I I 72-8649 COLLINS, Johnnie B., 1943CHARACTERISTICS OF SPODOSOLS DEVELOPED ON A SANDY TOPO-BIOSEQUENCE IN NORTHERN MICHIGAN. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1971 Agriculture, soil science University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan CHARACTERISTICS OF SPODOSOLS DEVELOPED ON A SANDY TOPO-BIOSEQUENCE IN NORTHERN MICHIGAN By Johnnie B. Collins A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Crop and Soil Sciences 1971 ABSTRACT CHARACTERISTICS OF SPODOSOLS DEVELOPED ON A SANDY TOPO-BIOSEQUENCE IN NORTHERN MICHIGAN By Johnnie B. Collins The study area is located in the northern part of Michigan's lower peninsula in south central Crawford county. It is located in what is known as the "Jack Pine Area" of Michigan. The sandy and gravelly tills and outwash plains of this area are pitted with kettle holes. The study site is located along the edge of one of these kettle holes. Seven pe d o n s , representing five soil series, were sampled in a relatively straight line along a topo-biosequence of Spodosols. The dry end of the transect ends a t a well- drained sand ridge and the wet end of the transect t e r m i ­ nates in a poorly-drained organic bog. This toposequence o f Spodosols includes nearly the whole range o f spodic horizon, development commonly observed in Michigan. The characteristics, development and classification of the Spodosols, in relation to the different drainage classes, were investigated. natural In addition, the dis­ tribution of the soils was compared with the distribution Johnnie B. Collins of the vegetation groups (after Byer, 19 60 and 19 65) along the slope of the study site. These strongly to extremely acid water) (air-dry pH's in soil profiles have developed in heterogeneous, glacial sediments of late pleistocene age. limy, The total sand fractions account for 80-99% of the mechanical composition of the soils, and quartz is the only mineral that accounts for more than 40% of the mineralogical composition of the fine sand fraction. Hence, the soils are classified, at the family level, as having mixed mineralogy (Soil Taxon­ omy- - 197 0, unedi te d ). The average depth (mid-June to mid-September of 1969 and 1970) to the water table, in each of the five soil series represented in the toposequence, was 47", and > 65" for Kinross, and Graycalm, respectively. 9", 23", 31", Saugatuck, A u G r e s , Croswell, The depths of plant roots in­ crease as the depths to the water table and the ortstein layer increase. The site index o^ jack pine (Pinus banksi- ana) increases as drainage improves from poorly- to welldrained. Certain plant species have their maximum cover on one or more given soil series, and are grouped accordingly. However, the vegetation is best described as a Pinus banksiana forest--Chamaedaphne calyculata bog transition. Chemical, physical, and mineralogical data show that the intensity of weathering increases with proximity to the soil surface. These data also show that the somewhat Johnnie B. Collins poorly-drained profiles along the edge of the bog, and the poorly-drained profiles in the bog are the most and least weathered, respectively. The iron and aluminum maxima occur in the same horizon of all profiles, except the two Kinross profiles which do not show iron maxima. The carbon maximum occurs below the aluminum maximum in the Saugatuck and AuGresCroswell profiles, but in the other five profiles the two occur in the same horizon. The relationships of the carbon maxima to the water table suggest that the water table has played an important role in the occurrence of the carbon maxima in all except the two better drained profiles. The development of the spodic horizon under submerged conditions may not necessarily be dependent upon the occurrence of a water table that descends periodically below the B horizon. But the water table must be below the B horizon for the accumulation of iron. In fact, iron is being lost from the three less well-drained profiles. The maximum spodic horizon development occurs along the edge of the bog in those profiles that are subjected to a combination of alternately wet conditions and flushing moisture regimes. The distribution of the pyrophosphate extractable aluminum values within and among the seven profiles suggest that pyrophosphate extractable aluminum is a good indicator of spodic horizon development. A revision of the current spodic horizon criteria (Soil Taxonomy--1970, unedited) is proposed. As a second Johnnie B. Collins alternative, a return to the earlier spodic horizon criteria as refined by Lietzke (1968) or revision of those criteria is also proposed. However, by the current spodic horizon criteria, each of the five soil series, represented in the toposequence, qualifies as having a spodic horizon. The placement of these soils in the current classification system is as follows: Kinross Histic Haplaquods;'*' sandy, mixed, frigid. Saugatuck Aerie Haplaquods; ortstein. sandy, mixed, frigid AuGres Entic Haplaquods; sandy, mixed, frigid. Croswell Entic Haplorthods; Graycalm Entic Haplorthods; sandy, mixed, frigid. 2 sandy, mixed, frigid. ■^Currently listed as Typic Haplaquods. 2 Currently listed as Alfic Udipsamments. PLEASE NOTE: Some Pages have i n d i s t i n c t p rin t. F i l m e d as r e c e i v e d . UNI VERSITY MICROFILMS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Sincere gratitude is expressed to Dr. E. P. White­ side, the author's major professor, for introducing the author to the problem studied herein. His understanding and guidance have been very much appreciated. The author wishes to express his appreciation to his guidance committee: Dr. R. L. Cook, Dr. R. Ehrlich, Dr. A. E. Erickson, Dr. D. D. Harpstead, and Dr. S. N. Stephenson for their valuable comments, suggestions and cooperation during the course of this study. The thanks is also extended to Dr. J. E. Cantlon and Dr. E. C. Doll who served on his guidance committee during the initial stages of this study. He also wishes to thank Dr. M. M. Mortland for his helpful suggestions in interpretation of the X-ray diffractions. Many thanks are extended to professors and fellow graduate students of the Crop and Soil Sciences Department who helped in so many ways to make this study possible. The writer gratefully acknowledges the financial assistance provided him by Michigan State University enabling him to pursue and complete this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY . . . 1 LITERATURE REVIEW 3 .............................. Spodosols and Their Formation ............. Description of Spodosols and Their Formation ................................. Mobilization, Translocation and Accumulation of H u mu s, Sesquioxides and C l a y ................................. Toposequence and Topo-Biosequence of S o i l s ........................................ Mineralogy of Sand F r a c t i o n ................. Mineralogy of Clay F r a c t i o n ................. 3 4 6 14 21 25 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA AND OF THE PEDONS SAMPLED .................................... 29 METHODS OF A N A L Y S I S .............................. 48 C h e m i c a l .................................... 48 Soil R e a c t i o n .............................. Cation Exchange Capacity ................. Exchangeable Bases ....................... Extractable Acidity ....................... Total C a r b o n .............................. Extractable Iron and Aluminum . . . . 48 48 49 49 49 49 P h y s i c a l ..................................... 50 Mechanical Analyses ....................... Water R e t e n t i o n .......................... Bulk D e n s i t y .............................. 50 51 52 Mineralogical ................................. 52 Qualitative Identification of Clay M i n e r a l s ................................. Sand M i n e r a l o g y ........................... iii 52 52 Page B i o l o g i c a l .................................... 53 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................... 54 Variations in the Depths to the Water Table and in the Depths to Which Most Roots O c c u r ................................. Soil R e a c t i o n ................................. Particle Size Distribution ................ Bulk Density, Moisture Retention, and Porosity .................... . . . . . Cation Exchange Capacity, Exchange Acidity, Exchangeable Bases and Base S a t u r a t i o n .................................... Mineralogy of Sand F r a c t i o n ................ Mineralogy of Clay F r a c t i o n ................ Relationship Between the Soils and the Vegetation Groups .......................... Total Carbon and Extractable Iron and Aluminum (Per Cent E l e m e n t a l ) ............. Classification of the S o i l s ................ 95 104 ....................... 114 NEED FOR FURTHER R E S E A R C H ....................... 122 R E F E R E N C E S ........................................... 124 A P P E N D I X ....................... 134 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION iv 54 59 63 69 76 79 84 86 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A-l. A-2. A-3. A - 4. A - 5. Page Depths (Inches) of Water Table and Plant Roots in Each of the Seven Pedons. . . . 56 Mineralogical Composition and Mineral Ratios of the Fine Sand Fractions of the Seven P e d o n s ........................... 80 Summary of X-ray Diffraction Data for Clays of Selected Horizons of Each of the Seven P e d o n s ........................... 85 Saturated Sodium Pyrophosphate Quick Test C o l o r s ................................. 105 Application of Spodic Horizon Criteria (Soil Taxonomy--1970, unedited) to the Soils Used in this S t u d y ............. 107 Application of Spodic Horizon Criteria as Refined by Lietzke (1968) 112 Soil pH's, Determined by Different Methods, for Each of the Seven Pedons........................................ 134 Particle Size Analysis for Each of the Seven Pedons................................. 137 Bulk Density, Non-Capillary Porosity and Moisture Retention for Each of the Seven P e d o n s ........................... 14 0 Exchangeable Bases, Exchange Acidity, Cation Exchange Capacity and Base Saturation for Each of the Seven Pedons........................................ 143 Total Carbon, Organic Matter, and Ex­ tractable Iron and Aluminum Percent­ ages for Each of the Seven Pedons. . . . 147 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Location of Study A r ee i ....................... 31 2. Seasonal Variations of Water Table D e p t h s ................ .................. 55 Comparison of pH Profiles by Different Methods of Determination ................ 60 Sand Fraction Profiles for Each of the Seven Pedons................................. 64 Silt and Clay Fraction Profiles for Each of the Seven Pedons.................... 66 Moisture Retention Profiles, at 60 cm Tention, for Each of the Seven Pedons........................................ 72 Non-Capillary Porosity Profiles for Each of the Seven P e d o n s ....................... 74 Base Exchange and Cation Exchange Capacity Profiles for Each of the Seven Pedons................................. 77 Site Index for Jack Pine as a Function of Position Along the S l o p e ............. 88 General Distribution of the Vegetation and the Soils Along the S l o p e ............. 89 Species-Area Curves for the Five BetterDrained P r o f i l e s .......................... 90 Species-Area Curves for the Kinross and Organic Soils in the B o g ............. 91 Pyrophosphate Extractable Iron and Aluminum Profiles for Each of the Seven P e d o n s .............................. 96 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. vi Figure 14. Page Total Carbon Profiles for Eacn of the Seven Pedons 98 LIST OF PLATES Plate 1. Page Color Photographs of Four BetterDrained Profiles, the Edge of the Bog, and the B o g ................................. viii 32 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Well-drained soils are characterized by downward leaching of oxygenated water and oxidizing conditions occur throughout the profile for at least the greater part of the year. On the other hand, soils with impeded drainage or a high ground-water level may be subjected in part to reducing conditions for most of the year; however in many soils there is a zone that is subjected alternately to normal oxidizing and reducing conditions during the year. In addition, soil moisture also acts in conjunction with the physical pro­ cesses and forces involved in soil development, such as eluviation and illuviation. Thus, it is apparent that a gradation in moisture relationships along a slope will materially influence soil profile development along that slope in a manner that is consistent with the moisture regime, whenever parent material, geomorphic age and climate do not change appreciably along the gradient. Such a suc­ cession of profile development is recognized in the concept of a toposequence of soils. Transitions of vegetation groups along such moisture gradients have been generally recognized and accepted. fact, Warming in 1895 proposed three classes of plants 1 In 2 (hydrophytes, xerophytes, and mesophytes) characteristic of wet, dry, and moist habitats, respectively. Byer (1960 and 1965) has described the vegetation of the sandy toposequence used in this study as a Pinus-Chamaedaphne transition. The objectives of this study are as follows: 1. To investigate the development of the topose­ quence of sandy Spodosols in relation to the different natural drainage classes at the study site; 2. To characterize and evaluate the classification of the soils at the study site in relation to natural drainage, and 3. To compare the distribution of the soils with the distribution of the vegetation groups (as reported by Byer, 1960 and 1965) as the two occur along the slope. LITERATURE REVIEW With the advent of new knowledge and the need for standard terminology, the system used to classify Spodosols (and soils in general) has undergone several changes and modifications. follows. This is apparent in the review which Hence, the terms, Podzols and Spodosols, are both used in this review where such does not create confusion. Spodosols and Their Formation The name, podzol, was first applied by Dokuchaiev to a certain group of soils with a bleached or A2 horizon (Muir, 1961). The bleached horizon was called "bleisand" by Sprengel in 1873 (Muir, 1961). In 1862, Senft described a Podzol in Germany as having an "ortstein" layer beneath the bleached layer (Muir, 1961). In later years the two concepts were taken as equivalents, except that the German concept was limited to sandier soils with an ortstein layer. T h u s , our present concept of Spodosols originates in the western European concept of Podzols ortstein). Marbut (bleisand plus This concept was brought to the United States by (Muir, 1961). 3 4 Description of Spodosols and Their Formation Spodosols and their formation have been described by numerous investigators. Franzmeier and Whiteside (1963) have given a very detailed summary of their interpretation of the genesis of the oldest soil in a chronosequence of Podzols in Northern Michigan. The ideas expressed by several investigators are summarized below. Spodosols have developed under climatic and biologic conditions that have resulted in the accumulation of an organic surface layer (AO) and the formation of acid decom­ position products of organic matter. This occurs most readily in moist cool climates under forest or heath vege­ tation (Stobbe and Wright, 1952; Messenger, 1966). 1959; Ponomareva, 1969; Lyford, However, Spodosols also develop under humid tropical conditions (Andriesse, 1969; Klinge, 1965; Mohr et a l ., 1954; Tan et a l ., 1970). The AO is underlain by a light-colored eluvial horizon (A2) which has lost sesquioxides. The A2 is, in turn, underlain by a darker-colored illuvial B horizon in which the major prod­ ucts of accumulation are sequioxides and organic matter. The solum is acid and the base exchange complex is unsatu­ rated. The accumulation of clay in the B horizon of Podzols is not essential and is generally of little prominence or entirely lacking. In some podzols more clay can bo found in the A2 than in the B horizon (Stobbe et a l ., 1959). nificant increases in the clay content of B horizons in Sig­ 5 podzols have been observed by others Gerasimov, 1960; Pawluk, (Brown et a l ., 1958; 1960), and these investigators also attributed little importance to the increases. However, the clay content of the B horizon is considered in the classi­ fication of Spodosols in the new soil classification system (Soil Taxonomy--1970, unedited). Spodosols may differ considerably in their morphol­ ogy depending on local variations in the soil-forming factors (Lyford, 1952; Stobbe et a l ., 1959). vary from a trace to 12 inches. The AO may The thickness of the A2 and B horizons are also variable and the color of the B varies from brown, yellowish-brown, or reddish-brown depending on the iron and organic matter contents. The accumulations in the B horizon generally consist of organic matter and sesquioxides but may be dominantly organic matter, dominantly iron and aluminum, or dominantly organic matter in the upper B or dominantly organic-sesquioxides in the lower B. The B horizon may vary from loose and friable to hard and irre­ versibly cemented. The internal drainage may vary from rapid to slow, but it must be sufficient to permit at least seasonal percolation of the soil solution containing the products of eluviation from the upper horizons. The parent materials differ considerably in texture and lithology, but the Podzol profile is most clearly developed on coarse sandy materials rich in quartz sands (Russell, 1961). According to Byers et a l . (1938), the typical Podzols in 6 the United States occur only on coarse textured parent materials. The Podzol profiles may be polygenetic or mono- genetic, they can form in a few hundred years and their biological destruction can be equally rapid in cultivated soils (Soil Taxonomy— 1970, unedited). Hence, most pedologists agree that the main pre­ requisites for the formation of Spodosols are as follows: 1. a humid climate (predominance of precipitation over evaporation), and high relative humidity; 2. some degree of through-moistening of the soil system (a flushing moisture regime); and 3. bases must be leached and replaced by hydrogen resulting in unsaturation with respect to bases. Mobilization, Translocation and Accumulation of Humus, Sesquioxides and Clay There is no single definition of the process leading to the formation of Spodosols. Most concepts include the following: 1. Mobilization of sesquioxides in the surface horizons; 2. The downward translocation of these sesquioxides and humus; 3. Their immobilization and accumulation in a lower horizon; 4. and Silicate clay may or may not be involved in the 7 above; but if involved there is no marked clay accumulation in the spodic horizon. The translocated material (organic matter, clay and iron are partly fractionated and different ingredients are deposited in different horizons of the profile a l . , 1938). (Byers et Suspended organic matter is deposited just below the bleached layer, together with a considerable quantity of iron to serve as a cementing agent, while clays are carried still deeper by the filtering water. As the acid organic matter slowly decomposes and a part of it dis­ solves in the presence of iron bearing minerals, solution of the iron in the ferrous state is promoted. As the perco­ lating water carrying compounds in solution or in suspension moves down through the profile it often encounters soil layers less acid than the surface that may flocculate the suspended material and oxidation may take place rendering the ionic iron less soluble. The