p s A, B, and D w ere re d u c e d to 112 s t u d e n t s each by r e t a i n i n g th o s e s t u d e n t s w i t h s t u d e n t numbers whose l a s t t h r e e d i g i t s m atched t h e l a s t t h r e e d i g i t s fo un d i n a t a b l e o f random numbers u n t i l t h e d e s i r e d number was r e a c h e d . Thus, a s i s shown i n t h e above t a b l e , a t o t a l o f 423 s t u d e n t s s e p a r a t e d i n t o f o u r t r a c k g ro u p s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e s am p les w hich w ere t o b e s t u d i e d . 45 R e s e a rc h D esig n H y p o th e s is I In o r d e r to t e s t H y p o th e s is I c o n c e rn in g p o s s i b l e s c h o l a s t i c and dem ographic d i f f e r e n c e s betw een t h e f o u r t r a c k g r o u p s , t h e a u t h o r compared t h e f o u r sam ples on t h e b a s i s o f —h ig h s c h o o l g ra d e p o i n t a v e r a g e (GPA), M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y R eading T e s t S c o r e , S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e T e s t (SAT) v e r b a l and m a th e m a tic s raw s c o r e s ( i n some c a s e s American C o lle g e T e s t i n g (ACT) s c o r e s were u sed when SAT s c o r e s w ere u n a v a i l a b l e ) , s e x , r a c e ( b l a c k - n o n - b l a c k ) , and c o l l e g e m a jo r ( d e t e r m i n e d - u n d e te r m in e d ) . A d e s c r ip ti o n of th e se t e s t s fo llo w s: In stru m e n ta tio n The MSU R eading T e s t (M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ) i s a 50 ite m t e s t d e s ig n e d by t h e O f f i c e o f E v a l u a t i o n S e r v i c e s to p r e d i c t th e academ ic s u c c e s s o f s t u d e n t s a t M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . I t asks s t u d e n t s t o r e a d c a r e f u l l y and i n t e r p r e t p a s s a g e s i n th e p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s ; i n s o c i o l o g y , econom ics, p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , and i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s — p o e t r y , f i c t i o n , and d i s c u s s i o n o f h u m a n is tic m a tte rs. The r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h i s t e s t h a s been checked by t h e O f f i c e o f E v a l u a t i o n S e r v i c e s on s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s and found t o be a p p r o x i ­ m a te ly .8 0 .2 The S c h o l a s t i c A p titu d e T e s t (SAT) ( E d u c a t i o n a l T e s t i n g S e r v i c e ) i s an o b j e c t i v e t e s t d e s ig n e d t o m easure v e r b a l and m a th e m a tic a l s k ills. The v e r b a l s e c t i o n s o f th e SAT m easu re a s t u d e n t ' s a b i l i t y to u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among words and i d e a s and to comprehend 2 T e s t d e s c r i p t i o n p r o v id e d by Dr. 0 . E. P a lm e r, O f f i c e o f E v a l u a t i o n S e r v i c e s , M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . 46 what i s r e a d . The m a th e m a ti c a l s e c t i o n s m easu re a s t u d e n t ' s a b i l i t y to u n d e r s t a n d and r e a s o n w ith m a th e m a ti c a l sym bols and u s e them i n s o l v i n g p ro b le m s . The t e s t i s i n t e n d e d to p r o v id e a s t a n d a r d m easure o f acad em ic a b i l i t y . a p p ro a ch .9 0 . 3 The r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e SAT h a s b e e n found t o 4 The A merican C o lle g e T e s t i n g p a ck a g e (ACT) c o n t a i n s o b j e c t i v e t e s t s d e s ig n e d t o m easu re v e r b a l and m a th e m a ti c a l s k i l l s . The E n g l i s h u s a g e t e s t i s an 80 ite m , 50 m in u te t e s t i n t e n d e d to m e asu re th e s t u d e n t ' s e d u c a t i o n a l d ev elo p m en t i n th e u s e o f t h e b a s i c e le m e n ts of c o r r e c t and e f f e c t i v e w r i t i n g : p u n c tu atio n , c a p i t a l i z a t i o n , d ic tio n , p h r a s e o lo g y , and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f i d e a s . The m a th e m a tic s u s a g e t e s t i s a 40 ite m , 50 m in u te t e s t in te n d e d t o m easure th e s t u d e n t ' s e d u c a t i o n a l d ev elop m en t i n t h e u s e o f mathe­ m a t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s f o r s o l v i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e pro b lem s and i n t h e i n t e r ­ p r e t a t i o n o f g ra p h s and c h a r t s . k in d s o f p ro b le m s : The t e s t i s composed o f two g e n e r a l (a) q u a n t i t a t i v e r e a s o n i n g b a se d on ti m e l y s i t u a ­ t i o n s and (b) f o r m a l e x e r c i s e s i n g e o m etry , f i r s t - y e a r a l g e b r a , and ad v an ced a r i t h m e t i c . The o d d -e v e n r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s o f t h e t e s t s a r e .90 f o r E n g l i s h , and .89 f o r m a th e m a ti c s .^ D ata C o l l e c t i o n S e v e r a l o f f i c e s a t M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y c o o p e r a te d in s u p p ly in g th e n e c e s s a r y dem ographic i n f o r m a t i o n . 3 The O f f i c e o f t h e E d u catio n al T e stin g S e rv ic e . 4 SAT r e l i a b i l i t y p r o v id e d by Dr. Arvo J u o l a , O f f i c e o f E v a lu a ­ t i o n S e r v i c e s , M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . ^O scar K r is e n B u ro s, E d . , The S i x t h M ental M easurem ents Y ear­ b o o k , The Gryphon P r e s s , H ig h la n d P a r k , New J e r s e y , 1965. 47 R e g i s t r a r p r o v id e d i n f o r m a t i o n on s e x , c o l l e g e m a jo r, and h ig h s c h o o l GPA. The O f f i c e o f E v a l u a t i o n S e r v i c e s p r o v id e d SAT and ACT t e s t s c o r e s and th e e q u i - p e r c e n t i l e c o n v e r s io n t a b l e s n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n th e e q u i v a l e n t SAT s c o r e s from t h e ACT s c o r e s w here t h e fo r m e r were u n a v ailab le . o ffic e . MSU R ea d in g t e s t s c o r e s w ere a l s o o b t a i n e d th r o u g h t h i s The O f f i c e o f E q ual O p p o r t u n i t i e s p r o v id e d i n f o r m a t i o n on w hich s t u d e n t s i n v o lv e d i n t h e s tu d y w ere b l a c k . 6 H y p o th e se s I I and I I I In o r d e r to t e s t H y p o th e se s I I and I I I c o n c e rn e d w i t h why s t u d e n t s c h o se and re m a in ed w ith a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k and t h e r e a c t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s r e g a r d i n g t r a c k o b j e c t i v e s and a c c e p t a b i l i t y , a s u rv e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e was c o n s t r u c t e d by th e e x p e rim e n te r.^ Numerous i n t e r v i e w s w ere h e l d w ith N a t u r a l S c ie n c e s t a f f members i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n a s to what q u e s t i o n s th e y would l i k e s t u d e n t s t o answ er c o n c e r n in g t h e t r a c k s . P o s s i b l e answ ers to t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w ere o b t a i n e d th ro u g h i n t e r v i e w s w ith s t u d e n t s n o t i n v o lv e d i n t h e s t u d y . In stru m e n ta tio n The r e s u l t i n g q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t e d o f 52 ite m s and was d iv id e d i n t o s i x s e c tio n s : 1) The tim e t h e s t u d e n t l e a r n e d o f t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s . 2) How much i n f l u e n c e 7 l i s t e d f a c t o r s had on a s t u d e n t ' s r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n t h e f a l l te rm o f 1969. £ I n f o r m a t i o n r e l e a s e d by Dr. J o se p h M cM illan, O f f i c e o f E qual O p p o r t u n i t i e s , M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . ^A c o m p le te q u e s t i o n n a i r e a p p e a r s i n Appendix B. 48 3) How much i n f l u e n c e t e n liste d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n t h e w i n t e r term f a c t o r s had on o f 1970. a s t u d e n t 's r e g is te r in 4) How much i n f l u e n c e t e n liste d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n th e s p r i n g term f a c t o r s had on o f 1970. a s t u d e n t 's r e g is te r in 5) How w e l l , i n t h e s t u d e n t ' s o p i n i o n , t h e t r a c k met c e r t a i n s t a t e d o b je c tiv e s. 6) How a c c e p t a b l e t h e t r a c k w as, i . e . , how e n j o y a b l e , i n t e r e s t i n g , w o r th w h ile and r e l e v a n t . D ata C o l l e c t i o n In t h e summer o f 1970, t h e f u l l t h r e e te rm s e q u e n c e o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e h a v in g been c o m p le te d , t h e s u rv e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere m a ile d t o t h e s e l e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s c o m p ris in g th e f o u r t r a c k sam p le s . The i n s t r u m e n t was accom panied by an IBM 1230 answ er s h e e t , a c o v e r g le tte r, and a s tam p ed , s e l f - a d d r e s s e d e n v e lo p e . A f t e r one month, s i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s had r e t u r n e d th e co m p leted answ er s h e e ts. A f o ll o w - u p l e t t e r was s e n t t o th e n o n - r e s p o n d e n t s . The same m a t e r i a l s c o n t a i n e d i n th e f i r s t m a i l i n g w ere c o n ta i n e d i n th e f o l l o w - u p , b u t a h a n d - w r i t t e n n o te was added to th e l e t t e r e n c o u ra g in g t h e s t u d e n t t o a n sw e r. A f t e r a seco nd month had p a s s e d 7 9 .4 p e r c e n t o f th e s t u d e n t s s u rv e y e d had re s p o n d e d and t h e d a t a w ere t a b u l a t e d . T a b le 3 .2 shows t h e p o s s i b l e and a c t u a l number o f r e s p o n d e n ts whose an sw er s h e e t s w ere u s a b l e f o r each t r a c k sam ple. D ata P r e p a r a t i o n D ata f o r e a c h o f t h e 336 s t u d e n t s w ere punched i n t o t h r e e d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c a r d s f o r u s e i n th e CDC 3600 and 6500 c o m p u te rs. Two c a r d s c o n t a i n e d a n sw e rs to t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ite m s and t h e s c h o l a s t i c A sam ple c o v e r l e t t e r a p p e a r s i n Appendix B. 49 and dem ographic i n f o r m a t i o n . A t h i r d card c o n tain ed th e s c a le s c o re s from t h e RAVE a n a l y s i s d e s c r i b e d below . T a b le 3 . 