72-8691 HENNEGHAN, Kathleen Mary, 1931SCHOOL DROPOUT PROGRAMS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULAR INNOVATIONS. Michigan State University, Ph.D., 1971 Education, curriculum development University Microfilms, A XEROXC om pany, Ann Arbor, M ichigan Copyright by KATHLEEN MARY HENNEGHAN 1971 SCHOOL DROPOUT PROGRAMS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULAR INNOVATIONS By Kathleen Mary Henneghan A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1971 PLEASE NOTE: Some P a g e s h a v e i n d i s t i n c t print. Fi lm e d as r e c e i v e d . UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS ABSTRACT SCHOOL DROPOUT PROGRAMS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN SCHOOL DISTRICTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR CURRICULAR INNOVATIONS By Kathleen Mary Henneghan The Problem The number of school dropouts and the economic and social problems which accompany dropping out have become a major educational concern. Specific purposes of this study were to identify programs for school drop­ outs in selected Michigan school districts and to (1) make a determination as to whether such programs are designed to be able to serve known needs of school dropouts, (2) pinpoint gaps between known needs of school dropouts and program offerings, and (3) pinpoint gaps in the programs themselves. Methods and Procedures The superintendents of the fifty-seven school districts having had 100 or more school dropouts in 1967-1968 identified through a questionnaire the dropout programs existing in those districts and the administrators of those programs. A second questionnaire was used to Kathleen Mary Henneghan secure data from program administrators about character­ istics of the programs, of the participants and staff. An interview schedule was used in interviews with selected administrators during visits to program sites. Data about dropout programs were analyzed and compared with selected research data about the character­ istics of school dropouts to provide a basis for con­ clusions and recommendations. Findings Thirty-three dropout programs were identified with three general areas of emphasis: remediation in academic skills, vocational education, and high school completion. In general data showed the programs to be structured to enable them to provide for the needs of dropouts as suggested by the survey of literature, includ­ ing provision for financial need, work experience, aca­ demic remediation, and personal and vocational counselling. Gaps identified between existing need and program offerings included the need for more program slots, greater emphasis on in-school programs for potential dropouts, and the need for regular schools to adopt dropout program approaches to help students motivated by the dropout programs to return to school. Expanded vocational programs for female dropouts are needed, along with an increased teen-age job market and improved pr o ­ visions for special services and transportation. Kathleen Mary Henneghan Gaps identified in the programs themselves included the need for improved cost analysis coupled with more critical evaluation of program effectiveness, including follow-up data. The study showed that less than two-thirds of the programs had racial-ethnic data about participants. Some administrators cited the need for improved facilities, while trends revealed by data suggested the need for expansion of programs to help school dropouts in rural areas. In addition to the above, the study showed the establishment of dropout programs has increased since 1960; however, a major problem for many programs was obtaining initial funding and the need for long-term funding. Recommendations The following recommendations were made relative to the initiation of innovative programs for dropouts: (1) The development of community involvement through informing the public of the dimensions of the problem in local districts, and involvement of the community in mobilizing resources for the program; (2) Establishment of communication with dropouts themselves and offering them experiences which will yield concrete benefits in the programs; Kathleen Mary Henneghan (3) Development of the concept of the community as a "school without walls" through increased com­ munity resource use, especially those resources business and industry can offer. It was also recommended that a central office be established within the state to facilitate cooperation and exchange of data between dropout programs themselves and between dropout programs and the public schools. The office would develop arenas for such communication, collect data, and take the initiative in disseminating data to local school districts. Specific functions and methods for carrying out these functions were spelled out. Further, flexibility to meet additional needs as they arise was recommended. A further recommendation proposed that the State Department of Education disseminate more vigorously to school districts information on availability of funds. It should also provide more technical assistance in helping local district personnel to understand guide­ lines for types of programs fundable by the Department and assist in the preparation of project proposals. It was also recommended that the process of reviewing pr o ­ posals submitted by local districts be streamlined to lessen the time lag between submission and notification of the granting of funds or rejection. Kathleen Mary Henneghan Finally, it was recommended that the central office suggested above be established within the Department or funded at a location outside the Department (i.e., at a university). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It has been a privilege and a pleasure to have had Dr. Troy L. Stearns as both Committee Chairman and major advisor. Dr. Stearns' guidance and sensitive con­ cern for human beings are indeed valued by his students. For continuing support and constructive suggestions the writer wishes to thank guidance committee members Dr. Beatrice Paolucci, Dr. William J. Walsh, and Dr. George R. Myers. Special recognition is due Dr. Daniel H. Kruger under whose auspices the preliminary study was conducted. The writer's children, Kathleen, David, and Mary, whose cooperation, patience, and encouragement have been crucial, especially during the completion of this study, deserve special thanks, as do her parents, Dr. and Mrs. C. L. Cole. A special debt of gratitude is due the many indi­ viduals without whose cooperation the study could not have been completed, especially the program administrators, school district personnel, and Michigan Department of Edu­ cation personnel who were so generous in supplying data and insight into the issues at hand. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. II. Page THE PROBLEM AND THE PLAN FOR STUDY . . . . 1 Introduction .............................. Statement of the P r o b l e m ................ Need for the S t u d y ....................... 1 7 8 Dimensions of the School Dropout Prob­ lem in M i c h i g a n ....................... 10 Scope of the S t u d y ....................... 26 P o p u l a t i o n .............................. Questions to be E x p l o r e d ............. 27 29 Sources of D a t a .......................... 30 Questionnaire I Questionnaire I I ....................... Interview Schedule .................... 30 31 31 Limitations of the S t u d y ................ Definition of T e r m s ....................... Organization of the S t u d y ................ 32 33 35 REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH.................... 37 .............................. Introduction Trends in R e s e a r c h ....................... Characteristics of School Dropouts . . . 37 40 42 Age at Dropping O u t .................... Grade at Dropping O u t ................ Sex of D r o p o u t s ....................... Health of D r o p o u t s .................... Intelligence of Dropouts ............. Reading Achievement .................... Socio-economic Status ................ Psychological Orientation, Personality, and Home and Family Influence. . . . 42 44 46 47 51 58 63 iii 75 Page Chapter Race as a Factor Affecting Dropping O u t .................................... Summary of Characteristics of Drop­ ou t s .................................... III. IV. 85 88 Authorities' Program Recommendations . . Operating Program Models ................ 92 105 Job C o r p s ............................. Neighborhood Youth Corps ............. National Urban League Street Academy . Christian Alliance Ministry Academy . Postal Academy ....................... Summary of Model Program Findings . . 106 110 114 120 123 129 PROCEDURES USED IN THE STUDY................. 132 Introduction ............................. Questionnaire I .......................... Questionnaire I I .......................... Interview Schedule ....................... Plan for Analysis and Presentation of the D a t a ................................. 132 133 134 134 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA. . 136 . Introduction ............................. Characteristics of Programs ............. 139 139 140 Curricular Emphasis . Length of Time Programs Have Been in E x i s t e n c e .............................. Location of Program Facilities . . . Hours Instruction is Offered. . . . Adult Education Programs . . . . . Duration of Programs ................ Time Spent in Programs by Dropouts. . How Students Become Involved. . . . Motivational Devices, Credit, Letter G r a d e s ................................. Transportation ....................... Orientation for Students ............ Orientation for New Staff............ Student-Teacher Ratio ................ Cost of Programs....................... 155 157 158 161 163 164 Total Annual C o s t ................ Total Annual Cost Per Pupil . . . Instructional Cost Per Pupil. . . 165 ^65 ^66 Sources of F u n d i n g .................... iv 140 144 145 148 149 149 151 153 Chapter Page Capacity of and Demand for Dropout P r o g r a m s .............................. Evaluation of Programs ............. Evaluation Agents . . . . . . Testing Procedures................... Types of Tests U s e d ................ Criteria for Success of Program . Assistance in Labor Market Entry . . Follow-Up Studies .................... Use of Community Resources . . . . Collective Bargaining................ Administrative Problems ............. Summary of Characteristics of Pro­ grams .................................... 168 171 171 172 174 175 177 177 179 182 183 187 Characteristics of Participants in Pro­ grams ....................................... 190 Number of Students Served in Existing P r o g r a m s ......................... 190 Male-Female Distribution of Partici­ pants in Dropout Programs . . . . 194 Racial-Ethnic Background of Program Participants....................... ... 195 Grade Level at Dropping Out. . . . 197 Age of Students Participating in Pro­ grams . 199 Average Income Level of Families of Participants...................... 201 Intelligence Level of Participants . 202 Summary of Characteristics of Program Participants...................... 205 Characteristics of Staff of Dropout Pro­ grams .................................... 207 Staffing Patterns .................... 207 Number of Full-Time Professional Staff M e m b e r s ................... 209 Male-Female Distribution of Program Faculties......................... 209 Racial-Ethnic Backgrounds of Staff . 210 Characteristics Preferred in the Selection of Faculty ................. 212 Age Range. .................... Educational Requirements. . . . v 212 213 I Chapter Page Work E x p e r i e n c e ...................... Race and Ethnic Background . . . S e x ................................. Personality Characteristics . . . Ranking in Importance of Character­ istics for Staff Selection . . . . Summary of Characteristics of Dropout Program Staff.......................... Interviews With Program Directors . . 221 223 . Program I: Located in Western Mich­ igan Program I I : Located in Southwest M i c h i g a n ............................ Program III: Located in Western M i c h i g a n ............................. Program IV: Located in the Eastern Part of Michigan. . . . . . . . Program V: Located in Southwestern M i c h i g a n ................................ Common Elements and Contrasts in the P r o g r a m s ................................ V. 216 217 219 219 224 225 230 237 241 245 249 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLI­ CATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY.................... 253 Introduction ............................. C o n c l u s i o n s .............................. 253 255 Issue 1: Are Existing Programs Con­ structed so as to be Able to Serve the Known Needs of the Dropout Popu­ lation? ................................ Issue 2: Identification of Gaps Between Existing Needs and Program O f f e r i n g s ................................ Issue 3: Gaps Identified in the Pro­ grams Themselves....................... Recommendations .......................... Recommendations to Help Initiate Inno­ vative Programs Designed to Meet the Needs of School D r o p o u t s ............... vi 255 266 276 289 290 Chapter Page Recommendations to Develop a Framework Through Which Programs, Procedures, Techniques, Curricula, and Other Innovative Features Can Be Dissemi­ nated into the Educational System in Order to Make School More Viable and E x c i t i n g ............................... 294 Recommendations for a Leadership Role for the State Department of Education . 298 Implications for Further Research. . . . 300 S u m m a r y .................................. 303 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................... 305 APPENDICES Appendix A. Letter of Transmittal to School District Superintendents.......................... 311 B. Questionnaire I ............................ 312 C. Follow-Up Letter D. Letter of Transmittal to Program Adminis­ trators ................................ 314 E. Questionnaire II F. Interview Schedule....................... G. Enrollments by Grades for Selected Years ....................... 313 . . . . 315 323 . . 327 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Current and Projected Dropouts for Michigan . 2 2. Percentage of Students Dropping out of High School 1899-1965 .......................... 4 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Projected Dropout Figures by Standard Metro­ politan Statistical Areas for Grades 9-12. 12 Grade 9-12 Dropout Rates for 1967-1968 by Geographical Location ................... 14 Grade 9-12 Dropout Rates for 1967-1968 According to Type of Community . . . . 15 Mean Income in 1956 to 1968 of Men 25 Years Old and Over, by Years of School Com­ pleted for the United States (In Current D o l l a r s ) ................................. 19 Difference Between Mean Income (or Earnings) of Graduates and Dropouts 25 Years of Age or Older 1956-1968 ................... 20 Unemployment Rates Among Graduates and Drop­ outs by Sex, 1960-1968 (Persons 16 to 24 Years of A g e ) .............................. 20 Labor Force Participation Rates of High School Graduates and Dropouts by Sex 1960-1968 (Persons 16-24 Years of A g e ) . 22 . O u t .......................... 43 10. Age at Dropping 11. Grade Distribution of 1,171 Early School L e a v e r s .................................... 44 12. I.Q. Distribution of 1,084 School Leavers. 53 13. Intelligence Quotient of 674 Early School Leavers of Kentucky— 1948-1950 . . . . viii . 54 Table 14. 15. Page Intelligence Quotients of Poor Readers— Dropouts and Graduates ....................... Curricular Areas Emphasized by Twenty-Six Dropout Programs ............................. 56 141 16. Length of Time Identified Dropout Programs Have Been in Existence................................ 144 17. Number of Programs Utilizing Multiple and Single Program Sites............................. 145 18. Program Facility Resources. 19. Hours Instruction is Offered .................... 20. Referral Agents Ranked According to Frequency of use by Thirty-Three Dropout Programs . 21. .... ................. 14 6 148 . 154 Motivational Devices Utilized by Thirty-Three Dropout Programs .............................. 156 22. Student Orientation Time Reported by ThirtyThree Programs................................... 159 23. Orientation Topics Discussed in Thirty-Three Programs. . . 160 Hours Per Teacher Spent in Orientation in Twenty-Three Programs . . . 161 24. 25. Topics of Program Orientation for New Teachers 26. Student-Teacher Ratio of Thirty-Three Dropout Programs.......................................... 164 27. Total Annual Cost of Programs....................... 165 28. Total Annual Per Pupil Cost of Programs 29. Total Cost of Instructional Salaries 30. Per Pupil Instructional Cost of Programs . 31. Sources of Funding for Thirty-Three Dropout Programs.......................................... 169 32. Evaluation Agents for Dropout Programs. ix . . 162 . . 165 . . . . 166 . . . . 166 . 171 Table 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. Page Testing Procedures Reported by Thirty-Three Administrators of Dropout Programs . . . 173 Type of Testing Used in Twenty-Five Dropout P r o g r a m s ................................. 174 Criteria for Success Ranked According to Frequency of Use by Thirty-Three Dropout Programs.................................... 176 Use of Community Resources by Thirty-Two Dropout P r o g r a m s .......................... 180 Ways in Which Community Resources Are Used by Thirty Dropout Programs. ............. 181 Problems Encountered in Administration of Dropout Programs .......................... 184 Program Participation Data for Twenty-Seven Dropout Programs . 191 Comparison Between Numbers of Enrollees in Dropout Programs (1969-1970) and Reported School Dropouts (1967-1968) 193 Male-Female Distribution of the Dropout Popu­ lation and Program Participants . . . . 195 Racial-Ethnic Background of Participants in Nineteen Dropout Programs ............. . 196 Grade Level at Which Participants of Twelve Dropout Programs Left School ............. 198 Grade Level at Which Participants of Four Individual Programs Dropped Out . . . . 198 Age of Enrollees in Twenty-Two Dropout Pro­ g r a m s ....................................... 200 Average Family Income Level of Participants in Twenty-Three Dropout Programs. . . . 201 Ranges of I.Q. Scores of Participants in Thirteen Dropout Programs ................ 203 Racial-Ethnic Background of Faculty of Thirty Dropout Programs.................... 2.11 Table 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. Page Racial-Ethnic Background of Faculty and Enrollees in Reporting Dropout Pro­ grams .............................. 211 Age Preferences for Staff for Thirty Dropout Programs Ranked According to Frequency of Citation . . . . . 213 Educational Preferences for Teachers in Thirty-Two Dropout Programs................ 214 Work Experience Preferences for Faculty in Thirty-Two Programs Ranked According to .................... Frequency of Citation. 216 Racial-Ethnic Preferences for Staff for Twenty-Five Dropout Programs ............. 218 Characteristics of Dropout Program Staff Ranked in Order of Importance by ThirtyTwo Program Administrators (1 = High, 7 = L o w ) .................................... 222 xi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND THE PLAN FOR STUDY Introduction In Michigan, as elsewhere in the United States, concern has increased about the numbers of youths dropping out of high school prior to graduation. Michigan Depart­ ment of Education studies for both the academic years 1966-1967 and 1967-1968 (latest available data at time of study) show in grade-by-grade analysis that approxi­ mately 27 per cent of the students entering ninth grade do not graduate from high school in Michigan.^ The high school dropout rate for 1967-1968 is 2 shown in Table 1. The projections in Table 1 indicate the numbers of dropouts will increase through 1975, and then decrease only slightly by 1980. ^"Michigan, Department of Education, Public High School Dropouts in Michigan, 1967-1968, Statistical Bulle­ tin 4007, December, 1969. (Hereinafter referred to as Statistical Bulletin 4007.) 2 1970 Comprehensive Juvenile Delinquency and Con­ trol Plan for Michigan, Executive Office of the Governor, Michigan, 1970, pp. A-15— A-16. (Hereinafter referred to as 1970 Comprehensive Delinquency and Control Plan.) 1 2 TABLE 1.— Current and projected dropouts for Michigan. Year Number of Dropouts 1967-1968 1970 1975 1980 36,554 50,060 54,047 49,199 Dropout Rate 6.73% 6.4 6 average rate 6.7 6 average rate 6.61 average rate cl The average rate of dropouts represents the total projected dropouts divided by the total projected popu­ lation 15-18 years of age. Current increased attention to and concern about early school leaving comes about for a variety of inter­ related reasons. Of first importance, those individuals who leave school before high school graduation do not receive the maximum benefit of the educational oppor­ tunity theoretically available to them. In addition, as society becomes more complicated in structure, the social problems encountered are of increasing magnitude. In order to develop resolutions to the many critical social problems facing society, there must be a resource of well-educated, well-trained citizens whose talents can be tapped. The technological orientation of society also creates an increasing demand for more people having received better training in the work force. With a rapidly increasing population ever greater numbers are entering the labor market, while technology is eliminating those jobs requiring only a minimum of skill. A further 3 complicating factor is the population shift from rural to urban areas which has created metropolitan centers of population density, poverty, unemployment, and social unrest. There is increasingly "no room at the bottom" in the labor market for those individuals who remain unskilled. Despite concern about school dropouts during the 1960's, some questions have been raised about whether early school leaving is truly a serious problem. Critics of the educational system such as Paul Goodman suggest the high school diploma ought not be considered the necessary credential it has become in this society. 3 It has been further suggested that dropping out of school may be a positive action for some youths and that alter­ natives to graduation from the traditional high school should be considered viable educational goals. Dentler and Warshauer point out that since the turn of the century the percentages of dropouts from the public schools have steadily decreased.^ These data appear in Table 2. 3 Paul Goodman, Compulsory Mis-education Vintage, 1962) . 4 (New York: Robert A. Dentler and Mary Ellen Warshauer, Bicf City Dropouts and Illiterates, Praeger Special Studies m UTS. Economic and Social Development, The Center for Urban Education (New York: F. A. Praeger Publishers, 1968). 4 TABLE 2.— Percentage of students dropping out of high school 1899-1965. Year 1899-1900 1909-1910 1919-1920 1929-1930 1939-1940 1941-1942 1943-1944 1945-1946 1947-1948 1949-1950 1951-1952 1953-1954 1955-1956 1957-1958 1959-1960 1961-1962 1963-1964 1964-1965 a Source: Percentage 93.6 91.2 83.2 71.8 49.2 48. 8 57.7 52.1 46.0 41.0 41.4 40.0 37.7 35.2 24.9 30.5 23.7 28.0a Preliminary data. Kenneth A. Simon and W. Vance Grant, Digest of Educational Statistics, Office of Education Bulle­ tin^ 1965, No. 4 (Washington, D . C . : Government Printing Office, 1966). An examination of the national data shows that there has, indeed, been a dramatic decrease in the per­ centage of students who leave school prior to high school graduation, moving from over 90 per cent at the turn of the century to only 28 per cent dropouts in 1965. Although the percentage of dropouts has significantly decreased during the last half century, the absolute number signified by these percentages has remained fairly constant, due to 5 the rise in population and the rise in total school enrollment. 5 Data reported by the Michigan Department of Edu­ cation, 1930-1969, also showed a trend of decreasing per­ centages of students who leave school prior to high school graduation. (See Appendix G.) There is evidence g which shows the problems of school dropouts, including repeated failure, lack of basic education skills, and personality problems, con­ tribute to the development of an individual who finds it difficult, if not indeed impossible, to cope adequately with life in the society in which he exists, both on a personal level and in the labor market where he must com­ pete for the means to sustain himself. The dropouts of the 1960's, in contrast to those of earlier generations, find few opportunities open, given the shrinkage of the rural labor market, and with the drastic reduction of unskilled jobs which require little or no expertise. Without the essential skills for coping in society and burdened with the failure syndrome which often becomes 5 Jacob J. Kaufman and Morgan V. Lewis, The School Environment and Programs for Dropouts (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, Institute for Human Resources, 1968), p. 3. 6 Lucius F. Cervantes, The Dropout: Causes and Cures (Ann A r b o r : Ann Arbor Paperbacks, 1969); Soloman O. Lichter, et a l ., The Drop-Outs (New York: The Free Press, 1968), p. 2 (hereinafter referred to as Lichter, et a l ., The Drop-Outs) . 6 a part of the personality of the school dropout, youngsters too often become alienated, disillusioned, and frustrated, contributing to what James B. Conant termed in the early 1960's "social dynamite." Public policy has moved in a direction which stresses that equal options shall be open for all citizens in order that they may become equipped to enter the main­ stream of society and reap the maximum benefits of that society. Civil rights legislation intended to open these options to minority groups is but one indication of this policy: federally supported manpower and education pro­ grams designed to meet the needs of the socially and economically disadvantaged are another. Concern about the high school dropout is exemplified by federal allo­ cation of funds designed to retrain those who have left school, and to promote dropout prevention programs, e.g., The Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962, as amended, and The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, as amended. Such allocations are based on the assumption that education, including vocational training, will improve the individual's employability so that he may compete more realistically in the labor market. Because of the above factors there is increasing interest on the part of the federal government, numerous institutions, and groups of citizens in the development of special programs intended to help alleviate the 7 problems faced by school dropouts. It is to the question of what is being done in this effort in the state of Michigan, and what remains to be done, that this study will be directed. Statement of the Problem The problem in this study is to identify those programs which have been developed in Michigan school districts which are designed to cope with the problems of school dropouts, and to relate the extent of these facilities with the need existing in the state. Data about existing programs will be compared with data about the dropout population in order t o : (1) make a determination as to whether existing pro­ grams are, in fact, constructed so as to be able to serve the known needs of the dropout population, (2) to pinpoint gaps between existing need and program offerings, and (3) to pinpoint gaps in the programs themselves. Recommendations will be developed from the analy­ sis of the preceding data to suggest plans of action. Note that plans is in the plural since the available literature and the data collected strongly suggest a series of solutions. Recommendations will be: (1) To suggest procedures which could help initiate innovative programs directed specifically to the needs of dropouts; 8 (2) To suggest a framework through which programs, procedures, techniques, curricula, and other innovative features can be disseminated into the educational system in order to make school a more viable and exciting educational insti­ tution; (3) To identify a leadership role for the State Department of Education in the area of dropout programs. The rationale for stressing a leader­ ship role for the State Department of Education is based on the fact that in this highly mobile society people move frequently and often in large numbers from one school district to another. This pattern is prevalent in Michigan with the larger urban areas receiving an influx of in-migration from rural Michigan and from the South. Thus, one community inherits the educational problems created elsewhere. Moreover, the state has a constitutional responsibility to provide quality education for all students. Need for the Study In order to develop plans of action for effec­ tively coping with the educational, human, and manpower problems represented by the large numbers of school drop­ outs in Michigan, it is necessary to know what is being done, how it is being done, and where it is being done. 9 Considerable attention has been devoted to the issue of dropouts both in Michigan and nationwide, with the thrust of most studies concentrated upon the holding power of the public schools as it relates to the reduction of 7 dropping out. The major focus of this study, however, will be directed toward the identification and description of programs which Michigan school districts have estab­ lished for the purpose of serving youths who have become part of the dropout population. Currently it is known that some programs for school dropouts do exist in the state. However, there is no comprehensive data available which identifies how many programs have been established, where they are located, what comprises the programs, or what clientele is being reached. Information related to ongoing programs can now be obtained only through widely scattered sources such as individuals and offices which are distributed throughout the educational establishment. There has been no recent state-wide study on programs established for school dropouts in Michigan with one exception, a study which the writer conducted, undertaken by the Michigan Manpower Commission and financed by the State Department of Education, completed 7 Bert I. Green, Preventing Student Dropouts (Engle­ wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, In c ., 1966), p. 12; George R. Myers, "A Study of Factors and Practices Related to Holding Power in Certain Michigan Secondary Schools" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1956) . 10 December 1, 1970, and entitled "A Preliminary Study: Efforts of Selected Michigan School Districts in School g Dropout Programs." The preliminary study was undertaken because it was felt the educational problems represented by the wide dimensions of the dropout phenomenon warranted attention in order to determine how to allocate more effectively increasingly limited educational resources. Dimensions of the School Dropout Problem in Michigan Michigan Department of Education studies show that during both academic years 1966-1967 and 1967-1968 27 per cent of the students entering ninth grade did not graduate from high school. The number of dropouts in 1967-1968, however, totaled 36,554, an increase of 815 over the 9 35,7 39 of the previous year. The dropout population includes significant pro­ portions of both males and females. Statistics reported by Michigan school districts to the State Department of Education for the academic year 1967-1968 show that 4 0.4 per cent of the dropouts that year were female (9,981 g In February, 1971, the writer received by phone a request for a copy of this preliminary study through Richard Anderle, Consultant for the Michigan Department of Education. The Illinois Department of Education had requested from the Michigan Department of Education Research Bureau all available information about ongoing programs for school dropouts in Michigan. This study contained the only current statewide data available. 9 Statistical Bulletin 4007. 11 individuals); 57.1 per cent were male viduals) .10 (14,116 indi­ (Figures do not add up to 100 per cent since one school district did not report the sex dis­ tribution of dropouts. These were 2.5 per cent of the dropouts in Michigan— 619 individuals.) During 1966-1967 and 1967-1968 approximately 55 per cent of all Michigan dropouts were from the Detroit Metropolitan area (Wayne, Oakland, and Macomb counties), although only 45.5 per cent of all students enrolled in grades nine through twelve in the state were in these three c o u n t i e s . ^ Thus, the percentage of drop­ outs in this highly urban area is disproportionate com­ pared to the total school enrollment. Table 3 shows projected dropout figures in the Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas for Michigan for 1970 through 1980. The data show that approximately 84 per cent of all dropouts will be concentrated in the urban areas of the state; and of the approximately 50,000 students (Table 1) expected to be dropping out of school annually during the next decade, between 40,000 and 45,000 of them will be concentrated in metropolitan areas. 12 ■^Derived from Statistical Bulletin 4007. "^Michigan, Department of Education, Public High School Dropouts in Michigan, 1966-1967, Research Monograph N o . 6, r e v . e d . , J u n e , 1'9(>7; Statistical Bulletin 4 007. 12 p. A - 1 7 . 1970 Comprehensive Delinquency and Control Plan, 12 TABLE 3.— Projected dropout figures by standard metropoli­ tan statistical areas for grades 9-12. SMSA Bay County Genessee, Lapeer County Ingham, Eaton, Clinton Co. Jackson County Kalamazoo County Kent, Ottawa County Monroe County3 Muskegon County Saginaw County Washtenaw County Wayne, Macomb, Oakland Counties Total Percentage of Total Projected Dropouts for Michigan 1975 1980 446 2,962 1,725 603 1,121 2,465 581 1,003 1,208 992 29,019 482 3,470 1,859 659 1,200 2 ,662 639 1,070 1,385 1,139 31,148 435 3,589 1,765 614 1,116 2,552 393 982 1,268 1,268 26,911 42,130 45,685 41,152 84.2 84.5 83 .6 1970 q Monroe County is only a part of the SMSA which includes Lucas and Wood Counties, Ohio. S ource: 1970 Comprehensive Juvenile Delinquency and Con­ trol Plan for Michigan, Executive Office of the Governor, Michigan Commission on Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, April, 1970, p. A-17. 13 Table 4 shows the incidence of dropping out of school by geographical areas within Michigan showing both the dropout rate and the number of youths indicated by the dropout rate. 13 These data show that areas of high population density also have the highest dropout rate and the highest absolute numbers of dropouts. Throughout Michigan there is variation in dropout rate according to community type, with the large cities being above the state average dropout rate in 1967-1968) average. 14 (6.73 per cent and other types of communities below the These data are shown in Table 5. In central cities the quality of education is a problem which must be taken into account when considering the educational status of the thousands of youths who drop out of school before graduation. As cited, high dropout rates are common in schools located in densely populated, low income, disadvantaged areas. Often there are high concentrations of minority group students in such schools. In core cities achievement levels of students in all grades are frequently lower than those of students in more ■^Statistical Bulletin 4007. 14 TABLE 4.— Grade 9-12 dropout rates for 1967-1968 by geo­ graphical location. N o . of School N o . of Dropout Rate Districts Membership Dropouts 1 73,178 10,629 14.52 84 173,690 9 ,700 5.58 Southern Michigan*3 291 239,596 13,950 5.82 Northern Michigan0 149 56,943 2 ,275 4.05 525 542,596 36,680 6.70 City of Detroit Detroit Area9 Total Includes all school districts within Wayne, Macomb, and Oakland counties (Detroit Standard Metropoli­ tan Statistical Area) except for the City of Detroit. ^All counties south of and including A r a n a c , Bay, Saginaw, Gratiot, Montcalm, Kent, and Muskegon counties except for the Detroit SMSA. Q All counties north of and including Oceana, Newaygo, Mecosta, Isabella, Midland, Gladwin, Ogemaw, and Iosca. Source: Michigan, Department of Education, Public Hicfh School Dropouts in Michigan, 1967-1968, Statxstical Bulletin 4007, December, 1969, p. 24. 15 TABLE 5.— Grade 9-12 dropout rates for 1967-1968 according to type of community. School No. of Dropout N o . of Districts Membership Dropouts Rate % Large citiesa 11 128,832 14,997 11.64 All other cities*3 60 148,479 8,900 5.99 161 148,196 7 ,346 4.95 59 42,458 1,881 4.43 234 74,524 3,430 4.60 525 542,507 36 ,554 6.73 Suburbs0 Small towns Rural arease Total— Statewide a The school districts within central cities (50,000 or m o r e ) . All school districts within cities of 10,000 or more except for central cities. Q Any school district within a SMSA except for city and central city districts. Any school district serving a community of 2,500 people— not within SMSA's. 6 Districts serving communities of less than 2,500 people— not within SMSA's. Source: Michigan, Department of Education, Public Hicfo School Dropouts in Michigan, 1967-1968, Statisti­ cal Bulletin 4007, December, 1969, p. 24. affluent, advantaged areas. 15 In addition to this built- in achievement disadvantage for the core city school as a whole, the dropout is commonly at least a year or two behind his peers in achievement level at the time he leaves school. Thus, for all practical purposes large numbers of students who drop out of school actually have an educational achievement level below the national norm for the grade they did complete. Examination of statewide dropout statistics may hide as serious a problem as it reveals. are like an iceberg: These figures more may be hidden than is seen. Several reasons exist for concern over those youths who leave school prematurely in rural areas. In such areas few employment opportunities are available for such indi­ viduals because of the decline of farm labor needs, a condition which has taken place during the last several years as a result of mechanization and improved farm technology. In addition, rural dropouts are spread over wide geographical areas where educational alternatives are scarce or non-existent. 15 Many such youths migrate to Charles E. Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom (New York: Random House, 1970) , pp. 63-67 (hereinafter referred to as Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom) ; Allen B. Wilson, "Social Stratification and Academic Achievement, in Education in Depressed A reas, ed. by A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963) , pp. 234-35; Miriam L. Goldberg, "Factors Affecting Edu­ cational Attainment in Depressed Urban Areas," in Edu­ cation in Depressed A r e a s , ed. by A. Harry Passow (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963) , pp. 68-69. 17 the metropolitan areas where they encounter difficulties competing in the labor market because of lack of skills and poor educational achievement, adding to the already large disadvantaged population concentrated in the urban areas. There is little follow-up information on what happens to those left behind in the rural areas. Another concern is that in rural areas there may be a higher percentage of "psychological dropouts" than in urban areas. These are the students who sit out their high school careers, never physically leaving school, but gaining little from the education offered. It is specu­ lated that such a youth would likely be lured out of school in an urban area by alternate activities and peer pressures; however, in rural areas there are fewer incentives to leave school. Economics is a common rationale for urging youths to attain the highest educational level possible. It is frequently argued that high educational attainment enhances job opportunities, and that conversely, drop­ ping out diminishes opportunities in job market competition. Numerous studies indicate that the dropout is at a definite disadvantage in the labor market; he is apt to work less and earn less than a high school graduate. The structural changes which have taken place in the economy have produced a labor market which limits the employa­ bility of the dropout. Moreover, the difference between 18 the incomes of graduates and school dropouts has been growing. Table 6 shows income for males by years of school completed. The data presented show that in 1956 the difference in mean income of men twenty-five years or older having attained eight years of school and of men having graduated from high school was $1,552. In 1968 the difference in mean income of men of comparable educational levels was $2,806. 16 Table 6 illustrates the gradual widening of this gap in income during the eight years under consideration. Comparison of the difference between mean income for graduates and mean income for dropouts since 1956 is shown in Table 7. Two trends are noticeable in Tables 6 and 7: mean income has been increasing over time, and as edu­ cation increases so does income. In addition, the gap is widening between the mean income of high school graduates and the mean income of dropouts. National figures on the unemployment rates of graduates and dropouts show that dropouts have a higher rate of unemployment. Moreover, school dropouts have a longer duration of unemployment. Table 8 shows that school dropouts had a much higher unemployment rate than U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 74, "Annual Mean Income, Lifetxme Income and Educational Attainment by Men in the United States, for Selected years, 1956 to 1968," p. 25. TABLE 6.— Mean income in 1956 to 1968 of men 25 years old and over, by years of school completed for the United States. (In Current Dollars) Computed from Grouped Data 1968 1967 1966 1964 1963 1961 1958 1956 $5,477 $4,637 $4,423 25 Years and Older Total $5,837 $5,472 $ 7,889 $ 7,387 $ 6,908 Elementary Less than 8 years 8 years 4,093 5,624 3,715 5,280 3,520 4,867 3,298 4,520 3,078 4,410 2,998 4,206 2,530 3,677 3,374 3,631 High School 1 to 3 years 4 years 6,983 8,430 6,529 7,907 6,294 7,494 5,653 6,738 5,348 6,557 5,161 5,946 4,452 5,257 4,367 5,183 College 1 to 3 years 4 years 9,692 12,236 9,229 11,721 8,783 11,135 7,907 9,757 7,633 9 ,392 7,348 9,342 6,272 7,565 5,997 (NA) Source: U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 74, "Annual Mean Income, Lifetime Income and Educational Attainment by Men in the United States, for Selected years, 1956 to 19 68," p. 25. 20 TABLE 7.— Difference between mean income (or earnings) of graduates and dropouts 25 years of age or older 1956-1968. Income Difference of High School Graduates and Men Having: Year Less than 8 Years Education 1956 1958 1961 1963 1964 1966 1967 1968 $3,609 2,727 2,948 3,479 3,440 3,974 4,192 4,337 8 Years Education 1 to 3 Years High School $ 816 805 785 1,209 1,085 1,200 1,387 1,447 $1,551 1,580 1,740 2,147 2,218 2,627 2,627 2,806 Figures in this table were derived from the data in Table 6. TABLE 8.— Unemployment rates among graduates and dropouts by sex, 1960-1968 (persons 16 to 24 years of age) . Dropouts Graduates Yeara Males 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 % 14.9 18.5 14.3 19.1 12.9 7.4 8.7 9.5 10.2 Females % 15.3 17.6 13.8 17.1 23.4 16.6 18.5 21.4 16.0 Total Males Females % 15.2 17.9 14.1 18.0 18.7 12.4 14.2 16.2 13.5 % 19.0 28.0 17.1 22.7 b 20.3 18.5 19.4 17.2 % b b b b b b b b b Total % 18.2 26.8 26.8 31.7 33.6 20.2 18.0 24 .0 21.1 aRates are for the month of October of each year. Percentages are not shown where base is less than 100,000 or 75,000. Source: Manpower Report of the President, March, 1970, pp. 253-54. 21 high school graduates each year during the period 19601968. In the most recent years for which data was available, 1967-1968, the unemployment rate of dropouts was one and a half times that of high school graduates. 17 There is a fundamental weakness in use of the unemployment rate to reflect the employment experiences of dropouts. Only those employed or looking for work are included in the civilian labor force on which the unem­ ployment rate is based; dropouts who never entered the labor market or who gave up the job search as futile are not included. among dropouts. These represent the "hidden unemployment" However, the labor force participation rate does reflect the absence of these people in the labor force, for its base is the noninstitutionalized civilian population, i.e., those sixteen years of age and older. Table 9 shows the labor force participation rates from 196 0 to 1968 for graduates and dropouts. The labor force participation rates for male high school graduates is about 10 per cent higher, on the average, than the rate for male dropouts. By comparison, the labor force participation rates for female high school graduates is about 4 0 per cent higher, on the average, than the rate for female dropouts. 17 18 U.S., Department of Labor, Manpower Report of the President, A Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization, and Training (Washington, D . C . : Government Printing Office, March', 1970), pp. 253-54 . 22 TABLE 9.— Labor force participation rates of high school graduates and dropouts by sex 1960-1968 (Persons 16-24 years of a g e ) . Graduates Dropouts Yeara 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 Males Females Total Males % 88 .5 86.1 90 .8 89.7 90.9 91. 0 87.3 86.6 88.1 % 69.5 75.8 71.4 71.8 69.8 75.8 68 .4 73.6 71.6 % 76.7 70.7 79.5 78.9 77 .9 82.1 75.7 78.7 77.8 % 76.4 83.8 84.9 83.3 83.6 79.2 81.6 82.2 75.7 Females Total O. % 49.2 50.9 34 .0 49.6 43.0 36.8 42.1 46.5 49.0 *o 62.2 67 .5 56.5 65.9 62.3 60.2 64 .7 65.1 63.4 Rates are from the month of October for each year. Source: Manpower Report of the President, March, 1970, pp. 253-54. A 197 0 United States Department of Labor study of the inner city area of Detroit is significant for Michigan. The study, Poverty: The Broad Outline, 19 draws a relation­ ship between educational level, low income, unemployment, and color. The inner city of Detroit, which was selected on the basis of unemployment and poverty levels (referred to as the Concentrated Employment Program area or the CEP area) is compared with the entire city. The population of the CEP area had a lower educational attainment level than that of the city-wide population. 19 In the CEP area U.S., Department of Labor, Bureau of Statistics, Poverty: The Broad Outline, Urban Employment Survey, Report No. 2 ~, Detroit, 1970. 23 59 per cent of the white workers and 65 per cent of the Negro workers age eighteen and over had less than four years of high school compared city-wide with 39 per cent of the white workers and 50 per cent of the Negro workers having less than four years of high school. Results of the study clearly demonstrate that the lower educational level of the CEP population placed these people in a poor competitive position on the labor market. The study stated: In today's labor market, the basic requisite for a well-paying, steady job is very often meeting rather rigid educational requirements. The educational attainment of the CEP labor force compared to that of the city places it in a poor competitive position. Along with the conclusion that low educational level is related to low income level, this study reached the conclusion that educational level affects labor force participation. Not only does education affect the chances of employ­ ment and type of job obtainable, it may also determine whether or not a person even tries to find a job. This study shows that in the CEP area, as in the city and the nation, labor force participation increases with education. For example, in the . . . (CEP) . . . area the labor force participation rate for those 18 years and over having less than an eighth grade education was 41%, while the rate for high school graduates was 70%. People who are discouraged about their job prospects may opt to drop out of or never to enter the labor force.21 Another finding of the study with implications for school dropouts was that significant differences were found 2^Ibid., p . 17. 24 between the educational attainment of whites and Negroes, with whites generally having completed more years of school than Negroes. Thirty-nine per cent of the whites in the city's labor force had less than four years of high school compared to 50 per cent of the Negroes; in the CEP area 59 per cent of the whites in the labor force had less than four years of high school compared to 65 per cent 22 of the Negroes. Unemployment rates for both adults and teenagers were also found to be high in this Detroit study. During the twelve-month period ending June, 1969, the unemploy­ ment rate in the CEP area averaged 12.2 per cent, nearly twice the 6.7 per cent rate for the entire city of Detroit. Teenage unemployment was especially severe with 36.4 per cent of the teenagers in the CEP area unemployed, compared to 23.0 per cent of the teenagers in the city as a whole who were unemployed. Unemployment for Negro youths was 4 0 per cent in the CEP area compared to an unemployment rate of 34.1 per cent for Negro youths in the city as a whole. Unemployment rates for white teenagers were 18.2 per cent in the CEP area and 13.0 per cent citywide. 23 These figures are significant in the concern for dropouts, since Detroit contributes a larger proportion of youths to the state dropout population than any other single area in Michigan. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid., p . 5. 25 Relationships have been drawn between low income, dropping out of school, and the commitment of delinquent acts by juveniles in studies by Belton Fleisher. 24 Fleisher's studies show a direct relationship between low income and delinquency. The incidence of school leaving is markedly higher among youths from low income families living in areas identified as poverty areas. Fleisher's work shows there is a direct correlation between the date of arrest and the date of dropping out for male youths. This suggests the concern about the school dropout population is directly related to concern about the problems of juvenile delinquency. Moreover, arrest records and convictions greatly affect the young worker's ability to get a job. Employers frequently screen out applicants with such records. The preceding data delineating the extensive numbers of youths comprising the dropout population in Michigan, coupled with data illustrating the severe d i s ­ advantages of individuals of limited educational attain­ ment in their attempts to enter the mainstream of a joboriented society, reinforce the need for an examination of the educational and retraining opportunities available to school dropouts. 24 Silberman, in his massive study, Task Force Report; Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime: The President's Commission on Law Enforce­ ment and Administration of Justice (Washington, D . C . : Government Printing Office, 1967), pp. 306-08. 26 25 Crisis in the Classroom, reinforces the reality that this has become a "credential society," in which the pre­ requisite for what he terms a decent job is at the minimum a high school diploma. It is imperative that what is being done in Michigan to develop educational opportuni­ ties for individuals who have not attained minimal require­ ments for productive participation in society be examined. Scope of the Study The scope of this study involves the identifi­ cation and description of dropout oriented programs existing in those school districts in Michigan having had 100 or more school dropouts during the academic school year 1967-1968. Major areas of discussion con­ cerning those programs identified will be: (1) Characteristics of the identified dropout pro­ grams ; (2) Characteristics of the clientele being served by the identified dropout programs; (3) Characteristics of the personnel staffing the identified dropout programs. The study will rely on a descriptive analysis of the data with the purpose of determining what are actually being offered as dropout programs in order to give a com­ posite picture of the programs being offered and the 25 Silberman, Crisis m the Classroom, pp. 68-69. 27 extent of those programs. Where appropriate the relation­ ship between data about dropout programs in existence and data concerning the demographic character of the school dropout population in Michigan will be examined. As pointed out by Borg, the major purpose of descriptive research in education is to tell "what is." Descriptive studies serve several functions: in the face of conflicting claims it is often of great value to know the current state of the subject. Secondly, it is often a preliminary step to be followed by more rigorous con­ trol and methods of study. Thirdly, descriptive studies are widely used as the basis for internal evaluation and educational planning by alert school systems. 26 Population Michigan school districts having 100 or more dropouts annually will be studied. The following assumptions are the basis for selecting 100 as the number of dropouts determining that a school district shall be included in the study: 1. The Michigan Department of Education uses as one criteria for defining an Area of High Concentration of School Dropouts 100 or more total dropouts in 2g Walter R. Borg, Educational Research: An Introduction (New York: David McKay Company, In c ., 1963) , p. 202. 28 a school district. This criteria is used in the allocating of government funds for the support of special programs. 2. 27 Of the 100 students, perhaps half of them (50) might stay in the community and, therefore, be visible as youths of school age who are not in school. Thus, the interest of the community and school officials would likely be aroused to pro­ vide facilities oriented to such youths. 3. Hopefully half the students remaining in the com­ munity (25) might be persuaded to become involved in an educational program directed to their needs. It was assumed this number of participants would probably be necessary in order for funding to be obtained for a special program. According to data from the State Department of Education there were fifty-seven school districts in Michigan having reported 100 or more dropouts during the academic year 1967-1968. These are the districts to be included in this study. 27 Michigan, Department of Education, Michigan Guide for the Administration of Vocational-Technical Edu­ cation Programs Under the Provisions of the Vocational Edu­ cation Amendments of 1968 under the Vocational Education Act of 1963 , Lansing, Michigan, January, 1970, p. 77. (Hereinafter referred to as Michigan Guide for Education Programs.) 