precipitated or floccu­ lated materials under slightly changed conditions serve as a filter mat to remove more material from the percolating waters. This mat accounts for the high amount of se sq ui ­ oxides and organic matter in the upper portion of the B horizon in Podzols. is usually low. The total clay content of this horizon Surprisingly large quantities of highly dispersed organic matter are frequently found in C horizons (Byers et a l ., 1938). According to Kellogg (1941), the clay or colloidal particles become saturated with hydrogen since the 8 vegetation returns but little bases to counteract the acidity produced by the C O ^ in rain water and the organic acids produced by the decomposing organic matter on the surface. As a result, the clay or colloidal particles are dispersed in water and move with it. Small particles of organic matter also move and seem to assist the dispersion and movement of mineral colloids. Stobbe et a l . (1959) have also observed the movement of particles of organic matter with percolating water from the AO horizon to the B horizon where the organic matter is filtered out. Kubiena (1953) pointed out that the droppings of small soil animals could be carried down the profile by percolating water and deposited between the sand grains of the B horizons of humus-iron and humus Podzols. In addition to movement in suspension, as indicated above, the accumulation of clay in the B horizon of Spodosols may also be due to the formation of clay in this horizon. Pawluk (1960) has postulated the formation of chlorite in the B horizon of Podzols. Bouma et a l . (1969) has reported the formation of mixed-layered clay minerals in this horizon. Since trivalent iron and aluminum are highly in­ soluble at the pH's that commonly occur in Spodosols, their movement is unlikely. From their studies, McKenzie et a l . (1960) concluded that a possible mechanism for irontrans­ location in Podzols is reduction in the A horizon, trans­ location of the ferrous iron, and oxidation and precipitation 9 of ferric iron in the B horizon. Deb (1949) pointed out that iron is readily oxidized to the ferric state in Podzols that are subjected to oxidizing conditions. Smith (1934) reported that positive and negative colloids could move down the soil profile independently and flocculate each other. After much investigation, it was realized that the peaty surface of Podzols is ineffective in causing mobili­ zation of iron and that the peat is relatively inert. So, the investigations were shifted to study the effects of leachates of leaves and of the solutions dripping from the living forest canopy during a rain. Schnitzer et a l . (1955) found that both the forest canopy and the forest floor con­ tribute solutions capable of mobilization and transport of iron, aluminum and calcium. DeLong et a l . (1955) studied the capacities of leaf extracts and of natural leachates to hold iron in suspension or solution and the capacities of such solutions to dissolve or resuspend the iron or freshly precipitated ferric hydroxide and to extract iron and aluminum from podzolized soils. They found that the amount of iron retained or brought into solution depends on the source of the solution (kind of tree), the nature of the dominant cation present and on the proportion of iron to organic matter in the system. The precipitation of iron and organic matter in the soil profile was found to depend on both the pH and the available iron in the environment. Himes et al. (1963) observed that the water extracts of oak 10 and maple leaves can solubilize iron from freshly precipi­ tated ferric hydroxide. Others (Bloomfield, 1953, 1954; Malcolm et a l ., 1968; Muir et a l ., 1964) have also found that canopy drip and leachates of leaves are sources of organic matter for the mobilization of iron and aluminum. Several investigators (Thorp et a l ., 1957; Gallagher, 1942; Wright et a l . , 1963; Atkinson et a l ., 1957; Hallsworth and Crawford, 1965) have experimentally produced soils in the laboratory that are similar to Podzol and Podzolic soils found in the field. By passing solutions of organic acids and water soluble materials through a column of B2 material from a Miami soil and analyzing the leachate at intervals, Thorp et a l . (1957) found that appreciable quantities of calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese were mobilized. Detectable amounts of fine sili­ cate clays moving in suspension were found. Evidence of redeposition of iron compounds within the soil column was observed. Colored bands which appeared in the columns were suggestive of soil horizons found in the field. Gallagher (1942) was able to produce rapid reorganization in a column filled with material from the B horizon of a Podzol by leaching with 0.1 N oxalic acid. Three centimeters of bleached horizon at the top and a corresponding lower hori­ zon of accumulation of intensely brown material was pro­ duced in an hour. Wright et a l . (1963) reported that leach­ ing a calcareous soil parent material with a chelating agent 11 (E.D.T.A.) resulted in the mobilization, transport, and redeposition of iron and aluminum and in the formation of a soil profile, with well-defined horizons, similar to that of certain Podzolic soils. The products of decomposition of plant residues have a high capacity for combining into complex compounds parently chelates with iron and aluminum Mortensen (ap­ (Panomareva, 1969)). (1967) states that soil organic matter forms com­ plexes with iron and aluminum by ion-exchange, surface ad­ sorption, chelation and complex coagulation and peptization reactions and that the ligands involved are probably hydroxy, carboxyl, and amide groups. Schnitzer and DeLong (1955) proposed two kinds of associations, complex formation and electrostatic bonding, between soil organic matter and sesquioxides. From their electrodialysis study of leaf leachates, they found that most of the iron migrated to the cathode and that the iron at the cathode was in the ferric hydroxide form. That at the anode was ferric hydroxide protected by negatively charged organic matter. Deb (1949) has pointed out that the amount of humus necessary for the full peptization of a sol containing iron oxide is less than 1/3 of the iron present. According to Stobbe et a l . (1959), decomposition products of organic matter, particularly organic acids and other complexing substances, bring about the solution of sesquioxides, the reduction of iron, and the formation of soluble metal-organic complexes, some of which may be chelates. These complexes move to the lower horizons and are precipitated under oxidizing conditions, probably by the destruction of the ligand by microorganisms and/or sorption. Wright et a l . (1963) have indicated that organic acid on its path down the profile forms watersoluble multidentate chelates with the sesquioxides and that precipitation of these metallo-organic complexes lower in the profile is effected by further reaction with the sesqui­ oxides and by extremely small amounts of ionic calcium and/ or magnesium. Martin and Reeve (1960) found no evidence of the formation of coordination compounds in the organic matter of Podzol B horizon. They suggested electrostatic bonding as the type of bond that joins organic matter and sesquioxides. In addition, they indicated that the simul­ taneous presence of aluminum, iron and organic matter in the B horizon could be solely accounted for by the floccu­ lating properties of aluminum ions. Other means by which the translocated materials (organic matter, sesquioxides, and clay) may be transferred have been proposed. Bloomfield (1954 and 1957) and Evans et a l . (1959) have reported an organic matter-silicate clay association as a possible mechanism of translocation. Mattson (1949) proposed a theory of isoelectric weathering, but it was criticized by Deb Deb (1949) and Stobbe et a l . (1959). (1949) and Stobbe et a l . (1959) suggested loss of ef­ fectiveness of chelating agent, drying of the illuvial horizon and precipitation as basic salts as possible 13 deposition mechanisms. Deb (1949) also criticized the theory of the movement of iron as a silica-protected iron oxide. Bloomfield and Sowden (1954), Wurman et a l . (1959) and Brydon (1954) have postulated a silicate clay- sesquioxide-organic matter association. An association of sesquioxide-silicate clay has also been proposed a l ., 1938; (Byers et Wurman et a l ., 1959; Jackson et a l ., 1960). According to Smith (1965) , the illuvial materials of Spodosols are at least partly organic but the key element is most apt to be aluminum, and iron seems to be largely accidental and probably does not contribute to the cation exchange phenomena of the spodic horizon, although it may be an important cementing agent in some ortsteins. In addi­ tion, accumulations of free iron oxides are found in many soils and are not restricted to Spodosols. The albic (A2) horizon may be thin and is often incorporated with the spodic horizon by plowing, pasturing or by earthworms. The albic horizon is related to the absence of coatings of free iron (this can be either the results of soil genesis or the accident of the parent material). Hence, the present concept of Spodosols (Soil Taxonomy— 1970, unedited) differ from that of Podzols in two ways— it reduces emphasis on the albic horizons and on the importance of the movement of iron. 14 Toposequence and Topo-Biosequence of Soils A gradation in the moisture regime occurs along the slope of a toposequence, and the soils have developed under different natural drainage conditions. In humid areas the well-drained soils of the toposequence are subjected to leaching and oxidizing conditions for the greater part of the year, while the soils with a high water table are sub­ jected to limited leaching and reducing conditions for the greater part of the year (Russell, 1966). Hence, it is conceivable that such a moisture gradient should influence soil profile development as well as the associated vege­ tation . Milne (1936) introduced the concept of the soil catena for those soils that have developed from a similar parent material but differing in characteristics of the solum owing to differences in the natural drainage. Refer- ing to soils in a small area and formed on a common parent material, Ellis (1932) introduced the term Oromorphic to describe well drained soils, Hydromorphic for soils severely affected by the ground water table, and Phyto-hydromorphic for soils having impeded drainage. Glinka (1927) described the characteristics of some Podzol soil profiles developed under different moisture regimes as having differences of considerable magnitude. He attributed the differences to the natural drainage and other features of the topography. Norton and Smith (1930) 15 found that the morphological features of Alfisols used in their study varied directly with the natural drainage of the site on which they occurred. Johnsgard (1938) studied some Ground-Water Podzols and associated soils, and indicated that the various profiles in the association appeared to owe their distinctive morphological characteristics to dif­ ferences in natural drainage of the site on which they occurred. Hill (1945) described the soils on a hydrologic sequence as ranging from Gray Brown Podzolic, Brown Podzolic, Podzol and Tundra. There is a close relationship between the vegetation, natural drainage, and type of soil profile that develops at a particular site (Bouma et a l ., 1969). A gradation in moisture has a marked effect on the vegetation. A high water table and reducing conditions are very inimical to root development of many plants and the two slow up decom­ position of organic matter and favor shallow rooting plants and peat formation (Russell, 1961). According to Shantz (1938), native plants may be used as a guide to the nature of the soils under some conditions. In the classification of soils only soil properties are used and in the classi­ fication of vegetation only characteristics strictly limited to vegetation should be used. can then be compared. Shantz These independent groupings (1938) further states that vegetation has been used to indicate the moisture condition (e.g., permanently dry soil, permanently moist soils, and flooded soils). 16 Mattson and Lonnemark (1939) studied a hydrologic Podzol series developed on an acid, fine sandy glacial till in Sweden. The entire sequence of soils occurs within a distance of 15 to 18 feet. The dry end of the sequence ends at a sandy hill that is several yards high (not af­ fected by water table) and the wet end of the series termi­ nates in a wet depression (only completely submerged during the rainy season) covered with water-loving mosses. Start­ ing at the wet end of the series the sequence of soils is as follows: Peat Podzol, Humus Podzol (with dark brownish- gray B horizon marked by accumulation of humus) and Iron Podzols with a yellowish-brown B horizon that is relatively low in humus. The vegetation of the entire sequence of soils consists of pine and spruce forest with a variable ground vegetation. The sequence of ground vegetation from the wet to the dry end is as follows: Polytrichum commume, Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum, Empethrum nigrum, Vaccinium myrtillus, Calluna vulgaris, Vaccinium vitis i d e a , and Cladonia. The acidity of the sequence of soils ranges from pH 3.03 to greater than 4.5. The highest acidity occurs at the foot of the slope, not at the wettest or dryest portion of the series. Higher pH's are found in the B and C horizons of the iron podzols on the higher portions of the transect. Bouma et a l . (1969) found that Podzols on well drained sites are indicated by the growth of heather and 17 bilberries. On moderately well or well drained sites, Calluna sp. and Vaccinium sp. are always dominant. abies and at Picea higher altitudes Pinus cembra are normally found on these sites. Byer (1960 and 1965) has described the vegetation at the site used in the present study as a Pinus-Chamaedaphne transition. Spruce-fur Conifer Forest), according to Shantz (Northern (1938), indicates a Podzol soil or a raw material that is gradually being de­ veloped into a Podzol profile. The Podzol profile is the result of leaching under a cover of sour humus (Jenny, 1941) . Where the water table is low, a light-gray A2 horizon and a rusty-brown B horizon are developed (Iron Podzol). Where the water table is high enough to influence directly the pedogenic process, the Humus Podzols are formed. In the extreme cases where com­ plete submergence of the mineral horizons occur, nonpodzolized bluish gray bog soils are formed. Ground-Water Podzols are somewhat like the sandy podzols in the appearance of the soil profile (Kellogg, 1941). They are found on imperfectly drained, but not swampy, sandy plains throughout the humid forested region. Where Ground-Water Podzols occur, the roots are shallow and trees easily blow over. Lag (1970) noted that the ground water level must be considerably below the B horizon for the formation of an Iron-Humus Podzol. Damman (1962) indicated that Hydromorphic Podzols can develop under submerged conditions as a result of 18 internal water movement, and their development is by no means dependent on the occurrence of a water table which descends periodically below the B horizon. The percolating water is rich in humus and has a very low oxygen content. Under these anaerobic conditions, iron goes into solution as ferrous iron and is leached beyond the B horizon. There­ fore the humates cannot form complex humate-iron colloids as they do in most Podzol soils, but go into suspension as almost pure humus colloids. Their precipitation results in the formation of a very pronounced humus B horizon. Johnsgard (193 8) observed that the order in which the soils occur, as one proceeds from sites of the poorest natural drainage toward successively better drainage, is as follows: Bog Soil, Bog Transition Phase Ground-Water Podzol, Half-Bog Soil, Normal Phase Ground-Water Podzol, Dry Phase Ground-Water Podzol, and Dry Sandy Podzol. The Half-Bog and Bog soils do not possess an A, B and C type profile because of weak leaching action in the presence of a high water table. The dry sandy podzol has developed under the influence of a rather weak biological cycle and although an A, B and C type profile exist, the observable contrast between horizons is not as marked as in the Normal Ground-Water Podzol which possesses the most strongly d e­ veloped horizons of eluviation and illuviation of any soils studied. All the Ground-Water Podzols were characterized by horizons of organic matter, sesquioxides, and clay 19 concentrations. An horizon of depletion of these constitu­ ents overlies the horizon of concentration. The Half-Bog soils do not possess horizons of depletion and concentration of the above constituents. Glentworth and Dion ations, (1949) observed that the vari­ in the properties of some Brown Podzolic soils de­ veloped under different hydrologic conditions, follow definite trends from one major profile to another irre­ spective of parent material. They sampled six major pro­ files along the slope and described the drainage at each as follows: I--excessively drained; II— freely drained; III--deep, freely drained; IV— slightly poorly drained; V--poorly drained; V I — very poorly drained. Profiles # I, II, and III occur on the convex portion of the slope, while the other three profiles occur on the concave portion of the slope. Their observations of pertinent soil proper­ ties are summarized below: Organic matter is high, in the upper 7 inches, at both ends of the slope with a minimum at profile V. The content of sesquioxides is higher in the surface layer of profile II than it is at profile V, but in the C horizon the reverse is true. The indurated layer is absent in profiles showing signs of the action of excess ground water (IV, V, V I ) , but it is an obvious feature of the freelydrained profiles. Profile I is strongly acid and highly unsaturated throughout (usually 90%, even in C horizon). The cation 20 exchange capacity is closely correlated with organic matter and falls off rapidly with depth. Profiles II and III show the same tendencies but there is a marked increase in pH and base saturation with increasing depth. The C horizons of these profiles is usually 75% unsaturated. Profile V re­ ceives drainage water from the surrounding well-drained soils and is subjected to less intense vertical leaching. As a result, it has a higher pH and base status than the freely-drained profiles. The pH, base saturation and ex­ change capacity of profile IV is intermediate between the freely-and poorly-drained profiles. The peat at profile VI is strongly acid and highly unsaturated (80-90%). The base exchange capacity of this profile is high in the surface or­ ganic layer and decreases sharply in the mineral soil below. Exchangeable calcium is highest in the A horizon of profile II and decreases in the Bl and B2 horizons, and may rise or decrease in the horizon depending on the parent material. At profile V, calcium generally tends to decrease in the G horizon and below this it may rise or decrease de­ pending on parent material. However, the amount of calcium in the G horizon of profile V is higher than that in the Bl or B2 horizons of profile II. Exchangeable magnesium of profile II decreases sharply from the A horizon downward and rises slightly in the C horizon. At profile V magnesium increases sharply with depth to values much higher than those in the lower layer of profile II. 21 Wicklund et a l . (1959) studied the soils of the Caribou Catena in the Podzol region of eastern Canada. They found that the profiles of all the soils in the betterdrained positions had the same sequence of horizons, but the sola became thinner toward the base of the slope. The A2 