2 . —P o s s i b l e and A c tu a l Numbers o f R esp o n d e n ts P o s s i b l e R esp o n d e n ts A c t u a l R e sp o n d e n ts P ercent T ra c k A 112 92 8 2 .1 4 T ra c k B 112 87 7 7 .6 8 T ra c k C 87 70 8 0.47 T rack D 112 87 7 7 .6 8 T o tals 423 336 7 9.43 S t a t i s t i c a l Methods Employed A l l c o m p u ta tio n s o f d a t a a n a l y s i s w ere p e rfo rm e d u s i n g e i t h e r t h e CDC 3600 o r t h e CDC 6500 co m p u te r. 9 In o r d e r t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r t h e r e w e re any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­ f e r e n c e s a c r o s s th e f o u r t r a c k s w i t h r e g a r d t o s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e t h e F in n program o f m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was employed. To d e te r m in e w h e th e r t h e r e w ere any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s w ith r e g a r d to s e x r a t i o , r a c e r a t i o , and c o l l e g e m a jo r r a t i o , an a n a l y s i s o f c o n tin g e n c y t a b l e s was u s e d . 9 Use o f t h e M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Computer C e n te r f a c i l i t i e s was i n p a r t s u p p o r t e d by th e O f f i c e o f E v a l u a t i o n S e r v i c e s . 10 Jeremy D. F in n , " U n i v a r i a t e and M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a ria n c e and C o v a ria n c e : F o r t r a n IV P ro g ra m " , V e r s io n 4, D ep artm en t o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f New York a t B u f f a l o , J u n e , 1968. 50 B ecause o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n a n a l y z i n g q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a su ch a s w ere o b t a i n e d th r o u g h t h e u s e o f t h e o p i n i o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e , i t was d e s ir a b le to q u a n tify th e d a ta . (RAVE) 11 The Method o f R e c i p r o c a l A v erag es i s a t e c h n i q u e f o r q u a n t i f y i n g su ch q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a . The RAVE . . . employs an a p r i o r i s e t of ite m r e s p o n s e w e i g h t s d e te r m in e d by t h e c o n s t r u c t o r o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o i n i t i a t e an i t e r a t i v e p r o c e s s w hich c o v e r g e s t o a w e i g h t i n g scheme w hich m axim izes th e i n t e r n a l c o n sis te n c y of th e in stru m e n t. The s e t o f ite m r e s p o n s e w e i g h t s y i e l d e d by t h e f i n a l i t e r a t i o n i s u s e d to o b t a i n a w e ig h te d t o t a l s c o r e f o r e ac h s u b j e c t . 12 S in c e t h i s method assum es t h a t a s i n g l e v a r i a b l e u n d e r l i e s a l l ite m s i n a p a r t i c u l a r s c a l e and t h a t t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r knows w hich ite m s a r e r e l a t e d to e ach u n d e r l y i n g v a r i a b l e , a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s was p e rfo rm e d on t h e d a t a to s u g g e s t ite m s w hich a p p e a re d t o form u n i f i e d s c a l e s . Ite m 1 on t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was t r e a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y and a n a ly z e d th r o u g h t h e u s e o f a c o n t in g e n c y t a b l e a s i t was e n t i r e l y in fo rm atio n al. F a c t o r a n a l y s i s and t h e RAVE p rogram i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e re m a in in g ite m s y i e l d e d s i x t e e n i d e n t i f i a b l e s c a l e s . Names and d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h o s e s c a l e s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y com­ p u te d by RAVE f o r e ac h s c a l e and an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i g h and low s c o r e s a r e s t a t e d below . F o r e a c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s c a l e s s t u d e n t s re s p o n d e d on a f o u r resp o n se key. A low s c o r e r e f l e c t e d a g r e a t d e a l o f i n f l u e n c e . A h ig h s c o r e r e f l e c t e d no i n f l u e n c e a t a l l . ■^F. B. B aker and T. J . M a r t i n , " F o r t a p : A F o r t r a n T e s t A n a ly s is P a c k a g e ," O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r No. 10, J u l y , 1970, O f f i c e o f R e s e a rc h C o n s u l t a t i o n , S c h o o l f o r Advanced S t u d i e s , C o lle g e o f Educa­ t i o n , M ichig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . 12I b i d . , p . 8. 51 1) C onvenience F a l l Term. Ite m s 2 and 3 m easu red how much i n ­ f l u e n c e c o n v e n ie n c e o f c l a s s l o c a t i o n and e a s e o f s c h e d u l i n g had on a s t u d e n t ^ r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n th e f a l l te rm . r e l i a b i l i t y was .5 7 . Hoyt S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 2 to 8. 2) N o n -c o n v e n ie n c e F a l l Term. N o n -c o n v en ien c e f a c t o r s i n ­ f l u e n c i n g a s t u d e n t ’s r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n t h e f a l l term i n c l u d e d th e i n f l u e n c e o f f r i e n d s , an i n t e r e s t i n g and c o n ce rn e d t e a c h e r , t r a c k c o n t e n t and t h e l i k e . Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .6 6 . Ite m s 4 -8 formed t h i s s c a l e . S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 7 t o 20. 3) C onvenience W in te r and S p r in g Term s. Ite m s 9, 10, 19 , and 20 m e asu re d c o n v e n ie n c e o f c l a s s l o c a t i o n and e a s e o f s c h e d u lin g as f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g a stu d e n tfs r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n b o th t h e w i n t e r and s p r i n g te r m s . Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .8 4 . S c o re s c o u ld r a n g e from 4 t o 16. F a c to rs re g iste rin g of a n o n -c o n v e n ien t n a tu re in flu e n c in g a s t u d e n t ’s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n th e w i n t e r and s p r i n g term s formed sev e n s c a l e s a s f o l l o w s : 4) F r i e n d s F a c t o r W in te r and S p r i n g . The i n f l u e n c e o f f r i e n d s who p la n n e d t o ta k e a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n t h e w i n t e r and s p r i n g term s as a f a c t o r i n a s t u d e n t b r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k th o s e two term s was m easu red by ite m s 11 and 21. Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .7 5 . S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 2 t o 8. 5) I n s t r u c t o r F a c t o r W in te r and S p r i n g . Ite m s 14, 16, 24, and 26 m e a su re d t h e d e g r e e o f i n f l u e n c e an i n t e r e s t i n g and c o n c e rn e d i n ­ s t r u c t o r had on a stu d en tfe r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n th e w i n t e r and s p r i n g te r m s . from 4 to 6. Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .7 6 . S c o re s ra n g e d 52 6) I g n o r a n c e F a c t o r W in te r and S p r in g . The b e l i e f t h a t a s t u d e n t was su pp osed to rem ain w i t h th e same t r a c k h e had o r i g i n a l l y ch o sen a s a f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g a s t u d e n t ' s r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n t h e w i n t e r and s p r i n g term s was m easured by ite m s 12 and 22. Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was 173. S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 2 to 8. 7) D is a d v a n ta g e F a c t o r W in te r and S p r i n g . The p o s s i b i l i t y of b e in g a t a d i s a d v a n t a g e by s w i t c h i n g t r a c k s was a f a c t o r m e asu re d by ite m s 13 and 23. Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .8 4 . S c o re s c o u ld r a n g e from 2 to 8. 8) Easy Grade F a c t o r W in te r and S p r i n g . Item s 15 and 25 m e asu re d th e i n f l u e n c e an i n s t r u c t o r ' s e asy g r a d i n g p o l i c y m ig h t have had on a s t u d e n t ' s r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k w i n t e r and s p r i n g te r m s . Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .7 8 . S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 2 to 8. 9) C o n te n t F a c t o r . Ite m s 17 and 27 m e asu re d th e i n f l u e n c e o f a t r a c k s b e in g w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t on a s t u d e n t ' s r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k w i n t e r and s p r i n g te rm s . Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .8 9 . S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 2 to 8. 10) Comment F a c t o r . How much i n f l u e n c e h e a r i n g n e g a t i v e com­ m ents a b o u t th e o t h e r t r a c k s h ad on a s t u d e n t b r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k w i n t e r and s p r i n g term s was m easu red by ite m s 18 and 28. Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .8 8 . S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 2 t o 8. S tu d e n ts re sp o n d e d on a f i v e - r e s p o n s e key to e ach o f t h e r e ­ m a in in g s c a l e s . A low s c o r e i n d i c a t e d s t r o n g a g re e m e n t. A h ig h s c o r e i n d i c a t e d s t r o n g d is a g r e e m e n t. 11) C ourse O b j e c t i v e s . Ite m s 29, 30, and 31 m e asu re d how w e l l t h e s t u d e n t f e l t t h e t r a c k met c e r t a i n N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e 53 o b je ctiv es. Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .5 8 . S c o re s c o u ld r a n g e from 3 t o 14. 12) G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n O b j e c t i v e s . How w e l l t h e s t u d e n t f e l t c e r t a i n g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s w ere met by t h e t r a c k was m easured by ite m s 3 2 -3 8 . Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .8 6 . S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 7 to 35. 13) T rac k A c c e p t a b i l i t y . The d e g r e e of a c c e p t a n c e by t h e s t u d e n t of a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k was m e asu re d by ite m s 4 0 -4 6 . r e l i a b i l i t y was .8 7 . Hoyt S c o re s c o u ld r a n g e from 8 t o 35. 14) A p p r e c i a t i o n o f 1 91. Ite m s 47 and 50 m e asu re d how i n t e r e s t i n g , w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t t h e s t u d e n t fo u n d N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191 t o be. Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .8 6 . 15) A p p r e c i a t i o n o f 1 9 2 . S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 2 to 10 Ite m s 48 and 51 m e asu re d how i n ­ t e r e s t i n g , w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t t h e s t u d e n t fo u n d N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 192 to be. Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was . 8 6 . 