29 Questions to be Explored The major question to be explored in this study is what has been accomplished in this state in the estab­ lishment of programs to serve the needs of school drop­ outs, and what yet remains to be done? To get at this question a number of other questions must be raised and answered. First, what are the charac­ teristics shown by research, to be common to most school dropouts, and what programmatic needs do these charac­ teristics imply? This question will be examined through the review of selected research literature concerning school dropouts. Secondly, the extent of need must be identified. Data concerning the general school dropout picture throughout Michigan has been cited in the introduction of this chapter and in the section establishing the need for the study under the heading, Dropout Problem in Michigan." "Dimensions of the School Further, demographic data about the dropout population will be cited where appro­ priate throughout the body of the study. The questions to be answered about the dropout programs themselves fall into three general areas. The first includes the characteristics of the programs them­ selves, such as data concerning curriculum, facilities, and funding. The second general area includes 30 characteristics of the clientele being served, and the third concerns the characteristics of the staff working in the dropout programs. Of particular concern will be relationships between the programs available and the known needs of the dropout population, such as: Are programs available sufficient in capacity to serve the numbers of youths needing help? Are curricular offerings geared to the academic and vocational needs of out-of-school youths, at least so far as those needs are known? — Are counseling services available for the personal and vocational concerns of youths who have dropped out of school? Sources of Data Questionnaire I All fifty-seven school districts having had 100 or more dropouts during the academic year 1967-1968 were surveyed by means of a simple questionnaire sent to the superintendent of each district as Questionnaire I ) . (hereafter referred to This questionnaire, along with a letter explaining the purposes of the study, requested each superintendent to identify any programs in his area directed to the needs of school dropouts. Each superin­ tendent was asked to supply names of individuals 31 who could give more information about existing programs, or to so indicate if, to his knowledge there were no such programs available in his area. A follow-up letter was sent to those superin­ tendents who had not replied within three weeks. Questionnaire II Questionnaire II was sent to each of the indi­ viduals identified by school district superintendents in responses to Questionnaire I. A cover letter explaining the purposes of the study accompanied the questionnaire. Questionnaire II addressed specific questions about characteristics of the dropout programs themselves, characteristics of clientele participating in the pro­ gram, and characteristics of program staff members. Follow-up to Questionnaire II consisted of a second mailing, phone and personal contact with program administrators. Interview Schedule An interview schedule was developed which related to the curriculum of dropout programs. This was admin­ istered in personal interviews with 20 per cent of the program administrators participating in the study. 32 Limitations of the Study This study is limited for the following reasons: 1. Initial identification of dropout programs depends on the knowledge of available programs by the district superintendents and on the perceptions of superintendents concerning dropout programs existing in the district. However, the initial survey form does not limit what could be con­ sidered a dropout program, as long as a program is designed to serve the needs of dropouts. It does suggest the inclusion of any of the follow­ ing: programs intended to reinvolve dropouts in school, programs for vocational training, programs offering an alternative method of receiving a high school diploma, and programs offered through a special school. 2. Data obtained from dropout programs themselves may be limited in some areas, due to many programs not keeping precise and extensive data. However, this lack of information in itself may pinpoint a possible need in the area of dropout program planning: a current lack of systematic data about what is being done, and the need for sys­ tematic data-keeping in order to implement maximum effectiveness in program planning. 33 Definition of Terms School Dropout.— According to the Michigan Department of Education a student of the Michigan schools is considered a dropout if he or she is dropped from the school membership roll for any reason except death prior to graduation or completion of a program of studies, and fails to make provisions to transfer to another school which would provide courses leading to the completion of a high school education. 28 Dropout Rate.— The dropout rate is determined by dividing the number of dropouts by the membership 29 figure. Potential Dropout.— A student considered likely to drop out of school prior to graduation. Such students are identified by such prognostic dropout signals as truanting and cutting classes, serious academic under­ functioning, especially grade and subject failures, marked lack of interest in school, and behavior problems serious enough to interfere with school progress. O O Statistical Bulletin 4007. 29Ibid. 30 Lichter, et a l ., The Drop-Outs, p. 6 30 34 Innovation.— A deliberate, novel, specific change which is thought to be more efficacious in accomplishing the goals of a system. 31 Areas of High Concentration of School Dropouts.— The areas in which there is a concentration of school dropouts consist of those school districts where the dropout rate is equal to or exceeds the state dropout average and there are 100 or more total dropouts. Local school districts may combine efforts in providing suf­ ficient students to offer a program if their dropout rate is equal to or exceeds the state average. 32 Cooperative Vocational Education.— A program of vocational education for persons who, through a coopera­ tive arrangement between the school and employers, receive instruction, including required academic courses and related vocational instruction by the alternation of study in school with a job in an occupational field. These experiences must be planned and supervised by the school and employers so that each contributes to the stu­ dent's education and to his employability. Work periods and school attendance may be on alternate half days, full 31 Matthew B. Miles, ed., Innovation m Education (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964), p. 14. 32 Michigan Guide for Education Programs, p. 77. 35 days, weeks, or other periods of time in fulfilling the cooperative vocational education program. 33 Work-Study Programs.— -Work-study is designed to provide part-time employment for youth who need the earn­ ings from such employment to continue their vocational education programs on a full-time basis. It is a student assistance program in which only public agencies are eligible to participate as employers. Standard Metropolitan Statistical A r eas.— An SMSA is a county or group of contiguous counties which contains at least one city of 50,000 inhabitants or more, or "twin cities" with a combined population of at least 50,000. In addition to the county, or counties, containing such a city or cities, contiguous counties are included in a SMSA if, according to certain criteria, they are essen­ tially metropolitan in character and are socially and economically integrated with the central city. 35 Organization of the Study This chapter has attempted to structure a frame of reference, or setting for the study, which delineates social and economic conditions as they relate to school ~^I b i d . , p. 55. 35 ~^Ibid. , p. 99. U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 200, "Household and Family Characteristics," March, 1969, 1970. 36 dropouts. These conditions are currently stimulating heightened interest in school dropout programs. Chapter II includes a review of selected research literature relating to the characteristics of school dropouts and briefly describes a selected number of promising dropout program formats currently attracting attention. Chapter III describes the procedures used in developing and conducting the study. Chapter IV consists of the presentation and analysis of data. Chapter V presents a summary of the conclusions drawn, and makes recommendations developed on the basis of the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH Introduction To develop programs to meet the needs of actual and potential school dropouts effectively, it is impera­ tive that what is known about youths who drop out of school before graduation be carefully examined. This chapter will review selected studies in order to deter­ mine significant factors and identify symptoms and charac­ teristics which influence certain youths to drop out of school. These studies are useful in analyzing, planning, and implementing programs intended to meet the identifiable needs of actual and potential dropouts. Research has been done on numerous factors related to dropping out of school. Some are age, sex, grade reached at the time of school leaving, courses taken, intelligence level, scholastic grades, achievement test scores, frequency of school transfer, and school failure record. Others include grade retardation, health and physical handicaps, personal appearance, participation in extra-curricular activities, leadership, emotional drive, social ideals, adjustment to opposite sex, race, 37 38 socio-economic class, attitude towards classmates and teachers, and reasons given for dropping out.'*' Even these do not exhaust the variables which have been studied. Yet, Miller can state, "Adequate information 2 on dropouts is lacking." Perhaps this is so because, as in all research, while recognizing that many factors may influence dropping out, studies are inclined to stress the orientation of the investigator through the design and method of conducting the study. 3 In a review of dropout studies Varner observed: Methods of study are almost as numerous as the studies themselves. Researchers report contra­ dictory results of investigation of the same factor. While some disagreement may result from the difference in populations studied . . . many contrasting conclusions may be attributed to the design and conduct of the s t u d y . 4 Varner also discussed the influence of the orientation and academic background of the investigator. These Ruth C. Penty, Reading Ability and High School Dropouts (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1956), p. 4. (Hereinafter referred to as Penty, Reading Ability .) 2 S. M. Miller, "Dropouts— A Political Problem," in Profile of the School Dropout, ed. by Daniel Schreiber (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), p. 184. (Hereinafter referred to as Miller, "Dropouts.") 3 Sherrell E. Varner, School Dropouts, Research Summary 1967-sl (Washington, D .C .: Research Division, National Education Association, 1967), p. 9. (Hereinafter referred to as Varner, School Dropouts.) ^Ibid. 39 factors were cited as influences on the data sought and the ensuing interpretation of results. . . . we might cite characteristics (of dropouts) under the general headings: (a) the school's view of the dropout (emphasis on such factors as lack of intelligence, interest, or persistence); (b) the social scientist views the dropout (emphasis on the family and community environment); (c) the behavioral scientist views the dropout (emphasis on personality factors). While the investigators so classified may not consider these factors the only characteristics associated with school withdrawal, their inclinations are reflected in their writing.5 In a similar vein, Miller wrote: Discussions about dropouts are too broad and too narrow. They are too broad because they seem to assume that the category of dropouts is a homogeneous one and that little variation exists within the cate­ gory. The discussions are too narrow because they do not adequately look upon the problems of dropouts as economic and political issues, but mainly as edu­ cational ones.6 An important factor in the selection of population in some influential studies may be significant when viewed from the perspective of 1971. as Dillon (1949)^ and Hecker Some earlier studies, such (1956),^ included in their ^Ib i d . ^Miller, "Dropouts." 7 Harold J. Dillon, Early School Leavers: A Major Educational Problem (New York: National child Labor Com­ mittee Publication No. 401, National Child Labor Com­ mittee, 1949) . (Hereinafter referred to as Dillon, Early School Leavers.) 8 Stanley E. Hecker, Early School Leavers in Ken­ tucky (Lexington: University of Kentucky, Bulletin of School Service, College of Education, No. 4, June, 1953). (Hereinafter referred to as Hecker, Leavers in Kentucky.) 40 sample dropout populations only those youths who had left school voluntarily. Many educators now believe that a significant portion of school dropouts are "pushouts"— students who have either been explicitly expelled or who have had remaining in school made so uncomfortable because of discipline problems and the like, that dropping out was really their only viable alternative. 9 Whether this selectivity in choosing out-of-school youths for sample dropout populations significantly alters results of the studies is debatable. In any case, this selectivity should be recognized. Trends in Research NEA Research Summary on school dropouts notes a trend in dropout research studies: (1967) while early studies concentrated on reasons for dropping out, later work is moving toward looking at factors associated with dropping out: The trend in research seems to be to term what were first considered "reasons" for dropping out as "fac­ tors associated with dropping out." Instead of one simple cause, there seems to be a cluster of factors associated with dropping out. What may be the major reason for one child's withdrawal may be only inci­ dental to another. The reported "reason" may be only the last of a long list of precipitation causes. It is difficult to group factors associated with early school withdrawal into neat, mutually exclusive classi­ fications. Though usually studied separately, factors are so interrelated (e.g., parents' education and ^Miller, "Dropouts," p. 187. 41 family income; feelings of not belonging and non­ participation in school activities) that categori­ zation may be artificial and meaningless.10 Thus Varner found that current research indicates that many factors may be interrelated in influencing the decision to drop out of school, and that the precipi­ tating factor may vary from one student to another. Though, as cited above, it becomes difficult to neatly classify the many factors into mutually exclusive groups, it is possible to indicate some general classifications: Research has shown that rather than a single cause, there is usually a cluster of factors associated with school withdrawal or characteristics of the school dropouts. These characteristics may be found in one or more of the areas of (a) factors unique to the individual, (b) school-related factors, (c) family-related factors, or (d) community-related factors.11 This data suggests that the school dropout popu­ lation may not be a homogeneous group. This in itself has implications for planning programs to meet the needs of school dropouts. However, this group of youths is clearly homogeneous on one variable: by definition they have left school before high school graduation. The following review of related research will focus upon searching for common threads influencing the decision to leave school early. It will attempt to discover if there are characteristics ^Varner, School Dropouts, p. 12. ^ I b i d . , p. 47 . 42 which distinguish the school dropouts from those students who stay in school to graduate. Are there factors common enough to large segments of the dropout population to warrant serious consideration in planning programs to meet the needs of these youths? Characteristics of School Dropouts Age at Dropping Out A composite picture can be drawn from a study of the variables affecting the dropout population. of these variables is age. The first The New York Regents Inquiry 12 reported about a fifth of the New York dropouts left school as soon as state minimum age attendance laws permitted them to do so. Dillon 13 found the majority of dropouts have terminated their education by the time they are sixteen years old. Hecker, 14 in a study of Kentucky school dropouts, reported that 4 6 per cent of dropouts for whom data was available discontinued their education at age sixteen. Sixteen per cent of the dropouts for whom data was 12 Ruth E. Eckert and Thomas 0. Marshall, When Youth Leave School; Report of the New York Regents1 Inquiry (New York; McGraw Hill Inc., 1938), p . 41. (Here­ inafter referred to as Eckert and Marshall, When Youth Leave School.) 13 14 . Dillon, Early School Leavers, p. 26. Hecker, Leavers m Kentucky, p. 36. 43 available had dropped out before reaching age sixteen, despite the law requiring compulsory school attendance until the student's sixteenth birthday. Fifty-six per cent of the dropouts leaving prior to their sixteenth birthday were overage for the grade they had been attending at the time of dropping out. The percentages of students dropping out at ages fourteen through eighteen and over in the population examined by Hecker appear in Table 10. TABLE 10.— Age at dropping out. Source: Age Percentage of Dropouts 14 15 16 17 18 and over 3 13 46 22 16 Stanley E. Hecker, Early School Leavers in Ken­ tucky (Lexington: University of Kentucky, Bulletin of School Service, College of Education, No. 4, June, 1953), p. 36. These studies show a close relationship between the age at which students may legally terminate their edu­ cation, and the age at which dropping out is predominant. Moreover, many students do leave school before it is legally permissible. 44 Grade at Dropping Out Dillon 16 reported the largest group of early school leavers dropped out at tenth grade; the second largest group, at grade nine. Boys tend to drop out at earlier grade levels than girls. Dillon also reported over half the students dropping out were retarded one or more grades at the time they left school. Percentages, as reported by Dillon, of students dropping out at grades seven through twelve are in Table 11. TABLE 11.— Grade distribution of 1,171 early school leavers. Grade Percentage of Students Dropping Out 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 10 26 37 19 5 Source: Harold J. Dillon, Early School Leavers: A Major Educational Problem (New York: National Child Labor Committee Publication No. 4 01, National Child Labor Committee, 194 9), p. 26. The New York Regents Inquiry reported similar findings: "The typical withdrawing pupil leaves before the close of tenth grade . . ." 16 17 p. 39. 17 Dillon, Early School Leavers, p. 26. Eckert and Marshall, When Youth Leave School, 45 He c k e r 's Kentucky study 18 reported the largest group of boys of early school leavers (29 per cent) left in tenth grade; the largest group of girls left in eleventh g r ade. Penty 19 investigated grade at dropping out m relation to reading skill. tenth grade Dropping out during or after (the peak period for poor readers) was 54 per cent higher for poor readers than for good readers. Fifty and four-tenths per cent more poor readers than good readers dropped out during or after eleventh grade, and dropping out of poor readers was 5.6 per cent higher than for good readers in twelfth grade. Thus, at every grade level poor readers were more dropout prone than good readers, with tenth grade the peak period for dropping out. Assuming normal progression through school grades and that most students start first grade at six years of age, the student usually is in the tenth grade at age sixteen. This, combined with the fact that many students dropping out before tenth grade are over age for the grade in which they were in at the time they dropped out, 18 19 Hecker, Leavers in Kentucky, pp. 36-37. Penty, Reading Ability, pp. 21-22. 46 indicates there is a close relationship between dropping out and reaching the legal age limit for compulsory school attendance. Sex of Dropouts The New York Regents Inquiry (1938) 20 reported that boys constitute 55 per cent of the group withdrawing from school prior to graduation, with only about 45 per cent of the graduating classes comprised of boys. Dillon (1949) 21 reported 8 per cent more dropouts were boys than girls, with boys comprising 54 per cent of the dropouts, girls, 4 0 per cent. Hecker 22 reported that from 1948 through 1950 55 per cent of the early withdrawals were boys; 4 5 per cent were girls. Statistics reported by the Michigan Department of Education show that in 1967-1968 56.9 per cent of school dropouts in Michigan were male; 41.4 per cent were female. 23 (School districts did not report male-female distribution for 1.7 per cent of the 1967-1968 dropouts.) These data show the percentage of male dropouts to female dropouts remain quite consistent over time and 20 Eckert and Marshall, When Youth Leave School, p . 38. 21 22 23 Dillon, Early School Leavers, p. 23. Hecker, Leavers m Kentucky, p. 32. Derived from Statistical Bulletin 4007. 47 in varying areas of the country. Many studies, in citing the statistics, stress the fact that chances of dropping out are higher for boys than for girls. However, these same studies show this chance to be only approximately 10 per cent greater. Since the data indicate that girls comprise around 4 5 per cent of the dropout population, it is important that concern for female dropouts not be inadvertently minimized through emphasis on male dropouts. Health of Dropouts Hecker 24 asked each of 1,297 dropouts to indicate by means of a check list, his reasons for withdrawing from school. Forty-four students, or 3 per cent, gave ill health as a motivating force. Dillon 25 reported 5 per cent of 957 youths listed ill health as a primary reason for school withdrawal: 3 per cent gave ill health as a secondary reason, with preferring to work as the primary reason; 1 per cent gave ill health as a secondary reason with the need for money as the primary reason; 2 per cent gave ill health as a secondary reason with lack of interest in school as the primary reason for dropping out. Ranking reasons given for leaving school in order frequency, ill health falls in eleventh of twelve places in this study. 24 25 Hecker, Leavers in Kentucky, p. 26. Dillon, Early School Leavers, p. 50. 48 Pregnancy among high school girls rarely appears in the literature as a cause for dropping out. Currently, however, this factor is gaining public attention. Richard Woodbury 26 states in a recent Life magazine article concerning high school pregnancy: Until a few years ago, the nation's public schools dealt with teen-age pregnancies by expelling the girls or putting pressure on them to leave. This study predicts that 200,000 teen-age girls will become mothers in 1971, and cites research concluding that 75 per cent of pregnant girls drop out of school. A Grand Rapids, Michigan study 27 points out pregnancy as the largest single cause of female high school dropouts, and cites research making a projection similar to Woodbury's that over 200,000 girls would drop out of school in the United States in 197 0 because they were pregnant. This study cites data on teen-age preg­ nancies in Michigan, drawn from the Michigan Youth Com­ mission's One-Parent Family Committee study of October, 1967, showing that the largest ratio of illegitimate births to total births occurs to white and non-white 2 f) Richard Woodbury, "Help For High School Mothers," Life, L X X , No. 12 (April 2, 1971), p. 35. 27 Ronald C. Calsbeek, "Director's Report and Pro­ gram Statistics, Nov. 1, 1968 to Jan. 19, 1970," Park School: Program for Pregnant Girls, Grand Rapids, Michigan, p. 1. (Mimeographed.) (Hereinafter referred to as "Director's Report.") 49 girls in the ages under nineteen years. 28 These data differ from the rest of the nation in that nationally the highest rate of births out of wedlock occurs for women between twenty-five and twenty-nine. There were 3,847 illegitimate births to girls under nineteen in 1960 in Michigan; 5,561. in 1965 the number had increased to In 1960 girls between ages fourteen and nineteen accounted for 4 6.4 per cent of the total illegitimate births in Michigan; in 1965 these girls accounted for 4 9.6 per cent of such births. 29 If, in fact, the estimate that 75 per cent of pregnant girls drop out of school is accurate, then the preceding figures have serious impli­ cations for dropout program development. Data for one Michigan County is useful in clarify­ ing the dimensions of the problem of teen-age pregnancy, and in illustrating current trends. In 1967 Kent County recorded five hundred sixty-seven (567) illegitimate births. Of this number, it was estimated that two hundred twenty-six (226) were teenagers. It is important that these statistics compiled by the Kent County Health Department be compared to findings of a similar study conducted by the Department in 1960. At that time, Kent County reported only two hundred sixty (260) ille­ gitimate births. Even if one allows for improved 28 Michigan Youth Commission, "One-Parent Family Committee Study Report, October, 1967," cited by Ronald C. Calsbeek, Director's Report and Program Statistics, Nov. 1, 1968 to Jan. 19, 1970, Park School: Program for Pregnant Girls, Grand Rapids, Michigan, p. 1. (Mimeographed.) 2 9Ibid. Tu •j 50 statistical investigation, the increase in these births was obviously too great to be ignored. The Kent County study also found that the greatest per­ centage of increase was within the white middleclass population. This trend is true not only of Kent County, but of the nation as a w h o l e . 3 0 Of the high school age mothers attending one special edu­ cational program designed for this population, about 66 per cent of the girls have kept their babies. 31 For those girls who do keep their babies rather than allowing them to be adopted, the immediate implications of provid­ ing for the mothers' needs are two-fold: the quality of the life of the teen-age mother will certainly be crucial in determining the quality of the life of her child. Considerable concern also currently exists about the relationship between serious physical and mental handicaps and dropping out. Havighurst states that 2 or 3 per cent of boys and girls have serious mental and physical handicaps which obviously interfere with their progress to competent adulthood. 32 Some of them are slow to learn, with I.Q.'s below 75 or 8 0 that place them in the group defined as the 30 Calsbeek, "Director's Report," p. 1. ~^Ibid. , p . 7 . 32 Robert J. Havighurst and Lindley J. Stiles, "A Statement of National Policy for Alienated Youth," in Society and Education: A Book of Readings, ed. by Robert J. Havighurst, Bernice L. Neugarten, and Jacqueline M. Falk (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1967), p. 266. (Herein­ after referred to as Havighurst and Stiles, "Statement of Policy.") 51 "educable mentally handicapped." Others are deaf, blind or crippled, or afflicted with cerebral palsy. While it is next to impossible to provide opportuni­ ties that will equate their chances for satisfactory growth with those enjoyed by the normal youngster, society has made substantial effort in this direction.33 Intelligence of Dropouts Concerning intelligence of school dropouts Varner stated, "A popular and enduring assumption is that school dropouts have low mental ability, usually lower than school persisters." 34 Most research studies bear out this assumption; however, at the same time most research studies also clearly indicate that among the dropout popu­ lation there is heterogeneity in measured intelligence levels, and that there is considerable overlap in measured intelligence levels between school dropouts and high school graduates. Eckert and Marshall found: . . . the differences between withdrawing pupils and graduates is so pronounced on the Otis Quick Scoring Test of Mental Ability as to suggest that fundamental scholastic ability is a paramount reason for early withdrawal. The average graduate surpasses about 85 percent of withdrawing pupils with respect to academic potentiality, as measured by current intel­ ligence tests.35 33 34 Ibid. Varner, School Dropouts, p. 13. 35 Eckert and Marshall, When Youth Leave School, p. 50. 52 While noting that pronounced differences do appear in average performance on intelligence tests between dropouts and graduates, this study pointed out that considerable overlapping in ability appears between pupils who with­ draw early and those who remain to graduate, with many graduates showing ability that is inferior to that of withdrawing students. The final conclusion arrived at in the Eckert and Marshall study is that: A marked tendency exists for the less academically able students, as measured by both aptitude test results and school marks, to withdraw at low grade levels. On the average, the less competent a pupil has shown himself to be in meeting school tasks, the more quickly he is released to face adult problems. Those who will be least able to acquire socially useful habits and points of view without formal instruction are those to whom the school has given the least attention.36 Smith 37 obtained intelligence test data for 107 youths who did not graduate from Syracuse, New York, schools between 1945 and 1949. two showed i.Q.'s below 75. Of these dropouts only Forty-six had I.Q.'s between 75 and 94, and fifty-nine had I.Q.'s of 95 and above. Further analysis of the data showed the following results: The median of the group was approximately 98. It is clear from these data that on the basis of their ~^Ibid. , pp. 67-68. 37 Harry P. Smith, Syracuse Youth Who Did Not Graduate: A Study of Youth Who Withdrew From SchooT Before High School Graduation 1945-1949 (Syracuse, New York: Board of Education Research Division, 1950), p. 33. (Hereinafter referred to as Smith, Syracuse Youth.) 53 scholastic aptitude test scores, considerably half of these dropouts had the ability to do satisfactory secondary school work as it is now organized. . . . Another interesting fact to be noted from this dis­ tribution is that the lower I.Q. groups tended to withdraw from school earlier than the higher I.Q. groups, though this tendency is not well m a r k e d . 38 39 Dillon, who found nearly one-fifth of the school dropouts studied had I.Q.'s above 105, noted that students in this I.Q. range are generally recognized as having intelligence adequate for post-high school education. Table 12 shows the I.Q. distribution found for the 1,084 school leavers included in this study. 40 TABLE 12.— I.Q. distribution of 1,084 school leavers. I.Q • above 114 Number 95-114 85-94 below 85 Total 56 138 238 226 386 1,084 5 12 22 25 36 100 Percentage Source: 105-115 Dillon, Early School Leavers: A Major Educational Problem (New Y o r k : National Child Labor Committee Publication No. 401, National Child Labor Com­ mittee, 1949), p. 34. In analyzing these data, Dillon stressed, " . . . uniformly low test scores do not seem to be 3 8—1 . , Ibid. 39 Dillon, Early School Leavers, p. 34 4 0 Ibid. _i_ •j 54 characteristic of the early school leavers, since . . . 5% had I.Q.'s above 114 and nearly one-fifth had I.Q.'s above 105.”^ Hecker 42 found an intelligence quotient distri­ bution among dropouts similar to that shown in Dillon's earlier study. Table 13 illustrates the distribution shown in this Kentucky study: 43 TABLE 13.— Intelligence quotient of 674 early school leavers of Kentucky— 1948-1950. I.Q • ai°r Number 95-114 85-94 below 85 Total 42 71 153 223 185 674 6 11 23 33 27 100 Percentage Source: io5-115 Stanley E. Hecker, Early School Leavers in Ken­ tucky (Lexington: University of Kentucky, Bulletin of School Service, College of Edu­ cation, No. 4, June, 1953), p. 38. A comparison of data obtained by Dillon and Hecker shows marked similarity in the distribution of I.Q. levels among the dropout population. Hecker, in addition to analyzing I.Q. levels for the dropout population as a whole, examined the Ibid. 42 Hecker, Early School Leavers, p. 38, 43T, ., Ibid. 55 relationship of I.Q. level to grade at dropping out. Data show a relationship between low I.Q. level and low grade level at dropping: . . . no youth having an intelligence score of over 114 left school until tenth grade. Seventy-five percent of this group terminated their secondary education in eleventh or twelfth grade . . . of the 185 non-graduates whose scores were below 85, a total of 194 leavers or 57 percent left school before enrolling in tenth grade, while only eight, or four percent, remained to enroll in twelfth grade. Thus, those least able pupils as determined by intelligence test scores, who are more poorly trained in the responsibilities associated with ^ democratic life are eliminated from school first. Penty compared intelligence quotient data of drop­ outs and of students who remained in school to graduate. Both these dropouts and graduates had been classified as poor readers, as differentiated from good readers in Penty's study. These graduates and dropouts were both in the lowest quarter of their classes in terms of achievement levels. Table 14 shows the intelligence quotient data on the two groups of youths. 45 In analyzing these data Penty concluded: . . . neither the difference between the range of intelligence quotients of the dropouts and graduates, nor the difference between the quotients of these groups at the respective statistical points— the median, the mean, the highest and lowest quartile— seem great enough to make much difference in the educability of the students. Statistically, how­ ever, the difference between the mean I.Q. of the poor readers who dropped out and the poor readers 44 45 Ibid., p . 42. Penty, Reading Ability, p. 24. 56 TABLE 14.— Intelligence quotients of poor readers— dropouts and graduates. Drop-Outs (N=276) Graduates (N=270) Range 53-116 51-120 Median 84.0 88.0 Mean 83.6 93.0 Highest Quartile 90.0 93.0 Lowest Quartile 77.0 81.0 Intelligence Score Source: Ruth C. Penty, Reading Ability and High School Dropouts (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1956) , p . 24 . who remained to graduate is significant at the .01 level. . . . In considering these intelligence quotients, it must be borne in mind that the Otis Test on Mental Ability, on which quotients were based, is an instrument that required reading ability. It may therefore be assumed that the stu­ dents who had potential for growth in reading and were tested on this test might have tested higher on a test which requires little or no reading.4 6 Penty's research showed that dropouts and graduates had an almost equally high potential for reading growth. A New Haven study of lower socioeconomic stu­ dents who entered school in 1950 and had passed their juvenile years by 1962 showed: Intelligence is strongly related to the dropout rate. More than half the youngsters with below average intelligence leave school, compared with 9 percent 46Ibid., pp. 24-25. 57 of those with above average intelligence. . . . About a third of those with average or above average intel­ ligence drop out.47 The n .E.a . Research Summary summarized available data relating intelligence to dropping out through 1967 as follows: It must be concluded that the range of I.Q. scores for dropouts is great, both within and among studies. Some dropouts have high measured intelligence, some graduates have low measured intelligence. In most studies dropouts had a lower average intelligence than graduates; in some there were apparently no differences. In no study reported, however, did dropouts average higher intelligence than graduates. Based on available research relating the factor of measured intelligence to dropping out, it may be con­ cluded that on the whole the average measured I.Q. level of dropouts is likely to be lower than that of graduates; the range of measured intelligence levels of dropouts is wide and not dissimilar to that of the general population, and that there is considerable overlap between the intel­ ligence levels of graduates and dropouts. Most investi­ gators cite that approximately half the students dropping out of school before graduation have the intellectual 47 Erdman Palmore, "Factors Associated With School Dropouts and Juvenile Delinquency Among Lower Class Chil­ dren," in Society and Education: A Book of Readings, ed. by Robert Havighurst, Bernice L. Neugarten, and Jacqueline M. Falk (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1967) , p. 260. (Hereinafter referred to as Palmore, "Factors Associated With School Dropouts.") 48 Varner, School Dropouts, p. 13. 58 capacity as measured in intelligence tests to complete high school work successfully. It is of further concern that the greater portion of those dropouts having intelligence test scores on the lower end of the scale are still within the range con­ sidered to be educable. These individuals will function as citizens in society, with or without further education. It is the concern of those educators cited above (i.e., Dillon, Hecker, Eckert and Marshall, Penty, etc.) that ways be found to help such students participate more effectively and constructively in a democratic society. Reading Achievement Strang cited competency in reading as the key skill for learning, essential for success in all academic subjects, and as a skill having great value for the personal development of an individual. 49 Reading is also considered as a necessary vocational skill: Reading is an entrance into almost all vocations. Even routine mechanical work in a factory demands the reading of some material, such as basic rules, safety signs, and changes in regulations. Since many industrial accidents have been traced to employees' failure to read and comprehend signs and directions relating to safety, some firms now require that their personnel have at least a fourthgrade level of reading ability. The skilled trades 49 Ruth C. Strang, Constance McCullough, and Arther E. Traxler, The Improvement of Reading (4th ed.; New York: McGraw Hill, 1967), p. 59 require considerably more reading for the best quality of work and the integration of new prac­ tices .->0 The intellectual preparation with which a child begins school is considered to be crucial to his success in school achievement, including that of reading. Chil­ dren from homes where there is little verbal contact between parents and children, where conditions are fre­ quently noisy and crowded, and where reading materials are infrequently used and are not readily available are at a severe disadvantage in their preparation for learning to read. Children reared in such an environment show deficits in perceptual development, in attitudes toward academic activities, and have not usually gained a gen­ erally positive orientation which is necessary for learnmg how to learn. 51 Strang summarized the plight of such a child as he embarks on his school experience, particu­ larly as it relates to the task of reading, as follows: Briefly, as a result of combinations of unfavorable conditions at home and at school, disadvantaged young people may be physically below par, substandard in their speech, and restricted in their experiences. They are frequently weak in abstract thinking, con­ ceptualization, auditory discrimination, and perceptual styles necessary for success in reading. Their feel­ ings of inadequacy and inferiority may determine how they approach the reading task.52 ~*^Ibid. , p. 49. ^ I b i d . , p . 431. 51Ibid., pp. 427-28. 60 Strang stressed that the combination of these many factors results in a lack of readiness for school. A child from such an educationally deprived background will likely experience difficulties in accomplishing the first tasks expected within the school curriculum which are keys for success later on. One primary such task is that of learning to read. In introducing her study of reading ability and high school dropouts, Penty pointed out that although edu­ cators hold many hunches about the relation of reading ability and early school leaving, there is meager data bearing on this relationship. 53 Penty's study contributed significantly to the available empirical evidence. Penty compared 593 good readers with 593 poor readers over a period of four years (1947-1951) and found that 49.9 per cent of the poor readers dropped out of high school during this period, while only 14.5 per cent of the good readers dropped out during the same time. 54 Poor readers were defined as those students in the lowest quarter of their class at the time of their last reading test; good readers were those in the upper quarter of their class. 55 The range of reading scores of the poor readers showed they 53 54 Penty, Reading Ability, pp. 7-11. Ibid., p. 51. 55 Ibid., p. 11. 61 were reading from fourth grade, third-month level to c sixth grade, ninth-month level. The sample population included students in grades nine through twelve. Along with the fact that nearly half of the poor readers dropped out of school compared to only 14.5 per cent of the good readers who dropped out, Penty was inter­ ested in the fact that nearly half the poor readers did manage to stay in school to graduate. In an attempt to locate factors which influenced the decision to stay in and graduate or to drop out, students included in both the poor reader group and the good reader group were interviewed after dropping out or graduation as to why they had either dropped out or stayed to graduate. Answers from the interviews were compared with reasons given by these same youths at the time of dropping out, and reasons suggested by counselors at the time of drop­ ping out. Conclusions drawn from this segment of the study emphasized the multiplicity of reasons why boys and girls leave school, and: . . . [the interviews] also point out the influence which reading difficulty had in causing young people to make a decision to leave school when that diffi­ culty caused them to fail subjects, to receive low grades, to feel inadequate, to feel that they were not able to learn through reading as did most of the other students in their classes, or to be otherwise affected emotionally.57 ^ I b i d ., p . 46 . 62 Penty concluded the family attitude might have been a factor in determining whether or not youths, particularly poor readers, stayed in school. In the dropout group most of the parents had not completed high school, and fewer siblings of dropouts than of graduates had com­ pleted school. Many dropouts, when interviewed by Penty, stated they had felt the need for money while they were attending school, had the feeling they could not dress as well as other students, and had felt ashamed of the home in which they lived. 58 The comparison of the poor reader dropouts to those students who were poor readers but who had grad­ uated is marked. These students expressed a strong personal desire to graduate as motivation for staying in school, cited family expectations, interest in spe­ cific subjects, and enjoyment of participation in extracurricular activities. 59 The graduates lived in better homes, located in desirable parts of the city-than did the dropouts, and they seemed less disturbed by financial problems. There was evidence of greater home support and home stability in the background of the graduates than in that of the dropouts. Interview data also revealed that emotional and social adjustment of graduates was better than that of d r o p o u t s . 60 Problems and conditions most regularly associated with early school leaving found in this study were: ^ Ibid . , p . 47 . ^ I b i d . , p. 58 . 59 Ibid., pp. 45-50. 63 (1) frequent academic failure, (3) lack of school friends, school activities, financial problems, encouragement, and (2) reading difficulty, (4) non-participation in (5) feeling of inferiority, (6) (7) lack of home security and (8) family history of early school dropout.^ On the basis of Penty's study one can conclude good readers are more likely to stay in school to graduate under any circumstances than are poor readers, while for youngsters whose circumstances are tenuous, difficulty with reading is likely to be the proverbial "straw that breaks the camel's back" in tipping their decision to leave school. Socio-Economic Status Socio-economic status and its relationship to dropping out of school has been emphasized since the inception of the War on Poverty during the 1960's. 62 However, concern for the relationship between low socio­ economic status and dropping out is not a new insight or concern. Eckert and Marshall found in 1938 that students coming from poor families had much less chance for survival in school than those from more favored circumstances. 61Ibid., p. 75. 62 Varner, School Dropouts, p. 7. 64 So severely handicapped are withdrawing pupils that almost one out of every two belongs to a family classified as poor or indigent. Only one in twenty was reported to be living in comfortable or wealthy homes. Among the graduates studied only one in five is placed in the two lowest (socio-economic) cate­ gories . The existence of a kind of economic determinism becomes much clearer when those pupils who withdraw before graduation are studied according to grade placement. Almost two out of every three pupils who drop out of school below the ninth grade came from homes rated as poor or on relief. This p r o ­ portion decreased consistently for those leaving at higher grade levels, so that less than one in three, or half as many pupils withdrawing from the twelfth grade showed the same h a n d i c a p . 63 H. W. Hand,studying the relationship between socio-economic status and dropping out of school, wrote in 1949: Every major research on the subject reveals that the accident of birth in an economic sense determines to a marked degree who shall and who shall not be privi­ leged to go to high school and who shall not continue on to graduation.64 Hand's interest was in the hidden costs of a high school education, although in theory the public school is tuition free. This interest was based on studies by such C.C authorities as Eckert and Marshall relating early 63 Eckert and Marshall, When Youth Leave School, p. 72. 64 Harold C. Hand, How to Conduct the Hidden Tuition Cost Study, Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program, Bulletin No. 4, Curricular Series A, No. 51 (Springfield, 111.: Office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, May, 1949), p. 4. (Hereinafter referred to as Hand, Tuition Cost Study.) 65 Eckert and Marshall, When Youth Leave School. 65 withdrawal from school to low family income. It also grew out of Hand's own study conducted in 1947-1948 which showed that "generally speaking, the economic factor made a great deal of difference in what students participated in extra-class activities during their high school career."^ Extra class activities included playing on athletic teams, belonging to clubs, attending athletic events, going to dances, and gaining leadership positions such as presidencies and captaincies. The study showed those students participating in such activities were pre­ dominantly from upper income groups. In short, economic status appeared to be related to participating in those activities which filled out the informal educational activities of the school and contributed to making going to school "fun." Other studies have shown a relationship between non-participation in extra-curricular activities and dropping out. Dillon found that of 798 dropouts, 7 3 per cent had never participated in an extracurricular school activity, one-fourth had participated in one or two, and only 2 per cent in two or more. 67 Hand also found numerous expenses associated with taking school subjects, including textbook costs, deposits, fees, assessments, and purchase of special materials. 66Ibid., p. 9. 67 Dillon, Early School Leavers, p. 44. As 66 early as 1942 the average per pupil cash cost of attending secondary school was about $125 per year. Hand found that costs rose sharply but steadily from an average of about $95 for freshmen to slightly above $150 for the senior year. These costs were calculated at a time when 16 per cent of American families received annual incomes ranging no higher than $74 0 and an additional 37 per cent earned no more than $1,5000 per year. 68 Sexton's 1961 study of the Detroit school system 69 produced similar findings in regard to the expense of attending public school and is relevant to Michigan since this city contributes a disproportionate number of youths to the dropout population of Michigan. This study cites numerous "in school" costs required for "keeping up" in the school environment, such as admission fees for social and athletic events, membership dues, and costs of aca­ demic supplies. "Out of school" expenses, which become increasingly important to youths in the senior high school setting include the expense of clothes, cars, lunches, and entertainment expenses. Although public 68 Hand, Tuition Cost Study, p. 10. ^ P a t r i c i a C. Sexton, Education and Income (New York: The Viking Press, 1961)7 (Hereinafter referred to as Sexton, Education and Income.) 67 school attendance is tuition free in the technical sense, it is still not expense free. 70 Sexton stated: These in and out of school expenses, when added up are considerable enough to keep many lower income students out of school. The mounting financial pressures in high school force many to drop out in favor of work or simply to escape from a situation where they feel too poor in comparison with others in class./I In examining the relationship between low-income and dropping out, Sexton found a 17.8 per cent dropout rate for youths from families in the below $7,000 income bracket, and only a 6.3 per cent dropout rate for those from families with incomes above $7,000. 72 Socio-economic status in terms of income is not seen as the only contributing factor to the dropout rate of youths from families of the poor. Palmore shows that socio-economic class of the neighborhood is strongly associated with school dropouts. 73 In this instance socio-economic class was based on type of housing, per­ centages of buildings that were dilapidated, crowding, education, and income of residents, etc. Those living in the lower-class neighborhoods had more than twice the 70Ibid., p. 204. 71Ibid., p. 206. 72Ibid., p. 202. 73 Palmore, outs," p. 260. "Factors Associated with School Drop­ 68 dropout rate of those living in the upper-class neighbor­ hoods. Palmore suggested two interpretations for this phenomena: Living in a better neighborhood reduces the drop-out rate, and those who have the necessary motivation, intelligence, etc., to graduate from school tend to move to better neighborhoods. Lower intelligence is associated with living in lower-class neighborhoods. It is also probable that schools were less adequate in the lower-class neighborhoods than others. Pre­ sumably, this situation would increase both the dropirtion with lower intelligence in It is pertinent that Sexton also found family income not only closely related to occupation and income levels, but that income had a high correlation with the socio-economic classification of community areas (housing conditions, public assistance, behavior, vital data, as well as occupation and education). This very high correlation indicates that income is very intimately related to all social class charac­ teristics and that it is therefore a good index to social class. We have used it as an index (for social class) rather than other factors because we have found that . . . it is the simplest, most graphic, and most manageable of all the indicators of social c l a s s . 75 Not all investigators agree that students drop out of school because of financial need or because their fami­ lies need financial contributions from youths. Cervantes, in his study of dropouts and persisters matched on ^ Ib i d . , p . 262 . 75 Sexton, Education and Income, p. 13. 69 socio-economic class and other factors, found that the average family income from both groups was less than $5,000 a year (compared with a United States average of $7,020 during the same period), and the average number of children per family for both groups was four. He con­ cluded that financial strain on families of both persisters and dropouts was about the same. He reported that less than 5 per cent of the dropouts could be judged to have withdrawn because they could not afford to continue in s c h o o l . ^ It must be noted that concern about in-school costs led to the 1970 Michigan Supreme Court ruling requiring Michigan schools to furnish books and academic supplies to students. 77 It remains to be seen what effect this ruling will have on school dropouts. It has become almost a cliche to state that the school is largely oriented to the needs and aspirations of the white, middle-class child, and that children from lower socio-economic status are at a disadvantage in schools as they now exist. A major influence in focus­ ing attention on the life style of the poor was Cures 76 Lucius F. Cervantes, The Dropout; Causes and (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, T969). 77 Bond and Fusfeld, e t a l . , v. The Public Schools of the Ann Arbor School District, opinion issued July 17, 1970, Michigan Supreme Court. 70 Harrington's The Other America, published in 1963. 78 This publication dramatically described the plight of the poor, the life style dictated by that economic con­ dition, and the dysfunctional consequences of being poor on the lives of human beings. This description has been repeated and expanded, particularly as it relates to the lower class child in the school setting, by such authorities as Deutsch, man, 81 79 Riessman, to name only a few. 80 and most recently, Silber- The emphasis of such writers has been on the contention that the values of the school, popularly termed "middle class values" predominate within the school environment, even though those may not be the values dominating the out-of-school environment of the lower class child. Glaser succinctly defines the concept of middle class values as follows: The middle class is generally regarded, in American sociological literature, as the main protagonist of the dominant morality of our culture. This morality 78 Michael Harrington, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (Baltimore! Penguin Books, 1963) . 79 Martin Deutsch, "The Disadvantaged Child and the Learning Process," in Education in Depressed A r e a s , ed. by A. Harry Passow (New Y o r k : Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963), pp. 163-79. 80 David Riessman, "The Overlooked Positives of Disadvantaged Groups," in The Disadvantaged C h i l d , ed. by Joe L. Frost and Glenn R. Hawkes (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1966), pp. 51-57. (Hereinafter referred to as "The Overlooked Positives.") 81 Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom. 71 . . . emphasizes hard work, frugality, study, ambition, and deferment of immediate impulse grati­ fication for the sake of accumulating wealth and vocational capacity, hence greater gratification later. Also, emphasis on "good manners" and language— the "ritual of class"— is especially linked with middle and upper class status. The schools and the churches, and many youth organi­ zations, such as the Boy Scouts, devote a major portion of their effort to the propagation of these values. They are part of the dominant injunction to succeed, to view low status as not necessarily permanent, which has been called "the American Dream."82 During the decade of the 1960's the term "cultural deprivation" became popular in describing the condition of lower class life as contrasted to American middle class life style. Because of the negative connotations this term came to bear, Reissman has attempted to use a less value laden approach, pointing out the existence of dif­ ferences between cultural groups and attempting to define these differences as simply differences, rather than stressing a negative comparison between the two life styles and the consequences of each on the functioning of individuals. 