horizon in the well-drained positions was replaced by an Al in the imperfectly and poorly-drained positions. The profiles showed marked gains in organic matter in the AO, Al, and B horizons. Aluminum had accumulated in the B horizons of all profiles. A small net gain in iron occurred in the best-drained profiles, but the associated poorlydrained soil showed a decrease in iron. The surface hori­ zons of all profiles showed the greatest concentration of exchangeable cations. Mineralogy of Sand Fraction From his investigation of the frequency of occur­ rence of a number of mineral species in sedimentary rocks, Pettijohn (1941) proposed the following order of decreasing persistence of 25 minerals: anatase, muscovite, rutile, zircon, tourmaline, monazite, garnet, biotite, apatite, ilmenite, magnetite, staurolite, kyanite, epidote, horn­ blende, andalucite, topaz, sphene, soisite, augite, stillimanite, hypersthene, diopside, actinolite, and olivine. According to Brewer (1964), this sequence is generally in agreement with those suggested by Weyl Graham (1953), Fields and Swindale (1952), Marel (1954), Smithson (1953), (1941), 22 Dryden and Dryden (1946) and Goldich (1938). Discrepancies occur principally with the accessory and ferromagnesian minerals. The relative stability follows approximately the reverse order of Bowen's reaction series (Goldich, 1938): the last minerals to crystallize from a magma are the most resistant. The resistance of primary minerals to podzolization has also been investigated. Cady (1940) found a marked de­ crease in the hornblende and hypersthene content of the A2 horizon of a podzol relative to the C horizon. There was also an increase of magnetite and garnet in the A2 horizon due to the decrease in the more readily weathered minerals. He also found that the light fraction consisted largely of quartz and could be assumed to be resistant to acid weather­ ing, and that the heavy fraction had a high proportion of easily weathered ferromagnesian minerals. Johnsgard (1938) observed that the normal Ground-Water podzols showed a marked depletion of hornblende, augite, actinolite of minerals) Gl. (group and feldspars in the following order: A2 > B > On the other hand, he noted that the Half-Bog soil possessed an almost constant content of these minerals throughout the profile. Franzmeier and Whiteside (1963) observed no weather­ ing of k-feldspars in the light fraction. Plagioclase feldspars were present in small amounts in all horizons except the A2. Weathering of augite, hornblende and 23 hypersthene in the heavy fraction was observed in the A2 horizon of all soils in the chronosequence. Using the 0.1 to 0.5 mm fraction of some Podzols from Alberta, Pawluk ing rates: (1960) concluded the following weather­ heavy minerals— hematite > hornblende > garnet >_ magnetite; intermediate minerals--chlorite > biotite > muscovite; and light minerals--feldspars > quartz. From their study of the fine sand fraction of some Michigan soils, Yassoglou and Whiteside (1960) noted weathering of olivine, epidote and hornblende in all hori­ zons above the Bt, and that the intensity of weathering in­ creases with proximity to the soil surface. They observed a slight decrease in the feldspars of the A2 horizon in bisequal soils, but garnet, tourmaline, magnetite and zircon were considered to be resistant. Interpretations of weathering intensity within a given soil profile were usually reported to be A2 > B > C. The exceptions were B > A2 > C , and A2 > B = C as observed by Cady (1940). The first task in evaluating soil profile develop­ ment is to establish the degree of uniformity of the parent material of the whole soil profile at the start of soil formation. Toward this end, Marshall (1943) has proposed the following criteria: 1. Throughout the profile the relative proportions of two or more of the highly resistant sand size 24 minerals should be the same. Zircon, tourmaline, garnet, rutile, and anatase are the minerals cited for use. To this list, Barshad (1955) added quartz, albite, microcline or a combina­ tion of several resistant minerals. 2. Throughout the profile the particle size dis­ tribution of a given resistant mineral should remain the same. Other criteria that may be used for establishing the uniformity of soil parent materials have been summarized by Barshad (1955) as follows: 1. Total mineralogical analysis, with particular attention to the heavy mineral suite. 2. Nature of particle size distribution of the resistant mineral, either heavy or light, of non-clay fraction. 3. Nature of the ratio of two resistant mineral in any one fraction of non-clay fraction, prefer­ ably the fine sand or coarse silt. 4. Particle size distribution of the whole non-clay fraction. 5. Nature of clay distribution with depth. 6. Nature of the change in chemical composition of the non-clay fraction. 25 Mineralogy of Clay Fraction Zvereva (196 8) studied some soils that ranged from Rendzina to Podzol, and he investigated the clay mineralogy at various stages in their pedological evolution. He sum­ marized his results as follows: Illite predominates in the rocks which produce the soils. This mineral is transformed into chlorite, into the intermediary minerals chlorite-vermiculite, and into vermiculite when a large carbonate content prevents podsolization (rendzina stage). Soil development is accom­ panied by a lowering of pH, leaching of calcium and ma g ­ nesium ions from the exchange complex and substitution of these by hydrogen ions. Under these conditions, illite loses potassium ions and is changed into vermiculite, which is distinguishable from rendzina vermiculite. In Podzolic soils, the mobile sesquioxides cause the vermiculite to change into chloritizable vermiculite. Podzols are char­ acterized by much leaching of potassium ions from the illite lattice which is followed by the formation of montmorilIon­ ite and possibly kaolinite. Montmorillonite, in Podzols, also results from the transformation of chlorite. Franzmeier and Whiteside (1963) also noted that the pattern of clay mineral distribution in Podzol profiles suggested a weathering sequence from illite and chlorite, possibly through intergradient vermiculite to montmorillon­ ite. Ross (1965) studied the montmorillonite of a podzol 26 in northern Michigan and concluded that illite, chlorite, interstratified chlorite-vermiculite and chloriteraontmorillonite have weathered in situ through a vermiculite stage to montmorillonite. Bouma et a l . (1969) found that the clay minerals present in the Podzols, used in their study, were the results of degradation of the original muscovites and chlorites, probably through an extraction of potassium and iron. They suggested that such reactions would produce mixed-layered minerals. The purest swelling- clay mineral was found in the A2 horizon of a profile in a wet pinewood. Johnson and Jeffries (1957) concluded that poor drainage could inhibit the formation of vermiculite in the lower horizons. However, they observed that in both the poorly and well drained members of the Allenwood catena the weathering sequence was as follows: intermediate vermiculite mica (illite) ->-, mica chlorite-like. They further concluded that drainage controls the degree of expression of the above sequence. If any clay is formed under the in­ fluence of a high water table, it is of the montmorillonite type (Russell, 1966). Brydon et a l . (196 8) have also studied the clay mineralogy of some Podzols. They found that clays of the C horizons ranged from well-ordered mica and chlorite mix­ tures to a mixture of amorphous and poorly crystallized "14 A°" mineral. Smectite was not a common constituent of 27 the C horizons. The results of their examination of the Ae horizons show that: 1. The major mineral was a well-crystallized smectite with varying degrees and kinds of mica interstratification; 2. Orthochlorites had completely disappeared from the Ae, yet were present in the lower horizons. (They suggested that this is due to protection by the sesquioxides in the B horizons.); 3. In the majority of the soils, there was a de­ crease in mica from the C horizon to the Ae horizon; and 4. There was no evidence of major kaolinite forma­ tion in the Ae horizons. Jackson et a l . (1948) proposed the following se­ quence for clay mineral weathering in Podzols: hydrous mica intermediates -+, montmorillonite gibbsite. illite , kaolinite -> In 1952, Jackson et a l . attributed weathering of mica and similar layer silicates to the following: depo- tassication, hydroxylation, dealumination, and desilication. Pawluk (1960) found that the A and C horizons of some Podzols from Northern Alberta contained illite, montmorillonite, interstratified illite-montmorillonite and kaolinite, while the B horizons were primarily chlorite-like with lesser amounts of kaolinite. He explains these results by synthesis of chlorite in the B horizon. 28 On the contrary, several investigators have reported that Podzols developed on sandy parent materials sometimes show a greater percentage of montmorillonite in the A2 than in the deeper horizons (Brown and Jackson, al., 1959; and Franzmeier et a l ., 1963). 1958; Wurman et. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA AND OF THE PEDONS SAMPLED The study area is located in the northern part of Michigan's lower peninsula on State Forest land, in south central Crawford County. This county is located in what is known as the "Jack Pine Area" of Michigan. The soil parent materials are extensive areas of sandy and gravelly tills and outwash plains of late pleistocene age. are pitted with glacial kettle holes. spodic horizon development These plains Soils with weak (Graycalm and Croswell) are located on the better-drained sites, and soils with varying degrees of spodic horizon development (AuGres, Saugatuck, and Kinross) are located on the less well-drained sites. Various types of bog and marsh vegetation have d e ­ veloped in the kettle holes. It is along the border of one such depressional area that the study site is located. This kettle is occupied by a poorly-drained, acid bog of the type known as "leatherleaf" for the dominant shrub cover. The area selected for study extends from out in the bog to the well-drained soil on a sand ridge. Hence, the study area is a Jack Pine-Leatherleaf bog transition, a sandy topo-biosequence, and it includes the whole range of 29 30 spodic horizon development commonly observed in Michigan (from a Brown Podzolic Graycalm to the Ground Water Podzol, Saugatuck with an ortstein subsoil). Seven pedons were described and sampled in a rela­ tively straight line along the slope gradient, and the re ­ sulting soil profile descriptions are shown below. and profiles are used interchangeably.) (Pedons Figure 1 shows the location of the study area, and Plate 1 shows the soil pro­ files samples. (The author expresses his appreciation to Dr. R. L. Donahue and Dave Lietzke who photographed the soil profiles.) Graycalm Sand, Site No. 7 Horizon Depth (inches) Site No./ Sample No. Description Al 0 1 7/01 A2 1-3" 7/02 Medium sand; 10YR6/2; single grain (structureless); loose; extremely acid (pH 4.4); a brupt, wave boundary. B21hir 3 - 11' 7/03 upper part 7/04 lower part Loamy sand to medium sand; 7.5YR5/6; moderate, coarse granular to weak, fine, subangular blocky structure; firm; strongly acid (pH 5.2); clear, wavy boundary. B22hir 11 - 23" 7/05 Loamy sand to medium sand; 10YR6/6-6/8; moderate, coarse granular to weak, fine, subangular block structure; fri­ able to firm; strongly acid (pH 5.3); clear, wavy boundary. - " Medium sand mixed with litter and decomposed organic matter; 10YR2/1; weak, medium granular structure; friable; very strongly acid (pH 4.6); abrupt, wavy boundary. 31 Figure 1.— Location of the study area. Shaded area shows Crawford Co. and part of Roscommon Co. Enclosed un­ shaded area shows the study site. No. 7, Graycalm PLATE 1.— Color photographs of four better-drained profiles, the edge of the bog, and the bog. No. 5, AuGres-Croswell PLATE 1.--Continued 4, Saugatuck-AuGres No. 3 PLATE 1 — Continued Saugatuck Edge of Bog PLATE 1.— Continued 36 A2 23 - 30" 7/06 Loamy sand to medium sand; 10YR7/4 to 10YR6/4; weak, medium granular structure; loose to soft; strongly acid (pH 5.4); clear, wavy boundary. A 2 1 & B2t;1 30 - 55" 7/07 Loamy sand to medium sand; 10YR7/4 to 10YR6/4 for A 2 , and 7.5YR5/6 for B2t; weak, fine granular for A2 and moderate, medium granular to weak, fine subangular blocky struc­ ture for B2t; loose to soft for A2 and slightly hard for B2t; strongly acid (pH 5.4); clear, wavy boundary. A 2 ' & B2tJ 2 55 - 60" 7/08 Medium sand; 10YR7/3 for A2 and 7.5YR5/6 for B2t; weak, fine granular for A2 and moderate, medium granular to weak, fine subangular blocky structure for B2t; loose to soft for A2 and slightly hard for B2t; strongly acid (pH 5.5) . Dominant Vegetation:* Jack pine, oak, blueberries, of vegetation). ferns (see discussion Relief and Physiography: Gently rolling to sloping relief with southern exposure. Well drained with water table below 60". The soil pit was located at 154 ft. north of bog's edge. Additional Notes: 1. Many roots in A and upper B horizons, but present at 60" +. 2. Dry below 23". 3. Stratified at - 55". 4. The B21hir horizon was described as one, but samples were taken from the upper and lower portions of the horizon. *In this study AO, A00, Hemic (H), Sapric (S) and Fibric (F) are equivalent to the 01, 02, Oe, Oa and Oi horizon, respectively. 37 Croswell-Graycalm Sand, Site No. 6 Horizon Depth (inches) Site No./ Sample No. Description AO .5 - 0" 6/01 Partly decomposed litter; 10YR3/2 to 10YR2/2; moderate, fine to medium granular and weak, fine to medium subangular blocky structure; friable; very strongly acid (pH 4.6); abrupt, smooth boundary. A1 0 - 1" 6/02 Medium sand; 10YR2/1; weak, fine to medium granular struc­ ture; friable; extremely acid (pH 4.2); abrupt, smooth boundary. A2 1 - 3" 6/03 Medium sand; 10YR6/2 to 10YR5/2; weak, fine to medium granular structure; loose; extremely acid (pH 4.3) abrupt, wavy boundary. (Upper) B21hir 3-5" 6/04 Loamy sand; 5YR3/3 to 7.5YR4/4; weak, coarse granu­ lar to weak, fine subangular blocky structure; firm to friable; very strongly acid (pH 4.9); abrupt, wavy boundary. (Lower) B21hir 5-7" 6/05 Same description as for upper portion, except that reaction is strongly acid (pH 5.1). B22hir 7 - 18" 6/06 Medium sand; 7.5YR4/4 to 7.5YR5/4; weak, coarse granu­ lar to weak, fine subangular blocky structure; very fri­ able to nearly loose; strongly acid (pH 5.4); clear, smooth boundary. 18 - 23" 6/07 Medium sand; 7.5YR5/4 to 10YR5/6; structureless to weak, fine subangular blocky structure; friable to loose; strongly acid (pH 5.4); clear, smooth boundary. 38 A2 23 - 28" 6/08 Medium sand; 10YR6/3 with few, fine, faint to distinct 10YR6/3 mottles; single grain; loose; weak, discontinuous, slightly brittle fragipan; strongly acid (pH 5.5); abrupt, wavy boundary. A2 1 & B2tJ1 28 - 39" 6/09 Medium sand; 10YR6/3 to 10YR7/3 for the A 2 , and 7.5YR5/4 for the B2t with few to many, fine to coarse, dis­ tinct to prominent 7.5YR5/8 and 5YR5/8 to 5YR6/8 mottles; single grain (structureless) for A2 and massive for the B2t; loose for the A2 and slightly plastic for the B2t; strongly acid (pH 5.4); clear, wavy boundary. A2 ' & B2t J2 39 - 49" 6/10 Medium sand; 10YR7/3 with many, fine to coarse, distinct to prominent, 10YR6/4 to 10YR6/6 mottles; single grain (structureless) for the A2 and massive for the B2t; loose for the A2 and slightly plastic for the B2t; strongly acid (pH 5.5); clear, wavy boundary. (Bt bands sampled separately, loamy sa nd .) 6/11 Cl 49 - 60" 6/12 Medium sand; 10YR7/3; single grain (structureless); loose; strongly acid (pH 5.4). Dominant Vegetation: Jack pine, oaks, blueberries, on vegetation). ferns (see discussion Relief and Physiography: The site is gently rolling with a southern exposure. Moderately well to well drained, with the water table at 58". This site is 84 ft. north of the bog's edge. Additional Notes: 1. present to 50". Many roots in the A and upper B horizons but 39 2. Weak fragipan at the 23 - 2 8" depth. 3. The bands are discontinuous and occur more or less as chunks. 4. In the A2 & B2t horizons, the A2 is sand and the B2t is loamy sand but the two together make a sand, which means that the A2s are dominant. AuGres-Croswell Sand, Site No. Horizon Depth (inches) Site No./ Sample No. AO 1 0 5/01 A1 0 - - 6 " " 5/02 5 Description Partly decomposed litter; 10YR3/2 to 10YR2/2; moderate, fine to medium granular and weak, fine to medium subangu­ lar blocky structure; friable extremely acid (pH 4.4); abrupt, smooth boundary. Medium sand; 7.5YRN2/0; weak, fine granular structure; friable; extremely acid (pH 4.2); clear, wavy boundary. A2 6 - 10" 5/03 Medium sand; 10YR6/1 to 10YR6/2; single grain (struc­ tureless); loose; extremely acid (pH 4.4); gradual, ir­ regular boundary. B21hir 10 - 14' 5/04 Loamy sand; 5YR4/6 with few, fine, faint 10YR6/6 mottles; moderate, fine granular and weak, fine subangular blocky structure; friable; very strongly acid (pH 4.7); clear wavy boundary. B22hir 14 - 21" 5/05 Loamy sand; 10YR6/4 with com­ mon, medium, distinct 7.5YR6/6 to 7.5YR6/8 mottles; single grain (structureless) and weak, fine, subangular blocky structure; loose to friable; very strongly acid (pH 4.7); clear, wavy boundary. 40 B23h 28" Medium sand; 10YR5/4 with common, medium, distinct 7.5YR7/8 mottles; single grain and weak, fine granular structure; loose to friable; very strongly acid (pH 4.6); clear, wavy boundary. B31 28 - 39" 5/07 Medium sand; 10YR6/4 with common to many, medium to coarse, distinct to prominent 7.5YR7/8 mottles; single grain (structureless); loose; very strongly acid (pH 4.9); clear, wavy boundary. B32 39 - 50" 5/08 Medium sand; 10YR6/4 with common to many, medium to coarse, distinct to prominent 7.5YR7/8 mottles; single grain (structureless); loose; strongly acid (pH 5.1); clear, wavy boundary. Cl 50 - 60" 5/09 Medium sand; 10YR6/1 to 10YR6/2; single grain; loose; strongly acid (pH 5.2). 21 - 5/06 Dominant Vegetation: Jack pine, oak, blueberries, ferns on vegetation). (see discussion Relief and Physiography: This soil site has a southern exposure with a gently sloping relief. Drainage is imperfect to moderately well with the water table at 36". This site is located 49 ft. north of the bog's edge. Additional Notes: 1. Few to many roots to a depth of = 30". 2. As the name suggests, this is a border case with respect to drainage and spodic horizon development. 41 Saugatuck-AuGres Sand, Site No. Horizon Depth (inches) Site No./ Sample No. 4 Description AO (H) 3.5 - 1.0" 4/01 Partly decomposed litter with many roots; 7.5YR3/2; weak, coarse granular structure; loose to very friable; ex­ tremely acid (pH 4.3); abrupt; smooth boundary. AOO(S) 1.0 - 0 . 0 " 4/02 Well decomposed organic matter (mucky) with some charcoal; 7.5YR2/0; weak, fine granular structure; very friable; ex­ tremely acid (pH 4.2); abrupt; smooth boundary. Al 0.0 - 1.5" 4/03 Loamy sand; 10YR2/1; weak, fine to medium, granular structure; very friable; ex­ tremely acid (pH 4.1); abrupt; smooth boundary. A2 1.5 - 3" 4/04 Loamy sand; 10YR5/2; struc­ tureless to weak, fine granu­ lar structure; loose; ex­ tremely acid (pH 4.2); abrupt; smooth boundary. B21hir 3-7" 4/05 Loamy sand; 5YR3/3 with com­ mon, medium, distinct 7 . 