16) A p p r e c i a t i o n o f 1 9 3 . S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 2 to 10 Ite m s 49 and 52 m e asu re d how i n ­ t e r e s t i n g , w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t t h e s t u d e n t s fou nd N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 193 to be. Hoyt r e l i a b i l i t y was .8 6 . S c o re s c o u ld ra n g e from 2 to 10 S c a le s c o r e s o b t a i n e d th r o u g h t h e u s e o f t h e RAVE program w ere examined i n two s e p a r a t e w ays. Those s c a l e s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e c h o ic e o f a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k d u r in g r e g i s t r a t i o n w ere examined th ro u g h t h e u s e o f a p a t t e r n a n a l y s i s by ra n k o r d e r o f means u s in g K e n d a l l 's C o e f f i c i e n t o f C o n cord ance. 13 In o r d e r to d e te r m in e how s t u d e n t s o f d i f f e r e n t s e x , t r a c k , and s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e (above o r below t h e computed s c h o l a s t i c mean) a nsw ered p o r t i o n s o f t h e 13 W illia m L. Hays, S t a t i s t i c s f o r P s y c h o l o g i s t s , p p . 6 56 -6 5 8 , H o lt, R in e h a r t and W in sto n , New Y ork, 1963. 54 q u e s t i o n n a i r e , t h e re m a in in g s c a l e s d e a l i n g w i t h t r a c k a c c e p t a b i l i t y w ere examined th ro u g h t h e F in n program o f M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s . Summary The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s s tu d y c o n s i s t e d o f t h o s e fresh m an s t u d e n t s who e n t e r e d M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e f a l l term of 1969 and who re m a in e d w i t h a g iv e n t r a c k o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e f o r th e t h r e e te rm s o f t h e c o u r s e . From t h i s p o p u l a t i o n a random sam ple from e ach o f th e f o u r t r a c k g ro u p s (A, B, C, and D) was s u rv e y e d th ro u g h t h e u s e o f an a t t i ­ tu d e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . I n o r d e r t o t e s t t h e s t a t e d h y p o t h e s e s , th o s e f o u r sam p les o f s t u d e n t s who re s p o n d e d w ere compared on th e b a s i s o f 1) s c h o l a s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c l u d i n g h ig h s c h o o l g ra d e p o i n t a v e r a g e , M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y R eading T e s t s c o r e s and S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e T e s t v e r b a l and m a th e m a tic s raw s c o r e s , 2) d em ographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c l u d i n g s e x , r a c e , and c o l l e g e maj o r , and 3) q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s a s to when and why th e y c h o se a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k and re m a in e d w i t h t h a t t r a c k f o r t h e t h r e e te rm s o f t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e and t h e i r r e a c t i o n s to w a rd t h a t t r a c k . S tu d e n t d a t a w ere punched i n t o d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c a r d s and a n a ly z e d on t h e CDC 3600 and 6500 c o m p u te rs. V a rio u s s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly z e s i n c l u d i n g th e F in n program o f M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e , a n a l y s i s o f c o n tin g e n c y t a b l e s , f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , t h e Method o f R e c i p r o c a l A v erag es and K e n d a l l ’ s C o e f f i c i e n t of C oncordance w ere used. C h a p te r IV w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s . CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA In tro d u c tio n The p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s to p r e s e n t an a n a l y s i s o f th e d a t a d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p te r I I I . S e v e r a l a n a l y t i c a l m ethods w ere employed due t o t h e d i v e r s e n a t u r e o f th e d a t a . i s p re s e n te d f o r each of th e th re e h y p o th e se s. The d a t a a n a l y s i s The .05 l e v e l o f con­ f i d e n c e was e s t a b l i s h e d a s t h e c r i t i c a l l e v e l i n t e s t i n g a l l h y p o th e se s. H y p o th e s is I No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b etw een t h e f o u r sam ples o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e w ith r e s p e c t t o s e l e c t e d s c h o l a s t i c and d em ographic v a r i a b l e s . A m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was u s e d to t e s t f o r s c h o l a s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s a m p le s . S c h o la stic v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d th e S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e T e s t v e r b a l and m a th e m a tic s raw s c o r e s , h i g h s c h o o l g ra d e p o i n t a v e r a g e , and M ichigan S t a t e U n iv e r ­ s i t y R eading T e s t s c o r e s . T a b le 4 .1 shows th e r e s u l t s o f d a t a a n a l y s i s f o r t h i s p a r t o f H y p o th e s is I . I t was h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d b e ­ tween t h e f o u r t r a c k sam p les w ith r e s p e c t to s e l e c t e d s c h o l a s t i c v a r i ­ a b le s. No d i f f e r e n c e s w ere fou nd t o o c c u r upon a n a l y s i s . 55 56 T a b le 4 . 1 . —M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e o f D i f f e r e n c e s A c ro ss Four T rac k s Based on S e l e c t e d S c h o l a s t i c V a r i a b l e s Between Mean S q u a re s V a ria b les S te p Down F R atio P ro b a b ility L e s s Than SAT Math 11342,3266 1 .28 74 0 .2 7 8 7 * SAT V e rb a l 18941,8761 1.7 36 2 0 .1 5 9 4 * 0 ,0 7 3 0 0 .1 0 0 8 0 .9 5 9 6 * 39,5285 0 .2 1 7 0 0 .8 8 4 7 * H.S. GPA MSU R eading D .F. f o r h y p o t h e s i s = 3 D.F. f o r e r r o r = 332 * N o n -sig n ific a n t. In o r d e r t o t e s t t h e second p a r t o f H y p o th e s is I w hich d e a l t w ith p o s s i b l e dem ographic d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s , C h i-S q u a re te c h n i q u e was u s e d . th e The d e m og raph ic v a r i a b l e s s e l e c t e d w ere r a c e ( b l a c k - n o n - b l a c k ) , s e x , and c o l l e g e m a jo r ( d e t e r m i n e d u n d e te r m in e d ) . T a b le 4 .2 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f th e C h i-S q u a re a n a l y s i s . I t was h y p o th e s i z e d t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d betw een th e f o u r t r a c k sam ples w i t h r e s p e c t t o s e l e c t e d d em ographic v a ria b le s. C h i- s q u a r e a n a l y s i s shows t h a t t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n s e x r a t i o and r a c e r a t i o , b u t t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o l ­ l e g e m a jo r r a t i o w ere n o n s i g n i f i c a n t . The f i r s t p a r t of H y p o th e s is I p r e d i c t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t s c h o l a s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s th e f o u r t r a c k s . h y p o t h e s i s was n o t r e j e c t e d . T h is p a r t o f th e The sec o n d p a r t o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s p r e ­ d i c t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t dem ographic d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s th e f o u r t r a c k s . The d a t a i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n sex 57 r a t i o and i n r a c e r a t i o , t h e r e f o r e t h i s p a r t o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s was re je c te d . T a b le 4 . 2 . —P e r c e n t s o f S tu d e n ts i n t h e Four T ra c k Samples by R ace, Sex, and C o lle g e M ajor Demographic V a ria b le T rac k A- T rac k B T ra c k C T rac k D B la ck s 4 8 4 6 N o n -b la c k s 96 92 96 94 Males 41 47 24 32 Females 59 53 76 68 D eterm ined 32 28 27 30 Race x2 10. 89 * Sex 10.288 * C o lle g e Major .399 U ndeterm ined 68 71 73 70 * S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l o r beyond. H y p o th e s is I I No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t betw een t h e f o u r sam p les o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g th e v a r i o u s t r a c k s w ith r e s p e c t t o why th e y c h o se and re m a in ed w ith a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k . T w e n ty -e ig h t ite m s on t h e s t u d e n t s u rv e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e p r o v id e d d a t a p e r t a i n i n g to t h i s h y p o t h e s i s : Item 1 a sk e d a t what tim e a s t u d e n t l e a r n e d o f th e v a r i o u s t r a c k s o f f e r e d i n N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . C h i-S q u a re te c h n i q u e . T h is ite m was a n a ly z e d u s in g th e T a b le 4 .3 p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s . The o t h e r tw e n ty -s e v e n ite m s i n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e w e re re d u c e d t o t e n s c a l e s th ro u g h a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s and t h e m ethod o f r e c i p r o c a l averages. (See C h a p te r I I I . ) These s c a l e s w ere f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g s tu d e n ts in t h e i r r e g is te r in g fo r a p a r t i c u l a r tra c k in th e f a l l , 58 w i n t e r and s p r i n g te r m s . The two s c a l e s c o n c e rn e d w ith d e te r m in in g w hich f a c t o r s w ere o f m ost im p o r ta n c e i n a s t u d e n t ' s r e g i s t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k i n th e f a l l te rm l o s t t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s when i t was found t h a t m ost s t u d e n t s l e a r n e d o f t h e t r a c k o p t i o n s o n ly a f t e r re g istra tio n a n a ly z e d . ( s e e T a b le 4 . 3 ) . These two s c a l e s w ere t h e r e f o r e n o t The re m a in in g e i g h t f a c t o r s w ere exam ined th r o u g h t h e u s e o f a p a t t e r n a n a l y s i s by r a n k o r d e r o f means. T a b le 4 . 4 shows t h e r e s u l t s of ra n k in g . T a b le 4 . 3 . — P e r c e n t s o f R esp o n ses t o Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Ite m #1: S tu d e n ts L earned o f T r a c k s , by T rack R esponse T rac k A T ra c k B T rac k C T rack D B e fo re r e g i s t r a ­ tio n , o rie n ta tio n 2 6 9 8 B e fo re r e g i s t r a ­ tio n , a d v iso r 0 1 0 0 B e fo re r e g i s t r a ­ tio n , frie n d s 3 6 1 0 At r e g i s t r a t i o n 12 9 6 9 A fte r r e g i s t r a ­ tio n 83 78 84 83 * N o n sig n ific an t. When x2 14.326 * 59 T a b le 4 . 