83 Riessman clarified that the child from lower socio-economic levels is lacking in the kind of educationally stimulating environment necessary for coping with the school environment, and the "know how" that 82 Daniel Glaser, "Social Disorganization and Delin­ quent Subcultures," in Society and Education: A Book of Readings, ed. by Robert Ji Havighurst, Bernice L. Neugarten, and Jacqueline M. Falk (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1967) , p. 245. 83 Riessman, "The Overlooked Positive," pp. 51-57. 72 facilitates functioning in a middle class dominated society. However, at the same time he stresses that the disadvantaged child dpes have characteristics which are positive, but which are left untapped by the educational system as it now operates. 84 Goldberg elaborated on differences between middleclass life style and that of the lower class, citing dif­ fering child-rearing practices and attitudes toward education which result in varying learning styles, styles of expression, motivations toward school, and perception of the purpose and meaning of schooling. Beginning with the family, the early pre-school years present the child from a disadvantaged home with few of the experiences which produce readiness for aca­ demic learning either intellectually or attitudinally. . . . He has little preparation either for recognizing the importance of schooling in his own life or for being able to cope with the kinds of verbal and abstract behavior which the school will demand of him. Although he generally comes to first grade neat and clean and with his mother's admonition to be a good boy, he lacks the ability to carry out those tasks which would make him appear good in the eyes of the teacher.85 S. M. Miller suggested four types of low-income dropouts: school inadequate, school rejecting, school perplexed, and school irrelevant. 86 The first is that 85 Miriam L. Goldberg, "Factors Affecting Educational Attainment in Depressed Urban Areas," in Education in D e ­ pressed A r e a s , ed. by A. Harry Passow (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963), p. 87. ^Miller, "Dropouts," pp. 186-90. 73 group which has difficulty competing in school because of low intellectual functioning or disturbing emotional functioning. This group is probably a very small pro­ portion of dropouts. The second, the school rejecting, is comprised of those students frequently characterized as the "push-outs," those who were pushed out of school, frequently in a fairly direct way. This group has been shown in Miller's studies to have a fairly positive atti­ tude about school. The third characterization suggested by Miller is the school perplexed dropout, typified by those students who come to school with some personal or family concerns about it, but become perplexed, lost, and sometimes reactive against the school experience, ending up as dropouts. He suggested that this group of students did have interest in and concern about education, but that the schools did not know how to deal with the educational concerns and problems of many of these low-income families and youths. The fourth group of dropouts suggested by Miller are those youths he calls the school-irrelevant dropouts. These are young people who have not expected to graduate in the first place. They see education instrumentally, as a means to an end, and they have a job level in mind which does not require much education. He developed rough calculations which suggest that social class has much to do with the occupational status of high school graduates and that graduates from working-class 74 and lower-class families are not at all as likely to do as well. He further suggested that: . . . at some level many lower and working-class boys have some awareness of the facts about them. Conse­ quently, they are not particularly interested in doing something about school. . . . Getting a 10 percent or 15 percent or 20 percent advantage by graduating from high school is still a distinct improvement (over not graduating) . . . by the same token, for perhaps 8 out of 10 working-class boys graduating is not going to produce much.87 Miller raised objections to the popularized use of the term "cultural deprivation," with its value laden implications similar to those of Riessman, cited earlier. Unfortunately, the failure to achieve great edu­ cational advance in the face of the new vision of the mission of the schools is leading to scapegoating of low-income children. Frequently, the struggle to aid children who do not easily fit into the school situ­ ation is given up. I think, for example, that the concept of "cultural deprivation" is not a useful one. I think it leads people into confusing ways of begin­ ning to analyze the problem. True, people are di f ­ ferent— but the obligation of the school system is to learn how to deal with people who are quite dif­ ferent in terms of their ways of dealing with the learning situation. The emphasis should not be upon a standard approach to which people measure up and then we deal effectively with them, but rather that we learn how to deal effectively with people who are quite dif­ ferent in outlooks, experiences and capacities .88 The research shows that socio-economic status is important to the student in several respects. Clearly 07 Miller, 88 "Dropouts," p. 190. S. M. Miller, "The Search for an Educational Revolution," in Profile of the School Dropout, ed. by Daniel Schreiber (New York: Vintage Books, T967), p. 41. (Hereinafter referred to as Miller, "Search for Revo­ lution. ") 75 for the low income family the cost of school attendance is high in terms of cash outlay, both in direct costs of attendance, and in those expenses which enable the student to feel equal to others in terms of dress and social activities. In addition, the life style, child rearing practices, values, aspirations, and lack of "know-how" of lower class families frequently handicaps the student for coping in a middle class oriented educational system, both intellectually, and in meeting behavioral expectations. There is disagreement as to whether financial problems alone cause students from low socio-economic families to drop out. There is concensus that the multiple factors associated with low socio-economic levels tend to develop youths who are more dropout prone than those from the middle and upper classes. Psychological Orientation, Personality, and Home and Family Influence Havighurst and Stiles have described a group of youth designated as alienated youth. 89 Such youths are defined as those who "do not grow up in a satisfactory way," and the prognosis is that almost all will drop out of school. These authors estimated that this group com­ prises about 15 per cent of the population and are youth who a r e : pp. 89 Havighurst and Stiles, 266-67. "Statement of Policy," 76 . . . somehow alien to the larger society in which they live. Such youth have been unsuccessful in meeting the standards set by the society for them— standards of behavior, or learning in school, or performance on a job. By the time they reach adolescence these boys and girls are misfits in school. Either they are hostile or unruly, or passive and apathetic. They have quit learning years before they can drop out p h y s i c a l l y . 90 Havighurst and Stiles further stated that most such youths come from low income homes, fall into the 75-90 I.Q. range; almost all drop out of school at age sixteen or before; tend to come from broken homes or homes which are inadequate emotionally and culturally. However, it is stressed that this is not simply a group low in economic status and I.Q.; it is a group whose start in life has been poor because of the disadvantages its members face. Their families have been inadequate; their physical health has often been poor. Their intel­ lectual skills are too marginal to compensate for other deficiencies. Havighurst emphasized that alienated youths can be found in all I.Q. ranges and in middle and upper class homes, although the percentages are higher in the 7 5-90 I.Q. bracket and among groups which are intellectually and economically disadvantaged. Any child who lacks recognition at home or in school or who is emotionally insecure can become alienated. . . . We call them alienated because they do not accept the ways of living and achieving that are standard in our society. As younger children they probably accepted the standard ideal of right and wrong, complied with School regulations and tried 9 0 I b i d ., p. 266. 77 to succeed, but the combined and repeated frus­ trations of failure in school and mistreatment at home have turned them either into members of delinquent sub-groups or into defeated apathetic individuals.91 Cervantes' 92 in-depth investigation of 300 youths comprising a matched sample of 150 dropouts and 150 graduates from blue-collar families in a large metro­ politan area, verified and extended the analysis offered by Havighurst. The purpose of this study, published in 1969, was to analyze the social background, "the influ­ ential others," and the personality characteristics of the dropouts compared to the graduates. Areas of investi­ gation included the nuclear family unit of each youth, the friend-family system, the peer group, the school experiences, and results of the Thematic Aperception Test administered to each youth. The general hypotheses underlying Cervantes' study included: 1. The dropout's family has less solidarity, less primary relatedness and less paternal influence than the graduate's family. 2. The family of the dropout has fewer close friends and fewer "problem free" friends than the grad­ uate's family. 92 Cervantes, Causes and Cures. 78 3. The dropout's friends are typically not approved by the family and tend to form an independent youth culture, while friends of the graduate are typically approved by the family and integrate with the adult culture. 4. The dropout was in trouble when he left school, and was but slightly involved in school-related activities during his academic career. Through interviews, questionnaires, and adminis­ tration of the Thematic Aperception Test his hypotheses were borne out. The dropout was generally the product of an inadequate family, particularly in terms of adequate communication and emotional support, whereas graduates were products of adequate families. Family friends of youths who graduated restated the family role, and the graduate's family functioned as a filter in determining who associates would be, whereas the dropout's families had not utilized a social filter system for friendship selection. Thus, family associates of graduates rein­ forced values held by the family; the dropout families were not as selective in their associations. In examining school experiences of dropouts Cervantes found that lack of funds was not an important factor in dropping out; I.Q. was not important, while orientation toward school and motivations were critical. Generally, students who are participants in school-related 79 activities do not drop out; teacher influence on students is negligible (both for dropouts and graduates), and dis­ cipline problems are a crucial factor in dropping out. It was also reported that the youth culture in which the youth is involved is a crucial influence in determining whether the youth heeds or ignores adult authority. The Thematic Aperception Test administered to both dropouts and graduates in the sample revealed defi­ nite psychological tendencies with each group following a pattern and the patterns of the two groups contrasting sharply. Generally, the dropout was revealed to be a troubled, hostile, dissatisfied person who viewed himself as class-bound and a pawn of his environment, whereas the graduate was typically calm, friendly, optimistic, viewed himself as the master of his environment. and The dropout tended to be radical, whereas the graduate was conservative. The dropout was inclined to display attention-getting behavior in contrast to objectivegetting behavior on the part of the graduate. 93 Cervantes used the data obtained through the various instruments in this study to develop a table of twenty characteristics which are commonly found among youths who are potential or actual dropouts. These characteristics relate to the school, peers, and the family of the dropout; they have implications for 93 Cervantes, Causes and Cures, p. 194. 80 perceiving the needs of such youths and for planning pro­ grams oriented to their needs. These characteristics are: School 1. Two years behind in reading or arithmetic at the seventh grade level. The majority of grades below average. 2. Failure of one or more school years. (Grades 1 and 2, 8 and 9 are the most commonly failed. 85% of the dropouts are behind one year, 53% are two or more years behind their chronological age group in grade placement.) 3. Irregular attendance and frequent tardiness. Illdefined sickness usually given as the reason. 4. Performance in school consistently below level. 5. No participation in extra-curricular activities. 6 . Frequent changes of schools. 7. Behavior problems causing disciplinary measures. 8 . Feeling of not belonging, (because of size, speech, personality development, social class, family dis­ grace, retardation in school, dress, lack of friends among schoolmates or staff, etc.) Family 9. More children than parents can readily control, (e.g. only one child may have been "too many" for a divorced and working mother, five or more chil­ dren for non-divorced and working mother of bluecollar and lower white-collar class.) 10. Parents inconsistent in affection and discipline. 11. Unhappy family situation. (Common acceptance between family members, communication and pleas­ urable experiences lacking, family solidarity m i n imal.) 12. Father weak or absent. 13. Education of parents at the eighth grade level. 14. Few family friends. Among these few friends typi­ cally are many "problem units" defined as families where parents are divorced, where a parent has deserted, where there are delinquent children or children who have dropped out of school. Peers 15. Friends not approved by parents. 16. Friends are not school-oriented. 17. Friends are much older or younger. Psychological Orientation 18. Resentful of all authority (includes homes, school, police, job, and church.) 19. Deferred gratification pattern weak. 20. Weak self-image.94 ^ I b i d . , pp. 198-99. 81 Cervantes stressed the importance of the family as a primary group as a critical variable in the development of the character of youths. 95 He has found that the families of dropouts and of graduates contrast markedly on four counts. In the families of graduates the follow­ ing characteristics were found: 1. The acceptance of family members as total persons, wherein family members feel they belong to the group, feel themselves to be members of a family team, feel understood, and feel a mutual iden­ tification . 2. Depth of intercommunication, wherein family mem­ bers talk things over with one another. 3. Pleasurable experiences, wherein family members enjoy one another's company and choose to spend leisure time with one another in family activities. 4. Happiness within the homes, wherein data reported by dropouts and graduates was reviewed and the variable of life-long family happiness was assessed. Families producing graduates are happier than families producing dropouts. 95 Lucius F. Cervantes, "Family Background, Primary Relationships, and the High School Dropout," in Society and Education: A Book of Readings, ed. by Robert J. Havig­ hurst, Bernice L. Neugarten, and Jacqueline M. Falk (Boston Allyn and Bacon,Inc., 1967), pp. 69-101. 82 On the basis of this data Cervantes suggested that school success or failure could be predicted for a child of average I.Q. on the first day of school at age six by an analysis of the prevalence or absence of pri­ mary relations in his family background. He further stated the dropout is generally the product of a family deficient in primary relations, and that the family which nurtured the youth who dropped out of school is of a different caliber from that which produced the student who continued his education at least to high school graduation.^ Lichter, Rapien, Sklansky, and Siebert found a relationship between emotional problems and dropping out in a Chicago study of 105 potential dropouts from twentyfive different high schools. 97 The sample population was comprised of students of average or above average intel­ ligence who were known to be considering dropping out and who were showing behavioral symptoms common to stu­ dents who do drop out. The prognostic dropout signals as defined for this study were: 1. 2. 3. 4. truanting and cutting classes serious academic underfunctioning, especially grade and subject failures marked lack of interest in school behavior problems serious enough to interfere with school progresses ^ Ib i d ., p . 101 . 97 98 Lichter, et a l ., The Dropouts. r- c Ibid., p. 56. 83 Counseling with youths in this sample over a three-year period revealed that emotional problems were the major cause of school difficulty and the resultant early school leaving. Seventy-six per cent of the potential dropouts were suffering from severe maladaptations of the entire personality. The high incidence of emotional problems and the depth of those problems was reported to be unexpected by the investigators. A somewhat unexpected finding was the severity of the emotional and personality disturbances in our adolescents. We suspected that such problems would be present but did not anticipate their intensity. A very high proportion of the children (76 percent) were suffering from character problems— maladaptations of the entire personality— in contrast to neurotic effects, which usually are of recent origin and more localized in effect. In a character difficulty the maladaptive behavior is widespread, rigid and entrenched.9 9 Forty-eight per cent of the students under treat­ ment improved in emotional or personality functioning, 60 per cent of the students remaining in school (forty) improved in school adaption, and 4 6 per cent of the stu­ dents of legal school leaving age remained in school. Those students remaining in school who showed improve­ ment in personality functioning were able to function better in the school environment. Those students who dropped out were not leaving school to effect constructive plans; they did not feel impelled to run toward a definite and positive goal. ^ I b i d ., p. 249 . lOO-.,. , occ Ibid., p . 256. 84 Rather, they were motivated to run away from a disagreeable situation. Although the dropouts discussed employment, they did not have realistic employment goals, and most realized a high school diploma would enhance their chances for employment. In summary, 64 per cent of the girls and 8 9 per cent of the boys (7 6 per cent of the total group) in the Lichter study were having problems because of their char­ acter formation; the remaining subjects were diagnosed as neurotic. The relationship between emotional problems and dropping out by students who are intellectually capable of completing high school was summarized by the investigators as follows: In our group of youngsters . . . [the findings of the research] . . . led us to the conviction that except for those subcultural groups in which education is not an important value, the student of normal intel­ ligence who cannot perform adequately in school and consequently drops out is almost always a student with emotional problems .101 Penty's interviews with poor reader dropouts and poor reader graduates showed that the dropouts' acceptance of self was more damaged by their reading difficulties than was the graduates . 1 Three-fourths of the dropouts she interviewed, compared with 38 per cent of the grad­ uates, expressed feelings of inferiority, shame in class, disgust with self, and a desire to leave school because ^ ^ I b i d . , p. 248. 85 of their handicap. 102 Among the poor readers interviewed, dropouts had more negative attitudes toward themselves and their difficulties than did graduates. Race as a Factor Affecting Dropping Out Varner suggested that because of the number of socio-economic variables often closely associated with race and ethnic origin, the number of dropouts classified by race and ethnic origin may have value only in reflecting the extent of these differences. 103 Coleman's study of Equality of Educational Opportunity made a similar suggestion in stating: . . . there are differences in the educational oppor­ tunity (as reflected in nonenrollment rates) available to Negro and white adolescents, and these differences exist irrespective of their sex. However, there are also important differences in the educational oppor­ tunity available to adolescents from low-status and high-status families as well as from non-Catholic and Catholic families, and when racial differences are considered in conjunction with such differences in the socio-economic and cultural context of the home, they tend to disappear. This suggests that Negrowhite differences in the nonenrollment may be attributed more to socio-economic and cultural differences in nonenrollment than to other factors. 102 103 104 Penty, Reading Ability, p. 56. Varner, School Dropouts, p. 8 . James S. Coleman, Equality of Educational Oppor­ tunity, U.S., Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Publication of the National Center for Educational Statistics, Catalog No. FS 5.238:38001 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966), pp. 454-55. (Hereinafter referred to as Coleman, Equality of Opportunity, Catalog No. FS 5.238:38001.) 86 Data reported by Coleman shows that about 17 per cent of Negro adolescents (ages sixteen and seventeen) have dropped out of school whereas the corresponding number for white adolescents is 9 per cent. Most of this difference comes from differences outside the South; in the South the white and Negro non-enrollment rates are much the same.'*'^ When socio-economic factors are taken into account, the racial differences in the dropout rate are sharply reduced. Then the difference of eight percentage points between all Negro and white adolescent dropouts becomes 1 per cent for those in white-collar families, and 4 per cent for those in other than white-collar families. 106 Population density of the community in which adolescents live is cited as an important influence on non-enrollment rate. For those living in metropolitan areas the non-enrollment rate was 8 per cent; for those living in non-metropolitan areas the non-enrollment rate was 12 per cent. Therefore, Coleman concluded that non­ enrollment is related to the type of area in which one lives. However, this difference of non-enrollment appears 105 James S. Coleman, Equality of Educational Oppor­ tunity, U.S., Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Catalog No. FS 5.238:3800 (Washington, D . C . : Government Printing Office, 1966), Summary, p. 27. (Hereinafter referred to as Coleman, Equality of Oppor­ tunity, Catalog No. FS 5.238:3800.) 106t, ., Ibid., p . 28. 87 to be affected by the race of the adolescent. Among whites the non-enrollment rate was 5 per cent higher in non-metropolitan areas than in metropolitan areas. Among Negroes, non-enrollment is 1 per cent higher in metro­ politan areas than in non-metropolitan areas. This inter­ action between type of area and race is particularly noticeable for males. The metropolitan non-enrollment rate for white males was 6 per cent; for Negro males, 19 per cent. The non-metropolitan non-enrollment rate for white males was 13 per cent; for Negro males, 12 per cent. Here, the non-enrollment rate for white and Negro males in non-metropolitan areas differs by only one per­ centage point, while the non-enrollment rate for metro­ politan white and Negro males differs by thirteen per­ centage points. The difference between metropolitan and non-metropolitan non-enrollment rates for Negro males varies by seven percentage points. 107 Coleman cited data showing that the largest dif­ ferences between Negro and white dropout rates are in the urban North and West; in the non-urban North and West there were too few Negro households in the sample to provide a reliable estimate. Another finding of this study was that in the South white girls drop out at a greater rate than Negro girls, and in the non-urban areas 107 Coleman, Equality of Opportunity, Catalog No. FS 5.238:38001, pp. 455-56. 88 white boys drop out at a substantially greater rate than Negro boys."*"^ This study raised the question, "When the effects of other characteristics are held constant, are there con­ sistent racial differences in enrollment rates"? answer at which investigators arrived was, the answer is no. The "Apparently . . . There is no evidence within these data that the non-enrollment rate of either Negroes or whites was consistently higher when the effects of other factors are taken into account." 109 Summary of Characteristics of Dropouts Clearly there are numerous interrelated factors associated with dropping out of school prior to graduation. Examination of studies conducted over time and in varying sections of the country reveal certain trends, however, which indicate the kinds of experiences many dropouts have had and the common elements in the backgrounds of many such youths. To illustrate, the following were "symptoms of vulnerability" to dropping out found by Dillon in a number of mid-western schools in his 1949 study: 108 Coleman, Equality of Opportunity, Catalog No. FS 5.238:3800, p. 28. 109 Coleman, Equality of Opportunity, Catalog No. FS 5.238:38001, p. 4561 89 1. Fairly consistent regression in scholarship from elementary to junior to senior high school 2. Frequent grade failures in the elementary school 3. High frequency of grade or subject failure in the junior and senior high school 4. Marked regression in attendance from elementary to junior to senior high school 5. Frequent transfers from one school to another 6 . Evidence of a feeling of insecurity, of "lacking of belonging" in school (Here participation in extra-class activities is an important indication.) 7. Marked lack of interest in schoolworkllO Smith found the following reasons for leaving school in New York in 1950, listed here in order of descending frequency: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Dissatisfaction with school Lack of personal funds Lure of a job Family support Inability to see relation between school subjects taken and future work Felt self too old for grade Inability to get along with teacher (a) Inability to learn School did not offer suitable subjects Illness Insufficient credits for graduation Felt self too poor in comparison with others in class Inability to get along with principal OtherlH Upon analysis of the data secured through interviews and check lists from which the preceding reasons were secured, Smith reached the following conclusion: . . . the actual motivation behind the drop-out was a more complex set of reasons than one might have thought. Evidently there was no one reason that was compelling enough in the minds of either the boys or ^ ^ D i l l o n , Early School Leavers, p. 82. ■^^Smith, Syracuse Y outh, p. 23. 90 the girls to have caused them to leave school. Rather there was apparent a general dissatisfaction coupled with an inability to see the relationship between subjects taken and future work; inability to do the school work; and among the boys, difficulty with school authorities, that caused financial need, lure of a job, etc. to seem to the drop-out the only way out of a situation in which he was not able to make a satisfactory intellectual or social adjustment . ^ 2 These data are similar to characteristics of dropping out found by investigators cited earlier in this chapter (e.g., Penty, pp. 62-63; Cervantes, pp. 79-80). Dropouts may range in age from thirteen or four­ teen to adulthood; the majority will leave school at about the age of sixteen. Though dropping out does occur from junior high school grades through grade twelve, the majority will have dropped out around the tenth grade. However, regardless of what grade level the dropout last attended, he may generally be expected to be at least a year or two behind that grade level last attended in academic achievement in basic educational skills, with reading a particularly common and crucial problem area. The majority of dropouts have experienced below average grades in school work. It is not unusual for dropouts to have personality or emotional problems of varying degrees. Nor is it unusual for dropouts to come from homes which the youths, at least, perceive as not being very happy, and which ^ ^ I b i d ., p . 25. 91 have provided inadequate emotional support and intel­ lectual stimulation to the youths. The dropout rate for youths from homes providing low family income (and low socio-economic status) is higher than for youths from higher income (and higher socio-economic status) homes. Health is not reported by dropouts to be a major contributing factor; however, severe handicaps are con­ sidered to render youths more dropout-prone if special provisions are not made within the educational system. In addition, pregnancy among teen-age girls is gaining attention as a major factor in dropping out. The range of intelligence for dropouts is reported to be wide, similar to that of graduates, with the average a little below that of graduates. Many dropouts have been in trouble with school authorities at the time of dropping out and have poor records in attendance and tardiness. They rarely have participated in extra-curricular activities and express lack of interest in school. Although there is a high dropout rate for black youths in metropolitan areas, race alone does not appear to be a crucial factor in dropping out; rather the combi­ nation of socio-economic and cultural factors which affect the black community are suspected to be the crucial factors contributing to the high dropout rate among such youths. 92 Authorities' Program Recommendations Havighurst and Stiles succinctly summarized the problem of dropout prone youths described on previous pages as follows: The essential problem of the alienated group is that they have not found a satisfactory avenue or channel of growth toward adult competence. Since they are failing in school they cannot grow up by means of the school. They need an alternative pathway to that offered by the school as we now know it. These boys want the same things in life that are achieved by boys who are growing up successfully. They would like to have money, a job, and as they grow older they want the use of an automobile. They want girl friends and eventually desire to have a wife and children. Unlike the majority of boys, however, they do not have the combination of family assistance, the intelligence, the social skills, and the good study and work habits necessary to achieve their goal legitimately. Nevertheless, they want to grow up and to have the symbols of manhood, and they become discontented when they do not succeed. H 3 To present a picture of programs tried in the past, Havighurst and Stiles have traced the historical period of the 1930's, the depression era, which culminated with a quarter of a million boys out of school and out of work, a condition resulting in the establishment of the Civilian Conservation Corps and later the National Youth Administra­ tion plan. These programs are significant today in that they were the forerunners of the federal programs estab­ lished in the 1 9 6 0 's— the Job Corps and the Neighborhood Youth Corps. 113 pp. 267-68. In the Civilian Conservation Corps Havighurst and Stiles, (CCC), boys "Statement of Policy," 93 over sixteen were placed in resident camps where they learned to do "socially useful work," under supervision, for which they were paid a small sum of money, most of which was allotted to the assistance of their families. The weakness of this program, as evaluated by Havighurst and Stiles, was that the program was not related to the schools. In some situations the lack of cooperation between the CCC program and the schools tended to hinder the full development of individuals who needed and desired both work experience and academic training. In contrast, the National Youth Administration Plan pro­ vided part-time work experience with pay for students of high school and college age. The objective of this was to provide supervised work experience which would have "edu­ cational value and to promote an allegiance to society while permitting young people to continue with their schooling." 114 Havighurst and Stiles cited a study of the National Youth Administration Plan and of the Civilian Conservation Corps done by the American Youth Commission, comprised of a group of citizens appointed by the American Council on Education, during the late 1930's. This group reached the following conclusions: Every young person who does not desire to continue in school after 16, and who cannot get a job in private enterprise, should be provided under public auspices with employment in some form of service. . . . 114Ibid., p. 269. 94 The Commission is impressed with the success of experiments that have been made with combinations of part-time schooling and part-time employment. . . . Public work for young people should be planned with special regard to its educational quality. It should be superintended by persons who are competent to train young people in good work habits as well as specific skills. It should be carried on in a spirit that will give a young worker a sense of being valued by and of being valuable to his country. Finally, it should provide an opportunity to try various kinds of work, so the young person may find his own aptitudes and abilities and may be given some guidance in pre­ paring for private employment where he can be most useful and successful. . . . The Commission recommends, therefore, that in the formulation of public policy, at all levels, explicit recognition be given to the social responsibility that all young people are constructively occupied up to some appropriate a g e . H S Havighurst and Stiles likened the condition of youth early in the decade of 1960 to 1970 to that of the depression era which had triggered the establishment of CCC and Y.N.A. While we are not in a serious economic depression, and we do not have a quarter of a million homeless boys on the road, we do have a quarter of a million alienated boys in each cohort— a quarter of a million reaching their fourteenth birthday this year, another quarter of a million becoming 15, and so on. Con­ sequently, alienated youth might be considered a national emergency equal to or worse than that of the 1 9 3 0 ' s . U S Havighurst and Stiles reviewed the kinds of pro­ grams available to youth in the early 1960's. They cate­ gorized the work experience programs involving youth still enrolled in secondary schools as follows: 116Ibid., p. 270. 95 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. In-school non-remunerative general education work experience programs" Experience is provided in the school for students as typists, clerks, park­ ing lot attendants, multigraph operators, library assistants, motion picture machine operators, locker maintenance workers. Students are not paid except for after school work. In some cases credit is given toward graduation. Out-of-school, non-remunerative general education work experience programs. a. Community service work in non-commercial organizations: libraries, parks, social agencies, elementary schools. b. Student-learner assignments in physicians' or dentists' offices, architects' studies, hos­ pitals, city or county offices. c. Remunerative general education work experience programs at the junior high school level. Such experience is for youth who are likely to drop out of school at age 16. It is usually pro­ vided for 15 year olds. School credit and "going wages" are given. Typical jobs are bus boys, messengers, waitresses, car washers, printers' helpers, sales clerks. Remunerative general education work experience for pupils in senior high school-! This type of program is for youth in senior high school who will profit personally and economically from work experience in such a way as to make their school­ ing more attractive and more successful. Scholas­ tic credit is generally given for work which is coordinated with school studies. Remunerative vocational work experience in senior high schools not subsidized by federal vocational education funds. A "diversified occupations" type course is offered mainly to high school juniors and seniors over 16 years of age who have good records. Often the course is set up in schools or communities too small to qualify for federal subsidy. Some of these students will get work experience in selling jobs, offices and factories. An effort is made to place the student in a field where he is likely to work as an adult. Remunerative vocational work experience programs In high schools subsidized from federal vocational educational funds. Commencing in 1917 with the Smith Hughes Act (which was amplified in 1946 by the George Bardon A c t ) , a cooperative part-time education and employment program is available in the trades, industrial occupations, and distribu­ tive occupations. This is the most highly 96 selective program; it is seldom available to a student who has done poor work in school.^ 7 Havighurst and Stiles concluded, "The most widespread pro­ grams are for senior high school pupils, age 16 or over, who have a good school record. exception of 2c above ..." 118 With the (Remunerative General Education Work Experience at the Junior High School Level) these programs are available largely at age and grade levels beyond which the majority of dropouts have already left school. Furthermore, the school record achieved by the majority of those youths whom research shows to be the most dropout prone would disqualify such youths from participation. On the basis of their research concerning alienated youth (whom they consider prime candidates to be dropouts by age sixteen), Havighurst and Stiles made recommendations regarding the kind of work experience programs they believe would be most useful to such youths. They also made broader recommendations regard­ ing strategies communities ought to develop to reduce the number of alienated youths in the future. Characteristics of work experience programs for alienated youths, as recommended by Havighurst and Stiles would include: 117Ibid., pp. 270-71. 118Ibid., p. 271. 97 1. 2. 3. 4. A program to commence at age 13 or 14 and continue to age 18, though many boys will graduate from it a year or two before age 18. An attempt to teach boys elementary work disci­ plines: punctuality, ability to take orders from a boss, ability to work cooperatively with others on a team, responsibility on a job. Work which leads directly into stable adult jobs. Work which will be part of the public school pro­ gram with the curriculum adapted to the intel­ lectual level, the interest in practical endeavors, and the work experience program of the alienated youth.119 Such a program would rest upon identification of future alienated youth by the age of thirteen or fourteen, and would be aimed at dropout prevention. Through finding those boys showing a combination of aggressive maladjust­ ment with failure in school, and through checking marginal cases through home visitations and evaluating the nature of family discipline and help given the boy, these authors believe such youths can be identified for placement in such a program. Three stages were further suggested for a work experience program for potential dropouts reflecting the boy's level of maturity and responsibility, and geared to the prevailing child labor legislation: Stage 1. Work in groups under school supervision, completely or partially outside the labor market. Suggested is a "sheltered workshop" in the school, contracting with local busi­ ness and industry. Another alternative would be groups of students, under super­ vision, doing community housekeeping jobs such as working in parks, on school grounds, etc. 119Ibid. 120Ibid. 98 Stage 2. Stage 3. Part-time work on an individual basis with employers in private or public business or industry. The boy would still be under close supervision of the school. Full-time employment in a stable job, aided by some guidance and supervision on the part of the school or employment service person­ nel .121 A corollary school curriculum is suggested for such a pro­ gram and would include adaptation of content, methods of instruction, and learning materials to the ability and orientation of the youths involved. The content would need to be appropriate to the goals of instruction and to the age level of the pupils. At the same time, it would, in most cases, need to be presented in textbooks and other learning materials at a lower reading level and with less abstractness, than is common for high school courses. Instruction would need to be characterized by practical approaches to problems, shop and laboratory experience and an extensive use of audio-visual aids. A close relation­ ship between the program and of the school and work experiences would be d e s i r a b l e . 1 2 2 Havighurst and Stiles recognized that a program such as they suggest cannot be lodged in a labor force in which there is a scarcity of juvenile jobs and in which the trend is toward the reduction of juvenile and unskilled jobs— a description which as accurately describes the job market of the 1970's as that of the early 1960's. They emphasized that private enterprise is not in a position to provide all the jobs necessary. Moreover, organized labor is not in a position to cooperate in a program which might reduce the number of adult jobs in the 121_,. , Ibid. 122 , Ibid. 99 economy. However, they do strongly urge the adoption of a public social policy to provide work experience as a part of education for every boy who needs it, and suggest two expanding areas in the economy where such jobs may be created fairly easily: the area of the conservation of natural resources and in public service. Work experience programs alone are not a panacea for all youth problems, even though they are considered a highly important element included in a number of steps Havighurst and Stiles believe should be taken by society. These investigators suggested supplementation of youth programs by agencies such as Boys' Clubs, Settlement Houses, Catholic Youth Organization, and the Young Men's Christian Association to help boys become involved in wholesome recreation and social life. Another long-range preventative strategy to be undertaken by the community is more early preventative work with such boys and their families, beginning when boys are about ages five and six. The authors suggested that such work, effectively done, might be expected eventually to reduce the number of alienated teen-age youths by more than one-half. S. 123 M. Miller suggested that the entire concept of education and the institutions of education based upon this concept must be developed with more built-in 123 x JIbid., p. 272. 100 flexibility and adaptability. This concern for flexi­ bility and adaptability rests on three basic assumptions: Assumption A . Education today is not a continuous rocess but a discontinuous o n e . I I . People will e dropping out of public schools and returning; college students will drop out and return— this is already exceedingly common. . . . The principle which . . . is involved here is that we need many entry and re-entry points to the school system and training. This is especially true of those who have difficulty making the educational grade. We need programs which meet the unique development and experiences of individuals at the time they re-enter school. The tenth grader who has dropped out and worked a couple years and returned to school is dif­ ferent than the tenth grader who never did. We need new bridges and linkages between the school and out­ side. It is not enough to open a few re-entry doors; the returning student has to be provided an experience which is individually useful. Assumption B . People v a r y . There are tremendous dif­ ferences among youth today, whatever the social class. . . . Some school dropouts are able to get decent jobs, while others are candidates for permanent eco­ nomic dependence. Variations in experience and out­ look mean that different people need different things at various points in their lives. No one method works equally effectively with everybody. . . . We cannot be bound to m e t h o d . Assumption C . Good teachers emerge when they have independence and scope to permit personal style to flourish. I ! ~ The end product, the output in terms of the students' achievement, is often given less attention than the inputs. If outputs are emphasized as the mark of success, then teachers can have wider latitude and still be held accountable for their behavior. Assumption D . No permanent solutions exist. . . . The orientation to change runs the danger of falling into novelty and fadism for change's sake. . . . Can we become adaptable and flexible without becoming fadists and novelty hunters, thrill seekers of the new?124 g Miller believes what he called the climate of the school as it relates to youth in general, and to low-income 124 Miller, "Search for Revolution," pp. 46-49. 101 youths in particular, is crucial. climate is essential. He feels a "positive" He explicated the several basic ingredients which combine to make up this positive cli­ mate: they are respect, authenticity, competence, con­ sistency and predictability, purpose and direction, and finally relevance to the lives of low-income youth. Miller's clarification of each is as follows: Respect: . . . Students have to be respected. Teachers have to be respected. . . . My impression of many programs aimed at low-income youth is that the school personnel not only have meager under­ standing of these youth, but that they really do not like them. I doubt that you can go very far with a youth whom you do not like. Learning and knowledge have to be respected. We are sometimes more respectful of teaching methods than we are of knowledge itself. Authenticity: . . . . The faculty and administration have to stand on what they say. . . . Frequently, school administrators are phonies. Youth recognize that they do not say what they mean. Little is going to work as long as inauthentic relationships prevail. If a school system changes, it has to believe in what it is doing. The changes cannot be for public relations effectiveness alone. There has to be real commitment. . . . Competence: The school has to be able to do the job it sets out to do. Youth generally, and low-income youth particularly, do not respect authority figures who are incompetent, who make promises they cannot achieve, who have goals which have little relationship to the outside world. Predictability and consistency: . . . I have observed that consistency is perhaps the most important element in the personality or outlook of those who are effective with low-income youth. A wide diversity of personality types— not just the hearty athlete or the "one of the boys" types can do well. I think of a dandified, pedantic, little Frenchman whom few would predict could be effective with tough New York City boys. Yet he w a s : he showed respect for them even when he forced them to take off their hats; his behavior was always predictable and consistent. Purpose and direction: . . . the school has to have purpose and direction. It has to believe in something. 102 It has to have a mission. A school is unlikely to have a positive climate without a mission. If the theme is just that everyone love everyone else and there is no tie beyond that the love won't last very long. A good deal of the positive impact of programs aimed at low income youth depends on the Hawthorne effect on school personnel. They believe in what they are doing; they are consulted and involved in the new programs. Morale is high in the pursuit of a common goal. Relevance; School programs have to be relevant to low-income youth. They have to see what the school is doing has some relationship to their own lives.125 Miller called for a program tailored to the vary­ ing needs of the participants, based upon the development and experiences of the individuals involved, and manned by personnel who like and respect the people whom they teach, and who are competent to accomplish what they set out to do. He also called for program design allowing teachers and enrollees flexibility and allowing the lati­ tude to adapt program content and methodology to needs of individuals as they relate to the outside world. Daniel Schreiber, along with Havighurst and Stiles, considered the opportunity to engage in a work experience program as an important alternative to be offered to youths, particularly those who have experienced problems with the traditional school program. For the purpose of discussion in this context, Schreiber defined work experience programs as follows: A work experience program at the secondary school level is a program in which the pupil is released from classes or school during part of the day or a ^ ^ I b i d . , pp. 48-50. 103 whole day to work. The work may be done in school or out of school; it may be for pay or without pay; it may or may not carry school credit toward graduation. In some cases, study and work may be closely related, while in others the school simply makes it possible for those who want to work to do so.126 Schreiber based his view of the importance of work experience for youths on the following hypotheses: Because work is basic to the existence of any society it is difficult, if not impossible, to think of an individual fitting into society without a work role. . . . Since work is the hallmark of maturity, many educators believe that work experience programs should be made available to maladjusted youth. They hypothesize that: 1. Work experience gives direct and indirect satis­ faction to maladjusted youth which reduces the likelihood of delinquent activities on their part. 2. Work experience can prevent serious delinquent behavior. ^27 3. Work experience can rehabilitate the maladjusted. Schreiber contended that those students who are failing academically at sixteen should be offered an alternative before truancy and delinquency set in. He suggested as one alternative to dropping out enrollment in a work experience program, hopefully geared to the needs of . ,j 12 8 sixteen-year-olds. Schreiber examined the types of programs offered in schools prior to 1967 and cited data similar to that found by Havighurst and Stiles. Analysis of these programs 126 Daniel Schreiber, "Work Experience Programs," in Profile of the School Dropout, ed. by Daniel Schreiber (New Y o r k : Vintage Books, 1967 ) , p. 242. (Hereinafter referred to as Schreiber, "Work Experience Programs.") 127I b i d . , p. 245. 128I b i d . , p. 250. 104 showed that most programs are available only to boys who have made good school records. Schreiber also noted the paucity of work experience programs developed for girls. Many women are now participating in the work force each year because of economic necessity. This suggests that girls now in school will have a high probability of working at various stages of their lives; thus work experience as part of education for girls may be as practical as for boys. Schreiber has concrete suggestions as to the kinds of work experience appropriate for girls, based on charac­ teristics of potential female dropouts, whom he believes should benefit from such programs. Since girl dropouts are "nicer" than boy dropouts— represent fewer school disciplinary cases, include fewer adjudicated delinquents, read better (in Poca­ tello, Idaho, girl dropouts read as well as boy stayins), have recorded higher I.Q.'s, receive better scholastic grades, have fewer grade retentions— it appears probable that work-experience programs for girls should be in the so-called middle-class range of jobs. Jobs in which the worker comes in contact with other persons appear to offer the greatest opportunity. Training should be provided for secre­ tarial work; for positions in retail and service trades; and for sub-professionals such as nurses aides, recreation aides, and teacher aides for pre­ kindergarten and kindergarten classes. Because each one of these occupations has a career line, a young woman who is successful in her entry job can, by application, study and further education, obtain pro­ motion to higher level positions. . . .129 There is evaluation data available on some wide­ spread federal programs which will be examined briefly in 1 2 9 T, Ibid. 105 the following pages. Other more recent programs have also been developed for school dropouts for which evi­ dence is inconclusive. Some of these programs will also be examined. Operating Program Models The growing concern of the nation on the school dropout problem is reflected in the Federal Manpower Legislation enacted in the 1960's. Two of the federally supported manpower programs are specifically designed for disadvantaged youths, the Job Corps and the Neighborhood Youth Corps. A brief description of these programs appears below. In addition to the concern of the federal government, community groups have also attempted to develop innovative approaches to ameliorate the school dropout problem. Two examples, one by the National Urban League and another by a church group, are described below. Lastly the federal government itself, in its capacity as a large employer, has begun to experiment with education and training programs. The Postal Academy, developed by the United States Postal Department, is an example of the federal government developing its own approach to train disadvantaged youths. A brief description of the Postal Academy pro­ gram concludes this section on model operating programs. An additional comment on the word model is needed. The investigator is not making any decision on 106 the worthwhileness of the five models, as these programs were beyond the central focus of the study. However, they are presented to show that the research discussed earlier in this chapter is being examined by federal policy makers as well as community groups in developing programs designed for program clientele. Job Corps The federal government took the initiative in developing work experience programs for out-of-school, out-of-work youth with the passing of the Economic Oppor­ tunity Act of August, 1964. Under this act the Job Corps was established in 1965, providing youths from ages six­ teen to twenty-one, in residential centers with basic education, vocational training, useful work experience, and other activities. 130 Initially this program was based in conservation camps isolated from metropolitan areas (often abandoned army bases or the like), and administered by the Forestry Service. An early objective of the Job Corps, as articulated in the President's Man­ power Report of 1970, was to remove disadvantaged youths from home or community environments so deprived or so disruptive as to prevent their rehabilitation; thus enrollees were often located at camps a great distance from their homes. 130 Ibid. , p. 270. 