5 Y R 5 / 3 mottles; weak to moderate, fine to medium gran­ ular structure; very firm; very strongly acid (pH 4.8); clear, smooth boundary. B22hir 7 - 11" 4/06 Loamy sand; 5YR3/3; with many (40%), common, distinct, 7.5YR5/3 mottles; weak, fine to medium granular to weak, fine subangular blocky struc­ ture; very firm; very strongly acid (pH 4.8); clear, smooth boundary. A2' 11 - 16" 4/07 Loamy sand; common, medium, distinct mottles of 10YR5/3 and 7.5YR4/4; structureless to weak, medium subangular 42 blocky structure; massive; slightly firm; very strongly acid (pH 4.6); abrupt, wavy boundary. II B21hir' 16 - 23" 4/08 Medium sand; mottled---many, medium, faint 5YR3/4 and 7.5YR4/4 to 7.5YR5/3 mottles; weak, medium to coarse suban­ gular blocky structure to massive; firm to friable; very strongly acid (pH 4.9); clear smooth boundary. II Bhirm ' 23 - 33" 4/09 Medium sand; 5YR3/2 to 5YR3/3; massive chunks, very firm to weakly cemented; very strongly acid (pH 5.0); clear, smooth boundary. II B3 1 33 - 48" 4/10 Medium sand; 5YR3/3 to 5YR4/3; massive chunks; very firm to firm; strongly acid (pH 5.0); clear, smooth boundary. II Cl 48 - 58+" 4/11 Medium sand; 7.5YR4/3 to 7.5YR5/3; single grain (struc­ tureless); very friable to loose; strongly acid (pH 5.1). Dominant Vegetation: Jack pine, aspen, cherry, oak, blueberries, wintergreens (see discussion on vegetation). ferns, Relief and Physiography: This site has a southern exposure with a gently rolling relief. Drainage is imperfect with the water table at 28". The site is located 14 ft. north of the edge of the b o g . Additional Notes: 1. Saugatuck occurs in the downhill side of the pit. 2. Many roots in the upper 14" with few in the next 12". 3. This profile has two sequences of Spodic de­ velopment. 4. The upper part of this profile is finer in texture (Is) than the other six profiles. 5. Traces of charcoal in the A1 horizon. 43 Saugatuck Sand, Site No. Horizon Depth (inches) Site No./ Sample No. 3 Description AO 4 - 0" 3/01 Partly decomposed litter; 10YR3/2 to 10YR2/2— rubbed; moderate, fine to medium granular and weak, fine to medium subangular blocky structure; friable; extremely acid (pH 4.1); clear, wavy boundary. Al 0 1 3/02 Medium sand, slightly mixed with organic matter in various stages of decomposition; N2/0; weak, fine to medium granular to subangular blocky struc­ ture; friable; extremely acid (pH 4.0); abrupt, smooth boundary. A2 1 11 3/03 B21hir B22hir B23hir - - " " Medium sand; 10YR6/3 to 10YR5/3; single grain (struc­ tureless); loose; extremely acid (pH 4.2); abrupt, smooth boundary. m 11 - 17' 3/04 Medium sand; 5YR2/2; strong, medium to coarse and very coarse, subangular blocky structure plus some chunks; strongly cemented; very strongly acid (pH 4.5). m 17 - 24’ 3/05 Medium sand; 5YR2/2 - 2/3; moderate to strong, medium subangular blocky structure plus some chunks; extremely firm to weakly cemented; very strongly acid (pH 4.6). 24 - 331 3/06 Medium sand; 5YR3/3 to 7.5YR3/2; moderate, medium to coarse subangular blocky structure; firm; very strongly acid (pH 4.8). 44 Cl 33 - 43" 3/07 Medium sand; 7.5YR4/2 to 7.5YR4/3; single grain (structureless); loose; very strongly acid (pH 4.8). C2 43 - 61" 3/0 8 Medium sand; 10YR4/3; single grain; loose; strongly acid (pH 5.1). Dominant Vegetation: Jack pine, Spruce, Oaks tation) . (see discussion on vege­ Physiography and Relief: This site is located 8 ft. north of the bog's edge. Relief is nearly level to gently sloping with a southern exposure. Drainage is imperfect with the water table at 20" below the surface. Additional Notes: 1. Most of the roots are above 15". 2. Ortstein appeared to be softer at H 2O table. 3. Sand grains in the spodic horizons are well coated and they are angular to rounded and of various shapes and sizes. The cemented masses appeared to have discon­ nected pores but there are a few root channels. 4. Sand grains in A2 are similar to those in the B horizons, except that many of them are clear and reflec­ tive . 5. In the C horizons, the number of rock fragments, and the sizes, shapes, and angularity of sand grains in­ crease . Kinross Sand Horizon Hemic (better drained), Site No. Depth (inches) Site No./ Sample No. 2 - 1 2/01 1/2" 2 Description Moderately decomposed organic matter with fine roots and conifer needles; 10YR2/2 to 10YR2/1; weak, coarse granular to subangular blocky struc­ ture; friable; extremely acid (pH 4.1); abrupt, wavy boundary. 45 Sapric Al 1 1/2 2/02 0 - 1 0" - 1/ 2 " not sampled Mat of decomposed organic matter with a few fine roots; N2/0; weak to moderate, coarse platty structure; friable; extremely acid (pH 4.2); clear, smooth boundary. Medium sand; N/0; weak, fine granular structure; friable; extremely acid (pH 4.2); clear, smooth boundary. A2 1 1/2 - 15" 2/03 Medium sand; 10YR5/2 to 10YR6/2; single grain (struc­ tureless); loose; extremely acid (pH 4.3); clear, smooth boundary. B21h 15 - 25" 2/04 Medium sand; 5YR2/2; weak, medium, granular to subangular blocky structure; friable; very strongly acid (pH 4.5). B22hir 25 - 35" 2/05 Medium sand; 5YR3/2 to 5YR2/2; weak to moderate, medium to coarse, subangular blocky structure; firm; very strongly acid (pH 4.6). B23 35 - 54" 2/06 Medium sand; 5YR3/3 to 7.5YR4/3; weak to moderate, medium to coarse, subangular blocky structure; firm; strongly acid (pH 5.2). Dominant Vegetation: Jack pine, spruce and a ground cover of sphagnum (see discussion on vegetation). Physiography and Relief: This site is located two feet south of the edge of the bog. The exposure is southern and the slope is nearly level. Drainage is poor and the water table occurs at 7 1/2" below the surface. Additional Notes: 1. sapric horizon. A few burned wood fragments or charcoal in the 46 2. Most sand grains in the B horizons are well coated to only slightly stained. These coatings are thickest in the B21h horizon and decrease in thickness with depth. 3. Most of the recognizable plant remains (roots, twigs, bark, woody fragments, etc.) occur in the upper 5 horizons of the profile. 4. The sand grains are angular to rounded and of various sizes and shapes. Many of those in the Al and A2 horizons are also clear and reflective. Kinross Sand Horizon (with Organic Surface), Site No. Depth (inches) Site No./ Sample No. 1 Description 10YR7/2— after squeezing; relatively undecomposed mat of sphagnum peat; extremely acid (pH 4.0); abrupt smooth boundary. Fibric 13 - 7" 1/01 Hemic 7 - 3" 1/02 5YR3/2--after squeezing, 5YR2/2--rubbed; moderately decomposed organic matter, 65% fibers but 30% fibers after rubbing; weak, coarse mat of organic matter; ex­ tremely acid (pH 4.3); abrupt, smooth boundary. Sapric 3-0" 1/03 N2/0; mucky, well decomposed organic matter; weak, fine to medium, granular to subangu­ lar blocky structure; friable; extremely acid (pH 4.4); abrupt, smooth boundary. Al 0 - 1" not sampled 10YR2/2; medium sand; single grain (structureless); fri­ able; extremely acid (pH 4.3); clear smooth boundary. A2 1 - 11" 1/04 Medium sand; 10YR4/2; weak, fine granular structure; loose; very strongly acid (pH 4.5); clear, wavy boundary. B21h 11 21 1/05 B22hir 21 - 27" 1/06 Medium sand; 5YR4/3; moderate, medium to coarse, subangular blocky structure; firm to very firm; very strongly acid (pH 4.7) . B23 27 - 37" 1/07 Medium sand; 7.5YR4/3; weak to moderate, medium to coarse, subangular blocky structure; firm; very strongly acid (pH 4.7) . Cl 37 - 50" 1/08 Medium sand; 10YR4/3; single grain (structureless); loose; very strongly acid (pH 4.9). - " Medium sand; 5YR3/3; weak, medium granular to subangular blocky structure; friable; very strongly acid (pH 4.5). Dominant Vegetation: Jack Pine, Spruce, Tamarack, Leatherleaf cussion on vegetation). (see dis­ Physiography and Relief: The site described is 20 ft. out into the bog on a nearly level area. Its drainage is poor with the water table at 6" below the surface. Additional N o t e s : 1. Few clear to slightly stained, angular to rounded sand grans are randomly distributed throughout the hemic, sapric, and Al horizons. Sand grains in the A2 horizon are similar, except that more of them are clear and reflective. In the C horizon, there is an increase in the number of different shapes, sizes, and color of sand grains---angularity increases also. 2. Most of the plant roots occur in the hemic, sapric, Al, A 2 , and upper B21h horizons. 3. Aggregates in the organic and A horizons are held together by plant roots, clay, and organic matter (dark in color). On the other hand, aggregates in the Spodic B horizons are apparently held together by the reddish-brown humus-sesquioxides as well as clay. 4. Sand grains in the B horizons are well coated to only slightly stained. The thickest coatings occur on those sand grains in the Bh horizon. 5. There appeared to be some charcoal in the Sapric horizon. METHODS OF ANALYSIS All analyses were made on air dry samples that had been crushed and sieved through a two millimeter screen, except where otherwise indicated. Chemical Soil Reaction The hydrogen ion activity was determined on air dry samples with a Beckman Zeromatic pH meter and with the Hellige-Truog colorimetric kit. The glass electrode pH's were measured by using the following soil-liquid ratio (on a weight basis): and 1:1 soil-H^O, 1:2 soil-1.0 N KC1. 1:2 soil-0.01 M C a C ^ , The suspensions were each allowed to equilibrate for fifteen minutes with several intermittent stirrings (Agronomy No. 9, Part 2, 1965). Cation Exchange Capacity Cation Exchange Capacity (C.E.C.) was determined by saturating the exchange complex with sodium ions (1.0 N NaAc at pH 8.2) and replacing the sodium ions with ammonium ions (1.0 N NH^Ac). The sodium in dilute solution was measured with a Coleman Flame Photometer, and expressed as 48 49 m.e./lOO grams of soil No. (Soil Survey Investigation Report 1, 1967). Exchangeable Bases Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium were ex­ tracted by use of a 1.0 N NH^Ac solution. The leachate was analyzed for potassium and sodium by use of a Coleman Flame Photometer, and for calcium and magnesium by use of a 303 Model Perkins-Elmer Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Jackson, 1964), and the results expressed as m.e./lOO grams of soil. Extractable Acidity This soil property was measured by using the barium chloride-triethanolamine method Report No. 1, 1967). (Soil Survey Investigations The results were expressed as m.e./ 100 grams of soil. Total Carbon A Leco carbon analyzer, Model 598-500, with digital readout was used to determine the total carbon content of a 0.1 gram sample (personal communication with staff of soil testing laboratory), and the results are expressed as per cent total carbon. Extractable Iron and Aluminum A 200 ml amount of 0.1 M Na^?20^ was added to 2.0 grams of soil in a 250 ml centrifuge bottle, and the bottle was capped and shaken overnight. Then, 10 drops of 0.4% 50 superfloe was added and the bottle was shaken again for 5 minutes. After this, the samples were centrifuged at 2,000 rpm for 15 minutes or until the supernatant liquid was clear in reflected light. In addition, iron and aluminum were also extracted by use of the dithionite-citrate method (Soil Survey Inves­ tigation Report No. 1, 1967). The extract was analyzed for iron and aluminum by use of a 303 Model Perkins-Elmer Atomic Absorption Spectro­ photometer, and the results are expressed as per cent ele­ mental iron and aluminum. Physical Mechanical Analyses The pipette method was used for the mechanical analysis of the <2 mm soil material. ^ 2 Q2 several drops of glacial acetic acid was used for the removal of organic matter, and a 0.1 N solution of HC1 was used for the removal of any carbonates and exchangeable base that may have been present. The excess acid was washed out with distilled water, and the samples were saturated with sodium by titration with 0.1 N NaOH to pH 8.4. After 24 hours of shaking, the samples were sieved though a 300 mesh screen and transferred to 1000 ml sedimentation cylinders. Using Stokes Law, a 25 ml aliquot was taken at the proper depth and time to give the total clay, fine silt, and total silt 51 plus clay. The sands were placed at the top of a nest of sieves and shaken with a mechanical shaker for 15 minutes. The fractions separated were as follows: 2.0 - 1.0, 1.0 - 0.5, 0.5 - 0.25, 0.25 - 0.10, and 0.10 - 0.053 mm. The per cent of each size fraction and the solution losses were calculated on an oven dry, acid insoluble basis (Kilmer et a l ., 1949). The <2y clay was separated by several siphonings of the samples in suspension after allowing sufficient time for the silt particles to settle out. Water Retention Since it was impossible to obtain undisturbed core samples from below the high water table at the less welldrained sites, the bucket auger was employed to obtain bulk samples. From these bulk samples, disturbed core samples were prepared by filling the metal cylinders (3" diameter and 3" high) with the bulk material and alternatively soak­ ing and draining for several times. Then these cores were soaked in water and drained on a tension table for 2 4 hours. Hence, water retention at 60 cm tension was measured by the blotter paper-tension table method of Learner and Shaw (1941), except that disturbed core samples were used. Moisture equivalent was measured by the method of Briggs and McLane (1907). Maximum water holding capacity was determined as follows: place 30 gms of air dry soil in a moisture 52 equivalent box, saturate in 1 cm of water for 2 4 hours, and drain for 30 minutes on a paper towel while covered with a damp cloth. Per cent water retained at each of the above moisture conditions was expressed on an oven-dry basis. Bulk Density This soil parameter was calculated by dividing the oven dry weight of the core samples used for the water retention determinations at 60 cm by the volume of the metal cylinders. Mineralogical Qualitative Identification of Clay Minerals The clay minerals in the samples were identified by standard X-ray diffraction techniques Part I). (Agronomy No. 9, The following four treatments were employed: Mg-saturated, glycerol-solvated and air-dried; K-saturated and air-dried; K-saturated and heated to 300°C; K-saturated and heated to 550°C. Sand Mineralogy The fine sand fraction (0.25 - 0.10 mm) that was saved from the particle size analysis of the soil samples was employed in the study of the mineralogy of the sand fraction. Enough of the uniformly mixed sample was placed on a well slide, with epoxy, to uniformly cover an area 53 about 22 mm square. Then, another layer of epoxy was placed on the top of the grains. After this, the slides were placed in an oven for one hour. Next, the slides were cooled and ground with successively finer abrasives to a thickness of 0.030 mm or until the interference colors of quartz were of the first order. After thorough washing and drying, an immersion oil was applied and a temporary cover slide set. The minerals were identified by standard mineralog­ ical procedures and the relative abundance was estimated by counting on regularly spaced traverses with the aid of an automatic recorder (Heinrich, 1965; Kerr, 1959). Biological Site index measurements for Jack Pine (Pinus banksiana) were made using the method of Gevorkiantz (1956). The distribution of the vegetation along the soil moisture gradient was investigated by Byer (1960 and 1965) by analyzing the data collected from quadrats that were randomly located in the study area meters). (lxl meter) (100 x 100 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Variations in the Depths to the Water Table and in the Depths to Which Most Roots Occur Figure 2 and Table 1 show that the depths to the water table not only vary from month to month during a given year but that they also vary from one year to the next. Depths to the water table at each of the sites were somewhat irregular but generally tended to increase from June to mid-September in a similar manner in both 1969 and 1970. However, the measurements for 1969 are more variable than those for 1970 (Table 1). It is interesting to note that the measurements made on September 26, 1968 and September 22, 1970 are very similar exceed 3.0 inches). (differences do not The relative heights of the water table at all the sites are consistent throughout the observations. Variations in the water table measurements made during this study are summarized in Table 1. This table also shows the horizons that were subjected to fluctuations of the water table. Except for sites #6 and #7, each of the profiles have horizons that are subjected to a permanent water table, and except for #7 each of the profiles have horizons that are subjected to a water table for a consider­ able part of the year. 54 55 Kinross DEPTHS (inches) 10 20 /A u 1Gres 30 WATER TABLE 40 Croswell 50 60 Graycoim f 9 /2 6 9 /2 0 J 6 /2 1 1968 7 /1 9 1 I 8 / 2 3 9/13 7 /8 M U -I f f f c6 /2 5 1— =*►I9 6 9 < ? ---------- 8 /2 5 J I 8/12 9 /2 2 I 9 /8 -3»«I970*^- SAMPLING DATE Figure 2.— Seasonal variations of water table de pt hs . I__ TABLE 1.— Depths (inches) of water table and plant roots in each of the seven pedons. Site # Average Depths to Water Table Range in Depths to Water Table 1969 1970 Maximum Var­ iations in Depths to Water Table 1969 1970 Depths Horizons Subjected to Which to Water Table Roots Fluctuations Occur Horizons in Which Roots Occur #1, Kinross (organic surface) 6.0 0.018. 5 0.011. 0 18.5 11. 0 F,H,S,A1, upper A2 25 F,K,S,A1,A2, upper B21h #2, Kinross (better drained) 11. 0 2. 023. 5 4.518. 0 21.5 13. 5 A1,A2, lower B21h 27 H ,S ,Al,A2,B21h #3, Saugatuck 19. 0 6.030.0 15. 022. 0 25.0 7.0 Lower A2 B21hirm , B22hirlri, upper B23hir 15 A0,A1,A2 (not observed in B22hirm or below) #4, Saugatuck-AuGres 27.0 11.039.0 20.035.0 28.0 15. 0 A 2 ', IIB21hir) IIBhir,;, IIB3' 26 A0, A 0 0 , Al, A2 B21hir, B22hir, A2' IIB21hir', IIBhirm ' (end in this horizon) *5, AuGresCroswell 35.0 23.048.5 29.039. 0 25.5 9.0 B23h, B 31,B32 30 A 0 ,Al,A2,B21hir, B22hir, B23 #6, CroswellGraycalm 58.0 47.553.0>65.0 >65.0 17. 5 12.0 C2 55 All except C2 >65.0 >65.0 None 65 Throughout the profile -7, Graycalm >65.0 >65.0 >65.0 57 Table 1 also shows the depths to which roots occur. From these data, it is apparent that: 1. The plant roots do not extend very much, 3 to 6 inches, into the permanent water table of the Kinross soils in the bog. 2. The roots do not extend very deep, 3 to 4 inches, into the ortstein layer of Saugatuck and Saugatuck-AuGres 3. The plant roots (see profile description). stop in the zone of fluctuation of the water table in AuGres-Croswell and Croswell-Graycalm. 