4 . — The R e l a t i v e Im p o rta n c e of E i g h t F a c t o r s i n I n f l u e n c i n g S t u d e n t s ’ C hoice o f T rack i n t h e W in te r and S p r in g Terms, by T rack F a c to r T rac k A T rack B T rac k C T rac k D T o tals C onvenience 1 3 3 3 10 F rien d s 5 6 7 6 24 In stru c to r 2 1 1 1 5 Ignorance 7 8 8 8 31 D is a d v a n ta g e 3 5 4 5 17 Easy Grade 8 7 6 7 28 C o n te n t 4 2 2 2 10 Comments 6 4 5 4 19 I n o r d e r t o show t h e e x t e n t to w hich members o f a s e t o f t h e f o u r d i s t i n c t t r a c k o r d e r i n g s o f e i g h t f a c t o r s te n d e d to be s i m i l a r , K e n d a l l ' s C o e f f i c i e n t o f Concordance was u s e d : W= 12 E T 2 m2 N(N2-1 ) 3(N + 1) N -l W = .76 As t h e maximum v a l u e f o r W i s 1, t h e r e i s a p p a r e n t l y a f a i r l y h ig h d e g re e o f " c o n c o rd a n c e " among t h e t r a c k s , s i n c e th e v a r i a n c e o f t h e r a n k sums i s 76% o f t h e maximum v a l u e . I f t h e a u t h o r w ere t o ta k e a l l A\ p o s s i b l e ^ ) o r 6 p a i r s o f t r a c k s , and found r g f o r e ach su ch p a i r , t h e a v e r a g e ra n k c o r r e l a t i o n would be a b o u t .6 8 . average r s mW-1 = ----- m-1 60 Thus, on t h e a v e r a g e , t r a c k - p a i r s do te n d to g iv e r e l a t i v e l y s i m i l a r ran k in g s. H y p o th e s is I I was th e r e b y n o t r e j e c t e d . H y p o th e s is I I I No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t betw een th e r e a c t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s to q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t r a c k o b j e c ­ t i v e s and a c c e p t a b i l i t y a s e x p r e s s e d by an a t t i t u d e i n v e n t o r y . A m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was u sed t o f i n d w h e th e r d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s w ith r e s p e c t to q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t r a c k o b j e c t i v e s and a c c e p t a b i l i t y . T a b le 4 .5 shows t h e re s u lts of th is a n aly sis. T a b le 4 . 5 . —M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a ria n c e : Main E f f e c t s a r e T ra c k , Sex, and S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e ; D ependent V a r i a b l e s a r e How S u b j e c t s P e r c e iv e d T rac k A c c e p t a b i l i t y , T r a c k 's M eeting o f C ourse and G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n O b j e c t i v e s , and W hether th e y Found F a l l , W in te r, and S p rin g C ourses I n t e r e s t i n g , W orthw hile and R e le v a n t S ource o f V a r i a t i o n D.F. M u ltiv a ria te F Grand Mean 1 T rack 3 7.444 Sex 1 not te sta b le S c h o l a s t i c A p titu d e (SAT) 1 not te sta b le T ra c k X Sex 3 .8506 N .S. T ra c k X SAT 3 .5621 N .S. Sex X SAT 1 .3129 N.S. T rac k X Sex X SAT 3 .4842 N.S. E rro r T o tal 320 336 * S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l o r beyond. p .0001* 61 As t h e d a t a show, d i f f e r e n c e s d id o c c u r a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s . T here was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e way m a le s and fe m a le s r e ­ sp on ded , o r i n th e way s t u d e n t s o f above and below a v e r a g e s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e re s p o n d e d . A m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s was th e n p e rfo rm e d t o f i n d e x a c t l y w here i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t h e f o u r t r a c k sam ples d iffe re d . T a b le 4 .6 p r e s e n t s th e r e s u l t s . T a b le 4 . 6 —M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a ly s is o f I n d i v i d u a l S c a le D i f f e r e n c e s A c ro ss t h e Fou r T rac k s S tep Down F R a tio P ro b a b ility L ess Than A c c e p ta b ility 7.0937 .0002 C ourse O b j e c t i v e s 8.10 71 .0001 G e n e ra l E d u c a tio n O b j e c t i v e s 2 5.9474 .0001 191 23.0603 .0001 192 13.1727 .0001 193 2.53 38 N .S. V a ria b les As t h e d a t a show, t h e t r a c k s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t w ith r e s p e c t t o how s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e d th e t r a c k ' s m e e tin g c e r t a i n c o u r s e and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s , how a c c e p t a b l e th e t r a c k was and how i n t e r e s t i n g , w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191 and 192 w e re . T h ere w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s th e f o u r t r a c k s , how ever, a s to how i n t e r e s t i n g , w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t th e y found 193. S in c e a n a l y s i s showed t h a t t h e r e w ere d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s i t a p p e a re d v a l u a b l e to d e te r m in e how th e y d i f f e r e d . 60 Thus, on t h e a v e r a g e , t r a c k - p a i r s do te n d to g i v e r e l a t i v e l y s i m i l a r ra n k in g s. H y p o th e s is I I was t h e r e b y n o t r e j e c t e d . H y p o th e s is I I I No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t betw een t h e r e a c t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g th e v a r i o u s t r a c k s t o q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t r a c k o b j e c ­ t i v e s and a c c e p t a b i l i t y a s e x p r e s s e d by an a t t i t u d e i n v e n t o r y . A m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was u s e d t o f i n d w h e th e r d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s w i t h r e s p e c t to q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t r a c k o b j e c t i v e s and a c c e p t a b i l i t y . T a b le 4 .5 shows th e re s u lts of th is a n a ly sis. T a b le 4 . 5 . —M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a r ia n c e : Main E f f e c t s a r e T ra c k , Sex, and S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e ; D ep en den t V a r i a b l e s a r e How S u b j e c t s P e r c e i v e d T ra c k A c c e p t a b i l i t y , T r a c k 's M eetin g o f C ourse and G e n e r a l E d u c a tio n O b j e c t i v e s , and W hether th e y Found F a l l , W in te r , and S p r in g C o u rses I n t e r e s t i n g , W orthw hile and R e l e v a n t S ource o f V a r i a t i o n D.F. M u ltiv a ria te F Grand Mean 1 T rack 3 7 .4 4 4 Sex 1 not te sta b le S c h o la s tic A p titu d e (SAT) 1 not te sta b le T ra c k X Sex 3 .8506 N .S. T ra c k X SAT 3 .5621 N .S. Sex X SAT 1 .3129 N.S. T ra c k X Sex X SAT 3 .4842 N .S. E rror T o tal 320 336 * S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 5 l e v e l o r b ey o n d . p .0001* 61 As t h e d a t a show, d i f f e r e n c e s d i d o c c u r a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s . T h e re was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e way m a le s and fe m a le s r e ­ sp o n d ed , o r i n t h e way s t u d e n t s o f above and below a v e r a g e s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e responded. A m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s was th e n p e rfo rm e d t o f i n d e x a c t l y w here i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t h e f o u r t r a c k sam p les d iffe red . T a b le 4 . 6 p r e s e n t s th e r e s u l t s . T a b le 4 . 6 —M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f I n d i v i d u a l S c a le D i f f e r e n c e s A c ro ss t h e Fo ur T ra c k s S te p Down F R a t io P ro b a b ility L e ss Than A c c e p ta b ilV 7.0937 .0002 C o u rse Oh/ 8 .1 0 7 1 .0001 G e n e ra l 25 .9 4 7 4 .0001 191 2 3.06 0 3 .0001 192 1 3.1727 .0001 193 2 .5 3 3 8 N .S. V a ria b As t h e d a t a show, t h e t r a c k s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t w ith r e s p e c t t o how s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e d th e t r a c k ' s m e e tin g c e r t a i n c o u r s e and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s , how a c c e p t a b l e th e t r a c k was and how i n t e r e s t i n g , w o r th w h ile and r e l e v a n t N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191 and 192 w e re . T h e re w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s , how ever, a s to how i n t e r e s t i n g , w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t th e y fo u nd 193. S in c e a n a l y s i s showed t h a t t h e r e w e re d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s i t a p p e a r e d v a l u a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e how th e y d i f f e r e d . I 62 T a b le 4 . 7 r e p o r t s l e a s t s q u a r e e s t i m a t e s o f t r e a t m e n t e f f e c t s on t h e b a s is o f m u ltiv a r ia te a n a ly s is of v a ria n ce . T a b le 4 . 7 . — L e a s t S q uare E s t i m a t e s o f T re a tm e n t E f f e c t s on t h e B a s is o f M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a ria n c e T ra c k A T rac k B A c c e p ta b ility 0 .04035 0 .69841 -0 .4 5 1 0 4 0 .0 C ourse O b j e c t i v e s 0 .06399 0.76117 - 0 .4 1 0 7 4 0 .0 G e n e r a l E d u c a tio n O b j e c t i v e s 2 .43780 2 .61737 0 .3 0 1 0 1 0 .0 191 2 .6 43 9 3 1.96377 -0 .7 7 2 5 6 0 .0 192 1 .3 80 4 9 -0 .3 2 3 8 1 -0 .7 2 9 7 7 0 .0 193 0.55 55 3 1.26655 - 0 .1 9 3 1 8 0 .0 F a c to r T ra c k C T ra c k D To b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d a b o v e, t h e ! e s t i m a t e s w ere ra n k e d i n T a b le 4 . 8 . j T a b le 4 . 8 . — Rank O rd e r o f T ra c k H ig h e s t t o Lowest P e r c e p t i o n s o f D ependent V a r i a b l e s on B a s is o f M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s C ourse O b je ctiv es Gen. Ed. O b je ctiv es 191 192 B B B A A A A A B D D D C D B C C D C C A c ce p ta b ility High Low *193 d a t a n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t and n o t ra n k e d . 193* 63 H y p o th e s is I I I p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e r e w ere no d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s th e f o u r t r a c k s w i t h r e s p e c t t o r e a c t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e f o u r t r a c k s t o q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t r a c k o b j e c t i v e s and a c c e p t a b i l i t y . The h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d . CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS In tro d u c tio n T h roughout t h e y e a r s s i n c e i t s i n c e p t i o n i n 1855, M ichig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y h a s s t r i v e d t o p r o v i d e i t s s t u d e n t s w i t h a b ro a d g e n e ra l e d u ca tio n . In 1944 t h e B a s ic C o lle g e was e s t a b l i s h e d t o im plem ent t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f f o u r r e q u i r e d g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n c o u r s e s . A trem en do us grow th o f know ledge and w ide d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t s f o r f a c u l t y and s t u d e n t s a l i k e c a l l e d , by 1969, f o r g r e a t e r f l e x i ­ b i l i t y in th e se re q u ire d c o u rses. Four o p t i o n s o r t r a c k s w ere made a v a i l a b l e t h a t y e a r i n t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e . T h is s t u d y was c o n c e iv e d a s an a n a l y s i s o f r e l a t i v e s t u d e n t a c c e p t a n c e o f t h o s e f o u r tra c k s. P u rp o s e and P r o c e d u r e The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s tu d y was t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d a c r o s s t h e s e f o u r t r a c k s w i t h r e s p e c t t o (1) s e l e c t e d s c h o l a s t i c and dem ographic v a r i a b l e s , (2) why s t u d e n t s c h o s e and r e ­ m ained w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k , and (3) s t u d e n t r e a c t i o n s t o q u e s t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o c o u r s e and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s and t r a c k a c c e p t ­ a b ility . 