107 Certain presumptions, in addition to that of need for new surroundings, guided the original program: that shifting youth from urban ghettoes to rural settings would be rehabilitative: that intensive support services like basic education, "life skills" preparation, and activities to promote physical development and offer recreation experience were as important to these youth as skill training and that each center should be substantially selfsufficient .131 However, formal evaluation and the practical lessons of operating experience showed that, although some of the underlying premises of the Job Corps were sound, others were questionable. The high dropout rate from the Corps during the first thirty days of enrollees* assignments cast doubt on the wisdom of removing youths so far from home. There was the additional disadvantage of separat­ ing the training site from areas where enrollees would be seeking jobs upon completion of the program. The idea of each training center being self-sufficient was questioned on the basis of expense and lack of efficiency. In addition, it was evident that not all the urgent needs of many youths— such as for remedial education— were being effectively met at all the centers. At the beginning of fiscal 197 0 the Job Corps was moved from the Office of Economic Opportunity to the Department of Labor, and the program design was reshaped in terms of its purpose, size, structure, and relationship to other 131 U.S., Department of Labor, Manpower Report of the President: A Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization and Training (Washington, D.C. : Government Printing Office, March, 1970) , p. 71. 108 manpower programs. A number of the least effective Job Corps Centers were eliminated, and plans developed for the establishment of new centers to be operated either by private industry or by nonprofit organizations on a contract basis. New plans include two types of residential centers: in-city or near-city centers for Corpsmen who will live away from home during the work week which will also serve non-resident enrollees. The new plans also include small residential centers without training facilities to house and support youths with severe per­ sonal problems enrolled in work training programs in the community. When the new centers are in operation the Job Corps will have places for about 25,000 enrollees. Emphasis will be on coupling the residential facilities with services of other training programs available in the area. The restructured program with enrollees located close to home is expected to make more flexi­ bility available for responding to the differing needs of target populations. It will also facilitate work with families to improve home environments. Thirty-five per cent of the openings in the new centers are planned for young women, some of whom will be unmarried mothers for whom child-care services will be made available, either at the center or in the community. 109 Job Corps contracts to participating organizations will not only place responsibility for training during the enrollment period, but for job placement upon cornpletion of the program upon the organization. 132 Some preliminary results are available on the restructured program, which are reported in the 1971 Man­ power Report of the President. Nearly nine out of every ten enrollees completing their programs were available for placement in fiscal 1970. (Enrollees not available for placement upon leaving the programs were either ill, deceased, confined to institutions, or, in the case of girls, taking care of families.) Of these youths, four- fifths were placed in employment, returned to school, or were accepted by the armed forces during the first three months after termination, a rate 5 per cent higher than the previous year. Those starting on jobs averaged $1.84 per hour, with some who entered construction trades reporting earnings of $3,000 per hour or more. Among those completing their programs, 91 per cent were available for placement; of these 88 per cent were placed. short-term enrollees, Among 82 per cent were available for placement; 72 per cent were placed. The new regional centers, compared with the older types of centers, have shown a drop of one-third in the proportion of youths who were recruited but failed to 132 I b i d . , pp. 71-73. 110 keep their commitments to enroll, and a drop of almost 50 per cent in the proportion of enrollees who stay less than thirty days. The placement rate for the new centers is 90 per cent, compared with 81 per cent for the Job Corps as a whole. Other indicators of progress include enrollees 1 high educational gains in reading and mathematics (sub­ stantially exceeding those reported by public school systems), and a reduction in annual costs per enrollee— achieved in fiscal 1970 in the face of the general rise in prices. This decrease reflected, in large part, special efforts to keep the centers filled to c a p a c i t y . 133 Neighborhood Youth Corps The Neighborhood Youth Corps Work Training Program was also established by the federal government under the Economic Opportunity Act, to be administered by the Department of Labor. The purpose of the program, as originally designed, was to: . . . provide useful work experience opportunities for unemployed youth through participation in state and community work programs to the end that their employability may be increased or that their edu­ cation may be resumed or continued. In-school as 134 well as out-of-school boys and girls are eligible. The design of the program allows contracts for sponsorship of programs to be signed with public and private non-profit 133 U.S., Department of Labor, Manpower Report of the President: including a Report on Manpower Require­ ments, Resources, Utilization, and Training (Washington, D . C . : Government Printing Office, April, 1971), p. 48. (Hereinafter referred to as Manpower Report of the Presi­ d e n t , A p r i l .) 134 Schreiber, "Work Experience Programs," p. 272. Ill agencies with preference given to agencies which are intimately associated with community action programs. 135 There are three types of programs; the in-school, the out-of-school, and the summer program. During fiscal 1970 there were over 480,000 first­ time enrollments in NYC, with 4 6,000 enrollees partici­ pating in the out-of-school program and 4 36,000 in the in-school and summer program. During 1970 the Department of Labor effected a major redesign of the NYC program, as well as of the Job Corps, based on evaluation of ongoing programs and upon experience in administering the pro­ gram. Under the new program design one-third of the more than 550 projects emphasized remedial education, skill training, and supportive services. Enrollees are largely school dropouts, age sixteen or seventeen, at the time they enter NYC. The new projects aim to prepare enrollees for return to school or admission to a community college, for a general education development certificate (high school equivalency), or for the best semi-skilled or entry level job for which the individual can be qualified— with priorities in that order.136 In urban areas with community resources new pro­ jects are enabled to utilize enrichment services by coordinating efforts with other community agencies 135t, Ibid. 136 p. 45. Manpower Report of the President, April, 1971, 112 to meet requirements of the new program design emphasizing help in personal development and education along with work experience. In rural areas most projects still simply supply part-time jobs. However, methods to expand services are being explored in rural areas. A recent study of enrollees in rural areas revealed their need to learn occupational and social skills and otherwise prepare for urban living which many of them will shortly undertake. Pilot projects have been developed in the North Central states to test how these needs can be met.137 The summer NYC program is also placing new emphasis on remedial education and supportive services. An impor­ tant aspect of the summer program is planning work projects which benefit the community as well as the enrollee. The President's Manpower Report of 1971 reported that a "series of evaluation and research studies has pro­ duced varying findings about the NYC program— not a sur­ prising result in such a large program which operates in so many varied locales." 138 Findings of a study of a national sample of 1966-1967 enrollees showed the follow­ ing : Negro female and Indian enrollees were more likely to graduate from high school than their counterparts in the local control group of young people of similar background who did not participate in the NYC. How­ ever, this was not true of white enrollees. The NYC participant who graduated from high school was considerably more likely to go on to college or other post-secondary education than a high school 138Ibid. 113 graduate in the control group. However, these favorable results for college attendance apply only to boys and not to Mexican Americans. The probability of high school graduation and college attendance increased with longer enrollment in the program.139 The investigators emphasized the need for intensive coun­ seling as an integral part of the program— that young people must be helped to believe that high school gradu­ ation will open the door to better jobs. Otherwise, the provision of jobs under NYC may have negative as well as positive effects on the educational plans of low-income groups. Other major conclusions from this study included . . . the NYC's principal contribution is in orient­ ing the disadvantaged student to a work context. . . . The overwhelming majority felt that the NYC program had given them a new appreciation of work. . . . Critics may be right in deploring the lack of training and skill acquisition in NYC (in-school and summer) programs. But earnings can be increased without new skills if (as the study shows) enrollees are induced to increase their labor force partici­ pation. 140 It is significant that both the Job Corps and the Neighborhood Youth Corps have, since their inception, moved from an emphasis on work experience to a concept emphasizing the integration of work experience with other enrichment experiences, and of utilizing and coordinating with other community services. 139 I b i d ., p. 46. 140Ibid. 114 National Urban League Street Academy The National Urban League is involved in the development of another type of program directed to the needs of the school dropout. The approach is commonly conceived of as the "store-front school," although the program is more extensive than this label would imply. The largest program is located in New York City, and has been in operation long enough to have had preliminary evaluation done by an outside agency, the Human Affairs Research Center of New York City. Over the four years from 1966 through 1970 the New York City Urban League developed and began operation of a set of experimental educational projects called the New York City Urban League Street Academy Program. The primary purpose of the project is to assist youths who have been academically unsuccessful and have dropped out of the public school system. 141 The task at hand is to educate the ghetto youth, potential dropouts, and 142 dropouts. 141 The Human Affairs Research Center, An Experiment in Educating High School Dropouts; An Evaluation of the New York Urban League Street Academy Program, New York City Urban League and the National Urban League, New York, August, 1970, p. vii. (Hereinafter referred to as The Human Affairs Research Center, Experiment in Educating Dropouts.) 142 National Urban League, Street Academies; New Way to Reach the Ghetto Dropout, New York, National Urban League. (Printed brochure, unpaged.) 115 The program is comprised of a set of fourteen semiautonomous experimental projects designed to "re-orient alienated youth, particularly high school dropouts to the realities of American society." 14 3 Participation is voluntary; participants register for a variety of reasons and remain until the program satisfies their needs or until the academy staff or participants decide the pro­ gram cannot satisfy their needs. The Street Academy Program is a three-step approach, consisting of the Street Academy, the Academy of Transition, and the Prep School. The Urban League considers the street worker, or recruiter, as the essential key to this program. The following quote describes the function of the street worker. The heart beat of this program is the street worker, or the recruiter, who roams the streets, night and day, in an endless search for youngsters who have cut the scholastic cord, and dropped out. Usually a product of the streets himself, he not only raps their lingo, he understands their problems and knows their hangouts. Once he makes contact with a potential candidate, he pulls out all the stops, from pleading to persuasion, in a round-the-clock campaign to give education another try. These young adults are the unsung heroes of this program--dedicated, selfless, committed— they are tireless in their efforts to help these forsaken youngsters make a comeback. Once the street worker has succeeded in getting the dropout back into the classroom, the first step of the 3-step pro­ gram goes into operation.144 143 The Human Affairs Research Center, Experiment in Educating Dropouts, p . 1. 144 Jonathan Black, "Street Academies: One Step Off the Sidewalk," Saturday Review, November 15, 1969. 116 Step 1; The Street Academy.— The major objective of the Street Academy is to reconnect alienated youth to the educational process. are emphasized. Counseling and remedial work Motivation is a primary concern. Indi­ vidualized study programs in general science, mathematics, social studies, and English permit the student to stay in this stage until he reaches the eighth-grade reading level. The teaching methods are unconventional, the atmosphere informal. The facility for this stage is usually located in a store-front. Each academy is designed to handle 25-30 students and is staffed by one resident teacher, two staff members, and a street worker. In 1969 there were fourteen Street Academies; however, funding problems have imperiled the future of a number of them with the tight economic conditions of spring, 1971. 145 Step 2; The Academy of Transition.— The major objective of the Academy of Transition is to prepare graduates of the Street Academy for entry into formal learning situations. This stage is the bridge between the Street Academy and the Preparatory School. Here the student begins to work with the more traditional edu­ cational courses, including sociology, biology, and drama. 145 Charlayne Hunter, "Fund Loss Imperils Street Academies," New York Times, February 16, 1971. (Herein­ after referred to as Hunter, "Fund Loss.") 117 Students are urged to participate in extra-curricular activities. Time spent in this stage is dependent upon the student's ability to comprehend the subject and to prepare himself for entry into the Preparatory School. Step 3: The Preparatory School.— The major objec­ tive of the College Preparatory School is to prepare graduates for admission to college. Transcripts are evaluated, Standard Achievement Test scores and cumula­ tive average reviewed, and all gaps filled in to give students the necessary credits for college admission on a competitive level. Throughout the course, usually two years, students are assisted in developing new and more effective work and study habits. Stress is on self- discipline and enhancement of skills and talents. The Urban League reports that to date there are some 300 graduates of the Prep School attending schools of higher , . 146 learning. An indication of the scope of Academy activities is indicated by data for the academic year 1969-1970. During that year 1,118 students received some services from the Academy program. More than 110 students gradu­ ated from the Street Academies; more than 75 students graduated from the Academies of Transition. A total of 14 6 National Urban League, This Comeback Is For Real, New York, National Urban League. (Printed brochure, unpaged.) (Hereinafter referred to as National Urban League, Comeback.) 118 129 former Street Academy graduates received high school diplomas from the two prep schools operating during this academic year. At least twenty-two Street Academy gradu­ ates who received high school diplomas in June, 1970, had been accepted into fifteen colleges and universities for the term beginning September, 1970, at the time data were collected for publication in August, 1970. 147 The National Urban League, in sponsoring this pro­ gram, views it as a "positive alternative" to the public school system; in addition, it is an attempt to develop a model demonstrating effective education with the ulti­ mate purpose of effecting change in the public school system. The Street Academy concept is neither a cut rate nor short cut route, filling an interim, waiting for the public schools to "get themselves together" with relevant programs and teaching techniques necessary to meet the needs of minority youth. Nor does it claim to be a substitute for public education. Rather, the Urban League is concerned with the urgency facing young dropouts today and is determined they have a second chance. It also recognizes that this program can be effective in the widespread use only if there is a basic change in the educational system. With this ultimate in view, this program takes on a two-fold purpose: 1 . to offer urban youth a permanent alternative to existing educational facilities; 2 . to prove, through successful demonstration, that this approach to learning enhances and accelerates the quality of learning for urban youth, and can be incorporated into the public educational system to effect major changes in education.148 147 The Human Affairs Research Center, Experiment m Educating Dropouts, p. 152. 148 National Urban League, Comeback. 119 Evaluation of each of the individual academies by the Human Affairs Research Center at the end of 19691970 academic year indicated that nine of the fourteen academies were successfully achieving their objectives. Two were moderately successful in obtaining their objec­ tives, and two were minimally successful. operational at the time of evaluation. One was not A major recom­ mendation for improvement was the development of improved data keeping procedures. The continuation of the Academy program is threatened as financial support has become a problem for the Academy program. Corporations have been an important source of funding on a short-term basis: as the economy in 1970 and 1971 tightened, retention of corporate fund­ ing has become difficult. Currently the Urban League is exploring a number of other avenues for obtaining longterm commitment of funds. 149 Costs of the program are reported to run somewhere in the vicinity of $ 2,000 per pupil per year. Apart from the operating costs— faculty, maintenance and equipment— ancillary services dealing with health, food, work, clothing and guidance must be considered. A model Academy should consist of: 25-30 pupils, 2 teachers, 2 street workers. The Prep School Division runs about the same despite the fact that the more com­ prehensive program requires a larger concentration of faculty and students under one roof.150 149 150 Hunter, "Fund Loss." National Urban League, Comeback. 120 The National Urban League Board of Trustees, in February of 1971, announced it "would do everything pos­ sible to obtain financial support for the implementation of the Street Academy Concept." 151 In addition to the Academy Program in New York, street academies have been organized in Pittsburgh, Pa., Hartford, Conn., Cleveland, Ohio, and Minneapolis, Minn. Christian Alliance Ministry Academy CAM Academy, sponsored by the Christian Action Ministry, an alliance of eight Protestant and Catholic churches, is located in a former bank building in a Chicago neighborhood which changed from a white neigh­ borhood to black in a short period of time. It enrolls students from the ages of fifteen to twenty-one with an average age of about eighteen. Students have an average reading level slightly less than sixth grade at admission; about 85 per cent of the boys have police records. Many of the girls have already borne illegitimate children. Before entering CAM most of the youths had completed approximately a year of high school but had dropped out and been on the streets for anywhere from a month to two years. Student capacity in fall, 1968, was about 100 students. 151 Students may enter at any time during the National Urban League, News From the National Urban League, press release, February 23, 1971. 121 year, and three certificates are offered: one that proves completion of work through the tenth grade level with the intent that at that level youths would be ready for basic job training or certain kinds of jobs, the second, a high school equivalency certificate which would enable students to attend junior college or get a permanent job, and the third, a college preparatory certificate. CAM has dropped students who would not or could not learn though such students may be readmitted with "proper proof of seriousness." Students have drawn up the basic rules, including such items as "No weapons allowed in the building; they must be deposited at the front desk," "No reefers or alcoholic beverages allowed in the building." Upon admission, each student is given a diagnostic test in reading and mathematics and is immediately started on programmed instruction materials at his precise level. He starts at a point where he can produce; from then on he moves as quickly as he can or as slowly as he must. During CAM's first twelve weeks of operation the average improvement in mathematics was more than three grade levels; in reading the average improvement was more than two grade levels. In fall of 1968 CAM was reported to have graduated thirty students; twenty received scholarships for college. 152 152 "Where Failures Make the G rade: Two Schools for Dropouts," Carnegie Quarterly, Carnegie Corporation of New York, XVI, No. 4 (Fall, 1968), pp. 1-5. 122 CAM Academy was begun with the express intention of effecting change in the public school system. The first step was to provide a successful model of secondary education, which CAM's founders believe they have done. They have deliberately tried to run their program with the kind of budget and class size that would be feasible for the public schools. From the beginning, CAM has involved some officials of the Chicago public school system in its efforts, it has advice and support from representatives of five universities, and is in touch with the super­ intendent of schools and board of education. Several batches of its teaching material will soon be ready for publication. But before it can hope to have any real impact on the regular system, if it ever does, it must prove itself and its methods and curriculum even further, and financing remains a problem.153 In an analysis of CAM Academy and of Harlem Prep (one of the Urban League Prep Academies) Quarterly asked the fundamental question: the Carnegie "What is it about CAM and Harlem Prep that accounts for their apparent success? And whatever it is, is it transferable"? The Quarterly responded to its own question: It is tempting to look to curriculum, but that, clearly, is not the sole answer . . . it is tempting to look to method— to think, if only all schools could use programmed instruction in the way CAM does, or if only all schools had a teacher who teaches math the way Harlem Prep's does, but that too, is not all. One cannot see Harlem Prep and CAM Academy, those unlike and unlikely institutions, without being driven to the conclusion that it is curriculum and method plus something more . . . faith and love . . . Can all the overworked teachers and harried administrators acquire the faith that their students can learn? . . . Can they love the sometimes surly, bored, or aggressive youngsters delivered into their care from the bleak neighborhoods of hunger, ugliness, vice, family instability, and despair? ^ ^ I b i d ., p . 5. 123 Not, it seems clear . . . until there are struc­ tural changes in the schools which will release the talents of teachers and students alike, not until the system itself is made responsive to individual ne eds, not until teachers are given a twentieth century curriculum to teach and more effective tools to teach with. Given these things, most teachers might turn out to be more creative— and even more loving— than they seem to be.154 Postal Academy Another store-front school operation for dropouts is jointly sponsored by the Post Office Department, the Office of Economic Opportunity, and the Department of Labor. Postmaster Blount has stated, "The Post Office Department has a great potential in manpower, talent, and structure to open new doors to youth of America who have dropped out of school. No other institution is so well situated and organized to do this job." 155 The program is an attempt to motivate and train hardcore dropout youth to obtain a high school equivalency diploma and become productive citizens. X 56 Postal Academies opened in May, 1970, in Newark, New Jersey; San Francisco, California; Chicago, Illinois; 155 General Release No. 2, Post Office Department Information Service (Washington, D . C . : Government Print­ ing Office, January 6 , 1970), p. 2. I c/r First Term Report, Postal Academy Program, The Post Office Department (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, May-June, 1970), p. 1. 124 Detroit, Michigan; Atlanta, Georgia, and Washington, D.C. Postal employees serve as teachers and street workers, offering basic education to school dropouts. In the summer of 1970 the program was expected to reach fewer than 2,000 persons, recognized as a small number in the face of the great numbers of such people needing help. Each city named has two postal academies staffed by seven postal employees, and one transitional academy manned by fourteen postal workers. Employees who volun­ teer for Postal Academy assignments receive special train­ ing and are relieved of regular post office duties. Street workers, available for counseling round-theclock, recruit sixteen to twenty-two-year-old youths from urban areas for placement in Academies. Teachers give instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, and other basic subjects. 157 Each Postal Academy will enroll about fifty youths at any one time; they will remain about four months. An estimated two-thirds are expected to graduate to the transitional academies where each trainee will spend a year earning the equivalent of a high school diploma or in preparing for employment. Training in the transitional academies is available to postal employees and to Vietnam 157 "Postal Academies Open in May," Postal Life, The Magazine for Postal Employees, III, No.~5 (March-April , 1970) , p. T~. (Hereinafter referred to as "Academies Open in M a y .") 125 veterans, as well as to youths recruited off the streets. Each transitional academy will enroll 220 at any one 158 time. Youths studying in Postal Academies are offered part-time post office jobs. Regular employees provide on-the-job guidance and personal attention to each trainee. The employment component of the program is patterned after the "Buddy System," an employment pro­ gram previously developed and implemented by the Post Office Department wherein disadvantaged youths are enabled to work through a summer employment program. In the Buddy Program career postal employees also serve as counselors to underprivileged youth working during the summer months. This program stresses the concept of offering such youths more than just a job. Assistant Postmaster General for Personnel Kenneth Houseman has said about the Buddy System: We must show them how to work and how to use money and how to succeed. Too many kids come from homes where no one ever had a job.i59 Youths hired under the "Buddy System" during the summer of 1969 numbered 8,250. Typically they were seventeen years old, had not completed school, and belonged to minority 158ibid. 159 "Buddy System Planned Again This Summer," Postal Life, The Magazine for Postal Employees, III, No. 5 (March-April, 1970), p. 5. 126 group families living on public assistance or a low income. With back-to-school counseling emphasized, 89 per cent of the summer aides returned to school in fall, 1970. 160 It was partially through the experience with this summer hiring-counseling program that the Postal Academy was developed. An estimated 95 per cent of the enrollees in the Transitional Academy are expected to complete the program; they will then be helped by Academy workers in applying for college, for Civil Service examination for career postal employment, or in seeking jobs elsewhere. 161 Academies are located in store-fronts— leased commercial buildings in which interiors have been stripped to the walls and then furnished with chairs, tables, and other basic equipment. Buildings are located in the heart of neighborhoods they are intended to help. 162 A number of factors appear to form a sound base for the involvement of the Post Office in the business of education of out-of-school youths: 1. The Post Office has multiple business operations in every city and ghetto. 160Ibid. 161 "Academies Open in May," p. 7. 162_, _ Ibid., p . 7. 127 2. Postal employees visit every street almost every day of the year. 3. Post Office employees live in the ghetto and have a strong interest and pride in their community. 4. Post Office employees are familiar to ghetto residents. 5. Postal employees are in and out of every business establishment daily— a fact which has great potential for employment opportunities. Staff members, selected from among postal employees, participate in a ten-week training course at the Postal Academy Training Institute competing with one another for positions. When specific staff members have been selected they undergo a twenty-eight day stress endurance experience in the Arizona desert, and take a one-month course in curriculum design, educational techniques, and subject matter content. Counselors receive instruction in the location of and utilization of public and private sup­ portive agencies while project directors participate in seminars on management techniques and program policy. Shauld a staff member prove ineffective working in the Academy, he is able to simply transfer back to his regular postal duties. This is seen as an advantage in maintain­ ing a quality staff, for there is no concern about job security or loss in pay if a staff member must be removed from the program. 128 The Postal Academy has built-in student employment opportunities. Students are able to work during peak hours of the post office in the early morning and late afternoon while attending the Academy. Through this they are helped to see the relationship between education and employment opportunities. The pay scale for students is directly related to academic progress, but since stu­ dents are paid as regular postal employees, pay is not an additional program expense. An attempt has been made to correct one of the problem areas which appears in many such programs: documentation. A contract was made with a private firm to design an information retrieval system to report from the field to the administration with the purpose of aiding in policy decision-making. The intention was also to help individual project directors know what had and what had not been effective. In addition, the Educational Testing Service was contracted to establish an objective testing program so that student progress could be accurately reported. This showed students attending the first four months of the program gained roughly one year in scholastic achievement. 163 Evaluation of student progress data was broken down by academy and by subject. Factors unique to the student population ■'"^Ronald L. Flaugher, "Report No. 2— The Postal Academy Program" (Princeton, N . J . : The Educational Test­ ing Service), p. 15. 129 involved in the program were taken into account: i.e., students were compared to their estimated growth if they had remained in an inner city high school; they were not compared with suburban white students. It was also taken into account that the students involved in the program were not likely to be able to demonstrate their true achievement levels by means of an objective test. Postal Department officials believe the Academy has unique potential. Employees of the Department are familiar with and familiar to residents of all areas of all communities and are seen to be a particularly valuable asset. Kenneth Houseman has stated: Our people are a tremendous resource. We are the only agency with thousands of people living and working in the urban centers. They go there every day; they know the kids who need help. They also go into every business in the city, and they know where there are jobs. Our people are trusted and respected by those living in these city cores, and they are in a position to use their influence to help others. . . . All we have to do is to put this great resource of ours to work.164 Summary of Model Program Findings' These five models represent different approaches to the multi-faceted problems of school dropouts. They underscore what the investigator noted in Chapter I; namely, that the complexity of the school dropout problem requires a series of solutions. 164 Of particular significance "Academies Open in May," p. 7. 130 is the fact that the federal government is experimenting with different approaches. For example, the Job Corps is operated under contract with private firms; the N.Y.C. under schools and community groups as sponsors. Through the Postal Academy concept the federal government operates its own special type programs for school dropouts to improve their employability. Other innovative approaches are being undertaken by community groups such as the National Urban League and The Christian Action Ministry. The involvement of the federal government and community groups points out that the resolution of the school dropout problem requires full and close cooperation between all segments of society including the schools. Experience in the early work experience programs showed that to most effectively help enrollees, programs must contain several components: instruction in basic education, personal counseling, and work experience. The Urban League and CAM programs recognize that special programs cannot provide education for all youths who drop out of the public schools. Rather, these programs are intended to help those who do par­ ticipate, while demonstrating that such dropouts can be educated, and while developing models for accomplishing this objective. The ultimate objective of these programs is to devise methods which can be transferred to the 131 public school system. been recent. Development of these programs has Therefore, the main concern thus far has been to evaluate and document effectiveness. The greater question of whether such effectiveness can be transferred to the public school system has yet to be addressed. CHAPTER III PROCEDURES USED IN THE STUDY Introduction The purpose of this study was two-fold: to identify those programs which have been developed in Michigan school districts to cope with the problems of school dropouts, and to relate the extent of these facil­ ities with the need existing in the state. The programs identified will be examined to make a determination as to whether they are constructed so as to be able to serve the known needs of the dropout population; e.g., programs will be examined to learn if there are provisions in their design intended to meet the needs of school drop­ outs which are suggested by the literature surveyed in Chapter II. In addition, the programs will be examined to identify gaps between existing need and program offer­ ings, and gaps in programs themselves. To locate existing programs superintendents of each of the fifty-seven Michigan school districts having had 100 or more school dropouts during 1967-1968 were surveyed. A questionnaire (hereinafter referred to as 132 133 Questionnaire I, see Appendix B) along with a letter of transmittal (Appendix A) explaining the purposes of the study was sent to each superintendent. Since the research conducted by the writer was under the auspices of the Michigan Manpower Commission (see Chapter I, p. 9), the letter of transmittal appeared under the letterhead of the Michigan Manpower Commission and was signed by Daniel H. Krugar, Chairman, Michigan Manpower Com­ mission. Questionnaire I Questionnaire I requested each superintendent to identify any programs in his area intended to meet the needs of school dropouts. Neither the letter of trans­ mittal nor the questionnaire specifically limited what could be considered a dropout program; however, several broadly stated possible objectives were suggested for programs which could be considered dropout oriented. The aim was to obtain as wide a picture as possible of the range of alternatives being used by Michigan school districts to cope with the problems of school dropouts. It was suggested that dropout programs could include those having the purpose of reinvolving dropouts in the regular school program, alternative methods of gaining a high school diploma, special vocational train­ ing, or special schools. Each superintendent was asked, in addition to identifying existing programs, to supply 134 names and addresses of individuals associated with pro­ grams who could supply more information. Superintendents were also asked to so indicate if, to their knowledge, no dropout programs existed in their area. A follow-up letter was sent to those superinten­ dents who had not responded within three weeks of the first mailing (Appendix C ) . Questionnaire II A second questionnaire (hereinafter referred to as Questionnaire II, see Appendix E) was sent to the individuals identified by school district superintendents as associated with ongoing programs. mittal A letter of trans­ (Appendix D) accompanied Questionnaire II, again under the letterhead of the Michigan Manpower Commission and signed by Dr. Kruger, Chairman. Questionnaire II was directed specifically to detailed questions about the dropout program, the program participants, and the staff. Follow-up to Questionnaire II consisted of a second mailing, phone contact, and personal contact. Interview Schedule The interview schedule was used in personal visits with selected administrators of five of those programs identified for the study, with a sixth studied in a trial interview. This number allowed selection of programs representing different approaches being used in the state. 135 Portions of the schedule were tested in a pre­ liminary interview with the director of a program in western Michigan. Certain revisions were made in wording and content as a result of the trial interview, after which the schedule was used in interviews which took place during visitations to dropout program sites. final interview schedule, Appendix F.) (See Responses to interview questions were written on the interview schedule sheet; in addition, interviews were taped. Programs to be examined through interviews were selected on the basis of data obtained through Questionnaire II. These were programs which, according to data, appeared to be fairly extensive and which were, as cited above, representative of different approaches used in the state. Among other varying characteristics, they were sponsored and financed by several sources. Program I, located in western Michigan, is a pro­ gram for pregnant teenage girls, the only one of this type identified through this study. Data indicated the program to be extensive. Program II, located in southwestern Michigan, is an alternative school facility developed for school drop­ outs including academic and vocational education. Program III, located in western Michigan, is a tutoring program for dropouts and students considered to be potential dropouts. 136 Program IV, in mid-eastern Michigan, combines work experience, counselling, and academic work for potential dropouts. Program V, in southeastern Michigan, is a pro­ gram within the structure of the local high school for returning dropouts. Plan for Analysis and Presentation of the Data The major areas to be discussed in the presentation and analysis of the data are: (1) Characteristics of the dropout programs identi­ fied; (2) Characteristics of the clientele being served by the dropout programs; (3) Characteristics of the personnel staffing the dropout programs. Analysis of data obtained through Questionnaire II will rely on frequency distribution of responses in order to develop a composite picture of the dropout programs surveyed. Data will be presented in the form of dis­ cussions, tables, and charts. For those items dealing with quantitative data such as age of participants in programs, numbers of participants, and program costs, range and mean of responses, and where appropriate, median of responses will be determined. For items dealing with qualitative data, such as personality 137 characteristics, frequency distribution of responses to questionnaire items will again be employed. Where appro­ priate, other categorized data will be presented in the form of tables and discussion. Though the primary pur­ pose of this study is descriptive, where appropriate, the relationship between data concerning the programs under discussion and data concerning the characteristics and needs of dropouts which were posited in earlier chapters of the study will be explored. Data obtained in interviews with program adminis­ trators will be discussed in terms of each of the pro­ grams visited and by highlighting both common elements and contrasts. Discussion of data obtained in interviews separately from data obtained through Questionnaire II will allow a more in-depth picture of selected programs, particularly of the curriculum offered, the structure of each of the programs, and of the perceptions and views of a select number of program administrators. Chapter IV will present the data obtained on Questionnaires I and II, and in the interviews with program administrators. divisions: Data are presented in four characteristics of the programs, charac­ teristics of participants, characteristics of staff, and discussion of the interviews with program adminis­ trators. Thus the data presented and analyzed in Chapter IV will reveal the characteristics, including 138 structure and curricular features, of the programs iden­ tified along with characteristics of the students partici­ pating in those programs. In Chapter V the questions raised at the outset of the study will be answered. To determine whether existing programs are constructed to be able to serve the needs of school dropouts the characteristics of school dropouts which were identified in the literature surveyed in Chapter II will be summarized and the needs suggested by those characteristics identified. Data about the thirty-three Michigan programs which were presented and analyzed in Chapter IV will be examined against the backdrop of those needs to determine if the programs do have components intended to meet them. The same data will be examined and summarized to identify the gaps between the needs of dropouts and program offerings, and gaps in the programs themselves. Chapter V will, in addition, present recommendations developed from the analysis of the data in Chapter IV, and implications for further study. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Introduction Superintendents of 96 per cent of the sample school districts responded to Questionnaire I (see Appendix B) supplying names of programs they considered dropout oriented and names of administrators of those programs, or by stating no dropout programs existed in their areas. Questionnaire II (see Appendix E) was sent to all the named administrators and yielded a 48 per cent return. In some instances the administrators responded that the program cited by the superintendent was not a dropout program or was only in the preliminary planning stages. Ultimately thirty-three programs were identified which were, according to both school district superin­ tendents and program administrators, designed to meet the needs of school dropouts. This chapter will first describe the character­ istics of the thirty-three programs themselves, followed by the characteristics of the students enrolled, and of 139 140 the staff members. Finally descriptions of five indi­ vidual programs will be presented. This material con­ cerning the characteristics of programs, participants, and staff is based on data gathered from the administra­ tors of the thirty-three programs identified. The data was supplied through responses to Questionnaire II (see Appendix E for specific items), written comments added to questionnaire items, correspondence, and program descriptions which accompanied the returned question­ naires. The programs were either in operation at the time responses were made, or had just been completed. (Some were just summer programs.) In some instances administrators were in the process of recruiting stu­ dents for programs scheduled to begin in September, 1970. Data for this study were collected during August and September, 1970. Material presented in the final section of the chapter concerning individual programs is based on that which was gathered in interviews with the selected pro­ gram administrators subsequent to analysis of question­ naire data. Characteristics of Programs Curricular Emphasis A major concern of this study was the curricular emphasis of programs. Are they oriented to vocational 141 preparation, including work experience, or toward academic work including remediation, or other areas? Administra­ tors were asked to indicate which of several curricular areas suggested in Questionnaire II (see Appendix E) were emphasized in their programs. thirty-three Twenty-six of the (78.7 per cent) responded to this item, indicating one or more of the responses provided. The curricular areas and the number of programs reported emphasizing each as reported by those twenty-six administrators are shown in Table 15. TABLE 15.— Curricular areas emphasized twenty-six dropout programs. Number of Programs Emphasizing Area Curricular Area Remedial Skills Vocational Education Work-Study Program Job Related Instruction Cooperative Education High School Equivalent Diploma (G.E.D.) College Prep Special Education 13 10 6 6 6 3 1 1 Analysis of individual responses showed that six­ teen of the twenty-six responding administrators indi­ cated emphasis in areas relating to the world of work, either vocational education, work-study programs, job related instruction, cooperative education program, or combinations thereof. Five of these programs relating 142 to the world of work were also reported to emphasize academic areas, usually remedial skills. Nine of the twenty-six administrators indicated emphasis on only academic areas, including remedial skills, special education, college prep, or high school equivalent diploma. Seven administrators who did not check the responses suggested in Questionnaire II were associated with the following programs: three which are for adult high school completion, one for high school age pregnant girls which offers a regular school curriculum along with additional specialized services, one offering special counseling in the regular high school, a summer program offered under the State Department of Vocational Education Special Needs Program, and an in-school and summer Neighborhood Youth Corps in which students par­ ticipate in the regular school along with N.Y.C. Information contained in program descriptions returned with the questionnaire revealed that generally those working with students still enrolled in school who have been identified as potential dropouts stress remedial help in academic skills and frequently include counseling and help with personality development. It also appears that in some cases programs have been developed for youths whose behavior is anti-social within the defi­ nition of acceptable behavior in the ordinary school 143 setting, and who are not considered to be functioning adequately within that structure, either academically or socially. The ultimate aim of this type of program appears to be to help the youth adapt his behavior patterns in such a way that he can eventually re-enter and function adequately in the regular school environment. Various forms of vocational education are empha­ sized by programs for both potential dropouts and for youths who have already dropped out of school. The focus is almost evenly divided between those reported on the questionnaire as vocational education, work study programs, job related instruction, and cooperative edu­ cation, with several using more than one of these approaches. Program descriptions showed that remedial work in the areas of basic language and mathematical skills are components of many such programs. Another major focus of the programs identified is the provision of alternative methods for completing work leading to a high school diploma. This is most often accomplished through programs considered adult education, adult here being loosely defined as over sixteen. However, this is also accomplished through individual tutoring. 144 Length of Time Programs Have Been in Existence The length of time the thirty-three programs have been in existence varies from twenty-one years to four which were in the final stages of initiation and scheduled to begin operation in Fall, 1970— within a month after data were reported. The data are as follows: TABLE 16.— Length of time identified dropout programs have been in existence. Years in Existence Number of Programs 4 7 5 3 5 1 1 0 2 1 2 Beginning Fall, 1970 Less than One Year One Year and Over Two Years and Over Three Years and Over Four Years Six Years Seven Years Eight Years Twenty-one Years No Data 33 Total Seven administrators reported their programs had been in operation less than one year. Four were to begin operation at the time data was being collected. Together these comprised one-third of all those identified. Of the programs identified and reporting data all but one had been developed within the last decade. These figures reflect concern with the school dropout which has been emphasized during the 1960's. They also point out that special program efforts to cope with the problems of 145 school dropouts are relatively new and that data showing long-range effectiveness of such programs may be scarce. Location of Program Facilities Administrators were requested to supply data about the location of program facilities. three program administrators responded. (91.9 per cent of all the programs) of only one location. grams) Six All thirtyTwenty-seven indicated the use (18.1 per cent of all pro­ indicated multiple locations. TABLE 17.— Number and percentage of programs utilizing multiple and single program sites. Percentage of Programs Single or Multiple Locations Number of Programs Use One Location Use Multiple Locations 27 6 81.9 18.1 33 100.0 Total The breakdown of the housing resources for the programs is shown in Table 18. Data are tabulated to indicate program location within buildings belonging to the school system, as compared to buildings not belonging to the school system. Fourteen of the programs (4 2.4 per cent) reporting a single location are in the main school complex. seven (21.2 per cent) Another in a single location are in separate buildings belonging to the school system. Five 146 TABLE 18.— Program facility resources. Building Resource in Which Program is Located Number of Programs Percentage of Programs 14 42.4 7 21.2 5 15.2 7 21.2 33 100.0 Main School Complex Only Separate Building Belonging to School System Only Main School Complex/Separate Building Owned by School/ Other Public or Private Buildings Buildings not Belonging to School System Total (15.2 per cent) reporting multiple locations use the main school complex or buildings owned by the school in combination with other facilities. These data show that altogether four-fifths of the programs (88.8 per cent) use facilities supplied by the school districts solely or in combination with other facilities. The local school districts, therefore, appear as a primary resource in supplying housing for dropout programs. Seven programs (21.2 per cent) use buildings not owned by the school system, but rather private buildings either donated or rented, or facilities furnished through other resources. Examination of data supplied by administrators showed that community organizations other than the school system have provided space for dropout programs. these is an area vocational center. One of Prior to moving to 147 the center the program involved had used the main school complex on an interim basis. One program is housed in a hospital; prior to the hospital this program had been housed in a church. Another used facilities supplied by the county juvenile court. Another utilizes a com­ munity college building; still another a community col­ lege building which had been vacated. Another used a community center which is the focal point for activities of the Mexican-American community in that city. At the inception of this study it was expected that a number of educational programs might be identified which were based on the concept of the store-front school This was not the case. Although 21.2 per cent of the pro grams in Michigan do use buildings not in the main school complex, the concept of the store-front school did not emerge as one of them. Some programs having multiple locations have academic courses in one building with specialized facilities for vocational education in another. Many vocationally oriented programs utilizing work experience place students in job locations outside the traditional school setting. However, analysis of the data shows that most of these programs did not report the use of job sites as program locations, although such activities did appear in program descriptions. 148 Hours Instruction is Offered Administrators were asked during what hours instruction is offered. Results are shown in Table 19. TABLE 19.— Hours instruction is offered. Hours Regular School Hours Only Regular School Hours and After School Regular School Hours, After School and Evening After School and Evening Regular School Hours and Evening Evening Only Regular School Hours— Summer School Only 8:30 a.m.— 1:00 p.m.