4. Except for site the water table #'s 1 and 2, maximum depths to are below the depths to which most roots occur. These observations are in agreement with those of Joffe (1941), Russell Joffe (1956), and Lunt (1939). From his studies, (1941) concluded that the dodging of the ortstein layer by the roots of forest and fruit trees is not merely a mechanical problem but is also one of aeration. Russell (1966) indicated that the reducing conditions created by impeded drainage and a high water table are very inimical to root development. Lunt (1939) pointed out that physical soil factors are more important in root growth than are the chemical factors. Kellogg (1941) has observed that the roots of trees growing on Ground-Water Podzols are shallow and easily blow over. In the present study, the author 58 also observed blown-over trees on those Ground-Water Podzols with an ortstein layer. Due to the manner in which the soils were sampled along the slope, five individual soil series (Kinross, Saugatuck, A u G r e s , Croswell, Graycalm) are represented in the seven pedons sampled. Hence, the ranges in the ob­ served and measured properties of each horizon or of the entire profiles of these five soil series can be obtained. This idea of the range in the soil series will be considered at various stages of this discussion. Thus, Table 1 shows that the average variations in the depths to the water table for the individual soil series of the toposequence are as follows: Saugatuck, Kinross, 6-15"; 15-27"; AuGres, 27-35"; Croswell, 35-58"; and Graycalm, 58"+. Much of the variation in the depths to the water table can be accounted for by the amount and frequency of precipitation. However, the fact that some of the sites varied considerably more than others, means that soil properties and vegetation are also important. The rela­ tively high silt content of the upper part of the AuGresSaugatuck profile helps to explain the variations at this site, since the capillary rise of silt is quite high. Accumu­ lation of run off and seepage water in the bog accounts for some of the variation at the two Kinross sites: slope-water table relationship is important here. the soil Some of 59 the variation is due to the consumption rate of moisture by the plants, since plant activity was at a high level during the daylight period that the measurements were made. From Table 1 it is apparent that the horizons, of the five individual soil series, which were subjected to fluctuations of the water table are as follows: Kinross-- organic surface horizons, Al, A 2 , and upper B horizons; Saugatuck— lower A2 and upper B horizons; AuGres— lower B horizons; Croswell— lower B and C horizons; and Graycalm-C horizon and below 65". Soil Reaction These coarse-textured soils have developed in limy sandy parent materials, and they have been subjected to considerable leaching during their formation. The pH's, measured in water with the glass electrode, show that these soils are strongly to extremely acid their profiles. (Figure 3) throughout (Data not cited in text appear in Appendix, e s . Table A-l is soil pH's.) Regardless of suspending media, the pH's generally increase from the lowest values in the organic surface or upper A horizons to higher values in the A2 horizons and then continue to increase to the highest values in the C or B horizons (Figure 3). These differences in soil pH with depth vary from 1.0 to 1.6 pH unit in each profile. This general trend reveals itself in each of the seven profiles. 60 NO. I, Kinross NO. 2, Kinross F H S A2 A2 B2lh B21 h B2 2 h i r • 8 2 2 hi r T ru o g B23 O Truog B23 O CaCI Cl A 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 K CI 3.0 3.5 4.0 PH 4.5 5.0 PH NO. 4, S au g a tu ck-A u Gres NO. 3, Saugatuck AO AO r A00 A2 B21 h i r B2 2 hi r m B22 hi r B 2 3 h ir A C* H2 0 A2 ~ O CaCI A KCI 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 n B h ir • T ru o g PH "O A Ca C I KCI HCI 3.0 3.5 4 .0 PH 4.5 5.0 5.5 61 NO. 6, Croswell-Graycalm NO. 5, Au Gres-Croswell A0 “ Al A2 upper B 2 lh ir 4 - I ower B 2 lh ir B21hi r B2 2 h i r B22 hir - B23h - B3I • B32 Cl - ▲ T ruog A28B2*. H20 A2aB2t,2 o CaCI2 ~ A KCI 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 3.0 5.0 3.5 4 .0 4.5 5.0 PH PH NO. 7, Graycalm Truog A2 A2 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 PH Figure 3.— Comparison of pH profiles by different methods of determination. (Dashed line is at mineral soil surface.) 62 There is an irregular, but definite net increase in pH as the drainage improves from poor to well. This is to say that the lowest pH does not occur out in the bog at the Kinross sites, but along the edge of the bog at the Saugatuck site. From the Saugatuck site, soil pH increases to its highest values at the well-drained, Graycalm site or the Croswell-Graycalm site. This general trend is more pronounced in the A 2 , C, and lower B horizons than it is in the other horizons. These differences in pH, with drainage, amount to approximately 0.5 pH unit. The above general trends are in agreement with those of Mattson and Lonnemark Dion (1939) and Glentworth and (1949) . The pH's measured in water, 0.01 M C a C ^ in 1.0 N KC1 with the glass electrode are on the average 0.6, 0.9, and 1.2 pH units lower than those measured with the Truog Kit, respectively. However, there are little differences in the pH's as measured in the three suspending media with the glass electrode. the C a C ^ In fact, using water as the standard, and KCl pH's are on the average only 0.25 and 0.35 pH units lower, respectively. ences are greater in the upper parts However, these differ­ (organic and A hori­ zons) of all but the well-drained Graycalm and the CroswellGraycalm profiles. 63 Particle Size Distribution The total sand percentages of these soils range from approximately 80 to 99%, and these values generally attain their maxima in the C or lower B horizons (Figure 4). The total sand percentages in the better-drained soils, are higher in the A horizons than in the upper B horizons, and they increase to values in the C or lower B horizons that are higher than those in the A or upper B horizons. This is not true for the two Kinross soils, in the bog, where the total sand percentages increase with depth. In each horizon of the seven profiles, three sand fractions are dominant: medium sand (21 - 5%) (68 - 43%) > fine sand (39 - 16%) > coarse sand (Figure 4). Total silt percentages are usually highest in the A and upper B horizons and tend to drop off rather sharply to low values in the lower part of the profiles (Figure 5). The Graycalm profile differs from the others in that the higher silt content continues down to 55 inches. is about equally divided between coarse silt fine silt (20 - 2y) (Figure 5). The silt (50 - 20y) and The distributions of these two silt fractions with depth is similar to that for the total silt. Much of the silt may have weathered from the sand fraction, since its distribution in the profile follows the pattern of increasing intensity of physical weathering, i.e., increasing with proximity to soil surface. St. Arnaud 64 ¥ B22hir B22hir 2 5 15 25 55 15 25 % sep orate % separate NO. I, Kinross NO. 2, Kinross Al A2 vcs B2I hir MS B22hir B23hir VCS A2 1-VFS I 2 10 30 50 70 VFS ■Li Bh i r jp % seporate NO. 3, Saugatuck irci 50 % separate N 0 . 4 , S a u g a t u c k - A u Gres 50 60 65 VCS Al A2 B 2 lh ir MS VFS VFS B23h - B3 MS B3I A2 I I B32 VCS cl % separate % seporote NO. 5 , Au G re s- C ro sw e ll NO. 6, C ros we ll-Gr ayc alm vcs VFS MS % se po ra te NO. 7, Graycalm Figure 4.— Sand fraction profiles for each of the seven pedons. 66 A2 clay A2 s il t 621 h B22 hir 1 /c la y / B22 hir B23 B23 Cl B3 1\ [ \ / 8' 1* ’ u 2 4 6 % separate ...... ...i ... . 1 -1... 2 4 6 % separate 1 8 NO. 2, Kinross NO. I r Kinross A2 A2 s il t B22hir B23hir silt clay Cl clay C2 2 4 6 % separate 8 NO. 3 , Sa ug atuck ITCI 2 4 6 8 10 12 % separate NO. 4 , S a ug atu ck-Au Gres 14 67 Al A2 B2Ihir B21 hi r Cloy B22hir B22hir B 23 h B3 B3I A2 Cloy Silt B32 Cl 2 4 8 6 % separate 10 12 14 2 NO. 5 , Au Gres-Croswell 4 6 8 o/Q separate NO. 6, C r o s w e ll- G ra yc alm A2 B22 hir S il t A2 2 4 10 6 8 10 12 % separate NO. 7, Graycalm Figure 5.— Silt and clay fraction profiles for each of the seven pedons. (Note differences in scale.) 12 68 (1961) demonstrated that significant amounts of sand were lost from the coarse sand fraction of the Ae and Cl horizons of a Grey Wooded soil when they were subjected to 200 cycles of freezing and thawing. However, the distribution of the silt and the greater than 2 mm fractions in the lower pro­ files of Site #'s 6 and 7, suggest some stratification (Table A-2, Figure 5). Except for the two Kinross soils, where the maximum clay occurs in the A2 horizons, there are slight clay accumulations in the upper B horizons (Figure 5). The clay percentages for the seven profiles range from approximately 1 to 9%. Only the upper B horizons of the Saugatuck-AuGres profile contain more than 5% clay. The high water table in the two Kinross soils has reduced the accumulation of clay in the upper B horizons, and as a result the clay has re­ mained in the uppermost part of the mineral profile where maximum weathering is occurring. The accumulation of clay in the B horizons of the other five profiles is probably due, in part at least, to translocation of clay from the overlying A horizons. Using the totals of the fine materials (silt plus clay) in the profiles the following sequence is apparent: Saugatuck-AuGres > AuGres-Croswell - Croswell-Graycalm = Graycalm > Saugatuck > Kinross (organic surface). 1. (better drained) - Kinross This suggests the following: Excess of moisture at the wet end of the transect has severely reduced weathering. 69 2. Deficiency of moisture at the dry end of the transect has slightly reduced weathering. 3. Conditions favoring formation and accumulation of clay and silt occur along that portion of the transect where the water table is somewhat to moderately deep and subjected to considerable seasonal fluctuations. 4. The organic mat on the Kinross soils may have reduced frost action. Bulk Density, Moisture Retention, and Porosity Bulk density, except for the Kinross (organic sur­ face) site where it remains about the same throughout the profile, generally increases with depth (Table A-3). values for the Saugatuck-AuGres and Kinross These (organic sur­ face) sites show the most and least variation with depth, respectively. Bulk densities of the C or lower B horizons tend to increase in an irregular manner, while those of the A2 horizons tend to decrease in a similar manner as drainage improves from poor- to well-drained. This can be explained by the fact that the high water table at the less welldrained sites reduces the movement of fine materials and organic matter from the upper to lower portions of the profile, while at the better-drained sites the opposite is true. 70 These bulk density values for the upper B horizons generally decrease from the Kinross soils to a low value at the Saugatuck-AuGres site and then gradually increase along the transect toward the well-drained site. This reflects the degree of aggregation in the upper B horizons, since the measurements were made on disturbed samples. The fact that the measurements were made on disturbed samples also accounts for the low and high values in those horizons with a firm to cemented and a loose to firm consistency, re­ spectively. These bulk density measurements made on dis­ turbed samples and the variation in these measurements with depth and with natural drainage are similar to those for undisturbed samples from other coarse-textured soils loamy sand) in Michigan (sand, (Franzmeier, et a l ., 1963; Erickson, et a l ., 1965). Sandy soils equivalent values (sands and loamy sands) with moisture (average of control section weighted for thickness) of 2% or more and less than 2% indicates that the sand grains are coated and uncoated, respectively Taxonomy--1970, unedited). (Soil By this criteria, the sands in each horizon of the seven profiles used in this study are coated and/or associated with silt, clay, and organic matter. Hand lens, binocular and microscopic examinations show that the sand grains in the upper B horizons are coated, and the moisture equivalent, mechanical analysis, and organic matter content data in Tables A-2, A-3, and A-5 71 show that the sands in the A2, lower B, and C horizons are associated with clay, silt, and organic matter. Hence, the sand grains in the upper B horizons are coated. All profiles showed a trend toward greater moisture retention percentages and non-capillary porosity with proximity to the soil surface (Figures 6 and 7). The con­ tent of organic matter accounts for the relatively high moisture percentages in the Al horizons arrow in Figure 6). (indicated with an The 60 cm moisture retention percentage values are highest and most variable at the SaugatuckAuGres site and least variable at the Graycalm site. The maximum water holding capacity percentage values are approximately two to five times larger than the 60 cm moisture retention percentage values, and the smaller and larger differences occur in the Al and lower B or C hori­ zons, respectively. These differences are more variable, with increasing depth, at the wet end than at the dry end of the transect (Table A-3). These trends and variations in moisture retention and porosity can be explained by the nature and distribution of the fine earth (especially silt) within and among the seven profiles as discussed earlier. However, the organic matter contents (especially of the Al horizons) and the fact that the bulk densities were deter­ mined on disturbed samples also help to explain the above. 72 A2 A2 r B22hir B23 B23 2 6 2 10 6 10 % moisture % moisture NO. I, Kinross NO. 2 , Kinross Al 26.1 A2 Al 36.6 B2lhir B22 hir A2 A2 H B 2lhir I H 8hi rm B23 Cl UB3 C2 nd 2 6 10 5 10 15 20 % moisture % moisture NO. 3 , Sa ug atu ck N O .4 , Saug atu ck -A u G res 73 Al 23.2 A2 B21 hir 24.8 A2 B22 hir B21 hir B3 A2 C2 B32 - Cl 4 10 % moisture 6 8 12 4 14 6 8 10 12 % moisture NO. 5, Au Gre s-C roswell NO. 6 , Croswell - Graycalm Al 21.8 A2 hir B22 hir A2 9 10 II % moisture 12 N O . 7, Graycalm Figure 6.— Moisture retention profiles, at 60 cm tension, for each of the seven pedons. (Note differences in scale.) 74 A2 A2 B21 h B22hir B22hi r B23 B23 B3 8 10 12 14 8 10 12 % Total volume % Total volume NO. I, Kinross NO.2, Kinross 14 Al A2 Al B2I hir A2 B22 hi r A2 H B 2lhir B23 IX Bhirm Cl rrB3 C2 nci 10 15 20 25 % Total volume NO. 3 , Saugatuck 30 _)— i— i____ i____i____i 10 15 20 25 % Total volume NO. 4 , S a u g a t u c k - A u G r e s 75 Al A2 B21h i r hir B22hir B22hir B23h B3 1 B32 Cl 10 15 20 25 % Total volume 10 30 15 20 25 30 % Total volume N O .5 , Au G r e s - C r o s w e l l NO. 6 , C r o s w e l l- G r a y c a l m B2 2 h i r A2 10 15 20 25 30 % Total volume NO. 7, Graycalm Figure 7.— Non-capillary porosity profiles for each of the seven pedons. (Note differences in scale.) 76 Cation Exchange Capacity, Exchance A ci dity, Exchangeable Bases and Base Saturation Cation exchange capacity, exchange acidity, and exchangeable bases are always highest in the organic matterrich Al horizons bases (Figure 8 and Table A-4). Exchangeable (sum of Ca, K, Mg, Na) remain about the same or tend to decrease with increasing depth from the Al horizons (Figure 8). Cation exchange capacity (sum of bases plus BaCl2~TEA extractable acidity), for the five less welldrained profiles, show a maximum in the upper B horizons and then decrease to lower values in the C or lower B horizons. For the two best-drained profiles (#'s 6 and 7), cation ex­ change capacity values show a continuous decrease from the highest values in the Al horizons to the lowest values in the Cl horizons, with an increase being exhibited by the A2 & B2t horizons. In each of the seven profiles, the exchangeable bases are predominantly calcium. Exchangeable base contents are highest along the edge of the bog in the Saugatuck profile and lowest in the two Kinross soils in the bog. These data suggest that the amount and distribution of bases in the soils are related to the movement of water through the profile which is at a minimum in the Kinross soils. Bases are highest along the edge of the bog, in the Saugatuck profile, probably as a result of enrichment by drainage water from the surrounding better-drained soils. In addition, the data also show evidence of nutrient cycling 77 A2 r E.B. B2lh B21 h B 2 2 h ir 822 h i r - C.E.C. B23 B23 C.E.C. 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.5 1.0 me m e/IO O g m . /100 1.5 2.0 gm. NO. 2, Kinross NO. I, Kinross Al 5.2 A2 Al B2I hi r A2 B2 h i r 2 A2 C.E.C. B23 Cl nci C2 0.5 1.0 me 1.5 /100 2.0 2.5 gm. NO. 3, Saugatuck 3.0 0 .5 1.0 1.5 me 2.0 /100 2.5 10 gm . NO. 4, S a u g a t u c k - A u G r e s 78 4.0 4.2 A2 B2I hi r B2I hir E.B. B22 hir C.E.C. B2 2 h i r 8 2 3h C.E.C. B3I B32 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 2.0 me/IOOgm. 1.0 1.5 2.0 m e / 1 0 0 gm. NO. 5 , Au G re s -C r o s w e ll N 0 . 6 , Croswell-Gra yc alm 5.8 B22hir C.E.C. - 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 m e / 1 0 0 gm. NO. 7, Graycalm Figure 8.— Base exchange and cation exchange capacity profiles for each of the seven pedons. 79 where bases are returned to the soil surface by the vege­ tation, enriching the Al horizons and the A2 horizons of the better-drained soils. Cation exchange capacity lower (sum of cations) is much (as much as 6 times) than that determined with NaOac at pH 8.2 (Table A - 4 ) . soils in Michigan, Pailoor In a recent study of similar (1969) has made similar obser­ vations and he concludes that these variations in cation exchange capacity are not well understood and deserve further study. The results of this study are in agreement with this conclusion. Mineralogy of Sand Fraction The largest percentage of the feldspars were identi­ fied as orthoclase and albite which are more resistant to weathering than the calcium feldspars. The garnets were dark in color such as melanite and grossularite, and hence contain no iron (Heinrich, 1965). Thus, quartz, feldspars and garnets, and pyroxenes plus amphiboles are suitable for use as resistant and weatherable primary minerals, respectively. The materials in which these seven soil profiles have developed are heterogeneous, as indicated by the vari­ ations in the mineral percentages and the mineral ratios within and among the profiles (Table 2). However, the mineral suite is the same for all profiles, which indicates similarity in the original parent materials. The TABLE 2.— Mineralogical composition and mineral ratios of the fine sand fractions of the seven pedons. Kinross, #1 Saugatuck, #3 Kinross, #2 Materials Horizons Depths A2 1- 1 1 " B21h 11- 2 1 " B22hir 21-27" Cl 37-50" A2 1.5-15" B22hir 25-35" B3 54-63" A2 1- 1 1 " B2 2hir. 17-24 C2 43-61" Minerals Quartz 75.49 70.59 73.12 66.08 61.19 72.13 66.27 72.60 70.15 68.12 Feldspars 7.84 13.07 12.90 15.09 15.05 12.29 10.84 10.96 13.43 13.04 Pyroxene, Amphiboles 1.96 3.28 2.15 3.78 3.22 3.26 4.82 1.37 2.99 2.89 Garnet 1.96 1.31 2.15 1.89 2.15 2.45 2.40 2.74 2.99 2.89 Others 12.74 13.08 9.68 13.23 13.98 9.81 15.66 12.32 10.45 13.03 CO o Number Counted 306 306 279 318 Garnet/ Quartz + Feldspars .0235 .0196 .0249 Garnet/ Pyroxenes + Amphi­ boles 1.0000 .3994 1.0000 279 .0232 .5000 244 .0282 .6677 249 .0290 .7515 292 268 276 .0311 .0328 .0358 .0356 .4979 2.0000 1.0000 1.0000 Quartz + Feldspars/ Pyroxenes + Amphi­ boles 45.52 25.51 40.01 21.47 23.68 25.89 15.99 60.99 27.95 28.08 TABLE 2.— Continued Saugatuck-AuGres, #4 AuGres-Croswell, #5 Materials Horizons Depths Al 0 14 - " A2 14-3" B22hir 7-11" IIA2 1 11-16" IIBhirm ' 23-33' XIC1 48-58" Al A2 0-6"______ 6-10" B21hir 10-14" Cl 50-60" Minerals Quartz 57.89 59.34 64.52 72.32 77.50 66.36 70.83 69.33 66.67 58.21 Feldspars 16.84 12.09 14.52 12.50 8.75 16.36 13.33 17.33 19.35 19.40 Pyroxene, Amphiboles 4.21 4.39 1.62 1.78 2.50 4.55 2.49 . 1.34 2.15 2.99 Garnet 3.16 3.29 3.23 2.68 2.50 2.73 2.50 2.67 2.15 2.23 00 H Others Number Counted 17.90 285 20.87 273 14.52 310 10.71 336 8.75 320 9.99 330 10.84 240 9.33 300 5.38 279 6.72 268 Garnet/ Quartz + Feldspars .0423 .0461 .0409 .0316 .0289 .0303 .0297 ,0308 .0250 .0287 Garnet/ Pyroxenes + Amphi­ boles .7506 .7494 1.9938 1.5056 1.0000 .6000 1.0040 1.9925 1.0000 ,7458 Quartz + Feldspars/ Pyroxenes + Amphi­ boles 17.75 16.27 48.79 47.65 34.50 18.18 33.79 61.69 40.01 25.96 TABLE 2.— Continued Croswell-Graycalm, #6 Graycalm, #7 LSD Materials Al Horizons Depths____ 0 - 1 " A2 1-3" B21hir 3-7"? B3 18-23' A 2 1 A 2 '&B2t12 23-28" 39-49" A2 1-3” B21hir 3-11"? .05 A 2 1 A 2 1&B2t}2 23-30" 55-60" Minerals Quartz 60.83 62.11 69.83 67. 69 51. 69 70.18 72.09 61.78 63.64 72. 82 16.67 Feldspars 25.00 16.77 16. 38 10.77 20.32 14.91 13.18 16.56 14.39 10.68 7. 35 Pyroxene, Amphiboles 1.67 1.86 1.72 3. 08 5.62 1.75 1. 55 1.91 3.03 1.94 2.03 Garnet 1.67 1.86 1.72 3.08 3. 37 2. 63 1. 55 1. 91 1.52 2.91 1.19 Others 10.83 17.39 12.07 15. 39 19.10 10. 53 11.63 17.83 17.42 11.65 7.13 03 tu Number Counted 240 322 348 260 267 248 342 314 309 264 Garnet/ Quartz + Feldspars .0195 .0236 .0199 ,0393 .0469 .0309 .0182 .0244 ,0195 .0349 .0933 Garnet/ Pyroxenes + Amphi­ boles 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 .5996 1.5029 1.0000 1.0000 5017 1.5000 .7759 Quartz + Feldspars/ Pyroxenes + Amphi­ boles 51.39 42.41 50.12 25. 47 12.79 48. 