64 65 The sam p les o f s t u d e n t s s e l e c t e d f o r s t u d y w ere ta k e n from a p o p u l a t i o n o f fre s h m a n s t u d e n t s who e n t e r e d M ich igan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e f a l l o f 1969 and c o m p le te d t h e f u l l t h r e e - t e r m se q u e n c e o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e i n t h a t academ ic y e a r . S tu d e n ts who had re m a in e d w ith a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k f o r t h e t h r e e te rm s w ere d i v i d e d i n t o t h e i r r e s p e c ­ t i v e t r a c k g ro u p s (A, B, C, and D ). I n s t r u m e n t s u s e d i n t h e s tu d y w ere t h e M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y R ead in g T e s t , t h e S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e T e s t , and th e A m erican C o lle g e T e s tin g package. A t t i t u d i n a l i n f o r m a t i o n was c o l l e c t e d th r o u g h a q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s t r u c t e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r . S t a t i s t i c a l m ethods u s e d t o a n a l y z e t h e d a t a i n c l u d e d f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , t h e method o f r e c i p r o c a l a v e r a g e s , m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , and a n a l y s i s o f c o n tin g e n c y t a b l e s . In a l l a n a l y s e s t h e .05 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e was u s e d t o d e te r m in e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . F in d i n g s T hree h y p o th e s e s w ere t e s t e d w i t h th e d a t a c o l l e c t e d f o r th e stu d y . The p r i n c i p a l means o f h y p o th e s e s t e s t i n g was th r o u g h t h e use of m u ltiv a r i a te a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e . H y p o th e s is I The f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s c o n s i d e r e d p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een t h e f o u r t r a c k sam p les on t h e b a s i s o f s e l e c t e d s c h o l a s t i c and demo­ g ra p h ic v a r ia b le s . R e s u l t s d e m o n s t r a t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t s c h o l a s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s and no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c o l l e g e m a jo r r a t i o . S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s d i d , h ow ev er, a p p e a r i n s e x r a t i o and r a c e ra tio . 66 H y p o th e s is I I The se c o n d h y p o t h e s i s d e a l t w i t h p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s a s to why s t u d e n t s c h o se and rem ained w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r tra c k . The t r a c k g ro u p s w ere found t o be i n g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t. A ll g ro u p s l e a r n e d o f t h e t r a c k s a f t e r r e g i s t r a t i o n and re m a in ed w i t h t h e same t r a c k p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e o f t h e (1) i n s t r u c t o r , (2) t r a c k c o n t e n t , and (3) c o n v e n ie n c e o f s c h e d u l i n g , i n t h a t o r d e r . H y p o th e s is I I I The t h i r d h y p o t h e s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s tu d e n t r e a c t i o n a c ro s s th e fo u r tr a c k s w ith r e s p e c t to q u e stio n s r e l a t i n g t o c o u r s e and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s and t r a c k a c c e p t ­ a b i l i t y a s m e a su re d by s t u d e n t r e s p o n s e s t o t h e l o c a l l y d e v e lo p e d a t t i t u d e in v e n to ry . The t r a c k g ro u p s w ere fo un d t o d i f f e r s i g n i f i ­ c a n t l y i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e t h r e e te rm s e q u e n c e : T ra c k s B and A e a c h p e r c e i v e d t h e i r t r a c k h ig h i n a c c e p t a b i l i t y and i n m e e tin g c o u r s e and g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s , w h i l e T ra c k s D and C p e r ­ c e i v e d t h e i r t r a c k s r e l a t i v e l y lo w e r . N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191 was p e r ­ c e i v e d h i g h e r by T ra c k s A and B and lo w e r by T rac k s D and C w i t h r e ­ s p e c t t o b e i n g i n t e r e s t i n g , w o r th w h ile and r e l e v a n t . N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 192 was p e r c e i v e d h i g h e r by T ra c k s A and D and lo w e r by T ra c k s B and C. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 193. C o n c lu s io n s H y p o th e s is I I f one t r a c k s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e t a i n e d o n ly s t u d e n t s o f h ig h sc h o la stic a p titu d e , th e n one would e x p e c t t o f i n d a d i f f e r e n c e w ith 67 r e s p e c t to s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e a c r o s s t h e f o u r sa m p le s o f s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e . S in c e no su ch d i f ­ f e r e n c e s w ere fo u n d , i t m ust b e assumed t h a t any s c h o l a s t i c s e l e c t i n g f a c t o r s t h a t m ig h t e x i s t m u st h a v e e x i s t e d i n a b o u t t h e same d e g r e e i n e ac h o f t h e f o u r t r a c k s . Based on s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e a l o n e , a l l o t h e r g r a d i n g f a c t o r s assumed e q u a l , g r a d e s w i t h i n e ach o f t h e f o u r t r a c k s s h o u ld b e a p p r o x im a te ly e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d . F u r t h e r in f o r m a ­ t i o n , h ow ev er, i n d i c a t e s t h a t one t r a c k c o n s i s t e n t l y aw arded h i g h e r grades. What o t h e r f a c t o r s (s u c h as c o u r s e a c c e p t a b i l i t y , m o t i v a t i o n , g r a d e r a t t i t u d e to w ard g r a d i n g and o b j e c t i v i t y , e t c . ) caused t h i s d is p a r ity ? c o u ld have A lth o u g h a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f s t u d e n t s r e ­ m ain ed w i t h t h i s t r a c k , r a n k i n g o f c o u r s e a c c e p t a b i l i t y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s t r a c k was n o t a s h i g h l y a c c la im e d by i t s s t u d e n t s a s w ere some o th e r tra c k s . stru c to rs? I s t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e g r a d e d i s p a r i t y th e n t h e i n ­ Are t h e i n s t r u c t o r s i n t h i s t r a c k h i g h l y m o t i v a t i n g ? t h e i r s a more r e l a x e d g r a d i n g p o l i c y ? Is F u rth er s tu d ie s are n ecessary t o d e t e r m i n e a n sw e rs to t h i s q u e s t i o n . S in c e r e s u l t s showed t h a t m ost s t u d e n t s i n a l l t r a c k s l e a r n e d o f t h e t r a c k o p t i o n s o n ly a f t e r r e g i s t r a t i o n , ch ance s h o u ld p l a c e a p p r o x im a te ly e q u a l numbers o f m ales and f e m a l e s , b l a c k s and n o n b l a c k s , and d e te r m in e d and u n d e te r m in e d c o l l e g e m a jo rs i n e a c h o f t h e f o u r tra c k groups. R e s u l t s showed no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e a c r o s s th e f o u r t r a c k s i n c o l l e g e m a jo r r a t i o ( d e te r m in e d - u n d e te r m in e d ) a f t e r c o m p le tio n o f t h e t h r e e term s e q u e n c e . T h is i n d i c a t e d t h a t no t r a c k s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e t a i n e d s t u d e n t s o f u n d e te r m in e d o r d e te r m in e d c o l l e g e m ajo r. S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s d id o c c u r w ith r e s p e c t t o s e x r a t i o s . T h ree tim e s a s many fe m a le s a s m ales w ere fou n d to h av e re m a in e d w i t h 68 t r a c k C, and tw ic e a s many fe m a le s a s m a le s w e re fo u n d t o h av e re m a in e d w ith t r a c k D. A p p a r e n t ly some s e l e c t i n g f a c t o r s w e re o p e r a t i n g . T ra c k C f a c u l t y members i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s t r a c k was q u i t e s t r u c t u r e d w i t h much em p h asis p l a c e d on l a b o r a t o r y w ork. They s u g g e s t t h a t women m ig h t b e more c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h i s t y p e o f s i t u a t i o n t h a n a r e men. F a c u l t y members i n t r a c k D, ho w ev er, r e g a r d e d t h e i r t r a c k as b e in g very u n s tru c tu re d w ith l i t t l e e m p h asis p l a c e d on l a b o r a t o r y w ork. F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t o n ly men i n s t r u c t o r s t a u g h t t h e f u l l t h r e e term s e q u e n c e o f t r a c k s C and D w h i l e women w ere in v o lv e d in t h e t e a c h i n g o f t r a c k s A and B. I s t h e i n s t r u c t o r a p r im a r y s e l e c ­ tio n f a c t o r in th e d i f f e r e n t i a l sex r a t i o s of th e fo u r tra c k s ? c o n t e n t o f t r a c k C more r e l e v a n t to women? I s th e C e r t a i n l y more i n f o r m a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e te r m in e t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e s e u n e x p e c te d r a t i o s . D iffere n c es a ls o occurred in race r a t i o s a c ro ss th e fo u r tra c k s . Fo ur p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s c o m p le tin g t r a c k s A and C w ere b l a c k w h i l e e i g h t p e r c e n t o f t r a c k B and s i x p e r c e n t o f t r a c k D w ere b l a c k . A lth o u g h t h e s e p e r c e n t a g e s a r e s m a l l th e y a r e s i g n i f i c a n t . ^ The h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f b l a c k s t u d e n t s i n t r a c k B i m p l i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f some se le c tin g fa c to r. P e r h a p s more b l a c k s t u d e n t s s e l e c t e d t h i s t r a c k b e f o r e r e g i s t r a t i o n — p o s s i b l y th e y w is h e d t o re m a in t o g e t h e r , p o s s i b l y th e y w ere s e l e c t i n g i n s t r u c t o r s . P erhaps a g r e a t e r deg ree o f su ccess i n t h i s t r a c k r e s u l t e d i n more b l a c k s t u d e n t s r e m a in in g w i t h i t th ro u g h t h e t h r e e te r m s . C l e a r l y , f u r t h e r s t u d i e s a r e i n d i c a t e d t o d e te r m in e reaso n s f o r t h i s d is p a r a te r a t i o . '*’R. C. L o w o n tin , and J . F e l e n s t e i n , " R o b u s tn e s s o f Homogeneity i n 2 X N T a b l e s " , B i o m e t r i c s , M arch, 1965. p p . 