— Summer School Only No Data Total Number of Programs Percentage of All Programs 16 49 2 6 4 1 12 3 3 4 9 12 1 3 1 1 3 3 33 Programs 100 Nearly half the programs offer instruction during regular school hours only or during school hours in com­ bination with afternoon and/or evening. These programs include both those designed to work with potential drop­ outs who are still in school, and those for individuals who have already dropped out. Of the four programs offering instruction through­ out the day and evening two are designed primarily for potential dropouts still in school, and two for dropouts. The one program offering instruction after school and in the evening is an "Evening Youth Program" specifically 149 for out-of-school youths sixteen to nineteen years of age. It emphasized remedial skills, job related instruction and vocational education. Adult Education Programs Administrators were asked if their program was offered evenings and if it was considered an adult edu­ cation program. In total there were twelve programs offering evening instruction. Of these, nine are defined as adult education and include basic education, high school completion and vocational training. The three remaining programs offering evening instruction are not defined as adult education. They are each variations of plans to provide remediation in academic skills and per­ sonal counseling for students experiencing educational problems. It must be remembered that an "adult education program" may involve individuals sixteen years of age or older. Thus, defining a program as adult does not neces­ sarily eliminate participation of youths ordinarily expected to be of high school age. Duration of Programs Information was sought on the duration of the programs in terms of the schedule on which they are offered— on a short-term basis or year round. are extremely varied. The results Some administrators of what appear 150 to be continuous year-round programs reported only the length of individual program sessions. Whether these sessions continue on a year-round basis was not defined. Further, in some programs there are variations in schedul­ ing throughout the year, depending on the projects being run. Sometimes several projects of varying length are offered within the same program. Thus the data, even within single programs do not always lend themselves to simple categorization. However, trends are revealed. Twelve programs, just over one-third, operate only during the regular school year. Approximately half of these are for youths identified as potential dropouts still in school, while the others are for actual dropouts. Seven programs report operating during the nine-month school year, with a five- or six-week summer session in addition. The target populations for these programs vary. Other scheduling variations included year-round operation with some projects within the program scheduled during the 180-day school year only, year-round operation with variations depending on client need and progress, and continuous operation with various projects ranging from eight weeks to thirty-six weeks. The length of individual sessions reported by four administrators were ten weeks, twelve weeks, sixteen weeks, and thirty-five weeks respectively. These cover 151 basic education programs, vocational courses, and high school completion courses. Although the respondents did not specify year-round operation, other program description material for most such programs suggests year-round oper­ ation with the target population being out-of-school youths or adults needing educational and vocational upgrading. Time Spent in Programs by Dropouts An effort was made to learn how much time dropouts spend participating in the programs available to them. Each administrator was asked the average number of days spent in the program by students. Eight programs supplied no data. ing those offering only summer programs) Nineteen (exclud­ reported 126 to be the average number of days spent by students in the programs. The three holding only summer school sessions report attendance for twenty-eight to thirty days each. Three programs reported data in a form that was impossible to use: One of these, available year round, stated student attendance varied according to need. The program offering tutoring cited that students would spend three hours a day, three days a week being tutored, but the program was to begin in September, 1970, so no further data were available. Another reported that students par­ ticipate four days a week, but did not state how long this continues. 152 These data were compared with data obtained in response to the question asking the duration of time in which the program is offered. Results of this comparison are as follow: Year-round programs (fifty-two weeks) .— Data on student participation were available for three programs offered fifty-two weeks a year. The average length of time students spent in these programs was equivalent to approximately seven m on t h s . Nine-month school year programs (180 days) .— Stu­ dent participation data were available for eight programs offered during the nine-month school calendar year. The average student participation in these programs was approx­ imately seven m o n t h s . Nine-month school year (180 days) plus summer school.— Student participation data were available for four programs operating on a nine-month school calendar year, plus summer school. For these programs average attendance was approximately nine m o n t h s . One such pro­ gram reported that attendance varied according to need. Four programs had supplied data concerning duration of the program only in the form of the length of sessions of training projects or term length. Of these, three supplied data showing average student attendance. One offering ten-week sessions reported the average student 153 participation to be two full sessions. Another offering ten-week sessions reported average student attendance to be one session. Another offering sixteen-week sessions reported average attendance to be the equivalent of one session. T h u s , data show that for lengthy programs student attendance is slightly less than the length of the programs. For relatively short programs, student attendance is close to the full length of time the program is offered. How Students Become Involved The ways students are referred to and become involved in the dropout programs available to them are important to this study. Thus administrators were asked to identify the agents by whom students are referred to their programs. become involved. Six reported no data on how students Five responded with rankings in order of importance of various referral agents, estimates of percentages of students referred by various sources, or citations of referral agents. The remaining twenty-two programs showed the number of students who had become involved through each referral agent during the period of a year. Referral sources are shown in Table 20 ranked according to the number of times each was cited by the administrators responding to this item. 154 TABLE 20.— Referral agents ranked according to frequency of use by thirty-three dropout programs. Referral Agent Number of Programs Using the Agent Counsellors Principal Request by Student Teachers Parents Court Other Police No Data 20 19 15 14 11 11 7 6 6 In terms of numbers of students referred as reported by the programs supplying this data, school counselors, either alone or in combination with the principal and/or teachers are the largest single source of referrals. The second is self-referral by students. This is predominant in programs considered adult edu­ cation, or in various forms of high school completion programs. Parents, police, and courts, in descending order, refer lesser numbers of students. A program utilizing a particularly wide array of referral agents is the one for teen-age pregnant girls. Nearly half of the girls were referred to this program by high school principals and counselors. Over a quarter of the girls were referred by teachers or were self-referrals. The remaining girls came into contact with the school through private and public social agencies, physicians, and ministers. In a subsequent 155 interview with the director of this program it was learned that as the program has become better known self-referrals have increased. The programs having no data available were four for adult education and two which were to begin operation in the fall of 1970. Discussion with the director of one of the adult education programs revealed that not only do the administrators of this program not know how stu­ dents become involved; they are not sure which of the many efforts they make to disseminate information about the program are effective. He suggested research in this area would help directors to market the program. Motivational Devices, Credit, Letter Grades Administrators were asked to supply information concerning the motivational devices and grading used, and whether students are given school credit for work done in the programs. Thirty-one administrators supplied data, many indicating more than one motivational technique. Two supplied no data. Data are shown in Table 21. Combinations of incentives vary from one program which uses all those listed and others in addition, to programs using only one motivational device. The variety of incentives specified in addition to those suggested in the questionnaire is wide. They 156 TABLE 21.— Motivational devices utilized by thirty-three dropout programs. Motivational Device Number of Programs Other Credit for Related Vocational Instruction Payment While Participating in the Program Guarantee of a Job Upon Com­ pletion of Program No Data fall into four general clusters. Percentage of 33 Programs 18 54.5 15 45.4 11 33.3 5 2 15.2 6.0 These clusters and the specific incentives reported by administrators are: Incentives Related to Educational Achievement (1) Opening opportunity for college or post-high school education; (2) The gaining of a diploma; (3) Credit for "out-of-school training"; (4) Credit for completed work, along with removal of expulsion record and re-entry into school. (This is an individual tutoring program, one objective of which is to help students who have been expelled from school.) Personal Satisfaction (1) One adult basic education program cites the gain­ ing of the "ability to read and write so the adult can help his children" as the primary incen tive for many students; 157 (2) Self-satisfaction from an improved education; (3) Personal option to success. Related to Entry into the Job Market (1) Training for a job; (2) Help in finding a job upon completion of the program; (3) Gaining of a saleable skill; (4) No guarantee of a job, but help in finding a job. Direct Incentive Through Immediate, Sometimes Tangible Reward (1) Tokens entitling student to free time, candy, cigarettes; (2) Release of court controls, and the avoidance of court sanctions; (3) Payment through Veteran's Administration Benefits. An additional incentive for participation in an educational program was to gain credits which would apply toward high school graduation. Twenty-six of the programs report giving such credit. Twenty of the thirty-three programs (60 per cent) give letter grades in evaluation of performance. One pro­ gram administrator reported that students are given written evaluations of their performance. Transportation Whether transportation for students is a problem in getting students to participate in programs is of 158 concern to this study. Therefore, administrators were asked to report whether this has been a problem. Eleven of the program administrators stated that transportation is a problem. (one-third) All but two of these programs are located in buildings other than the main school complex and draw students from a wide area. Nineteen administrators reported that transpor­ tation is not a problem, while three reported no data. The latter three were all programs due to begin operation in Fall, 1970, the month following data collection. Orientation for Students The school dropout program represents a new kind of experience for the student. He needs to know the goals and objectives of such a program. becomes extremely important. Thus, orientation Thirty-one administrators report that their program offers orientation to incoming students? one reports no data. In the latter case, how­ ever, it is stated that students are required to attend "one meeting with the director to determine student's sincere interest." Administrators were asked to indicate the number of orientation hours spent by each student entering the program. programs. The length of time varied considerably among Twenty-eight programs supplied data, four reported no data, while one reported the length of orien­ tation depends on the student. The range of time 159 reported spent in orientation by each student varied from "continuous, throughout the program," three to four weeks, down to half an hour. Data reported by individual programs are shown in the following table. TABLE 22.— Student orientation time reported by thirtythree programs. Length of Orientation Number of Programs "Continuous" 3 to 4 Weeks 60 Hours 20 Hours 10 Hours 8 Hours 5 Hours 4 Hours 3 Hours 2 Hours 1 1/2 Hours 1 Hour 1/2 Hour Depends on Student No Data 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 6 1 7 2 1 4 These data show that nearly half the programs spend between one-half hour and two hours in orientation with new students. Administrators were also asked to indicate what topics were covered in orientation for new students. Data obtained are shown in Table 23. Responses showed that discussion of program objectives is included in the orientation for twenty-nine programs; what is expected of the participant is included 160 TABLE 23.— Orientation topics discussed in thirty-three programs. Orientation Topic Number of Programs Discussion of Objectives What is Expected of Participant Alternatives Open to Participant Expected "pay off" for Participation Other 29 27 26 23 4 in twenty-seven programs; alternatives open to the partic­ ipant in twenty-six programs; and in twenty-three the expected "pay off" for the participant is discussed. It seems that most program orientations cover several topics, and that the topics are similar. Four program administrators cited "other" topics. These topics are "what the student expects from the staff," "topics depend on the student," "job orientation," and "methodology." Administrators were also asked to list any instructional materials used for student orientation. Only four administrators listed such material. These included film strips, brochures, field trips to prospec­ tive places of employment, movies, reading material, and occupational information chosen on the basis of individual need. These data show that the time spent in student orientation varies widely, from one-half hour to several weeks, but that the topics covered are quite similar for 161 most programs, Data relating to instructional aids used in orientation were so sparse that no generalization could be made. Orientation for New Staff The school dropout program, at least in theory, represents a new experience for the teachers as well as the students. Accordingly, there is need for an orien­ tation program for teachers so that they fully understand the goals and objectives and their role in such programs. Therefore, administrators were asked if they had orien­ tation for new staff members. Twenty-three programs (70 per cent) do include a special orientation for new staff members; eight do not; two gave no data. The hours reported spent in orientation by new teachers in those twenty-three programs are: TABLE 24.— Hours per teacher spent in orientation in twenty-three programs. Hours Per Teacher in Orientation Number of Programs 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 2 1 9 40 14 15 12 10 4 3 2 1 No Data Total 23 162 Half the program administrators reported orien­ tation per teacher in the one- to four-hour range; half spent from ten to forty hours. Nine administrators did not report the number of hours spent, although they do report having orientation programs. In reporting the topics addressed in orientation, twenty-two administrators cite the objectives of the program. Nineteen cited the philosophy of the program, fourteen cited methodology and policies, and four adminis­ trators specified other topics covered in orientation for new staff. These topics include "how students learn," "working with parents," and "student characteristic information." One administrator stated that in-service training is conducted throughout the year, presumably on a variety of topics. Frequency of responses to the suggested topics are shown in Table 25. TABLE 25.— Topics of program orientation for new teachers. Topic of Orientation Number of Programs Objectives of the Program Philosophy of the Program Methodology Special Policies of the Program Other 22 19 14 14 4 Thus, objectives and philosophy are the most common orien­ tation topics; methodology and program policies are dis­ cussed in orientation for fewer programs. 163 Special instructional materials used in staff orientation were specified by six program administrators. These include the following: (1) Video tapes and the use of educational consultants in science, humanities, mathematics, and reading; (2) Special teaching aides; (3) Outline of the program and information relating to it from the State Department of Education; (4) A manual of procedures and forms; (5) Audio-visual material related to the needs of dropouts and potential dropouts ; (6) Preparation for teaching in the program through graduate courses and workshops chosen for content relating to the program. Student-Teacher Ratio Student-teacher ratio is a continuing issue in most educational programs. Therefore, program adminis­ trators were asked to supply information giving the student-teacher ratio of their programs. Twenty-nine programs reported student-teacher ratios, three reported no data, and oner a program which provides special counsel­ ing for potential dropouts, reported the program is not separate from the regular school instructional program. Data reported by program administrators is as follows: 164 TABLE 26.— Student-teacher ratio of thirty-three dropout programs. Student-Teacher Ratio Number of Programs 60-1 40-1 20-1 20-1 18-1 16-1 15-1 12-1 11-1 10-1 7-1 6-1 1-1 No Data Not Differentiated from Regular Classes 1 2 2 3 3 1 8 1 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 The lowest ratio of students to teachers reported is one to one in an individual tutoring program. largest is sixty to one. The This is a Neighborhood Youth Corps program and would not include classroom instruction. The second largest is forty to one in a cooperative edu­ cation program. The average of the reported student- teacher ratios is twenty and one-half students to one teacher. The median is fifteen to one. Cost of Programs Administrators were asked to supply information concerning the costs of programs (see Appendix E ) . Six of the thirty-three administrators supplied no cost data. Twenty-seven reported data concerning the total annual cost of the program; only twenty-one gave data about the 165 annual cost per pupil. Twenty-two programs supplied the information giving total instructional salaries spent for the programs, while only eighteen made available the per pupil breakdown of instructional salaries. Total Annual C o s t .— The average total annual cost of the twenty-seven programs reporting data is $90,412.73. The largest cost is $503,437.50 per year; the lowest is $2,000 per year. The median is $44,000. TABLE 27.— Total annual cost of programs. 27 Programs: Average High Low Median 6 Programs: No Data $ 90,412.73 503,437.50 2,000.00 44,000.00 Total Annual Cost Per Pupil.— The average total annual cost per pupil for twenty-six programs reporting this information was $1,079.00. The highest cost per pupil was $12,000.00; the low, $35,00. The median was $400.00. TABLE 28.— Total annual per pupil cost of programs. 26 Programs: 7 Programs: Average High Low Median No Data $ 1,07 9.00 12,000.00 35.00 400.00 166 The total cost of instructional salaries for twenty-three programs was reported. $50,602.52. The average was The highest cost of instructional salaries was $344,674.50. The program reporting the highest instructional salary cost was also the one having the highest total cost. One program utilizing all volunteer instructors had no cost for instruction, while the pro­ gram reporting the next lowest cost for instruction spent $2,260 for instructional salaries. TABLE 29.— Total cost of instructional salaries. 23 Programs: Average High Low Second Low Median 10 Programs: No Data $ 50,602.52 344,674.50 No Cost (volunteers) 2,260.00 27,000.00 Instructional Cost Per Pupil.— The average instruc­ tional cost per pupil for the nineteen programs reporting this data was $427.88. The highest was $950.00. The low was again the program utilizing all volunteer instructors at no cost. The next low was $105.00. The median was $330.00 per pupil. TABLE 30.— Per pupil instructional cost of programs. 19 Programs: Average High Low Median 14 Programs: No Data $427.88 950.00 No Cost (volunteers) 330.00 167 Sources of Funding The source of funds obtained to support special dropout programs is information important to this study. Thus, administrators of ongoing programs were asked to identify the sources of funds which support their pro­ grams . Approximately 20 per cent (six programs) of the ones identified are funded 100 per cent from the regular school budget. The total cost of one of these six pro­ grams was above the average total cost of all programs as shown in Table 30, three were below, and for two no cost data were given. Partial funding from the regular school budget was provided for fourteen programs, approximately twofifths of all those identified. School budget contri­ butions for these range from 10 per cent to 85 per cent of the total cost of the program. Altogether, the school budget is tapped for full or partial funding for nearly two-thirds (twenty) of all programs surveyed. Thirteen programs, over two-fifths of all the programs, receive no regular school budget funds. The Elementary Secondary Education Act (E.S.E.A.) Title I monies provide 100 per cent funding for four pro­ grams and partial funding for nine others. Altogether Title I funds are used in nearly two-fifths of all pro­ grams . 168 Vocational education funds provide for more than a quarter of all the programs (eight), ranging from a contribution of 25 per cent to 100 per cent. Foundation grants are used by only one program; funds obtained through a private source are used by only one. Other sources of funding contribute to nearly a quarter (nine) of the programs. These sources of funding are itemized in Table 31. These data show that school districts contribute to nearly two-thirds of all the programs (twenty). How­ ever, the districts provide 100 per cent funding to only 20 per cent, and this funding is relatively low. It appears that the three primary sources of funds for dropout programs are the regular school budget, E.S.E.A. Title I, and vocational education funds. Capacity of and Demand for Dropout Programs A major question at the inception of this study was whether there are facilities in operation sufficient to meet the need in various communities. According to data reported during 1969-1970 year four programs (12.1 per cent) had served fewer students than they had the capacity to serve. (36.3 per cent) In twelve programs the number of students actually enrolled was equal to the capacity of the program. Nine programs TABLE 31.— Sources of funding for thirty-three dropout programs. Regular Program3 School Budget 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9. 10b 11 12 13 14 15 16 Special Education Vocational Education Foundation Grants Private Sources Other 60% 40% 75% 25% 100% 100% 100% Department Labor 80-85% 10-15% 48% Title III, 7% United Community Services and County Health Department 45% 20% 20% 80% 80% x State Aid X 10% 100% 12% 10% 75% 90% 88% 20% State Aid 70% 25% 100% Concentrated Employment Program Federally Funded Through Michigan Employment Security Commission 100% 80% 75% 100% 10% 10% 10% 25% 90% 30% State Aid 100% County and Community 70% 100% 100% 10% 65% 100% 100% 45% 90% 99% 1% 5% 30% Tuition 100% 45% 33 10% City and Division of Vocational Rehabilitation 100% a In the covering letter to program administrators it was stated that no reference would be made by name to individual programs. It is for this reason the programs are identified by number. ^Percentage not given. 169 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 E.S.E.A. Title I 170 (27.3 per cent) could have enrolled more students than they actually did had there been room for additional par­ ticipants. Administrators associated with eight rela­ tively new programs (24.3 per cent) reported no data. Administrators of six of the programs stating the demand for the program was greater than program capacity specified that the program capacity would have to be increased by from 15 per cent to 150 per cent, depending on the program, in order to accommodate all the students who would participate if it were possible. These programs having demand greater than capacity include those leaning heavily toward work experience and vocational education. Several among them are programs offering the widest range of services among those thirty-three identified and include the oldest programs in the sample. The administrator of one of the four programs serving fewer students than capacity stated that late notification of funding had affected the effectiveness of planning and recruiting. The other was a relatively new program; the last two were adult education programs. An additional note concerns those programs stating that the capacity of the program is equal to the demand. The administrator of one such program, an extensive adult education facility, clarified that as demand increases, the program is expanded to accommodate additional stu­ dents. It is not known whether this is the case for other programs as w e l l . 171 Evaluation of Programs Program administrators were asked whether there is an ongoing evaluation process in each program. Twenty- nine programs reported there is evaluation ongoing; three report there is not ongoing evaluation. One program reported no data. Evaluation Ag ents.— In addition, administrators were asked if there is an ongoing evaluation process, who conducts it: staff, outside consultants, or other. Table 32 shows by whom evaluation is conducted, the numbers of programs reporting each item, and per­ centages of all programs reporting evaluation by the various sources. TABLE 32.— Evaluation agents for dropout programs. Evaluator Staff Only Staff and Outside Consultants Staff, Outside Con­ sultants, and "Other" Staff and Other Outside Consultants and "Other" Other Only No Evaluation or No Data Total Number of Programs Percentage of Programs 17 51 4 12 3 1 9 3 1 3 3 9 4 12 33 a 99. 0a Does not add up to 100% due to rounding off. 172 These data show over half the programs are evaluated by the program staff only. side consultants evaluate 12 per cent (seventeen) Staff and out­ (four programs). Staff, outside consultants, and "other" evaluate 9 per cent (three programs), while staff and "other" evaluate 3 per cent (one program). evaluate 3 per cent evaluates 9 per cent Outside consultants and "other" (one program) while "other" only (three programs). In the three programs in which evaluation was done by staff, outside consultants and "other," other was specified as Tests, and (1) students, (2) Wide Range Achievement (3) employees of students. In the one program in which evaluation was done by staff and "other," stu­ dents were reported to be other. In the program evaluated by outside consultants and "other" the school principal was specified as "other." "other" only For the programs evaluated by (three), "other" was specified as required by the State Department of Education, local evaluator of federal programs, and (1) reports (2) the (3) the Title I Evaluator from the State Department of Education. In all, over half of the thirty-three programs are evaluated only by the program staff. The remaining half are evaluated by a variety of individuals. Testing Procedures.— Program administrators were also asked to specify the testing procedures used in 173 evaluating students upon entry into programs and upon program completion. Data reported are shown in Table 33. TABLE 33.— Testing procedures reported by thirty-three administrators of dropout programs. Testing Procedure Number of Programs Reporting Use of Procedure Percentage of Programs Reporting Use of Procedure 10 30.3 9 9 4 27.3 27.3 12.1 1 3.0 33 100.0 Both Pre-Test and Post-Test No Testing Reported "Other" Pre-Test Only Pre-Test and Other Total Approximately one-third of the programs utilize both pre-testing and post-testing. Nearly as many pro­ grams report no testing procedures, with an equal number reporting "other" types of procedures in use; four pro­ grams pre-test only; one pre-tests along with other techniques. Procedures used for evaluation reported by pro­ grams specifying "other" include the use of staff obser­ vation of students in one program. Another using pre­ testing and "other" reports the choice of other methods depends on the student. One program reports an "exami­ nation of improvement in attitude, wide range achievement tests, attendance, grades," and the school dropout rate. Another reports "continual individual evaluation." In 174 another students are pre-tested and tested again at six progressive levels. In one program testing is available to students on a voluntary basis; another uses anecdotal records. "Single subject behavior modification design" is the technique reported by another program adminis­ trator. Another reports that a pre-test is being investigated for future use, while another states that the "final solution [is] not measureable." Types of Tests Used.— Administrators were also asked to identify the types of tests used for placement and evaluation of students. Twenty-five administrators reported data, with most indicating the use of several types of tests. Results appear in Table 34. TABLE 34.— Type of testing used in twenty-five dropout programs. Type of Test Used Achievement Tests Interest Inventories Aptitude Tests Other No Data Reported Number of Programs Reporting Use 15 12 11 9 8 Percentage of Thirty-Three Programs 45.5 36.4 33.3 27.3 24 .2 Fifteen programs, nearly half of those identified, make use of achievement tests in placement and evaluation of students. Twelve use interest inventories, and eleven use aptitude tests. Nine program administrators report 175 the use of other techniques for evaluation and testing procedures. Most reporting these data use various com­ binations of tests. Those program administrators who reported other methods of testing or evaluation specified the following methods: the use of past school records/ reliance on referrals, the use of reading tests, interviews, and daily teacher records. One program administrator stated students receive a complete diagnostic examination by the school psychological services. Criteria for Success of Program.— An important question for dropout programs is that of the criteria against which success is measured. Administrators were asked to specify those criteria which would reflect the successful achievement of program objectives. Those criteria are shown in Table 35 ranked according to fre­ quency of citation. Most administrators who responded cited more than one objective. Three did not supply data. Successful entry into the job market is the most common criterion for success, having been used by over 50 per cent of the program administrators. Returning to high school and graduating is the second most common objective against which success is measured, used in over 40 per cent of the programs. The retention rate of the program and reduction of the school dropout rate are the next two most common success criteria, having 176 TABLE 35.— Criteria for success ranked according to fre­ quency of use by thirty-three dropout programs. Criteria for Success Getting and Keeping a Job Upon Program Completion Returning to High School and Graduating Retention Rate of Program Reduction of the School Dropout Rate Other No Data Continuing Education After High School Graduation Percentage of All Programs Number of Citations 17 56 14 13 42 39 12 3 3 26 12 12 2 6 been used by 3 9 per cent and 26 per cent of the adminis­ trators respectively. Continuing education after high school graduation was cited by administrators of only two programs, 6 per cent of all those identified. Three administrators cited and specified criteria for success other than those suggested. The objective of helping students gain "recovery from defeatism," was the single criterion cited by one program. Improvement in reading and other academic areas, and entering some type of training program were objectives held by two other programs. Three administrators supplied no data. One of these noted on the questionnaire that for that program the best reflection of success was "unknown." respondent further noted, This "To determine the success would necessitate two years to determine what happens 177 to the students." At the time of this response the pro­ gram had been in progress for eighteen months. Assistance in Labor Market Entry It is important to know whether programs have mechanisms for helping graduates get jobs and thus enter actively into the labor market. Administrators were therefore asked if they assist their students in obtain­ ing employment after participation in the program. Twenty-three programs the affirmative. (70 per cent) responded in In one case, it was noted that this assistance is only in the form of references and is not a built-in component of the program. employment assistance is not provided. In nine programs One program supplied no data. Of the programs not supplying help in getting jobs four are adult education programs with an emphasis on high school completion. The others are primarily oriented to potential dropouts. Follow-Up Studies A continually repeated question concerning special educational programs deals with program effectiveness. One method of making judgments on this issue is through follow-up of students who have completed the programs. 178 Administrators of the thirty-three identified dropout programs were asked if they conduct follow-up studies on students who complete the program. Administrators of eighteen programs (55 per cent) do conduct follow-up; ten do not; four supplied no data. One respondent who did not state whether follow-up studies will be conducted noted that as yet no one had completed his program. Of those eighteen programs conducting follow-up, seven noted that they intend to do so in the future. Most of these were relatively new pro­ grams . Administrators were also asked to indicate the number of students who, having participated in the pro­ gram, fall into certain specified categories listed in Questionnaire II (see Appendix E ) . Eleven of the programs supplied data on this question. Interestingly enough, three program adminis­ trators who responded that they do not conduct follow-up studies were among those who supplied data on the stu­ dents who had participated the previous year. Eight administrators who do conduct follow-up supplied data, with two giving percentages of students involved in 179 various activities, and the others telling the numbers of students in each category. Data showed approximately 28 per cent of the dropout program participants from the previous year had re-entered school, another 37 per cent were regularly employed, the whereabouts of nearly 24 per cent were unknown. Another 10 per cent fell into the category of "other" which administrators indicated as "marriage, armed forces, referral to other agencies and other training programs." Additional information supplied by several admin­ istrators suggested that in many vocational education programs counselors kept in contact with participants for the first six months following completion of the program. This involved on-the-job contact where pos­ sible, or home contact when the nature of the job made job site visitations difficult. School based remedial programs appear to depend largely on informal, personal relationships between students and teachers for whatever follow-up information is obtained. Adult education p ro­ grams typically conduct no formal follow-up studies. Use of Community Resources The community is potentially a rich resource for educational programs. For vocational types the business and industrial segments of the community can provide invaluable assistance. To what extent and in what ways 180 the thirty-three dropout programs actually use community resources is a question of particular interest. Thus, program administrators were asked which of certain specified community resources are used in their drop­ out programs (see Appendix E ) . Thirty-two programs responded to this item. One new program to be instituted Fall, 1970, reported no data. The frequency of use of various community resources ranked in order of citation appears in the table below. TABLE 36.— Use of community resources by thirty-two drop­ out programs. Community Resource Number of Programs Utilizing Resource Social Welfare Agencies Large Manufacturers Retail Establishments Telephone Company Other Urban League Electric Company Unions Entertainment Companies 23 16 14 12 11 9 8 6 5 Percentage of Programs Utilizing Resource 70 48 42 36 33 27 24 18 15 Community resources used by dropout programs beyond those suggested in the questionnaire include the following: Legal Aid Medical Society County Health Department Neighborhood Youth Corps Chamber of Commerce Banks Michigan Employment Security Commission 181 Libraries Junior Achievement Hospitals Small Business Government Units Division of Vocational Rehabilitation Churches The extent to which a variety of community resources is used ranges from one program using all those suggested, to two programs using only social welfare agencies. The number and kinds of resources utilized depends largely on the type of program and whether it is oriented to work experience or to academic work. How community resources are used is as important as what resources are used. Thus, administrators were also asked, how the resources are used (see Appendix E ) . The ways the resources are used, ranked in order of frequency, appear in Table 37. TABLE 37.--Ways in which community resources are used by thirty dropout programs. Way Resources Are Used Commitment to Employ Trainees Supervising Work-Study Program Supplying Equipment Other Supplying Facilities Supplying Staff Supplying Financial Support No Data Number of Programs Using the Resource Percentage of All Dropout Programs Identified 10 30 9 7 7 6 6 27 21 21 18 18 4 3 12 9 182 Thirty per cent of the programs use the resources available to employ program trainees, and 27 per cent use them for supervision of work study programs. Twenty-one per cent use equipment supplied by community resources, 18 per cent use facilities supplied by community resources, and 18 per cent use staff supplied by these community resources. Only 12 per cent of the programs receive financial support through community resources. "Other" ways specified by administrators in which community resources are used were: (1) Paying for work study programs; (2) Providing speakers for classes; (3) Supplying information; (4) Supplying educational resources; (5) Transporting students; (6) Allowing visitation to job sites; (7) Furnish sites for training; (8) Recruitment; (9) Provide employment possibilities; (10) Allow observation of work in order to help students understand the world of work. Collective Bargaining Collective bargaining has become a crucial factor in the administration of public school education. There­ fore, the question was raised as to whether collective bargaining had affected the administration of dropout 183 programs. Administrators were asked to respond to two questions addressed to this issue: whether bargaining agreements between the district board of education and the teacher organization affects flexibility in program oper­ ation, and whether flexibility was affected by bargaining agreements with non-faculty personnel. Administrators of all thirty-three programs responded. However, two of these stated that there was no collective bargaining contract to affect their programs since they were intermediate school districts. the question did not apply to them. Thus, Six of the remain­ ing thirty-one administrators stated that collective bargaining with the teacher organization limited program flexibility. The remaining twenty-five administrators stated that bargaining with teacher organizations does not limit flexibility; however, of these two added the notation "not yet." Only one program administrator reported collective bargaining between the district school board and non­ faculty employees limited program flexibility. Thirty stated that collective bargaining with non-faculty personnel does not limit flexibility in their programs. Administrative Problems Finally, program administrators were asked to identify the kinds of problems encountered in implementing 184 dropout programs. Twenty-nine administrators supplied data; four gave none. Below are their responses ranked in order of frequency of citation. TABLE 38.— Problems encountered in administration of dropout programs. Problem Number of Administrators Citing the Problem Obtaining Appropriate Facilities Retention of Students Obtaining Financial Support Rigidity of Staff Personnel Recruitment of Students Other No Data Percentage of 33 Programs 13 13 39 39 12 36 10 9 5 4 33 27 15 12 The data in Table 38 show that obtaining appropriate facilities was a problem in thirteen of the programs, as was retention of the students. Obtaining financial support was a problem for twelve administrators. In ten programs rigidity of staff members created a problem for adminis­ trators, while recruiting students was a problem in nine programs. Four administrators gave no data. Five administrators cited other problem areas they had encountered, beyond those suggested in the questionnaire than one. below. (see Appendix E ) . Several described more These problems are discussed in the paragraphs 185 1. Obtaining appropriate ancillary services such as transportation and day-care facilities for the young children of students were cited by the director of a school for pregnant girls. Trans­ portation, during the winter particularly, was difficult for the girls during pregnancy. The program serves girls from a city-wide area, so they must travel a distance to attend. Experience in this program shows that approxi­ mately two-thirds of the girls keep their babies, and that day care for the infants and very small children is difficult, if not impossible to locate whether the girl continues in the special school or returns to her regular high school after the delivery of the baby. 2. Another program administrator cited a problem with recruitment which has been subsequently raised in discussion with many other directors throughout the state. In this case there was difficulty in recruiting participants because of late notification of the grant by the State Department of Education. Elaboration is necessary on this point. Dis­ cussions with directors have repeatedly raised the point that there frequently is a significant time lag between submitting proposals for funds 186 to implement a program, preliminary planning, and the final granting of the funds. It appears that it is not unusual for the notification of the granting of funds to come within three months of the proposed starting date of the program. Administrators do not find this to be sufficient lead time to hire staff, make final plans, and recruit students for a program if it is to have maximum effectiveness. 3. The administrator of a program for students, many of whom have been involved with the courts, cited a major problem as "communication with the personnel and supervisors who know only one approach— traditional." 4. A program which provides counseling and aid in the development of alternatives for completion of high school education, including help for return­ ing servicemen, cite "inflexible high school pro­ grams and required courses as a problem." Although the program is financed through the school instruc­ tional budget and is considered a part of the total school program, the structure of the institution is still a problem. A second program administrator also cited the lack of flexibility on the part of the school as a problem when a dropout opts to return to complete his education. 187 5. A program administrator working primarily with school dropouts cited three problems: obtaining health services, transportation, and getting the regular school to adopt new programs and ideas. 6. The supervisor of the program using volunteers as instructional staff in a tutoring program stated that "qualified volunteers are hard to find." Part of the problem involves finding people who can relate to students with whom the program works. It is intensified by the fact that the program is designed so students may receive school credit, thus the arrangement with the local board of education requires tutors to be certified teachers. Summary of Characteristics of Programs Major areas of emphasis for the dropout programs identified were orientation to the world of work, remedi­ ation of academic skills, and high school completion. Most programs combined more than one element. All but one of the thirty-three programs had been established since 1960. Facilities for nearly 70 per cent of the programs were provided, at least in part, by the local school system. Nearly half the programs offer instruction only during regular school hours. Other 188 programs offer instruction in a variety of time schedules, ranging from early morning through evening. Nine of the thirty-three programs are considered "adult education programs" and serve clients of sixteen and over. A large proportion of enrollees in these pro­ grams are age nineteen and above. The programs identified range in operation from fifty-two weeks a year to only five- or six-week summer sessions. lengths. Within some there are projects of varying The average time spent by participants in programs offered year-round and in those offered during the nine-month school calendar year was approximately seven months. Programs operating for the nine-month school year plus a summer school reported student par­ ticipation to average nine months. Students in summer programs and those in programs holding short-term sessions usually had records showing attendance for the full session. Counselors and principals, alone and in combi­ nation, are the largest source of referrals of students to dropout programs but self-referrals are common, as are a variety of referral agents for many programs. Motivational devices used by programs are numerous. Most common are high school credits and payment during enrollment. Nearly two-thirds of the programs give letter grades in evaluation of performance. 189 Help in finding a job or the gaining of salable skills are important incentives for participation. Transportation is a problem in getting students to participate Nearly students. in one-third of the programs. all programs offer orientation to incoming Orientation varies significantly in length, but similar topics are included. Approximately two- thirds of the programs offer orientation to new faculty with the time spent varying significantly from forty hours to half an hour. of the program. Most focus on the objectives Other topics vary among programs. The average pupil-teacher ratio reported is twenty to one, although the most common ratio is fifteen to o n e . Programs varied widely in total cost, instruc­ tional cost, and per pupil expenditures. Per pupil break­ down of costs was not available in a significant number of programs. Nearly one-third of the programs could have enrolled more students had room been available. Evaluation techniques also vary widely. However, over half the programs are evaluated by program staff only, as compared to evaluation by outside sources. The criterion for success for over half the programs was for students to become successfully employed upon program 190 completion. A second criterion for success was for par­ ticipants to return to high school and graduate. Over two-thirds of the programs help the students in finding employment, but only 55 per cent of the programs do follow-up studies of participants. A variety of community resources are used. Data concerning ways in which these resources are used show employment and involvement in work-study programs to be the most common. Administrators of nearly 20 per cent of the pro­ grams report that collective bargaining contracts with the faculty limit program flexibility. Obtaining facilities, student recruitment and retention, obtaining financial support, and rigidity of staff are problems encountered by approximately a third of the program administrators. Characteristics of Participants in Programs Number of Students Served in Existing Programs One of the most important areas of concern was the relationship between the need for dropout programs in terms of potential clientele, the number of students actually served, and the proportion of youths who have not been reached. 191 The questionnaire distributed to program adminis­ trators asked each to report the number of students served during the previous year. The original identification of sample school districts was based on dropout statistics for the academic year 1967-1968, the latest available at the time of data collection (summer, 1970) . These sta­ tistics will be used for comparison with statistics con­ cerning program enrollment. Twenty-seven program administrators supplied data on the number of participants. No data were available from six programs, five of which had not been operational the previous year. The total number of students partici­ pating in the twenty-seven programs was 8,791. The largest number served in any one program was 1,890; the least, 30. Enrollment data reported by program adminis­ trators is shown in Table 39. TABLE 39.— Program participation data for twenty-seven dropout programs. Number of Participants in 27 Dropout Programs Reporting 1969-197 0 Data 8,791 Largest Number Served by a Single Program 1,890 Smallest Number Served by a Single Program Average 30 362 192 It is important to remember that the programs reporting data serve both students who have actually dropped out of school and youths still in school but identified as potential dropouts. However, the number of program participants may be compared to the number of known school dropouts in the districts in order to ascertain whether the numbers of school dropouts who are known to exist are being served by the programs available. School dropouts reported in Michigan in 1967-1968 totaled 36,554.^ The number in the fifty-seven sample school districts initially surveyed in this study was 24,716. o The dropout programs which reported 1969-1970 enrollments were located in twenty-two school districts, which in 1967-1968 had a total of 16,550 school dropouts. 3 Table 40 compares the number of program partici­ pants with the number of dropouts reported to the Michigan Department of Education. Program participants are also compared with the total number of dropouts in Michigan in 1967-1968, the number of dropouts in the fifty-seven sample districts initially surveyed, and the number of dropouts in the districts which had programs and which reported enrollment data. Michigan, Department of Education, Public High School Dropouts in Michigan, 1967-1968, Statistical Bulletin No. 4007, December, 1969. 2Ibid. 2Ibid. 193 TABLE 40.— Comparison between numbers of enrollees in dropout programs (1969-1970) and reported school dropouts (1967-1968). Total Participants in Programs Reporting Data (1969-1970) Percentage Total Dropouts in Michigan, 19671968 (36,554) 8,971 25 Total Dropouts in 57 Sample Districts, 1967-1968 (24,716) 8,971 36 Total Dropouts in Districts Having Dropout Programs and Reporting Numbers of Program Participants, 1967-1968 (17,191) 8,971 52 These data indicate that the number of participants reported served in 1969-1970 in all the surveyed programs was one-fourth of the total school dropouts reported for the entire state two years earlier by the State Depart­ ment of Education. The number of students served in these twenty-seven programs would have accounted for only 36 per cent of the dropouts reported in the fifty-seven sample school districts in 1967-1968. The 8,971 students participating in the surveyed programs represent 52 per cent of the school dropouts reported by the districts in which these twenty-seven programs are conducted. 194 It is crucial to clarify that the individuals referred to in the school district dropout statistics as reported by the State Department of Education are not necessarily the same individuals participating in dropout programs surveyed. For programs serving potential drop­ outs the State Department of Education data are not applicable. Further, the number of dropouts in an area is greater than the number of dropouts reported for any one year. of time. Numbers of dropouts accumulate over a period The table above, it must be stressed, is only suggestive of the number of school dropouts being served as compared to the total number of school dropouts as reported by the State Department of Education. These figures suggest that the numbers of dropouts in the school districts throughout the state are much greater than annual statistics suggest, and that the proportion of those dropouts participating in programs designed to meet their needs is far less than the pro­ portion shown in the preceding table. Because of the lack of follow-up information on school dropouts more precise information is not available. Male-Female Distribution of Participants in Dropout Programs Data on male-female distribution of program par­ ticipants were supplied by twenty-five program adminis­ trators. Fifty-five and three-tenths per cent of the 195 program participants were male; 44.7 per cent were female. The male-female distribution of dropouts in Michigan reported in 1967-1968 was 56.9 per cent male and 41.4 per cent female. (One district did not report sex distri­ butions, accounting for 1.7 per cent of the dropouts.) In the fifty-seven sample districts 57.1 per cent of the dropouts were male and 40.4 per cent were female, with 2.5 per cent of the dropouts not reported by sex. The male-female distribution of participants in dropout programs identified for this study was similar to that of the total state dropout population, and that of the sample districts. TABLE 41.— Male-female distribution of the dropout popu­ lation and program participants. District Data Not Reported By Sex % Male % Female % Dropout Population in Michigan 56.9 41.4 1.7 100 Dropout Population in 57 Sample School Districts 57.1 40.4 2.5 100 Participants in Drop­ out Programs 55.3 44.7 --- 100 Total % Racial-Ethnic Background of Program Participants Information on the racial-ethnic background of program participants was requested. Administrators of 196 nineteen programs supplied the numbers of students in each racial ethnic category; two gave the data in percentages of students in each category; and twelve did not supply data. Of the twelve not supplying data, four were new programs which had not been in operation the previous year. Data obtained on the nineteen programs are shown in Table 42. TABLE 42.--Racial-ethnic background of participants in nineteen dropout programs. Racial-Ethnic Background3 Indian Negro Oriental Spanish white Percentage of Participants .20% 41.95 .23 3.59 54.03 Category titles are those used by the Michigan Department of Education. Fifty-four per cent of the participants were white, and 41.95 per cent were Negro. Students of Spanish back­ ground comprised 3.59 per cent of the enrollees, while Oriental and Indian students comprised the remainder. In addition to these data, one adult education program administrator noted having sixty students described as "Arabic." Two programs reported data only in percentages of the student population enrolled in each single program. Each of these programs reported serving over 1,000 students 197 during the previous year. One showed racial-ethnic dis­ tribution of enrollees as 79 per cent Negro, 19 per cent white, and 1 per cent Spanish-speaking. The second, in a middle-sized city, reported approximately one-third of the participants as Negro, one-half as white, and "some" as Spanish-speaking. It should be noted that in areas of large minority group population this population is well represented among the enrollees of dropout programs. The data on racial- ethnic backgrounds are not extensive since twelve (36.4 per cent) of the dropout program administrators did not have racial-ethnic data available. Some noted that this information is not kept. Grade Level at Dropping Out The research cited in Chapter II indicates that tenth grade is the level most commonly last attended by school dropouts (see page 44). Administrators were asked to identify what grade level students participating in the identified dropout programs had been enrolled at the time they dropped out of school. Twelve program administrators supplied these data telling how many students had dropped out at each grade level. Four others gave data in the form of percentages of participants dropping out at various levels. Seventeen administrators supplied no data, with five of these pro­ grams dealing primarily with students identified as 198 potential dropouts and still enrolled in school and three new programs which were not yet operational. Table 43 shows the data obtained from the twelve administrators who supplied data. TABLE 43.