62 55.01 41.01 25.75 43.04 25.16 83 weatherable mineral percentages (pyroxenes, amphiboles) sug­ gest that these glacial sediments are young and of late pleistocene age. The ratios of resistant mineral/weatherable mineral generally tend to decrease with increasing depth, which means that the intensity of weathering decreases with in­ creasing depth. These ratios also show that the soils in the bog and the soils along the edge of the bog are the least and most weathered, respectively. Both the particle size distribution data and the garnet/quartz plus feldspars ratio gest slight differences in parent material. along the edge of the bog (Table A-2) (Table 2) sug­ The two soils (Saugatuck and Saugatuck-AuGres) have developed in similar materials (A), but the lower part of the Saugatuck-AuGres profile has developed in a material (A) that is similar to that in which the Kinross profiles, AuGres-Croswell profiles, and the upper part of the Croswell-Graycalm and Graycalm profiles have developed. The A2'& B2t' horizons of the latter two profiles have developed in similar materials, but this material (C) is slightly different from that in which the upper portions of these two profiles have developed. Hence, some stratification of the original glacial sediments is apparent. Quartz is the only mineral that accounts for more than 40% but less than 90% of the mineralogical composition of these soils. Thus, these soils are classified as having 84 mixed and not siliceous mineralogy at the family level of the new soil classification system (Soil Taxonomy— 1970, unedited). Mineralogy of Clay Fraction The clay fractions of all horizons contain kaolinite and quartz. The clay of the lower B or C horizons or least altered horizons of the seven pedons used in this study all contain the following clay minerals: and chlorite-vermiculite intergrade illite, chlorite (Table 3). Each of the spodic horizons in the seven profiles contain chloritevermiculite intergrade. Discrete illite occurs in the C or lower B horizons of all profiles and in small amounts in the A horizons (Al or A2) of the Croswell-Graycalm and Graycalm profiles, but it does not occur in the A2 horizon of the other five pro­ files. In addition, discrete illite does not occur in the spodic horizons of the three better-drained profiles. This suggests that illite is being weathered out of the upper portions of the profiles. The contents of pyroxenes and amphiboles further indicate that the high water table has reduced the intensity of weathering at the less welldrained sites. The fact that the illite peaks generally tend to increase in height and symmetry with increasing depth is further evidence of the decrease in alteration of illite with depth. The chlorite and kaolinite peaks also tend to increase in height and symmetry with increasing TABLE i.--Summary c: X-ray di : f r a m e r. data Kinross Slay M i n e r a l s a ; K • ____ .. v • la iC. s.' 522 hir 2a Kr­ is x: *a for 52 3 clays of s e l e c ted r.cn e o n s Xinrc ss A2 B22 hir XT Is V- -5 A2 Xr. Is Xr 1s Xr .a Xr la XI la x- XI Is la Xr .a 222 - XVI 2a Xh 1s xr. la Xn XI -a Xr. 2a Al XI -2 A2 822 XI XI .a .a 2a A u G r e s - C roswei; 11 Bh i rr * 11 XVI 2a Xrr. 2a Xr. ia Xr la Xh *s XI .a Xr 2a Xr la I: Al Xr 2a Mcntron.lrnite Chlorite-Vernicullte In t e r g r a d e XI 2a V e m c u l i t e - M o r . t n c r i I I o n re Interstranfied XI 2a XVI 2a XI 2a XI 2a xr 2a Xr *a Xr 2a Xr 2a XI 2a Croswel 1-Graycalm B21 • Cl nr XI -a Al XI 2a X VI 2a xh 2a XVI 2a A2 XI .a Xi 2a AT XI 2a 2a Xn 2a Xr 2a Xn 2a B21 hir Xm -a Graycalm A2*4 Cl B2t; 2 93 A2‘ XVI 2a XVI ua Xh 2a xr 2a XVI Xr. la Xm 2a Xh 2a Xm 2a XI Is XI 2a XI 2a XVI 2a XI 2a XVI 2a XT 2a Xm 2a Xr. 2a Zr. l e n t e - V e r n i culi t e-..i.w.-.-c- --- e. XI 2a A2 B21 hir Is XI la A2' A2'* B2tJ 2 X VI 2a xh Xm 2a Xh Is 2s XVI 2a XVI 2a XI la XI 2a XI 2a XT 2a XT 2a Xr 2a xm Xn 2a xm 2a 2a Xm 2a Xm 2a Xm 2a XI la Xh Is Xh Is XT Is Xh Is Xh Is Xh Is Xh Is Xm Is Xm Is Xm Is XI 2a xr 23 Xh Is Xrr Is Xr. Is Xh Is Xr Is Xr. is Xh Is Xrr Is Xr. IS Xh Is xh Is XI Is Nctes: r. = h i g h p e a k i n t e n s i t y - mediu m peak intensity I VI Xr. 2a A2 XI 2a XI 2s Xr. 2a s t r a t t :iec 2'uartr XVI 2s xr *a Xi la X = present -- = acser.t peaons. S a u g a t u c k -Au G r e s Saugatuc k 0.2.) 33 eac.n c f t he sever = lo« p e a k i n t e n s i t y = ver y low p e a k inten s i t y i = s h a r p peak 2 = b r o a d pea k s = s y m n e t r i c a l pe a k a = a s y m m e t r i c a l pea k XI Is Xh Is Xh Is Xn Is Xh Is XI is Xh Is Xh is 86 depth, which means that these two-layered silicates are also being altered, probably by the loss of interlayered aluminum and desilication, respectively (Franzmeier et a l ., 1963, and Ross, 1965; Jackson et a l ., 1952). Montmorillonite occurs only in the Al or A2 hori­ zons. As pointed out by Beavers (1965), the presence of montmorillonite in these horizons could be due to deposition by wind. However, Franzmeier et a l . (1963) and Ross (1965) concluded from their study of podzols in northern Michigan that this clay mineral has formed in situ from illite, chlorite, and chlorite-vermiculite intergrade, through vermiculite. These data are in agreement with the latter. Relationship Between the Soils and the Vegetation Groups Due to the short distance between them, the two Kinross profiles (#'s 1 and 2) and the Saugatuck and Saugatuck-AuGres profiles (#'s 3 and 4) were combined for the site index portion of this study. (The author expresses his appreciation to Lyle Linsemier and Massoud Hakimian who assisted in the site index measurements.) Figure 9 shows that the site index three stem measurements) of jack pine (average of (Pinus banksiana) in­ creases as natural drainage improves from poorly to welldrained. The relatively low site index at the wet end of the transect (Kinross profiles, #'s 1 and 2) can be ex­ plained by the presence of the high water table and the 87 associated poor aeration in these soils. The relatively high index at the dry end of the transect (Graycalm, #7) can best be explained by the absence of a high water table and the presence of the thin Bt bands which serve to in­ crease the available water and nutrient supplies within the reach of plant roots. Apparently, the effects of the ortstein layer in the Saugatuck and Saugatuck-AuGres pro­ files are counteracted by the supply of available moisture in these profiles that can apparently move through this layer by capillarity or fluctuations in the water table. In addition, the roots may move laterally to uncemented subsoil areas. These conclusions are in agreement with those of van Eck (1958) studies of and Shetron (197 0), red pine who conducted site index (Pinus resinosa Ait.) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana) in Michigan, respectively. From Figure 9, it is apparent that the range in the site index for each of the five soil series is as follows: Kinross, 35 - 40; Saugatuck, Croswell, 40 - 43; AuGres, 46 - 50; and Graycalm, Byer 43 - 46; 50 - 55. (1960 and 1965) has studied the vegetation along the moisture and slope gradient used in this study. The discussion which follows is based on his investigations. Figure 10 shows the general distribution of the vegetation and the soils along the moisture gradient, and Figures 11 and 12 show the species area curves for the SITE INDEX 55 50 45 40 35 30 I82 384 PROFILE 5 6 7 NO. INCREASING D R A IN A G E > Figure 9.— Site index for Jack pine as a function of position along the slope. LEGEND * $ Pinus Picea •Larix . to u o a) 5 w 0 s-i o cn 0) u O 3 < 3 4-1 d CP 3 tO co No. tn in 0 •cH Figure 10.— General distribution of the vegetation and the soils along the slope (1 cm = 14 ft.) . ✓ r Graycalm Croswell - Graycalm and AuGres-Croswell Saugatuck and Saugatuck-AuGres 30 TOTAL SPECIES ENCOUNTERED 60 30 60 TOTAL NU MBER Figure 11.— Sp ec i e s - a r e a curves 90 OF QUADRATS for the five better drai ne d soils. 120 SPECIES ENCOUNTERED 60 r / ' 30 r Kinross Sot/s (no. / and 2 ) Organic bog TOTAL j— 30 TOTAL 60 90 NUMBER OF QUADRANTS Figure 12.— Species-area curves for the Kinross soils and the organic soils in the bog. 92 soils. The species area curves show that the flora of the Kinross soils is the richest in species, and that of the organic bog is the poorest. Graycalm is intermediate be­ tween the two, and the total flora increases as the depth to the water table decreases from the well-drained Graycalm soil to the less well-drained Saugatuck soil along the edge of the bog. This strongly suggests that the organic bog is the most unfavorable habitat for the plants that occur in the area, more so even than the well-drained sandy soil. The site indexes of jack pine (Pinus banksiana) also sug­ gest that the organic bog is the most unsuitable habitat for plants in general. Both the lichen and moss covers decrease sharply from the Graycalm soil to the Croswell-Graycalm soil, and then increase again between the Croswell-Graycalm soil and the Kinross soils. This is explained by the fact that mosses are probably not so much restricted by moisture conditions as they are by accumulation of deep leaf litter. Tree cover is much greater on the dry end of the gradient than it is in the bog. This is due to the vari­ ation in the depths to the water table along the gradient. Shrub cover increases steadily from the well-drained Gray­ calm soil to the organic soils in the bog. The high shrub cover on the organic soils in the bog is at least partially a consequence of the low tree cover and partially as a result of the peculiar adaptation of Chamaedaphne to 93 occupation of, and reproduction by rhizomes on the Sphagnum mat. Herb cover decreases sharply on Saugatuck and con­ tinues to decrease on the Kinross soil and the organic soils. This indicates that each layer of the vegetation inhibits the one below it. Based on the part of the gradient where they have their maximum c o v e r , the plant species have been placed into several groupings that are discussed below. A. Small Solitaries. This is a rather hetero­ geneous assemblage of small, mostly non-clonal and non­ tussock forming species whose areal extent is not great and whose presence does not constitute a conspicuous part of the vegetation. This group occurs on the Graycalm or Croswell soil series, and the species included are as follows: Amelanchier oblongifolia Amelanchier sanguinea Anemane quinquefolia Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Aster "hairy ovate" Aster laevis Rubus canadensis Solidago "lanceolate long petiole" Oryzopsis pungens Oryzopsis asperifolia Prunus serotina Viola adunca B. Clonal Xerophytes. These are the more common species having xerophytic microdistributions, generally more abundant, more clone-forming and more conspicuous than the Small Solitaries. This group occurs on one of the 94 three better-drained soils (Graycalm, Croswell, AuGres soil series), and the included species are as follows: Carex pedunculata Carex pensylvanica Comptonia peregrina Danthonia spicata Pteridium aquilinum C. Margin Dry. The six taxa in this group are markedly clonal and they are a dominant or conspicuous com­ ponent of the vegetation. Their cover maxima occur on the Croswell and AuGres soil series. The following species are included: Epigaea repens Gaultheria procumbens Maianthemum canadense Melampyrum lineare Vaccinium angustifolium v a r . nigrum Vaccinium boreale D. Margin Wet. The characteristics of the species in this group are similar to those of the Margin Dry group, except that they are more dominant or conspicuous. The maximum cover occurs on the Saugatuck soil series. The species that follow are included in this group: Coptis groenlandica Cornus canadensis Ilex verticillate Lycopodium obscurum Nemopanthus mucronata Rubus hispidus var. obovalis Trientalis borealis Vaccinium myrtilloides Viburnum cassinoides E. Bog Series. As the name implies, this grouping attains its maximum cover on the Kinross soil series and on 95 the organic soils in the bog. The following species are included in this grouping: Chamaedaphne calyculata Eriophorum spissum Kalmia polifolia Kalmia angustifolia Ledum groenlandicum Polytrichum strictum Sphagnum plumosum Sphagnum s p p . , other than ,S. plumosum Vaccinium angustifolium var. nigrum Vaccinium oxycoccus Vaccinium boreale The demarcations between the above groupings are by no means very sharp. In fact, several species, such as Pinus banksiana and Vaccinium angustifolium span the entire moisture gradient. Hence, the vegetation is best described as a Pinus banksiana forest--Chamaedaphne calyculata bog transition. As pointed out by Byer (1960 and 1965), the distri­ bution of the vegetation along the surface gradient is due to complex interactions within the vegetation itself, be­ tween the vegetation and the environment (including man and fire) including the moisture regime, soil acidity, soil structure, and plant nutrients supplies as the most important soil factors (Table 1 and Figures 2, 3, and 8). Total Carbon and Extractable Iron and Aluminum (Per Cent Elemental) All profiles show a subsurface maximum of carbon and aluminum and each profile, except for the two Kinross soils, shows a subsurface maximum of iron 14). (Figures 13 and The iron and aluminum maxima always occur in the same 96 A2 A2 B21 h B2lh B22hir B23 B23 Cl 0.1 0.2 0.1 % 0.2 % NO .2 , Kinross NO. I, Kinross A2 AI A2 A2 B21 h t r m B23 Cl H Cl C2 10 .20 .30 .40 % NO. 3 , Saugatuck .50 .10 .20 .30 .40 .50 % NO. 4 , Saugatuck - Au Gres 97 A2 B21 hi r B22hir B2Ihi r B23h B3I B32 .10 .20 .30 .40 .10 % .20 .30 % NO. 5 , Au Gres - Croswell NO. 6 , Croswell - Graycalm AI A2 B21 hir B22 hir A2 A2aB2t,l A2 & B 2 t, 2 .10 .20 .30 % NO. 7, Graycalm Figure 13.— Pyrophosphate extractable iron and aluminum profiles for each of the seven pedons. 98 A2 82 th B22hir B22hir B23 B23 B3 - Cl 0.2 0.7 0.2 1.2 0.7 1.2 % Totot corbon % Total Carbon NO. I, Kinross NO. 2 , Kinross 8.17 Al 10.13 A2 B23 Cl nci C2 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 % Total Carbon NO. 3 } Saugatuck 2.2 0.4 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.4 % Total Carbon NO. 4 , Saugatuck - A u Gres 99 Al A2 7.01 B2I hir 8 2 1hir B22 hir 822 hir B3 B23h A2 B3 1 - A2 B32 a B21 ,i A2 8B2 t,2 Cl 0.1 0.1 0.6 1.1 % Total Corbon 0.6 1.1 % Total Carbon NO. 6, C r o s w e l l- G r a y c a l m NO. 5, Au Gres-Croswell 4.10 A2 0 .1 0 .6 1.1 % Total Carbon NO. 7, Graycalm Figure 14.— Total carbon profiles for each of the seven pedons. (Note differences in scale.) 100 horizon of the five better-drained profiles. The occurrence of the iron, aluminum, and carbon maxima and the relation­ ship of these maxima to the water table in each of the seven pedons are further summarized as follows: #1, Kinross (organic surface)— The aluminum and carbon maxima occur in the same horizon which is below the maximum observed depth to the water table. #2, Kinross (better drained)--The aluminum and carbon maxima occur in the same horizon, and this horizon is within the observed zone of fluctuation of the water table. #3, Saugatuck--The carbon maximum is below the aluminum maximum. The former occurs at about the maximum observed depth to the water table, and the latter occurs within the observed zone of fluctuation of the water table. #4, Saugatuck-AuGres— The first maxima of iron, aluminum, and carbon occur in the same horizon, and the lower part of this horizon occurs at about the minimum observed depth to the water table. The second carbon and aluminum maxima occur in the same horizon and the lower part of this horizon occurs at about the average ob­ served depth to the water table. #5, AuGres-Croswell--The carbon maximum occurs be­ low the iron and aluminum maxima. The former 101 occurs within the zone of fluctuation of the water table and the latter occur above the zone of fluctuation of the water table. #6, Croswell-Graycalm--The iron, aluminum and carbon maxima occur in the same horizon and above the zone of fluctuation of the water table. #7, Graycalm--The iron, aluminum and carbon maxima occur in the same horizon and above the zone of fluctuation of the water table. These data suggest that iron, aluminum, and carbon may move independently or in association with each other. However, the exact mechanism of the movement of these three constituents deserve very detailed investigations et a l ., 1957; Bloomfield, 1970). (Atkinson 1953 and 1955; Schnitzer et a l ., According to Byers et a l . (1938) dispersed organic matter may move deeply into the soil profile and may also occur in large amounts even in the C horizons of podzols. Martin (1960) observed that small amounts of aluminum can cause flocculation of humus. The relationship of the water table to the carbon maxima appears to suggest that the water table has played an important and active role in the occurrence of the carbon maxima in profiles #'s 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. The content of iron in the two Kinross profiles and in the Saugatuck profile is relatively low and shows little or no variation with increasing depth. This is probably due 102 to the loss of iron from the profile in the ferrous state with reducing conditions caused by the high water table in these profiles. of Damman This conclusion is in agreement (1962), Byers et a l . (1938), and Russell with those (1966). This low content of iron probably explains why no mottles were observed in these profiles as they were described in the field. The highest content of iron, aluminum, and carbon occurs along the edge of the bog in the Saugatuck and Saugatuck-AuGres profiles. end Carbon is higher at the wettest (Kinross) than it is at the driest end 6 and 7) of the transect, but for reverse is true. iron and aluminum the In each profile, there is more extractable aluminum than iron horizons. (profiles #'s (with pyrophosphate) in the B and C The dithionite citrate extractable iron and aluminum show greater amounts of iron than aluminum in the B horizons of the two better-drained profiles Graycalm and Graycalm) (Croswell- (Table A - 5 ) . The ranges in per cent total carbon and per cent elemental iron and aluminum in the B horizons spodic) (possibly of the five soil series are as follows: Total Carbon Pyrophosphate Extractable Iron Kinross Saugatuck AuGres Croswell Graycalm 34-1.05 56-2.53 21-1.67 16-1.08 21- .89 . 02 .03-.20 .03-.22 .06-.22 .09-.19 Aluminum 07-.13 12-.50 24-.32 11-.24 17-.24 Dithionite Citrate Extractable Iron 02-.04 08-.30 30-.51 28-.55 52-.56 Aluminum .14-.26 .23-.63 .26-.88 .22-.59 .31-.47 103 Field observations and the section on classification which follows show that the maximum spodic horizon develop­ ment does not occur in the Kinross soils in the bog nor in the well-drained Graycalm soil at the dry end of the transect, but along the edge of the bog in the Saugatuck and Saugatuck-AuGres profiles. Table 1 shows the horizons of each profile that were subjected to fluctuations of the water table. From this table, Figures 13 and 14 and other data collected in this study, it is apparent that: 1. The development of the spodic horizon under submerged conditions may not necessarily be dependent upon the occurrence of a water table which descends periodically below the B horizon. 2. The water table must be considerably below the B horizon for the accumulation of iron in the B horizon. 3. The maximum spodic horizon development occurs in those profiles that are subjected to a com­ bination of humid conditions and flushing moisture regimes. 4. Pyrophosphate extractable aluminum appears to be a good indicator of spodic horizon develop­ ment, since its maximum values were obtained from the ortstein layer of the Saugatuck pro­ file and similar values were obtained from the B horizons of both the well and poorly drained soils. 