1 9 -3 3 . 69 H y p o th e s is I I The r e a s o n s s t u d e n t s g ave f o r c h o o s in g a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k and r e m a in in g w i t h i t f o r th e t h r e e te rm s e q u e n c e d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i ­ c a n tly a c ro ss th e fo u r tra c k s. aw are o f t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s . I n t h e f a l l term s t u d e n t s w ere n o t I n t h e w i n t e r and s p r i n g te rm s t h e m ost im p o rta n t f a c t o r s w ere, in o rd e r , (1) t h e i n s t r u c t o r , and (3) t h e c o n v e n ie n c e o f s c h e d u l i n g . (2) t h e c o n t e n t , B e t t e r m ethods o f in fo r m in g s t u d e n t s a b o u t t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t r a c k s was c e r t a i n l y i n d i c a t e d by th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y . One r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e t r a c k i n g a p p ro a c h o r i g i n a l l y was t o m atch s t u d e n t and t e a c h e r n e e d s . S in c e t e a c h e r s h e l p d e s i g n t h e t r a c k s i n w hich th e y t e a c h , i t w ould a p p e a r t h a t te a c h e r needs re g a rd in g s t r u c t u r e , c o n t e n t and m ethods a r e b e i n g met more a d e q u a t e l y t h a n th e y w ere b e f o r e t r a c k i n g was i n s t i t u t e d . S tu ­ d e n t s w e re fo u n d t o re m a in w i t h a t r a c k p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e o f th e i n s t r u c t o r and s e c o n d ly b e c a u s e o f t r a c k c o n t e n t . These r e s u l t s su g ­ g e s t t h e t r a c k a p p ro a c h to N a t u r a l S c ie n c e may a l s o m eet " f e l t " s t u d e n t s t r u c t u r a l and c u r r i c u l a r n e e d s . H y p o th e s is I I I S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere found to o c c u r a c r o s s t h e f o u r t r a c k s i n s t u d e n t r e a c t i o n s t o t h e i r t r a c k s a s e x p r e s s e d by a l o c a l l y d e v e lo p e d a t t i t u d e i n v e n t o r y . T ra c k A i s th e o r i g i n a l N a t u r a l S c ie n c e course as i t e x is te d b e fo re tra c k in g . S in c e i t was e x p r e s s l y w r i t t e n t o im plem ent t h e o b j e c t i v e s s o u g h t by th e d e p a r tm e n t f a c u l t y , i t w ould n o t have b e en s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d s t u d e n t s i n t h a t t r a c k a g r e e i n g m ost s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e i r t r a c k had met t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s o f (1) i l l u s ­ t r a t i n g th e n a t u r e o f s c i e n t i f i c know ledge and t h e way t h i s know ledge 70 i s c o n s t a n t l y m o d if ie d and c h an g e d , (2) c o n s i d e r i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s c i e n c e , and (3) e m p h a s iz in g th e m u tu a l and c o n t i n u a l i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een s c i e n c e and s o c i e t y . Re­ s u l t s , h o w e v er, show t h a t t r a c k B s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e d t h e i r t r a c k m e e tin g t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e a t an even h i g h e r l e v e l th a n d id s t u d e n t s i n t r a c k A. Did t r a c k B do a b e t t e r jo b o f m e e tin g th e s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s o r w ere s t u d e n t s b i a s e d i n t h e i r an sw ers? Comments w r i t t e n by t h e s e s t u d e n t s on t h e i r an sw er s h e e t s i n d i c a t e a s t r o n g c o n c e rn o v e r t h e f a c t t h a t s e v e r a l o f t h e i n s t r u c t o r s i n v o lv e d i n t e a c h i n g t r a c k B had n o t b e en r e a p p o i n t e d . T h is c o n c e rn c o u ld have i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e t r a c k i n t h i s a s w e l l as o t h e r a r e a s s u c h as t r a c k a c c e p t a b i l i t y and t h e t r a c k s ’ m e e tin g o f c e r t a i n g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n o b je c tiv e s . T ra c k B d i d ra n k f i r s t i n t h e s e a r e a s . T ra c k A, h o w ev er, o u t r a n k e d B i n t h e way s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e d t h e i r t r a c k o f 191 b e i n g w o r th w h ile , i n t e r e s t i n g and r e l e v a n t . With r e s p e c t t o 192, t r a c k A was a g a i n ra n k e d f i r s t and t r a c k B t h i r d . I f stu d en t r e s p o n s e s w ere b i a s e d , i t would seem t r a c k B s h o u ld h av e p l a c e d h ig h i n e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h i s s t u d y w here s e l f - r e p o r t e d a t t i t u d i n a l d a t a was u s e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s . A p p a r e n t ly s t u d e n t b i a s was n o t t h e r e a s o n s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e d t r a c k B so h i g h l y . Recommendations and S u g g e s tio n s f o r F u tu re R esearch Im proved com m unication c o n c e r n in g t h e w hole t r a c k s y ste m b e ­ tw een s t u d e n t s and t h e D e p artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e t o e n s u r e freed om o f s t u d e n t s c h o ic e i s c e r t a i n l y i n d i c a t e d by t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y . 71 I f a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t a s t u d e n t r e m a in s w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k b e c a u s e o f a more r e l a x e d g r a d i n g s y ste m r a t h e r th a n b e c a u s e he f i n d s th e t r a c k h i g h l y a c c e p t a b l e , p e r h a p s a re v ie w o f g r a d in g p o l i c i e s i s i n d i c a t e d . Numerous r e v i s i o n s c o u ld be con­ s i d e r e d su c h a s a P ass-N o P a s s p o l i c y . I t w ould be i n t e r e s t i n g t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r m ale and fe m a le s t u d e n t s h av e a p r e f e r e n c e f o r N a t u r a l S c ie n c e i n s t r u c t o r s o f t h e same o r o f t h e o p p o s i t e s e x . Does t h e r a t i o o f m ale and fe m a le i n ­ s tr u c to r s r e f l e c t stu d e n t preferen ce? R e s u l t s show t h a t s t u d e n t s re m a in w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k p r i ­ m a r i l y b e c a u s e o f th e i n s t r u c t o r . A s e l e c t i o n o f t r a c k s o f f e r e d by i n s t r u c t o r s who a r e c o m f o r ta b le and c o m p eten t i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h o s e t r a c k s c e r t a i n l y a p p e a r s th e n to b e a b e t t e r a rra n g e m e n t th a n a s i n g l e c o u r s e o f f e r e d by i n s t r u c t o r s who m ig h t n o t f e e l a t e a s e x«.th t h e m a t e r i a l o r t h e m ethod. So lo n g as t h e c o u r s e s ' t h r e e o b j e c t i v e s a r e m et, i s t h e r e any r e a s o n why t r a c k s s h o u ld n o t become so d i v e r s e as t o accommodate e ach i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c t o r , i . e . , one i n s t r u c t o r : tra c k ? one T e a c h e r s ' n e e d s m ig h t b e s t be met i f t r a c k i n g does d i v e r s i f y to t h i s p o i n t , b u t w hat o f t h e s t u d e n t ? I f s t u d e n t s c o n t i n u e t o be a llo w e d t o s w i tc h t r a c k s e ac h te rm , i s t h e r e any g u a r a n t e e t h a t th e y w i l l n o t be a t a d i s a d v a n t a g e f o r n o t h a v in g c o v e r e d c e r t a i n m a t e r i a l t h e p r e v i o u s term? I t would a p p e a r t h a t f u r t h e r d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n would r e q u i r e t h a t (1) s t u d e n t s be r e q u i r e d to re m a in w i t h a t r a c k a l l t h r e e te r m s , o r (2 ) t r a c k s be b a s e d on a common c o r e o f i n f o r m a t i o n , o r (3) e ac h term become a c o m p le te ly s e p a r a t e c o u r s e . I f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e i s to c o n t i n u e to be a g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n c o u r s e u n i f y i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l 72 and p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s , th e n t h e e x t e n t t o w hich t h e s e q u e n c e becomes d i v e r s i f i e d s h o u ld b e c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d by t h e f a c u l t y . S in c e t h i s s tu d y was l i m i t e d t o t h o s e fresh m e n s t u d e n t s who had re m a in e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k f o r t h e e n t i r e t h r e e term s e q u e n c e o f N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , i t w ould be i n t e r e s t i n g to d e te r m in e why u p p e r­ c la s s m e n s t u d e n t s c h o s e a c e r t a i n t r a c k o v e r a n o t h e r , a n d , more i m p o r t a n t l y , why s t u d e n t s s w i tc h e d t r a c k s . BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books B e a l, W. J . , H i s t o r y o f t h e M ich ig an A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e , E a s t L a n s in g , M ic h ig a n : A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e , 1915. B e l l , D a n i e l , The R eform ing o f G e n e ra l E d u c a t i o n , New York: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966. Columbia B l a i r , L y le and M adison Kuhn, A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f M ich ig an S t a t e , E a s t L a n s in g , M ic h ig a n : M ichigan S t a t e C o lle g e P r e s s , 1955. B org, W a lt e r R ., E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , an I n t r o d u c t i o n , New York: D avid McKay Company, I n c . , 1963. C a r l i n , Edward A ., and Edward B. Blackman, e d . , C u rric u lu m B u i l d i n g i n G e n e ra l E d u c a t i o n , Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1960. D r e s s e l , P a u l L . , e d . , E v a l u a t i o n i n t h e B a s ic C o lle g e a t M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , New York: H a rp e r and B r o s . , 1958. E b e l, R o b e r t L . , M ea su rin g E d u c a t i o n a l A c h iev e m e n t, Englewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1965. 