— Grade level at which participants of twelve dropout programs left school. Grade Level at Dropping Out Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Twelfth Total o^m ^er+-°^ Percentage 140 256 862 953 573 229 4.7 8.5 28 .6 31.6 19.0 7.6 3,013 100.0 Data submitted by the four program administrators showing only percentages of program participants who had dropped out at various grade levels were: TABLE 44.— Grade level at which participants of four indi­ vidual programs dropped out. Program A B C D Grade Level at Dropping Out ------------------------------7 8 9 10 11 12 50% 50% 75% "few" 66% 25% 15% "few" 33% 25% 10% Precise data in Table 4 3 show tenth grade to be the last grade attended by nearly one-third of the students participating in the programs. Almost three-tenths had 199 attended the ninth grade as their last grade. Nearly one- fifth had attended the eleventh grade. The administrator of one adult education program noted that those students designated as having left school in seventh grade had actually left school at seventh grade or earlier. Thus, in at least this one adult education program, some adult participants had attended public school only through the elementary grades. The administrator of another program which is vocationally oriented noted that, in addition to the students who had dropped out during grades seven through twelve, an additional 163 participants had completed pro­ grams of special education or ungraded classes in the public schools and were now receiving vocational training in the program. Age of Students Participating in Programs Administrators were asked to supply data showing the ages of participants in the programs. program administrators responded. Twenty-three Twenty-two gave the numbers of students in each age bracket and one gave percentages of students in each group. Ten programs did not supply data. Responses from the twenty-two programs giving complete age data are shown in Table 45. 200 TABLE 45.— Age of enrollees in twenty-two dropout programs. Age of Participants Number of Students 45 2 93 347 504 477 240 825 1.78 .08 3.67 13.70 19.90 18.83 9.47 32.57 2,533 100.00 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Total Percentage The largest percentage of participants, nearly one-third, in all programs were nineteen years and over. Large enrollments in some adult education programs account for many of these individuals. Several vocationally oriented programs also showed enrollments of individuals 19 and over. Nearly 20 per cent of the students participating in programs were sixteen years of age. Almost another one-fifth of participants were seventeen years of age. Together sixteen and seventeen-year-olds comprise nearly 40 per cent of all program participants. These percentages may be related to the fact that sixteen is the age when a Michigan youth can legally leave the public school system. Programs working with potential dropouts still in school account for many of the students aged twelve to 201 fifteen. Data from twenty-two programs show that 20 per cent of the enrollees are in this age bracket. Average Income Level of Fami­ lies of Participants Research cited in Chapter II (p. 63) showed that dropping out of school is related to family income level. Therefore, program administrators were asked to supply data showing the average family income level of partici­ pants in their programs. Twenty-three administrators reported the family income data presented in Table 46. Ten reported no data, with six of these ten being adult education programs. TABLE 46.— Average family income level of participants in twenty-three dropout programs. Average Income Level of Program Clientele Under $3,000 $ 3,000 - $ 4,999 $ 5,000 - $ 6,999 $ 7,000 - $ 9,999 $10,000 - $14,999 Over $15,000 Total Number of Programs Serving Income Level Percentage of Programs Serving Income Level 1 13 7 2 0 0 4.4 56.5 30.4 8.7 0.0 0.0 23 100.0 Responses to this questionnaire item showed that the income level of participants is not known in nearly one-third of the identified programs. Family income of participants in approximately 60 per cent of the programs is below $4,999. Of this number only one program cited 202 a clientele with an average income below $3,000. This fact raises the question of whether there is a population on the very lowest rung of the economic ladder which is not being reached, or if this group is absorbed with higher incomes in the reporting of average income level. Nearly one-third of the program enrollees were from fami­ lies with an income level of $5,000 to $6,999, while only 8.7 per cent were reported to have incomes of $7,000 to $9,000. No programs serve a population with an average income over $10,000. Related to this may be the fact that currently guidelines for many grants for funding dropout programs require that the target population be in the low income, poverty level. Many districts report­ ing programs are the recipients of such grants. Intelligence Level of Partic­ ipants Data was sought on the intellectual level of pro­ gram participants. In addition, if such data were available administrators were asked to supply information about the range of intelligence quotient scores of stu­ dents enrolled in the programs. administrators Twenty-two of the program (two-thirds) reported having I.Q. scores of program enrollees. Fifteen, nearly half, reported having Mental Age scores of students. Sources of this information vary widely. On one extreme the administrators of a program for potential 203 dropouts reported that students are given complete diagnos­ tic examinations by the school psychological services staff, while five reported reliance on previous school records. A variety of tests were reported in use, both among the twenty-two programs for which data was reported, and within single programs. It is likely that reliance on old school records account for much of the variation among tests within single programs. The range of I.Q. scores of program participants was reported by thirteen administrators. In order to give a picture of the range of intellectual levels, as measured by intelligence tests, within single programs, the ranges of scores submitted by each are shown in Table 47. TABLE 47.— Ranges of I.Q. scores of participants in thir­ teen dropout programs. Program 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Range of I.Q. Scores 70 "from 75 90 80 70 75 68 78 60 80 70 50 - 145 50 up" 125 130 130 120 115 100 128 130 108 95 120 The widest range in scores is 7 0 - 145, a dif­ ference of seventy-five points; the narrowest range is 204 75 - 95, a difference of twenty points. The lowest score reported is 50; the highest, 145. Five program administrators supplied intelligence data in descriptive terms. The administrator of one in­ school program reported working with the "complete range of the in-school population"; the administrator of one of the most comprehensive programs identified described program clientele as "mental defective to bright normal as defined by Weschler." A third stated that, "Surpris­ ingly, the average of the group is close to normal," while another described the I.Q. range of students in the program as "unlimited." The administrator of an adult education program stated that the intelligence of students "varies greatly." No attempt was made to obtain data concerning average intelligence levels. For the purpose of curricu­ lum planning this investigator was more interested in the range of abilities which must be met within the programs. Responses to these questions show there is wide variation in measured intelligence levels of participants enrolled in dropout programs. In addition, methods of obtaining such data varies from systematized testing of students within the program, to reliance on past records, to not collecting the information at all. These data show that participants in the identi­ fied dropout programs do not comprise a homogeneous group in measured intellectual capacity. 205 Summary of Characteristics of Program Participants' The number of participants reported enrolled in dropout programs during 1969-1970 was approximately half the number of dropouts who left school early in 1967-1968 in the same districts in which the reporting dropout pro­ grams were operating. Moreover, the number of students enrolled in programs was approximately one-third of the number of dropouts in all districts surveyed, and less than a quarter of the total number of dropouts reported statewide. These data suggest the number of students reached by the dropout programs was significantly less than the number of dropouts eligible for such help. The male-female distribution of dropout program enrollees was 55.3 per cent male and 44.7 per cent female. This is comparable to the male-female distribution of dropouts statewide. Racial-ethnic distribution of participants was available for only 57 per cent, or nineteen, of the pro­ grams identified. In these nineteen programs 54.03 per cent of the enrollees were white, 41.95 per cent were Negro, 3.59 per cent of Spanish background, and the remainder, Oriental and Indian. Racial-ethnic background of dropouts is not tabulated on a statewide basis so such figures are not available for comparison. The racial dis­ tribution of enrollees in dropout programs may reflect 206 the fact that many such programs are located in areas having high minority group populations. The age of enrollees, as reported by the twothirds of the administrators having such data, showed the largest group to be nineteen years and over, followed by seventeen and sixteen-year-olds. These figures reflect the large enrollment in adult education programs and the enrollment of youths just over sixteen, the legal age of school leaving in Michigan. The grade level at which nearly one-third of the participants in dropout programs had left school was tenth grade; ninth grade was the next most common grade of dropping out, followed by grade eleven. These data are similar to those found in studies of grade at dropping out cited in Chapter II. However, precise data was available from only twelve of the thirty-three programs identified. Over 56 per cent of the administrators reported serving a population with an average family income between $3,000 and $4,999. Five thousand dollars to $6,999 was the average income level of enrollees served by nearly 4 0 per cent of the programs. Enrollees with an average income level of under $3,000 were cited as the group served by only one of the programs. No programs reported serving populations with average incomes of over $10,000. 207 Two-thirds of the administrators have intelligence quotient data about program participants, with most pro­ grams enrolling students of a wide range of measured capa­ bilities. These data compare with research cited in Chapter II showing intelligence range of dropouts to be fairly comparable to that of the general population. Characteristics of Staff of Dropout Programs Staffing Patterns Program administrators were asked to supply data related to the staffing patterns of programs. Thirty-one administrators supplied data, two did not. The staffing patterns of these programs vary sig­ nificantly. Nineteen reported having a director, two have directors and assistant directors, one reported a directorteacher, and one reported a part-time director. totals twenty-three programs. This Ten did not report having a staff position categorized as director. Twenty-eight programs utilized teachers, with the numbers of teachers per program ranging from one to 166, depending upon program size. As cited in discussion of the characteristics of the programs, the average pupilteacher ratio of the programs reporting such data is approximately twenty students per teacher; the ratio most common is fifteen to one. 208 Fourteen programs (4 2 per cent) reported the use of auxiliary personnel, defined in the questionnaire as "psychologists, other supporting services." For those programs utilizing such personnel the greatest number of such people on the staff is twenty-one; the least, one. Para-professional staff members are used in fif­ teen programs. In thirteen of these para-professionals function in clerical positions or as teacher aides. program employs a full-time bus driver. One Two para- professionals employed by another program are a job placement coordinator and a community coordinator. Only seven programs, approximately one-fifth of all identified, utilize volunteers. Discussions with some program administrators have suggested that volun­ teers with necessary skills are sometimes difficult to find and that the dependability of volunteers sometimes leaves something to be desired. These factors may be related to the relatively sparse use of volunteers in these dropout programs. Nine program administrators cited staff cate­ gories other than those suggested. Three of these utilize student teachers in work with dropouts. program staff consists of only one counselor. One Coordi­ nators and supervisors are cited as "other" positions in two programs, and one program for potential dropouts stresses that the "total school staff is subject to service." 209 Number of Full-Time Profes­ sional Staff Members' Program administrators were asked to supply the number of full-time professional staff members working in each program. Data was obtained from twenty-nine; four supplied no data. The greatest number of professional staff working in a program was twenty-three. time professional staff. Three reported no full­ The average number of profes­ sional staff was 4.4 people per program. Male-Female Distribution of Program Faculties The male-female distribution of faculty members working in dropout programs is 67.6 per cent male, and 32.4 per cent female. This compares with the student population enrolled in programs who are 54.7 per cent male and 43.1 per cent female. Thirty-one program administrators reported data, with one of these giving only percentage estimates. Two administrators supplied no data. Nine programs employ only male faculty; the number of faculty members in each of the programs ranges from one to four. Two of these programs work exclusively with boys, many of whom have been involved with the courts. No programs reported faculties composed entirely of women. The administrator who reported percentage esti­ mates of male-female distribution was with a large adult 210 education program. For this one the ratio was one-third male and, two-thirds female. The male-female distribution of faculty working in these dropout programs is significant in that a common criticism of the traditional educational system is that it is female dominated. It appears that, whether by intent or happenstance, dropout programs are dominated by men, at least in numbers. One program designed to girls who are pregnant, most of work with teen-age whom are unmarried, has a faculty which is two-fifths male and three-fifths female. It is considered important that the girls have an opportunity to relate with both men and women during this crucial period in their lives. Racial-Ethnic Backgrounds of Staff The racial-ethnic background of faculty members was supplied by thirty administrators. Backgrounds of the total staff working in these thirty programs are shown in Table 48. In addition to the preceding members employed in one program data, six faculty were described as "Arabic." This same adult education program reported having sixty Arabic students. Racial-ethnic backgrounds of faculty working in the dropout programs may be compared with those of program 211 TABLE 48.— Racial-ethnic background of faculty of thirty dropout programs. Racial-Ethnic Background Percentage of Staff of Thirty Dropout Programs Indian Negro Oriental Spanish white .20 9.45 .62 2.26 87.47 100.00 Total enrollees. Table 4 9 shows the comparison between total faculty and total enrollee population as reported by administrators. Note that data is available for faculty in thirty programs, for enrollees in only twelve programs. TABLE 49.— Racial-ethnic background of faculty and enrollees in reporting dropout programs. Racial-Ethnic Groups Indian Negro Oriental Spanish white Total Percentage of Faculty Working in Thirty Dropout Programs Percentage of Students Reported Enrolled in Twelve Dropout Programs .2 9.4 .6 2.3 87.5 .20 41.95 .23 3.59 54.03 100.0 100.00 Comparison of racial-ethnic patterns of students and faculty in individual programs reveals that in almost all cases where data are available for both and where there is a large number of minority group students, there are usually present faculty members of similar backgrounds. 212 Characteristics Preferred in the Selection of Faculty A question of particular interest at the inception of this study was what characteristics are considered important by administrators for selection of personnel for their programs. Each administrator was asked to designate various criteria which he considered important in the selection of program staff. Preferences in age, educational requirements, work experience, racial-ethnic group, personality characteristics, and sex were requested. Finally administrators were asked to rank in order of importance a group of criteria commonly used on the selection of job applicants. Age Range.— Thirty administrators indicated the age range they prefer in selecting program personnel; three did not respond. Of the three not responding two were with new programs scheduled to begin in Fall, 1970. Ranked in order of frequency of choice by the thirty administrators the preferred age groups are shown in Table 50. These data show the age group preferred for faculty for the dropout programs is 25 - 29, with 30 - 39 second in preference. Together these two age groups account for over two-thirds of the preferences suggested. The age groups 22 - 25, 40 and over, and the comment "age not important" accounted for the remaining preferences. 213 TABLE 50.— Age preferences for staff for thirty dropout programs ranked according to frequency of citation. Percentage of Citations Age Group Number of Citations 25 - 29 Years Old 30 - 39 Years Old Age not Important 22 - 24 Years Old 40 and Over 13 10 5 3 3 38.2 29.4 14.7 8.8 8.8 34a 99. 9b Total The number citations exceeds the number of report­ ing programs since four of the thirty administrators cited two age preferences. Does not total 100 per cent due to rounding off. It was interesting to note that even though only one age preference was requested, four administrators specified two age groups preferred. In three of these cases the two age groups were 25 - 29 along with 40 and over. The comments of one administrator who directs an adult education program specified that the over-forty teachers are useful in working with the older adults enrolled in the program. Educational Requirements.— Administrators were asked to cite the educational requirements most preferred for teaching in their programs. Thirty-two program admin­ istrators responded; one supplied no data. Again, although only one preference had been requested, seven administrators cited more than one pre­ ferred educational requirement. Ranked according to the 214 frequency of citation, the educational preferences for teaching in these thirty-two programs are shown in Table 51. TABLE 51.— Educational preferences for teachers in thirtytwo dropout programs. Educational Background B.A. and State Teacher Certification Other B.A. plus Graduate Work B.A.— Teacher Certification not Required Less than College B.A. Total Number of Citations Percentage of Citations 16 13 9 38.1 31.0 21.4 3 1 7.1 2.4 42a 100.0 a The number of citations exceeds the number of reporting programs due to multiple citations by some administrators. Those educational requirements specified in the category labelled "other" provide insight into the areas of special preparation considered by responding adminis­ trators when hiring personnel. These include occupational experience required for vocational certification, edu­ cational specialist degrees, and work in communication. A program working with pregnant girls utilizes registered nurses and social workers having their M.S.W. One pro­ gram uses both faculty having their B.A. and special certification as well as certified teachers. "Extensive and varied work experience" and a B.A. degree are pref­ erences of another administrator; another prefers faculty 215 who have had "previous work with the disadvantaged." Counseling courses are among the preferences for another program; another looks for people with varied work experience and familiarity with the local area, while another prefers "some college with rich work experience." The study of academic areas such as sociology is pre­ ferred by one respondent, while another working with an adult education program wants people "specifically trained in a given area." The program utilizing student teachers states that in order to meet state requirements supervising teachers must be state certified in order to serve as critic teachers. One administrator cited no requirements except that faculty must have a "humanitarian concern." However, this administrator also noted that almost all the teachers hired in this program had Masters Degrees. Over all, in nearly half the thirty-two responding programs bachelor degrees and state certification are pre­ ferred. In some cases this was the only preference stated; in others there were additional specifications. Generally the backgrounds preferred in these pro­ grams appear to be relatively flexible. Many adminis­ trators are interested in the life experience and edu­ cation of potential staff members which would lead to better understanding of human beings as well as experience in the world of work. 216 Work Experience.— The question related to work experience sought to identify what kinds of work exper­ ience are preferred for faculty of these programs: teach­ ing experience alone, teaching combined with other kinds of work experience, or individuals with experience other than teaching who have not taught previously. It also sought how much teaching experience was preferred. Thirty-two administrators provided data; one did not. Over two-thirds of the administrators preferred more than one experience category. The responses, ranked by frequency of citation, are presented in Table 52. TABLE 52.— Work experience preferences for faculty in thirty-two programs ranked according to frequency of citation. Type of Experience Teaching Experience and Work in Other Fields 5 - 9 Years Teaching Experience Work Experience in Other Fields 0 - 4 Years Teaching Experience Other No Teaching Experience 10 or More Years Teaching Experience Number of Citations 16 11 10 8 6 4 27.6 19.0 17.2 13.8 10.3 6.9 3 5.2 58a Total Percentage of Citations 100.0 a The number of citations exceeds the number of reporting programs due to multiple citations by some administrators. These data suggest that individuals having had some teach­ ing experience (less than ten years, but enough to be 217 considered more experienced than a "beginning teacher") along with other work background would be preferred for teaching in a dropout program, and may reflect the orientation of many dropout programs toward helping students realistically understand the world of work. The preferences specified under the category "other" included experience in counseling, work in juve­ nile delinquency, and experience in teaching remedial reading. One administrator of an adult education program preferring more than ten years experience noted that "more than ten years may provide mellowness that many adults look for." Another administrator looks for a "willingness to work with marginal students." Another marked no cate­ gories but stated that "individual experiences are eval­ uated ." Race and Ethnic Background.— Program administrators were asked to designate if there were racial or ethnic preferences in selecting faculty for the program. The rationale for this question is that there is a general notion that it is important that minority students should have the opportunity to work under individuals of their own racial or ethnic group. The purpose of this question was to discover if in programs having large groups of minority group enrollees, administrators did indeed feel it important to match racial or ethnic groups in selecting program personnel. 218 Twenty-five administrators supplied data with one or more responses. Eight supplied no data. The following table shows the preferred racialethnic groups, the number of programs preferring each choice, and the percentage of the programs preferring each choice. TABLE 53.— Racial-ethnic preferences for faculty for twenty-five dropout programs. Group Considered Important Number of Programs Race Unimportant Selected all Racial Groups Negro, Spanish and white Negro and white Negro No Data 15 1 3 3 3 8 Total 33a Percentage of Programs 45.5 3.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 24.2 100.0 The number of programs selecting response exceeds twenty-five due to multiple responses by some adminis­ trators . These data show that nearly half the program administrators consider race unimportant in staff selection. Nearly a tenth of the programs (three) stated Negro, Spanish, and white faculty members would be preferred. Three administrators stated it was important to have Negro and white faculty, and three felt it important to have Negro faculty. Eight programs, nearly one-fourth of the thirty-three identified, did not report any data. administrator of one of these added the note, The "We do not 219 discriminate on the basis of race or ethnic group in employment of teachers for this program." Examination of staffing patterns of the programs in comparison with preferences in race stated by adminis­ trators showed that in approximately half the programs where race was considered unimportant the faculties were racially mixed. Those programs stating preferences for Negro and white faculty, or for Negro faculty generally had both racially mixed faculties and student populations. S e x .— Staffing patterns previously cited reveal that there are more men than women employed by these drop­ out programs. Administrators were asked to express their preferences in hiring men or women for their own programs. Thirty-two administrators reported data; one did not. Thirty of the administrators stated both men and women should be on the staff. to employ only males. Only two programs prefer These are the same two programs which work exclusively with boys; they do, in fact, employ only men. No administrators expressed a pref­ erence for employing only women on the faculty. Personality Characteristics.— Many criteria used in personnel selection are relatively objective, such as age and sex. There are other factors, however, entering into personnel selection which require subjective judgment. Many of these are related to personalities of individuals. 220 Program administrators were asked to identify personality characteristics they consider important in selecting staff. Thirty-two administrators responded to this item and one did not. All thirty-two program administrators cited "relates well with youngsters" as an important charac­ teristic for a teacher in a dropout program. One broadened the statement by adding that his staff should be able to "relate well with PEOPLE." the statement to read, Another changed "relates well with adults." Both of these administrators are involved in programs that work with adults as well as youths. Six administrators cited they look for a person who "demands much of students." the statement by adding, One of the six qualified "but students should be capable of the demands." Only two of the thirty-two administrators cited "strong disciplinarian" as an important characteristic for working in their programs. adding "but careful." One qualified this, This is the administrator of a program working with dropouts who have returned to school. Nine administrators checked the category "other." The characteristics specified in these cases give further insight into the question of what qualities program administrators seek in their personnel. They are: 221 (1) Ability to relate to parents and ancillary staff; (2) A feel and concern for the disadvantaged and handicapped; (3) Ability to motivate and relate to youngsters; (4) Tolerance and ability to understand one's own views and ability to communicate well with youngsters . . . can command and not have to demand respect; (5) Relates well with older individuals enrolled in classes; (6) Ability to work with the child at his own level of operation and to help build self-concept; (7) Patience— ability to work well with staff and ability to work well without supervision; (8) Ability to relate well with parents. The overwhelming tone of these responses is that the staff should be able to relate well and to work with people of diverse ages. Ranking in Importance of Charac­ teristics for Staff Selection Administrators were asked to rank, in order of importance, several criteria to be considered in the selection of personnel (see Appendix E, question 17). The rank scores assigned to each of the characteristics were totaled and averaged to produce the average score 222 assigned by the thirty-two administrators responding to the item. Table 54 shows the characteristics in order of assigned importance. TABLE 54.— Characteristics of dropout program staff ranked in order of importance by thirty-two program administrators (1 = high, 7 = low). Characteristic Average Score Motivation of Individual Personality Experience Education Age Sex Race or Ethnic Origin 1.78 2.09 2.23 2.71 5.50 5.70 5.84 The significant thing shown by these data is that, according to the collective judgment of the thirty-two administrators involved, those characteristics of indi­ viduals which must be determined subjectively are ranked as the more important, while in descending order, those consisting of more objective facts are ranked as of less importance. If this actually holds true in the hiring of personnel to staff dropout programs, these data suggest that the ability to judge people by the hiring officer is of crucial importance. The quality of his staff depends on his subjective judgment. 223 Summary of Characteristics of Dropout Program Staff The data showed that the staffing patterns and numbers of full-time professional staff members in drop­ out programs varied widely. More men than women are employed in the dropout programs. Racial-ethnic distribution of faculties of the dropout programs showed over 87 per cent of the faculty members to be white, with over 9 per cent Negro. Persons of Spanish background comprise over 2 per cent of the faculties, with Indian and Oriental faculty members com­ prising the remainder. Comparison of faculty with student population showed that where large proportions of minority group students were enrolled, there were usually faculty members of the same minority group. Data concerning preferred characteristics of staff showed that administrators prefer teachers from the ages of twenty-five to thirty-nine. State teacher certifi­ cation is preferred in half the programs. Administrators are interested in faculty whose background enables them to better understand human beings. Five to nine years of teaching and rich work experience in fields other than teaching are generally preferred as work experience for teachers in dropout programs. 224 Nearly half the administrators consider race or ethnic origin unimportant in the selection of teachers. However, administrators of some programs having large numbers of minority group enrollees did prefer teachers of the same minority groups. Overwhelmingly, administrators agreed that both males and females should be on the faculties, with the exception of two administrators of programs for delinquent boys. Preferred personality characteristics are those enabling teachers to relate well with other people of diverse ages and backgrounds. Characteristics of indi­ viduals which must be judged subjectively, such as moti­ vation and personality, were considered more important in personnel selection than objective factors such as age and race. Interviews With Program Directors Directors of five programs were interviewed, in four of the five cases, on the program site. Through these interviews more detailed information about each program was obtained. were also inspected. interviews. Facilities used for the programs Below is a portrait of these 225 Program I : Located in Western Michigan This is a program for teenage pregnant girls. The purpose is to prevent girls from dropping out because of pregnancy with the majority transferring to the program from their regular schools throughout the city. Some girls who had previously dropped out have subsequently returned to school via this program. The school, established in 1968, has attractive classroom facilities provided in a hospital. occurred while while classes were in session. The visit The atmos­ phere was bright, informal, and generated a feeling of warmth between faculty and students. The establishment of this school was described as a community effort, initially rising out of the concern of a group of individuals representing many community agencies for the rising number of unwed mothers in the city. Twenty community agencies were involved in the initial planning for the program including public schools, hospitals, medical and osteopathic societies, health and social agencies. Specific organizations which provided outstanding leadership were the United Community Services, the Y.W.C.A., Planned Parenthood, and administrators of the local school district. The strong support of pro­ fessionals in these agencies was cited as a great help in the establishment of the program. Studies of dropping 226 out of pregnant girls in the local area were useful in furnishing an idea of the dimension of the problem. Implementation of the program continues to be a community effort with staff and funding provided by a combination of resources from the district board of edu­ cation, E.S.E.A. Title III funds, the intermediate school district, and the County Health Department. Since most students involved in the program are transfers from other district schools, the curriculum was designed to enable the girl to continue carrying the sub­ jects prescribed by her base school. Due to the small staff, course offerings are limited to basic subjects and a minimum number of electives. New students are admitted every Monday morning and from time to time students having delivered their babies return to their base schools. Therefore, teachers must be flexible enough to be prepared to finalize one student's work while beginning with new students. The pre-natal class is a unique feature of this program. It is taught by the school nurse, and covers a wide topical area, including "a lot of medical counsel­ ing." Because of the experiences of students in this school, sex education differs drastically from that which is common in most public schools. Sexuality, rather than a "facts of life" approach, is taken, and includes discussion of sexual behavior, "helping kids understand how they got here, helping them plan how they are going to be different and if they are going to be different after they leave." The nurse provides both pre-natal and post-natal medical counseling. Instructional materials include information on childbirth, including a movie on labor and delivery, transparencies, charts, and printed materials commonly used by obstetricians. Stu­ dents are taken on a tour of a hospital maternity section and have an opportunity to become familiar with labor and delivery r o oms. Topical areas addressed by a continuous schedule of outside speakers are welfare rights, domestic law, divorce, adoption, paternity suits, the battered child syndrome, drug rehabilitation, consumer education, finance counseling, and planned parenthood. The per­ sonnel man from a large supermarket chain discusses topics related to employment. Instructional materials are the same as are used in the local public schools, with the exception of sex education materials. The director reported a continuing search for reading materials of high interest, low ability level, since students with reading problems are not uncommon in this program. Student participation in curriculum planning is limited to choosing topics to be discussed by the outside speakers. The director feels the students do not 228 participate enough in planning, although follow-up studies have shown 90 per cent of the students want no changes in the school. Specific needs of the students as a group and as individuals are taken into account in the family living course, as well as in the sex education area. Cooking and sewing are emphasized because these skills are viewed as immediate, practical necessities for the girls. This is also the rationale for an emphasis on child growth and development. A visit to the sewing class revealed many girls in the process of making their own maternity clothes. The school provides pre-natal health care with the school nurse working in liaison with clinics and physicians. With the permission of the students' phy­ sicians pre-natal exercises are incorporated into the school schedule. The students are also helped with social and physical readjustment during the post-natal pe r i o d . The school has close contact with the public school counselors of individual girls. The teaching staff meets in subject area departmental meetings with teachers employed in the public schools. However, it is not felt that this program has resulted in any changes in the local public schools. This was attributed to the fact that the school academic curriculum is tailored to enable girls to keep up with their classes in their base 229 schools. The area which differs most significantly content-wise is that of sex education. It has been assumed that this course, as presented at this school, would not be acceptable in the ordinary public school setting. Counseling provisions include an interview with each girl on intake, and counseling on an individual basis with the nurse, counselor, and social worker du r ­ ing the program. Group counseling with the mothers of the students and their daughters has been conducted by the nurse. Future plans include more intensive counsel­ ing involving the girls and their families in an attempt to alleviate problems which have been identified among the families of many of the girls. Thus far, there has been little opportunity for vocational counseling. The outstanding strengths of the program as seen by the director a r e : 1. The meeting of the obvious needs of the girls in enabling them to continue school through pregnancy and the provision of health and social services. 2. The relaxed atmosphere which is conducive to the girls not seeing this as a "regular school." It is believed the students enjoy this program more than they did the regular schools from which they came. 230 The chief weaknesses and areas of further need are: 1. The need for transportation, since girls from a citywide area participate. During severe winter weather this is an especially difficult problem for girls in the latter stages of pregnancy. 2. Lack of day-care facilities for infants and young children, since two-thirds of the girls keep their babies. Currently, care for these children during school hours is difficult to find. 3. Space. Now there is more teacher time available than space in which to utilize it. 4. The question of what constitutes good sex education. 5. The need for a good hot lunch program. A promising note for the future of such programs is the formation of the Michigan Association for School Age Parents, an organization which is attempting to com­ bine resources for helping in the development of programs for pregnant teen-age girls. Program II: Located in Southwest Michigan This program is intended to assist youths, ages sixteen to twenty-one by providing social, vocational, and educational training involving half-day work, half­ day instruction, with all training at the program center. 231 The program is housed in a new facility developed from an old dairy plant, refurbished with the aid of a large private donation. Located in the mid-city, it serves clients from a wide area. Established in 1961, the purpose of this program was initially to assist only youths ages sixteen to twenty-one who were out of school and unemployed. Through the addition of a number of divisions to the program additional client groups have been added. These include potential dropouts, juveniles incarcerated in the county juvenile home, some pre-parole prison inmates, and people from a nearby home for the mentally handicapped, as well as school dropouts. The program continues to serve only youths between sixteen and twenty-one years of age offering instruction, guidance, and remedial reading three hours per day, and half-day employment in the sheltered workshop which does sub-contract work for business and industry. The objective is to provide sufficient instruction and pre-employment training to prepare the trainee for beginning employment. The establishment of the program was brought about through the concern for school dropouts of approx­ imately fifty community citizens. These citizens were representative of nearly all agencies and service groups in the city. 232 In the initial planning of the program a small number of well-known programs were examined, including the Detroit Job Upgrading Program and the Employment Training Center at Southern Illinois University. Both the initial director of the program and the current director had experience in the Illinois program. Initial program experience involved only the subsidizing of student placement on jobs for twelve to sixteen weeks. Eventually it was concluded this limited program was not sufficient, and the program was expanded to include instruction, counseling, and vocational train­ ing, along with the work experience. Early support came through the formation of a non-profit corporation developed from the group of private citizens initially involved in planning, and the receipt by this corporation of a large private donation. After the enactment of the Economic Opportunity Act in 1964, federal monies were utilized. In 1968, following a com­ prehensive evaluation by Western Michigan University, the intermediate school district began underwriting the pro­ gram; however, other funding sources have been retained. The leadership of the former and current program directors has been influential in the development of the program. They have had extensive experience with employ­ ment training and sheltered workshops. Current Neighbor­ hood Youth Corps guidelines have some influence on the 233 program. This is currently the only federal program located in this center. Involvement with local schools in the establish­ ment of the program included local school people, acting in their capacity as private citizens working on com­ mittees in the early development of the program. The help of school counselors was and still is integrally necessary. All students coming from the public schools must be referred by counselors who arrange school schedules and credits to enable students to participate. As youth problems in the community have "snowballed" community support has also "snowballed." The program has now been in existence long enough so that word has "gotten around" about its availability and about the philosophy which prevails— that the program exists to help people. Many individuals now come to program administrators with specific problems. The program director states that he works with and through the public schools and will develop anything "moral and ethical that shows common sense" in order to meet a need that he sees or that is brought to his attention. The new program facility includes rooms designed for the purpose of diagnostic testing, and the staff includes a person capable in testing, counseling, and guidance. On intake the needs of each student are 234 diagnosed and he receives counseling in setting up goals and in determining a program designed to meet those goals. There is an attractive library and reading area with facilities for remedial reading instruction. The reading teacher works with no more than six students at a time. The library has a large selection of paper­ back reading materials. The teacher generates many of her own instructional materials in addition to using packaged materials from some of the major commercial companies. The office practices instructional area is equipped with numerous types of office machines, includ­ ing typewriters that range from new model electric machines to old manual machines. The first item pointed out in the tour of the sheltered workshop area was the time clock on which trainees are required to punch in and out as they would in a work setting. This area is equipped to subcontract work for several local industries, and a loading dock has been designed and built to enable the workshop to handle heavier work than had been done in the prior setting. Facilities have been built so the program will eventually include a small gas station which, when oper­ ational, will perform the services for school district automobiles which ordinarily would have to be done at a commercial gas station. station for enrollees. This will be a work training 235 The home economics rooms include a kitchen work­ room equipped with sewing machines, conventional kitchen equipment, and a washing machine and dryer. A typical curriculum for an enrollee involved in the workshop program includes five basic areas: 1. Consumer education: This involves such basics as how to write checks and how to shop. (Is the large economy size or the small can of peas cheaper? How does one figure this out?) Exper­ ience has shown that many students coming to this program do not realize simple things such as the fact that clothes can be tried on in stores before purchase. Students are taken on actual shopping trips where they do this. Many students have never eaten in a restaurant and do not know how to order from a menu. experience. They are given this Another subject covered is what is meant in terms of obligation and rights when a contract is signed. 2. Communication skills, defined as reading, writing, and arithmetic: Most students in the program are deficient in these areas. in initial evaluation. Proficiency is checked Proficiency levels which students must reach to attain their goals are determined, and curriculum requirements are set up accordingly. 236 3. Job orientation: The basic questions here are how does one apply for a job and what skills are needed to get the job. Role playing, views, and filling out of actual job applications mock inter­ take place in classes. 4. Civic rights and responsibilities: Instruction is described as a very basic approach to helping students understand those things of which they have to be aware in order to participate as a citizen. This includes helping trainees to understand how to go about voting. 5. Personal orientation: This deals with basics such as attitudes and grooming. Human relations in terms of parent-child, male-female, race, or whatever is of concern to individual students or groups of students is addressed. Provisions for counseling, both personal and vocational, are extensive. All staff members, including the shop supervisor, have training in counseling, many at the graduate level. Staff academic backgrounds include guidance and counseling, psychology, and sociology. The entire program is described basically as vocational coun­ seling . The program director considers the difference between Program II and the public schools to be its most unique feature: Program II is student-centered while 237 public schools are subject-centered. It was stated that each instructor knows what subject matter will be covered, but that the time-table is flexible so that the needs of the students supersede the calendar. Another positive feature cited is that the staff is small, has good communication, and can be gotten together to confer on five minutes notice. The director also cited the philosophy of the program, that it exists to be of service to people, as an outstanding feature. This tenant is supported by the board of directors, a fact which allows great flexibility. The lack of sufficient versatility in specific skill training was suggested as the weakest facet of the pro­ gram . Program III; Located in Western Michigan This is a tutoring program serving school dropouts who desire one-to-one tutoring, youths who have been expelled from schools, chronic truants, youths who have been released from juvenile detention homes, emotionally disturbed elementary youngsters, and women who did not finish high school for whom the presence of small children has made return to educational programs difficult. Arrangements with the district board of education make it possible for students to be given school credit for successful completion of work. Tutors are all volunteers 238 who are certified teachers, or student teachers assigned to the program. At the time of the interview the pro­ gram had been in operation for nearly one school year. Program facilities are scattered throughout the city. The director has office space provided by a com­ munity agency; tutoring sites are in schools, churches, libraries-— any place accessible to students where the institution in question will donate room. The establishment of this program came about through the personal experiences of the director, a former teacher, who had privately tutored a number of students. This led to the idea of organizing a corps of former teachers willing to donate time and services. Establishment of the program was aided through the help of a member of the school district central adminis­ tration. A minimal fund was provided to pay for baby sitting and transportation expenses of volunteer tutors. The program has access to instructional materials owned by the school district. Central administration places university student teachers to work in the program. Some students are assigned to the regular school program part-time and to tutors part-time. For others the tutoring program is their lone contact with an edu­ cational program. Instruction is offered in reading, mathematics, science, social studies, industrial arts (with an emphasis I 239 on home repair and home economics). The home economics work is done in the home of a former home economics teacher. Curricular offerings are, in part, dependent on the areas in which certified volunteer teachers can be found. School credit is awarded for satisfactory work completed. In some few cases credits for graduation have been completed under the program. However, the ultimate aim is to enable students to re-enter the regular school program. Instructional materials include school texts, when appropriate, games adapted for instructional purposes, and in reading anything suitable the teachers can find. Tutors generate many of their own materials and search the com­ mercial markets for high-interest, low-ability-level reading material. Paperbacks are an important source of teaching material. Students determine their own curriculum and, in many cases, materials to be used. Personal counseling provisions are limited to one part-time volunteer counselor. No provisions have been made for vocational counseling, although one volun­ teer has expressed an interest in initiating such a program. The director described the strengths of this program a s : I 240 1. Many secondary students want something that is different than regular school. This program is different. 2. There is freedom in choosing instructional materials. 3. Credit is given for the work done. 4. Students like the one-to-one relationship with tutors. It is believed this relationship helps in building a positive self-concept. 5. Students are not scheduled hourly and daily: schedules are arranged to suit individual needs and desires. The chief weaknesses and areas of further need for the program a r e : 1. The need for a full-time counselor. 2. Additional money to cover expenses of volunteers, which exceeded the allotment during the first year of operation. 3. Transportation of a unique sort. The program director envisions a small van providing transpor­ tation from the home of the student with a drivercounselor who would take responsibility even for getting students out of bed to go to class, if necessary. I 241 4. The need for additional tutoring centers located about the city. 5. More adequate tutoring sites, in schools where possible, to keep youths in touch with the school environment. 6. Although one-to-one tutoring is a valuable aid, it is not sufficient for the full educational development of the students involved. The pro­ gram should not be seen as an alternative to high school, but as a supplement. Program IV: Located in the Eastern Part of Michigan Program IV works with non-college bound students, most of whom have been identified as potential dropouts. Students are enrolled in public school. The program pro­ vides small group instruction, intensive educational and personal counseling, work experience, and field trips. Program IV grew out of concern that in the early 1960's one-third of the students entering grade nine did not graduate from high school in this community. A prime mover in instituting the program was an administrator in a large private foundation. The program first became operational in 1962. The objectives of the program are to enable potential dropouts to gain their high school diploma and to develop a marketable skill. The program works 242 with approximately 2,000 non-college bound students each year, many of whom are in need of financial and academic aid. Program results show students completing the pro­ gram to be 8 6 per cent more employable than those com­ pleting the regular school course. This program was not patterned after any other. The director reported that when guidelines for Federal Programs were being developed, government representatives examined this program as a model. The need for in-service training for program personnel was recognized early. An attempt was made to utilize help from university educators, but this did not prove fruitful. Resources within the organization are now used for in-service training, and program per­ sonnel are sought for consultations by other organizations planning establishment of similar programs. The primary activities offered by the program are: 1. Small group instruction (fifteen to one studentteacher ratio), primarily in basic education. This includes remedial reading, mathematics, and science. Reading materials used are on varied grade levels. Reading consultants and diagnos­ ticians are used, but there is no traditional testing. Instruction takes place in the public schools. Teachers from the school faculties are chosen to work in the program by Program IV coun­ selors and school principals. 243 2. Counseling. Program counselors are assigned to district schools and work with program enrollees at a student-counselor ratio of 120 to one. The counselor makes home calls, works with teachers, administrators, other agencies, and the students themselves, providing intensive educational and personal counseling. 