104 Classification of the Soils Munsell color values of 7 or lower and chromas of 3 or higher, obtained from a saturated sodium pyrophosphate quick test, may qualify any particular B horizon as having sufficient iron, aluminum, and carbon to meet the spodic horizon requirement (Lietzke, 1968). By this criterion, each of the profiles used in this study has horizons that qualify as spodic horizons (Table 4). However, the test results do not confirm the field observations that the maximum spodic development is along the edge of the bog. Actually, the quick test results show that the extracts be­ come progressively darker as the depth to the water table decreases along the slope from site No. 7 to site No. 2. Hence, the darkest and lightest colored extracts were ob ­ tained from the Kinross soils in the bog, and from Graycalm on the ridge, respectively. Soil Taxonomy (1970, unedited) states that spodic horizons must meet one or more of the following: 1. Have a subhorizon that is more than 2.5 cm thick and that is continuously cemented by some combination of organic matter with iron or aluminum or both. 2. Have a particle size distribution that is sandy or coarse loamy and sand grains are covered with cracked coating or there are distinct dark pellets of coarse silt size, or both. 105 TABLE 4.— Saturated sodium pyrophosphate quick test colors. Site Horizon Color Spodic Horizon #1, Kinross (or­ ganic surface) B21h B22hir B23 5yR3/2 5yR3/3 7.5yR5/4 yes yes yes #2, Kinross (bet­ ter drained) B21h B22hir B23 B3 7. 5yR3/2 5yR3/2 7.5yR4/4 10yR5/4 yes yes yes yes #3, Saugatuck B21hirr B22hirr B23hir 5yR3/4 5yR3/4 5yR3/4 yes yes yes #4, SaugatuckAuGres B21hir B22hir IIB21hir' IIBhirm 1 IIB3 ' 7.5yR4/2 5yR4/4 5yR3/4 5yR4/4 7.5yR5/4 yes yes yes yes yes #5, AuGresCroswell B21hir B22hir B23h B31 B32 7.5yR4/4 10yR7/3 10yR8/3 10yR8/2 10yR8/2 yes yes no no no #6, CroswellGraycalm B21hir B22hir B3 7. 5yR5/4 10yR7/3 10yR8/3 yes yes no #7, Graycalm B21hir B22hir 10yR5/4 10yR8/3 yes no 106 3. Have one or more subhorizons in which: a. % pyrophosphate extractable (pH 10) Fe + Al (elemental)/% clay = 0.15, and b. % pyrophosphate extractable Fe + Al / % dithionite - citrate extractable Fe + Al = 0.45, and c. loses 25% or more of its exchange capacity (at pH 8.2) upon shaking overnight in a dithionite-citrate solution, and d. is thick and developed enough that the index of accumulation of amorphous material (CEC(pH 8.2) - 1/2% clay) X thickness in cm, in the horizons that meet the preceding re­ quirements, is equal to or greater than 65 (as revised). Only two of the seven pedons studied, Saugatuck and Saugatuck-AuGres, meet the first of the three criteria listed above (Table 5). Each of the seven pedons has a subhorizon that meets the second criteria (Table 5). The Saugatuck and the Saugatuck-AuGres profiles, and each of the seven pedons meet criterion 3a and 3b, respectively (Table 5). Except for the two better-drained sites, Croswell-Graycalm and Graycalm, each of the profiles has a subhorizon that meets criterion 3d. Criterion 3c was not tested since the data is sufficient to indicate that the horizons of these profiles are not cambic. TABLE 5.— Application of spodic horizon criteria (Soil Taxonomy— 1970, unedited) to the soils used in this study. Soil Site Number 1. Kinross (organic surface) .07 .48 181. 4 no yes .07 .62 79.6 yes yes .09 .65 135.6 Total 396.6 no yes .06 .60 163. 8 no yes .07 .71 179.6 yes yes .10 .50 184.4 Total 527.8 no yes .23 .76 333.1 yes yes .06 .54 132. 6 Total 465.7 yes yes .04 .48 122.1 yes no B21hirv .07 .49 65.3 yes yes B22hirv .06 .86 109.1 yes yes IIB21hirv .15 .65 227.1 yes yes IIBhirm v .25 .44 Total 135.1 536. 6 yes yes B21hirv/ .13 .48 64.7 yes yes B22hir>/ .06 .30 44. 8 yes yes B23 .06 .30 no yes Horizons B21h / B22hir'/ B21h B22hir / B23 3. Saugatuck B21hirm / B22hirm v/ / B23 y / 4. SaugatuckAuGres 5. AuGres Croswell Total 12.1 112 6 . 107 3b % pPC>4 Fe+Al % Dith.-cit. Fe+Al B23 2. Kinross (better drained) 3d (CEC (pH 8.2)Spodic Horizon 1/2% Clay) X Thickness in Current Revised cm) 3a % pPC>4 Fe+Al % Clay TABLE 5.— Continued Soil Site Number 6. CroswellGraycalm 7. Graycalm 3d (CEC (pH 8.2)- Spodic Horizon 1/2% Clay) X Thickness in Current Revised cm) 3a % pP04 Fe+Al % Clay 3b % pP04 Fe+Al % Dith.-cit. Fe+Al upper B21hir lower B21hir .12 .34 6.0 no yes .12 .62 32.5 no yes B22hir'/ .10 .37 45.5 yes yes B3 .08 .38 16. 3 Total 100.3 no yes upper B21hir/ .11 .47 26.4 yes yes lower / B21hirv .09 .38 26.5 yes yes B22hir .07 .31 50. 9 Total 103.8 no yes Horizons Notes: m--continuously cemented horizon > 2.5 cm thick. /--sand grains covered with cracked coatings. yes--meet criteria 1 or 2 and 3a + 3b + 3d; totals = based on 3a and 3b as revised. 109 Thus, by these criteria all the profiles in this study qualify as having spodic horizons. profiles But three of the (representing the range of the Graycalm and Cros­ well series) do not meet the 3d criterion, and only pro­ files 3 and 4 (representing the range of the Saugatuck series) meet criteria 1 and 3a. One of the two horizons of Saugatuck that meets both criteria 1 and 2 does meet criterion 3a. The ranges in the values of criteria 3a, 3b, and 3d for the B horizons of the seven profiles can be obtained from Table 5. The ranges in these values for the five individual soil series are shown below: 3a 3b 3d Kinross .06-.10 .48-.71 0 Saugatuck .15-.25 .44-.86 333-362 .30-.64 362-0 AuGres .06-.14 Croswell .06-.12 .30-.62 0 Graycalm .07-.11 .31-.47 0 The accumulation indexes calculated by using both the current criteria and the proposed revisions (totals for 3d-Table 5) suggest that the order for the degree of spodic horizon development is as follows: ross > AuGres > Croswell > Graycalm. are in agreement with this order. Taxonomy Saugatuck > Kin­ Field observations As pointed out in Soil (1970), the accumulation index reflects the amount of amorphous material. Hence, there are many soils that have an index greater than the lower limit not have spodic horizons. (65), but do 110 Considering the above discussion and other data collected in this study, the seven profiles were placed in the new soil classification system (Soil Taxonomy— 1970, unedited) as follows: #1, Kinross (organic surface)--Histic Haplaquod; sandy, mixed, frigid #2, Kinross (better drained)— Typic Haplaquod; sandy, mixed, frigid #3, Saugatuck— Aerie Haplaquod; frigid, ortstein sandy, mixed, #4, Saugatuck-AuGres--Aeric Haplaquod; sandy, mixed, frigid, ortstein #5, AuGres-Croswell— Entic Sideraquod; sandy, mixed, frigid #6, Croswell-Graycalm— Entic Haplorthod; sandy, mixed, frigid #7, Graycalm--Entic Haplorthod; sandy, mixed, frigid Thus, the placement of the five soil series of the toposequence is as follows: Kinross--Histic Haplaquod; sandy, mixed, frigid Saugatuck— Aerie Haplaquod; sandy, mixed, frigid, ortstein AuGres--Entic Haplaquod; sandy, mixed, frigid Croswell--Entic Haplorthod; sandy, mixed, frigid Graycalm--Entic Haplorthod; sandy, mixed, frigid Except for the Kinross and Graycalm series, the above is in agreement with the present official placement (Soil Classi­ fication, Placement of Michigan Series into the Soil Classi­ fication System--March, 1971). The present official place­ ment of these two series is as follows: Ill Kinross— Typic Haplaquod; sandy, mixed, frigid Graycalm— Alfic Udipsamments; mixed, frigid Hence, these two series deserve further investigation in order to determine the placement of most pedons as they occur in Michigan. Lietzke (1968) proposed the following refinements of the then current criteria for spodic horizons: 1. Total % Fe + Al 2. Total % Fe + Al 3. C + dithionite-citrate extractable / % Clay = .12. C + dithionite— citrate extractable = 0.8. The spodic horizon or some subhorizon should have less than 0.31% dithionite-citrate extractable iron if sand or loamy sand or less than 0.80% iron if sandy loam or loam to qualify as Humod and equal or greater amounts in order to qualify as an Orthod. By criteria 1 and 2 above, each of the seven pro­ files has a subhorizon that qualifies as spodic (Table 6). By criterion 3, Kinross and Saugatuck would be Humods and the remaining soils would be Orthods. Based on the data collected in this study and the discrepancy between the two sets of spodic horizon criteria (Lietzke's refinements, 1968 Vs. Soil Taxonomy--197 0 , un­ edited), the following possible revisions are proposed: TABLE 6.--Application of spodic horizon criteria as refined by Lietzke Soil Site Number 1. Kinross (organic surface) 2. Kinross (better drained) 3. Saugatuck 5. AuGresCroswell 6. CroswellGraycalm 7. Graycalm B21h B22hir B23 B21h B22hir B23 B21hirm B22hirm B23 B21hir B22hir IIB21hir1 IIBhirm ' B21hir B22hir B23h Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir B3 Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir Tot. % C + Dith.-cit. Fe+Al % Clay Tot. C % + Dith.-cit. Fe+Al Spodic Horizon Lietzke Revised .55 .42 .43 .52 .55 1.01 .53 .36 .74 .45 .25 .77 1.12 .30 .32 .61 1.15 .75 .51 1. 30 1.22 .91 1. 27 1.21 2. 52 3.92 1.69 2. 39 1.23 1. 29 1.46 1.64 yes no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no yes yes yes yes yes .35 1.76 yes yes .41 .36 .28 1. 47 1.03 .71 yes yes no yes yes no .46 1. 61 yes yes .44 .35 1.92 1.28 yes yes yes yes 112 4. Saugatuck-Au Gres Horizons (1968). 113 a. Reduce criteria 3a and 3b of Soil Taxonomy (1970) to = .06 and = .30, respectively. This would include the range of the horizons in Table 5. b. A less preferable alternative is to return to the earlier criteria as refined by Lietzke (1968), or revision of those criteria so that: 1 is raised to = .30, and 2 is reduced to = .7. The major advantage of the present criteria Taxonomy, (Soil 197 0) is that the high water table in the three less well-drained soil series is recognized at the suborder level. Lietzke On the other hand, the criteria as refined by (1968) recognize the relatively high per cent of carbon in the Kinross and Saugatuck soil series at the suborder level. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Seven pe do ns , representing five soil series, were sampled in a relatively straight line along a sandy, topobiosequence of Spodosols in northern Michigan. The wet end of the transect ends in a poorly-drained organic bog, and the dry end of the transect terminates on a well-drained sand ridge. The characteristics, development, and classi­ fication of the Spodosols, in relation to the different natural drainage classes, were investigated. In addition, the distribution of the soils was compared with the distri­ bution of the vegetation groups (after Byer, 1960 and 1965) as the two occur along the slope. The results of this study are summarized as follows: 1. The average depth (mid-June to mid-September of 1969 and 1970) to the water table in each of the five soil series was observed to be 9", 23", 31", 47", and >65", for Kinross, Saugatuck, Au G r e s , Croswell, and Graycalm, respectively. Plant roots do not extend very deep (3-6") into the permanent water table of the poorly-drained soil nor do they extend very deep (3-4") into the ortstein layer of the somewhat poorly-drained soils, and they stop in the zone of fluctuation of the water table in the moderately 114 115 well-drained soil. They occur throughout the profile of the well-drained soil. Hence, the depth of plant root distribution increases as the depths to the water table and the ortstein layer increases. In addition, the maximum ob­ served seasonal depths to the water table are below the depths to which most roots occur, except for the poorlydrained Kinross soil. This suggests that the high water table and the associated poor aeration and the cemented layer are inimical to the development and downward extension of some plant roots. The site index of jack pine (Pinus banksiana) in­ creases as natural drainage improves from poorly- to welldrained. The relatively low index (38) for the Kinross soil can be explained by the high water table and the asso­ ciated poor aeration in this soil. index The relatively high (53) for the well-drained Graycalm soil is best ex­ plained by the absence of a high water table and the presence of the textural bands which serve to increase the available water and nutrient supplies within the reach of plant ro ots. Certain plant species have their maximum cover on one or more given soil series, and were grouped accordingly. However, several species span the entire soil moisture gradient, and demarcations between the groupings are by no means very sharp. Thus, the vegetation is best described as a Pinus banksiana forest-Chamaedaphne calyculata bog tran­ sition (Byer, 1960 and 1965). 116 2. The pH's of air-dried samples measured in water with the glass electrode, show that the soils used in this study are strongly to extremely acid throughout their pro­ files. However, soil pH generally increases with increasing depth, in a given profile. The lowest pH occurs along the edge of the bog in the Saugatuck profile, and from this profile pH increases to it's highest value in the welldrained Graycalm soil. The pH's of air-dry samples measured in water, in 0.01 M C a C ^ , and in 1.0 N KC1 with the glass electrode are on the average 0.6, 0.9, and 1.2 pH units lower than those measured with the Truog kit, respectively. Using the pH's measured in water as the standard, the C a C ^ and KC1 pH's are only 0.2 5 and 0.35 pH units lower, re­ spectively . 3. The texture of these soils is sand, and the total sand percentages range from 80 to 99% in the hori­ zons studied. The medium sand, fine sand, and coarse sand make up 68 - 43%, 39 - 16%, and 21 - 5% of the total sand fraction, respectively. The finest-textured profile (Saugatuck-AuGres, #4) occurs along the edge of the bog, and the coarsest-textured profile bog. (Kinross, #1) occurs in the The total silt ranges from 1 - 13%, and much of it may have weathered from the sand fraction, since it's dis­ tribution in the profile follows the pattern of increasing intensity of physical weathering, i.e., increasing with proximity to the soil surface. AuGres profile Except for the Saugatuck- (#4), the total clay ranges from 1 - 5 % and 117 the five better-drained profiles show slight clay accumu­ lations in the upper B horizons. Apparently, the high water table has reduced the accumulation of clay in the B horizons of the poorly-drained Kinross soils. The seven profiles have developed in sandy, limy and heterogeneous glacial sediments of late Pleistocene age. The five soil series are classified as having mixed mineral­ ogy, since quartz is the only mineral that than 40% but less than 90% accounts for more of the mineralogical composition. The ratios of resistant mineral/weatherable mineral tend to decrease with increasing depth, which indicates that the intensity of weathering decreases with increasing depth. These ratios also show that the poorly-drained Kinross soils in the bog are the least weathered, and the Saugatuck pro­ file along the edge of the bog is the most weathered. The clay fractions of all horizons contain kaolinite and quartz. The clay of the C of least-altered horizons contains illite, chlorite, and chlorite-vermiculite inter­ grade. Each of the spodic horizons contain chlorite- vermiculite intergrade. Discrete illite does not occur in the A2 horizons, which seems to suggest that it is being weathered out of the upper portions of the profiles. Montmorillonite occurs only in the Al or A2 horizons of the four better-drained profiles, which probably means that it has formed in situ from illite, chlorite, and chloritevermiculite intergrade, through vermiculite. 113 4. Cation exchange capacity, exchange acidity, and exchangeable bases are always highest in the organic matterrich Al horizons. calcium. Exchangeable bases are predominantly Bases are lowest in the Kinross soil in the bog and highest along the edge of the bog in the Saugatuck pro­ file, probably as a result of enrichment by drainage water from the surrounding better-drained soils. The data show evidence of nutrient cycling where bases are added to the soil surface by the vegetation, enriching the Al horizons and the A2 horizons of the better-drained soil profiles. 5. Bulk density, except for the Kinross profile (organic surface) where it remains about the same throughout the mineral portion, generally increases with increasing depth. This is further evidence that the high water table at the poorly-drained sites has reduced soil profile de­ velopment. All profiles showed a trend toward greater moisture retention percentages and non-capillary porosity with proximity to the soil surface. The trends and varia­ tions in these three soil properties is explained by the nature and distribution of the fine earth (especially silt) and organic matter within and among the seven profiles. 6. All profiles exhibit subsurface maxima of carbon and aluminum and each profile, except for the two Kinross soils, shows a subsurface maximum of iron. The iron and aluminum maxima occur in the same horizon of all profiles, except the Kinross soils which do not show an iron maximum. 119 The carbon maximum occurs below the aluminum maximum in profiles #'s 3 and 5, but in the other profiles the two occur in the same horizon. This suggests that the water table has played an important role in the occurrence of the carbon maxima in all except the two better-drained profiles. In addition, it appears that the development of the spodic horizon under submerged conditions may not necessarily be dependent upon the occurrence of a water table which descends periodically below the B horizon. But, the water table must be below the B horizon for the accumulation of iron. In fact, the re­ sults of this study suggest that iron is being lost from the profiles of Kinross and Saugatuck in the ferrous state with reducing conditions caused by the high water table. The maximum spodic horizon development occurs in the profiles (#3 and #4), along the edge of the bog, that have been sub­ jected to a combination of alternating wet conditions and flushing moisture regimes. Pyrophosphate extracts more aluminum than iron from the B horizons of all profiles. In addition, pyrophosphate- extractable aluminum appears to be a good indicator of spodic horizon development, since its maximum values were obtained from the ortstein layer of the Saugatuck profile and slightly higher values were obtained from the well than from the poorly-drained soils. 7. The particle size distribution of the soils used in this study is sandy, and each profile has an horizon in 120 which sand grains are covered with cracked coatings. Thus, by the second spodic horizon criteria listed in Soil Tax­ onomy (1970, unedited), all of the profiles qualify as having spodic horizons. However, only the Saugatuck and Saugatuck-AuGres profiles (representing the range of the Saugatuck series) meet criterion 1 (cemented horizon > 2.5 cm thick), criterion 2, and the combination of criteria under number 3. According to the results of the saturated sodium pyrophosphate quick test developed by Lietzke (1968), each of the seven profiles has an horizon that qualifies as spodic. Each of the profiles has a subhorizon that quali­ fies as spodic, according to the then current spodic horizon criteria as refined by Lietzke Using Lietzke's (1968). (1968) refinement, Kinross and Saugatuck would be Humods and the other soils would be Orthods. system Placement of the soils in the new classification (Soil Taxonomy— 1970, unedited) reveals that the two better-drained soil series (Croswell and Graycalm) are Orthods and the other three less well-drained soil series are Aquods. At the family level, the placement is sandy, mixed, frigid, except for Saugatuck which also includes an ortstein layer. The present criteria (Soil Taxonomy, 1970) recog­ nizes the high water table in the less well-drained soils at the suborder level, while the criteria as refined by Lietzke (1968) recognizes the relatively high per cent of 121 carbon in these same soils at the same level the classification system. (suborder) of However, the latter separates Saugatuck and AuGres at the suborder level. This may be desirable, since the results of this study show that AuGres tends to develop under better drained conditions than Saugatuck. In view of the above and other data collected in this study, the following revisions are proposed: a. Reduce criterion 3a of Soil Taxonomy (% pPO^ Fe + Al / % clay) (1970) from = .15 to = and, reduce criterion 3b .06; (% pPO^ F e + A l % dith.