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I l l , E a s t L a n s in g , M ich ig an : S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963. M ich igan S t . C l a i r , C h a r le s S . , e d . , The S e a rc h f o r E x p l a n a t i o n : S tu d ies in N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , V o l. I I , E a s t L a n s in g , M ic h ig a n : M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969. _________ , L a b o r a to r y Manual f o r N a t u r a l S c i e n c e , V ol. I I , E a s t L a n s in g , M ichigan : M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1968. B u l l e t i n s and R e p o r ts E i g h t y - f o u r t h A nnual R e p o r t o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f th e S t a t e Board o f A g r i c u l t u r e o f th e E x p e rim e n t S t a t i o n , from J u l y 1, 1944 t o J u n e 30, 1945. A B u l l e t i n o f M ich ig an S t a t e C o l l e g e . V ol. 4 0 :1 0 A p r i l , 1946. H a rv a rd Committee, G e n e r a l E d u c a tio n i n a F r e e S o c i e t y , a r e p o r t , Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H a rv a rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1946. 75 The R e p o r t o f th e Ad Hoc C om m ittee on U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e P l a n n i n g , " U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e and t h e Decade Ahead, G e n e r a l E d u c a tio n i n a C hanging U n i v e r s i t y " , E a s t L a n s in g , M ic h ig a n : M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1969. R e p o rt o f Committee A p p o in te d " F o r S tu dy and R ecom m endation", Con­ c e r n i n g B a s ic E d u c a tio n a t M ichig an S t a t e C o l l e g e , May 22, 1944. The R e p o r t o f t h e Committee on U n d e rg ra d u a te E d u c a tio n , " Im p ro v in g U n d e rg ra d u a te E d u c a t i o n " , E a s t L a n s in g , M ichig an : M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1967. B u l l e t i n o f M ichig an S t a t e C o lle g e o f A g r i c u l t u r e and A p p lie d S c ie n c e . V o l. 3 2 : 4 , M arch, 1938, V ol. 3 3 :4 , M arch, 1939. Papers B a k e r, F. B. and T. J . M a r t i n , " F o r t a p : A F o r t r a n T e s t A n a l y s i s P a c k a g e " , O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r No. 10 M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y : O f f i c e o f R e s e a r c h C o n s u l t a t i o n , S c h o o l f o r Advanced S t u d i e s , J u l y , 1970. F in n , Jerem y D ., " U n i v a r i a t e and M u l t i v a r i a t e A n a l y s i s o f V a ria n c e and C o v a r ia n c e : F o r t r a n IV P ro g ra m ", V e r s io n 4. B u f f a l o , New Y ork: S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y D ep t, o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , J u n e , 1968. Monaghan, F lo y d V ., "B ack gro un ds o f G e n e r a l E d u c a tio n a t M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y " , (a n u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r ) , May, 1955. A rtic le s C a r l i n , Edward A ., "On B ein g T w e n t y - f i v e " , U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e Q u a r t e r l y , V ol. 1 5 :3 , M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , M arch, 1970. L e w on tin , R. C. and J . F e l e n s t e i n , " R o b u s tn e s s o f H omogeneity i n 2XN T a b l e s " , B i o m e t r i c s , March, 1965. APPENDICES APPENDIX A BULLETIN OF MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE C a ta lo g u e D e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e S c ie n c e S urvey C o u rs e s . 101. Survey o f B io lo g y . F a ll. 3(2 -2 )^ Zoology 101, 102, and 103 c a n n o t be u s e d a s p a r t o f a m a jo r in a b io lo g ic a l s c ie n c e n or as s u b s t i t u t e s f o r p r e r e q u i s i t e s o f a d v an ced c o u r s e s . Not a v a i l a b l e f o r c r e d i t a f t e r a b i o ­ l o g i c a l s e r i e s h a s b e en t a k e n . Not open t o p e r s o n s t a k i n g 207. T h is s e r i e s o f c o u r s e s d e a l s w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l n a t u r e o f man and h i s r e l a t i o n s w ith l i v i n g t h i n g s . Zoology 101 in tr o d u c e s th e s tu d e n t to th e n a tu r e of th e e a r t h , th e s t r u c ­ t u r e o f t h e human b od y, t h e a n im a l kingdom, h e r e d i t y , and t h e e v o l u t i o n o f man. 102. Survey o f B io lo g y . W in te r . 3 ( 2 - 2 ) P re re q u isite : 101 C o n t i n u a t i o n o f C ourse 101. The s u b j e c t s d i s c u s s e d a r e human p h y s i o l o g y , p l a n t s a s f a c t o r s i n man’ s e n v ir o n m e n t, and t h e i n s e c t en em ies o f man. 103. Survey o f B io lo g y . S p r in g . 3 ( 2 - 2 ) P re re q u isite : 102 C o n t i n u a t i o n o f C ourse 102. T h is c o u r s e c o m p ris e s a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e a n im a l p a r a s i t e s o f man, b a c t e r i a l d i s e a s e s , and t h e n a t u r e and e v o l u t i o n o f m a n 's n e rv o u s f u n c t i o n s . 101. Survey o f P h y s i c a l S c ie n c e . F a l l . 3(3-2) 2 A s e r i e s o f t h r e e c o u r s e s (1 01 , 102, and 103) d e s ig n e d t o a c q u a i n t t h e s t u d e n t w i t h t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f a s tro n o m y , c h e m i s t r y , g e o lo g y , and p h y s i c s i n c l u d i n g t h e s i m p l e r m a th e ­ m a t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e r e t o . Through an i n t r o d u c t i o n o f 1V o l. 3 2 :4 , March 1938, p . 214. 2V o l. 3 3 :4 , March 1939, p . 156. 76 77 t h e s e s c i e n c e s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s g iv e n a b r o a d e r c o n c e p t i o n o f th e p h y s i c a l w o rld and h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e n v iro n m e n t. These c o u r s e s a r e d e v e lo p e d f o r fresh m e n a s a p a r t o f a l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n w i t h o u t th o u g h t o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n any o f th e s u b j e c t s i n v o lv e d . They c a n n o t b e u s e d a s s u b s t i t u t e s f o r p r e r e q u i s i t e s o r a s a p a r t o f a p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e m a jo r . No c r e d i t w i l l be a llo w e d f o r any p a r t o f t h e c o u r s e u n l e s s t h e s e r i e s i s c o m p le te d . 102. Survey o f P h y s i c a l S c ie n c e . W in te r . 3(3-2) C o n t i n u a t i o n o f C ourse 101. 103. Survey o f P h y s i c a l S c ie n c e . S p r in g . 3(3-2) C o n t i n u a t i o n o f C ourse 102. PROPOSED GUIDELINES FOR TRACK DEVELOPMENT IN THE NATURAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT I• Given G u i d e l i n e s from t h e U n i v e r s i t y and U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e . S e v e r a l g u i d e l i n e s e x i s t w hich a r e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e o r A l l - U n i v e r s i t y a g re e m e n ts a b o u t t h e N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e . To change them would i n v o l v e s u b m is s io n o f p ro p o s e d r e v i s i o n s t o t h e C o lle g e and U n i v e r s i t y C u rric u lu m Com m ittee. A. G iven G u id e lin e s from t h e U n i v e r s i t y 1. Any N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e s h a l l b e o f f e r e d f o r 4 c r e d i t h o u r s , and m eet f o r 5 h o u r s e v e r y week. 2. Any N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e s h a l l u s e a s s u b j e c t a r e a s b o th t h e p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s , and no t r a c k s h a l l be i d e n t i f i e d a s e i t h e r a b i o l o g i c a l o r p h y s i c a l sc ie n c e co urse. 3. Any N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e s h a l l i n c l u d e l a b o r a t o r y e x p e rie n c e s. 78 4. Any N a t u r a l S c ie n c e c o u r s e s h a l l be i n a c c o r d w i t h th e s p i r i t o f th e c u r r e n t c a t a l o g d e s c r i p t i o n . ( I f n o t, a p p r o v a l o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e C u rric u lu m Committee and t h e A l l - U n i v e r s i t y C u rric u lu m Com m ittee i s n e e d e d . See P ro p o se d P r o c e d u r e s f o r T ra c k D evelopm ent, p a r t I I B. ) B. G iven G u i d e l i n e from U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e Each t r a c k s h a l l h ave i t s own common f i n a l . II. Given G u i d e l i n e s from th e D epartm ent o f N a t u r a l S c i e n c e . A f t e r much e x p e r i e n c e and t h o u g h t , on O c to b e r 14, 1963, th e f a c u l t y o f th e D ep artm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e a g r e e d upon t h e f o l l o w i n g d e p a r t ­ m e n ta l g o a l s : We b e l i e v e a g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n program i n s c i e n c e s h o u ld be a p a r t o f a program o f i n t e g r a t e d l i b e r a l s t u d i e s . We d e f i n e in te g r a te d l i b e r a l s tu d ie s in s c ie n c e to in c lu d e th e fo llo w in g : 1. The d ev elo p m en t o f an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s c i e n c e a s an i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y , i n c l u d i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s w ith o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s and t h o s e f a c t o r s w hich a r e u n iq u e in sc ie n c e . 2. The d e v elo p m en t o f an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een s c i e n c e and t h e c u l t u r e o f w hich i t i s a p a r t . 