3. Work Experience. Job opportunities are found for junior and senior high school students needing financial help to continue their education, for those needing the practical experiences provided by work, and for "some therapeutic reasons." A work experience counselor coordinates these off-campus activities. The director of the program emphasized that the staff has learned to make an effort to tailor work experience to fit the students. This involves placing students in jobs which are of interest and value to them. Major employers of Program IV students are large industrial firms, a hospital, the post office, and small business and industry. A corps of students is affiliated with the police department as uniformed cadets providing a number of services to the community. 4. Field trips are considered a major contribution to the education of enrollees. The purpose is to 244 expand students' understanding of the community and to widen their experiential background. Examples of such trips include a trip to the Fisher Theater, Detroit, to see major Broadway hits, opportunities to fly on commercial airlines and stay overnight in an airport motel, and picnics to areas with activities such as baseball, swim­ ming, etc. The program has its own bus and full­ time driver to expedite such trips. A source of pride within this program is that administrative costs are kept at a minimum in order to provide funds for such enriching experiences for the stu­ dents . Needs of individual students are taken into account in program planning, although the extent of student partic­ ipation in curriculum planning within the classroom depends on individual teachers. Feed-back of what has been learned into the regular school program has been somewhat limited, although as the program has progressed, increasing numbers of experienced teachers within the school system have requested to par­ ticipate in the program. Several successful Program IV counselors have been promoted into the regular school system as administrators. The director sees the outstanding strength of the program as the people in it. Long work days are required, 245 and there is a willingness to exert efforts on behalf of the students. A philosophy and dedication for helping people is necessary. The financial backing of the program must be acknowledged as an outstanding asset. However, the money available is carefully allocated with a bare minimum used for the administration costs of the program. The chief area of need is for the expansion of job opportunities. At least two major industries remain untapped in the community, because program staff has not had time to work with these industries in job development for students. Program V: Located in South­ eastern Michigan This program is for dropouts returning to school, potential dropouts, and some who need to earn money through work experience programs. As were the others, the program was established through community awareness of the problems of potential dropouts and due to the fact that out-of-school youths were experiencing social problems and the need for money. The program offers a full school program with half the day spent in class, half in working. The school, through a coordinator, works with the employer and agrees to provide job-related instruction. The objective of the program is to help the stu­ dent develop a saleable skill. 246 Students attend regular high school classes and an "Urban Living" course where personal counseling, remedial academic help, and job-related orientation are available. The course is taught by one man who handles four classes, composed of eight to seventeen students, per day. The Urban Living course has been developed largely as a result of reading, graduate courses, and workshops participated in and the personal experience of the teacher. It is housed in the local high school, where students also attend other classes. The course is arranged on a unit basis covering basic problems of living in an urban community. The units and most instructional materials have been developed by the teacher himself. Topics include: Orientation to getting a job (interviews, filling out applications, etc.) Environmental science Personal hygiene Writing letters Housing (safety, cleaning, maintenance, decorating) Household budgeting Banking Reading instruction Income tax Insurance Social security Welfare Drugs Examples of the methodology used in this course are: In the unit on budgeting, students, having been given some basic instruction in nutrition, are told they 247 have a certain minimum amount of money to spend for one week's groceries for a family. Newspapers containing grocery ads are brought into class. Using the advertise­ ments, students must "shop" for the groceries making the best use of the money available. For reading instruction students have developed sets of "word" cards which they have illustrated them­ selves for class use. Reproductions of forms, such as bank checks, income tax forms, etc., have been developed. Students are taught to use these forms in class. In job orientation a unique feature is that workmen (in contrast to personnel directors) visit the class and talk with students about their jobs. During this class period students are given help with other course work when necessary. Students do help with the development of the cur­ riculum, but the teacher emphasized that course work can­ not become too "deep" or the students get bored and "you lose them." There is limited communication with teachers in the regular high school program. Written notes concerning student needs are exchanged but time for conferences is extremely limited. The director does not see changes taking place in the regular school curriculum as a result of this course. 248 Provisions for personal counseling include the availability of the director-teacher in his office from 12:30 p.m. to the end of the school day. The office is located next to a side door of the school. This location is considered important because students can easily get there without going through the school. The teacher also makes home visits, job visits, and engages in recreational activities with students. For emergencies there is a "crisis counselor" available, and the principal is also available for counseling. The entire program is conceived of as a vocational counseling course. The school counselors, the school principal, the special education department, and the school athletic staff are credited with providing special help to the program. The director-teacher views the greatest strength of the program as "the program itself." The investigator found the tremendous amount of instructional materials developed by the teacher, the excellent organization, and the realistic approach taken to appear to be the heart of the prog r a m . The chief weakness and the area of further need as seen by the teacher is the "need for love" in the environment of his students. It appeared to the investi­ gator that additional manpower might also be helpful. the program was described it appeared the bulk of As 249 responsibility for classroom instruction, the development of instructional materials, the development of project proposals for the Department of Vocational Education, and personal and vocational counseling fell on one individual. Most of the students in the group with which this teacher works must find their own jobs. The director pointed out there is simply no time left in each day for him to help in the area of job development. The need for more program funding was also expressed. Common Elements and Contrasts in the Program Interviews with directors of these programs high­ lighted several common elements even though the size of the programs in terms of funding, number of students partici­ pating, and size of staff differed drastically. In all cases the flexibility afforded by the special program was an outstanding strength. The people working in each program were cited for their dedication, expertise, and willingness to work hard. A philosophy of helping young people solve problems permeated each, and the freedom to use unusual approaches was acknowledged as being crucial to each program. Each director noted a continuing search for appro­ priate instructional materials, especially for reading. Home-made materials and paperbacks were common. 250 Instruction in very basic elements of living was a crucial part of each program. The advantages of a small staff were cited as facilitating communication between staff members. More­ over, low student-teacher ratios or student-counselor ratios allowed the adults and students to develop warm relationships. The program directors themselves proved to have some characteristics in common. Each was excited about his work and had a wealth of practical experience. appeared to know his staff and his students well. Each It was clear that these people believe in and like the students with whom they work. The directors of the three programs which incor­ porate work experience clearly comprehend the world of work themselves, and also require this comprehension of their staff members. They view their job as one of enabling their students to function in the world of work and in society at large. All the directors expressed a "hard headed," realistic view of the kinds of experience with which students must be provided to enable them to get along in the world. These views resulted in the practical kinds of personal and job orientation elements of programs which have been described. The need for intensive personal counseling was noted by each director and was a component in one way or another, in each program. 251 Each of the directors was quick to cite short­ comings in his program, but also showed great pride in the innovative features which had been instituted and the success thus far accomplished. Although the titles and scope of the programs differed the ultimate aims and philosophies were quite similar in that each was attempting to help participants find their place in the world and to cope with their environments. The primary differences were in the amounts of resources available, including facilities, instructional materials, manpower, and funding. None of the directors interviewed knew of any major changes which had taken place in the public schools as a result of what was being learned through the exper­ ience gained in their programs. contributing to this. There were several factors Very few teachers in the regular programs have an opportunity to become thoroughly familiar with what is being done. Some directors related that occasionally an interested teacher will visit, but depth study of methods being used is limited. This is partially due to the fact that public school teachers are busy with their own work during the time the programs are in oper­ ation, and that those teachers and dropout program facul­ ties have little free time to get together and share ideas and experiences. Directors stated that though some ideas 252 may be carried back and implemented in the public schools, they have no way of knowing whether this is so, or to what extent. Another factor is the size and structure of the regular school program as contrasted to the size and structure of the dropout programs. Several directors doubted that it would be possible to create an atmosphere of informality and relaxation in the larger public schools simply due to the numbers of students who must be served in that setting. The small size of the dropout programs was credited with being a great contributor to the atmos­ phere considered so important. Another factor cited was that the public school has a much wider public to please than a dropout program and must meet much more diverse expectations on the part of that public. One director mentioned the fact that one of his greatest assets is that he does not have to spend time in a public relations function as does a public school administrator, ever mindful that financial support depends on the public millage vote. With the exception of working closely with coun­ selors, and in the case of the program for pregnant girls where teaching staff meets on a regular basis with public school teachers, formal arrangements for the exchange of information and ideas are minimal or non-existent. Again, one factor which limits communication is the lack of time. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY Introduction At the outset of this study three basic issues were posed: (1) to make a determination as to whether existing programs are, in fact, constructed so as to be able to serve the known needs of the dropout population; (2) to pinpoint gaps between existing needs and program offerings; and (3) to pinpoint gaps in the programs themselves. It was proposed that recommendations would be developed from the analysis of the data to suggest plans of action: (1) To suggest procedures which could help initiate innovative programs directed specifically to the needs of dropouts; (2) To suggest a framework through which programs, procedures, techniques, curricula, and other innovative features can be disseminated into the educational system in order to make school a more viable and exciting educational institution 254 (3) To identify a leadership role for the State Department of Education in the area of school dropout programs. The survey of research related to school dropouts yielded data which gave a profile of school dropouts in general. From this profile the needs of the youths com­ prising this group can be inferred. In the paragraphs to follow the characteristics of school dropouts as indi­ cated by the survey of research are briefly summarized and the needs of dropouts which can be inferred from these characteristics are listed. Through questionnaires and interviews information was obtained on the characteristics of the programs, staff, and the clientele served. These data about the programs are analyzed in relation to the identified needs of dropouts to develop conclusions as to whether the pro­ grams are constructed with provisions to serve the listed needs of the dropouts. To identify gaps between identified needs of drop­ outs and program offerings the survey of related research findings are again compared to data obtained about pro­ grams through the questionnaires and interviews. More­ over, many such gaps were identified and explained by program administrators themselves. Gaps in the programs themselves were identified through analysis of the literature, responses to 255 questionnaires, and again some were identified explicitly by program administrators. Lastly, recommendations and implications for further research were based on both analysis of the literature reviewed and the study of the programs them­ selves . Conclusions Issue 1: Are Existing Programs Constructed so as to Be Able to Serve the Known Needs of the Dropout Population? Chapter II reviewed selected literature concern­ ing the known characteristics of school dropouts. The characteristics are summarized below, and the needs which these characteristics suggest are listed. The listed needs are compared with data which was presented in Chap­ ter IV showing the make-up and design of the programs and conclusions are drawn in the following pages as to whether the programs are constructed so as to be able to meet the n e e d s . The survey of the selected research literature showed that generally dropouts are from families of low socio-economic levels. This suggests that youths from such families may have an immediate need for financial help and for help in developing skills and "know-how" for entry into the economic mainstream of a 256 job-oriented society. Jobs, vocational counseling, and vocational training will be necessary for many of these youths. Data also showed that over 4 0 per cent of the dropouts are female. Thus, attention must be directed to the needs of female dropouts as well as those of males especially in vocational training and counseling. The dropout has usually experienced cultural deprivation both in his home and neighborhood environ­ ment. This indicates the need for exposure to and par­ ticipation in enriching experiences beyond those afforded by the limited opportunities available in the environment in which he has been reared. This cultural deprivation has often contributed to low educational achievement, initially in the key academic skills of reading and mathematics. Poor achievement in key skills has often led to failure in other facets of school work. Because of basic academic disabilities many dropouts need intensive remedial help, especially in reading and mathematics and in understanding the importance of mastering such skills to attain other go als. Although the achievement level of dropouts is usually low, most dropouts are considered to have the capacity to do high school work successfully. Intelli­ gence test scores show that dropouts are heterogeneous 257 in measured intelligence. The data also show that a common experience for school dropouts is that they have been unhappy, and often in trouble, in the school environ­ ment. In addition, a comparison of the perceptions of school dropouts and graduates about their family and home lives showed that dropouts believed their families to have been less happy than graduates perceived their families to have been. This record of unhappy school experiences and of less than happy homes, which in many cases have produced hostile and unhappy individuals, suggests that a program for such youths will require a unique environ­ ment, especially in the relationships developed between the enrollees and the adults in authority. Research indicated that a high percentage of stu­ dents having the intellectual capacity to complete high school work successfully but who had been identified as potential dropouts were youths with personality problems and emotional problems severe enough to require intensive psychological help. to many such youths. A low self-concept is also common From these factors the need for personal counseling and rewarding personal relationships with adults seems indicated. The basic needs inferred from the known charac­ teristics of school dropouts can be briefly summarized as: 258 (1) The need for provision for immediate economic need; (2) The need for assistance in obtaining salable skills and vocational counseling for entry into the labor market; (3) The need for attention to female as well as male dropouts, especially in vocational training; (4) The need for the provision of enriching experiences to alleviate cultural deprivation; to create an opportunity for the dropout to "widen his hori­ zons" ; (5) The need for remedial help for academic disa­ bilities; (6) The need for personal counseling and opportunities to develop positive relationships with adults. Discussion of the specific needs listed above and provisions made by the surveyed programs for meeting them appear below. 1. Provision for immediate economic n e e d .— At least a third of the programs enabled students to earn needed money while continuing their education through cooperative education or work-study plans, thus providing for economic need. These provide students the opportunity to work and earn while receiving instruction and credit. These programs were for both students who had already dropped out and for potential dropouts. Although in most programs the staff took the major responsibility in developing job opportunities for stu­ dents, in others students must find jobs for themselves. A key factor in how much assistance students were given in finding jobs appeared to be a function of the time and staff personnel available for job development. School schedules and programs were adjusted for those who were successful in finding work. Data also showed the hours during which instruction was offered varied, especially in some programs for out-of-school youths. This suggests these programs have attempted to develop flexible scheduling to accommodate their clientele. 2. The need for assistance in obtaining salable skills and vocational counseling for entry into the labor ma r k e t .— Data revealed that nearly three-fifths of the programs had curriculum related to the world of work. The interviews, especially, revealed the emphasis on preparation for the world of work. Three of the five program administrators interviewed stressed the importance of the work aspect of the curriculum both in the counseling and class instruction, and in the experience gained by students through actually working on a job. Another insight into the importance of the vocational aspect of the programs is reflected by data 260 showing that administrators look for faculty who have had work experience other than teaching. This reflects the orientation of programs toward helping students realis­ tically understand the world of work. Moreover, over half the programs reported a major criterion of success for the program is for students to get and keep jobs upon completion of the program. Seventy per cent of the administrators reported students were assisted in obtain­ ing employment after program completion. Thus it appears that the programs were generally designed to help students obtain salable skills and to provide vocational counseling. 3. The need for attention to female as well as male dropouts, especially in vocational training.— Data showed that the ratio of females to males enrolled in dropout programs was roughly similar to the ratio of female to male dropouts in the state and in the sample districts. Vocational programs included training and work experience for females as well as males. Training and work experience appeared to be especially common in office work. One vocational program in home economics- related occupations was identified, which enrolled both males and females. It appeared that females received attention proportionate to males in dropout programs. 4. The need for provision of enriching exper- iences to alleviate cultural deprivation; to create an 261 opportunity for the dropout to "widen his horizons."— Interviews with program administrators were especially valuable in revealing provisions enriching experiences for the students. Three of the five administrators interviewed directed vocationally-oriented programs. Vocational programs focused on projects which widen the experiential background of enrollees. Projects ranged from extensive field trips to places such as the Fisher Theater, Detroit to dinner in restaurants, to shopping trips for clothing and groceries, to picnics and week-end canoe trips. The purpose of these projects was the same in all programs; namely, to widen the experiences of students. The elabor ateness appeared to depend on the resources, primarily financial, available. The survey of the literature showed the family to be an integral factor related to dropping out. Thus the youths in dropout programs need experiences which will lead to a better understanding of and ability to function in the family structure. Such experiences, including instruction, counseling, and the building of positive relationships with others, should be designed to help youths to become more adequate family members, not only in their families of origin, but as marriage partners and parents in the families they will eventually found. This study showed the program for pregnant girls works directly with facets of students' lives related to 262 family. Interviews further show some other programs approach the subject of functioning within the family structure through personal counseling concerning human relationships and in helping students better understand home management. Because the family appears to be such a crucial variable in whether youths are successful in school it would seem desirable that programs for both actual and potential dropouts to place even more emphasis than the study showed upon helping youths function as more ade­ quate family members. 5. The need for remedial help for academic disa­ bilities .— Over two-fifths of the programs surveyed reported remedial help in basic skills is a primary emphasis in the curriculum. Moreover, interviews and program descriptions revealed that remedial help in reading, mathematics, and in communication skills is included in most vocational programs. Several adminis­ trators considered these to be vocational skills with certain levels of achievement necessary for proficiency in many vocational areas. Remedial help in basic education skills is available in each of the general types of programs identified: vocational programs for both dropouts and potential dropouts, adult programs for high school com­ pletion, and remedial "in-school" programs for potential 263 dropouts. Thus, it appeared that an important component in most programs was remedial help for academic disa­ bilities . Several administrators reported that helping stu­ dents make progress in basic academic skills is dependent upon first gaining students' trust and developing personal relationships between students and instructors. Others expressed the belief that student progress in remedial programs appeared to depend more upon the teacher and the kind of relationships he has with students than upon instructional methods and materials. ^• The need for personal counseling and oppor­ tunities to develop positive relationships with adults.— Both personal counseling and the building of personal relationships between students and faculty were cited as integral parts of most programs. Administrators stated that low ratios of enrollees to program staff contribute to creating this relationship. Careful consideration of the kinds of people chosen to work in the programs is crucial. Moreover, staff size in most programs is small, enabling members to become well acquainted and to work closely together in curriculum development and in problem solving. Administrators considered this a great asset. The structural arrangements for personal counsel­ ing vary. Some programs have special counselors to work with students. Others have no specially designated 264 counselors, but expect all personnel to function in a counseling capacity. In such cases counseling and instruction are closely interrelated. The interviews underscored that personal relation­ ships built between enrollees and faculty in the programs are believed to be crucial in helping the enrollees become successful. This is reflected in the qualifications pre­ ferred for program faculty. These include personality characteristics, experience, and academic backgrounds (i.e., psychology, sociology, etc.) which enhance their ability to relate well with people and to function in a counseling role. Thus, the need for personal counseling and the building of positive personal relationships was provided for through both program structure and the choice of personnel. In addition to program components designed to meet expected needs listed above flexibility is provided in most programs so that as unusual needs arise special provision can be made to help resolve them. One program administrator stated that each expansion in his program was developed through the identification of a new problem which resulted in searching for new approaches to resolve it. This suggests that administrators in such programs must be pragmatic as well as problem solving oriented. Since participation in these programs is not mandatory 265 as in the case of a regular school program, administrators cannot afford to be insensitive. Data on the identified programs revealed there are provisions for meeting financial need, vocational training and counseling, remedial help in basic academic skills, personal counseling, and often flexibility to adjust and innovate to meet special problems and needs. In examining the school dropout programs one thrust of the study was to learn the extent to which the general body of knowledge about school dropouts surveyed in Chapter II was being incorporated into the dropout programs. While it was not the intent of this study to test hypotheses, the surveyed programs have been laid out against the backdrop of this body of knowledge. It is not known whether the construction of the programs included by design the research findings of authorities such as those surveyed in Chapter II or whether this happened by intuitiveness on the part of program administrators. Nevertheless, as the design of programs is compared to the findings and recommendations developed by authorities over the last several years, data show that programs reflect the research. This suggests that educational research findings do eventually find their way into cur­ riculum development. 266 Issue 2: Identification of Gaps Between Existing Needs and Pro­ gram Offerings' ~ Many of the gaps between existing need and what programs were able to offer were recognized and cited by program administrators themselves. These included: (1) The gap between the numbers of dropouts in Michigan and the number served by the existing programs; (2) The need for increased dropout prevention programs; (3) The need for public schools to develop the flexi­ bility necessary to help returning dropouts succeed; (4) The need for vocational development in fields appropriate for female dropouts; (5) The need for an increased teen-age job market for vocationally oriented programs; (6) The need for more specific vocational skill train­ ing for dropouts; (7) The need for making transportation to program sites available to potential enrollees; (8) The gap between special services needed and those which are now delivered (e.g., health care, etc.). The undercurrent of communication with most administrators was that the current programs were only a beginning— a drop in the bucket— in efforts to meet the multi-dimensional 267 problems of school dropouts. The following paragraphs discuss the gaps between existing needs and program offerings. 1. The gap between the numbers of dropouts in Michigan and the number served by existing programs.— The greatest gap identified was between the number of youths needing the help available in dropout programs and the number being served by available programs. Since the number of dropouts in the state is cumulative from year to year the universe of need for education and training for school dropouts multiplies rapidly and is far greater than the annual data and projections suggest. Data showed the number of students enrolled in thirty-three programs in fifty-seven school districts surveyed was between 8,000 and 9,000 youths. This is only a quarter of the number of dropouts in the state in 1967-1968, and only a third of those who dropped out in the fifty-seven districts surveyed. Furthermore, administrators of a quarter of the dropout programs reported more youths need their kinds of programs than can now be served. An additional gap identified between existing need and program offerings was that in most communities there was only one program. If this program was limited either in capacity or curricular emphasis students not able to enroll or who had problems not within the scope of the program had few alternatives available. This suggests the need for programs of wide scope with a capacity to enroll more students than many programs are now able to accommodate. The other alternative would be to have several programs designed to meet a variety of needs within a single community. 2• The need for increased dropout prevention programs.— Data showing the gap between annual school dropouts and the number of available education and train ing slots in dropout programs emphasized the dramatic need for increased in-school dropout prevention programs With the educational system in Michigan in financial crisis, special out-of-school programs for all the stu­ dents predicted to drop out if the projections cited in Chapter I hold just do not appear feasible. Obtaining funds for those out-of-school programs now existing has been a problem. Therefore the extension of in-school programs to work with potential dropouts appears not only practical but imperative. Such programs should have two objectives: Immediate help for the potential dropouts to prevent their dropping out of school and to enhance their education within the public school system. 269 Through the development of innovative educational programs within the school system, as contrasted to outside the system, successful approaches to improve the entire education program will be facilitated, thereby reducing the number of potential dropouts. Evaluations of some in-school programs have shown reduction in dropout rate for program participants and an increase in the employability of participants in com­ parison to graduates from the regular school curriculum. Moreover, one such program reports gradual interest and involvement of teachers assigned to the regular school program which has resulted in their learning methods useful in helping potential dropouts. However, such involvement remains dependent upon the motivation of individual teachers, rather than being encouraged through the school structure. 3. The need for public schools to develop the flexibility necessary to help returning dropouts succeed.— The study identified a further gap related not to the dropout programs alone, but to the relationship between schools and special programs. There is need for helping dropouts who, because of their experience in special pro­ grams, are motivated to return to the regular high school to complete their education. Administrators of dropout programs reported a major problem for such students is 270 the rigidity of both the regular school program and the teachers. The problems these dropouts encountered suggest the larger school structure does not have the flexibility to accommodate special needs and problems through adjustments in scheduling and credit requirements. In addition, the rigidity of many teachers in the regular school contrasts with the orientation of teachers in dropout programs. Close cooperation is necessary between the regular school program and dropout programs to share innovations which enable the youths involved to become successful. If returning to the regular school environment is to be worthwhile the regular school staff must become familiar with and develop within themselves the kinds of personal sensitivity and curricular innovations which were instru­ mental in motivating the dropout to re-enroll. This may mean that dropout program personnel must become aggressive in familiarizing public school personnel with objectives and methods of the special programs and with ways public schools can be more effective working with returned dropouts. During the course of this study not one drop­ out program administrator stated that he had observed changes taking place in the public school as a result of the example set by the dropout program working with youths. 4. The need for vocational development in fields appropriate for female dropouts.— The study showed a need 271 for additional vocational development in fields appropriate for female dropouts. The facts that over 40 per cent of the dropouts are female and that in this society many women work because of economic necessity suggest that equal attention must be given to vocational training and job development for both female and male dropouts. Many of the girls enrolled in the programs will eventually com­ bine the roles of wage earners and of homemaker and will have families. Job development in vocational areas which have prospects of enabling women to function both as wage earners and as homemakers, in many instances as heads of households, is needed. This may mean developing adjustable work hours to allow mothers to care for their children part of the day and work part of the day, or in developing part-time work which would eventually lead to full-time work when small children are grown. One adminis­ trator expressed that to him the idea of "work" was "going to work at 8:00 a.m. and returning home at 5:00 p.m. If a woman has children someone else takes care of them." The concept of any other arrangement simply had not occurred to him. Vocational training in areas such as day care, health occupations, and home economics-related occupations would both enable girls to become wage earners and provide education enabling them to become more effective mothers 272 and homemakers. Benefits of such job development would be reaped both in helping women become productive, selfsupporting citizens and in benefits to the children involved. An example of programs where the need for voca­ tional counseling, training and job development is an especially immediate need is in programs involving preg­ nant girls. Data showed that approximately two-thirds of the girls keep their babies; thus, they must have a way to provide for them immediately. In the one identi­ fied program for pregnant girls initial emphasis was to provide health care and to enable the girls to complete high school, with little attention on vocational areas. Some administrators cited that day care for infants and small children of program enrollees is dif­ ficult, if not impossible, to obtain. Day-care centers appear to be a necessity to enable women with responsi­ bility for children to participate in educational and training programs. The establishment of day-care centers could be incorporated into vocational education programs with qualified personnel to supervise the training of enrollees as aides in the center. Such training could be the first step in several career ladders. 5. The need for an increased teen-age job market for vocationally oriented programs.— Many administrators of vocational programs stated an increased job market 273 for teen-age youth would enable the programs to serve more enrollees. Although some programs allocated staff positions to job development, most administrators expressed the need for expansion in the number of available jobs for enrollees. A related problem beyond the control of program administrators alone is that when the economy becomes tight the job market for teen-age youth shrinks. If work experience programs are to be effectively continued, especially during such periods, combined community efforts will be required to provide jobs. Groups which can pro­ vide help include labor organizations, the Chamber of Commerce, the private business sector, and public employers. Ingenuity may be required to develop jobs for young people. Expanding fields such as ecology, health, and human service are excellent areas to explore in the creation of new jobs. Developing new vocational opportunities in such areas could have multiple benefits: it would create much needed jobs, provide necessary services, and perhaps develop interests and skills which would lead into work in growth industries. 6. The need for more specific vocational skill training for dropouts.— The need for expanding programs to offer training in specific job skills in more vocational areas was cited by some program administrators. Training in specific skills was emphasized in contrast to general 274 work orientation. Skill training is needed to increase immediate employability upon program completion; training in more vocational areas is necessary to accommodate the interests of more enrollees. Barriers to such expansion included the need for additional financial resources, room and equipment. The involvement of business and industrial firms would be an excellent potential source of the needed resources. 7• The need for making transportation to program sites available to potential enrollees.— Data showed that transportation is an essential component in some programs, especially those serving wide geographical areas. Adminis­ trators of one-third of the programs cited transportation as a problem in getting students to participate in pro­ grams . Alternatives which help can alleviate transpor­ tation as a problem include consideration of the location of program sites. They should be accessible to the target population by either public transportation or by walking. If this is not possible, the program itself may have to provide transportation. School district vehicles might be used during hours when they are not otherwise in u s e . Another alternative could be to acquire vehicles for program use, or to recruit service clubs or agencies in the community to develop motor pools to provide transpor­ tation. 275 8. The gap between special services needed and those which are now delivered (e.g., health care) .— Administrators pointed out another serious gap between needs and program offerings: it is often difficult to obtain special services for enrollees. Most dropouts coming to the programs are economically disadvantaged and many need health care, legal aid, and social services. This suggests that sources for the funding and provision of these services should be identified and linkage sys­ tems between dropout programs and agencies empowered to deliver services be developed. The school for pregnant girls was an outstanding example of a program which has resolved this problem. Liaison has been developed with agencies and private physicians to provide health care and social services. A contrasting example was related by an administrator who told of individual staff members who had personally financed dental work for an enrollee for whom public assistance could not be found. The dropout program cannot provide all services. However, it is an excellent contact point to be developed between clients who need help and agencies which can pro­ vide that help. The data suggested that many gaps between the needs of the dropout population and the services available in programs were recognized by program administrators. ! 276 Such needs had often been uncovered through experience in the programs. They were most often practical problems which, though recognized, could not yet be met because of limited resources either in funding, physical facilities, or staff. Issue 3: Gaps Identified in the Programs Themselves The intent of this study was to identify and describe the dropout programs. As the study progressed a number of gaps in the programs themselves were identi­ fied. It was found that program administrators lacked important data about the programs in areas such as per pupil costs of programs and racial-ethnic make-up of student populations, to name two. Administrators them­ selves cited identifiable gaps in their programs such as the need for improved facilities and the need for follow-up data to determine program effectiveness. The following paragraphs discuss the above named gaps in programs along with the others which were identi­ fied . The study showed that most program administrators could supply data giving the total cost of programs. Fewer, however, could tell how much of the program budget was allocated to instructional costs, and even fewer could supply the per pupil breakdown of program costs. 277 Money for all educational programs is currently tight. Knowing how and where the money has been spent is necessary to determine the most beneficial ways to allo­ cate limited educational resources. Without necessary cost data, coupled with evaluation results showing effec­ tiveness, a dropout program could easily be interpreted as an "extra" and eliminated when costs are being trimmed. This is especially true where voters are rejecting con­ tinuous increases in school millage. For both refunding purposes and to get the greatest benefit from money spent it is necessary for administrators to have complete cost analyses of their programs. Data suggested that evaluation of the effectiveness of dropout programs needs critical attention. The two most common objectives of programs cited were to enable stu­ dents (1) to effectively enter and remain in the labor market, or (2) to return to the regular school to graduate. However, follow-up data about what happens to students after completion of programs were available from only onethird of the administrators. This suggests that if what happens to students following participation in programs is, indeed, a measure of success or failure for the pro­ grams more follow-up data are necessary. It is recognized that the dropout program is only one of the many influences in the lives of program participants. However, follow-up data about the educational and work experiences of enrollees 278 would contribute to knowledge about the practicality and effectiveness of programs. Program administrators themselves recognized the need for follow-up studies. The barriers to carrying out such studies were lack of time, personnel, and finances. Many programs hold the improvement of basic edu­ cational skills as an objective. Methods used for evalu­ ating achievement levels of students vary. Tests measur­ ing academic achievement levels are used in approximately half the programs. Some programs depend upon old school records for such data. If improvement in basic education areas is to be evaluated with accuracy, more systematic assessment of student achievement needs to be considered by program administrators. Careful evaluation data and follow-up data, com­ bined with precise cost analysis, are necessary to make judgments about the effectiveness of these special pro­ grams for school dropouts and of allocating resources to such programs. Research surveyed showed that most dropouts have serious academic disabilities and that many may also have severe personality problems. The data obtained from pro­ gram administrators showed methods used in the programs for determining these student problems also vary widely. Reliance on past school records, referrals, or interviews 279 on entry into programs is common. Only one program reported the use of a complete diagnostic examination. Data gathered in the survey of the literature suggests that administrators should critically examine the methods used in individual programs to evaluate stu­ dent needs and problems. More complete diagnostic evalu­ ation may be desirable in many of the programs. The study showed that less than two-thirds of the programs kept data about the racial-ethnic backgrounds of enrollees. Since a major objective of such programs is to improve the educational and employment opportunities for disadvantaged youth, many of whom are members of minority groups, it would seem that such data would be useful. Because many programs are located in areas of high minority group population this data could be used to assess the appeal of the programs for the target group. Such data should also be used in designing curriculum to appeal to the interests of differing cultural groups. Several administrators stated that improved physi­ cal facilities would enhance their programs. Donated or rented buildings have often been "make do," though they have been better than nothing at a l l . Some programs shared facilities with other groups with the resulting atmosphere not always being conducive to conducting the work at hand and with distractions making instruction difficult. 280 The administrator of a program which had moved from a "make do" facility into a building newly renovated especially for the program cited advantages of the new building. Counselors had privacy for conferences with students and rooms designed for diagnostic testing. The vocational shop was modern, and instructional areas were conducive to making academic work pleasant and stimulating. This administrator related that students had attended classes in the former building under extremely uncom­ fortable physical conditions with insufficient heat in the winter and a leaking roof. The new building, in contrast, even had air conditioning to provide for summer weather. A concern of many authorities is that the selfconcept and pride of school dropouts be raised. This should be considered, along with pedagogical reasons, in the location and development of facilities. Every effort should be made to insure that students can take pride in their program building. Data showed the geographic areas with the greatest numbers of dropouts are those which are highly urbanized, where population density is high, socio-economic level low, and frequently where there is a large minority group population. The need for education and training programs in such areas is vital and must be met. The dropout programs identified in this study were primarily in such areas. 281 Because most rural school districts did not generally have enough dropouts in one year to be included in this study there remains a need for inves­ tigation as to the availability of programs in rural areas. The survey of literature and the location of the programs identified in this study, however, suggest certain trends. Rural areas have fewer dropouts than do cities. They are, however, spread over a wide geographical area. Retraining and work opportunities both appear to be limited in these areas. However, because the dropouts in rural areas are not such a highly concentrated popu­ lation as in the cities, the individual needs of these youths are no less urgent in terms of employment prospects and the development of human potential. The fact that rural dropouts are scattered means that it is costly for a single school district to develop and conduct a dropout program to meet their needs. This suggests a role for the intermediate school district. It would seem that the intermediate district could assume a leadership role in developing and conducting a dropout program covering enrollees from a wide geographical area. The enrollees could be transported on school buses to a central location in the county. Data in Chapter I cited the shrinking rural job market. This suggests dropout programs in rural areas 282 must be oriented to a nearby job center. For example, as a result of this state's excellent expressway system the job centers like Kalamazoo, Grand Rapids, or Lansing, to mention three, attract workers, in many instances, from a radius of fifty miles. Dropout programs should offer training in skills which are salable in such job centers. There is need for new vehicles through which drop­ out programs could be developed and implemented in rural areas. One such possibility would be the Cooperative Extension, which has long been involved in rural com­ munities. This could become a major force in reinvolving rural school dropouts in education and vocational train­ ing. For example, the Cooperative Extension, through its 4-H program, could become the prime sponsor of a ruralbased Neighborhood Youth Corps with close ties to the growing agri-business industry. Such a program may not only expand the educational horizon of the enrollees but may well be the first step in a career ladder in agri­ business. Moreover, if young persons can see that employ­ ment opportunities are available, this may arrest or slow down the out-migration to the urban centers. Still another possibility is to develop a Neighborhood Youth Corps program with special emphasis on environmental problems. Such a program could likewise be the first step in a career ladder. 283 In addition to the above three issues other pertinent data were uncovered which merit special comment. Data collected in Questionnaires I and II show a startling discrepancy. The perceptions of school dis­ trict superintendents as to what constitutes a school dropout program in many instances vary significantly with the perceptions of program administrators. In several districts superintendents identified programs as dropout programs, whereupon the individual identified as the program administrator responded to the request for data with a notation such as "no program in existence," or "dropout program questionnaire does not pertain." possible explanation of this may be semantic. One Beyond this the writer is at a loss to explain such variations. The study showed the establishment of dropout programs has been increasing since 1960. All but one of the identified programs had been established since that date. This reflects a growing awareness of the problems of school dropouts and concern for human resource develop­ ment as reflected by the enactment of such federal legis­ lation as the Elementary Secondary Education Act, The Adult Education Act of 1966, The Vocational Education Act of 1963 and the Amendments of 1968, and the Manpower Development Act of 1962, and subsequent amendments. Administrators of some programs established locally prior to the availability of federal funds stated that 284 government funds had enabled programs to be expanded to meet growing needs. In other instances the availability of government funds stimulated the development of new programs. The study showed that the identified special pro­ gram efforts to cope with the problems of school dropouts are relatively new. Because of this, data showing long- range effectiveness of such efforts may be scarce. At the inception of this study the investigator expected to find a number of programs modeled after the "store front school" concept. This expectation was based on the search of the literature and upon publicity about such schools in the popular press. case. This was not the Although some identified programs were not located in public school buildings, there were none that could be described as "store front schools" as described in the literature, either by virtue of location or format. An explanation for this could be that the district super­ intendents who initially identified the programs did not recognize such schools, if they do exist, as legitimate educational programs. The length of program sessions varied signifi­ cantly. One-third were in operation only during the nine-month school year; half of these are in-school pro­ grams for potential dropouts, and half, programs for out-of-school youths. The remaining two-thirds of the 285 identified programs had scheduling arrangements which varied from year-round operation to sessions lasting only five or six weeks. Moreover, within single pro­ grams there were often individual training projects of varying lengths. Many programs had flexible entry and exit arrangements, allowing students to enter and leave programs throughout the year. A recurring question among developers of dropout programs is how to recruit students. This study showed school counselors are the most important referral agent for the programs surveyed. The program administrators interviewed considered the cooperation of school coun­ selors crucial to the programs. School principals were the second most cited source in making referrals, with counselors and principals working together. Self- referrals by students themselves were the third most common way students became involved in programs. It was learned that as programs are in existence for longer periods of time and become known in the community, selfreferrals increase. It was startling to discover that teachers were cited by less than half the programs as referral agents. It would seem that through daily contact with students, through familiarity with their academic work and the opportunity to observe their social interaction, class­ room teachers are in an excellent position to identify 286 students needing the help of special programs, especially those for potential dropouts. This suggests that public school classroom teachers should be alerted to the exis­ tence of such programs, the objectives of the programs, procedures for referral, and the symptoms by which potential dropouts may be identified. Costs of the programs varied significantly, as evidenced by the data. The highest total budget was $90,412; the lowest, $2,000. varied from $1,079, to $35.00. Total per pupil costs These data show that it is possible to develop dropout programs, even on limited financial resources. With collective bargaining between local districts and teacher organizations a crucial educational issue, it is noteworthy that data showed collective bargaining does not seem to be a serious problem in dropout programs. Administrators of three-fourths of the programs stated that flexibility in programs has not been limited by bargaining agreements with teacher organizations; only one program has had flexibility limited by agreements with non-faculty employees. There were two characteristics of the staff pre­ ferred which should be mentioned: sex and age. Data showed that two-thirds of the faculty working in the programs were male; one-third was female. This is sig­ nificant since a common criticism of schools is that 287 they are female dominated. It appears that dropout pro­ grams are dominated, at least in numbers, by men. Pref­ erences expressed by most administrators were to have both males and females on program facilities. Three-quarters of the programs did, in fact, have both. Only two adminis­ trators expressed a preference for male faculty members; these were programs for boys who had been involved with the courts. No administrators expressed a preference for faculties comprised of women alone. Administrators prefer teachers between twenty-five years and thirty-nine years of age. This suggests that "seasoned" individuals are sought for this work by adminis­ trators who have experience in directing programs and in working with dropout youth. Racial-ethnic data about program participants showed over 54 per cent of the participants were white, nearly 42 per cent were black, and over 3 per cent of Spanish background. This data may reflect that many pro­ grams are located in urban areas which have large minority group populations. The high percentage of black enrollees also suggests that such youths are taking advantage of the programs which are available. Comparison of racial-ethnic data about enrollees and program faculty showed that in programs having a large minority group enrollment usually there were faculty members of the same background. This was expected. 288 It is clear that some local school districts have recognized the need for programs to help dropouts, as evidenced by the fact that nearly two-thirds of the pro­ grams are funded in part or in full through the regular school district budget. The interviews underscored that a deep personal commitment is required to be an administrator or faculty member in a dropout program. Personnel must be available to students at hours which do not coincide with the normal school day. Work in such programs cannot be considered an 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. job. Administrators cited long hours and commitment to the students and the program as important elements in the effectiveness of program person­ nel. Moreover, the data suggested the ability of the hiring officer to judge people is of crucial importance. The quality of his staff depends on his subjective judg­ ment . Through the interviews with program administrators, and from their written comments, it was learned that a major problem encountered in the establishment of programs was the uncertainty of initial funding of project proposals submitted to the State Department of Education. In many instances there was a considerable time lag between the submission of proposals and the granting of funds. Fre­ quently short notice was given when proposals had finally been approved which, according to program administrators, 289 does not lend itself to adequate planning of programs and recruitment of desired staff. Another funding problem uncovered is that program administrators expressed the need for longer term funding, e.g., two or three years rather than the year-to-year funding which is common for most special programs. The legislation, however, providing funds for such programs usually limits the time period for which funding can be made. Recommendations Lastly, there are recommendations which this study generated. Ideally, the one single recommendation would be to improve the quality of education in the entire public school system so that school dropout programs would only represent a short footnote in the historical development and evolution of the American public school system. Unfortunately, it appears that the nation will continue to experience school dropouts. Consequently, there will be school dropout programs. Recommendations for action fall into the following three categories and are discussed below. (1) Recommendations to help initiate innovative pro­ grams designed to meet the needs of school drop­ outs; 290 (2) Recommendations to develop a framework through which programs, procedures, techniques, curricula and other innovative features can be disseminated into the educational system in order to make school a more viable and exciting educational institution; (3) Recommendations for a leadership role for the State Department of Education. Recommendations to Help Initiate Inno­ vative Programs Designed to Meet the Needs oi. School Dropouts The interviews with program administrators revealed that citizen awareness of the school dropout problem within the communities had been an important force in initiating several dropout programs. Citizen groups had been formed and had enlisted the support of local boards of education, superintendents, and principals. These groups developed sustained community support and fre­ quently obtained funds and services for programs. It is therefore recommended that school districts inform the community of the dimensions of the local dropout problem. Evidence was cited by program administrators to demonstrate that such knowledge can generate effective community action. Citizens should be aware of the numbers of students leaving school in the local district and of the employment and social problems which result for the 291 dropouts. Since such data are sometimes interpreted by the public solely as an indictment of the local public schools, local officials may be reluctant to disseminate this information. Moreover, dropping out is often inter­ preted as an indictment of the youths themselves with the tragic result that dropouts are stereotyped in a single, negative category. To avoid both the preceding dangers, the public, the boards of education, and school adminis­ trators need to understand the interrelated factors which contribute to dropping out. It must be clear that many of these factors were beyond the control of the dropouts themselves and resulted in problems with which many schools have not yet learned to cope effectively. Through community involvement in the development of programs, private citizens can be, and have been in many instances, instrumental in: Mobilizing pressure and support for programs; — Developing financial support; — Obtaining auxiliary services (i.e., health, social services, etc.); — Developing and obtaining employment during and following participation in the program; — Obtaining the assistance of community agencies and institutions in providing instruction and expertise to the program. 292 If dropouts are to become productive citizens means must be developed to help them cope in the society of which they are a part. The community must consider the probable "pay off" of investment in a dropout program in comparison to the consequences of not making such an investment. The expected benefits of such programs would include the development of citizens who contribute to the economy and who themselves become part of the human assets of the society. The consequences of not making such invest­ ment can be assessed in terms of economic cost to the com­ munity, both in direct cash cost (i.e., welfare costs, etc.) and loss of probable assets through the waste of human resources, as well as in social costs such as delin­ quency and social unrest. If investment is not made early in the lives of school dropouts society will pay eventually, whether it be through the cost of later training, social welfare programs, or the like. The question is how soon shall help be provided. Dropouts themselves must know about and be con­ vinced of the value of participating in special programs. Therefore, communication must be established with the dropouts themselves. The school dropout program adminis­ trators and the community at large can work together to identify and locate dropouts, and to establish com­ munication with these individuals. 293 Moreover, programs must have something concrete both in content and in probable "pay off" for participation to offer potential enrollees. Program developers must learn what offerings will appeal to clients. They must also learn what offerings will be of profit to enrollees in terms of enhancing future employment or educational opportunities. Administrators must be careful not to promise more than can be delivered. A dropout program is an educational endeavor, not a public relations effort. This study showed that a beginning has been made in the use of community resources. Thus far it appeared that such resources are used primarily in the provision of field trips, of speakers for classes, and in the provision of work stations for work experience programs. Dropout programs could become an excellent labor­ atory for developing the concept of the community as a "school without walls." The entire community, especially business and industrial establishments, has countless resources that can and should be utilized. The exploration of new approaches in the use of such resources could result in exciting innovations in education with benefits for both students and the host institutions. The business community has a vested interest in improving the training of potential employees. Close involvement of the business sector in maximizing the use of its resources in dropout programs could result in improved education and vocational 294 training, thus developing an improved potential labor force. At the same time schools could develop an effec­ tive ally in the business community for bringing about needed improvements in curriculum. Though school and program facilities are important, the school dropout programs are a unique opportunity for the community itself to be the school. The development of human resources in a community, state, or nation should involve all the resources available. All have a vital role to play. Recommendations to Develop a Framework Through Which Programs, Procedures, Techniques, Cur­ ricula, and Other Innovative Features Can Be Disseminated into the Educational System in Order to Make School More Viable and Exciting Through this study it was learned there is lacking a mechanism through which data relating to the experience gained in dropout programs can flow, either between pro­ grams themselves, or back into the public school system. It was also learned, through the interviews, that pro­ gram administrators themselves would favor the develop­ ment of such a mechanism. It is recommended, therefore, that a central office be established within the state to facilitate co­ operation and exchange of data between dropout programs themselves and between dropout programs and the public schools. This office would be designed with the flexi­ bility to fulfill further needs as they arose. 295 The functions of the office would be to: Encourage and facilitate information flow between dropout programs themselves; Encourage and facilitate information flow between dropout programs and the public school system; Facilitate flow of information relating to the establishment of programs and the evaluation of programs between the State Department of Edu­ cation, local school districts, and dropout pro­ grams ; Encourage and facilitate dissemination of dropout program data into institutions conducting teacher education programs. These functions would be fulfilled in the follow­ ing w a y s : Sponsorship of seminars for dropout program administrators and personnel at the state, regional, and local levels, as appropriate, to facilitate the exchange of information between personnel of individual programs. The purpose of such seminars would be to exchange information about successful procedures for program adminis­ tration, instructional methods and materials, evaluation and other curriculum matters. Program administrators suggested they would want as i 296 resource people for such meetings administrators and other personnel of programs which have been shown to be outstanding. This would afford an opportunity for personnel actively involved in dropout programs to share experiences and to work together in the strengthening of programs. — Sponsorship of seminars between dropout program administrators, other dropout program personnel, school district superintendents, and other public school personnel. Such seminars would have the purpose of developing an understanding of the need for dropout programs, to help school districts develop new programs, and to develop procedures for disseminating into the public schools success­ ful approaches used in dropout programs. The development of such approaches for the di s ­ semination of information as newsletters, etc. Another function of the recommended office would be to gather information about sources of funding for dropout programs. Included would be data about federal and state funds which can apply to programs for dropouts, procedures for obtaining the funds, and criteria to qualify. Data are available, but scattered through various offices such as the Department of Criminal Justice, offices handling special program funding for 297 disadvantaged and handicapped, Title I and Title III funds, Elementary Secondary Education Act. The office would also be responsible for the dis­ semination to public school teachers research findings relative to school dropouts and innovative features found successful in working with dropouts. This could also be done via the seminars, conferences, and newsletters, as well as through personal contact. The office would provide technical assistance to school districts seeking to establish dropout programs. This would include assistance in proposal writing and in curriculum development. Business and industry represent extensive untapped resources for the education and training of school drop­ outs, as well as for in-school youth. A major responsi­ bility of this office would be to develop closer liaison between dropout programs and business and industry to enlist cooperation in the development of vocational edu­ cation components of programs, and in the development of jobs for both enrollees and graduates of programs. Such an office would also encourage and develop follow-up studies of participants after completion of pro­ grams to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of dropout programs. 298 Recommendations for a Leadership Role for the State Department of Education The State Department of Education has the consti­ tutional responsibility to exercise general leadership in the development of education programs for the state public school system. The Department should, therefore, take the leadership in stimulating the development of programs designed to strengthen the holding power of school districts so as to reduce the numbers of dropouts. It should, at the same time, encourage school districts to develop programs which meet the needs of school dropouts. With respect to school dropout programs the Depart­ ment can take appropriate action immediately. It can disseminate more vigorously to school districts infor­ mation on the availability of funds. It can provide more technical assistance to the districts in two ways. One method would be to assist school personnel to under­ stand more thoroughly the guidelines for types of programs which are fundable by the State Department of Education. It could also render assistance to school districts in the preparation of project proposals. good proposal is an art. Preparation of a The Department, in helping districts in the preparation of proposals, could turn this into a meaningful learning experience for both the Department and district personnel. The Department would be able to learn about the kinds of educational problems the districts have and what efforts are being made to 299 resolve these kinds of problems. Concomitantly, the Department could assist the district in curriculum development for the dropout programs, in determining how evaluations should be conducted and the most effi­ cacious methods of record keeping for such programs. The Department could share information about the results of similar programs which have been funded. As noted previously, there appears to be an unduly long time lag between the time proposals are submitted to the Department of Education and the notice of approval or rejection. It would seem that the process could be streamlined so that notification can be given promptly. This act in and of itself would improve the image of the State Department of Education. Finally, as noted, data on the number of programs in operation is not readily available. This suggests a role for the State Department of Education for collecting such data in a centralized office within the Department. Another function of this office could be to serve as a focal point for information concerning sources of funding, for procedures for obtaining funds, and to answer inquiries about program development from the public and other agencies within and outside the state. An alternative to locating such an office within the Department of Education would be for the Department to fund an office outside the Department. Such an office 300 would be similar to that discussed earlier in these recommendations. One possible location for such an office would be at a university. form the functions suggested: The office would pe r ­ collect data, analyze it, and make it available to school districts throughout the state. It could supply technical assistance in proposal writing and in program development itself. The funding of such an office outside the Depart­ ment could have the advantages of affording flexibility in expanding the role and functions of the office to meet needs which are uncovered through experience along with retaining close ties with the Department. Moreover, a university location could afford close liaison with both on-campus teacher education programs and student teaching programs. Such liaison with teacher education programs could be a unique opportunity to disseminate what is being learned in dropout programs both to university faculty and in providing opportunities for student teachers to become involved in working with such programs. Implications for Further Research This study raised certain key questions on which more information is needed. Most of these questions relate to how to best capitalize on existing research about school dropouts in designing programs. The concerns of many administrators were summed up by one who suggested that characteristics and needs of dropouts have been 301 sufficiently documented and that the important unanswered questions now lie in how to go about most effectively developing resolutions for the problems known to exist. Research surveyed in Chapter II would suggest that, indeed, research on dropout characteristics and needs may be sufficient, with one exception. There is alleged to be a growing number of middle-class, affluent youths dropping out of school. The dimensions of the problems related to dropouts from "culturally advantaged" families is not known, nor are the long-term effects of dropping out for such youths yet documented. Data collected through this study suggested that feed-back into the public schools and the effect of pro­ gram findings upon the local public schools is minimal. Not one director cited that significant change was taking place in the local public school program as a result of what had been learned in the dropout program. This suggests the necessity of experimenting with mechanisms for feeding into the school system those facets of dropout programs which are effective in working with enrollees. To conduct experimentation with feed-back mecha­ nisms it will be necessary for dropout program adminis­ trators and school administrators jointly to: Document the effectiveness of dropout programs; 302 Identify those elements of the programs which con­ tribute to the effectiveness of the programs; Experiment with transfer of such elements to the public school setting; — Evaluate and document the results of such experi­ mentation. Administrators stated that enrollees in the pro­ grams liked the special programs better than the regular school. Research into the attitudes of enrollees could be of value in identifying the strengths of such pro­ grams, as well as identifying weaknesses. Such research could also help identify elements of programs which seem to merit transfer to the public school setting, Follow-up studies are necessary if determination is to be made concerning the value of investing in drop­ out programs. Such studies should follow the educational and employment experiences of enrollees who have partici­ pated in programs, since the most often cited objectives of the programs were to enable students to become suc­ cessfully employed or to re-enter school upon program completion. Follow-up studies could give a double yield if employers of former program participants were interviewed during follow-up. Employers could pinpoint strengths and weaknesses of employees coming from the programs, 303 and in so doing, give data which could be of use for program improvement. Some administrators stated they do not know the most effective means to reach the target population for which programs have been designed, nor which of the varied recruiting efforts used are the most effective. They suggested research on the most effective means to communicate with target populations so as to enlist their participation. Administrators also cited that they would like to know what motivates many students to become involved in programs. This was especially true of many programs relying heavily on self-referrals. It could be hypo­ thesized that if more were known about what motivates individuals to return to educational programs via drop­ out programs, and if more were known about what kinds of incentives are important to various client groups a more effective program could be designed for the youths who need the services offered. Summary This study represents a beginning in the identifi­ cation of dropout programs in Michigan and in the col­ lection and analysis of data about such programs on a state-wide basis. Hopefully, the study will generate better coordinated action at the state level to help establish programs to serve the needs of school dropouts. 304 Concomitantly, it is hoped the study will stimulate action in local districts to assess the dimension of the school dropout problem at the local level and to take appropriate action to meet these needs. Dropping out of school is not a problem which has been caused by or which can be cured by any single insti­ tution working alone. The individual dropout, the home, the school, and society as a whole have all been intimately involved in the creation of the problem. The combined resources of all will be needed to develop a series of solutions. Through data collected, the conclusions, and the recommendations presented, it is hoped this study will stimulate concerted action by all segments in the community to develop programs for school dropouts to the end that these youths can be productive and useful citizens in a free society. 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Curricular Series A, N o . 51, Illinois Secondary School Curriculum Program Bulletin No. 4, Springfield, 111.: Office of the State Superin­ tendent of Public Instruction, May, 1949. Harrington, Michael. The Other America: Poverty in the United States. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1963. Havighurst, Robert J . , Neugarten, Bernice L., Falk, Jacque­ line M . , eds. Society and Education: A Book of Readings. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1967. and Stiles, Lindley J. "A Statement of National Policy for Alienated Youth." Society and Edu­ cation: A Book of Readings. Edited by Robert J. Havighurst, Bernice L. Neugarten, and Jacqueline M. Falk. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1967. Hecker, Stanley E. Early School Leavers in Kentucky. Bulletin of School Service, No. 4. Lexington: University of Kentucky, College of Education, June, 1953. Kaufman, Jacob J . , and Lewis, Morgan V. The School Environment and Programs for Dropouts. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, Institute for Human Resources, .1968. Lichter, Solomon O.; Rapien, Elsie B.; Siebert, Frances M . ; and Sklansky, Morris A. The Dropouts. New York: The Free Press, 1968. Miles, Matthew B . , ed. Innovation in Education. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964. Miller, S. M. "Dropouts— A Political Problem." Profile of the School Dropout. Edited by Daniel Schreiber. New York: Vintage Books, 1967. 307 Miller, S. M. "The Search for an Educational Revolution." Profile of the School Dropout. Edited by Daniel Schrexber. New York: Vintage Books, 1967. Palmore, Erdman. "Factors Associated With School Dropouts and Juvenile Delinquency Among Lower Class Chil­ dren." Society and Education: A Book of Readings. Edited by Robert J. Havighurst, Bernice L. Neugarten, and Jacqueline M. Falk. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1967. Passow, A. Harry, ed. Education in Depressed A r eas. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963. Penty, Ruth C. Reading Ability and High School Dropouts. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers Col­ lege, Columbia University, 1956. Riessman, David. "The Overlooked Positives of Disadvantaged Groups." The Disadvantaged Child. Edited by Joe L. Frost and Glenn R. Hawkes. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1966. Schreiber, Daniel, ed. Profile of the School Dropout. New York: Vintage Books, 1967. ________ . "Work Experience Programs." Profile of the School Dropout. Edited by Daniel Schreiber. New York: Vintage Books, 1967. Sexton, Patricia C. Education and Income. Viking Press, 1961. New York: Silberman, Charles E. Crisis in the Classroom. Random House, 1970. New York: Smith, Harry P. Syracuse Youth Who Did Not Graduate: A Study of Youth Who Withdrew From School Before High School Graduation 1945-1949. Syracuse, N . Y . : Board of Education Research Division, 1950. Strang, Ruth C . , McCullough, Constance, and Traxler, Arther E. The Improvement of Reading. 4th ed. New Y o r k : McGraw H i l l , 1967. Wilson, Allen B. "Social Stratification and Academic Achievement." Education in Depressed A r eas. Edited by A. Harry Passow. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963. Articles Black, Jonathon. "Street Academies: One Step Off The Sidewalk." Saturday Review, November 15, 1969. "Buddy System Planned Again This Summer." Postal L i f e , The Magazine for Postal Employees, III, No. 5 (March-April, 1970), 4-5. Hunter, Charlayne. "Fund Loss Imperils Street Academies." New York Times, February 16, 1971. "Postal Academies Open in May." Postal Life, The Magazine for Postal Employees, III, No. 5 (March-April, 1970) , 6-7. "Where Failures Make the Grade: Two Schools for Dropouts. Carnegie Quarterly, XVI, No. 4 (Fall, 1968), 1-5. Woodbury, Richard. "Help for High School Mothers." L X X , No. 12 (April 2, 1971), 34-41. Life, Government Documents Coleman, James S. Equality and Educational Opportunity. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Office of Education. Publication of the National Center for Educational Statistics, Catalog No. FS. 5.238:38001. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966. _________. Equality and Educational Opportunity. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Office of Education. Publication of the National Center for Educational Statistics, Catalog No. FS 5.238:3800. Summary. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966. 1970 Comprehensive Juvenile Delinquency and Control Plan for Michigan. Lansing, M i c h . : Executive Office of the Governor, 1970. Michigan. Department of Education. Michigan Guide for the Administration of Vocational-Technical Edu­ cation Programs Under the Provisions of the Vocational Education Amendments of 1968 Under the Vocational Education Act of 1963. Lansing, M i chigan: January, 1970. 309 Michigan. Department of Education. Public High School Dropouts in Michigan, 1966-1967. Research Mono­ graph No. 6, revised, June, 1967. Michigan. Department of Education. Public High School Dropouts in Michigan, 1967-1968. Statistical Bulletin 4007, December, 1969. Michigan Youth Commission. "One Parent Family Committee Study Report, October, 1967." Cited by Ronald C. Calsbeek, Director's Report and Program Statis­ tics, Nov. 1, 1968 to Jan. 19, 1970. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Park School, Program for Pregnant Girls. (Mimeographed.) Simon, Kenneth A . , and Grant, W. Vance. Digest of Edu­ cational Statistics. Office of Education Bulletin, 1965, No". 4~. Washington, D.C. : Government Print­ ing Office, 1966. Task Force Report: Juvenile Delinquency and Youth C r i m e : President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Current Population Reports, Series P-60, No. 74. "Annual Mean Income, Lifetime Income and Edu­ cational Attainment by Men in the United States for Selected Years, 1956 to 1968." Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 200. "Household and Family Characteristics," March, 1969. Washington, D . C . : Government Printing Office, 1970. U.S. Department of Labor. Bureau of Statistics. Poverty, The Broad Outline. Urban Employment Survey, Report No. 2, Detroit. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970. U.S. Department of Labor. Manpower Report of the Presi­ dent, A Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization and Training. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, March, 1970. U.S. Department of Labor. Manpower Report of the Presi­ dent Including a Report on Manpower Requirements, Resources, Utilization and Training. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, April, 1971. 310 Other Sources Bond and Fusfeld, et a l . , v. The Public Schools of the Ann Arbor School District. Michigan Supreme Court. July 17, 1970. Calsbeek, Ronald C. "Director's Report and Program Sta­ tistics, Nov. 1, 1968 to Jan. 19, 1970." Grand Rapids, Mich.: Park School, Program for Pregnant Girls. (Mimeographed.) First Term Report, Postal Academy Program. The Post Office Department. Washington, D . C . : Government Printing Office, 1970. Flaugher, Ronald L. "Report No. 2— The Postal Academy Program." Princeton, N.J.: The Educational Testing Service. General Release No. 2 . Post Office Information Service. Washington, D . C . : Government Printing Office, January 6, 1970. The Human Affairs Research Center. An Experiment in Edu­ cating High School Dropouts: An Evaluation of the New York Urban League Street Academy. New York, August, 1970. Myers, George R. "A Study of Factors and Practices Related to Holding Power in Certain Michigan Secondary Schools." Unpublished Ph.D. disser­ tation, Michigan State University, National Urban League. News From the National Urban League. Press Release, February 23, 1971. National Urban League. Street Academies: New Way to Reach The Ghetto Dropout. New York: National Urban League. (Printed brochure.) National Urban League. This Comeback Is For Real. New Y o r k : National Urban League. (Printed brochure.) Varner, Sherrell E. School Dropouts, Research Summary 1967-sl. Research Division, National Education Association. Washington, D.C.: Government Print­ ing Office, 1967. APPENDICES APPENDIX A LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL TO SCHOOL DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS MICHIGAN MANPOWER COMMISSION P oiicy A dvisory C ommittee_ _ _ _ _ _ Daniel H. K ruger, C hairm an WILLIAM G. MlLLIKEN Governor July 20, 1970 Dear The Michigan Manpower Commission is seriously concerned about the problems of the high school dropout in this state. Thus, an effort is being made to identify programs aimed toward this segment of Michigan's youth which have been instituted either by school districts, school buildings or "extra school" groups. Such programs could be directed toward reinvolving young­ sters in the regular school program, alternatives to the regular schools (such as "store front" schools, night schools, etc.), or special vocational training. We would very much appreciate any information concerning such efforts being made in your area, including, if possible, the names of groups and/or individuals from whom we might gather more information concerning specific programs. Just as important for our purposes, if, to your knowledge, there are no such programs available to your area's youth, we would appreciate this information. We would appreciate your comments on the enclosed information sheet. Please reply by August 3, 1970. When this study is completed, we shall send you a copy. Sincerely, Daniel K. Kruger Chairman, Michigan Manpower Commission 225 S. Kedzie Hall Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 311 APPENDIX B QUESTIONNAIRE I School Dropout Program Survey Please return t o : Dr. Daniel H. Kruger Chairman, Michigan Manpower Commission 225 S. Kedzie Hall Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan U8823 School district______________________________________________ Dropout program______________________________________________ Sponsor_______________________________________________________ Individuals who can supply more information: Name____________________________________ A d d r e s s ____________________________ Phone___________________________________ Name____________________________________ Addr e ss ____________________ __________ Phone___________________________________ Purpose of program (check one) _____ Reinvolvement in school Vocational training _____ Alternative method of receiving high school diploma Special school I know of no program directed toward dropouts in my district. 312 _____ APPENDIX C FOLLOW-UP LETTER MICHIGAN MANPOWER COMMISSION P olicy A dvisory C ommittee_ _ _ _ _ _ Daniel H. K ruger, C hairm an WILLIAM G. MILLIKEN Governor August lU, 1970 Dear Several weeks ago you were sent a brief letter and survey form requesting information about any school dropout programs in your district. Since the original request may have been overlooked, enclosed is a copy of the form. I would very much appreciate your filling this out ahd returning it to us by August 21. This is a preliminary part of a study being conducted for the Michigan Manpower Commission and the State Department of Education, in which an attempt is being made to collect statewide information on programs directed toward school dropouts. Your cooperation will be very much appreciated. Sincerely, Daniel H. Kruger Chairman, Michigan Manpower Commission Enclosure DHK/lw 313 APPENDIX D LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL TO PROGRAM ADMINISTRATORS MICHIGAN MANPOWER COMMISSION P olicy A dvisory C ommittee Daniel H. K ruger, C hairm an August 13, 1970 WILI.IAM G. MILLIKEN Governor Dear Sir: Several weeks ago I sent to the superintendent of your school district a short form to complete on the special programs for dropouts. When the superintendent responded, he indicated that you were the director or the administrator of the special program, or programs. It is for this reason that I am writing to you. The Michigan Manpower Commission is most interested in learning what school districts throughout the state are doing in their dropout programs. The school dropouts represent a serious manpower problem. All too frequently school drop­ outs encounter difficulties in their search for employment. They become candi­ dates for the special manpower programs which have been established by the Federal Government. The enclosed questionnaire represents an effort by the Manpower Commission to obtain information on these programs. Your cooperation in completing the questionnaire enclosed will be greatly appreciated. May I hear from you by August 28, 1970. When the data are analyzed, I shall send you a copy of the study. In addition, it is our intention to hold a conference in the early fall to which you, and others throughout the state who direct such programs, will be invited. No reference will be made to individual programs, nor is it our intent to evaluate the programs. If you have any questions, please call me at (51?) 353-7231. Again, many thanks for your cooperation. Sincerely, l~'£xSv\.iju ^tilCuu Please return questionnaire to: Daniel H. Kruger Chairman, Michigan Manpower Commission 225 South Kedzie Hall Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan U8823 314 APPENDIX E QUESTIONNAIRE II Please indicate the type of curriculum emphasized in this program. (Check one) Vocational Education Remedial Skills Special Education College Prep Work Study Program High School Equivalent Diploma (G.E.D.) Job Related Instruction Cooperative Education Work Program SCHOOL DISTRICT TITLE OF DROPOUT PROGRAM SPONSOR RESPONDENT'S NAME POSITION ADDRESS PHONE MANPOWER COMMISSION DROPOUT PROGRAM SURVEY DIRECTIONS: Please fill in short answers or check response, as appropriate to each question. 1. How many months has this program been in existence? months 2. The facility for this program is housed in which of the following: (Check one or more, as appropriate) the main school complex separate building belonging to the school system separate building/public building private building, donated or rented other (please specify)_____________________________________ 3. During what hours is instruction offered9 during regular school hours after regular school hours (i.e., ^-6 p.m.) evenings (7-10 p.m.) 315 316 l+. If this program is offered evenings, is it considered an adult education program? yes no. 5. What is the duration of this program? 5 weeks 10 weeks 180 days (regular school year) summer school only 52 weeks (year round) other (please specify)_____________________________ 6. What is the total annual cost of your program? $_______________total per year a) What is the total annual total cost per pupil of your program? $______________ per pupil b) What is the annual cost of instructional salaries in your program? (include salaried employees involved in instructional activities?) $______________ total instructionalsalaries $______________ instructional cost per pupil 7. What percentage of your budget is from __________ regular school budget __________ESEA Title I __________ Special Education __________Vocational Education __________Foundation Grants _________ Private Funds Other (please specify)_____________________ ________ 100% TOTAL 8. How many members of your dropout program staff are: (please write in number for each category) __________Directors __________ Teachers __________Auxiliary Service Personnel (i.e., psychologists, other supporting __________ paraprofessionals services) _volunteers other (please specify) 9. How many full time professional staff members do you have? __________ full time staff members 10. If you employ paraprofessionals, what are their duties? (Check as many items as are appropriate) clerical teacher aid other (Please specify)____________________________ _ U. What is the student/teacher ratio of this program? (Please write in numbers) 12. What is the counselor/teacher ratio of this program (Please write in numbers) 13. Do you have any special orientation program for new members of your staff? yes no If yes, indicate which of the following topics are covered in the orientation Objectives of the dropout program Special policies of the dropout program Methodology Philosophy of the dropout program Other (Please specify) If yes, how many hours per teacher are spent in the orientation program? __________ hours If any special instructional materials are used in staff orientation, please list. 1**. How many of your faculty members are: __________ male __________ female 15. How many of the faculty in your program fall into the following categories: (please write in the number) __________ Indian __________ Negro __________ Oriental _______ Spanish White 16. STAFF CHARACTERISTICS: Under each of the following categories, check the criteria that is most desirable in hiring teaching personnel for your parti­ cular dropout program: (please write in the number) a) Teachers in this program should preferably be in the following age range: (Check one most preferred) 22 to 2b years old 25 to 29 years old 30 to 39 years old 1*0 and over b) Preferred educational requirements for teaching in this program are: (Check one) less than college B.A, B.A. and state teachercertification B.A. - teacher certification not required _B.A. plus graduate work ’Other (Please specify) 318 c) Work experience preferred for teaching in this dropout program includes the following (Check as many as apply) No teaching experience 0-U years teaching experience 5-9 years teaching experience 10 or more years teaching experience teaching experience and work experience in other fields work experience in other fields other (please specify)_________________________ ___________ d) For teaching in this particular dropout program,it isimportant that faculty be of the following racial or ethnic group: Indian Negro Oriental Spanish White race or ethnic group unimportant e) For teaching in this program, which of the following personality character­ istics are important: (check as many as are important) relates well with youngsters demands much of students strong disciplinarian other (please specify)______________________________ f) For teaching in this dropout program it isimportant thatfaculty members male female both males and females should be on the staff be: 17. Of the criteria listed, rank the following items for personnel selection for your program in order of importance from your point of view: (Rank from 1 to 7, considering 1 the most important, 7 the least important) age education experience sex race or ethnic origin personality motivation of individual 18. Does the collective bargaining contract between the district school board and the teacher organization prevent flexibility in operation of this program? yes no b) Does" the collective bargaining contract between the district school board and the non-faculty employees prevent flexibility in the program? yes no 319 19- Do you offer any kind of orientation to students as they enter your program? yes no If yes, write in the number of orientation hours per student __________ hours If you have an orientation program for students, indicate which of the follow­ ing topics are covered in the orientation (Check as many as are appropriate). Discussion of the objectives of the program Alternatives open to the participant What is expected of the participant Expected "pay off" for the student's participation Other (please specify)_______________________________ If any special instructional materials are used for student orientation, please list. 20. Is there an ongoing evaluation process in this program? yes no a) If yes, who conducts the evaluation process? staff outside consultants other (please specify)_______________________________ b) In this evaluation process, students are: (check one) pre-tested when they enter the program post-tested at the end of the program both pre-tested and post-tested other (please specify)_____________ __________ __________ c) Are you using the following tests for placement and/or evaluation of students? (check one or more, as is appropriate) Achievement tests Interest inventories Aptitude tests Other (please specify)_____________________ d) Please check the information you have available about students in your program: I.Q. Scores What test?__________________________ Mental Age What test?_____________ _____________ e) If available, what is the range of I.Q. scores for students in your program? 21. Which of the following categories best reflect your evaluation criteria for success of your program? returning to high school and graduating getting and keeping a job upon program completion continuing education after high school graduation reduction of school dropout rate retention rate of program other (please s p e c i f y ) ______________________________ 320 22. Check that which you use as a motivational device for your students (indicate as many items as are appropriate) guarantee a job upon completion of a program payment while participating in the program credit for related vocational instruction other (please specify)___________________________ 23. Do students in this program receive credit toward high school graduation? yes no Do students in this program receive letter grades? yes no 2k . How many students did your dropout program serve during the past year? (Please write in the number) __________students How many of these students were: (please give the number) male female 25. Is transportation a problem in getting students to participate in this program? yes no 26. The average family income of students in your program would fall in which of the following categories: under $3,000 $3,000 to $4,999 $5,000 to $6,999 $7,000 to $9,999 $10,000 to $14,999 over $15,000 27. The number of students this program served during the last year was: less than the capacity of the program (Specify how many)____________ equal to the capacity of the program more students would enter the program if there were room (specify how Many)____________ ____ 28. What is the average number of days spent in this dropout program by a student? ___________days 29. How many students now enrolled in your program are: ber for each group) __________ 12 years __________ 13 years __________ 14 years __________ 15 years old old old old 16 17 18 19 (please write in the num. years years years years old old old old and over 321 30. How many students in your dropout program left their regular school program in : (please write in the number for each grade level) __________7th grade 10th grade __________8th grade 11th grade __________9th grade 12th grade 31. How many of the students in your dropout program fall into each of* the following racial or ethnic categories? (Please write in the number for each group) Indian Negro Oriental Spanish White 32. Indicate the number of students who entered your program during the last year through: (Please indicatethe number appropriate to each response) recommendation by principal ^recommendation by counselor ___________ recommendation by teacher(s) __________request by student __________request by parent recommendation by court recommendation by police __________other (please specify)_______________________ 33. How many students who have previously been committed to State Training Schools are in your dropout program? stud ent s 3^. Do you conduct a follow-up study on students who complete your program? yes no Of those students who participated in your program last year, indicate the number who fall into each of the following categories, if such information is available: have re-entered school (either high school or higher education) _are now regularly employed whereabouts unknown _other (please specify) 35. Do you assist your students in obtaining employment after participation in your program? yes no 36. Do you have police stationed in your building0 yes no 322 a) If yes, are they uniformed plain clothed b) If yes, what is the percentage of time the policemen spend in __________Counselling Controlling __________drug education __________education directed toward appreciation of law enforcement c) If yes, does the policeman have an office in the school? yes no 37. Does your school participate in any form of police-community relations program? yes no If yes, please write in or send along a brief description of the program. 38. Indicate any of the following community resources which are utilized in the implementation of your program. (Check as many as are applicable) Telephone company Electric company Large manufacturers Entertainment companies Urban League Unions (please specify)__________________________ __ Social welfare agencies ___________ Retail establishments Other (please specify)_______________ ______________ Are these resources used in: (check as many as are applicable) supplying facilities supplying equipment supplying staff supplying financial support commitment to employ trainees supervising work-study program other (please specify)______________________ 39* Based on your experience in administering a program directed specifically to the dropout population, indicate problem areas which you may have encountered: (check as many as applicable) recruitment of students retention of students rigidity of staff personnel obtaining staff obtaining financial support obtaining appropriate facilities other (please specify)_________________________________ __ 40. Please attach a brief description of the objectives and purposes of your pro­ gram. (Any prepared materials would be helpful) Thank you for answering our questionnaire. If there is any additional information you think we should have for a complete understanding of your program, please use the space on the back and tell us about it. APPENDIX F INTERVIEW SCHEDULE Appendix F Interview Schedule Position Interviewee Program School District Date 1. What factors in the community led to the establishment of this program? 2. What are the objectives of this program? job training, etc.) 3. To what degree was this program initially patterned after some other dropout program? 4. What person or agency was the most influential in pro­ viding local leadership in the establishment of the program? 5. in the establishment of the program did any agency lend technical assistance? If so, please name the agency and the individual who worked with the program. (State Dept, of Ed., university, educational consul­ tants, funding agency, other) 6. If you did receive help in the establishment of the program of what did the help consist? (development of community support, obtaining of funds, development of durriculum, etc.) 323 (remediation, 324 7. To what extent was the staff of the local school involved in the initiation of this program? Curriculum 8. What is the status of the students participating in this program? (actual dropout, potential dropout, other) 9. To what extent, if at all, was this program developed on the basis of known facts about what was happening to students in the local school system? (dropout studies, follow-up studies, known problem of dropouts, e t c .) 10. In what curricular areas is instruction offered in the program? (reading, mathematics, communication, voc. ed., specific area of voc. ed., etc.) 11. What creative, unique features are contained in the curriculum of this program? 12. What instructional material are being used? 13. Are specific needs of students, individually or as a group taken into account in developing curriculum? 14. To what extent do students participate in the plan­ ning of curriculum? 15. Is there a "feed-back" mechanism facilitating com­ munication between this program and the regular school program? 325 16. Has this program resulted in the introduction of experimental units or courses, or changes in instructional methods in local public schools? 17. What provisions are made in the program for counsel­ ing with students concerning their personal problems? 18. What provisions are made in this program for vocational counseling with students? 19. What in your opinion are the outstanding strengths of this program? 20. What are its chief weaknesses or areas of further need? Establishment of Dropout Program Center 2 1 . Is there at present any agency or individual from whom you receive technical assistance in the develop­ ment and implementation of this program? If so, please name that agency or individual? 22. If assistance were available to you, what kind of services would be most useful to this program? assistance in proposal writing facilitating cooperation by agencies offering supportive services development of cooperation among dropout programs development of curriculum assistance in evaluation development of instructional materials 326 dissemination of research findings development of workshops for staff expediting sharing of information among dropout programs other 23. Would you favor the development of a center to provide services such as those suggested above? APPENDIX G ENROLLMENTS BY GRADES FOR SELECTED YEARS 327 Appendix G Enrollments by Grades for Selected Years YEAR BIRTH RATE P e r 1000 U .S . MICHXGA) 1930 1 8 -9 2 0 .4 102799 115817 100168 99404 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1 8 .0 1 7 .4 1 6 .6 1 7 .2 1 6 .9 1 8 .4 1 6 .6 1 6 .0 1 6 .5 1 7 .2 101785 96835 65244 60615 63906 114341 107254 91125 88232 66906 96828 97283 85803 81985 83808 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1 6 .7 1 7 .1 1 7 .6 1 7 .3 1 7 .9 1 7 .4 1 8 .0 1 9 .0 1 8 .5 1 8 .9 65460 66146 67623 66271 69811 86949 86635 84433 80755 77964 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1 9 .0 2 0 .6 2 1 .5 2 0 .2 1 9 .6 2 0 .1 2 2 .4 2 3 .3 3 2 1 .1 2 2 0 .5 3 72429 74035 76011 81915 80960 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 2 3 .3 2 5 .8 2 4 .2 2 3 .9 2 3 .6 2 4 .2 8 2 6 .4 1 2 4 .8 2 4 .6 2 5 .1 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 2 4 .5 2 4 .8 2 4 .8 2 4 .9 2 4 .6 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 _5 6 I 93333 86009 84718 81994 95277 91614 85883 81984 82025 94963 91180 82253 82495 82353 88443 90138 81033 78993 82591 81672 83797 B 1087 77378 78628 82505 80159 77678 78386 77674 79588 79956 80344 77206 74723 81142 78329 78890 78407 75784 80914 80119 78313 77854 77304 81283 80078 79597 77158 77134 80654 79864 78994 78112 7 6 )0 2 77824 79966 79514 78629 77689 79642 82800 84696 88322 92982 72522 74168 77271 79119 81199 73427 71339 72699 76436 77698 75393 72879 70602 72390 75016 76571 74574 71703 70511 70828 76067 7 5179 76929 7 1457 68868 76017 75736 74465 73227 70637 85511 92046 105079 106112 98973 91442 93545 99025 110117 111999 84762 64161 85902 91623 102370 79052 82753 82318 84648 89618 75684 77367 80972 80749 83318 72828 73897 75497 79842 79666 68982 71556 7 2 617 74547 79012 68525 68735 71029 72738 74793 2 6 .3 2 6 .4 2 6 .7 2 7 .3 2 7 .1 100691 122859 144274 1 4 )5 2 0 146843 103522 103482 123862 144837 141568 105784 97637 98428 116326 135634 100575 103956 97139 97499 114002 89125 99129 103240 96852 96926 82858 88202 98512 103091 96111 79679 82131 87657 98171 102493 79512 Z 9989 82467 88397 98745 2 4 .9 2 5 .0 2 4 .3 2 4 .1 2 3 .7 2 7 .4 2 6 .7 2 5 .8 2 4 .9 2 4 .8 150714 162887 167895 169553 176441 144519 146058 153267 156090 157219 133263 133925 135058 141984 144642 1339B 3 130959 131368 131847 138874 112963 131342 128126 128111 128975 96721 111036 128802 125766 126077 96371 95848 109548 126759 . 124280 103552 96972 96779 109922 127169 1961 1962 1963 2 3 .4 2 2 .4 2 1 .6 2 4 .2 2 3 .0 2 2 .4 179099 184561 186608 162078 164432 168251 145873 150771 151916 142000 ...1 4 2 8 4 4 147728 135957 139936 127348 134149 •1 3 7 3 3 8 124323 125972 131749 125343 125789 126893 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 2 1 .2 1 9 .4 1 8 .4 1 7 .8 * 1 7 .4 2 1 .6 2 0 .3 1 9 .9 1 8 .9 1 8 .3 188097 187735 1B B 440 191738 185293 183918 171929 173038 187627 172930 172566 147828 157253 160993 148880 165520 166273 192343 150133 153717 158511 163493 160723 162471 145577 148709 154337 160597 163685 161131 139348 144263 149090 155549 159901 163882 137134 .1 3 8 5 9 4 144395 150117 155002 160641 134188 139921 14292Z 149221 154421 160486 2_ K 4_ 1 * B a s e d o n 2 0 Co 5 0 p e r c e n t s a m p l e o f b i r t h . * * P e rce n t o f e ig h th g ra d e g ra d u a te s * * * P e rce n t o f n in th g ra d e o f * * * * P e rce n t o f f ir s t g rad e of th a t c o n tin u e d fo u r y e a rs p re v io u s ^ E s tim a te d th a t 12 y e a r s p r e v i o u s t h a t ^ ^ ^ B e g in n in g in 1964, e n ro llm e n t d a ta Is b a sed on th e F o u r th F r id a y f o ll o w i n g L a b o r D ay. th r o u g h D ec e m b e r. In n in th g ra d e . c o m p l e te d c o m p l e te d th e tw e lfth tw e lf th g rad e . g rad e . up o n th e n um ber o f s t u d e n t s e n ro lle d in r e g u la r a tte n d a n c e