-cit Fe + Al) of Soil Taxonomy / (1970) from = .45 to = .30. These proposed revisions of the current spodic horizon criteria would include the range of the soils used in this study. b. A less preferable alternative is to return to the earlier spodic horizon criteria as refined by Lietzke so that No. % clay) (1968), or revision of those criteria 1 (% Tot. C + % dith.-cit. Fe + Al / is raised from = .12 to = .30, and No. 2 (% dith.-cit. Fe + Al) is reduced from = .8 to = .7. 8. In conclusion, the soils of the toposequence used in this study appear to owe their distinctive charac­ teristics and associated vegetation to the differences the natural drainage of the site on which they occur. in NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 1. Similar studies need to be conducted in other areas where it is possible to ascertain the role played by any one or combination of the five soil-forming factors. This should make it possible to more accurately character­ ize, classify, and define a given soil series as it occurs in Michigan. 2. Further study is needed to fully understand the exact mechanism involved in the mobilization, translocation, and accumulation of the humus and sesquioxides. 3. The proposed revisions of spodic horizon cri­ teria, based on this study, would make Lietzke's quick test more useful. (1968) However, the development of a quick test to be used in the field by soil surveyors for spodic horizon recognition and for the determination of the degree of spodic horizon development deserves further investiga­ tion. In addition, more research is needed to determine the best and most useful morphological, chemical, mineralogical, and physical properties to be used in the laboratory as spodic horizon criteria. 4. The results of this study clearly illustrate the need for further investigation of how Spodosols differ, 1 22 123 why they differ, and how these differences are related to use and management of the soils. REFERENCES REFERENCES Agronomy Monograph No. 9 (Parts 1 and 2). Soc. 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No. Truog N o . 1, Kinross h 2o CaCl 2 KC1 (organic surface) 13-7" 7-3 F H 01 02 4.0 4.3 3.7 3.4 3.1 3.0 2.8 2.9 3-0 S 03 4.4 3.4 3.0 2.8 1-11 A2 04 4.5 3.8 3.6 3.5 11-21 B21h 05 4.5 4.0 3.8 3.8 21-27 B22hir 06 4.7 4.2 4.0 3.9 27-37 B23 07 4.7 4.2 4.1 3.9 37-50 Cl 77 4.9 4.4 4.2 4.2 No. 2 , Kinross (better drained) 2-1 1/2 H 08 4.1 3.6 3.1 2.9 1 1/ 2-0 S 09 4.2 3.5 2.9 2.8 1 1/2-15 A2 10 4.3 3.9 3.4 3.3 15-25 B21h 11 4.5 4.1 3.7 3.9 25-35 B22hir 12 4.6 4.2 4.0 3.9 35-54 B23 13 4.8 4.3 4.1 4.0 54-63 B3 14 5.2 4.5 4.3 4.2 No. 3 , Saugatuck 4-0 A0 15 4.1 3.5 3.3 2.9 0-1 Al 16 4.0 3.4 2.9 2.6 1-11 A2 17 4.2 3.6 3.3 3.1 11-17 B21hirm 18 4.6 4.0 3.8 3.6 17-24 B22hirm 19 4.6 4.1 3.8 3.6 24-33 B2 3hir 20 4.8 4.2 3.8 3.7 33-43 43-61 Cl C2 21 22 4.8 5.1 4.3 4.3 3.9 4.0 3. 8 4.1 134 135 TABLE A - 1.--Continued Depth (inches) Lab No. Horizon pH Truog h 2o CaCl2 KC1 S augatuck- AuGres No. 4, : 3 1/2-1 AO 23 4.3 4.1 3.4 3.4 1-0 A00 24 4.2 3.7 3.1 2.8 0-1 1/2 Al 25 4.1 3.5 2.9 2.8 1 1/2-3 A2 26 4.2 3.5 3.1 3.1 3-7 B21hir 27 4.8 3.9 4.0 3.9 7-11 B22hir 28 4.8 4.0 3.9 3.8 11-16 IIA2 • 29 4.6 4.1 4.0 3.9 16-23 IIB21hir1 30 4.9 4.2 4.1 4.0 23-33 IIBhirm ' 31 4.9 4.3 4.2 3.9 33-48 IIB3 ' 32 5.0 4.1 4.0 3.9 48-58 IIC1 33 5.1 4.3 4.2 4.0 No. 5, AuGres-Croswell 1-0 A0 34 4.4 3.8 3.4 3.0 0-6 Al 35 4.2 3.7 3.1 2.8 6-10 A2 36 4.4 3.8 3.4 3.3 10-14 B21hir 37 4.6 4.2 4.1 4.1 14-21 B22hir 38 4.7 4.6 4.4 4.3 21-28 B23 39 4.6 4.2 4.2 4.1 28-39 B31 40 4.9 4.4 4.1 4.2 39-50 B32 41 5.1 4.6 4.4 4.4 50-60 Cl 42 5.2 4.7 4.4 4.4 136 TABLE A-l.— Continued Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. pH Truog h 2o CaCl2 KC1 N o . 6 , Croswell-Graycalm 1/ 2-0 AO 43 4.6 4.1 4.0 3. 9 0-1 Al 44 4.2 3.7 3.4 3. 1 1-3 A2 45 4.3 3.7 3.5 3.3 3-5 Upper B21hir 46 4.9 4.3 4.1 4.1 5-7 Lower B21hir 47 5.1 4.5 4.4 4.4 7-18 B22hir 48 5.4 4.9 4.5 4. 4 18-23 B3 49 5.4 4.8 4.6 4.4 23-28 A2' 50 5.5 4.7 4.5 4. 5 28-39 A2&B2t,'1 51 5.4 4.6 4.6 4. 5 39-49 A2& B2 t,'2 52 5.5 4.6 4.4 4.4 49-60 C2 54 5.4 4 .6 4.5 4.5 No. 7 , Graycalm 0-1 Al 55 4.5 4.1 3.6 3.4 1-3 A2 56 4.4 4.0 3.7 3.4 3-8 Upper B21hir 57 5.2 4.4 4.3 4.3 8-11 Lower B21hir 58 5.3 4.7 4 .5 4. 5 11-23 B22hir 59 5.3 4.8 4.5 4.4 23-30 A2 ' 60 5.4 4.7 4.5 4.4 30-55 A 2 '&B21J1 61 5.4 4.6 4.4 4. 3 55-60 A 2 1&B2t;2 62 5.5 4.8 4.7 4.4 TABLE A-2.— Particle size analysis for each of the seven pedons. Sand Total Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. Gravel o. o Sand Silt o. *0 o. *0 No. 1, Kinross 1-11 11-21 21-27 27-37 37-50 A2 B 21h B22hir B23 Cl 04 05 06 07 77 0.2 0.7 1.2 3.3 9.1 91.1 95. 4 96.7 97. 0 97.0 6.4 2.5 1.6 1.9 2.0 1 1/2-15 15-25 25-35 35-54 54-63 A2 B21h B22hir B23 B3 10 11 12 13 14 2.1 3.7 5.1 8.7 3.5 90.9 90. 3 94. 4 97. 6 96. 9 No. 1-11 11-17 17-24 24-33 33-43 43-61 A2 B21hirm B22hirm B23hir Cl C2 17 18 19 20 21 22 4.5 2.7 2.9 3.8 1.1 9.8 90.5 93.6 92. 0 92. 9 93. 3 96.7 6.5 7.2 3.4 1.5 1 .8 VCS CS Q. O o FS % VFS O, O CSI % FSI % 62.4 67 .0 65.4 66.9 56.0 21.4 17.2 18. 9 18. 3 24.0 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.5 1.1 2.8 1.6 0.8 1.8 0.0 3.5 0.9 0.8 0.1 2.0 7.2 8.8 7.3 21.0 12.6 60.5 57.7 55.4 51.4 57.2 21.4 22.0 29. 6 20.1 24. 1 1.0 0 .8 1.4 0.8 1.8 3.1 2.9 2.3 0.9 1.1 3.5 4.3 1.1 0.6 0.6 9.4 9.3 7.9 7.8 8.2 6.5 58.2 58.1 52. 0 53.1 55.6 50.4 21.4 24. 3 29.6 20.1 28.0 38. 7 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.0 0.7 0.8 2.5 2.9 3.0 2.1 2.1 0.6 4.8 1.1 1.1 1.5 1.2 0.2 'O MS Q. *0 (organic surface) 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.2 1.0 0.2 0.3 1.1 0.9 1.9 6.0 10 .2 10 .8 11 .0 14. 0 (better drained) 2.6 2.5 2.2 0.9 1.3 0.9 1.0 0.7 4.3 1.1 137 No . 2, Kinross Clay % Silt 3, Saugatuck 7.3 4.0 4.6 3.6 3.2 0.8 2.2 2.4 3.4 3.4 3.5 2.5 0.7 1.1 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.3 TABLE A - 2 .--Continued Total FlnnfulVi i (inches) Horizon TUc ah J LiJ• No. Gravel oo Sand Q. "0 Silt oo . Sand Clay % VCS % Silt CS qo . MS “ 5 FS 9.3 7.1 8.0 6.5 6.6 8.0 11.5 4.9 6.8 52 .4 48.6 43.7 51.0 49. 6 50.5 62. 9 57. 9 57.1 9.9 9.4 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.6 8.0 7.9 53.9 55.0 49. 8 50. 8 7.1 48. 2 54.3 58. 3 Q. VFS CSI % FSI % 21. 4 24. 9 25. 5 23. 5 27.5 28.1 19.2 33. 3 32. 3 1.0 1.5 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.1 0.4 1.0 0.6 5.1 6.9 5.2 4.7 5.1 4.8 1.4 0.6 0.6 6.0 6.1 6.9 6.3 6.3 4.3 1.4 0.4 0.2 22. 3 29. 9 23.5 24. 6 25.1 29. 8 28.6 26. 8 1.5 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.5 4.8 5.0 5.8 5.3 3.2 6.1 3.0 1.5 5.2 4.6 7.4 5.3 2.2 3.1 1.6 1.4 Q. 'O No. 4 , Saugatuck-AuGres Al A2 B21hir B22hir IIA2 ' IIB21hir ' IIBhirm ' IIB3 ' IIC1 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 1.3 0.6 1.8 2.6 4.5 5.7 5.7 2.1 6.9 84.7 82. 8 79.1 82. 2 85.1 87. 9 96.1 98.1 98.1 11.1 13. 0 12.1 11.0 11.4 9.1 2.8 1.0 0.8 4.1 4.2 8.8 6.7 3.6 3.1 1.1 0.9 1.1 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.7 2.0 0.9 1.3 No. 5, AuGres-Croswell 0-6 6-10 10-14 14-21 21-28 28-39 39-50 50-60 Al A2 B21hir B22hir B23h B31 B32 Cl 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 —•— 0.2 1.2 2.0 2.2 1.4 4.3 5.3 87. 9 89. 0 82. 8 84. 8 91. 9 88.0 93.7 95. 3 10.0 9.6 12. 9 10.6 5.4 9.2 4.5 3.0 2.1 1.5 4.3 4.6 2.7 2.8 1.8 1.8 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.9 138 0-1 1/2 1 1/2-3 3-7 7-11 11-16 16-23 23-33 33-48 48-58 TABLE A-2.— Continued Sand Total Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. Gravel g. “o Silt Sand o, Q, *5 "O Clay o. "o VCS % CS % MS Q. "O Silt FS o, "o VFS CSI FSI g. ~o No. 6 , Croswe11-Graycalm 0-1 1-3 3-5 5-7 7-18 18-23 23-28 28-39 39-49 49-60 Al A2 Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir B3 A2 ' A2 '& B 2 t 1 A2 '&B2t| 2 C2 44 45 46 _ — 2.0 5.0 87. 4 86.5 84.7 9.9 11. 3 10. 3 2.7 2.3 5.0 0.1 0.6 0.4 10.1 8.5 7.0 54.2 51. 5 49. 0 21.7 24.3 26.7 1.4 1.6 1.6 4.9 4.8 5.2 5.0 6.5 5.2 47 1.0 85.0 11. 4 3.6 0.7 8.6 49. 4 24. 9 1.5 4.9 6.5 48 49 50 51 52 54 3.8 5.8 4.1 1.4 8.8 2.2 88.6 88.8 90.4 96.2 95. 4 98.5 8.5 8.6 7.2 2.1 2.6 0.5 2.9 2.5 2.5 2.1 2.1 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.3 1.9 0.5 8.2 7.0 5.8 8.2 16. 6 6.6 51.1 49.7 49.7 57.4 60.4 64. 6 26.8 29. 3 32.0 29. 1 15.7 26. 4 1.5 1.9 1.9 1.2 0.9 0.5 4.4 5.9 4.2 1.2 1.1 0.2 4.1 2.8 2.9 0.5 1.4 0.3 Nc>. 7, Graycalm 1-3 3-8 8-11 11-23 23-30 30-55 55-60 A2 Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir A2' A 2'&B2tJ1 A 2 '&B2tJ 2 56 57 0.8 2.3 87. 0 86.3 10.6 10. 3 2.4 3.5 0.4 0.9 7.9 7.0 48. 8 50.7 28.1 26.4 1.8 1.4 5.6 4.6 5.0 5.6 58 3.9 84.2 11. 4 4.4 0.9 7.3 48.1 26.9 1.0 5.7 5.7 59 60 61 62 2.4 2.5 3.9 11. 3 86.0 85. 6 84.5 97. 9 10.3 11. 4 11. 7 0.5 3.7 3.0 3.9 1.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 8.5 7.5 6.5 8.1 48.5 47. 9 48.1 67. 0 26.7 27. 6 27. 0 21.2 1.5 1.8 1.9 0.5 4.8 6.0 6.7 0.3 5.5 5.4 4.9 0.3 TABLE A-3.--Bulk density (B.D.), non-capillary porosity (N.C.P.), and moisture re­ tention (maximum water holding capacity— M.W.H.C., 60 cm tension, moisture equivalent--M.E. and air dry— A.D.) for each of the seven pedons. Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. B.D. gm/cc No. 1, Kinross 1-11 11-21 21-27 27-37 37-50 A2 B21h B2 2hir B23 Cl 04 05 06 07 77 1. 59 1. 50 1.58 1. 59 1. 57 1 1/2-15 15-25 25-35 35-54 54-63 A2 B21h B22hir B23 B3 10 11 12 13 14 1. 53 1. 55 1.57 1.72 1.68 Moisture Retention M .W .H .C . 60 cm (%) M.E. A.D. (organic surface) 10. 49 13. 68 10.13 7. 81 8.42 6.60 9.12 6.41 4.91 5.36 4.68 6 .03 4.75 3.49 3.00 0.58 0. 83 0.62 0.71 1.11 28.07 28. 75 28.60 22.49 26.11 9.61 9.42 6.43 3.89 4.23 6.12 5.92 5.83 3.49 3.25 1.54 0.94 1.11 0.70 1.08 77.35 28.78 37.29 29.82 27.99 26. 58 26. 39 36. 63 9. 40 9.71 9.66 9.34 5.91 7.38 22. 33 5. 62 8.68 5.88 5. 88 4.28 5.76 2. 30 0. 89 1. 59 0. 98 1. 30 0.72 1.17 25. 98 28. 37 26.65 25.93 24.98 140 No. 2 Kinross N.C.P. o "o (better drained) 14.70 14. 60 10. 09 6.69 7.11 No. 3 , Saugatuck 0-1 1-11 11-17 17-24 24-33 33-43 43-61 Al A2 B21hirm B22hirm B23 Cl C2 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 0.76 1. 47 1. 49 1.50 1. 57 1. 63 1.64 27. 84 13. 82 14.47 14.49 14.66 9. 63 12.10 TABLE A - 3.--Continued Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. B.D. gm/cc N.C.P. O *. o Moisture Retention M.W.H.C. 60 cm (%) M.E. A.D. No. 4 , Saugatuck--AuGres Al A2 B21hir B22hir IIA2 ' IIB21hir' IIBhir' IIB3 ' IIC1 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 0. 87 1.19 1.17 1. 33 1. 42 1.43 1 .61 1 .61 1 .60 22.73 15.17 20.45 17. 96 17. 59 21.28 9.68 8.24 12.86 58.46 36.12 45.93 36.36 32.44 34. 60 28.58 26. 32 26. 34 26.13 12.75 17.48 13. 50 12.39 14. 88 6.01 5.12 8 .04 15.61 9.00 9.13 9.14 8.60 9.72 5.16 3.42 2. 73 1.75 1.17 1.49 1.31 1.15 1. 52 0.93 0 .88 0. 39 24.80 8.12 12. 85 11 .66 6.46 7.85 5.26 4. 62 13.72 6.43 9. 09 8.20 4.28 5.09 2.71 2.45 1.71 0.88 1. 09 0. 89 0.67 0.57 0.56 0.27 No. 5, AuGres-Croswell 0-6 6-10 10-14 14-21 21-28 28-39 39-50 50-60 Al A2 B21hir B22hir B23 B31 B32 Cl 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 1.12 1.43 1. 32 1. 33 1. 52 1.64 1.65 1. 67 27.78 11.61 , 16.96 15.51 9.82 12.87 8.68 7.72 47. 35 24. 57 34. 70 32.40 25.18 25.15 25.62 25.37 141 0-1 1/2 1 1/2-3 3-7 7-11 11-16 16-23 23-33 33-48 48-58 TABLE A - 3 .--Continued Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. B.D. gm/cc N.C.P. o 'O Moisture Retention M.W.H.C. 60 cm (%) M.E. A.D. N o . 6 , Croswe11-Graycalm 0-1 1-3 3-5 5-7 7-18 18-23 23-28 28-39 39-40 49-60 Al A2 Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir B3 A2 1 A 2 1&B2t;i A 2 1&B2t;2 C2 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 54 1.19 1.28 1.45 1. 47 1. 53 1. 51 1. 56 1. 63 1. 65 1. 67 27. 57 15. 00 17.07 14.92 14.41 14.21 10. 73 7.48 7.57 5.36 49.65 33.11 32.08 30.43 27.11 28.27 26. 91 25.79 26.94 25.27 23.17 11.72 11.77 10.15 9.42 9. 41 6 .88 4. 59 4.59 3.21 12.18 8.01 8.55 7. 03 5. 87 4.26 4.75 2 .02 2. 84 2.20 1 .10 0.75 2.04 0.83 0. 64 0. 50 0.47 0 .62 0 .61 0.16 51.54 36.82 37.05 34.23 31.77 28.23 29.65 27.74 21. 83 10. 67 11.32 11.17 9.53 9.38 9.70 9.29 11.45 7.10 7.11 7.03 6.03 5.39 5.76 5. 35 1.99 0. 50 0. 96 0.70 0.78 0. 65 0.66 0. 39 No. 7, Graycalm 0-1 1-3 3-8 8-11 11-23 23-30 30-55 55-60 Al A2 Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir A21 A 2'&B2tJ1 A2 1&B2t;2 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 1.20 1.27 1.42 1.44 1.45 1. 45 1.61 1.70 26.20 13.55 16.07 16. 08 13. 82 13. 60 15.62 15.79 TABLE A-4.— Exchangeable bases (E.B.), exchange acidity (E.A.), cation exchange capacity (C.E.C.), and base saturation (B.S.) for each of the seven pedons. E .A. me/100 gm C.E.C. -me/ 100 gm BaCl2TEA Na °ac Sum 1.26 1.26 1.16 0. 84 0. 53 3. 35 8.19 6.12 5.94 3. 57 1.50 1. 57 1.47 1.07 .78 16.00 19. 77 21.09 21.49 32.05 .32 .40 .35 .36 .29 0. 53 0.74 1.47 1.47 1.16 2.38 7.70 8.17 4.27 3.35 .85 1.14 1 .82 1. 83 1. 45 37. 65 35.09 19.23 19.67 20 .00 1.39 .74 .49 .45 3.68 0 .84 2. 31 1. 89 35.22 4. 80 23. 06 9.16 5.07 1.58 2 .80 2. 34 27. 62 46.84 17.50 19.23 E.B. ■-me/100 gm Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. Ca Mg No. 1, Kinross 1-11 11-21 21-27 27-37 37-50 A2 B21h B22hir B23 Cl 04 05 06 07 77 .20 .24 .24 .17 .19 .02 .02 .03 .02 .02 A2 B21h B22hir B23 B3 10 11 12 13 14 .24 .31 .28 .24 .20 .04 .04 .03 .03 .06 NO. 0-1 1-11 11-17 17-24 Al A2 B21hirm B22hirm 16 17 18 19 .88 .63 .35 .34 .36 .06 .08 .08 Sum Sum (organic surface) tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. No. 2 , Kinross 1 1/2-15 15-25 25-35 35-54 54-63 K Na % B.S. .02 .05 .04 .04 .04 .24 .31 .31 .23 .25 (better drained) tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. .03 .05 .04 .09 .03 3, Saugatuck tr. tr. tr. tr. .15 .05 .06 .03 TABLE A - 4.--Continued E .A . me/ 100 gm E.B. -me/100 gm Depth (inches) Horizon La b . No. Ca Mg No. 24-33 33-43 43-61 B23 Cl C2 20 21 22 .40 .33 .27 .10 .07 .06 Na K Sum BaCl2TEA .53 .44 .38 C .E .C .-mg/ 100 gm % B.S. Na °ac Sum 0. 95 0. 89 0. 87 7. 04 6 .29 6.29 1. 48 1.33 1.25 35. 81 33. 09 30. 40 4. 31 1. 37 2. 84 2.31 1.68 2.73 1.26 1.16 0. 84 28. 53 7.18 17.26 14. 09 8.28 14. 32 6 .87 5. 37 2. 64 5.20 1. 63 3. 07 2.56 1. 93 3.04 1. 46 1.45 1. 05 17.11 15. 95 7.49 9.77 12. 95 11. 36 13. 69 20 .00 25.00 2.73 0.95 1. 47 1.05 31. 44 3.26 8 .52 4. 82 4.24 1.17 1.62 1. 31 35. 61 18. 80 9.26 19. 85 Sum 3, Saugatuck tr. tr. tr. .03 .04 .05 No. 4, Saugatuck-AuGres Al A2 B21hir B22hir IIA2 ' IIB21hir' IIBhir'm IIB3 1 IIC1 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 .50 .15 .11 .18 .18 .24 .15 .17 .14 .24 .05 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. .15 .06 .10 .05 .05 .05 .03 .10 .05 .89 .26 .23 .25 .25 .31 .20 .29 .21 N o . 5, AuGres -Croswell 0-6 6-10 10-14 14-21 Al A2 B21hir B22hir 35 36 37 38 1.05 .17 .09 .22 .29 .02 .01 .01 tr. tr. tr. tr. .17 .03 .05 .03 1. 51 .22 .15 .26 144 0-1 1/2 1 1/2-3 3-7 7-11 11-16 16-23. 23-33 33-48 48-58 TABLE A- 4.--Continued E.A. me/ 100 gm E.B. -me/100 gm Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. Mg Ca No 21-28 28-39 39-50 50-60 B23 B31 B32 Cl 39 40 41 42 .11 .10 .09 .10 Na K Sum BaCl2TEA C.E.C. -mg/ 100 gm Na °ac Sum % B.S. Sum 5, AuGres- Croswell .01 .02 .02 .02 tr. tr. tr. tr. .03 .03 .03 .03 .15 .15 .14 .15 0. 63 0 .61 0. 64 0.74 2.03 1. 89 1 .01 .84 .78 .76 .78 .89 19. 23 19.72 13. 86 16. 85 0-1 1-3 3-5 5-7 7-18 18-23 23-28 28-39 39-49 49-60 Al A2 Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir B3 A2 1 A2 1&B2t;i A 2 '&B2t;2 Cl 14 5 N o . 6 , Croswell -Graycalm 44 45 46 1. 44 .31 .14 .39 .08 .01 tr. tr. tr. .21 .09 .04 2.04 .48 .19 2.00 1. 37 1. 37 23. 95 3.23 4. 87 4.04 1.85 1. 56 50. 49 25.95 12.18 47 .16 .02 tr. .05 .23 1. 37 8 .19 1 .60 14.38 48 49 50 51 52 54 .21 .19 .10 .20 .19 .08 .03 .02 .01 .06 .05 .01 tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. 0 .00 .04 .03 .03 .03 .03 .02 .28 .24 .14 .29 .27 .11 1. 05 0.78 0.42 0.80 0. 84 0.42 3.08 2.53 2.25 1.69 1.74 0.97 1.33 1 .02 .56 1.09 1.11 .53 21. 05 23. 53 25.00 26. 61 24.32 20.75 TABLE A - 4.--Continued E.A. me/ 10 0 gm E.B. -me/100 gm Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. Ca Mg Na K m C .E .C .-mg/ 100 gm BaCloTEA Na o uac Sum % B.S. Sum No. 7 , Graycalm 0-1 1-3 3-8 8-11 11-23 23-30 30-55 55-60 Al A2 Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir A2 ' A2 '&B2tJ1 A2 '&B2t)2 55 56 57 1.79 .45 .37 .50 .08 .05 tr. tr. tr. .47 .05 .08 2.76 .58 .50 3. 05 1.16 1. 05 27. 82 2.98 5.22 5.81 1.74 1.55 47.50 33. 33 32.26 58 .40 .06 tr. .06 .52 1.05 5.68 1.57 33.12 59 60 61 62 .24 .29 .21 .18 .02 .05 .03 .05 tr. tr. tr. tr. .03 .05 .06 .06 .29 .39 .30 .29 1. 05 0.53 0. 84 0 .81 3. 52 3.69 3.19 3.20 1.34 .92 1.14 1.10 21. 64 42. 39 26. 32 26. 36 TABLE A - 5.--Total carbon, organic matter, and extractable iron and aluminum per­ centages for each of the seven pedons. Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. Tot. C. Q, O No. 1, Kinross 1-11 11-21 21-27 27-37 37-50 A2 B21h B22hir B23 Cl 04 05 06 07 77 0. 44 0 .86 0.54 0. 34 0.29 1 1/2-15 15-25 25-35 35-54 54-63 A2 B21h B22hir B23 B3 ■ 10 11 12 13 14 0.20 1. 05 1 .01 0.73 0.45 E x t . Al - % O.M. Q. O Pyro. P04 Dith.Cit. Pyro. po4 .03 .03 .03 .01 .12 .11 .09 .07 Dith.Cit. (organic surface) 0.76 1.48 0.93 0. 57 0. 50 .02 .02 .02 .02 * .03 .26 .18 .14 —“ 147 No. 2, Kinross O. O Ext. Fe (better drained) 0. 34 1 .81 1.74 1.26 0.78 .02 .02 .02 .02 .02 __ .06 .03 .04 .03 .03 .03 .03 --.08 .08 .08 .02 .03 .04 .04 .01 .13 .13 .07 .05 __ .06 .04 .50 .18 .12 .12 .13 — — .63 .31 .23 .23 .18 .14 .09 No. 3 , Saugatuck 0-1 1-11 11-17 17-24 24-33 33-43 43-61 Al A2 B21hirm B22hirm B23hir Cl C2 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 10. 13 0.24 0. 56 0 .82 2 .21 0.56 0.54 17. 46 0.41 0. 96 1. 41 3.81 0. 97 0. 93 — — — -- TABLE A - 5.— Continued Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. Tot. C. % Ext. Fe O.M. O *. 0 Pyro. P04 % Dith.Cit. E x t . Al - % Pyro. P04 Dith.Cit. No. 4, Saugatuck-■AuGres Al A2 B21hir B22hir IIA2 ' IIB21hir1 IIBhir1m IIB3 ' IIC1 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 8.17 1.15 2. 53 1.24 0. 91 1. 67 0 .61 0. 53 0.49 14. 09 1. 98 4.36 2.14 1. 57 2.88 1.05 0.91 0. 84 .07 .03 .20 .09 .04 .04 .03 .01 .02 __ — .51 .14 — .09 .18 .04 .08 .05 .48 .29 .24 .43 .24 .09 .06 — .88 .31 — .0 3 .44 .13 N o . 5, AuGres-Croswell 0-6 6-10 10-14 14-21 21-28 28-39 39-50 50-60 Al A2 B21hir B22hir B23 B31 B32 Cl 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 7 .01 0. 33 0.16 0. 48 1 .08 0.21 0.19 0.10 12.09 0. 57 0.28 0.83 1 .86 0.36 0. 33 0.17 .07 .05 .22 .10 .06 .04 .04 .03 _ — -.54 .55 .30 -— .09 .06 .32 .19 .11 .07 .06 .05 — — .59 .43 .26 — 148 0-1 1/2 1 1/2-3 3-7 7-11 11-16 16-23 23-33 33-48 48-58 TABLE A - 5.--Continued Depth (inches) Horizon Lab. No. Tot. C. Q *, 5 E x t . Fe - % O.M. % Pyro. P04 Dith.Cit. Ext. Al - % Pyro. PO4 D i t h .Cit. No. 6 , Croswell-Graycalm 0-1 1-3 3-5 5-7 44 45 46 5.56 0. 31 0.78 9. 59 0. 53 1. 34 .07 .09 .12 __ _ — .52 .07 .08 .21 w — .46 47 0.78 1.34 .19 .43 .24 .26 48 49 50 51 52 54 0.28 0.21 0.17 0.08 0.05 0.13 0.48 0.36 0.29 0.14 0. 09 0.22 .10 .07 .06 .06 .06 .06 .43 .28 .18 .12 .11 .07 .06 .03 .32 .22 — — — —— — — — — No. 7, Graycalm 0-1 1-3 3-8 8-11 11-23 23-30 30-55 55-60 Al A2 Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir A2 1 A 2 '&B2tJ1 A 2 '&B2t|2 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 4.10 0. 30 0.76 0.89 0. 42 0.17 0 .16 0.15 7.07 0. 52 1. 31 1. 53 0.72 0.28 0.28 0. 27 .09 .09 .19 .15 .09 .09 .08 .07 _ _ — .54 .56 .54 - - .09 .06 .21 .24 .17 .12 .06 .06 .... — .31 .47 .32 — — — 149 7-18 18-23 23-28 ' 28-39 39-40 49-60 Al A2 Upper B21hir Lower B21hir B22hir B3 A2 1 A2 1&B2tJl A 2 '&B2tJ 2 Cl