3. The d ev elop m en t o f an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s e l e c t e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r a r e a s e x e m p lif y in g M an's p l a c e i n t h e u n i v e r s e , e p is te m o lo g y and m e tho do log y o f s c i e n c e , and c o n t r i b u ­ tio n s o f s c ie n c e to s o c ie ty . III. O th e r G u i d e l i n e s . O th e r g u i d e l i n e s w i t h i n w hich t h e t r a c k s can be d e s ig n e d a r e : A. No l e s s th a n f i v e members o f t h e D e p a rtm e n t s h a l l be in v o lv e d i n d e v e lo p in g a t r a c k . B. T ra c k s may be 1 te rm , o r 2 o r 3 te rm s e q u e n c e s . Each q u a r t e r o f a t r a c k s h o u ld be so o r g a n i z e d t h a t a s t u d e n t can " s w it c h " 79 t o a s u b s e q u e n t te rm o f a n o t h e r t r a c k . T h is i m p l i e s common­ a l i t y i n some form i n a l l t r a c k s . P ro p o s e d by t h e A d v is o ry Committee J a n u a r y 2 2 , 1968 APPENDIX B STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE COVER LETTER 230 Cedar S t r e e t E a s t L a n s in g , M ich igan J u n e 22, 1970 D ear S t u d e n t : As a Ph.D . c a n d i d a t e i n t h e C o lle g e o f E d u c a tio n a t M ich ig an S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , I am a t t e m p t i n g a s tu d y to d e te r m in e why s t u d e n t s c h o se a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e and why th e y re m a in e d w i t h t h a t same t r a c k f o r t h e t h r e e te rm s o f t h e c o u r s e . I a l s o w ish to d e te r m in e s t u d e n t r e a c t i o n to w ard t h e p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k e ach s t u d e n t e n t e r e d . Would you p l e a s e t a k e a few m in u te s to c o n s i d e r t h e e n c l o s e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e and a s a c c u r a t e l y a s p o s s i b l e re s p o n d to e ac h ite m . T h is i n f o r m a t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t n o t o n ly t o me a s a d o c t o r a l c a n d i ­ d a t e b u t a l s o t o t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e D epartm en t o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e i n t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n t and t e a c h i n g o f th e v a r i o u s t r a c k s and t o t h e U n iv e r­ s i t y C o lle g e as a w h ole. The i n f o r m a t i o n i s b e in g c o l l e c t e d f o r r e s e a r c h p u r p o s e s o n ly ; t h e r e f o r e , no i n f o r m a t i o n i d e n t i f y i n g any i n d i v i d u a l w i l l be p u b l i s h e d . As t h i s r e s e a r c h s tu d y i s b e in g p e r s o n a l l y f i n a n c e d , I would be m ost g r a t e f u l i f you would r e t u r n t h e co m p le ted q u e s t i o n n a i r e immedi­ a t e l y so t h a t f o ll o w - u p l e t t e r s w i l l n o t be n e c e s s a r y . The p o p u l a t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s in v o lv e d a r e s m a ll i n number so t h a t i t i s o f u tm o s t im p o r ta n c e t h a t e ach and e v e ry s t u d e n t r e s p o n d s . S in c e re ly , L orena V. S to op s Ph.D . c a n d i d a t e C o lle g e o f E d u c a tio n 80 81 STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE YOU ARE AN IMPORTANT PART OF THIS STUDY. YOUR RESPONSE IS NECESSARY AND WILL BE GREATLY APPRECIATED. RECORD YOUR NAME, STUDENT NUMBER, AND YOUR ANSWERS ON THE ANSWER SHEET ENCLOSED IN THE RETURN ENVELOPE. PLEASE USE PENCIL. F o r ite m 1, c h o o se t h e an sw er t h a t b e s t e x p l a i n s y o u r s i t u a t i o n . 1. As an e n t e r i n g fre s h m a n , a t w hat tim e d id you l e a r n o f t h e v a r i o u s t r a c k s ( a p p ro a c h e s ) o f f e r e d i n N a t u r a l S c ie n c e ? 1) B e fo re r e g i s t r a t i o n th ro u g h o r i e n t a t i o n m a t e r i a l s . 2) B e f o re r e g i s t r a t i o n th ro u g h my a d v i s o r . 3) B e f o re r e g i s t r a t i o n th ro u g h my f r i e n d s o r a c q u a i n t a n c e s . 4) At r e g i s t r a t i o n . 5) A f t e r I had r e g i s t e r e d i n N a t u r a l S c ie n c e 191. How much i n f l u e n c e d id e ach o f t h e f o l l o w i n g ite m s hav e on y o u r r e g i s ­ t e r i n g f o r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k (A, B, C, o r D) i n t h e FALL TERM? USE THE FOLLOWING SCALE: 1 2 A G r e a t D eal Some 3 Very L i t t l e 4 None At A l l 2. T h is t r a c k b e s t f i t mys c h e d u l e . 3. T h is t r a c k was o f f e r e d i n a c o n v e n ie n t l o c a t i o n . 4 . Some o f my f r i e n d s p la n n e d to t a k e t h i s t r a c k . 5 . I had h e a r d t h a t a c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t o r t e a c h i n g t h i s t r a c k had an easy g rad in g p o lic y . 6 . I had h e a r d t h a t a c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t o r t e a c h i n g t h i s t r a c k was i n ­ t e r e s t i n g and was v e r y c o n c e rn e d a b o u t w h e th e r s t u d e n t s l e a r n e d t h e m a te ria l. A f t e r r e a d i n g th e t r a c k d e s c r i p t i o n a n d / o r t a l k i n g w ith o t h e r s who had ta k e n t h e c o u r s e — 7. I f e l t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h i s t r a c k was m ost w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t t o my l i f e . 8. I had h e a r d n e g a t i v e comments a b o u t th e o t h e r t r a c k s . A A A A A A A A A A A A A A -A A How much i n f l u e n c e d id e ach o f t h e f o l l o w i n g ite m s h av e on y ou r re m a in in g w ith t h i s same t r a c k WINTER TERM (1 92 )? USE THE ABOVE SCALE. 9. T h is t r a c k b e s t f i t my s c h e d u le . 10. T h is t r a c k was o f f e r e d i n a c o n v e n ie n t l o c a t i o n . 11. Some o f my f r i e n d s p la n n e d to t a k e t h i s t r a c k . 12. I th o u g h t I was su p p o sed to re m a in w i t h th e same t r a c k . 13. I f e l t I would be a t a d i s a d v a n t a g e i f I s w itc h e d t r a c k s . 14. I l i k e d t h e i n s t r u c t o r I had i n 191and w ish ed t o re m a in w i t h t h a t i n s t r u c t o r f o r 192. 15. I fou n d t h a t a c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t o r t e a c h i n g t h i s t r a c k had an e asy g ra d in g p o lic y . 16. I found t h a t a c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t o r t e a c h i n g t h i s t r a c k was i n t e r e s t i n g and was c o n c e rn e d a b o u t w h e th e r s t u d e n t s l e a r n e d t h e m a t e r i a l . 82 17. I f e l t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h i s t r a c k was m o st w o r th w h ile and r e l e v a n t t o my l i f e . 18. I had h e a r d n e g a t i v e comments a b o u t t h e o t h e r t r a c k s . **************** How much i n f l u e n c e d i d e a c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g ite m s h av e on y o u r re m a in in g w ith t h i s same t r a c k SPRING TERM (1 9 3 )? USE THE ABOVE SCALE. 19. T h is t r a c k b e s t f i t my s c h e d u l e . 20. T h is t r a c k was o f f e r e d i n a c o n v e n ie n t l o c a t i o n . 21. Some o f my f r i e n d s p la n n e d to t a k e t h i s t r a c k . 22. I t h o u g h t I was s u p p o se d t o re m a in w ith t h e same t r a c k . 23. I f e l t I would be a t a d i s a d v a n t a g e i f I s w i tc h e d t r a c k s . 24. I l i k e d th e i n s t r u c t o r I had i n 191 ( o r 192) and w ish e d t o re m a in w i t h t h a t same i n s t r u c t o r f o r 193. 25. I fo u n d t h a t a c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t o r t e a c h i n g t h i s t r a c k had an e a s y g rad in g p o lic y . 26. I found t h a t a c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t o r t e a c h i n g t h i s t r a c k was i n t e r e s t i n g and v e r y c o n c e rn e d a b o u t w h e th e r s t u d e n t s l e a r n e d th e m a t e r i a l . 27. I f e l t t h e c o n t e n t o f t h i s t r a c k was m ost w o r th w h ile and r e l e v a n t t o my l i f e . 28. I had h e a r d n e g a t i v e comments a b o u t t h e o t h e r t r a c k s . FOR ALL OF THE ITEMS ON THIS PAGE, INDICATE YOUR ANSWER BY CHOOSING A NUMBER FROM THE FOLLOWING SCALE: 1 S t r o n g l y A gree 2 A gree 3 No O p in io n 4 D is a g r e e 5 S tr o n g l y D is a g r e e The T rac k I o r i g i n a l l y c h o se and re m a in e d w ith f o r t h e t h r e e - t e r m se q u e n c e o f N a t. Sc. . . . 29. i l l u s t r a t e d t h e n a t u r e o f s c i e n t i f i c know ledge and th e way t h i s know ledge i s c o n s t a n t l y m o d if ie d and chan ged. 30. c o n s i d e r e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s c i e n c e i n some d e t a i l . 31. e m p h asized t h e m u tu a l and c o n t i n u a l i n t e r a c t i o n betw een s c i e n c e and so c ie ty . 32. p r o v id e d me w i t h a g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n i n a b r o a d s e n s e . 33. h e lp e d me t o d e v e lo p a s a f r e e , r a t i o n a l and r e s p o n s i b l e human b e in g . 34. c h a l l e n g e d o r changed i d e a s and v a l u e s t h a t I p r e v i o u s l y h e l d . 35. i n f l u e n c e d my u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o n te m p o ra ry p ro b le m s . 36. c o n t r i b u t e d i d e a s , v i e w p o in ts and i n s i g h t s o f l o n g - r a n g e v a l u e t o me. 37. made me more s e n s i t i v e t o , o r more aware o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r ld . 38. s t i m u l a t e d me to t h i n k r e f l e c t i v e l y a b o u t i d e a s o r t o p i c s t h a t I would n o t have th o u g h t a b o u t o t h e r w i s e . 39. h e lp e d me to r e c o g n i z e t h e w o rth o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l a p p ro a c h to know ledge. **************** 83 As a r e s u l t o f t a k i n g t h i s t r a c k o f N a t u r a l S c i e n c e . . . 40. I w ou ld, i f I had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , t a k e a j u n i o r - o r s e n i o r - l e v e l e l e c t i v e w hich f u r t h e r d e v e lo p e d t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h i s t r a c k ' s th re e -te rm sequence. 41. I te n d t o d i s c u s s t h e c o n t e n t s o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e w ith my f r i e n d s . 42. I f e l t N a t u r a l S c ie n c e was t h e most s t i m u l a t i n g and w o rth w h ile o f a l l t h e c o u r s e s I had d u r in g t h e y e a r . 43. My a t t i t u d e a b o u t s c i e n c e h a s become more f a v o r a b l e . 44. I would recommend t h i s t r a c k to incom ing fresh m en t o s a t i s f y a s c i e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t i f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e w ere an e l e c t i v e . 45. I t h i n k my c l a s s m a t e s would p r o b a b l y g i v e t h i s t r a c k o f N a t u r a l S c ie n c e a v e r y good r a t i n g . 46. I t h i n k N a t u r a l S c ie n c e w i l l h e l p me i n t h e f u t u r e i n f i n d i n g s o l p t i o n s t o my own p ro b le m s . 47. I fo un d t h i s t r a c k o f 191 ( F a l l te rm ) v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . 48. I fo u n d t h i s t r a c k o f 192 (W in te r te rm ) v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . 49. I fo u n d t h i s t r a c k o f 193 (S p r in g term ) v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . 50. I fo u n d t h i s t r a c k o f 191 ( F a l l te rm ) v e r y w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t . 51. I fo u n d t h i s t r a c k o f 192 (W in te r te rm ) v e r y w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t . 52. I fo u n d t h i s t r a c k o f 193 ( S p r in g term ) v e r y w o rth w h ile and r e l e v a n t . ANY COMMENTS YOU CARE TO WRITE ON THE REVERSE SIDE OF THE ANSWER SHEET WILL BE CAREFULLY READ AND VERY MUCH APPRECIATED. PLEASE INSERT YOUR ANSWER SHEET IN THE STAMPED, SELF-ADDRESSED ENVELOPE AND RETURN PROMPTLY. THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME.